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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March%2018

March 18

Events Pre-1600 37 – Roman Senate annuls Tiberius' will and proclaims Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (aka Caligula = Little Boots) emperor. 1068 – An earthquake in the Levant and the Arabian Peninsula leaves up to 20,000 dead. 1229 – Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, declares himself King of Jerusalem in the Sixth Crusade. 1241 – First Mongol invasion of Poland: Mongols overwhelm Polish armies in Kraków in the Battle of Chmielnik and plunder the city. 1314 – Jacques de Molay, the 23rd and final Grand Master of the Knights Templar, is burned at the stake. 1438 – Albert II of Habsburg becomes King of the Romans. 1571 – Valletta is made the capital city of Malta. 1601–1900 1608 – Susenyos is formally crowned Emperor of Ethiopia. 1644 – The Third Anglo-Powhatan War begins in the Colony of Virginia. 1673 – English lord John Berkeley sold his half of New Jersey to the Quakers 1741 – New York governor George Clarke's complex at Fort George is burned in an arson attack, starting the New York Conspiracy of 1741. 1766 – American Revolution: The British Parliament repeals the Stamp Act. 1793 – The first modern republic in Germany, the Republic of Mainz, is declared by Andreas Joseph Hofmann. 1793 – Flanders Campaign of the French Revolution, Battle of Neerwinden. 1834 – Six farm labourers from Tolpuddle, Dorset, England are sentenced to be transported to Australia for forming a trade union. 1848 – The premiere of Fry's Leonora in Philadelphia is the first known performance of an grand opera by an American composer. 1848 – March Revolution: In Berlin there is a struggle between citizens and military, costing about 300 lives. 1865 – American Civil War: The Congress of the Confederate States adjourns for the last time. 1871 – Declaration of the Paris Commune; President of the French Republic, Adolphe Thiers, orders the evacuation of Paris. 1874 – The Hawaiian Kingdom signs a treaty with the United States granting exclusive trade rights. 1898 – Phoebe (moon), a satellite of Saturn, becomes first to be discovered with photographs, taken in August 1898, by William Henry Pickering. 1901–present 1902 – Macario Sakay issues Presidential Order No. 1 of his Tagalog Republic. 1913 – King George I of Greece is assassinated in the recently liberated city of Thessaloniki. 1915 – World War I: During the Battle of Gallipoli, three battleships are sunk during a failed British and French naval attack on the Dardanelles. 1921 – The second Peace of Riga is signed between Poland and the Soviet Union. 1921 – The Kronstadt rebellion is suppressed by the Red Army. 1922 – In India, Mohandas Gandhi is sentenced to six years in prison for civil disobedience, of which he serves only two. 1925 – The Tri-State Tornado hits the Midwestern states of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana, killing 695 people. 1937 – The New London School explosion in New London, Texas, kills 300 people, mostly children. 1937 – Spanish Civil War: Spanish Republican forces defeat the Italians at the Battle of Guadalajara. 1938 – Mexico creates Pemex by expropriating all foreign-owned oil reserves and facilities. 1940 – World War II: Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini meet at the Brenner Pass in the Alps and agree to form an alliance against France and the United Kingdom. 1942 – The War Relocation Authority is established in the United States to take Japanese Americans into custody. 1944 – Mount Vesuvius in Italy erupts, killing 26 people, causing thousands to flee their homes, and destroying dozens of Allied bombers. 1948 – Soviet consultants leave Yugoslavia in the first sign of the Tito–Stalin Split. 1953 – An earthquake hits western Turkey, killing 265 people. 1959 – The Hawaii Admission Act is signed into law. 1962 – The Évian Accords end the Algerian War of Independence, which had begun in 1954. 1965 – Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov, leaving his spacecraft Voskhod 2 for 12 minutes, becomes the first person to walk in space. 1966 – United Arab Airlines Flight 749 crashes on approach to Cairo International Airport in Cairo, Egypt, killing 30 people. 1967 – The supertanker runs aground off the Cornish coast. 1968 – Gold standard: The U.S. Congress repeals the requirement for a gold reserve to back US currency. 1969 – The United States begins secretly bombing the Sihanouk Trail in Cambodia, used by communist forces to infiltrate South Vietnam. 1970 – Lon Nol ousts Prince Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia. 1971 – Peru: A landslide crashes into Yanawayin Lake, killing 200 people at the mining camp of Chungar. 1980 – A Vostok-2M rocket at Plesetsk Cosmodrome Site 43 explodes during a fueling operation, killing 48 people. 1990 – Germans in the German Democratic Republic vote in the first democratic elections in the former communist dictatorship. 1990 – In the largest art theft in US history, 12 paintings, collectively worth around $500 million, are stolen from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston. 1994 – Bosnia's Bosniaks and Croats sign the Washington Agreement, ending war between the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia and the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and establishing the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. 1996 – A nightclub fire in Quezon City, Philippines kills 162 people. 1997 – The tail of a Russian Antonov An-24 charter plane breaks off while en route to Turkey, causing the plane to crash and killing all 50 people on board. 2014 – The parliaments of Russia and Crimea sign an accession treaty. 2015 – The Bardo National Museum in Tunisia is attacked by gunmen. 23 people, almost all tourists, are killed, and at least 50 other people are wounded. Births Pre-1600 1075 – Al-Zamakhshari, Persian scholar and theologian (d. 1144) 1395 – John Holland, 2nd Duke of Exeter, English military commander (d. 1447) 1495 – Mary Tudor, Queen of France (d. 1533) 1548 – Cornelis Ketel, Dutch painter (d. 1616) 1552 – Polykarp Leyser the Elder, German theologian (d. 1610) 1555 – Francis, Duke of Anjou (d. 1584) 1578 – Adam Elsheimer, German painter (d. 1610) 1590 – Manuel de Faria e Sousa, Portuguese historian and poet (d. 1649) 1597 – Jérôme le Royer de la Dauversière, French religious leader, founded the Société Notre-Dame de Montréal (d. 1659) 1601–1900 1603 – Simon Bradstreet, English colonial magistrate (d. 1697) 1609 – Frederick III of Denmark (d. 1670) 1634 – Madame de La Fayette, French author (d. 1693) 1640 – Philippe de La Hire, French mathematician and astronomer (d. 1719) 1657 – Giuseppe Ottavio Pitoni, Italian organist and composer (d. 1743) 1690 – Christian Goldbach, Prussian-German mathematician and academic (d. 1764) 1701 – Niclas Sahlgren, Swedish businessman and philanthropist, co-founded the Swedish East India Company (d. 1776) 1733 – Christoph Friedrich Nicolai, German author and bookseller (d. 1811) 1780 – Miloš Obrenović, Serbian prince (d. 1860) 1782 – John C. Calhoun, American lawyer and politician, 7th Vice President of the United States (d. 1850) 1789 – Charlotte Elliott, English poet, hymn writer, editor (d. 1871) 1798 – Francis Lieber, German-American jurist and philosopher (d. 1872) 1800 – Harriet Smithson, Irish actress, the first wife and muse of Hector Berlioz (d. 1854) 1813 – Christian Friedrich Hebbel, German poet and playwright (d. 1864) 1814 – Jacob Bunn, American businessman (d. 1897) 1819 – James McCulloch, Scottish-Australian politician, 5th Premier of Victoria (d. 1893) 1820 – John Plankinton, American businessman, industrialist, and philanthropist (d. 1891) 1823 – Antoine Chanzy, French general (d. 1883) 1828 – Randal Cremer, English activist and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1908) 1837 – Grover Cleveland, American lawyer and politician, 22nd and 24th President of the United States (d. 1908) 1840 – William Cosmo Monkhouse, English poet and critic (d. 1901) 1842 – Stéphane Mallarmé, French poet and critic (d. 1898) 1844 – Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Russian composer and academic (d. 1908) 1845 – Kicking Bear, Native American tribal leader (d. 1904) 1848 – Nathanael Greene Herreshoff, American architect and engineer (d. 1938) 1858 – Rudolf Diesel, German engineer, invented the Diesel engine (d. 1913) 1862 – Eugène Jansson, Swedish painter (d. 1915) 1863 – William Sulzer, American lawyer and politician, 39th Governor of New York (d. 1941) 1869 – Neville Chamberlain, English businessman and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1940) 1870 – Agnes Sime Baxter, Canadian mathematician (d. 1917) 1874 – Nikolai Berdyaev, Russian-French philosopher and theologian (d. 1948) 1877 – Edgar Cayce, American mystic and psychic (d. 1945) 1877 – Clem Hill, Australian cricketer and engineer (d. 1945) 1878 – Percival Perry, 1st Baron Perry, English businessman (d. 1956) 1882 – Gian Francesco Malipiero, Italian composer and educator (d. 1973) 1884 – Bernard Cronin, English-Australian journalist and author (d. 1968) 1886 – Edward Everett Horton, American actor, singer, and dancer (d. 1970) 1890 – Henri Decoin, French director and screenwriter (d. 1969) 1893 – Costante Girardengo, Italian cyclist (d. 1978) 1893 – Wilfred Owen, English soldier and poet (d. 1918) 1901–present 1901 – Manly Palmer Hall, Canadian mystic, author and philosopher (d. 1990) 1901 – William Johnson, American painter (d. 1970) 1903 – Galeazzo Ciano, Italian journalist and politician, Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1944) 1903 – E. O. Plauen, German cartoonist (d. 1944) 1904 – Srečko Kosovel, Slovenian poet and author (d. 1926) 1905 – Thomas Townsend Brown, American physicist and engineer (d. 1985) 1905 – Robert Donat, English actor (d. 1958) 1907 – John Zachary Young, English zoologist and neurophysiologist (d. 1997) 1908 – Loulou Gasté, French composer (d. 1995) 1909 – Ernest Gallo, American businessman, co-founded the E & J Gallo Winery (d. 2007) 1909 – C. Walter Hodges, English author and illustrator (d. 2004) 1911 – Smiley Burnette, American singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1967) 1912 – Art Gilmore, American voice actor and announcer (d. 2010) 1913 – René Clément, French director and screenwriter (d. 1996) 1913 – Werner Mölders, German colonel and pilot (d. 1941) 1915 – Richard Condon, American author and screenwriter (d. 1996) 1922 – Egon Bahr, German journalist and politician, Federal Minister for Special Affairs of Germany (d. 2015) 1922 – Seymour Martin Lipset, American sociologist and academic (d. 2006) 1922 – Suzanne Perlman, Hungarian-Dutch visual artist (d. 2020) 1922 – Fred Shuttlesworth, American activist, co-founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (d. 2011) 1923 – Andy Granatelli, American race car driver and businessman (d. 2013) 1925 – Alessandro Alessandroni, Italian musician (d. 2017) 1925 – James Pickles, English journalist, lawyer, and judge (d. 2010) 1926 – Peter Graves, American actor and director (d. 2010) 1927 – John Kander, American pianist and composer 1927 – George Plimpton, American journalist and actor (d. 2003) 1927 – Lillian Vernon, German-American businesswoman and philanthropist, founded the Lillian Vernon Company (d. 2015) 1928 – Miguel Poblet, Spanish cyclist (d. 2013) 1928 – Fidel V. Ramos, Filipino general and politician, 12th President of the Philippines 1929 – Samuel Pisar, Polish-American lawyer and author (d. 2015) 1930 – James J. Andrews, American mathematician and academic (d. 1998) 1931 – John Fraser, Scottish actor (d. 2020) 1932 – John Updike, American novelist, short story writer, and critic (d. 2009) 1933 – Unita Blackwell, American civil rights activist and politician (d. 2019) 1934 – Roy Chapman, English footballer and manager (d. 1983) 1934 – Charley Pride, American country music singer and musician (d. 2020) 1935 – Ole Barndorff-Nielsen, Danish mathematician and statistician 1935 – Frances Cress Welsing, American psychiatrist and author (d. 2016) 1936 – F. W. de Klerk, South African lawyer and politician, former State President of South Africa, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2021) 1937 – Rudi Altig, German cyclist and sportscaster (d. 2016) 1937 – Mark Donohue, American race car driver (d. 1975) 1938 – Carl Gottlieb, American actor and screenwriter 1938 – Shashi Kapoor, Indian actor and producer (d. 2017) 1938 – Kenny Lynch, English singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2019) 1938 – Timo Mäkinen, Finnish race car driver (d. 2017) 1938 – Machiko Soga, Japanese actress (d. 2006) 1939 – Ron Atkinson, English footballer and manager 1939 – Jean-Pierre Wallez, French violinist and conductor 1941 – Wilson Pickett, American singer-songwriter (d. 2006) 1942 – Kathleen Collins, African-American filmmaker and playwright (d. 1988) 1943 – Dennis Linde, American singer-songwriter (d. 2006) 1944 – Amnon Lipkin-Shahak, Israeli general and politician, 22nd Transportation Minister of Israel (d. 2012) 1944 – Frank McRae, American football player and actor (d. 2021) 1944 – Dick Smith, Australian publisher and businessman, founded Dick Smith Electronics and Australian Geographic 1945 – Hiroh Kikai, Japanese photographer (d. 2020) 1945 – Michael Reagan, American journalist and radio host 1945 – Susan Tyrrell, American actress (d. 2012) 1945 – Eric Woolfson, Scottish singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer (d. 2009) 1946 – Michel Leclère, French race car driver 1947 – Patrick Barlow, English actor and playwright 1947 – Patrick Chesnais, French actor, director, and screenwriter 1947 – David Lloyd, English cricketer, journalist, and sportscaster 1947 – B. J. Wilson, English rock drummer (d. 1990) 1948 – Guy Lapointe, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1948 – Brian Lloyd, Welsh footballer 1948 – Eknath Solkar, Indian cricketer (d. 2005) 1949 – Åse Kleveland, Norwegian singer and politician, Norwegian Minister of Culture 1950 – James Conlon, American conductor and educator 1950 – Brad Dourif, American actor 1950 – Linda Partridge, English geneticist and academic 1950 – Larry Perkins, Australian race car driver 1951 – Paul Barber, English actor 1951 – Ben Cohen, American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Ben and Jerry's 1951 – Bill Frisell, American guitarist and composer 1951 – Timothy N. Philpot, American lawyer, author, and judge 1952 – Will Durst, American journalist and actor 1952 – Pat Eddery, Irish jockey and trainer (d. 2015) 1952 – Bernie Tormé, Irish singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2019) 1952 – Mike Webster, American football player (d. 2002) 1953 – Franz Wright, Austrian-American poet and translator (d. 2015) 1953 – Takashi Yoshimatsu, Japanese composer 1955 – Francis G. Slay, American lawyer and politician, 45th Mayor of St. Louis 1955 – Jeff Stelling, English journalist and game show host 1956 – Rick Martel, Canadian wrestler 1956 – Deborah Jeane Palfrey, American madam (d. 2008) 1956 – Ingemar Stenmark, Swedish skier 1957 – Christer Fuglesang, Swedish physicist and astronaut 1958 – Richard de Zoysa, Sri Lankan journalist and author (d. 1990) 1959 – Luc Besson, French director, producer, and screenwriter, founded EuropaCorp 1960 – Richard Biggs, American actor (d. 2004) 1960 – Guy Carbonneau, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1960 – James Plaskett, Cypriot-English chess player 1961 – Grant Hart, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2017) 1962 – Michael Andrews, Australian rugby league player 1962 – Irene Cara, American singer-songwriter, actress, and producer 1962 – Brian Fisher, American baseball player 1962 – Thomas Ian Griffith, American actor and martial artist 1962 – James McMurtry, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor 1962 – Etsushi Toyokawa, Japanese actor and director 1962 – Volker Weidler, German race car driver and engineer 1963 – Jeff LaBar, American guitarist (d. 2021) 1963 – Vanessa L. Williams, American model, actress, and singer 1964 – Bonnie Blair, American speed skater 1964 – Alex Caffi, Italian race car driver 1964 – Jo Churchill, British politician 1964 – Courtney Pine, English saxophonist and clarinet player 1964 – Isabel Noronha, Mozambican film director 1966 – Jerry Cantrell, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1966 – Peter Jones, English businessman 1966 – Brian Watts, Canadian golfer 1967 – Miki Berenyi, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1968 – Miguel Herrera, Mexican footballer and manager 1968 – Temur Ketsbaia, Georgian footballer and manager 1968 – Paul Marsden, English businessman and politician 1969 – Andy Cutting, English accordion player and composer 1969 – Vassily Ivanchuk, Ukrainian chess player 1969 – Shaun Udal, English cricketer 1970 – Queen Latifah, American rapper, producer, and actress 1971 – Wayne Arthurs, Australian tennis player 1971 – Mike Bell, American wrestler (d. 2008) 1971 – Mariaan de Swardt, South African-American tennis player, coach, and sportscaster 1971 – Kitty Ussher, English economist and politician 1972 – Dane Cook, American comedian, actor, director, and producer 1972 – Reince Priebus, American lawyer and politician 1973 – Luci Christian, American voice actress and screenwriter 1974 – Laure Savasta, French basketball player, coach, and sportscaster 1974 – Stuart Zender, English bass player, songwriter, and producer 1975 – Sutton Foster, American actress, singer, and dancer 1975 – Brian Griese, American football player and sportscaster 1975 – Kimmo Timonen, Finnish ice hockey player 1975 – Tomas Žvirgždauskas, Lithuanian footballer 1976 – Giovanna Antonelli, Brazilian actress and producer 1976 – Tomo Ohka, Japanese baseball player 1976 – Scott Podsednik, American baseball player 1976 – Mike Quackenbush, American wrestler, trainer, and author, founded Chikara wrestling promotion 1977 – Zdeno Chára, Slovak ice hockey player 1977 – Danny Murphy, English international footballer and sportscaster 1977 – Fernando Rodney, Dominican-American baseball player 1977 – Willy Sagnol, French footballer and manager 1977 – Terrmel Sledge, American baseball player and coach 1978 – Fernandão, Brazilian footballer and manager (d. 2014) 1978 – Brooke Hanson, Australian swimmer 1978 – Brian Scalabrine, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster 1978 – Jonas Wallerstedt, Swedish footballer, coach, and manager 1979 – Adam Levine, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and television personality 1980 – Sébastien Frey, French footballer 1980 – Sophia Myles, English actress 1980 – Alexei Yagudin, Russian figure skater 1981 – Tora Berger, Norwegian biathlete 1981 – Fabian Cancellara, Swiss cyclist 1981 – Leslie Djhone, French sprinter 1981 – Jang Na-ra, South Korean singer and actress 1981 – Kasib Powell, American basketball player 1981 – Tom Starke, German footballer 1981 – Doug Warren, American soccer player 1981 – Lovro Zovko, Croatian tennis player 1982 – Mantorras, Angolan footballer 1982 – Chad Cordero, American baseball player 1982 – Timo Glock, German race car driver 1982 – Adam Pally, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1983 – Ethan Carter III, American wrestler 1983 – Stéphanie Cohen-Aloro, French tennis player 1983 – Andy Sonnanstine, American baseball player 1983 – Tomasz Stolpa, Polish footballer 1984 – Simone Padoin, Italian footballer 1984 – Rajeev Ram, American tennis player 1984 – Vonzell Solomon, American singer and actress 1985 – Ana Beatriz, Brazilian race car driver 1985 – Marvin Humes, English singer 1985 – Vince Lia, Australian footballer 1986 – Lykke Li, Swedish singer-songwriter 1986 – Abdennour Chérif El-Ouazzani, Algerian footballer 1987 – Rebecca Soni, American swimmer 1989 – Francesco Checcucci, Italian footballer 1989 – Lily Collins, English-American actress 1989 – Shreevats Goswami, Indian cricketer 1989 – Kana Nishino, Japanese singer-songwriter 1989 – Paul Marc Rousseau, Canadian guitarist and producer 1989 – Ming Xi, Chinese model 1991 – Dylan Mattingly, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1991 – Sam Williams, Australian rugby league player 1992 – Ryan Truex, American race car driver 1992 – Takuya Terada, Japanese singer, actor, and model 1997 – Ciara Bravo, American actress 1997 – Rieko Ioane, New Zealand rugby union player Deaths Pre-1600 978 – Edward the Martyr, English king (b. 962) 1076 – Ermengarde of Anjou, Duchess of Burgundy (b. 1018) 1086 – Anselm of Lucca, Italian bishop (b. 1036) 1227 – Pope Honorius III (b. 1148) 1272 – John FitzAlan, 7th Earl of Arundel (b. 1246) 1308 – Yuri I of Galicia 1314 – Jacques de Molay, Frankish knight (b. 1244) 1314 – Geoffroy de Charney, Preceptor of Normandy for the Knights Templar 1321 – Matthew III Csák, Hungarian oligarch (b. c.1260/5) 1582 – Juan Jauregui, attempted assassin of William I of Orange (b. 1562) 1601–1900 1675 – Arthur Chichester, 1st Earl of Donegall, Irish soldier (b. 1606) 1689 – John Dixwell, English soldier and politician (b. 1607) 1703 – Maria de Dominici, Maltese sculptor and painter (b. 1645) 1745 – Robert Walpole, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1676) 1768 – Laurence Sterne, Irish novelist and clergyman (b. 1713) 1781 – Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, French economist and politician, Controller-General of Finances (b. 1727) 1823 – Jean-Baptiste Bréval, French cellist and composer (b. 1753) 1835 – Christian Günther von Bernstorff, Danish-Prussian politician and diplomat (b. 1769) 1845 – Johnny Appleseed, American gardener and missionary (b. 1774) 1871 – Augustus De Morgan, Indian-English mathematician and academic (b. 1806) 1898 – Matilda Joslyn Gage, American author and activist (b. 1826) 1900 – Hjalmar Kiærskou, Danish botanist (b. 1835) 1901–present 1907 – Marcellin Berthelot, French chemist and politician, French Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1827) 1913 – George I of Greece (b. 1845) 1918 – Henry Janeway Hardenbergh, American architect, designed the Plaza Hotel (b. 1847) 1930 – Jean Leon Gerome Ferris, American painter (b. 1863) 1936 – Eleftherios Venizelos, Greek journalist, lawyer, and politician, 93rd Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1864) 1939 – Henry Simpson Lunn, English businessman, founded Lunn Poly (b. 1859) 1941 – Henri Cornet, French cyclist (b. 1884) 1947 – William C. Durant, American businessman, co-founded General Motors and Chevrolet (b. 1861) 1954 – Walter Mead, English cricketer (b. 1868) 1956 – Louis Bromfield, American environmentalist and author (b. 1896) 1962 – Walter W. Bacon, American accountant and politician, 60th Governor of Delaware (b. 1880) 1964 – Sigfrid Edström, Swedish businessman, 4th President of the International Olympic Committee (b. 1870) 1965 – Farouk of Egypt (b. 1920) 1973 – Johannes Aavik, Estonian philologist and poet (b. 1880) 1977 – Marien Ngouabi, Congolese politician, President of the Republic of the Congo (b. 1938) 1977 – Carlos Pace, Brazilian race car driver (b. 1944) 1978 – Leigh Brackett, American author and screenwriter (b. 1915) 1978 – Peggy Wood, American actress (b. 1892) 1980 – Erich Fromm, German psychologist and philosopher (b. 1900) 1982 – Patrick Smith, Irish farmer and politician, Minister for Agriculture, Food and the Marine (b. 1901) 1983 – Umberto II of Italy (b. 1904) 1984 – Charley Lau, American baseball player and coach (b. 1933) 1986 – Bernard Malamud, American novelist and short story writer (b. 1914) 1988 – Billy Butterfield, American trumpet player and cornet player (b. 1917) 1990 – Robin Harris, American comedian (b. 1953) 1993 – Kenneth E. Boulding, English-American economist and activist (b. 1910) 1996 – Odysseas Elytis, Greek poet and critic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1911) 2000 – Eberhard Bethge, German theologian and academic (b. 1909) 2001 – John Phillips, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (The Mamas & the Papas) (b. 1935) 2002 – R. A. Lafferty, American soldier and author (b. 1914) 2003 – Karl Kling, German race car driver (b. 1910) 2003 – Adam Osborne, Thai-English engineer and businessman, founded the Osborne Computer Corporation (b. 1939) 2004 – Harrison McCain, Canadian businessman, co-founded McCain Foods (b. 1927) 2006 – Dan Gibson, Canadian photographer and cinematographer (b. 1922) 2007 – Bob Woolmer, Indian-English cricketer, coach, and sportscaster (b. 1948) 2008 – Anthony Minghella, English director and screenwriter (b. 1954) 2009 – Omid Reza Mir Sayafi, Iranian journalist and blogger (b. 1980) 2009 – Natasha Richardson, English-American actress (b. 1963) 2010 – Fess Parker, American actor and businessman (b. 1924) 2011 – Warren Christopher, American lawyer and politician, 63rd United States Secretary of State (b. 1925) 2012 – Furman Bisher, American journalist and author (b. 1918) 2012 – William R. Charette, American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1932) 2012 – William G. Moore Jr., American general (b. 1920) 2012 – George Tupou V of Tonga (b. 1948) 2013 – Muhammad Mahmood Alam, Pakistani general and pilot (b. 1935) 2013 – Henry Bromell, American novelist, screenwriter, and director (b. 1947) 2013 – Clay Ford, American lawyer and politician (b. 1938) 2014 – Catherine Obianuju Acholonu, Nigerian author, playwright, and academic (b. 1951) 2014 – Kaiser Kalambo, Zambian footballer, coach, and manager (b. 1953) 2014 – Lucius Shepard, American author and critic (b. 1943) 2015 – Zhao Dayu, Chinese footballer and manager (b. 1961) 2015 – Thomas Hopko, American priest and theologian (b. 1939) 2015 – Grace Ogot, Kenyan nurse, journalist, and politician (b. 1930) 2016 – Barry Hines, English author and screenwriter (b. 1939) 2016 – Jan Němec, Czech director and screenwriter (b. 1936) 2016 – Tray Walker, American football player (b. 1992) 2016 – Guido Westerwelle, German lawyer and politician, 15th Vice-Chancellor of Germany (b. 1961) 2017 – Chuck Berry, American guitarist, singer and songwriter (b. 1926) 2020 – Alfred Worden, Apollo 15 command module pilot (b. 1932) Holidays and observances Anniversary of the Oil Expropriation (Mexico) Christian feast day: Alexander of Jerusalem Anselm of Lucca Cyril of Jerusalem Edward the Martyr Fridianus Salvator March 18 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Flag Day (Aruba) Gallipoli Memorial Day (Turkey) Men's and Soldiers' Day (Mongolia) National Day in Remembrance of COVID-19 Victims (Italy) Ordnance Factories' Day (India) Sheelah's Day (Ireland, Canada, Australia) Teacher's Day (Syria) References External links BBC: On This Day Historical Events on March 18 Today in Canadian History Days of the year March

20282

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanized%20infantry

Mechanized infantry

Mechanized infantry are infantry units equipped with armored personnel carriers (APCs) or infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) for transport and combat (see also mechanized force). As defined by the United States Army, mechanized infantry is distinguished from motorized infantry in that its vehicles provide a degree of armor protection and armament for use in combat, whereas motorized infantry are provided with "soft-skinned" wheeled vehicles for transportation only. Most APCs and IFVs are fully tracked or are all-wheel drive vehicles (6×6 or 8×8), for mobility across rough ground. Some nations distinguish between mechanized and armored (or armoured) infantry, designating troops carried by APCs as mechanized and those in IFVs as armored. The support weapons for mechanized infantry are also provided with motorized transport, or they are built directly into combat vehicles to keep pace with the mechanized infantry in combat. For units equipped with most types of APC or any type of IFV, fire support weapons, such as machine guns, autocannons, small-bore direct-fire howitzers, and anti-tank guided missiles are often mounted directly on the infantry's own transport vehicles. Compared with "light" truck-mobile infantry, mechanized infantry can maintain rapid tactical movement and, if mounted in IFVs, have more integral firepower. It requires more combat supplies (ammunition and especially fuel) and ordnance supplies (spare vehicle components), and a comparatively larger proportion of manpower is required to crew and maintain the vehicles. For example, most APCs mount a section of seven or eight infantrymen but have a crew of two. Most IFVs carry only six or seven infantry but require a crew of three. To be effective in the field, mechanized units also require many mechanics, with specialized maintenance and recovery vehicles and equipment. History Some of the first mechanized infantry were German assault teams mounted on A7V tanks during World War I. The vehicles were extra-large to let them carry sizeable assault teams and would regularly carry infantry on board in addition to their already large crews that were trained as stormtroopers. All machine-gun-armed A7V tanks carried two small flame throwers for their dismounts to use. A7V tank would often carry a second officer to lead the assault team. During the Battle of St. Quentin, A7Vs were accompanied by 20 stormtroopers from Rohr Assault Battalion, but it is unspecified if they were acting as dismounts or were accompanying the tanks on foot. During the battle, tank crews were reported to have dismounted and attacked enemy positions with grenades and flamethrowers on numerous occasions. Another example of the use of such a method of fighting is the capture of Villers-Bretonneux, in which A7Vs would suppress the defenders with machine gun fire and assault teams would dismount and attack them with grenades. Towards the end of World War I, all the armies involved were faced with the problem of maintaining the momentum of an attack. Tanks, artillery, or infiltration tactics could all be used to break through an enemy defense, but almost all offensives launched in 1918 ground to a halt after a few days. The following infantry quickly became exhausted, and artillery, supplies and fresh formations could not be brought forward over the battlefields quickly enough to maintain the pressure on the regrouping enemy forces. It was widely acknowledged that cavalry was too vulnerable to be used on most European battlefields, but many armies continued to deploy them. Motorized infantry could maintain rapid movement, but their trucks required either a good road network or firm open terrain, such as desert. They were unable to traverse a battlefield obstructed by craters, barbed wire, and trenches. Tracked or all-wheel drive vehicles were to be the solution. Following the war, development of mechanized forces was largely theoretical for some time, but many nations began rearming in the 1930s. The British Army had established an Experimental Mechanized Force in 1927, but it failed to pursue that line because of budget constraints and the prior need to garrison the frontiers of the British Empire. Although some proponents of mobile warfare, such as J. F. C. Fuller, advocated building "tank fleets", other, such as Heinz Guderian in Germany, Adna R. Chaffee Jr. in the United States, and Mikhail Tukhachevsky in the Soviet Union, recognized that tank units required close support from infantry and other arms and that such supporting arms needed to maintain the same pace as the tanks. As the Germans rearmed in the 1930s, they equipped some infantry units in their new Panzer divisions with the half-track Sd.Kfz. 251, which could keep up with tanks on most terrain. The French Army also created "light mechanized" (légère mécanisée) divisions in which some of the infantry units possessed small tracked carriers. Together with the motorization of the other infantry and support units, this gave both armies highly mobile combined-arms formations. The German doctrine was to use them to exploit breakthroughs in Blitzkrieg offensives, whereas the French envisaged them being used to shift reserves rapidly in a defensive battle. World War II As World War II progressed, most major armies integrated tanks or assault guns with mechanized infantry, as well as other supporting arms, such as artillery and engineers, as combined arms units. Allied armored formations included a mechanized infantry element for combined arms teamwork. For example, US armored divisions had a balance of three battalions each of tanks, armored infantry, and self-propelled artillery. The US armored infantry was fully equipped with M2 and M3 halftracks. In the British and Commonwealth armies, "Type A armoured brigades," intended for independent operations or to form part of armored divisions, had a "motor infantry" battalion mounted in Bren Carriers or later in lend-lease halftracks. "Type B" brigades lacked a motor infantry component and were subordinated to infantry formations. The Canadian Army and, subsequently the British Army, used expedients such as the Kangaroo APC, usually for specific operations rather than to create permanent mechanized infantry formations. The first such operation was Operation Totalize in the Battle of Normandy, which failed to achieve its ultimate objectives but showed that mechanized infantry could incur far fewer casualties than dismounted troops in set-piece operations. The German Army, having introduced mechanized infantry in its Panzer divisions, later named them Panzergrenadier units. In the middle of the war, it created entire mechanized infantry divisions and named Panzergrenadier divisions. Because the German economy could not produce adequate numbers of its half-track APC, barely a quarter or a third of the infantry in Panzer or Panzergrenadier divisions were mechanized, except in a few favored formations. The rest were moved by truck. However, most German reconnaissance units in such formations were also primarily mechanized infantry and could undertake infantry missions when it was needed. The Allies generally used jeeps, armored cars, or light tanks for reconnaissance. The Red Army began the war while still in the process of reorganizing its armored and mechanized formations, most of which were destroyed during the first months of the German Invasion of the Soviet Union. About a year later, the Soviets recreated division-sized mechanized infantry units, termed mechanized corps, usually with one tank brigade and three mechanized infantry brigades, with motorized supporting arms. They were generally used in the exploitation phase of offensives, as part of the prewar Soviet concept of deep operations. The Soviet Army also created several cavalry mechanized groups in which tanks, mechanized infantry and horsed cavalry were mixed. They were also used in the exploitation and pursuit phases of offensives. Red Army mechanized infantry were generally carried on tanks or trucks, with only a few dedicated lend-lease half-track APCs. The New Zealand Army ultimately fielded a division of a roughly similar composition to a Soviet mechanized corps, which fought in the Italian Campaign, but it had little scope for mobile operations until near the end of the war. The Romanian Army fielded a mixed assortment of vehicles. These amounted to 126 French-designed Renault UE Chenillettes which were licence-built locally, 34 captured and refurbished Soviet armored tractors, 27 German-made armored half-tracks of the Sd.Kfz. 250 and Sd.Kfz. 251 types, over 200 Czechoslovak Tatra, Praga and Skoda trucks (the Tatra trucks were a model which was specifically built for the Romanian Army) as well as 300 German Horch 901 4x4 field cars. Sd.Kfz. 8 and Sd.Kfz. 9 half-tracks were also acquired, as well as nine vehicles of the Sd.Kfz. 10 type and 100 RSO/01 fully tracked tractors. The Romanians also produced five prototypes of an indigenous artillery tractor. Cold War In the postwar era, the early years of the Cold War, the Soviet Army and NATO further developed the equipment and doctrine for mechanized infantry. With the exception of airborne formations, the Red Army mechanized all its infantry formations. Initially, wheeled APCs, like the BTR-152, were used, some of which lacked overhead protection and were therefore vulnerable to artillery fire. It still gave the Soviet Army greater strategic flexibility because of the large land area and the long borders of the Soviet Union and its allies in the Warsaw Pact. The US Army established the basic configuration of the tracked APC with the M75 and M59 before it adopted the lighter M113, which could be carried by Lockheed C-130 Hercules and other transport aircraft. The vehicle gave infantry the same mobility as tanks but with much less effective armor protection (it still had nuclear, biological, and chemical protection). In the Vietnam War, the M113 was often fitted with extra armament and used as an ad hoc infantry fighting vehicle. Early operations by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam using the vehicle showed that troops were far more effective while they were mounted in the vehicles than when they dismounted. American doctrine subsequently emphasized mounted tactics. The Americans ultimately deployed a mechanized brigade and ten mechanized battalions to Vietnam. Even more important for future developments was the Soviet BMP-1, which was the first true IFV. Its introduction prompted the development of similar vehicles in Western armies, such as the West German Marder and American M2 Bradley. Unlike the APC, which was intended merely to transport the infantry from place to place under armor, the IFV possessed heavy firepower that could support the infantry in attack or defense. Many IFVs were also equipped with firing ports from which their infantry could fire their weapons from inside, but they were generally not successful and have been dropped from modern IFVs. Soviet organization led to different tactics between the "light" and the "heavy" varieties of mechanized infantry. In the Soviet Army, a first-line "motor rifle" division from the 1970s onward usually had two regiments equipped with wheeled BTR-60 APCs and one with the tracked BMP-1 IFV. The "light" regiments were intended to make dismounted attacks on the division's flanks, while the BMP-equipped "heavy" regiment remained mounted and supported the division's tank regiment on the main axis of advance. Both types of infantry regiment still were officially titled "motor rifle" units. A line of development in the Soviet Armed Forces from the 1980s was the provision of specialized IFVs for use by the Russian Airborne Troops. The first of them was the BMD-1, which had the same firepower as the BMP-1 but could be carried in or even parachuted from the standard Soviet transport aircraft. That made airborne formations into mechanized infantry at the cost of reducing their "bayonet" strength, as the BMD could carry only three or at most four paratroopers in addition to its three-man crew. They were used in that role in the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. Present day At present, almost all infantry units from industrialized nations are provided with some type of motor transport. Infantry units equipped with IFVs rather than lighter vehicles are commonly designated as "heavy", indicating more combat power but also more costly long-range transportation requirements. In Operation Desert Shield, during the buildup phase of the First Gulf War, the U.S. Army was concerned about the lack of mobility, protection and firepower offered by existing rapid deployment (i.e., airborne) formations; and also about the slowness of deploying regular armored units. The experience led the U.S. Army to form combat brigades based on the Stryker wheeled IFV. In the British Army, "heavy" units equipped with the Warrior IFV are described as "armoured infantry", and units with the Bulldog APC as "mechanised infantry". This convention is becoming widespread; for example the French Army has "motorisées" units equipped with the wheeled VAB and "mécanisées" (armoured) units with the tracked AMX-10P. The transport and other logistic requirements have led many armies to adopt wheeled APCs when their existing stocks of tracked APCs require replacement. An example is the Canadian Army, which has used the LAV III wheeled IFV in fighting in Afghanistan. The Italian, Spanish and Swedish armies are adopting (and exporting) new indigenous-produced tracked IFVs. The Swedish CV90 IFV in particular has been adopted by several armies. A recent trend seen in the Israel Defense Forces and the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation is the development and introduction of exceptionally well-armored APCs (HAPC), such as the IDF Achzarit, that are converted from obsolete main battle tanks (such as the Soviet T-55). Such vehicles are usually expedients, and lack of space prevents the armament of an IFV being carried in addition to an infantry section or squad. In the Russian Army, such vehicles were introduced for fighting in urban areas, where the risk from short range infantry anti-tank weapons, such as the RPG-7, is highest, after Russian tank and motor infantry units suffered heavy losses fighting Chechen troops in Grozny during the First Chechen War in 1995. Many APCs and IFVs currently under development are intended for rapid deployment by aircraft. New technologies that promise reduction in weight, such as electric drive, may be incorporated. However, facing a similar threat in post-invasion Iraq to that which prompted the Russians to convert tanks to APCs, the occupying armies have found it necessary to apply extra armor to existing APCs and IFVs, which adds to the overall size and weight. Some of the latest designs (such as the German Puma) are intended to allow a light, basic model vehicle, which is air-transportable, to be fitted in the field with additional protection, thereby ensuring both strategic flexibility and survivability. Combined arms operations It is generally accepted that single weapons system types are much less effective without the support of the full combined arms team; the pre-World War II notion of "tank fleets" has proven to be as unsound as the World War I idea of unsupported infantry attacks. Though many nations' armored formations included an organic mechanized infantry component at the start of World War II, the proportion of mechanized infantry in such combined arms formations was increased by most armies as the war progressed. The lesson was re-learned, first by the Pakistani Army in the 1965 War with India, where the nation fielded two different types of armored divisions: one which was almost exclusively armor (the 1st), while another was more balanced (the 6th). The latter division showed itself to be far more combat capable than the former. Having achieved spectacular successes in the offensive with tank-heavy formations during the Six-Day War, the Israel Defense Forces found in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 that a doctrine that relied primarily on tanks and aircraft had proven inadequate. As a makeshift remedy, paratroopers were provided with motorized transport and used as mechanized infantry in coordination with the armor. See also Armoured warfare Notes Sources Dunstan, Simon. Vietnam Tracks: Armor In Battle 1945–1975. 1982 edition, Osprey Publishing; . Starry, Donn A., General. Armored Combat In Vietnam. 1980, Arno Press Inc. . Armoured warfare Infantry

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micah

Micah

Micah (; ) is a given name. Micah is the name of several people in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament), and means "Who is like God?" The name is sometimes found with theophoric extensions. Suffix theophory in Yah and in Yahweh results in Michaiah or Michaihu (), meaning who is like Yahweh? Suffix theophory in El results in Michael (), meaning "who is like god". In German and Dutch, Micah is spelled and the ch in the name is pronounced either or ; the first is more common in female names, the latter in male names. The name is not as common as Michael or Michiel. Bible Micah son of Mephibosheth son of Jonathan son of Saul, the first king of Israel () Micah (prophet), eponymous prophet of the Book of Micah in the Old Testament Micaiah, a prophet and the son of Imlah, who gave a negative prophecy to Ahab on his request Notable people with the given name "Micah" include A Micah Aivazoff (born 1969), Canadian ice hockey player Micah Albert (born 1979), American photojournalist Micah Alberti (born 1984), American actor Micah Altman (born 1967), American social scientist Micah Armstrong, American evangelist Micah Lakin Avni (born 1969), Israeli businessman Micah Awe (born 1994), Nigerian Canadian football player B Micah Balfour (born 1978), English actor Micah Ballard (born 1975), American poet Micah Barlow (1873–1936), English cricketer Micah Barnes (born 1960), Canadian singer-songwriter Micah Blunt, American basketball player Micah Bowie (born 1974), American baseball player Micah Boyd (born 1982), American rower Micah Brooks (1775–1857), American politician Micah Brown (born 1986), Canadian football player Micah Bates (born 1900-2022), Boi C Micah Caskey (born 1981), American politician Micah Cheserem, Kenyan banker Micah Christenson (born 1993), American volleyball player D Micah Downs (born 1986), American basketball player E Micah Evans (born 1993), English footballer F Micah Fowler (born 1998), American actor Micah Franklin (disambiguation), multiple people G Micah Garen (born 1968), American filmmaker Micah Gravley (born 1974), American politician Micah Gunnell (born 1980), American comic book artist H Micah Hannemann (born 1994), American football player Micah Hart (born 1997), Canadian ice hockey player Micah Hauptman (born 1973), American actor Micah Hawkins (1777–1825), American poet Micah Hilton (born 1985), Montserratian footballer Micah P. Hinson (born 1981), American musician Micah Hoffpauir (born 1980), American baseball player Micah Hyde (disambiguation), multiple people J Micah Jenkins (1835–1864), American general Micah Jesse (born 1986), American blogger Micah Johnson (disambiguation), multiple people K Micha Kaufman (born 1946), Israeli sport shooter Micah Kellner (born 1979), American politician Micah Kiser (born 1995), American football player Micah Knorr (born 1975), American football player Micah Kogo (born 1986), Kenyan long-distance runner L Micah Lancaster (born 1984), American basketball player Micah Lawrence (born 1990), American swimmer Micah Lea'alafa (born 1991), Solomon Islands footballer Micah Joseph Lebensohn (1828–1852), Russian poet Micah Lewensohn (1952–2017), Israeli theater director Micah Lexier (born 1960), Canadian artist Micah Kai Lynette (born 2001), Thai figure skater M Micha Marah (born 1953), Belgian singer and actress Micah Masei (born 1999), Samoan swimmer Micah Massey (born 1987), American musician Micah Miller (born 1987), American mixed martial artist N Micah Naftalin (1933–2009), American activist Micah Nathan, American novelist Micah Neal (born 1974), American politician O Micah Obiero (born 2001), English footballer Micah Ohlman (born 1972), American journalist Micah Ortega (born 1976), American guitarist Micah Owings (born 1982), American baseball player P Micah Parsons (born 1999), American football player Micah Paulino (born 1992), Guamanian footballer Micah Pellerin (born 1988), American football player Micah Perks (born 1963), American writer Micah Potter (born 1998), American basketball player R Micah Richards (born 1988), English football player Micah Ross (born 1976), American football player Micah Rucker (born 1985), American football player S Micah Salt (1847–1915), English tailor Micah C. Saufley (1842–1910), American judge Micah Schwartzman (born 1976), American law professor Micah Shrewsberry (born 1976), American basketball coach Micah Sloat (born 1981), American actor Micah Smaldone (born 1978), American musician Micah Solusod (born 1990), American voice actor Micah Stampley (born 1971), American singer-songwriter Micah Sterling (1784–1844), American politician T Micah Taul (1785–1850), American politician Micah Taul (Alabama politician) (1832–1873), American politician Micah Teitz (born 1996), Canadian football player Micah Townshend (1749–1832), American political leader Micah True (1953–2012), American runner Micah Tyler (born 1983), American singer W Micha Wertheim (born 1972), Dutch comedian Micah M. White (born 1982), American activist Micah Williams (disambiguation), multiple people Micah Wright (born 1974), American author Z Micah Zenko, American political scientist Fictional characters Micah Clarke, a character in the novel Micah Clarke Micah Rains, a character in the comic series Wonder Woman Micah Sanders, a character in the television series Heroes Micah Bell lll, the main antagonist of the video game Red Dead Redemption 2 King Micah, a character in the television series She-Ra: Princess of Power Surname Duke Micah (born 1991), Ghanaian boxer Teagan Micah (born 1997), Australian footballer See also Michael, a disambiguation page for "Michael" Micah (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for "Micah" Myka (disambiguation), a disambiguation page for "Myka" References Sources Unisex given names Hebrew masculine given names Hebrew feminine given names English masculine given names English feminine given names

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malachi

Malachi

Malachi (; ) is the traditional author of the Book of Malachi, the last book of the Nevi'im (Prophets) section of the Tanakh. According to the 1897 Easton's Bible Dictionary, it is possible that Malachi is not a proper name, but simply means "messenger". The editors of the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia implied that he prophesied after Haggai and Zechariah and speculated that he delivered his prophecies about 420 BC, after the second return of Nehemiah from Persia, or possibly before his return. No allusion is made to him by Ezra, however, and he does not directly mention the restoration of the Second Temple. Name Because the name Malachi does not occur elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible, some scholars doubt whether it is intended to be the personal name of the prophet. The form mal'akhi (literally "my malakh") signifies "my messenger"; it occurs in Malachi 3:1 (compare to Malachi 2:7, but this form would hardly be appropriate as a proper name without some additional syllable such as Yah, whence mal'akhiah, i.e. "messenger of Yah". In the Book of Haggai, Haggai is designated the "messenger of the ." The non-canonical superscriptions prefixed to the book, in both the Septuagint and the Vulgate, warrant the supposition that Malachi's full name ended with the syllable -yah. The Septuagint translates the last clause of Malachi 1:1, "by the hand of his messenger", and the Targum reads, "by the hand of my angel, whose name is called Ezra the scribe". Works The Jews of his day ascribed the Book of Malachi to Ezra. Certain traditions ascribe the book to Zerubbabel and Nehemiah; others to Malachi, whom they designate as a Levite and a member of the Great Assembly. Certain modern scholars, however, on the basis of the similarity of the title declare it to be anonymous. G.G. Cameron suggests that the termination of the word "Malachi" is adjectival, and equivalent to the Latin angelicus, signifying "one charged with a message or mission" (a missionary). The term would thus be an official title, and the thought would not be unsuitable to one whose message closed the prophetical canon of the Old Testament. Date Opinions vary as to the prophet's exact date, but nearly all scholars agree that Malachi prophesied during the Persian period, and after the reconstruction and dedication of the Second Temple in 516 BC. More specifically, Malachi probably lived and labored during the times of Ezra and Nehemiah. The abuses which Malachi mentions in his writings correspond so exactly with those which Nehemiah found on his second visit to Jerusalem in 432 BC that it seems reasonably certain that he prophesied concurrently with Nehemiah or shortly after. According to W. Gunther Plaut, References L. Vianès: Malachie. La Bible d'Alexandrie, vol. xxiii/12, Éditions du Cerf, Paris, 2011. External links Prophet Malachi Orthodox icon and synaxarion Levites

20286

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%20Fowler%20%28software%20engineer%29

Martin Fowler (software engineer)

Martin Fowler (18 December 1963) is an American-resident British software developer, author and international public speaker on software development, specialising in object-oriented analysis and design, UML, patterns, and agile software development methodologies, including extreme programming. His 1999 book Refactoring popularised the practice of code refactoring. In 2004 he introduced Presentation Model (PM), an architectural pattern. Biography Fowler was born and grew up in Walsall, England, where he went to Queen Mary's Grammar School for his secondary education. He graduated at University College London in 1986. In 1994 he moved to the United States, where he lives near Boston, Massachusetts in the suburb of Melrose. Fowler started working with software in the early 1980s. Out of university in 1986 he started working in software development for Coopers & Lybrand until 1991. In 2000 he joined ThoughtWorks, a systems integration and consulting company, where he serves as Chief Scientist. Fowler has written nine books on the topic of software development (see Publications). He is a member of the Agile Alliance and helped create the Manifesto for Agile Software Development in 2001, along with 16 fellow signatories. He maintains a bliki, a mix of blog and wiki. He popularised the term Dependency Injection as a form of Inversion of Control. Publications 1996. Analysis Patterns: Reusable Object Models. Addison-Wesley. . 1997. UML Distilled: A Brief Guide to the Standard Object Modeling Language. Addison-Wesley. . 1999. Refactoring: Improving the Design of Existing Code, With Kent Beck, John Brant, William Opdyke, and Don Roberts (June 1999). Addison-Wesley. . 2000. Planning Extreme Programming. With Kent Beck. Addison-Wesley. . 2002. Patterns of Enterprise Application Architecture. With David Rice, Matthew Foemmel, Edward Hieatt, Robert Mee, and Randy Stafford. Addison-Wesley. . 2010. Domain-Specific Languages. With Rebecca Parsons. Addison-Wesley. . 2012. NoSQL Distilled: A Brief Guide to the Emerging World of Polyglot Persistence. With Pramod Sadalage. Addison-Wesley. . 2013. Refactoring: Ruby Edition. With Kent Beck, Shane Harvie, and Jay Fields. Addison-Wesley. . 2018. Refactoring: Improving the Design of Existing Code, Second Edition. Kent Beck, and Martin Fowler. Addison-Wesley. . Domain-Specific Languages In his book, Domain-specific languages, Fowler discusses Domain-specific languages, DSL. DSLs are said to be defined by being composable programming languages, with their focus on an individual domain and having limited expressively. It is argued that DSLs can increase productivity by removing the requirement of the programmer to understand a full programming language, providing a means of communication with domain experts, and separate the manner of execution of a task from the definition of a task itself. These benefits are set against the cost of learning a new language and building the tools for this language, siloing that results for different languages and the abstractions used in DSLs not being suitable for a task. Fowler introduces the concept of internal (or embedded) and external DSL, an internal DSL being a DSL that is a subset of another language and can be executed by the tools for this outer language. Ruby and Lisp are given as an example of languages where internal DSLs are common. He also introduces the idea of Semantic Model which defines the execution of a DSL. Various examples of DSLs are presented including graphviz, a language for specifying graphs to be rendered; JMock a java mocking framework; CSS a language to specify stylistic elements of a website; HQL a object relational mapper in Java; XAML a language used to specify and change graphical user interfaces; FIT, a language to express testing scenarios; and make a tool to build software The book discusses implementing an external DSL using tools like parsers, lexers, abstract syntax trees and code generation referred to as "syntax-driven translation" This is contrasted with "delimiter-driven translation" which is said to be simpler but less powerful. Here the language is simple enough to be interpreted by splitting on delimiters and switching logic based on individual entries. Ways of implementing internal DSLs is discussed, with attention paid to nested function calls, sequences of function calls, or method chaining amongst other methods. References External links Living people 1963 births Alumni of University College London British software engineers British bloggers British technology writers Extreme programming People from Walsall People educated at Queen Mary's Grammar School British expatriates in the United States Agile software development

20287

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft%20Word

Microsoft Word

Microsoft Word is a word processing software developed by Microsoft. It was first released on October 25, 1983, under the name Multi-Tool Word for Xenix systems. Subsequent versions were later written for several other platforms including IBM PCs running DOS (1983), Apple Macintosh running the Classic Mac OS (1985), AT&T UNIX PC (1985), Atari ST (1988), OS/2 (1989), Microsoft Windows (1989), SCO Unix (1990), and macOS (2001). Commercial versions of Word are licensed as a standalone product or as a component of Microsoft Office 365, or Microsoft 365 Premium subscription, Windows RT or the discontinued Microsoft Works suite. History Origins In 1981, Microsoft hired Charles Simonyi, the primary developer of Bravo, the first GUI word processor, which was developed at Xerox PARC. Simonyi started work on a word processor called Multi-Tool Word and soon hired Richard Brodie, a former Xerox intern, who became the primary software engineer. Microsoft announced Multi-Tool Word for Xenix and MS-DOS in 1983. Its name was soon simplified to Microsoft Word. Free demonstration copies of the application were bundled with the November 1983 issue of PC World, making it the first to be distributed on-disk with a magazine. That year Microsoft demonstrated Word running on Windows. Unlike most MS-DOS programs at the time, Microsoft Word was designed to be used with a mouse. Advertisements depicted the Microsoft Mouse and described Word as a WYSIWYG, windowed word processor with the ability to undo and display bold, italic, and underlined text, although it could not render fonts. It was not initially popular, since its user interface was different from the leading word processor at the time, WordStar. However, Microsoft steadily improved the product, releasing versions 2.0 through 5.0 over the next six years. In 1985, Microsoft ported Word to the classic Mac OS (known as Macintosh System Software at the time). This was made easier by Word for DOS having been designed for use with high-resolution displays and laser printers, even though none were yet available to the general public. It was also notable for its very fast cut-and-paste function and unlimited number of undo operations, which are due to its usage of the piece table data structure. Following the precedents of LisaWrite and MacWrite, Word for Mac OS added true WYSIWYG features. It fulfilled a need for a word processor that was more capable than MacWrite. After its release, Word for Mac OS's sales were higher than its MS-DOS counterpart for at least four years. The second release of Word for Mac OS, shipped in 1987, was named Word 3.0 to synchronize its version number with Word for DOS; this was Microsoft's first attempt to synchronize version numbers across platforms. Word 3.0 included numerous internal enhancements and new features, including the first implementation of the Rich Text Format (RTF) specification, but was plagued with bugs. Within a few months, Word 3.0 was superseded by a more stable Word 3.01, which was mailed free to all registered users of 3.0. After MacWrite Pro was discontinued in the mid-1990s, Word for Mac OS never had any serious rivals. Word 5.1 for Mac OS, released in 1992, was a very popular word processor owing to its elegance, relative ease of use and feature set. Many users say it is the best version of Word for Mac OS ever created. In 1986, an agreement between Atari and Microsoft brought Word to the Atari ST under the name Microsoft Write. The Atari ST version was a port of Word 1.05 for the Mac OS and was never updated. The first version of Word for Windows was released in 1989. With the release of Windows 3.0 the following year, sales began to pick up and Microsoft soon became the market leader for word processors for IBM PC-compatible computers. In 1991, Microsoft capitalized on Word for Windows' increasing popularity by releasing a version of Word for DOS, version 5.5, that replaced its unique user interface with an interface similar to a Windows application. When Microsoft became aware of the Year 2000 problem, it made Microsoft Word 5.5 for DOS available for download free. , it is still available for download from Microsoft's web site. In 1991, Microsoft embarked on a project code-named Pyramid to completely rewrite Microsoft Word from the ground up. Both the Windows and Mac OS versions would start from the same code base. It was abandoned when it was determined that it would take the development team too long to rewrite and then catch up with all the new capabilities that could have been added at the same time without a rewrite. Instead, the next versions of Word for Windows and Mac OS, dubbed version 6.0, both started from the code base of Word for Windows 2.0. With the release of Word 6.0 in 1993, Microsoft again attempted to synchronize the version numbers and coordinate product naming across platforms, this time across DOS, Mac OS, and Windows (this was the last version of Word for DOS). It introduced AutoCorrect, which automatically fixed certain typing errors, and AutoFormat, which could reformat many parts of a document at once. While the Windows version received favorable reviews (e.g., from InfoWorld), the Mac OS version was widely derided. Many accused it of being slow, clumsy and memory intensive, and its user interface differed significantly from Word 5.1. In response to user requests, Microsoft offered Word 5 again, after it had been discontinued. Subsequent versions of Word for macOS are no longer direct ports of Word for Windows, instead featuring a mixture of ported code and native code. Word for Windows Word for Windows is available stand-alone or as part of the Microsoft Office suite. Word contains rudimentary desktop publishing capabilities and is the most widely used word processing program on the market. Word files are commonly used as the format for sending text documents via e-mail because almost every user with a computer can read a Word document by using the Word application, a Word viewer or a word processor that imports the Word format (see Microsoft Word Viewer). Word 6 for Windows NT was the first 32-bit version of the product, released with Microsoft Office for Windows NT around the same time as Windows 95. It was a straightforward port of Word 6.0. Starting with Word 95, releases of Word were named after the year of its release, instead of its version number. Word 2007 introduced a redesigned user interface that emphasised the most common controls, dividing them into tabs, and adding specific options depending on the context, such as selecting an image or editing a table. This user interface, called Ribbon, was included in Excel, PowerPoint and Access 2007, and would be later introduced to other Office applications with Office 2010 and Windows applications such as Paint and WordPad with Windows 7, respectively. The redesigned interface also includes a toolbar that appears when selecting text, with options for formatting included. Word 2007 also included the option to save documents as Adobe Acrobat or XPS files, and upload Word documents as blog posts on services such as WordPress. Word 2010 allows the customization of the Ribbon, adds a Backstage view for file management, has improved document navigation, allows creation and embedding of screenshots, and integrates with online services such as Microsoft OneDrive. Word 2019 added a dictation function. Word for Mac The Mac was introduced January 24, 1984, and Microsoft introduced Word 1.0 for Mac a year later, on January 18, 1985. The DOS, Mac, and Windows versions are quite different from each other. Only the Mac version was WYSIWYG and used a graphical user interface, far ahead of the other platforms. Each platform restarted its version numbering at "1.0". There was no version 2 on the Mac, but version 3 came out on January 31, 1987, as described above. Word 4.0 came out on November 6, 1990, and added automatic linking with Excel, the ability to flow text around graphics and a WYSIWYG page view editing mode. Word 5.1 for Mac, released in 1992 ran on the original 68000 CPU and was the last to be specifically designed as a Macintosh application. The later Word 6 was a Windows port and poorly received. Word 5.1 continued to run well until the last Classic MacOS. Many people continue to run Word 5.1 to this day under an emulated Mac classic system for some of its excellent features like document generation and renumbering or to access their old files. In 1997, Microsoft formed the Macintosh Business Unit as an independent group within Microsoft focused on writing software for Mac OS. Its first version of Word, Word 98, was released with Office 98 Macintosh Edition. Document compatibility reached parity with Word 97, and it included features from Word 97 for Windows, including spell and grammar checking with squiggles. Users could choose the menus and keyboard shortcuts to be similar to either Word 97 for Windows or Word 5 for Mac OS. Word 2001, released in 2000, added a few new features, including the Office Clipboard, which allowed users to copy and paste multiple items. It was the last version to run on classic Mac OS and, on Mac OS X, it could only run within the Classic Environment. Word X, released in 2001, was the first version to run natively on, and required, Mac OS X, and introduced non-contiguous text selection. Word 2004 was released in May 2004. It included a new Notebook Layout view for taking notes either by typing or by voice. Other features, such as tracking changes, were made more similar with Office for Windows. Word 2008, released on January 15, 2008, included a Ribbon-like feature, called the Elements Gallery, that can be used to select page layouts and insert custom diagrams and images. It also included a new view focused on publishing layout, integrated bibliography management, and native support for the new Office Open XML format. It was the first version to run natively on Intel-based Macs. Word 2011, released in October 2010, replaced the Elements Gallery in favor of a Ribbon user interface that is much more similar to Office for Windows, and includes a full-screen mode that allows users to focus on reading and writing documents, and support for Office Web Apps. Word for Mobile Word Mobile is a word processor that allows creating and editing documents. It supports basic formatting, such as bolding, changing font size, and changing colors (from red, yellow, or green). It can add comments, but can't edit documents with tracked changes. It can't open password protected documents, change the typeface, text alignment, or style (normal, heading 1); create bulleted lists; insert pictures; or undo. Word Mobile is neither able to display nor insert footnotes, endnotes, page headers, page footers, page breaks, certain indentation of lists, and certain fonts while working on a document, but retains them if the original document has them. In addition to the features of the 2013 version, the 2007 version on Windows Mobile also has the ability to save documents in the Rich Text Format and open legacy PSW (Pocket Word). Furthermore, it includes a spell checker, word count tool, and a "Find and Replace" command. In 2015, Word Mobile became available for Windows 10 and Windows 10 Mobile on Windows Store. File formats Filename extensions Microsoft Word's native file formats are denoted either by a .doc or .docx filename extension. Although the .doc extension has been used in many different versions of Word, it actually encompasses four distinct file formats: Word for DOS Word for Windows 1 and 2; Word 3 and 4 for Mac OS Word 6 and Word 95 for Windows; Word 6 for Mac OS Word 97 and later for Windows; Word 98 and later for Mac OS (The classic Mac OS of the era did not use filename extensions.) The newer .docx extension signifies the Office Open XML international standard for Office documents and is used by default by Word 2007 and later for Windows as well as Word 2008 and later for macOS. Binary formats (Word 97–2007) During the late 1990s and early 2000s, the default Word document format (.DOC) became a de facto standard of document file formats for Microsoft Office users. There are different versions of "Word Document Format" used by default in Word 97–2007. Each binary word file is a Compound File, a hierarchical file system within a file. According to Joel Spolsky, Word Binary File Format is extremely complex mainly because its developers had to accommodate an overwhelming number of features and prioritize performance over anything else. As with all OLE Compound Files, Word Binary Format consists of "storages", which are analogous to computer folders, and "streams", which are similar to computer files. Each storage may contain streams or other storage. Each Word Binary File must contain a stream called "WordDocument" stream and this stream must start with a File Information Block (FIB). FIB serves as the first point of reference for locating everything else, such as where the text in a Word document starts, ends, what version of Word created the document and other attributes. Word 2007 and later continue to support the DOC file format, although it is no longer the default. XML Document (Word 2003) The .docx XML format introduced in Word 2003 was a simple, XML-based format called WordProcessingML or WordML . The Microsoft Office XML formats are XML-based document formats (or XML schemas) introduced in versions of Microsoft Office prior to Office 2007. Microsoft Office XP introduced a new XML format for storing Excel spreadsheets and Office 2003 added an XML-based format for Word documents. These formats were succeeded by Office Open XML (ECMA-376) in Microsoft Office 2007. Cross-version compatibility Opening a Word Document file in a version of Word other than the one with which it was created can cause an incorrect display of the document. The document formats of the various versions change in subtle and not so subtle ways (such as changing the font, or the handling of more complex tasks like footnotes). Formatting created in newer versions does not always survive when viewed in older versions of the program, nearly always because that capability does not exist in the previous version. Rich Text Format (RTF), an early effort to create a format for interchanging formatted text between applications, is an optional format for Word that retains most formatting and all content of the original document. Third-party formats Plugins permitting the Windows versions of Word to read and write formats it does not natively support, such as international standard OpenDocument format (ODF) (ISO/IEC 26300:2006), are available. Up until the release of Service Pack 2 (SP2) for Office 2007, Word did not natively support reading or writing ODF documents without a plugin, namely the SUN ODF Plugin or the OpenXML/ODF Translator. With SP2 installed, ODF format 1.1 documents can be read and saved like any other supported format in addition to those already available in Word 2007. The implementation faces substantial criticism, and the ODF Alliance and others have claimed that the third-party plugins provide better support. Microsoft later declared that the ODF support has some limitations. In October 2005, one year before the Microsoft Office 2007 suite was released, Microsoft declared that there was insufficient demand from Microsoft customers for the international standard OpenDocument format support, and that therefore it would not be included in Microsoft Office 2007. This statement was repeated in the following months. As an answer, on October 20, 2005 an online petition was created to demand ODF support from Microsoft. In May 2006, the ODF plugin for Microsoft Office was released by the OpenDocument Foundation. Microsoft declared that it had no relationship with the developers of the plugin. In July 2006, Microsoft announced the creation of the Open XML Translator project – tools to build a technical bridge between the Microsoft Office Open XML Formats and the OpenDocument Format (ODF). This work was started in response to government requests for interoperability with ODF. The goal of project was not to add ODF support to Microsoft Office, but only to create a plugin and an external tool-set. In February 2007, this project released a first version of the ODF plugin for Microsoft Word. In February 2007, Sun released an initial version of its ODF plugin for Microsoft Office. Version 1.0 was released in July 2007. Microsoft Word 2007 (Service Pack 1) supports (for output only) PDF and XPS formats, but only after manual installation of the Microsoft 'Save as PDF or XPS' add-on. On later releases, this was offered by default. Features and flaws Among its features, Word includes a built-in spell checker, a thesaurus, a dictionary, and utilities for manipulating and editing text. The following are some aspects of its feature set. Templates Several later versions of Word include the ability for users to create their own formatting templates, allowing them to define a file in which the title, heading, paragraph, and other element designs differ from the standard Word templates. Users can find how to do this under the Help section located near the top right corner (Word 2013 on Windows 8). For example, Normal.dotm is the master template from which all Word documents are created. It determines the margin defaults as well as the layout of the text and font defaults. Although Normal.dotm is already set with certain defaults, the user can change it to new defaults. This will change other documents which were created using the template. It was previously Normal.dot. Image formats Word can import and display images in common bitmap formats such as JPG and GIF. It can also be used to create and display simple line-art. Microsoft Word added support for the common SVG vector image format in 2017 for Office 365 ProPlus subscribers and this functionality was also included in the Office 2019 release. WordArt WordArt enables drawing text in a Microsoft Word document such as a title, watermark, or other text, with graphical effects such as skewing, shadowing, rotating, stretching in a variety of shapes and colors and even including three-dimensional effects. Users can apply formatting effects such as shadow, bevel, glow, and reflection to their document text as easily as applying bold or underline. Users can also spell-check text that uses visual effects, and add text effects to paragraph styles. Macros A Macro is a rule of pattern that specifies how a certain input sequence (often a sequence of characters) should be mapped to an output sequence according to a defined process. Frequently used or repetitive sequences of keystrokes and mouse movements can be automated. Like other Microsoft Office documents, Word files can include advanced macros and even embedded programs. The language was originally WordBasic, but changed to Visual Basic for Applications as of Word 97. This extensive functionality can also be used to run and propagate viruses in documents. The tendency for people to exchange Word documents via email, USB flash drives, and floppy disks made this an especially attractive vector in 1999. A prominent example was the Melissa virus, but countless others have existed. These macro viruses were the only known cross-platform threats between Windows and Macintosh computers and they were the only infection vectors to affect any macOS system up until the advent of video codec trojans in 2007. Microsoft released patches for Word X and Word 2004 that effectively eliminated the macro problem on the Mac by 2006. Word's macro security setting, which regulates when macros may execute, can be adjusted by the user, but in the most recent versions of Word, it is set to HIGH by default, generally reducing the risk from macro-based viruses, which have become uncommon. Layout issues Before Word 2010 (Word 14) for Windows, the program was unable to correctly handle ligatures defined in OpenType fonts. Those ligature glyphs with Unicode codepoints may be inserted manually, but are not recognized by Word for what they are, breaking spell checking, while custom ligatures present in the font are not accessible at all. Since Word 2010, the program now has advanced typesetting features which can be enabled: OpenType ligatures, kerning, and hyphenation (previous versions already had the latter two features). Other layout deficiencies of Word include the inability to set crop marks or thin spaces. Various third-party workaround utilities have been developed. In Word 2004 for Mac OS X, support of complex scripts was inferior even to Word 97, and Word 2004 did not support Apple Advanced Typography features like ligatures or glyph variants. Bullets and numbering Microsoft Word supports bullet lists and numbered lists. It also features a numbering system that helps add correct numbers to pages, chapters, headers, footnotes, and entries of tables of content; these numbers automatically change to correct ones as new items are added or existing items are deleted. Bullets and numbering can be applied directly to paragraphs and convert them to lists. Word 97 through 2003, however, had problems adding correct numbers to numbered lists. In particular, a second irrelevant numbered list might have not started with number one but instead resumed numbering after the last numbered list. Although Word 97 supported a hidden marker that said the list numbering must restart afterward, the command to insert this marker (Restart Numbering command) was only added in Word 2003. However, if one were to cut the first item of the listed and paste it as another item (e.g. fifth), then the restart marker would have moved with it and the list would have restarted in the middle instead of at the top. Users can also create tables in Word. Depending on the version, Word can perform simple calculations — along with support for formulas and equations as well. Word continues to default to non-Unicode characters and non-hierarchical bulleting, despite user preference for Powerpoint-style symbol hierarchies (e.g., filled circle/emdash/filled square/endash/emptied circle) and universal compatibility. AutoSummarize Available in certain versions of Word (e.g., Word 2007), AutoSummarize highlights passages or phrases that it considers valuable and can be a quick way of generating a crude abstract or an executive summary. The amount of text to be retained can be specified by the user as a percentage of the current amount of text. According to Ron Fein of the Word 97 team, AutoSummarize cuts wordy copy to the bone by counting words and ranking sentences. First, AutoSummarize identifies the most common words in the document (barring "a" and "the" and the like) and assigns a "score" to each word – the more frequently a word is used, the higher the score. Then, it "averages" each sentence by adding the scores of its words and dividing the sum by the number of words in the sentence – the higher the average, the higher the rank of the sentence. "It's like the ratio of wheat to chaff," explains Fein. AutoSummarize was removed from Microsoft Word for Mac OS X 2011, although it was present in Word for Mac 2008. AutoSummarize was removed from the Office 2010 release version (14) as well. Word for the web Word for the web is a free lightweight version of Microsoft Word available as part of Office on the web, which also includes web versions of Microsoft Excel and Microsoft PowerPoint. Word for the web lacks some Ribbon tabs, such as Design and Mailings. Mailings allows users to print envelopes and labels, and manage mail merge printing of Word documents. Word for the web is not able to edit certain objects, such as equations, shapes, text boxes, or drawings, but a placeholder may be present in the document. Certain advanced features like table sorting or columns will not be displayed but are preserved as they were in the document. Other views available in the Word desktop app (Outline, Draft, Web Layout, and Full Screen Reading) are not available, nor are side-by-side viewing, split windows, and the ruler. Password protection There are three password types that can be set in Microsoft Word: Password to open a document Password to modify a document Password restricting formatting and editing The second and third password types were developed by Microsoft for convenient shared use of documents rather than for their protection. There is no encryption of documents that are protected by such passwords, and the Microsoft Office protection system saves a hash sum of a password in a document's header where it can be easily accessed and removed by the specialized software. Password to open a document offers much tougher protection that had been steadily enhanced in the subsequent editions of Microsoft Office. Word 95 and all the preceding editions had the weakest protection that utilized a conversion of a password to a 16-bit key. Key length in Word 97 and 2000 was strengthened up to 40 bit. However, modern cracking software allows removing such a password very quickly – a persistent cracking process takes one week at most. Use of rainbow tables reduces password removal time to several seconds. Some password recovery software can not only remove a password but also find an actual password that was used by a user to encrypt the document using brute-force attack approach. Statistically, the possibility of recovering the password depends on the password strength. Word's 2003/XP version default protection remained the same but an option that allowed advanced users choosing a Cryptographic Service Provider was added. If a strong CSP is chosen, guaranteed document decryption becomes unavailable, and therefore a password can't be removed from the document. Nonetheless, a password can be fairly quickly picked with a brute-force attack, because its speed is still high regardless of the CSP selected. Moreover, since the CSPs are not active by default, their use is limited to advanced users only. Word 2007 offers significantly more secure document protection which utilizes the modern Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) that converts a password to a 128-bit key using a SHA-1 hash function 50,000 times. It makes password removal impossible (as of today, no computer that can pick the key in a reasonable amount of time exists), and drastically slows the brute-force attack speed down to several hundreds of passwords per second. Word's 2010 protection algorithm was not changed apart from the increasing number of SHA-1 conversions up to 100,000 times, and consequently, the brute-force attack speed decreased two times more. Reception Initial releases of Word were met with criticism. BYTE in 1984 criticized the documentation for Word 1.1 and 2.0 for DOS, calling it "a complete farce". It called the software "clever, put together well, and performs some extraordinary feats", but concluded that "especially when operated with the mouse, has many more limitations than benefits ... extremely frustrating to learn and operate efficiently". PC Magazine review was very mixed, stating "I've run into weird word processors before, but this is the first time one's nearly knocked me down for the count" but acknowledging that Word's innovations were the first that caused the reviewer to consider abandoning WordStar. While the review cited an excellent WYSIWYG display, sophisticated print formatting, windows, and footnoting as merits, it criticized many small flaws, very slow performance, and "documentation apparently produced by Madame Sadie's Pain Palace". It concluded that Word was "two releases away from potential greatness". Compute!'s Apple Applications in 1987 stated that "despite a certain awkwardness", Word 3.01 "will likely become the major Macintosh word processor" with "far too many features to list here". While criticizing the lack of true WYSIWYG, the magazine concluded that "Word is marvelous. It's like a Mozart or Edison, whose occasional gaucherie we excuse because of his great gifts". Compute! in 1989 stated that Word 5.0's integration of text and graphics made it "a solid engine for basic desktop publishing". The magazine approved of improvements to text mode, described the $75 price for upgrading from an earlier version as "the deal of the decade", and concluded that "as a high-octane word processor, Word is definitely worth a look". During the first quarter of 1996, Microsoft Word accounted for 80% of the worldwide word processing market. Release history References Further reading Tsang, Cheryl. Microsoft: First Generation. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. . Liebowitz, Stan J. & Margolis, Stephen E. Winners, Losers & Microsoft: Competition and Antitrust in High Technology Oakland: Independent Institute. . External links – official site Find and replace text by using regular expressions (Advanced) - archived official support website Word Classic Mac OS word processors DOS word processors MacOS word processors Windows word processors Technical communication tools Screenshot software 1983 software Atari ST software

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft%20Office

Microsoft Office

Microsoft Office, or simply Office, is a family of client software, server software, and services developed by Microsoft. It was first announced by Bill Gates on August 1, 1988, at COMDEX in Las Vegas. Initially a marketing term for an office suite (bundled set of productivity applications), the first version of Office contained Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint. Over the years, Office applications have grown substantially closer with shared features such as a common spell checker, OLE data integration and Visual Basic for Applications scripting language. Microsoft also positions Office as a development platform for line-of-business software under the Office Business Applications brand. On July 10, 2012, Softpedia reported that Office was being used by over a billion people worldwide. Office is produced in several versions targeted towards different end-users and computing environments. The original, and most widely used version, is the desktop version, available for PCs running the Windows and macOS operating systems. Microsoft also maintains mobile apps for Android and iOS. Office on the web is a version of the software that runs within a web browser. Since Office 2013, Microsoft has promoted Office 365 as the primary means of obtaining Microsoft Office: it allows the use of the software and other services on a subscription business model, and users receive feature updates to the software for the lifetime of the subscription, including new features and cloud computing integration that are not necessarily included in the "on-premises" releases of Office sold under conventional license terms. In 2017, revenue from Office 365 overtook conventional license sales. Microsoft also rebranded most of their standard Office 365 editions into Microsoft 365 to emphasize their current inclusion of products and services. The current on-premises, desktop version of Office is Office 2021, released on October 5, 2021. Components Core apps and services Microsoft Word is a word processor included in Microsoft Office and some editions of the now-discontinued Microsoft Works. The first version of Word, released in the autumn of 1983, was for the MS-DOS operating system and introduced the computer mouse to more users. Word 1.0 could be purchased with a bundled mouse, though none was required. Following the precedents of LisaWrite and MacWrite, Word for Macintosh attempted to add closer WYSIWYG features into its package. Word for Mac was released in 1985. Word for Mac was the first graphical version of Microsoft Word. Initially, it implemented the proprietary .doc format as its primary format. Word 2007, however, deprecated this format in favor of Office Open XML, which was later standardized by Ecma International as an open format. Support for Portable Document Format (PDF) and OpenDocument (ODF) was first introduced in Word for Windows with Service Pack 2 for Word 2007. Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet editor that originally competed with the dominant Lotus 1-2-3 and eventually outsold it. Microsoft released the first version of Excel for the Mac OS in 1985 and the first Windows version (numbered 2.05 to line up with the Mac) in November 1987. Microsoft PowerPoint is a presentation program used to create slideshows composed of text, graphics, and other objects, which can be displayed on-screen and shown by the presenter or printed out on transparencies or slides. Microsoft OneNote is a notetaking program that gathers handwritten or typed notes, drawings, screen clippings and audio commentaries. Notes can be shared with other OneNote users over the Internet or a network. OneNote was initially introduced as a standalone app that was not included in any Microsoft Office 2003 edition. However, OneNote eventually became a core component of Microsoft Office; with the release of Microsoft Office 2013, OneNote was included in all Microsoft Office offerings. OneNote is also available as a web app on Office on the web, a freemium (and later freeware) Windows desktop app, a mobile app for Windows Phone, iOS, Android, and Symbian, and a Metro-style app for Windows 8 or later. Microsoft Outlook (not to be confused with Outlook Express, Outlook.com or Outlook on the web) is a personal information manager that replaces Windows Messaging, Microsoft Mail, and Schedule+ starting in Office 97; it includes an e-mail client, calendar, task manager and address book. On the Mac OS, Microsoft offered several versions of Outlook in the late 1990s, but only for use with Microsoft Exchange Server. In Office 2001, it introduced an alternative application with a slightly different feature set called Microsoft Entourage. It reintroduced Outlook in Office 2011, replacing Entourage. Microsoft OneDrive is a file hosting service that allows users to sync files and later access them from a web browser or mobile device. Microsoft Teams is a platform that combines workplace chat, meetings, notes, and attachments. Windows-only apps Microsoft Publisher is a desktop publishing app for Windows mostly used for designing brochures, labels, calendars, greeting cards, business cards, newsletters, web sites, and postcards. Microsoft Access is a database management system for Windows that combines the relational Access Database Engine (formerly Jet Database Engine) with a graphical user interface and software development tools. Microsoft Access stores data in its own format based on the Access Database Engine. It can also import or link directly to data stored in other applications and databases. Microsoft Project is a project management app for Windows to keep track of events and to create network charts and Gantt charts, not bundled in any Office suite. Microsoft Visio is a diagram and flowcharting app for Windows not bundled in any Office suite. Mobile-only apps Office Lens is an image scanner optimized for mobile devices. It captures the document (e.g. business card, paper, whiteboard) via the camera and then straightens the document portion of the image. The result can be exported to Word, OneNote, PowerPoint or Outlook, or saved in OneDrive, sent via Mail or placed in Photo Library. Office Mobile is a unified Office mobile app for Android and iOS, which combines Word, Excel, and PowerPoint into a single app and introduces new capabilities as making quick notes, signing PDFs, scanning QR codes, and transferring files. Office Remote is an application that turns the mobile device into a remote control for desktop versions of Word, Excel and PowerPoint. Server applications Microsoft SharePoint is a web-based collaborative platform that integrates with Microsoft Office. Launched in 2001, SharePoint is primarily sold as a document management and storage system, but the product is highly configurable and usage varies substantially among organizations. SharePoint services include: Excel Services is a spreadsheet editing server similar to Microsoft Excel. InfoPath Forms Services is a form distribution server similar to Microsoft InfoPath. Microsoft Project Server is a project management server similar to Microsoft Project. Microsoft Search Server Skype for Business Server is a real-time communications server for instant messaging and video-conferencing. Microsoft Exchange Server is a mail server and calendaring server. Web services Microsoft Sway is a presentation web app released in October 2014. It also has a native app for iOS and Windows 10. Delve is a service that allows Office 365 users to search and manage their emails, meetings, contacts, social networks and documents stored on OneDrive or Sites in Office 365. Microsoft Forms is an online survey creator, available for Office 365 Education subscribers. Microsoft To Do is a task management service. Outlook.com is a free webmail with a user interface similar to Microsoft Outlook. Outlook on the web is a webmail client similar to Outlook.com but more comprehensive and available only through Office 365 and Microsoft Exchange Server offerings. Microsoft Planner is a planning application available on the Microsoft Office 365 platform. Microsoft Stream is a corporate video sharing service for enterprise users with an Office 365 Academic or Enterprise license. Microsoft Bookings is an appointment booking application on the Microsoft Office 365 platform. Office on the web Office on the web is a free lightweight web version of Microsoft Office and primarily includes three web applications: Word, Excel and Powerpoint. The offering also includes Outlook.com, OneNote and OneDrive which are accessible through a unified app switcher. Users can install the on-premises version of this service, called Office Online Server, in private clouds in conjunction with SharePoint, Microsoft Exchange Server and Microsoft Lync Server. Word, Excel, and PowerPoint on the web can all natively open, edit, and save Office Open XML files (docx, xlsx, pptx) as well as OpenDocument files (odt, ods, odp). They can also open the older Office file formats (doc, xls, ppt), but will be converted to the newer Open XML formats if the user wishes to edit them online. Other formats cannot be opened in the browser apps, such as CSV in Excel or HTML in Word, nor can Office files that are encrypted with a password be opened. Files with macros can be opened in the browser apps, but the macros cannot be accessed or executed. Starting in July 2013, Word can render PDF documents or convert them to Microsoft Word documents, although the formatting of the document may deviate from the original. Since November 2013, the apps have supported real-time co-authoring and autosaving files. Office on the web lacks a number of the advanced features present in the full desktop versions of Office, including lacking the programs Access and Publisher entirely. However, users are able to select the command "Open in Desktop App" that brings up the document in the desktop version of Office on their computer or device to utilize the advanced features there. Supported web browsers include Microsoft Edge, Internet Explorer 11, the latest versions of Firefox or Google Chrome, as well as Safari for OS X 10.8 or later. The Personal edition of Office on the web is available to the general public free of charge with a Microsoft account through the Office.com website, which superseded SkyDrive (now OneDrive) and Office Live Workspace. Enterprise-managed versions are available through Office 365. In February 2013, the ability to view and edit files on SkyDrive without signing in was added. The service can also be installed privately in enterprise environments as a SharePoint app, or through Office Web Apps Server. Microsoft also offers other web apps in the Office suite, such as the Outlook Web App (formerly Outlook Web Access), Lync Web App (formerly Office Communicator Web Access), Project Web App (formerly Project Web Access). Additionally, Microsoft offers a service under the name of Online Doc Viewer to view Office documents on a website via Office on the web. There are free extensions available to use Office on the web directly in Google Chrome and Microsoft Edge. Common features Most versions of Microsoft Office (including Office 97 and later) use their own widget set and do not exactly match the native operating system. This is most apparent in Microsoft Office XP and 2003, where the standard menus were replaced with a colored, flat-looking, shadowed menu style. The user interface of a particular version of Microsoft Office often heavily influences a subsequent version of Microsoft Windows. For example, the toolbar, colored buttons and the gray-colored 3D look of Office 4.3 were added to Windows 95, and the ribbon, introduced in Office 2007, has been incorporated into several programs bundled with Windows 7 and later. In 2012, Office 2013 replicated the flat, box-like design of Windows 8. Users of Microsoft Office may access external data via connection-specifications saved in Office Data Connection (.odc) files. Both Windows and Office use service packs to update software. Office had non-cumulative service releases, which were discontinued after Office 2000 Service Release 1. Past versions of Office often contained Easter eggs. For example, Excel 97 contained a reasonably functional flight-simulator. File formats and metadata Microsoft Office prior to Office 2007 used proprietary file formats based on the OLE Compound File Binary Format. This forced users who share data to adopt the same software platform. In 2008, Microsoft made the entire documentation for the binary Office formats freely available for download and granted any possible patents rights for use or implementations of those binary format for free under the Open Specification Promise. Previously, Microsoft had supplied such documentation freely but only on request. Starting with Office 2007, the default file format has been a version of Office Open XML, though different from the one standardized and published by Ecma International and by ISO/IEC. Microsoft has granted patent rights to the formats technology under the Open Specification Promise and has made available free downloadable converters for previous versions of Microsoft Office including Office 2003, Office XP, Office 2000 and Office 2004 for Mac OS X. Third-party implementations of Office Open XML exist on the Windows platform (LibreOffice, all platforms), macOS platform (iWork '08, NeoOffice, LibreOffice) and Linux (LibreOffice and OpenOffice.org 3.0). In addition, Office 2010, Service Pack 2 for Office 2007, and Office 2016 for Mac supports the OpenDocument Format (ODF) for opening and saving documents – only the old ODF 1.0 (2006 ISO/IEC standard) is supported, not the 1.2 version (2015 ISO/IEC standard). Microsoft provides the ability to remove metadata from Office documents. This was in response to highly publicized incidents where sensitive data about a document was leaked via its metadata. Metadata removal was first available in 2004, when Microsoft released a tool called Remove Hidden Data Add-in for Office 2003/XP for this purpose. It was directly integrated into Office 2007 in a feature called the Document Inspector. Extensibility A major feature of the Office suite is the ability for users and third-party companies to write add-ins (plug-ins) that extend the capabilities of an application by adding custom commands and specialized features. One of the new features is the Office Store. Plugins and other tools can be downloaded by users. Developers can make money by selling their applications in the Office Store. The revenue is divided between the developer and Microsoft where the developer gets 80% of the money. Developers are able to share applications with all Office users. The app travels with the document, and it is for the developer to decide what the recipient will see when they open it. The recipient will either have the option to download the app from the Office Store for free, start a free trial or be directed to payment. With Office's cloud abilities, IT department can create a set of apps for their business employees in order to increase their productivity. When employees go to the Office Store, they'll see their company's apps under My Organization. The apps that employees have personally downloaded will appear under My Apps. Developers can use web technologies like HTML5, XML, CSS3, JavaScript, and APIs for building the apps. An application for Office is a webpage that is hosted inside an Office client application. User can use apps to amplify the functionality of a document, email message, meeting request, or appointment. Apps can run in multiple environments and by multiple clients, including rich Office desktop clients, Office Web Apps, mobile browsers, and also on-premises and in the cloud. The type of add-ins supported differ by Office versions: Office 97 onwards (standard Windows DLLs i.e. Word WLLs and Excel XLLs) Office 2000 onwards (COM add-ins) Office XP onwards (COM/OLE Automation add-ins) Office 2003 onwards (Managed code add-ins – VSTO solutions) Password protection Microsoft Office has a security feature that allows users to encrypt Office (Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Access, Skype Business) documents with a user-provided password. The password can contain up to 255 characters and uses AES 128-bit advanced encryption by default. Passwords can also be used to restrict modification of the entire document, worksheet or presentation. Due to lack of document encryption, though, these passwords can be removed using a third-party cracking software. Support policies Approach All versions of Microsoft Office products from Office 2000 to Office 2016 are eligible for ten years of support following their release, during which Microsoft releases security updates for the product version and provides paid technical support. The ten-year period is divided into two five-year phases: The mainstream phase and the extended phase. During the mainstream phase, Microsoft may provide limited complimentary technical support and release non-security updates or change the design of the product. During the extended phase, said services stop. Office 2019 only receives 5 years of mainstream and 2 years of extended support and Office 2021 only gets 5 years of mainstream support. Timelines of support Platforms Microsoft supports Office for the Windows and macOS platforms, as well as mobile versions for Windows Phone, Android and iOS platforms. Beginning with Mac Office 4.2, the macOS and Windows versions of Office share the same file format, and are interoperable. Visual Basic for Applications support was dropped in Microsoft Office 2008 for Mac, then reintroduced in Office for Mac 2011. Microsoft tried in the mid-1990s to port Office to RISC processors such as NEC/MIPS and IBM/PowerPC, but they met problems such as memory access being hampered by data structure alignment requirements. Microsoft Word 97 and Excel 97, however, did ship for the DEC Alpha platform. Difficulties in porting Office may have been a factor in discontinuing Windows NT on non-Intel platforms. Pricing model and editions The Microsoft Office applications and suites are sold via retail channels, and volume licensing for larger organizations (also including the "Home Use Program". allowing users at participating organizations to buy low-cost licenses for use on their personal devices as part of their employer's volume license agreement). In 2010, Microsoft introduced a software as a service platform known as Office 365, to provide cloud-hosted versions of Office's server software, including Exchange e-mail and SharePoint, on a subscription basis (competing in particular with Google Apps). Following the release of Office 2013, Microsoft began to offer Office 365 plans for the consumer market, with access to Microsoft Office software on multiple devices with free feature updates over the life of the subscription, as well as other services such as OneDrive storage. Microsoft has since promoted Office 365 as the primary means of purchasing Microsoft Office. Although there are still "on-premises" releases roughly every three years, Microsoft marketing emphasizes that they do not receive new features or access to new cloud-based services as they are released unlike Office 365, as well as other benefits for consumer and business markets. Office 365 revenue overtook traditional license sales for Office in 2017. Editions Microsoft Office is available in several editions, which regroup a given number of applications for a specific price. Primarily, Microsoft sells Office as Microsoft 365. The editions are as follows: Microsoft 365 Personal Microsoft 365 Family Microsoft 365 Business Basic Microsoft 365 Business Standard Microsoft 365 Business Premium Microsoft 365 apps for business Microsoft 365 apps for enterprise Office 365 E1, E3, E5 Office 365 A1, A3, A5 (for education) Office 365 G1, G3, G5 (for government) Microsoft 365 F1, F3, Office 365 F3 (for frontline) Microsoft sells Office for a one-time purchase as Home & Student and Home & Business, however, these editions do not receive major updates. Education pricing Post-secondary students may obtain the University edition of Microsoft Office 365 subscription. It is limited to one user and two devices, plus the subscription price is valid for four years instead of just one. Apart from this, the University edition is identical in features to the Home Premium version. This marks the first time Microsoft does not offer physical or permanent software at academic pricing, in contrast to the University versions of Office 2010 and Office 2011. In addition, students eligible for DreamSpark program may receive select standalone Microsoft Office apps free of charge. Discontinued applications and features Binder was an application that can incorporate several documents into one file and was originally designed as a container system for storing related documents in a single file. The complexity of use and learning curve led to little usage, and it was discontinued after Office XP. Bookshelf was a reference collection introduced in 1987 as part of Microsoft's extensive work in promoting CD-ROM technology as a distribution medium for electronic publishing. Data Analyzer was a business intelligence program for graphical visualization of data and its analysis. Docs.com was a public document sharing service where Office users can upload and share Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Sway and PDF files for the whole world to discover and use. Entourage was an Outlook counterpart on macOS, Microsoft discontinued it in favor of extending the Outlook brand name. FrontPage was a WYSIWYG HTML editor and website administration tool for Windows. It was branded as part of the Microsoft Office suite from 1997 to 2003. FrontPage was discontinued in December 2006 and replaced by Microsoft SharePoint Designer and Microsoft Expression Web. InfoPath was a Windows application for designing and distributing rich XML-based forms. The last version was included in Office 2013. InterConnect was a business-relationship database available only in Japan. Internet Explorer was a graphical web browser and one of the main participants of the first browser war. It was included in Office until Office XP when it was removed. Mail was a mail client (in old versions of Office, later replaced by Microsoft Schedule Plus and subsequently Microsoft Outlook). Office Accounting (formerly Small Business Accounting) was an accounting software application from Microsoft targeted towards small businesses that had between 1 and 25 employees. Office Assistant (included since Office 97 on Windows and Office 98 on Mac as a part of Microsoft Agent technology) was a system that uses animated characters to offer context-sensitive suggestions to users and access to the help system. The Assistant is often dubbed "Clippy" or "Clippit", due to its default to a paper clip character, coded as CLIPPIT.ACS. The latest versions that include the Office Assistant were Office 2003 (Windows) and Office 2004 (Mac). Office Document Image Writer was a virtual printer that takes documents from Microsoft Office or any other application and prints them, or stores them in an image file as TIFF or Microsoft Document Imaging Format format. It was discontinued with Office 2010. Office Document Imaging was an application that supports editing scanned documents. Discontinued Office 2010. Office Document Scanning was a scanning and OCR application. Discontinued Office 2010. Office Picture Manager was a basic photo management software (similar to Google's Picasa or Adobe's Photoshop Elements), that replaced Microsoft Photo Editor. PhotoDraw was a graphics program that was first released as part of the Office 2000 Premium Edition. A later version for Windows XP compatibility was released, known as PhotoDraw 2000 Version 2. Microsoft discontinued the program in 2001. Photo Editor was photo-editing or raster-graphics software in older Office versions up to Office XP. It was supplemented by Microsoft PhotoDraw in Office 2000 Premium edition. Schedule Plus (also shown as Schedule+) was released with Office 95. It featured a planner, to-do list, and contact information. Its functions were incorporated into Microsoft Outlook. SharePoint Designer was a WYSIWYG HTML editor and website administration tool. Microsoft attempted to turn it into a specialized HTML editor for SharePoint sites, but failed on this project and wanted to discontinue it. SharePoint Workspace (formerly Groove) was a proprietary peer-to-peer document collaboration software designed for teams with members who are regularly offline or who do not share the same network security clearance. Skype for Business was an integrated communications client for conferences and meetings in real-time; it is the only Microsoft Office desktop app that is neither useful without a proper network infrastructure nor has the "Microsoft" prefix in its name. Streets & Trips (known in other countries as Microsoft AutoRoute) is a discontinued mapping program developed and distributed by Microsoft. Unbind is a program that can extract the contents of a Binder file. Unbind can be installed from the Office XP CD-ROM. Virtual PC was included with Microsoft Office Professional Edition 2004 for Mac. Microsoft discontinued support for Virtual PC on the Mac in 2006 owing to new Macs possessing the same Intel architecture as Windows PCs. It emulated a standard PC and its hardware. Vizact was a program that "activated" documents using HTML, adding effects such as animation. It allows users to create dynamic documents for the Web. The development has ended due to unpopularity. Discontinued server applications Microsoft Office Forms Server lets users use any browser to access and fill InfoPath forms. Office Forms Server is a standalone server installation of InfoPath Forms Services. Microsoft Office Groove Server was centrally managing all deployments of Microsoft Office Groove in the enterprise. Microsoft Office Project Portfolio Server allows creation of a project portfolio, including workflows, which is hosted centrally. Microsoft Office PerformancePoint Server allows customers to monitor, analyze, and plan their business. Discontinued web services Office Live Office Live Small Business had web hosting services and online collaboration tools for small businesses. Office Live Workspace had online storage and collaboration service for documents, which was superseded by Office on the web. Office Live Meeting was a web conferencing service. Criticism Editor In January 2022, entrepreneur Vivek Ramaswamy appeared on Fox News and criticized changes to Microsoft Editor that substituted gender-neutral forms of some words for equivalent gendered terms: "postal carrier" or "mail carrier" in place of "mailman," for example. Data formats Microsoft Office has been criticized in the past for using proprietary file formats rather than open standards, which forces users who share data into adopting the same software platform. However, on February 15, 2008, Microsoft made the entire documentation for the binary Office formats freely available under the Open Specification Promise. Also, Office Open XML, the document format for the latest versions of Office for Windows and Mac, has been standardized under both Ecma International and ISO. Ecma International has published the Office Open XML specification free of copyrights and Microsoft has granted patent rights to the formats technology under the Open Specification Promise and has made available free downloadable converters for previous versions of Microsoft Office including Office 2003, Office XP, Office 2000 and Office 2004 for the Mac. Third-party implementations of Office Open XML exist on the Mac platform (iWork 08) and Linux (OpenOffice.org 2.3 – Novell Edition only). Unicode and bi-directional texts Another point of criticism Microsoft Office has faced was the lack of support in its Mac versions for Unicode and Bi-directional text languages, notably Arabic and Hebrew. This issue, which had existed since the first release in 1989, was addressed in the 2016 version. Privacy On November 13, 2018, a report initiated by the Government of the Netherlands concluded that Microsoft Office 2016 and Office 365 do not comply with GDPR, the European law which regulates data protection and privacy for all citizens in and outside the EU and EFTA region. The investigation was initiated by the observation that Microsoft does not reveal or share publicly any data collected about users of its software. In addition, the company does not provide users of its (Office) software an option to turn off diagnostic and telemetry data sent back to the company. Researchers found that most of the data that the Microsoft software collects and "sends home" is diagnostics. Researchers also observed that Microsoft "seemingly tried to make the system GDPR compliant by storing Office documents on servers based in the EU". However, they discovered the software packages collected additional data that contained private user information, some of which was stored on servers located in the US. The Netherlands Ministry of Justice hired Privacy Company to probe and evaluate the use of Microsoft Office products in the public sector. "Microsoft systematically collects data on a large scale about the individual use of Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and Outlook. Covertly, without informing people", researchers of the Privacy Company stated in their blog post. "Microsoft does not offer any choice with regard to the amount of data, or possibility to switch off the collection, or ability to see what data are collected, because the data stream is encoded." The researchers commented that there is no need for Microsoft to store information such as IPs and email addresses, which are collected automatically by the software. "Microsoft should not store these transient, functional data, unless the retention is strictly necessary, for example, for security purposes", the researchers conclude in the final report by the Netherlands Ministry of Justice. As a result of this in-depth study and its conclusions, the Netherlands regulatory body concluded that Microsoft has violated GDPR "on many counts" including "lack of transparency and purpose limitation, and the lack of a legal ground for the processing." Microsoft has provided the Dutch authorities with an "improvement plan" that should satisfy Dutch regulators that it "would end all violations". The Dutch regulatory body is monitoring the situation and states that "If progress is deemed insufficient or if the improvements offered are unsatisfactory, SLM Microsoft Rijk will reconsider its position and may ask the Data Protection Authority to carry out a prior consultation and to impose enforcement measures." When asked for a response by an IT professional publication, a Microsoft spokesperson stated: We are committed to our customers’ privacy, putting them in control of their data and ensuring that Office ProPlus and other Microsoft products and services comply with GDPR and other applicable laws. We appreciate the opportunity to discuss our diagnostic data handling practices in Office ProPlus with the Dutch Ministry of Justice and look forward to a successful resolution of any concerns." The user privacy data issue affects ProPlus subscriptions of Microsoft Office 2016 and Microsoft Office 365, including the online version of Microsoft Office 365. History of releases Version history Windows versions Microsoft Office for Windows Microsoft Office for Windows started in October 1990 as a bundle of three applications designed for Microsoft Windows 3.0: Microsoft Word for Windows 1.1, Microsoft Excel for Windows 2.0, and Microsoft PowerPoint for Windows 2.0. Microsoft Office for Windows 1.5 updated the suite with Microsoft Excel 3.0. Version 1.6 added Microsoft Mail for PC Networks 2.1 to the bundle. Microsoft Office 3.0 Microsoft Office 3.0, also called Microsoft Office 92, was released on August 30, 1992, and contained Word 2.0, Excel 4.0, PowerPoint 3.0 and Mail 3.0. It was the first version of Office also released on CD-ROM. In 1993, Microsoft Office Professional was released, which added Microsoft Access 1.1. Microsoft Office 4.x Microsoft Office 4.0 was released containing Word 6.0, Excel 4.0a, PowerPoint 3.0 and Mail in 1993. Word's version number jumped from 2.0 to 6.0 so that it would have the same version number as the MS-DOS and Macintosh versions (Excel and PowerPoint were already numbered the same as the Macintosh versions). Microsoft Office 4.2 for Windows NT was released in 1994 for i386, Alpha, MIPS and PowerPC architectures, containing Word 6.0 and Excel 5.0 (both 32-bit, PowerPoint 4.0 (16-bit), and Microsoft Office Manager 4.2 (the precursor to the Office Shortcut Bar)). Microsoft Office 95 Microsoft Office 95 was released on August 24, 1995. Software version numbers were altered again to create parity across the suiteevery program was called version 7.0 meaning all but Word missed out versions. Office 95 included new components to the suite such as Schedule+ and Binder. Office for Windows 95 was designed as a fully 32-bit version to match Windows 95 although some apps not bundled as part of the suite at that time - Publisher for Windows 95 and Project 95 had some 16-bit components even though their main program executable was 32-bit. Office 95 was available in two versions, Office 95 Standard and Office 95 Professional. The standard version consisted of Word 7.0, Excel 7.0, PowerPoint 7.0, and Schedule+ 7.0. The professional edition contained all of the items in the standard version plus Access 7.0. If the professional version was purchased in CD-ROM form, it also included Bookshelf. The logo used in Office 95 returns in Office 97, 2000 and XP. Microsoft Office 98 Macintosh Edition also uses a similar logo. Microsoft Office 97 Microsoft Office 97 (Office 8.0) included hundreds of new features and improvements, such as introducing command bars, a paradigm in which menus and toolbars were made more similar in capability and visual design. Office 97 also featured Natural Language Systems and grammar checking. Office 97 featured new components to the suite including FrontPage 97, Expedia Streets 98 (in Small Business Edition), and Internet Explorer 3.0 & 4.0. Office 97 was the first version of Office to include the Office Assistant. In Brazil, it was also the first version to introduce the Registration Wizard, a precursor to Microsoft Product Activation. With this release, the accompanying apps, Project 98 and Publisher 98 also transitioned to fully 32-bit versions. Exchange Server, a mail server and calendaring server developed by Microsoft, is the server for Outlook after discontinuing Exchange Client. Microsoft Office 2000 Microsoft Office 2000 (Office 9.0) introduced adaptive menus, where little-used options were hidden from the user. It also introduced a new security feature, built around digital signatures, to diminish the threat of macro viruses. The Microsoft Script Editor, an optional tool that can edit script code, was also introduced in Office 2000. Office 2000 automatically trusts macros (written in VBA 6) that were digitally signed from authors who have been previously designated as trusted. Office 2000 also introduces PhotoDraw, a raster and vector imaging program, as well as Web Components, Visio, and Vizact. The Registration Wizard, a precursor to Microsoft Product Activation, remained in Brazil and was also extended to Australia and New Zealand, though not for volume-licensed editions. Academic software in the United States and Canada also featured the Registration Wizard. Microsoft Office XP Microsoft Office XP (Office 10.0 or Office 2002) was released in conjunction with Windows XP, and was a major upgrade with numerous enhancements and changes over Office 2000. Office XP introduced the Safe Mode feature, which allows applications such as Outlook to boot when it might otherwise fail by bypassing a corrupted registry or a faulty add-in. Smart tag is a technology introduced with Office XP in Word and Excel and discontinued in Office 2010. Office XP also introduces new components including Document Imaging, Document Scanning, Clip Organizer, MapPoint, and Data Analyzer. Binder was replaced by Unbind, a program that can extract the contents of a Binder file. Unbind can be installed from the Office XP CD-ROM. Office XP includes integrated voice command and text dictation capabilities, as well as handwriting recognition. It was the first version to require Microsoft Product Activation worldwide and in all editions as an anti-piracy measure, which attracted widespread controversy. Product Activation remained absent from Office for Mac releases until it was introduced in Office 2011 for Mac. Microsoft Office 2003 Microsoft Office 2003 (Office 11.0) was released in 2003. It featured a new logo. Two new applications made their debut in Office 2003: Microsoft InfoPath and OneNote. It is the first version to use new, more colorful icons. Outlook 2003 provides improved functionality in many areas, including Kerberos authentication, RPC over HTTP, Cached Exchange Mode, and an improved junk mail filter. Office 2003 introduces three new programs to the Office product lineup: InfoPath, a program for designing, filling, and submitting electronic structured data forms; OneNote, a note-taking program for creating and organizing diagrams, graphics, handwritten notes, recorded audio, and text; and the Picture Manager graphics software which can open, manage, and share digital images. SharePoint, a web collaboration platform codenamed as Office Server, has integration and compatibility with Office 2003 and so on. Microsoft Office 2007 Microsoft Office 2007 (Office 12.0) was released in 2007. Office 2007's new features include a new graphical user interface called the Fluent User Interface, replacing the menus and toolbars that have been the cornerstone of Office since its inception with a tabbed toolbar, known as the Ribbon; new XML-based file formats called Office Open XML; and the inclusion of Groove, a collaborative software application. While Microsoft removed Data Analyzer, FrontPage, Vizact, and Schedule+ from Office 2007; they also added Communicator, Groove, SharePoint Designer, and Office Customization Tool (OCT) to the suite. Microsoft Office 2010 Microsoft Office 2010 (Office 14.0, Microsoft skipped 13.0 due to fear of 13) was finalized on April 15, 2010, and made available to consumers on June 15, 2010. The main features of Office 2010 include the backstage file menu, new collaboration tools, a customizable ribbon, protected view and a navigation panel. Office Communicator, an instant messaging and videotelephony application, was renamed into Lync 2010. This is the first version to ship in 32-bit and 64-bit variants. Microsoft Office 2010 featured a new logo, which resembled the 2007 logo, except in gold, and with a modification in shape. Microsoft released Service Pack 1 for Office 2010 on June 28, 2011 and Service Pack 2 on July 16, 2013. Office Online was first released online along with SkyDrive, an online storing service. Microsoft Office 2013 A technical preview of Microsoft Office 2013 (Build 15.0.3612.1010) was released on January 30, 2012, and a Customer Preview version was made available to consumers on July 16, 2012. It sports a revamped application interface; the interface is based on Metro, the interface of Windows Phone and Windows 8. Microsoft Outlook has received the most pronounced changes so far; for example, the Metro interface provides a new visualization for scheduled tasks. PowerPoint includes more templates and transition effects, and OneNote includes a new splash screen. On May 16, 2011, new images of Office 15 were revealed, showing Excel with a tool for filtering data in a timeline, the ability to convert Roman numerals to Arabic numerals, and the integration of advanced trigonometric functions. In Word, the capability of inserting video and audio online as well as the broadcasting of documents on the Web were implemented. Microsoft has promised support for Office Open XML Strict starting with version 15, a format Microsoft has submitted to the ISO for interoperability with other office suites, and to aid adoption in the public sector. This version can read and write ODF 1.2 (Windows only). On October 24, 2012, Office 2013 Professional Plus was released to manufacturing and was made available to TechNet and MSDN subscribers for download. On November 15, 2012, the 60-day trial version was released for public download. Office 2013 was released to general availability on January 29, 2013. Service Pack 1 for Office 2013 was released on February 25, 2014. Some applications were completely removed from the entire suite including SharePoint Workspace, Clip Organizer, and Office Picture Manager. Microsoft Office 2016 On January 22, 2015, the Microsoft Office blog announced that the next version of the suite for Windows desktop, Office 2016, was in development. On May 4, 2015, a public preview of Microsoft Office 2016 was released. Office 2016 was released for Mac OS X on July 9, 2015 and for Windows on September 22, 2015. Users who had the Professional Plus 2016 subscription have the new Skype for Business app. Microsoft Teams, a team collaboration program meant to rival Slack, was released as a separate product for business and enterprise users. Microsoft Office 2019 On September 26, 2017, Microsoft announced that the next version of the suite for Windows desktop, Office 2019, was in development. On April 27, 2018, Microsoft released Office 2019 Commercial Preview for Windows 10. It was released to general availability for Windows 10 and for macOS on September 24, 2018. Microsoft Office 2021 On February 18, 2021, Microsoft announced that the next version of the suite for Windows desktop, Office 2021, was in development. This new version will be supported for five years and was released on October 5, 2021. Mac versions Prior to packaging its various office-type Mac OS software applications into Office, Microsoft released Mac versions of Word 1.0 in 1984, the first year of the Macintosh computer; Excel 1.0 in 1985; and PowerPoint 1.0 in 1987. Microsoft does not include its Access database application in Office for Mac. Microsoft has noted that some features are added to Office for Mac before they appear in Windows versions, such as Office for Mac 2001's Office Project Gallery and PowerPoint Movie feature, which allows users to save presentations as QuickTime movies. However, Microsoft Office for Mac has been long criticized for its lack of support of Unicode and for its lack of support for right-to-left languages, notably Arabic, Hebrew and Persian. Early Office for Mac releases (1989–1994) Microsoft Office for Mac was introduced for Mac OS in 1989, before Office was released for Windows. It included Word 4.0, Excel 2.2, PowerPoint 2.01, and Mail 1.37. It was originally a limited-time promotion but later became a regular product. With the release of Office on CD-ROM later that year, Microsoft became the first major Mac publisher to put its applications on CD-ROM. Microsoft Office 1.5 for Mac was released in 1991 and included the updated Excel 3.0, the first application to support Apple's System 7 operating system. Microsoft Office 3.0 for Mac was released in 1992 and included Word 5.0, Excel 4.0, PowerPoint 3.0 and Mail Client. Excel 4.0 was the first application to support new AppleScript. Microsoft Office 4.2 for Mac was released in 1994. (Version 4.0 was skipped to synchronize version numbers with Office for Windows) Version 4.2 included Word 6.0, Excel 5.0, PowerPoint 4.0 and Mail 3.2. It was the first Office suite for Power Macintosh. Its user interface was identical to Office 4.2 for Windows leading many customers to comment that it wasn't Mac-like enough. The final release for Mac 68K was Office 4.2.1, which updated Word to version 6.0.1, somewhat improving performance. Microsoft Office 98 Macintosh Edition Microsoft Office 98 Macintosh Edition was unveiled at MacWorld Expo/San Francisco in 1998. It introduced the Internet Explorer 4.0 web browser and Outlook Express, an Internet e-mail client and usenet newsgroup reader. Office 98 was re-engineered by Microsoft's Macintosh Business Unit to satisfy customers' desire for software they felt was more Mac-like. It included drag–and-drop installation, self-repairing applications and Quick Thesaurus, before such features were available in Office for Windows. It also was the first version to support QuickTime movies. Microsoft Office 2001 and v. X Microsoft Office 2001 was launched in 2000 as the last Office suite for the classic Mac OS. It required a PowerPC processor. This version introduced Entourage, an e-mail client that included information management tools such as a calendar, an address book, task lists and notes. Microsoft Office v. X was released in 2001 and was the first version of Microsoft Office for Mac OS X. Support for Office v. X ended on January 9, 2007, after the release of the final update, 10.1.9 Office v.X includes Word X, Excel X, PowerPoint X, Entourage X, MSN Messenger for Mac and Windows Media Player 9 for Mac; it was the last version of Office for Mac to include Internet Explorer for Mac. Office 2004 Microsoft Office 2004 for Mac was released on May 11, 2004. It includes Microsoft Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Entourage and Virtual PC. It is the final version of Office to be built exclusively for PowerPC and to officially support G3 processors, as its sequel lists a G4, G5, or Intel processor as a requirement. It was notable for supporting Visual Basic for Applications (VBA), which is unavailable in Office 2008. This led Microsoft to extend support for Office 2004 from October 13, 2009, to January 10, 2012. VBA functionality was reintroduced in Office 2011, which is only compatible with Intel processors. Office 2008 Microsoft Office 2008 for Mac was released on January 15, 2008. It was the only Office for Mac suite to be compiled as a universal binary, being the first to feature native Intel support and the last to feature PowerPC support for G4 and G5 processors, although the suite is unofficially compatible with G3 processors. New features include native Office Open XML file format support, which debuted in Office 2007 for Windows, and stronger Microsoft Office password protection employing AES-128 and SHA-1. Benchmarks suggested that compared to its predecessor, Office 2008 ran at similar speeds on Intel machines and slower speeds on PowerPC machines. Office 2008 also lacked Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) support, leaving it with only 15 months of additional mainstream support compared to its predecessor. Nevertheless, five months after it was released, Microsoft said that Office 2008 was "selling faster than any previous version of Office for Mac in the past 19 years" and affirmed "its commitment to future products for the Mac." Office 2011 Microsoft Office for Mac 2011 was released on October 26, 2010,. It is the first version of Office for Mac to be compiled exclusively for Intel processors, dropping support for the PowerPC architecture. It features an OS X version of Outlook to replace the Entourage email client. This version of Outlook is intended to make the OS X version of Office work better with Microsoft's Exchange server and with those using Office for Windows. Office 2011 includes a Mac-based Ribbon similar to Office for Windows. OneNote and Outlook release (2014) Microsoft OneNote for Mac was released on March 17, 2014. It marks the company's first release of the note-taking software on the Mac. It is available as a free download to all users of the Mac App Store in OS X Mavericks. Microsoft Outlook 2016 for Mac debuted on October 31, 2014. It requires a paid Office 365 subscription, meaning that traditional Office 2011 retail or volume licenses cannot activate this version of Outlook. On that day, Microsoft confirmed that it would release the next version of Office for Mac in late 2015. Despite dropping support for older versions of OS X and only keeping support for 64-bit-only versions of OS X, these versions of OneNote and Outlook are 32-bit applications like their predecessors. Office 2016 The first Preview version of Microsoft Office 2016 for Mac was released on March 5, 2015. On July 9, 2015, Microsoft released the final version of Microsoft Office 2016 for Mac which includes Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Outlook and OneNote. It was immediately made available for Office 365 subscribers with either a Home, Personal, Business, Business Premium, E3 or ProPlus subscription. A non–Office 365 edition of Office 2016 was made available as a one-time purchase option on September 22, 2015. Office 2019 Mobile versions Office Mobile for iPhone was released on June 14, 2013, in the United States. Support for 135 markets and 27 languages was rolled out over a few days. It requires iOS 8 or later. Although the app also works on iPad devices, excluding the first generation, it is designed for a small screen. Office Mobile was released for Android phones on July 31, 2013, in the United States. Support for 117 markets and 33 languages was added gradually over several weeks. It is supported on Android 4.0 and later. Office Mobile is or was also available, though no longer supported, on Windows Mobile, Windows Phone and Symbian. There was also Office RT, a touch-optimized version of the standard desktop Office suite, pre-installed on Windows RT. Early Office Mobile releases Originally called Office Mobile which was shipped initially as "Pocket Office", was released by Microsoft with the Windows CE 1.0 operating system in 1996. This release was specifically for the Handheld PC hardware platform, as Windows Mobile Smartphone and Pocket PC hardware specifications had not yet been released. It consisted of Pocket Word and Pocket Excel; PowerPoint, Access, and Outlook were added later. With steady updates throughout subsequent releases of Windows Mobile, Office Mobile was rebranded as its current name after the release of the Windows Mobile 5.0 operating system. This release of Office Mobile also included PowerPoint Mobile for the first time. Accompanying the release of Microsoft OneNote 2007, a new optional addition to the Office Mobile line of programs was released as OneNote Mobile. With the release of Windows Mobile 6 Standard, Office Mobile became available for the Smartphone hardware platform, but unlike Office Mobile for the Professional and Classic versions of Windows Mobile, creation of new documents is not an added feature. A popular workaround is to create a new blank document in a desktop version of Office, synchronize it to the device, and then edit and save on the Windows Mobile device. In June 2007, Microsoft announced a new version of the office suite, Office Mobile 2007. It became available as "Office Mobile 6.1" on September 26, 2007, as a free upgrade download to current Windows Mobile 5.0 and 6 users. However, "Office Mobile 6.1 Upgrade" is not compatible with Windows Mobile 5.0 powered devices running builds earlier than 14847. It is a pre-installed feature in subsequent releases of Windows Mobile 6 devices. Office Mobile 6.1 is compatible with the Office Open XML specification like its desktop counterpart. On August 12, 2009, it was announced that Office Mobile would also be released for the Symbian platform as a joint agreement between Microsoft and Nokia. It was the first time Microsoft would develop Office mobile applications for another smartphone platform. The first application to appear on Nokia Eseries smartphones was Microsoft Office Communicator. In February 2012, Microsoft released OneNote, Lync 2010, Document Connection and PowerPoint Broadcast for Symbian. In April, Word Mobile, PowerPoint Mobile and Excel Mobile joined the Office Suite. On October 21, 2010, Microsoft debuted Office Mobile 2010 with the release of Windows Phone 7. In Windows Phone, users can access and edit documents directly off of their SkyDrive or Office 365 accounts in a dedicated Office hub. The Office Hub, which is preinstalled into the operating system, contains Word, PowerPoint and Excel. The operating system also includes OneNote, although not as a part of the Office Hub. Lync is not included, but can be downloaded as standalone app from the Windows Phone Store free of charge. In October 2012, Microsoft released a new version of Microsoft Office Mobile for Windows Phone 8 and Windows Phone 7.8. Office for Android, iOS and Windows 10 Mobile Office Mobile was released for iPhone on June 14, 2013, and for Android phones on July 31, 2013. In March 2014, Microsoft released Office Lens, a scanner app that enhances photos. Photos are then attached to an Office document. Office Lens is an app in the Windows Phone store, as well as built into the camera functionality in the OneNote apps for iOS and Windows 8. On March 27, 2014, Microsoft launched Office for iPad, the first dedicated version of Office for tablet computers. In addition, Microsoft made the Android and iOS versions of Office Mobile free for 'home use' on phones, although the company still requires an Office 365 subscription for using Office Mobile for business use. On November 6, 2014, Office was subsequently made free for personal use on the iPad in addition to phones. As part of this announcement, Microsoft also split up its single "Office suite" app on iPhones into separate, standalone apps for Word, Excel and PowerPoint, released a revamped version of Office Mobile for iPhone, added direct integration with Dropbox, and previewed future versions of Office for other platforms. Office for Android tablets was released on January 29, 2015, following a successful two-month preview period. These apps allow users to edit and create documents for free on devices with screen sizes of 10.1 inches or less, though as with the iPad versions, an Office 365 subscription is required to unlock premium features and for commercial use of the apps. Tablets with screen sizes larger than 10.1 inches are also supported, but, as was originally the case with the iPad version, are restricted to viewing documents only unless a valid Office 365 subscription is used to enable editing and document creation. On January 21, 2015, during the "Windows 10: The Next Chapter" press event, Microsoft unveiled Office for Windows 10, Windows Runtime ports of the Android and iOS versions of the Office Mobile suite. Optimized for smartphones and tablets, they are universal apps that can run on both Windows and Windows for phones, and share similar underlying code. A simplified version of Outlook was also added to the suite. They will be bundled with Windows 10 mobile devices, and available from the Windows Store for the PC version of Windows 10. Although the preview versions were free for most editing, the release versions will require an Office 365 subscription on larger tablets (screen size larger than 10.1 inches) and desktops for editing, as with large Android tablets. Smaller tablets and phones will have most editing features for free. On June 24, 2015, Microsoft released Word, Excel and PowerPoint as standalone apps on Google Play for Android phones, following a one-month preview. These apps have also been bundled with Android devices from major OEMs, as a result of Microsoft tying distribution of them and Skype to patent-licensing agreements related to the Android platform. The Android version is also supported on certain Chrome OS machines. On February 19, 2020, Microsoft announced a new unified Office mobile app for Android and iOS. This app combines Word, Excel, and PowerPoint into a single app and introduces new capabilities as making quick notes, signing PDFs, scanning QR codes, and transferring files. Online versions Office Web Apps was first revealed in October 2008 at PDC 2008 in Los Angeles. Chris Capossela, senior vice president of Microsoft business division, introduced Office Web Apps as lightweight versions of Word, Excel, PowerPoint and OneNote that allow people to create, edit and collaborate on Office documents through a web browser. According to Capossela, Office Web Apps was to become available as a part of Office Live Workspace. Office Web Apps was announced to be powered by AJAX as well as Silverlight; however, the latter is optional and its availability will only "enhance the user experience, resulting in sharper images and improved rendering." Microsoft's Business Division President Stephen Elop stated during PDC 2008 that "a technology preview of Office Web Apps would become available later in 2008". However, the Technical Preview of Office Web Apps was not released until 2009. On July 13, 2009, Microsoft announced at its Worldwide Partners Conference 2009 in New Orleans that Microsoft Office 2010 reached its "Technical Preview" development milestone and features of Office Web Apps were demonstrated to the public for the first time. Additionally, Microsoft announced that Office Web Apps would be made available to consumers online and free of charge, while Microsoft Software Assurance customers will have the option of running them on premises. Office 2010 beta testers were not given access to Office Web Apps at this date, and it was announced that it would be available for testers during August 2009. However, in August 2009, a Microsoft spokesperson stated that there had been a delay in the release of Office Web Apps Technical Preview and it would not be available by the end of August. Microsoft officially released the Technical Preview of Office Web Apps on September 17, 2009. Office Web Apps was made available to selected testers via its OneDrive (at the time Skydrive) service. The final version of Office Web Apps was made available to the public via Windows Live Office on June 7, 2010. On October 22, 2012, Microsoft announced the release of new features including co-authoring, performance improvements and touch support. On November 6, 2013, Microsoft announced further new features including real-time co-authoring and an Auto-Save feature in Word (replacing the save button). In February 2014, Office Web Apps were re-branded Office Online and incorporated into other Microsoft web services, including Calendar, OneDrive, Outlook.com, and People. Microsoft had previously attempted to unify its online services suite (including Microsoft Passport, Hotmail, MSN Messenger, and later SkyDrive) under a brand known as Windows Live, first launched in 2005. However, with the impending launch of Windows 8 and its increased use of cloud services, Microsoft dropped the Windows Live brand to emphasize that these services would now be built directly into Windows and not merely be a "bolted on" add-on. Critics had criticized the Windows Live brand for having no clear vision, as it was being applied to an increasingly broad array of unrelated services. At the same time, Windows Live Hotmail was re-launched as Outlook.com (sharing its name with the Microsoft Outlook personal information manager). In July 2019, Microsoft announced that they were retiring the "Online" branding for Office Online. The product is now Office, and may be referred to as "Office for the web" or "Office in a browser". See also Microsoft Azure Microsoft Dynamics Microsoft Power Platform List of Microsoft software References External links 1989 software Bundled products or services Classic Mac OS software Office suites for macOS Office suites for Windows Office suites Pocket PC software Windows Mobile Standard software Windows Phone software

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MultiMate

MultiMate

MultiMate was a word processor developed by Multimate International for IBM PC MS-DOS computers in the early 1980s. History With 1,000 computers, Connecticut Mutual Life Insurance was one of the first large-volume customers for the IBM PC. It hired W. H. Jones & Associates to write word-processing software for the computer that would not require retraining its employees, already familiar with Wang Laboratories word processing systems. W. H. Jones' head Will Jones and five other developers created the software. W. H. Jones retained the right to sell the program elsewhere, and WordMate appeared in December 1982. The company renamed itself to SoftWord Systems, then Multimate International, while renaming WordMate to MultiMate. Advertisements stated that MultiMate "mimic[ked] the features and functions of a dedicated system", and that it was "modeled after the Wang word processor". Like Connecticut Mutual, many customers purchased it because of the similarity with the Wang. MultiMate was not marketed heavily to end-users, but was quickly popular with insurance companies, law firms, other business computer users and US government agencies and the military. While the Wang WP keyboard was different from the original PC keyboard, MultiMate compensated by providing a large plastic template that clipped on the PC keyboard, and stick-on labels for the fronts of the PC keys. The template and labels color-coded the combination keystrokes using the SHIFT, ALT and CTRL keys with all 10 of the PC's function keys and many of the character keys. Like Wang systems, MultiMate controlled most editing operations with function keys, assigning four functions to each of the 10 function keys, which IBM initially located at the left side of the keyboard in two vertical rows. It also included a "document summary" screen for each document, another Wang feature, which allowed more sophisticated document-management than the brief file names allowed by MS-DOS and PC DOS. As function selection through key-controlled screen-top drop-down menus was popularized by other programs, MultiMate added menus. MultiMate's popularity rapidly grew. In January 1983 some employees were paid late because of slow sales, but two months later revenue grew 25-fold after good reviews appeared in magazines. The company's fiscal 1984 sales were $15 million or more, and by early 1985 MultiMate's installed base in companies was as large as former market leader WordStar's. Jones sold the company to Ashton-Tate in December 1985 for about $20 million. an Ashton-Tate press release called the acquisition "the largest ever in the microcomputer software industry". Other MultiMate products included foreign language versions of the software (i.e., "MultiTexto" in Spanish), a hardware interface card for file-transfer with Wang systems, a keyboard with extra function keys, versions of MultiMate for different PC clone MS-DOS computers, and for use on PC networks from Novell, 3COM and IBM (Token Ring). Early attempts to create a MultiMate Data Manager and List Manager in-house never reached the market. Multimate International developed the core word processing software and utilities (file conversion, printer drivers), but purchased and adapted sub-programs for spelling and grammar checking, list management, outlining and print-time incorporation of graphics in word processing documents (MultiMate GraphLink). In addition to rebranding such externally developed programs, Multimate rewrote the documentation for each program and adapted the program interfaces to more closely resemble the word processor. The last version of MultiMate was packaged with many of these add-on programs under the product name "MultiMate Advantage" to compete with other word processor software of the day, especially IBM DisplayWrite for DOS, which Multimate International developers saw as their main competition in the business market, and to a lesser extent WordPerfect, the DOS incarnation of Microsoft Word and the Samna word processor, which had its roots in another office word processing computer. One of the first "clone" versions of MultiMate was bundled with an early portable PC made by Corona. Other versions were written to match PCs by Radio Shack, Texas Instruments, Toshiba, the early Grid laptop and the IBM PC Junior. The detailed MultiMate word processor documentation, which quickly grew to three volumes, gave the product a solid "office product" feel, using high-quality paper with its main reference section presented in a padded binder with fold-out easel. (A company legend was that the MultiMate user manual was written first, by an experienced Wang WP manager, then the programmers were told to write software to match it, which is how the Wang WP was created.) Early versions of the program came with both color-coded key stickers and a plastic full-keyboard template to make Wang operators more comfortable with the smaller IBM PC keyboard. MultiMate eventually sold a hardware keyboard with dedicated function keys and issued versions of its software for networked PCs. It adapted list-management, graphics and outlining software from other vendors to the look-and-feel of MultiMate, shipping the expanded version as MultiMate Advantage, with additional volumes of MultiMate-style documentation for the add-on programs. Early releases of MultiMate also gave users unlimited access to a toll-free support number and a promise of low-cost upgrades, which contributed to its dedicated user population. Support policies later were brought in line with Ashton-Tate's standard practices. MultiMate was especially good at supporting a variety of PC clones and hundreds of computer printers, each of which required its own printer driver. The company's printer support was very strong with daisy-wheel and dot-matrix printers, but did not take much advantage of the development of PostScript fonts and laser printers. Ashton-Tate never released a Windows version. It discontinued MultiMate's development efforts on VMS and Unix platforms and closed a development group in Dublin, Ireland. The product was dropped after the Ashton-Tate itself was purchased by Borland. Reception PC Magazine in February 1983 stated that MultiMate "virtually remakes your computer into a Wang-like dedicated word processor", and that it was "very fast, easy to learn, and capable" with many features. The review noted the application's inability to use more than 128K of RAM, but praised the documentation and built-in help, and stated that many commands required half the keystrokes of the WordStar equivalent. The review concluded "MultiMate stands head and shoulders above many if not most [IBM PC word processors] ... an impressive entrant". BYTE in 1984 was less positive. It described version 3.20 as being "very safe" because of many backups and safeguards and praised the formatting features, customization ability, and quality of the (very busy) toll-free help line. The review, however, called MultiMate "the klunkiest package" of five tested word processors because of the overemphasis on safety, criticized the built-in help and slow performance, and reported being unable to use the spell checker because of its poor quality. However, the reviewer mentioned that MultiMate version 3.30 was already shipping when the article went to press. References See also List of word processors 1982 software DOS software Word processors

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad%20Najibullah

Mohammad Najibullah

Mohammad Najibullah Ahmadzai (Pashto/, ; 6 August 1947 – 27 September 1996), commonly known as Dr. Najib, was an Afghan politician who served as the General Secretary of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan, the leader of the one-party ruling Democratic Republic of Afghanistan from 1986 to 1992 and as well as the President of Afghanistan from 1987 until his resignation in April 1992, shortly after which the mujahideen took over Kabul. After a failed attempt to flee to India, Najibullah remained in Kabul. He lived in the United Nations headquarters until his assassination by the Taliban after their capture of the city. A graduate of Kabul University, Najibullah held different careers under the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA). Following the Saur Revolution and the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, Najibullah was a low profile bureaucrat. He was sent into exile as Ambassador to Iran during Hafizullah Amin's rise to power. He returned to Afghanistan following the Soviet intervention which toppled Amin's rule and placed Babrak Karmal as head of the state, the party and the government. During Karmal's rule, Najibullah became head of the KHAD, the Afghan equivalent of the Soviet KGB. He was a member of the Parcham faction led by Karmal. During Najibullah's tenure as KHAD head, it became one of the most brutally efficient governmental organs. Because of this, he gained the attention of several leading Soviet officials, such as Yuri Andropov, Dmitriy Ustinov and Boris Ponomarev. In 1981, Najibullah was appointed to the PDPA Politburo. In 1985, Najibullah stepped down as the state security minister to focus on PDPA politics; he had been appointed to the PDPA Secretariat. Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev, also the last Soviet leader, was able to get Karmal to step down as PDPA General Secretary in 1986, and replace him with Najibullah. For a number of months, Najibullah was locked in a power struggle against Karmal, who still retained his post of Chairman of the Revolutionary Council. Najibullah accused Karmal of trying to wreck his policy of National Reconciliation, a series of efforts by Najibullah to end the conflict. During his tenure as leader of Afghanistan, the Soviets began their withdrawal, and from 1989 until 1992, his government tried to solve the ongoing civil war without Soviet troops on the ground. While direct Soviet assistance ended with the withdrawal, the Soviet Union still supported Najibullah with economic and military aid, while Pakistan and the United States continued their support for the mujahideens. Throughout his tenure, he tried to build support for his government via the National Reconciliation reforms by distancing from socialism in favor of Afghan nationalism, abolishing the one-party state and letting non-communists join the government. He remained open to dialogue with the mujahideen and other groups, made Islam an official religion, and invited exiled businessmen back to re-take their properties. In the 1990 constitution, all references to communism were removed and Islam became the state religion. For various reasons, such changes did not win Najibullah any significant support. Following the August Coup in Moscow and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991, Najibullah was left without foreign aid. This, coupled with the internal collapse of his government (following the defection of general Abdul Rashid Dostum), led to his resignation in April 1992. In 1996, he was tortured and killed by the Taliban. In 2017, the pro-Najibullah Watan Party was created as a continuation of Najibullah's party. Early life and career Najibullah was born on 6 August 1947 in the city of Gardez, Paktia Province, in the Kingdom of Afghanistan. His ancestral village of Najibqilla is located between the towns of Gardez and Said Karam in an area known as Mehlan. He belonged to the Ahmadzai Ghilji tribe of Pashtuns. He was educated at Habibia High School in Kabul, at St. Joseph's School in Baramulla, Jammu and Kashmir, India, and at Kabul University where he began studying in 1964 and completed his Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) in 1975. However, he never practiced medicine. In 1965, during his study in Kabul, Najibullah joined the Parcham (Banner) faction of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) and was twice imprisoned for political activities. He served as Babrak Karmal's close associate and bodyguard during the latter's tenure in the lower house of parliament (1965–1973). In 1977, he was elected to the Central Committee. In April 1978, the PDPA took power in Afghanistan, with Najibullah a member of the ruling Revolutionary Council. However, the Khalq (People's) faction of the PDPA gained supremacy over his own Parcham (Banner) faction, and after a brief stint as Ambassador to Iran, he was dismissed from government and went into exile in Europe, until the Soviet Union intervened in 1979 and supported a Parcham-dominated government. Under Karmal: 1979–1986 Minister of State Security: 1980–1985 In 1980, Najibullah was appointed the head of KHAD, the Afghan equivalent to the Soviet KGB, and was promoted to the rank of Major General. He was appointed following lobbying from the Soviets, including Yuri Andropov, then KGB Chairman. During his six years as head of KHAD he had two to four deputies under his command, who in turn were responsible for an estimated 12 departments. According to evidence, Najibullah was dependent on his family and his professional network, and more often than not appointed people he knew to top positions within the KHAD. In June 1981, Najibullah, along with Mohammad Aslam Watanjar, a former tank commander and the then Minister of Communications and Major General Mohammad Rafi, the Minister of Defence were appointed to the PDPA Politburo. Under Najibullah, KHAD's personnel increased from 120 to 25,000 to 30,000. KHAD employees were amongst the best-paid government bureaucrats in communist Afghanistan, and because of it, the political indoctrination of KHAD officials was a top priority. During a PDPA conference, Najibullah, talking about the indoctrination programme of KHAD officials, said "a weapon in one hand, a book in the other." Counter-insurgency activities launched by KHAD reached its peak under Najibullah. He reported directly to the Soviet KGB, and a big part of KHAD's budget came from the Soviet Union itself. As time would show, Najibullah was very efficient, and during his tenure as leader of KHAD, thousands were arrested, tortured, and executed. KHAD targeted anti-communist citizens, political opponents, and educated members of society. It was this efficiency which made him interesting to the Soviets. Because of this, KHAD became known for its ruthlessness. During his ascension to power, several Afghan politicians did not want Najibullah to succeed Babrak Karmal because Najibullah was known for exploiting his powers for his own benefit. Additionally, during his period as KHAD chief, the Pul-i Charki had become the home of several Khalqist politicians. Another problem was that Najibullah allowed graft, theft, bribery and corruption on a scale not seen previously. As would later be proven by the power struggle he had with Karmal after becoming PDPA General Secretary, despite Najibullah heading the KHAD for five years, Karmal still had sizeable support in the organisation. Rise to power: 1985–1986 He was appointed to the PDPA Secretariat in November 1985. Najibullah's ascent to power was proven by turning KHAD from a government organ to a ministry in January 1986. With the situation in Afghanistan deteriorating, and the Soviet leadership looking for ways to withdraw, Mikhail Gorbachev wanted Karmal to resign as PDPA General Secretary. The question of who was to succeed Karmal was hotly debated, but Gorbachev supported Najibullah. Yuri Andropov, Boris Ponomarev and Dmitriy Ustinov all thought highly of Najibullah, and negotiations of who would succeed Karmal might have begun as early as 1983. Despite this, Najibullah was not the only choice the Soviets had. A GRU report argued that he was a Pashtun nationalist, a stance which could decrease the regime's popularity even more. The GRU preferred Assadullah Sarwari, earlier head of ASGA, the pre-KHAD secret police, who they believed would be better able to balance between the Pashtuns, Tajiks and Uzbeks. Another viable candidate was Abdul Qadir, who had been a participant in the Saur Revolution. Najibullah succeeded Karmal as PDPA General Secretary on 4 May 1986 at the 18th PDPA meeting, but Karmal still retained his post as Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council. On 15 May, Najibullah announced that a collective leadership had been established, which was led by himself consisted of himself as head of party, Karmal as head of state and Sultan Ali Keshtmand as Chairman of the Council of Ministers. When Najibullah took the office of PDPA General Secretary, Karmal still had enough support in the party to disgrace Najibullah. Karmal went as far as to spread rumours that Najibullah's rule was little more than an interregnum, and that he would soon be reappointed to the general secretaryship. As it turned out, Karmal's power base during this period was KHAD. The Soviet leadership wanted to ease Karmal out of politics, but when Najibullah began to complain that he was hampering his plans of National Reconciliation, the Soviet Politburo decided to remove Karmal; this motion was supported by Andrei Gromyko, Yuli Vorontsov, Eduard Shevardnadze, Anatoly Dobrynin and Viktor Chebrikov. A meeting in the PDPA in November relieved Karmal of his Revolutionary Council chairmanship, and he was exiled to Moscow where he was given a state-owned apartment and a dacha. In his position as Revolutionary Council chairman Karmal was succeeded by Haji Mohammad Chamkani, who was not a member of the PDPA. In 1986, there were more than 100,000 political prisoners and there had been more than 16,500 extrajudicial executions. Its main objectives were the opponents of communism and the most educated classes in society. Leader: 1986–1992 National Reconciliation In September 1986, the National Compromise Commission (NCC) was established on the orders of Najibullah. The NCC's goal was to contact counter-revolutionaries "in order to complete the Saur Revolution in its new phase." Allegedly, an estimated 40,000 rebels were contacted by the government. At the end of 1986, Najibullah called for a six-months ceasefire and talks between the various opposition forces, this was part of his policy of National Reconciliation. The discussions, if fruitful, would lead to the establishment of a coalition government and be the end of the PDPA's monopoly of power. The programme failed, but the government was able to recruit disillusioned mujahideen fighters as government militias. In many ways, the National Reconciliation led to an increasing number of urban dwellers to support his rule, and the stabilisation of the Afghan defence forces. In September 1986, a new constitution was written, which was adopted on 29 November 1987. The constitution weakened the powers of the head of state by cancelling his absolute veto. The reason for this move, according to Najibullah, was the need for real-power sharing. On 13 July 1987, the official name of Afghanistan was changed from the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan to Republic of Afghanistan, and in June 1988 the Revolutionary Council, whose members were elected by the party leadership, was replaced by a National Assembly, an organ in which members were to be elected by the people. The PDPA's socialist stance was denied even more than previously, in 1989 the Minister of Higher Education began to work on the "de-Sovietisation" of universities, and in 1990 it was even announced by a party member that all PDPA members were Muslims and that the party had abandoned Marxism. Many parts of the Afghan government's economic monopoly was also broken, this had more to do with the tight situation than any ideological conviction. Abdul Hakim Misaq, the Mayor of Kabul, even stated that traffickers of stolen goods would not be prosecuted by law as long as their goods were given to the market. Yuli Vorontsov, on Gorbachev's orders, was able to get an agreement with the PDPA leadership to offer the posts of Gossoviet chairman (the state planning organ), the Council of Ministers chairmanship (head of government), ministries of defence, state security, communications, finance, presidencies of banks and the Supreme Court. The PDPA still demanded it held on to all deputy ministers, retained its majority in the state bureaucracy and that it retained all its provincial governors. The government was not willing to concede all of these positions, and when the offer was broadcast, the ministries of defence and state security. Elections: 1987 and 1988 Local elections were held in 1987. It began when the government introduced a law permitting the formation of other political parties, announced that it would be prepared to share power with representatives of opposition groups in the event of a coalition government, and issued a new constitution providing for a new bicameral National Assembly (Meli Shura), consisting of a Senate (Sena) and a House of Representatives (Wolesi Jirga), and a president to be indirectly elected to a 7-year term. The new political parties had to oppose colonialism, imperialism, neo-colonialism, Zionism, racial discrimination, apartheid and fascism. Najibullah stated that only the extremist part of the opposition could not join the planned coalition government. No parties had to share the PDPA's policy or ideology, but they could not oppose the bond between Afghanistan and the Soviet Union. A parliamentary election was held in 1988. The PDPA won 46 seats in the House of Representatives and controlled the government with support from the National Front, which won 45 seats, and from various newly recognized left-wing parties, which had won a total of 24 seats. Although the election was boycotted by the Mujahideen, the government left 50 of the 234 seats in the House of Representatives, as well as a small number of seats in the Senate, vacant in the hope that the guerrillas would end their armed struggle and participate in the government. The only armed opposition party to make peace with the government was Hizbollah, a small Shi'a party not to be confused with the bigger party in Iran or the Lebanese organization. Emergency Several figures of the intelligentsia took Najibullah's offer seriously, even if they sympathised or were against the regime. Their hopes were dampened when the Najibullah government introduced the state of emergency on 18 February 1989, four days after the Soviet withdrawal. 1,700 intellectuals were arrested in February alone, and until November 1991 the government still supervised and restricted freedom of speech. Another problem was that party members took his policy seriously too, Najibullah recanted that most party members felt "panic and pessimism." At the Second Conference of the party, the majority of members, maybe up to 60 percent, were radical socialists. According to Soviet advisors (in 1987), a bitter debate within the party had broken out between those who advocated the Islamisation of the party and those who wanted to defend the gains of the Saur Revolution. Opposition to his policy of National Reconciliation was met party-wide, but especially from Karmalists. Many people did not support the handing out of the already small state resources the Afghan state had at its disposal. On the other side, several members were proclaiming anti-Soviet slogans as they accused the National Reconciliation programme to be supported and developed by the Soviet Union. Najibullah reassured the inter-party opposition that he would not give up the gains of the Saur Revolution, but to the contrary, preserve them, not give up the PDPA's monopoly on power, or to collaborate with reactionary Mullahs. An Islamic state During Babrak Karmal's later years, and during Najibullah's tenure, the PDPA tried to improve their standing with Muslims by moving, or appearing to move, to the political centre. They wanted to create a new image for the party and state. In 1987, Najibullah re-added Ullah to his name to appease the Muslim community. Communist symbols were either replaced or removed. These measures did not contribute to any notable increase in support for the government, because the mujahideen had a stronger legitimacy to protect Islam than the government; they had rebelled against what they saw as an anti-Islamic government, that government was the PDPA. Islamic principles were embedded in the 1987 constitution, for instance, Article 2 of the constitution stated that Islam was the state religion, and Article 73 stated that the head of state had to be born into a Muslim Afghan family. The 1990 constitution stated that Afghanistan was an Islamic state, and the last references to communism were removed. Article 1 of the 1990 Constitution said that Afghanistan was an "independent, unitary and Islamic state." Economic policies Najibullah continued Karmal's economic policies. The augmenting of links with the Eastern Bloc and the Soviet Union continued, and so did bilateral trade. He encouraged the development of the private sector in industry. The Five-Year Economic and Social Development Plan which was introduced in January 1986 continued until March 1992, one month before the government's fall. According to the plan, the economy, which had grown less than 2 percent annually until 1985, would grow 25 percent in the plan. Industry would grow 28 percent, agriculture 14–16 percent, domestic trade by 150 percent and foreign trade with 15 percent. As expected, none of these targets were met, and 2 percent growth annually which had been the norm before the plan continued under Najibullah. The 1990 constitution gave due attention to the private sector. Article 20 was about the establishment of private firms, and Article 25 encouraged foreign investments in the private sector. Afghan–Soviet relations Soviet withdrawal While he may have been the de jure leader of Afghanistan, Soviet advisers still did the majority of work when Najibullah took power. As Gorbachev remarked "We're still doing everything ourselves [...]. That's all our people know how to do. They've tied Najibullah hand and foot." Fikryat Tabeev, the Soviet ambassador to Afghanistan, was accused of acting like a governor general by Gorbachev. Tabeev was recalled from Afghanistan in July 1986, but while Gorbachev called for the end of Soviet management of Afghanistan, he could not help but to do some managing himself. At a Soviet Politburo meeting, Gorbachev said "It's difficult to build a new building out of old material [...] I hope to God that we haven't made a mistake with Najibullah." As time would prove, the problem was that Najibullah's aims were the opposite of the Soviet Union's; Najibullah was opposed to a Soviet withdrawal, the Soviet Union wanted a Soviet withdrawal. This was logical, considering the fact that the Afghan military was on the brink of dissolution. The only means of survival seemed to Najibullah was to retain the Soviet presence. In July 1986 six regiments, which consisted up to 15,000 troops, were withdrawn from Afghanistan. The aim of this early withdrawal was, according to Gorbachev, to show the world that the Soviet leadership was serious about leaving Afghanistan. The Soviets told the United States Government that they were planning to withdraw, but the United States Government did not believe them. When Gorbachev met with Ronald Reagan during his visit the United States, Reagan called for the dissolution of the Afghan army. On 14 April 1988, the Afghan and Pakistani governments signed the Geneva Accords, and the Soviet Union and the United States signed as guarantors; the treaty specifically stated that the Soviet military had to withdraw from Afghanistan by 15 February 1989. Gorbachev later confided to Anatoly Chernyaev, a personal advisor to Gorbachev, that the Soviet withdrawal would be criticised for creating a bloodbath which could have been averted if the Soviets stayed. During a Politburo meeting Eduard Shevardnadze said "We will leave the country in a deplorable situation", and further talked about the economic collapse, and the need to keep at least 10 to 15,000 troops in Afghanistan. In this Vladimir Kryuchkov, the KGB Chairman, supported him. This stance, if implemented, would be a betrayal of the Geneva Accords just signed. During the second phase of the Soviet withdrawal, in 1989, Najibullah told Valentin Varennikov openly that he would do everything to slow down the Soviet departure. Varennikov in turn replied that such a move would not help, and would only lead to an international outcry against the war. Najibullah would repeat his position later that year, to a group of senior Soviet representatives in Kabul. This time Najibullah stated that Ahmad Shah Massoud was the main problem, and that he needed to be killed. In this, the Soviets agreed, but repeated that such a move would be a breach of the Geneva Accords; to hunt for Ahmad Shah Massoud so early on would disrupt the withdrawal, and would mean that the Soviet Union would fail to meet its deadline for withdrawal. During his January 1989 visit to Shevardnadze, Najibullah wanted to retain a small presence of Soviet troops in Afghanistan, and called for moving Soviet bombers to military bases close to the Afghan–Soviet border and place them on permanent alert. Najibullah also repeated his claims that his government could not survive if Ahmad Shah Massoud remained alive. Shevardnadze again repeated that troops could not stay, since it would lead to international outcry, but said he would look into the matter. Shevardnadze demanded that the Soviet embassy created a plan in which at least 12,000 Soviet troops would remain in Afghanistan either under direct control of the United Nations or remain as "volunteers". The Soviet military leadership, when hearing of Shevardnadze's plan, became furious. But they followed orders, and named the operation Typhoon, maybe ironic considering that Operation Typhoon was the German military operation against the city of Moscow during World War II. Shevardnadze contacted the Soviet leadership about moving a unit to break the siege of Kandahar, and to protect convoys from and to the city. The Soviet leadership were against Shevardnadze's plan, and Chernyaev even believed it was part of Najibullah's plan to keep Soviet troops in the country. To which Shevardnadze replied angrily "You've not been there, [...] You've no idea all the things we have done there in the past ten years." At a Politburo meeting on 24 January, Shevardnadze argued that the Soviet leadership could not be indifferent to Najibullah and his government; again, Shevardnadze received support from Kryuchkov. In the end Shevardnadze lost the debate, and the Politburo reaffirmed their commitment to withdraw from Afghanistan. There was still a small presence of Soviet troops after the Soviet withdrawal; for instance, parachutists who protected the Soviet embassy staff, military advisors and special forces and reconnaissance troops still operated in the "outlying provinces", especially along the Afghan–Soviet border. Aid Soviet military aid continued after their withdrawal, and massive quantities of food, fuel, ammunition and military equipment was given to the government. Varennikov visited Afghanistan in May 1989 to discuss ways and means to deliver the aid to the government. In 1990, Soviet aid amounted to an estimated 3 billion United States dollars. As it turned out, the Afghan military was entirely dependent on Soviet aid to function. When the Soviet Union was dissolved on 26 December 1991, Najibullah turned to former Soviet Central Asia for aid. These newly independent states had no wish to see Afghanistan being taken over by religious fundamentalists, and supplied Afghanistan with 6 million barrels of oil and 500,000 tons of wheat to survive the winter. After the Soviets With the Soviets' withdrawal in 1989, the Afghan army was left on its own to battle the insurgents. The most effective, and largest, assaults on the mujahideen were undertaken during the 1985–86 period. These offensives had forced the mujahideen on the defensive near Herat and Kandahar. The Soviets ensued a bomb and negotiate during 1986, and a major offensive that year included 10,000 Soviet troops and 8,000 Afghan troops. The Pakistani people and establishment continued to support the Afghan mujahideen even if it was in contravention of the Geneva Accords. At the beginning, most observers expected the Najibullah government to collapse immediately, and to be replaced with an Islamic fundamentalist government. The Central Intelligence Agency stated in a report that the new government would be ambivalent, or even worse, hostile towards the United States. Almost immediately after the Soviet withdrawal, the Battle of Jalalabad broke out between Afghan government forces and the mujahideen, in cooperation with Pakistan's Inter-Service Intelligence (ISI). The offensive against the city began when the mujahideen bribed several government military officers, from there, they tried to take the airport, but were repulsed with heavy casualties. The willingness of the common Afghan government soldier to fight increased when the mujahideen began to execute people during the battle. Hamid Gul, leader of the ISI, hoped that the battle would topple Najibullah's government and create a mujahideen government seated in Jalalabad. During the battle, Najibullah called for Soviet assistance. Gorbachev called an emergency session of the Politburo to discuss his proposal, but Najibullah's request was rejected. Other attacks against the city failed, and by April the government forces were on the offensive. During the battle over four hundred Scud missiles were shot, which were fired by a Soviet crew which had stayed behind. When the battle ended in July, the mujahideen had lost an estimated 3,000 troops. One mujahideen commander lamented "the battle of Jalalabad lost us credit won in ten years of fighting." After the mujahideen's defeat in Jalalabad, Gul blamed the administration of Pakistani Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto for the defeat. Bhutto eventually sacked Gul. Hardline Khalqist Shahnawaz Tanai attempted to overthrow Najibullah in a failed coup attempt in March 1990. Although Tanai and his forces failed and fled to Pakistan, the coup attempt still managed to show weaknesses in Najibullah's government. From 1989 to 1990, the Najibullah government was partially successful in building up the Afghan defence forces. The Ministry of State Security had established a local militia force which stood at an estimated 100,000 men. The 17th Division in Herat, which had begun the 1979 Herat uprising against PDPA-rule, stood at 3,400 regular troops and 14,000 tribal men. In 1988, the total number of security forces available to the government stood at 300,000. This trend did not continue, and by the summer of 1990, the Afghan government forces were on the defensive again. By the beginning of 1991, the government controlled only 10 percent of Afghanistan, the eleven-year Siege of Khost had ended in a mujahideen victory and the morale of the Afghan military finally collapsed. In the Soviet Union, Kryuchkov and Shevardnadze had both supported continuing aid to the Najibullah government, but Kryuchkov had been arrested following the failed 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt and Shevardnadze had resigned from his posts in the Soviet government in December 1990 – there were no longer any pro-Najibullah people in the Soviet leadership and the Soviet Union was in the middle of an economic and political crisis, which would lead directly to the dissolution of the Soviet Union on 26 December 1991. At the same time, Boris Yeltsin became Russia's new hope, and he had no wish to continue to aid Najibullah's government, which he considered a relic of the past. In the autumn of 1991, Najibullah wrote to Shevardnadze "I didn't want to be president, you talked me into it, insisted on it, and promised support. Now you are throwing me and the Republic of Afghanistan to its fate." Fall from power In January 1992, the Russian government ended its aid to the Najibullah government. The effects were felt immediately: the Afghan Air Force, the most effective part of the Afghan military, was grounded due to lack of fuel. The Afghan mujahideen continued to be supported by Pakistan. Major cities were lost to the rebels. On the fifth anniversary of his policy of National Reconciliation, Najibullah blamed the Soviet Union for the disaster that had stricken Afghanistan. The day the Soviet Union withdrew was hailed by Najibullah as the Day of National Salvation. But it was too late, and his government's collapse was imminent. On 18 March 1992, Najibullah offered his government's immediate resignation, and followed the United Nations (UN) plan to be replaced by an interim government with all parties involved in the struggle. The announcement daunted his supporters and led to many territories surrendering or mutinying to the Mujahideen without resistance. In a serious blow, army commander Abdul Rashid Dostum decided to abandon Najibullah and join the Mujahideen coalition that was created by Ahmed Shah Massoud and Abdul Ali Mazari, meaning as many as 40,000 loyalist fighters of Dostum in the north had defected; it has been cited that Kabul being unable to grant weapons and money to Dostum persuaded him. Army chief general Mohammad Nabi Azimi was sent by Najibullah to Mazar-i-Sharif to find out what was going on, only for Azimi to also defect to the so-called "Coalition of the North". Other figures also defected including foreign minister Abdul Wakil. Within days, Mazar-i-Sharif was under the control of the Mujahideen coalition. In mid-April, Najibullah accepted a UN plan to hand power to a seven-man council, and several days later on 14 April, Najibullah was forced to resign on the orders of the Watan Party because of the loss of Bagram Airbase and the town of Charikar. Abdul Rahim Hatef became acting head of state following Najibullah's resignation. The mujahideen forces of Massoud and the defected Dostum took Kabul shortly thereafter; most mujahideen factions later signed the Peshawar Accord, creating the new Islamic State of Afghanistan. Final years and death Not long before Kabul's fall, Najibullah appealed to the UN for protection after his guards fled, which was rejected. However, his attempt to flee to the airport was thwarted by troops of Abdul Rashid Dostum – once loyal to him, but now allied with Ahmad Shah Massoud – who controlled the airport. At the UN compound in Kabul, while waiting for the UN to negotiate his safe passage to India, he occupied himself by translating Peter Hopkirk's book The Great Game into his mother tongue Pashto. India was placed in a difficult position by deciding to allow Najibullah political asylum and safely escorting him out of the country. Supporters claimed he had always been close to India and should not be denied asylum, but others said doing so would risk antagonizing India's relationship with the new mujahideen government formed under the Peshawar Accord. India also refused to let him take refuge at the Indian embassy as it risked creating "subcontinental rivalries" and reprisals against Kabul's Indian community, arguing that Najibullah would be far safer at the UN compound. All attempts failed and he eventually sought refuge in the local UN headquarters, where he would stay until 1996. In 1994, India sent senior diplomat M. K. Bhadrakumar to Kabul to hold talks with Ahmad Shah Massoud, the defence minister, to consolidate relations with the Afghan authorities, reopen the embassy, and allow Najibullah to fly to India, but Massoud refused. Bhadrakumar wrote in 2016 that he believed Massoud did not want Najibullah to leave as Massoud could strategically make use of him, and that Massoud "probably harboured hopes of a co-habitation with Najib somewhere in the womb of time because that extraordinary Afghan politician was a strategic asset to have by his side". At the time, Massoud was commanding the government's forces fighting the militias of Dostum and Gulbuddin Hekmatyar during the Battle of Kabul. A few months before his death, he quoted, "Afghans keep making the same mistake," reflecting upon his translation to a visitor. In September 1996, when the Taliban were about to enter Kabul, Massoud offered Najibullah an opportunity to flee the capital. Najibullah refused. The reasons as to why he refused remain unclear. Massoud himself claimed that Najibullah feared that "if he fled with the Tajiks, he would be for ever damned in the eyes of his fellow Pashtuns." Others, like General Tokhi, who was with Najibullah until the day before his torture and murder, stated that Najibullah mistrusted Massoud after his militia had repeatedly fired rockets at the UN compound and had effectively barred Najibullah from leaving Kabul. "If they wanted Najibullah to flee Kabul in safety," Tokhi said, "they could have provided him the opportunity as they did with other high ranking officials from the communist party from 1992 to 1996." Whatever his true motivations were, when Massoud's militia went to both Najibullah and General Tokhi and asked them to flee Kabul, they rejected the offer. Najibullah was at the UN compound when the Taliban soldiers came for him on the evening of 26 September 1996. The Taliban abducted him from UN custody and tortured him to death, and then dragged his dead (and, according to Robert Parry, castrated) body behind a truck through the streets of Kabul. His brother, Shahpur Ahmadzai, was given the same treatment. Najibullah and Shahpur's bodies were hanged from a traffic light pole outside the Arg presidential palace the next day in order to show the public that a new era had begun. The Taliban prevented Islamic funeral prayers for Najibullah and Shahpur in Kabul, but the bodies were later handed over to the International Committee of the Red Cross who in turn sent their bodies to Gardez in Paktia Province, where both of them were buried after the Islamic funeral prayers for them by their fellow Ahmadzai tribesmen. Reactions News of Najibullah's murder was greeted with widespread international condemnation, particularly from the Muslim world. The United Nations issued a statement which condemned the killing of Najibullah, and claimed that it would further destabilise Afghanistan. The Taliban responded by issuing death sentences on Dostum, Massoud and Burhanuddin Rabbani. India, which had been supporting Najibullah, strongly condemned his killing and began to support Massoud's United Front/Northern Alliance in an attempt to contain the rise of the Taliban. On the 20th anniversary of his death, in 2016, Afghanistan's Research Center blamed Pakistan for his death, claiming that the plan to kill Najibullah was implemented by Pakistan. On 1 June 2020, following a visit to his grave in Gardez by the Afghan National Security Advisor Hamdullah Mohib, Najibullah's widow Fatana Najib said that before constructing a mausoleum for him, the government should first investigate his assassination. Legacy After Najibullah's death, the brutal civil war between mujahideen factions, the Taliban regime, continued fighting, and enduring problems with corruption and poverty, his image among the Afghan people dramatically improved, and Najibullah came to be seen as a strong and patriotic leader. Since the 2010s, posters and pictures of him have become a common sight in many Afghan cities. In 1997, the Watan Party of Afghanistan was formed and in 2003, the National United Party of Afghanistan was registered - who seek to unite former PDPA members formerly led by Mohammad Najibullah. Family Najibullah was married on 1 September 1974 to Fatana Najib, principal of the Russian-language Peace School whom he met when she was an eighth-grade student and he was her science tutor. The couple had three daughters, who were forced to leave Afghanistan after the Taliban seizure and the start of the civil war. The daughters grew up with their mother in New Delhi, India after moving there in 1992. Najibullah's oldest daughter, Heela Najibullah, was born in Kabul in 1977, studied in Switzerland and was living there as of 2017. She has worked in the International Red Cross. In 2006 she spoke at the summit of young UN leaders representing Afghanistan. She is currently an employee of the Transnational Foundation for Peace and Future Research in Sweden, she maintains her Twitter account. The middle daughter, Onai (born 1978), called is a Master of Architecture, and the youngest daughter, Mosca Najib (born 1984), is an Indian citizen and works as a photographer for the international company Weber Shandwick in Singapore. References External links Biography of President Najibullah |- 1947 births 1996 deaths 20th-century heads of state of Afghanistan Communist rulers of Afghanistan Presidents of Afghanistan People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan politicians Afghan murder victims Castrated people Executed Afghan people Executed presidents People killed by the Taliban Ambassadors of Afghanistan to Iran Afghan physicians People executed by torture Assassinated heads of state Pashtun people People from Kabul Habibia High School alumni Democratic Republic of Afghanistan 1980s in Afghanistan 1990s in Afghanistan 20th-century executions by Afghanistan Muslim socialists 20th-century physicians Burials in Afghanistan

20292

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplan

Multiplan

Multiplan was an early spreadsheet program developed by Microsoft. Known initially by the code name "EP" (for "Electronic Paper"), it was introduced in 1982 as a competitor to VisiCalc. Multiplan was released first for computers running CP/M; it was developed using a Microsoft proprietary p-code C compiler as part of a portability strategy that facilitated ports to systems such as MS-DOS, Xenix, Commodore 64 and 128, Texas Instruments TI-99/4A (on four 6K GROMs and a single 8K ROM), Radio Shack TRS-80 Model II, TRS-80 Model 4, TRS-80 Model 100 (on ROM), Apple II, AT&T UNIX PC, and Burroughs B20 series. The CP/M version also ran on the TRS-80 Model II and 4, Commodore 128, and Apple II with a CP/M card. In France, Multiplan was also released for the Thomson computers in 1986 and same year on Japan for MSX compatible computers with name MSX-Plan. Despite the release of Microsoft Chart, a graphics companion program, Multiplan continued to be outsold by Lotus 1-2-3. Multiplan was replaced by Microsoft Excel, which followed some years later on both the Apple Macintosh (1985) and Microsoft Windows (1987). Although over a million copies were sold, Multiplan was not able to mount an effective challenge to Lotus 1-2-3. According to Bill Gates, this was due to the excessive number of ports (there were approximately 100 different versions of Multiplan). He also believed that it was a mistake to release 8-bit versions instead of focusing on the newer 16-bit machines and as a result, "We decided to let [Lotus] have the character-based DOS market while we would instead focus on the next generation–graphical software on the Macintosh and Windows." Around 1983, during the development of the first release of Windows, Microsoft had plans to make a Windows version. However the plans changed a year later. A version was available for the Apple Lisa 2 running Microsoft/SCO Xenix 3. It fit on one 400K microfloppy diskette. Cell addressing differences A fundamental difference between Multiplan and its competitors was Microsoft's decision to use R1C1 addressing instead of the A1 addressing introduced by VisiCalc. Although R1C1-style formulae are more straightforward than A1-style formulae for instance, "RC[-1]" (meaning "current row, previous column") is expressed as "A1" in cell B1, then "A2" in cell B2, etc. most spreadsheet users prefer the A1 addressing style introduced by VisiCalc. Microsoft carried Multiplan's R1C1 legacy forward into Microsoft Excel, which offers both addressing modes, although A1 is Excel's default addressing mode. Reception Ahoy! called the Commodore 64 version of Multiplan, distributed by Human Engineered Software, a "professional quality spreadsheet" ... There is not enough room in this article to mention all the mathematical operations performed ... Documentation is lengthy but well written". A second review in the magazine noted the limitation of the computer's 40-column screen, but praised the ability to stop any ongoing action. It also praised the documentation, and concluded that "its ease of use and foolproof design make Multiplan an outstanding value". BYTE said that "Multiplan for the Macintosh is a winner", stating that combining other versions' power and features with the Macintosh's graphics and user interface "rivals, and in many ways exceeds, anything else available in the spreadsheet genre". See also Symbolic Link (SYLK) References 1982 software Apple II software Commodore 64 software CP/M software DOS software Classic Mac OS software Microcomputer software Spreadsheet software Texas Instruments TI-99/4A Microsoft software

20297

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS%20Technology%206502

MOS Technology 6502

The MOS Technology 6502 (typically pronounced "sixty-five-oh-two" or "six-five-oh-two") is an 8-bit microprocessor that was designed by a small team led by Chuck Peddle for MOS Technology. The design team had formerly worked at Motorola on the Motorola 6800 project; the 6502 is essentially a simplified, less expensive and faster version of that design. When it was introduced in 1975, the 6502 was the least expensive microprocessor on the market by a considerable margin. It initially sold for less than one-sixth the cost of competing designs from larger companies, such as the 6800 or Intel 8080. Its introduction caused rapid decreases in pricing across the entire processor market. Along with the Zilog Z80, it sparked a series of projects that resulted in the home computer revolution of the early 1980s. Popular video game consoles and computers, such as the Atari 2600, Atari 8-bit family, Apple II, Nintendo Entertainment System, Commodore 64, Atari Lynx, BBC Micro and others, use the 6502 or variations of the basic design. Soon after the 6502's introduction, MOS Technology was purchased outright by Commodore International, who continued to sell the microprocessor and licenses to other manufacturers. In the early days of the 6502, it was second-sourced by Rockwell and Synertek, and later licensed to other companies. In 1981, the Western Design Center started development of a CMOS version, the 65C02. This continues to be widely used in embedded systems, with estimated production volumes in the hundreds of millions. History and use Origins at Motorola The 6502 was designed by many of the same engineers that had designed the Motorola 6800 microprocessor family. Motorola started the 6800 microprocessor project in 1971 with Tom Bennett as the main architect. The chip layout began in late 1972, the first 6800 chips were fabricated in February 1974 and the full family was officially released in November 1974. John Buchanan was the designer of the 6800 chip and Rod Orgill, who later did the 6501, assisted Buchanan with circuit analyses and chip layout. Bill Mensch joined Motorola in June 1971 after graduating from the University of Arizona (at age 26). His first assignment was helping define the peripheral ICs for the 6800 family and later he was the principal designer of the 6820 Peripheral Interface Adapter (PIA). Motorola's engineers could run analog and digital simulations on an IBM 370-165 mainframe computer. Bennett hired Chuck Peddle in 1973 to do architectural support work on the 6800 family products already in progress. He contributed in many areas, including the design of the 6850 ACIA (serial interface). Motorola's target customers were established electronics companies such as Hewlett-Packard, Tektronix, TRW, and Chrysler. In May 1972, Motorola's engineers began visiting select customers and sharing the details of their proposed 8-bit microprocessor system with ROM, RAM, parallel and serial interfaces. In early 1974, they provided engineering samples of the chips so that customers could prototype their designs. Motorola's "total product family" strategy did not focus on the price of the microprocessor, but on reducing the customer's total design cost. They offered development software on a timeshare computer, the "EXORciser" debugging system, onsite training and field application engineer support. Both Intel and Motorola had initially announced a $360 price for a single microprocessor. The actual price for production quantities was much less. Motorola offered a design kit containing the 6800 with six support chips for $300. Peddle, who would accompany the salespeople on customer visits, found that customers were put off by the high cost of the microprocessor chips. At the same time, these visits invariably resulted in the engineers he presented to producing lists of required instructions that were much smaller than "all these fancy instructions" that had been included in the 6800. Peddle and other team members started outlining the design of an improved feature, reduced size microprocessor. At that time, Motorola's new semiconductor fabrication facility in Austin, Texas, was having difficulty producing MOS chips, and mid-1974 was the beginning of a year-long recession in the semiconductor industry. Also, many of the Mesa, Arizona employees were displeased with the upcoming relocation to Austin, Texas. Motorola's Semiconductor Products Division management was overwhelmed with problems and showed no interest in Peddle's low-cost microprocessor proposal. Eventually Peddle was given an official letter telling him to stop working on the system. Peddle responded to the order by informing Motorola that the letter represented an official declaration of "project abandonment", and as such, the intellectual property he had developed to that point was now his. In a November 1975 interview, Motorola's Chairman, Robert Galvin, ultimately agreed that Peddle's concept was a good one and that the division missed an opportunity, "We did not choose the right leaders in the Semiconductor Products division." The division was reorganized and the management replaced. The new group vice-president John Welty said, "The semiconductor sales organization lost its sensitivity to customer needs and couldn't make speedy decisions." Moving to MOS Technology Peddle began looking outside Motorola for a source of funding for this new project. He initially approached Mostek CEO L. J. Sevin, but he declined. Sevin later admitted this was because he was afraid Motorola would sue them. While Peddle was visiting Ford Motor Company on one of his sales trips, Bob Johnson, later head of Ford's engine automation division, mentioned that their former colleague John Paivinen had moved to General Instrument and taught himself semiconductor design. Paivinen then formed MOS Technology in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania in 1969 with two other executives from General Instrument, Mort Jaffe and Don McLaughlin. Allen-Bradley, a supplier of electronic components and industrial controls, acquired a majority interest in 1970. The company designed and fabricated custom ICs for customers and had developed a line of calculator chips. After the Mostek efforts fell through, Peddle approached Paivinen, who "immediately got it". On 19 August 1974, Chuck Peddle, Bill Mensch, Rod Orgill, Harry Bawcom, Ray Hirt, Terry Holdt, and Wil Mathys left Motorola to join MOS. Mike Janes joined later. Of the seventeen chip designers and layout people on the 6800 team, eight left. The goal of the team was to design and produce a low-cost microprocessor for embedded applications and to target as wide as possible a customer base. This would be possible only if the microprocessor was low cost, and the team set the price goal at $5 in volume. Mensch later stated the goal was not the processor price itself, but to create a set of chips that could sell at $20 to compete with the recently-introduced Intel 4040 that sold for $29 in a similar complete chipset. Chips are produced by printing multiple copies of the chip design on the surface of a "wafer", a thin disk of highly pure silicon. Smaller chips can be printed in greater numbers on the same wafer, decreasing their relative price. Additionally, wafers always include some number of tiny physical defects that are scattered across the surface. Any chip printed in that location will fail and has to be discarded. Smaller chips mean any single copy is less likely to be printed on a defect. For both of these reasons, the cost of the final product is strongly dependent on the size of the chip design. The original 6800 chips were intended to be , but layout was completed at , or an area of 29.0 mm2. For the new design, the cost goal demanded a size goal of , or an area of 16.6 mm2. Several new techniques would be needed to hit this goal. Moving to NMOS There were two significant advances that arrived in the market just as the 6502 was being designed that provided significant cost reductions. The first was the move to depletion-load NMOS. The 6800 used an early NMOS process that required three supply voltages, but one of the chip's features was an onboard voltage doubler that allowed a single +5 V supply be used for +5, −5 and +12 V internally, as opposed to other chips of the era like the Intel 8080 that required three separate supply pins. While this feature reduced the complexity of the power supply and pin layout, it still required separate power rails to the various gates on the chip, driving up complexity and size. By moving to the new depletion-load design, a single +5 V supply was all that was needed, eliminating all of this complexity. A further practical advantage was that the clock signal for earlier CPUs had to be strong enough to survive all the dissipation as it traveled through the circuits, which almost always required a separate external chip that could supply a strong enough signal. With the reduced power requirements of NMOS, the clock could be moved onto the chip, simplifying the overall computer design. These changes greatly reduced complexity and the cost of implementing a complete system. Another change that was taking place was the introduction of projection masking. Previously, chips were patterned onto the surface of the wafer by placing a mask on the surface of the wafer and then shining a bright light on it. The masks often picked up tiny bits of dirt or photoresist as they were lifted off the chip, causing flaws in those locations on any subsequent masking. With complex designs like CPUs, 5 or 6 such masking steps would be used, and the chance that at least one of these steps would introduce a flaw was very high. In most cases, 90% of such designs were flawed, resulting in a 10% yield. The price of the working examples had to cover the production cost of the 90% that were thrown away. In 1973, Perkin-Elmer introduced the Micralign system, which projected an image of the mask on the wafer instead of requiring direct contact. Masks no longer picked up dirt from the wafers and lasted on the order of 100,000 uses rather than 10. This eliminated step-to-step failures and the high flaw rates formerly seen on complex designs. Yields on CPUs immediately jumped from 10% to 60 or 70%. This meant the price of the CPU declined roughly the same amount and the microprocessor suddenly became a commodity device. MOS Technology's existing fabrication lines were based on the older PMOS technology, they had not yet begun to work with NMOS when the team arrived. Paivinen promised to have an NMOS line up and running in time to begin the production of the new CPU. He delivered on the promise, the new line was ready by June 1975. Design notes Chuck Peddle, Rod Orgill, and Wil Mathys designed the initial architecture of the new processors. A September 1975 article in EDN magazine gives this summary of the design: The MOS Technology 650X family represents a conscious attempt of eight former Motorola employees who worked on the development of the 6800 system to put out a part that would replace and outperform the 6800, yet undersell it. With the benefit of hindsight gained on the 6800 project, the MOS Technology team headed by Chuck Peddle, made the following architectural changes in the Motorola CPU… The main change in terms of chip size was the elimination of the tri-state drivers from the address bus outputs. This had been included in the 6800 to allow it to work with other chips in direct memory access (DMA) and co-processing roles, at the cost of significant die space. In practice, using such a system required the other devices to be similarly complex, and designers instead tended to use off-chip systems to coordinate such access. The 6502 simply removed this feature, in keeping with its design as an inexpensive controller being used for specific tasks and communicating with simple devices. Peddle suggested that anyone that actually required this style of access could implement it with a single 74158. The next major difference was to simplify the registers. To start with, one of the two accumulators was removed. General-purpose registers like accumulators have to be accessed by many parts of the instruction decoder, and thus require significant amounts of wiring to move data to and from their storage. Two accumulators makes many coding tasks easier, but costs the chip design itself significant complexity. Further savings were made by reducing the stack register from 16 to 8 bits, meaning that the stack could only be 256 bytes long, which was enough for its intended role as a microcontroller. The 16-bit IX index register was split in two, becoming X and Y. More importantly, the style of access changed; in the 6800, IX held a 16-bit address, which was offset by an 8-bit number supplied with the instruction, the two were added to produce the final address. In the 6502 (and most other designs), the 16-bit base address was stored in the instruction, and the X or Y was added to it. Finally, the instruction set was simplified, freeing up room in the decoder and control logic. Of the original 72 instructions in the 6800, 56 were left. Among those removed were any instruction that moved data between the 6800's two accumulators, as well as a number of branch instructions inspired by the PDP-11, like the ability to directly compare two numeric values. The 6502 used a simpler system that handled comparisons by performing math on the accumulator and then examining result flags. The chip's high-level design had to be turned into drawings of transistors and interconnects. At MOS Technology, the "layout" was a very manual process done with color pencils and vellum paper. The layout consisted of thousands of polygon shapes on six different drawings; one for each layer of the fabrication process. Given the size limits, the entire chip design had to be constantly considered. Mensch and Paivinen worked on the instruction decoder while Mensch, Peddle and Orgill worked on the ALU and registers. A further advance, developed at a party, was a way to share some of the internal wiring to allow the ALU to be reduced in size. In spite of their best efforts, the final design ended up being 5 mils too wide. The first 6502 chips were , or an area of 19.8 mm2. The rotate right instruction (ROR) did not work in the first silicon, so the instruction was temporarily omitted from the published documents, but the next iteration of the design shrank the chip and corrected the rotate right instruction, which was then included in revised documentation. Introducing the 6501 and 6502 MOS would introduce two microprocessors based on the same underlying design: the 6501 would plug into the same socket as the Motorola 6800, while the 6502 re-arranged the pinout to support an on-chip clock oscillator. Both would work with other support chips designed for the 6800. They would not run 6800 software because they had a different instruction set, different registers, and mostly different addressing modes. Rod Orgill was responsible for the 6501 design; he had assisted John Buchanan at Motorola on the 6800. Bill Mensch did the 6502; he was the designer of the 6820 Peripheral Interface Adapter (PIA) at Motorola. Harry Bawcom, Mike Janes and Sydney-Anne Holt helped with the layout. MOS Technology's microprocessor introduction was different from the traditional months-long product launch. The first run of a new integrated circuit is normally used for internal testing and shared with select customers as "engineering samples". These chips often have a minor design defect or two that will be corrected before production begins. Chuck Peddle's goal was to sell the first run 6501 and 6502 chips to the attendees at the Wescon trade show in San Francisco beginning on September 16, 1975. Peddle was a very effective spokesman and the MOS Technology microprocessors were extensively covered in the trade press. One of the earliest was a full-page story on the MCS6501 and MCS6502 microprocessors in the July 24, 1975 issue of Electronics magazine. Stories also ran in EE Times (August 24, 1975), EDN (September 20, 1975), Electronic News (November 3, 1975), Byte (November 1975) and Microcomputer Digest (November 1975). Advertisements for the 6501 appeared in several publications the first week of August 1975. The 6501 would be for sale at Wescon for $20 each. In September 1975, the advertisements included both the 6501 and the 6502 microprocessors. The 6502 would cost only $25 (). When MOS Technology arrived at Wescon, they found that exhibitors were not permitted to sell anything on the show floor. They rented the MacArthur Suite at the St. Francis Hotel and directed customers there to purchase the processors. At the suite, the processors were stored in large jars to imply that the chips were in production and readily available. The customers did not know the bottom half of each jar contained non-functional chips. The chips were $20 and $25 while the documentation package was an additional $10. Users were encouraged to make photocopies of the documents, an inexpensive way for MOS Technology to distribute product information. The preliminary data sheets listed just 55 instructions excluding the Rotate Right (ROR) instruction which did not work correctly on these early chips. The reviews in Byte and EDN noted the lack of the ROR instruction. The next revision of the layout fixed this problem and the May 1976 datasheet listed 56 instructions. Peddle wanted every interested engineer and hobbyist to have access to the chips and documentation; other semiconductor companies only wanted to deal with "serious" customers. For example, Signetics was introducing the 2650 microprocessor and its advertisements asked readers to write for information on their company letterhead. Motorola lawsuit The 6501/6502 introduction in print and at Wescon was an enormous success. The downside was that the extensive press coverage got Motorola's attention. In October 1975, Motorola reduced the price of a single 6800 microprocessor from $175 to $69. The $300 system design kit was reduced to $150 and it now came with a printed circuit board. On November 3, 1975, Motorola sought an injunction in Federal Court to stop MOS Technology from making and selling microprocessor products. They also filed a lawsuit claiming patent infringement and misappropriation of trade secrets. Motorola claimed that seven former employees joined MOS Technology to create that company's microprocessor products. Motorola was a billion-dollar company with a plausible case and lawyers. On October 30, 1974, Motorola had filed numerous patent applications on the microprocessor family and was granted twenty-five patents. The first was in June 1976 and the second was to Bill Mensch on July 6, 1976, for the 6820 PIA chip layout. These patents covered the 6800 bus and how the peripheral chips interfaced with the microprocessor. Motorola began making transistors in 1950 and had a portfolio of semiconductor patents. Allen-Bradley decided not to fight this case and sold their interest in MOS Technology back to the founders. Four of the former Motorola engineers were named in the suit: Chuck Peddle, Will Mathys, Bill Mensch and Rod Orgill. All were named inventors in the 6800 patent applications. During the discovery process, Motorola found that one engineer, Mike Janes, had ignored Peddle's instructions and brought his 6800 design documents to MOS Technology. In March 1976, the now independent MOS Technology was running out of money and had to settle the case. They agreed to drop the 6501 processor, pay Motorola $200,000 and return the documents that Motorola contended were confidential. Both companies agreed to cross-license microprocessor patents. That May, Motorola dropped the price of a single 6800 microprocessor to $35. By November, Commodore had acquired MOS Technology. Computers and games With legal troubles behind them, MOS was still left with the problem of getting developers to try their processor, prompting Chuck Peddle to design the MDT-650 ("microcomputer development terminal") single-board computer. Another group inside the company designed the KIM-1, which was sold semi-complete and could be turned into a usable system with the addition of a 3rd party computer terminal and compact cassette drive. Much to their amazement, the KIM-1 sold well to hobbyists and tinkerers, as well as to the engineers to which it had been targeted. The related Rockwell AIM 65 control/training/development system also did well. The software in the AIM 65 was based on that in the MDT. Another roughly similar product was the Synertek SYM-1. One of the first "public" uses for the design was the Apple I microcomputer, introduced in 1976. The 6502 was next used in the Commodore PET and the Apple II, both released in 1977. It was later used in the Atari 8-bit family and Acorn Atom home computers, the BBC Micro, Commodore VIC-20 and other designs both for home computers and business, such as Ohio Scientific and Oric. The 6510, a direct successor of the 6502 with a digital I/O port and a tri-state address bus, was the CPU utilized in the best-selling Commodore 64 home computer. 6502 or 6502-variant CPUs were used in all of Commodore's floppy disk drives for all of their 8-bit computers, from the PET line (some of which had two 6502-based CPUs) through the Commodore 128D, including the Commodore 64, and in all of Atari's disk drives for all of their 8-bit computer line, from the 400/800 through the XEGS. Another important use of the 6500 family was in video games. The first to make use of the processor design was the Atari VCS, later renamed the Atari 2600. The VCS used a variant of the 6502 called the 6507, which had fewer pins and, as a result, could address only 8 KB of memory. Millions of the Atari consoles would be sold, each with a MOS processor. Another significant use was by the Nintendo Entertainment System and Famicom. The 6502 used in the NES was a second source version by Ricoh, a partial system-on-a-chip, that lacked the binary-coded decimal mode but added 22 memory-mapped registers and on-die hardware for sound generation, joypad reading, and sprite list DMA. Called 2A03 in NTSC consoles and 2A07 in PAL consoles (the difference being the memory divider ratio and a lookup table for audio sample rates), this processor was produced exclusively for Nintendo. The Atari Lynx used a 4 MHz version of the chip, the 65SC02. In the 1980s, a popular electronics magazine Elektor/Elektuur used the processor in its microprocessor development board Junior Computer. Technical description The 6502 is a little-endian 8-bit processor with a 16-bit address bus. The original versions were fabricated using an process technology chip with a die size of (advertised as ), for a total area of 16.6 mm2. The internal logic runs at the same speed as the external clock rate, but despite the low clock speeds (typically in the neighborhood of 1 to 2 MHz), the 6502's performance was competitive with other contemporary CPUs using significantly faster clocks. This is partly due to a simple state machine implemented by combinational (clockless) logic to a greater extent than in many other designs; the two-phase clock (supplying two synchronizations per cycle) could thereby control the machine cycle directly. Typical instructions might take half as many cycles to complete on the 6502 as on contemporary designs. Like most simple CPUs of the era, the dynamic NMOS 6502 chip is not sequenced by a microcode ROM but uses a PLA (which occupied about 15% of the chip area) for instruction decoding and sequencing. As in most 8-bit microprocessors, the chip does some limited overlapping of fetching and execution. The low clock frequency moderated the speed requirement of memory and peripherals attached to the CPU, as only about 50% of the clock cycle was available for memory access (due to the asynchronous design, this fraction varied strongly among chip versions). This was critical at a time when affordable memory had access times in the range . Because the chip only accessed memory during certain parts of the clock cycle, and those cycles were indicated by the PHI2-low clock-out pin, other chips in a system could access memory during those times when the 6502 was off the bus. This was sometimes known as "hidden access". This technique was widely used by computer systems; they would use memory capable of access at 2 MHz, and then run the CPU at 1 MHz. This guaranteed that the CPU and video hardware could interleave their accesses, with a total performance matching that of the memory device. When faster memories became available in the 1980s, newer machines could run at higher clock rates, like the 2 MHz CPU in the BBC Micro, and still use the bus sharing techniques. Registers Like its precursor, the 6800, the 6502 has very few registers. The 6502's registers include one 8-bit accumulator register (A), two 8-bit index registers (X and Y), 7 processor status flag bits (P; from bit 7 to bit 0 these are the negative (N), overflow (V), reserved, break (B), decimal (D), interrupt disable (I), zero (Z) and carry (C) flag), an 8-bit stack pointer (S), and a 16-bit program counter (PC). This compares to a typical design of the same era, the Z80, which has eight general-purpose 8-bit registers, which can be combined into four 16-bit ones. The Z80 also had a complete set of alternate registers, which made a total of sixteen general-purpose registers. In order to make up somewhat for the lack of registers, the 6502 included a zero-page addressing mode that uses one address byte in the instruction instead of the two needed to address the full 64 KB of memory. This provides fast access to the first 256 bytes of RAM by using shorter instructions. Chuck Peddle has said in interviews that the specific intention was to allow these first 256 bytes of RAM to be used like registers. The stack address space is hardwired to memory page $01, i.e. the address range $0100–$01FF (256–511). Software access to the stack is done via four implied addressing mode instructions, whose functions are to push or pop (pull) the accumulator or the processor status register. The same stack is also used for subroutine calls via the JSR (jump to subroutine) and RTS (return from subroutine) instructions and for interrupt handling. Addressing The chip uses the index and stack registers effectively with several addressing modes, including a fast "direct page" or "zero page" mode, similar to that found on the PDP-8, that accesses memory locations from addresses 0 to 255 with a single 8-bit address (saving the cycle normally required to fetch the high-order byte of the address)—code for the 6502 uses the zero page much as code for other processors would use registers. On some 6502-based microcomputers with an operating system, the operating system uses most of zero page, leaving only a handful of locations for the user. Addressing modes also include implied (1-byte instructions); absolute (3 bytes); indexed absolute (3 bytes); indexed zero-page (2 bytes); relative (2 bytes); accumulator (1); indirect,x and indirect,y (2); and immediate (2). Absolute mode is a general-purpose mode. Branch instructions use a signed 8-bit offset relative to the instruction after the branch; the numerical range −128..127 therefore translates to 128 bytes backward and 127 bytes forward from the instruction following the branch (which is 126 bytes backward and 129 bytes forward from the start of the branch instruction). Accumulator mode uses the accumulator as an effective address and does not need any operand data. Immediate mode uses an 8-bit literal operand. Indirect addressing The indirect modes are useful for array processing and other looping. With the 5/6 cycle "(indirect),y" mode, the 8-bit Y register is added to a 16-bit base address read from zero page, which is located by a single byte following the opcode. The Y register is therefore an index register in the sense that it is used to hold an actual index (as opposed to the X register in the 6800, where a base address was directly stored and to which an immediate offset could be added). Incrementing the index register to walk the array byte-wise takes only two additional cycles. With the less frequently used "(indirect,x)" mode the effective address for the operation is found at the zero page address formed by adding the second byte of the instruction to the contents of the X register. Using the indexed modes, the zero page effectively acts as a set of up to 128 additional (though very slow) address registers. The 6502 is capable of performing addition and subtraction in binary or binary-coded decimal. Placing the CPU into BCD mode with the SED (set D flag) instruction results in decimal arithmetic, in which $99 + $01 would result in $00 and the carry (C) flag being set. In binary mode (CLD, clear D flag), the same operation would result in $9A and the carry flag being cleared. Other than Atari BASIC, BCD mode was seldom used in home-computer applications. See the Hello world! article for a simple but characteristic example of 6502 assembly language. Instructions and opcodes 6502 instruction operation codes (opcodes) are 8 bits long and have the general form AAABBBCC, where AAA and CC define the opcode, and BBB defines the addressing mode. For instance, consider the ORA instruction, which performs a bitwise OR on the bits in the accumulator with another value. The instruction opcode is of the form 000bbb01, where bbb may be 010 for an immediate mode value (constant), 001 for zero-page fixed address, 011 for an absolute address, and so on. This pattern is not absolute, and there are a number of exceptions. However, where it does apply, it allows one to easily deconstruct opcode values back to assembly mnemonics for the majority of instructions, handling the edge cases with special-purpose code. Of the 256 possible opcodes available using an 8-bit pattern, the original 6502 uses 151 of them, organized into 56 instructions with (possibly) multiple addressing modes. Depending on the instruction and addressing mode, the opcode may require zero, one or two additional bytes for operands. Hence 6502 machine instructions vary in length from one to three bytes. The operand is stored in the 6502's customary little-endian format. The 65C816, the 16-bit CMOS descendant of the 6502, also supports 24-bit addressing, which results in instructions being assembled with three-byte operands, also arranged in little-endian format. The remaining 105 opcodes are undefined. In the original design, instructions where the low-order 4 bits (nibble) were 3, 7, B or F were not used, providing room for future expansion. Likewise, the $2x column had only a single entry, LDX #constant. The remaining 25 empty slots were distributed. Some of the empty slots were used in the 65C02 to provide both new instructions and variations on existing ones with new addressing modes. The $Fx instructions were initially left free to allow 3rd-party vendors to add their own instructions, but later versions of the 65C02 standardized a set of bit fiddling instructions developed by Rockwell Semiconductor. Assembly language A 6502 assembly language statement consists of a three-character instruction mnemonic, followed by any operands. Instructions that do not take a separate operand but target a single register based on the addressing mode combine the target register in the instruction mnemonic, so the assembler uses INX as opposed to INC X to increment the X register. Instruction table Detailed behavior The processor's non-maskable interrupt (NMI) input is edge sensitive, which means that the interrupt is triggered by the falling edge of the signal rather than its level. The implication of this feature is that a wired-OR interrupt circuit is not readily supported. However, this also prevents nested NMI interrupts from occurring until the hardware makes the NMI input inactive again, often under control of the NMI interrupt handler. The simultaneous assertion of the NMI and IRQ (maskable) hardware interrupt lines causes IRQ to be ignored. However, if the IRQ line remains asserted after the servicing of the NMI, the processor will immediately respond to IRQ, as IRQ is level sensitive. Thus a sort of built-in interrupt priority was established in the 6502 design. The B flag is set by the 6502's periodically sampling its NMI edge detector's output and its IRQ input. The IRQ signal being driven low is only recognized though if IRQs are allowed by the I flag. If in this way a NMI request or (maskable) IRQ is detected the B flag is set to zero and causes the processor to execute the BRK instruction next instead of executing the next instruction based on the program counter. The BRK instruction then pushes the processor status onto the stack, with the B flag bit set to zero. At the end of its execution the BRK instruction resets the B flag's value to one. This is the only way the B flag can be modified. If an instruction other than the BRK instruction pushes the B flag onto the stack as part of the processor status the B flag always has the value one. A high-to-low transition on the SO input pin will set the processor's overflow status bit. This can be used for fast response to external hardware. For example, a high-speed polling device driver can poll the hardware once in only three cycles using a Branch-on-oVerflow-Clear (BVC) instruction that branches to itself until overflow is set by an SO falling transition. The Commodore 1541 and other Commodore floppy disk drives use this technique to detect when the serializer is ready to transfer another byte of disk data. The system hardware and software design must ensure that an SO will not occur during arithmetic processing and disrupt calculations. Variations and derivatives There were numerous variants of the original NMOS 6502. 16-bit derivatives The Western Design Center designed and currently produces the W65C816S processor, a 16-bit, static-core successor to the 65C02, with greatly enhanced features. The W65C816S is a newer variant of the 65C816, which is the core of the Apple IIGS computer and is the basis of the Ricoh 5A22 processor that powers the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. The W65C816S incorporates minor improvements over the 65C816 that make the newer chip not an exact hardware-compatible replacement for the earlier one. Among these improvements was conversion to a static core, which makes it possible to stop the clock in either phase without the registers losing data. Available through electronics distributors, as of March 2020, the W65C816S is officially rated for 14 MHz operation. The Western Design Center also designed and produced the 65C802, which was a 65C816 core with a 64-kilobyte address space in a 65(C)02 pin-compatible package. The 65C802 could be retrofitted to a 6502 board and would function as a 65C02 on power-up, operating in "emulation mode." As with the 65C816, a two-instruction sequence would switch the 65C802 to "native mode" operation, exposing its 16-bit accumulator and index registers, as well as other 65C816 enhanced features. The 65C802 was not widely used; new designs almost always were built around the 65C816, resulting in 65C802 production being discontinued. Example code The following 6502 assembly language source code is for a subroutine named TOLOWER, which copies a null-terminated character string from one location to another, converting upper-case letter characters to lower-case letters. The string being copied is the "source", and the string into which the converted source is stored is the "destination". Bugs and quirks The 6502 had several bugs and quirks, which had to be accounted for when programming it: The earliest revisions of the 6502, such as those shipped with some KIM-1 computers, had a severe bug in the ROR (rotate right memory or accumulator) instruction. The operation of ROR in these chips is effectively an ASL (arithmetic shift left) instruction that does not affect the carry bit in the status register. MOS left the instruction out of chip documentation entirely because of the defect, promising that ROR would appear on 6502 chips starting in 1976. The vast majority of 6502 chips in existence today do not exhibit this bug. The NMOS 6502 family has a variety of undocumented instructions, which vary from one chip manufacturer to another. The 6502 instruction decoding is implemented in a hardwired logic array (similar to a programmable logic array) that is only defined for 151 of the 256 available opcodes. The remaining 105 trigger strange and occasionally hard-to-predict actions, such as crashing the processor, performing two valid instructions consecutively, performing strange mixtures of two instructions, or simply doing nothing at all. Eastern House Software developed the "Trap65", a device that plugged between the processor and its socket to convert (trap) unimplemented opcodes into BRK (software interrupt) instructions. Some programmers utilized this feature to extend the 6502 instruction set by providing functionality for the unimplemented opcodes with specially written software intercepted at the BRK instruction's 0xFFFE vector. All of the undefined opcodes have been replaced with NOP instructions in the 65C02, an enhanced CMOS version of the 6502, although with varying byte sizes and execution times. In the 65C802/65C816, all 256 opcodes perform defined operations. The 6502's memory indirect jump instruction, JMP (<address>), is partly broken. If <address> is hex xxFF (i.e., any word ending in FF), the processor will not jump to the address stored in xxFF and xxFF+1 as expected, but rather the one defined by xxFF and xx00 (for example, JMP ($10FF) would jump to the address stored in 10FF and 1000, instead of the one stored in 10FF and 1100). This defect continued through the entire NMOS line, but was corrected in the CMOS derivatives. The NMOS 6502 indexed addressing across page boundaries will do an extra read of an invalid address. This characteristic may cause random issues by accessing hardware that acts on a read, such as clearing timer or IRQ flags, sending an I/O handshake, etc. This defect continued through the entire NMOS line, but was corrected in the CMOS derivatives, in which the processor does an extra read of the last instruction byte. The 6502 read-modify-write instructions perform one read and two write cycles. First, the unmodified data that was read is written back, and then the modified data is written. This characteristic may cause issues by twice accessing hardware that acts on a write. This anomaly continued through the entire NMOS line, but was fixed in the CMOS derivatives, in which the processor will do two reads and one write cycle. Defensive programming practice will generally avoid this problem by not executing read/modify/write instructions on hardware registers. The N (result negative), V (sign bit overflow) and Z (result zero) status flags are generally meaningless when performing arithmetic operations while the processor is in BCD mode, as these flags reflect the binary, not BCD, result. This limitation was removed in the CMOS derivatives. Therefore, this feature may be used to distinguish a CMOS processor from an NMOS version. If the 6502 happens to be in BCD mode when a hardware interrupt occurs, it will not revert to binary mode. This characteristic could result in obscure bugs in the interrupt service routine if it fails to clear BCD mode before performing any arithmetic operations. For example, the Commodore 64's KERNAL did not correctly handle this processor characteristic, requiring that IRQs be disabled or re-vectored during BCD math operations. This issue was addressed in the CMOS derivatives as well. The 6502 instruction set includes BRK (opcode $00), which is technically a software interrupt (similar in spirit to the SWI mnemonic of the Motorola 6800 and ARM processors). BRK is most often used to interrupt program execution and start a machine language monitor for testing and debugging during software development. BRK could also be used to route program execution using a simple jump table (analogous to the manner in which the Intel 8086 and derivatives handle software interrupts by number). However, if a hardware interrupt occurs when the processor is fetching a BRK instruction, the NMOS version of the processor will fail to execute BRK and instead proceed as if only a hardware interrupt had occurred. This fault was corrected in the CMOS implementation of the processor. When executing JSR (jump to subroutine) and RTS (return from subroutine) instructions, the return address pushed to the stack by JSR is that of the last byte of the JSR operand (that is, the most significant byte of the subroutine address), rather than the address of the following instruction. This is because the actual copy (from program counter to stack and then conversely) takes place before the automatic increment of the program counter that occurs at the end of every instruction. This characteristic would go unnoticed unless the code examined the return address in order to retrieve parameters in the code stream (a 6502 programming idiom documented in the ProDOS 8 Technical Reference Manual). It remains a characteristic of 6502 derivatives to this day. See also List of 6502 assemblers MOS Technology 6502-based home computers Interrupts in 65xx processors Transistor count Apple II accelerators cc65 – 6502 macro assembler and C compiler Notes References Citations Bibliography Interview with William Mensch Stanford and the Silicon Valley Project, October 9, 1995. Transcript Further reading Datasheets and manuals 6500 Series Datasheet; MOS Technology; 12 pages; 1976. 6500 Series Hardware Manual; 2nd Ed; MOS Technology; 182 pages; 1976. 6500 Series Programming Manual; 2nd Ed; MOS Technology; 262 pages; 1976. Books 6502 Applications Book; 1st Ed; Rodnay Zaks; Sybex; 281 pages; 1979; . (archive) 6502 Assembly Language Programming; 2nd Ed; Lance Leventhal; Osborne/McGraw-Hill; 650 pages; 1986; . (archive) 6502 Assembly Language Subroutines; 1st Ed; Lance Leventhal and Winthrop Saville; Osborne/McGraw-Hill; 550 pages; 1982; . (archive) 6502 Games; 1st Ed; Rodnay Zaks; Sybex; 292 pages; 1980; . (archive) 6502 User's Manual; 1st Ed; Joseph Carr; Reston; 288 pages; 1984; . (archive) Advanced 6502 Programming; 1st Ed; Rodnay Zaks; John Wiley & Sons; 292 pages; 1982; . (archive) Machine Language For Beginners - Personal Computer Machine Language Programming For Atari, VIC, Apple, C64, and PET Computers; 1st Ed; Richard Mansfield; Compute! Publications; 350 pages; 1983; . (archive) Programming the 6502; 4th Ed; Rodnay Zaks; Sybex; 408 pages; 1983; . (archive) Programming the 65816 - including the 6502, 65C02, 65802; 1st Ed; David Eyes and Ron Lichty; Prentice Hall; 636 pages; 1986; . (archive) Reference cards 6502 Microprocessor Instant Reference Card; James Lewis; Micro Logic; 2 pages; 1980. (archive) External links 6502.org - the 6502 microprocessor resource – repository The Rise of MOS Technology & The 6502 - Commodore archive 650x information – Concise description, photos of MOS and second source chips; at cpu-collection.de mdfs.net – 6502 instruction set Simulators / Emulators Online 6502 compatible assembler and emulator, written in JavaScript List of 6502 software emulators – Zophar's Domain 6502 simulator for Windows – Atari Gaming Headquarters Visual Transistor-level Simulation of 6502 CPU MCL65 6502 CPU core - C code - MicroCore Labs GitHub Boards Grant's 7/8-chip 6502 board 6502 microprocessor training board Build your own KIM-1 training board - see KIM-1 6502 home computer PE6502 single board computer BE6502 single board computer - based on Ben Eater videos FPGA cpu6502_tc 6502 CPU core - VHDL source code - OpenCores ag_6502 6502 CPU core - Verilog source code - OpenCores M65C02 65C02 CPU core - Verilog source code - OpenCores MCL65 6502 CPU core - Verilog - MicroCore Labs GitHub MOS Technology microprocessors 65xx microprocessors Computer-related introductions in 1975 8-bit microprocessors

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS%20Technology%2065xx

MOS Technology 65xx

The MOS Technology 65xx series is a family of 8-bit microprocessors from MOS Technology, based on the Motorola 6800 (introduced ca. 1975). The 65xx family included the 6502, used in home computers such as the Commodore PET and VIC-20, the Apple II, the Atari 800, and the British BBC Micro. The 6501 and 6502 have 40-pin DIP packages; the 6503, 6504, 6505, and 6507 are 28-pin DIP versions, for reduced chip and circuit board cost. In all of the 28-pin versions, the pin count is reduced by leaving off some of the high-order address pins and various combinations of function pins, making those functions unavailable. Typically, the 12 pins omitted are the three not connected (NC) pins, one of the two Vss pins, one of the clock pins, the SYNC pin, the set overflow (SO) pin, either the maskable interrupt or the non-maskable interrupt (NMI), and the four most-significant address lines (A12–A15) are the 12 pins omitted to reduce the pin count from 40 to 28. The omission of four address pins reduces the external addressability to 4 KB (from the 64 KB of the 6502), though the internal PC register and all effective address calculations remain 16-bit. The 6507 omits both interrupt pins in order to include address line A12, providing 8 KB of external addressability but no interrupt capability. The 6507 was used in the popular Atari 2600 video game console, the design of which divides the 8 KB memory space in half, allocating the lower half to the console's internal RAM and peripherals, and the upper half to the Game Cartridge, so Atari 2600 cartridges have a 4 KB address limit (and the same capacity limit unless the cartridge contains bank switching circuitry). One popular 6502 based computer, the Commodore 64, used a modified 6502 CPU, the 6510. Unlike the 6503–6505 and 6507, the 6510 is a 40-pin chip that adds internal hardware: an 8-bit parallel I/O port mapped to addresses 0000 and 0001. The 6508 is another chip that, like the 6510, adds internal hardware: 256 bytes of SRAM and the same 8-bit I/O port featured by the 6510. Though these chips do not have reduced pin counts compared to the 6502, they need 8 new pins for the added parallel I/O port. In this case, no address lines are among the 8 removed pins. References External links MOS 6508 datasheet (GIF format, zipped)

20299

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS%20Technology%206510

MOS Technology 6510

The MOS Technology 6510 is an 8-bit microprocessor designed by MOS Technology. It is a modified form of the very successful 6502. The 6510 was only widely used in the Commodore 64 (C64) home computer and its variants. The primary change from the 6502 was the addition of an 8-bit general purpose I/O port, although only six I/O pins were available in the most common version of the 6510. In addition, the address bus could be made tristate. Use In the C64, the extra I/O pins of the processor were used to control the computer's memory map by bank switching, and for controlling three of the four signal lines of the Datasette tape recorder (the electric motor control, key-press sensing and write data lines; the read data line went to another I/O chip). It was possible, by writing the correct bit pattern to the processor at address $01, to completely expose almost the full 64 KB of RAM in the C64, leaving no ROM or I/O hardware exposed except for the processor I/O port itself and its data directional register. Variants MOS 8500 In 1985, MOS produced the 8500, an HMOS version of the 6510. Other than the process modification, it is virtually identical to the NMOS version of the 6510. The 8500 was originally designed for use in the modernised C64, the C64C. However, in 1985, limited quantities of 8500s were found on older NMOS-based C64s. It finally made its official debut in 1987, appearing in a motherboard using the new 85xx HMOS chipset. MOS 7501/8501 The 7501/8501 variant of the 6510 was introduced in 1984. Compared to the 6510, this variant extends the number of I/O port pins from 6 to 8, but omits the pins for non-maskable interrupt and clock output. It was used in Commodore's C16, C116 and Plus/4 home computers, where its I/O port controlled not only the Datasette but also the CBM Bus interface. The main difference between 7501 and 8501 CPUs is that they were manufactured with slightly different processes: 7501 was manufactured with HMOS-1 and 8501 with HMOS-2. MOS 8502 The 2 MHz-capable 8502 variant was used in the Commodore 128. All these CPUs are opcode compatible (including undocumented opcodes). MOS 6510T The Commodore 1551 disk drive used the 6510T, a version of the 6510 with eight I/O lines. The NMI and RDY signals are not available. See also Interrupts in 65xx processors References Further reading External links MOS 6510 datasheet (GIF format, zipped) MOS 6510 datasheet (PDF format) MOS 6510 datasheet (Nov. 1982, PDF format) Computer Emulation Resources (includes downloadable source code for 6502) 65xx microprocessors MOS Technology microprocessors Commodore 64 8-bit microprocessors

20301

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola%206800

Motorola 6800

The 6800 ("sixty-eight hundred") is an 8-bit microprocessor designed and first manufactured by Motorola in 1974. The MC6800 microprocessor was part of the M6800 Microcomputer System that also included serial and parallel interface ICs, RAM, ROM and other support chips. A significant design feature was that the M6800 family of ICs required only a single five-volt power supply at a time when most other microprocessors required three voltages. The M6800 Microcomputer System was announced in March 1974 and was in full production by the end of that year. The 6800 has a 16-bit address bus that can directly access 64 KB of memory and an 8-bit bi-directional data bus. It has 72 instructions with seven addressing modes for a total of 197 opcodes. The original MC6800 could have a clock frequency of up to 1 MHz. Later versions had a maximum clock frequency of 2 MHz. In addition to the ICs, Motorola also provided a complete assembly language development system. The customer could use the software on a remote timeshare computer or on an in-house minicomputer system. The Motorola EXORciser was a desktop computer built with the M6800 ICs that could be used for prototyping and debugging new designs. An expansive documentation package included datasheets on all ICs, two assembly language programming manuals, and a 700-page application manual that showed how to design a point-of-sale computer terminal. The 6800 was popular in computer peripherals, test equipment applications and point-of-sale terminals. It also found use in arcade games and pinball machines. The MC6802, introduced in 1977, included 128 bytes of RAM and an internal clock oscillator on chip. The MC6801 and MC6805 included RAM, ROM and I/O on a single chip and were popular in automotive applications. The Motorola 6809 was an updated compatible design. History Motorola's history in semiconductors Galvin Manufacturing Corporation was founded in 1928; the company name was changed to Motorola in 1947. They began commercial production of transistors at a new US$1.5 million facility in Phoenix in 1955. Motorola's transistors and integrated circuits were used in-house for their communication, military, automotive and consumer products and they were also sold to other companies. By 1973 the Semiconductor Products Division (SPD) had sales of $419 million and was the second largest semiconductor company after Texas Instruments. In the early 1970s Motorola started a project that developed their first microprocessor, the MC6800. This was followed by single-chip microcontrollers such as the MC6801 and MC6805. Development team Motorola did not chronicle the development of the 6800 microprocessor the way that Intel did for their microprocessors. In 2008 the Computer History Museum interviewed four members of the 6800 microprocessor design team. Their recollections can be confirmed and expanded by magazine and journal articles written at the time. The Motorola microprocessor project began in 1971 with a team composed of designer Tom Bennett, engineering director Jeff LaVell, product marketer Link Young and systems designers Mike Wiles, Gene Schriber and Doug Powell. They were all located in Mesa, Arizona, in greater Phoenix. By the time the project was finished, Bennett had 17 chip designers and layout people working on five chips. LaVell had 15 to 20 system engineers and there was another applications engineering group of similar size. Tom Bennett had a background in industrial controls and had worked for Victor Comptometer in the 1960s designing the first electronic calculator to use MOS ICs, the Victor 3900. In May 1969 Ted Hoff showed Bennett early diagrams of the Intel 4004 to see if it would meet their calculator needs. Bennett joined Motorola in 1971 to design calculator ICs. He was soon assigned as the chief architect of the microprocessor project that produced the 6800. Others have taken credit for designing the 6800. In September 1975 Robert H. Cushman, EDN magazine's microprocessor editor, interviewed Chuck Peddle about MOS Technology's new 6502 microprocessor. Cushman then asked "Tom Bennett, master architect of the 6800", to comment about this new competitor. After the 6800 project Bennett worked on automotive applications and Motorola became a major supplier of microprocessors used in automobiles. Jeff LaVell joined Motorola in 1966 and worked in the computer industry marketing organization. LaVell had previously worked for Collins Radio on their C8500 computer that was built with small scale ECL ICs. In 1971, he led a group that examined the needs of their existing customers such as Hewlett-Packard, National Cash Register, Control Data Corporation (CDC), and Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). They would study the customer's products and try to identify functions that could be implemented in larger integrated circuits at a lower cost. The result of the survey was a family of 15 building blocks; each could be implemented in an integrated circuit. Some of these blocks were implemented in the initial M6800 release and more were added over the next few years. To evaluate the 6800 architecture while the chip was being designed, LaVell's team built an equivalent circuit using 451 small scale TTL ICs on five 10 by 10 inch (25 by 25 cm) circuit boards. Later they reduced this to 114 ICs on one board by using ROMs and MSI (medium scale integration) logic devices. John Buchanan was a memory designer at Motorola when Bennett asked him to design a voltage doubler for the 6800. Typical n-channel MOS IC's required three power supplies: -5 volts, +5 volts and +12 volts. The M6800 family was to use only one, +5 volts. It was easy to eliminate the −5 volt supply by using an internal voltage inverter, but the enhancement-mode logic also needed a supply of 10 to 12 volts. To address this, the design added an on-chip voltage doubler. Buchanan did the circuit design, analysis and layout for the 6800 microprocessor. He received patents on the voltage doubler and the 6800 chip layout. Rod Orgill assisted Buchanan with analyses and 6800 chip layout. Later Orgill would design the MOS Technology 6501 microprocessor that was socket compatible with the 6800. Bill Lattin joined Motorola in 1969 and his group provided the computer simulation tools for characterizing the new MOS circuits in the 6800. Lattin and Frank Jenkins had both attended UC Berkeley and studied computer circuit simulators under Donald Pederson, the designer of the SPICE circuit simulator. Motorola's simulator, MTIME, was an advanced version of the TIME circuit simulator that Jenkins had developed at Berkeley. The group published a technical paper, "MOS-device modeling for computer implementation" in 1973 describing a "5-V single-supply n-channel technology" operating at 1 MHz. They could simulate a 50 MOSFET circuit on an IBM 370/165 mainframe computer. In November 1975, Lattin joined Intel to work on their next generation microprocessor. Bill Mensch joined Motorola in 1971 after graduating from the University of Arizona. He had worked several years as an electronics technician before earning his BSEE degree. The first year at Motorola was a series of three-month rotations through four different areas. Mensch did a flowchart for a modem that would become the 6860. He also worked the application group that was defining the M6800 system. After this training year, he was assigned to the 6820 Peripheral Interface Adapter (PIA) development team. Mensch was a major contributor to the design of this chip and received a patent on the IC layout and was named as a co-inventor of seven other M6800 system patents. Later Mensch would design the MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor. Mike Wiles was a design engineer in Jeff LaVell's group and made numerous customer visits with Tom Bennett during 6800 product definition phase. He is listed as an inventor on eighteen 6800 patents but is best known for a computer program, MIKBUG. This was a monitor for a 6800 computer system that allowed the user to examine the contents of RAM and to save or load programs to tape. This 512 byte program occupied half of an MCM6830 ROM. This ROM was used in the Motorola MEK6800 design evaluation kit and early hobby computer kits. Wiles stayed with Motorola, moved to Austin and helped design the MC6801 microcontroller that was released in 1978. Chuck Peddle joined the design team in 1973 after the 6800 processor design was done but he contributed to overall system design and to several peripheral chips, particularly the 6820 (PIA) parallel interface. Peddle is listed as an inventor on sixteen Motorola patents, most have six or more co-inventors. Like the other engineers on the team, Peddle visited potential customers and solicited their feedback. Peddle and John Buchanan built one of the earliest 6800 demonstration boards. In August 1974 Chuck Peddle left Motorola and joined a small semiconductor company in Pennsylvania, MOS Technology. There he led the team that designed the 6500 microprocessor family. MC6800 microprocessor design The Motorola 6800 and the Intel 8080 were designed at the same time and were similar in function. The 8080 was an extension and enhancement of the Intel 8008, which in turn was an LSI implementation of the TTL-based CPU design used in the Datapoint 2200. The 6800 architecture was a TTL-compatible LSI design modeled after the DEC PDP-11 processor. The 6800 had an 8-bit bidirectional data bus, a 16-bit address bus that could address 64 KB of memory, and came in a 40-pin DIP package. The 6800 had two 8-bit accumulators, a 16-bit index register, and a 16-bit stack pointer. The direct addressing mode, often known as the zero page in other processors, allowed fast access to the first 256 bytes of memory. I/O devices were addressed as memory so there were no special I/O instructions. When the 6800 was reset, it loaded the program counter from the highest address and started execution at the memory location stored there. The 6800 had a three-state control that would disable the address bus to allow another device direct memory access. For instance, a floppy disk controller could load data into memory without requiring any support from the CPU. It was even possible to have two 6800 processors access the same memory. However, in practice systems of such complexity usually required the use of external bus transceivers to drive the system bus; in such circuits, the on-processor bus control was disabled entirely in favor of using the similar capabilities of the bus transceiver. In contrast, the 6802 dispensed with this on-chip control entirely in order to free up pins for other functions in the same 40-pin package as the 6800, but this functionality could still be achieved using an external bus transceiver. MOS ICs typically used dual clock signals (a two-phase clock) in the 1970s. These were generated externally for the 6800, The 6800 had a minimum clock rate of 100 kHz, and initially ran at a maximum rate of 1 MHz. Higher-speed versions of the 6800 were released in 1976. Other divisions in Motorola developed components for the M6800 family. The Components Products Department designed the MC6870 two-phase clock IC, and the Memory Products group provided a full line of ROMs and RAMs. The CMOS group's MC14411 Bit Rate Generator provided a 75 to 9600 baud clock for the MC6850 serial interface. The buffers for address and data buses were standard Motorola products. Motorola could supply every IC, transistor, and diode necessary to build an MC6800-based computer. MOS ICs The first-generation metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) chips used p-channel field-effect transistors, known as p-channel MOSFETs (p-channel describes the configuration of the transistor). These ICs were used in calculators and in the first microprocessor, the Intel 4004. They were easy to produce but were slow and difficult to interface to the popular TTL digital logic ICs. An n-channel MOS integrated circuit could operate two or three times faster and was compatible with TTL. They were much more difficult to produce because of an increased sensitivity to contamination that required an ultra clean production line and meticulous process control. Motorola did not have an n-channel MOS production capability and had to develop one for the 6800 family. Motorola's n-channel MOS test integrated circuits were complete in late 1971 and these indicated the clock rate would be limited to 1 MHz. These used "enhancement-mode" MOS transistors. There was a newer fabrication technology that used "depletion-mode" MOS transistors as loads, which would allow smaller and faster circuits (this was also known as depletion-load nMOS). The "depletion-mode" processing required extra steps so Motorola decided to stay with "enhancement-mode" for the new single-supply-voltage design. The 1 MHz clock rate meant the chip designers would have to come up with several architectural innovations to speed up the microprocessor throughput. These resulting circuits were faster but required more area on the chip. In the 1970s, semiconductors were fabricated on 3 inch (75 mm) diameter silicon wafers. Each wafer could produce 100 to 200 integrated circuit chips or dies. The technical literature would state the length and width of each chip in "mils" (0.001 inch). The current industry practice is to state the chip area. Processing wafers required multiple steps and flaws would appear at various locations on the wafer during each step. The larger the chip the more likely it would encounter a defect. The percentage of working chips, or yield, declined steeply for chips larger than 160 mils (4 mm) on a side. The target size for the 6800 was 180 mils (4.6 mm) on each side but the final size was 212 mils (5.4 mm) with an area of 29.0 mm2. At 180 mils, a wafer will hold about 190 chips, 212 mils reduces that to 140 chips. At this size the yield may be 20% or 28 chips per wafer. The Motorola 1975 annual report highlights the new MC6800 microprocessor but has several paragraphs on the "MOS yield problems." The yield problem was solved with a design revision started in 1975 to use depletion mode in the M6800 family devices. The 6800 die size was reduced to 160 mils (4 mm) per side with an area of 16.5 mm2. This also allowed faster clock speeds, the MC68A00 would operate at 1.5 MHz and the MC68B00 at 2.0 MHz. The new parts were available in July 1976. M6800 family introduction The March 7, 1974 issue of Electronics had a two-page story on the Motorola MC6800 microprocessor along with the MC6820 Peripheral Interface Adapter, the MC6850 communications interface adapter, the MCM6810 128 byte RAM and the MCM6830 1024 byte ROM. This was followed by an eight-page article in the April 18, 1974 issue, written by the Motorola design team. This issue also had an article introducing the Intel 8080. Both the Intel 8080 and the Motorola MC6800 processors began layout around December 1972. The first working 8080 chips were produced January 1974 and the first public announcement was in February 1974. The 8080 used same three voltage N-channel MOS process as Intel's existing memory chips allowing full production to begin that April. The first working MC6800 chips were produced in February 1974 and engineering samples were given to select customers. Hewlett-Packard in Loveland, Colorado wanted the MC6800 for a new desktop calculator and had a prototype system working by June. The MC6800 used a new single-voltage N-channel MOS process that proved to be very difficult to implement. The M6800 microcomputer system was finally in production by November 1974. Motorola matched Intel's price for single microprocessor, $360. (The IBM System/360 was a well-known computer at this time.) In April 1975 the MEK6800D1 microcomputer design kit was offered for $300. The kit included all six chips in the M6800 family plus application and programming manuals. The price of a single MC6800 microprocessor was $175. Link Young was the product marketer that developed the total system approach for the M6800 family release. In addition to releasing a full set of support chips with the 6800 microprocessor, Motorola offered a software and hardware development system. The software development tools were available on remote time-sharing computers or the source code was available so the customer could use an in-house computer system. The software that would run on a microprocessor system was typically written in assembly language. The development system consisted of a text editor, assembler and a simulator. This allowed the developer to test the software before the target system was complete. The hardware development was a desktop computer built with M6800 family CPU and peripherals known as the EXORcisor. Motorola offered a three- to five-day microprocessor design course for the 6800 hardware and software. This systems-oriented approach became the standard way new microprocessor were introduced. Design team breakup The principal design effort on the M6800 family was complete in mid-1974, and many engineers left the group or the company. Several factors led to the break-up of the design group. Motorola had opened a new MOS semiconductor facility in Austin, Texas. The entire engineering team was scheduled to relocate there in 1975. Many of the employees liked living in the Phoenix suburb of Mesa and were very wary about moving to Austin. The team leaders were unsuccessful with their pleas to senior management on deferring the move. A recession hit the semiconductor industry in mid-1974 resulting in thousands of layoffs. A November 1974 issue of Electronics magazine reports that Motorola had laid off 4,500 employees, Texas Instruments 7,000 and Signetics 4,000. Motorola's Semiconductor Products Division would lose thirty million dollars in the next 12 months and there were rumors that the IC group would be sold off. Motorola did not sell the division but they did change the management and organization. By the end of 1974 Intel fired almost a third of its 3,500 employees. The MOS IC business rebounded but job security was not taken for granted in 1974 and 1975 . Chuck Peddle (and other Motorola engineers) had been visiting customers to explain the benefits of microprocessors. Both Intel and Motorola had initially set the price of a single microprocessor at $360. Many customers were hesitant to adopt this new microprocessor technology with such a high price tag. (The actual price for production quantities was much lower.) In mid-1974 Peddle proposed a simplified microprocessor that could be sold at a much lower price. Motorola's "total product family" strategy did not focus on the price of MPU but on reducing the customer's total design cost. Their immediate goal was to get their completed system into production and they would work on improvements in 1975. Peddle continued working for Motorola while looking for investors for his new microprocessor concept. In August 1974 Chuck Peddle left Motorola and joined a small semiconductor company in Pennsylvania, MOS Technology. He was followed by seven other Motorola engineers: Harry Bawcum, Ray Hirt, Terry Holdt, Mike James, Will Mathis, Bill Mensch and Rod Orgill. Peddle's group at MOS Technology developed two new microprocessors that were compatible with the Motorola peripheral chips like the 6820 PIA. Rod Orgill designed the MCS6501 processor that would plug into a MC6800 socket and Bill Mensch did the MCS6502 that had the clock generation circuit on chip. These microprocessors would not run 6800 programs because they had a different architecture and instruction set. The major goal was a microprocessor that would sell for under $25 . This would be done by removing non-essential features to reduce the chip size. An 8-bit stack pointer was used instead of a 16-bit one. The second accumulator was omitted. The address buffers did not have a three-state mode for Direct Memory Access (DMA) data transfers. The goal was to get the chip size down to 153 mils x 168 mils (3.9 mm x 4.3 mm). Chuck Peddle was a very effective spokesman and the MOS Technology microprocessors were extensively covered in the trade press. One of the earliest was a full-page story on the MCS6501 and MCS6502 microprocessors in the July 24, 1975 issue of Electronics magazine. Stories also ran in EE Times (August 24, 1975), EDN (September 20, 1975), Electronic News (November 3, 1975) and Byte (November 1975). Advertisements for the 6501 appeared in several publications the first week of August 1975. The 6501 would be for sale at the WESCON trade show in San Francisco, September 16–19, 1975, for $20 each. In September 1975 the advertisements included both the 6501 and the 6502 microprocessors. The 6502 would only cost $25. Motorola responded to MOS Technology's $20 microprocessor by immediately reducing the single-unit price of the 6800 microprocessor from $175 to $69 and then suing MOS Technology in November 1975. Motorola claimed that the eight former Motorola engineers used technical information developed at Motorola in the design of the 6501 and 6502 microprocessors. MOS Technology's other business, calculator chips, was declining due to a price war with Texas Instruments so their financial backer, Allen-Bradley, decided to limit the possible losses and sold the assets of MOS Technology back to the founders. The lawsuit was settled in April 1976 with MOS Technology dropping the 6501 chip that would plug into a Motorola 6800 socket and licensing Motorola's peripheral chips. Motorola reduced the single-unit price of the 6800 to $35. The MOS Technology vs. Motorola lawsuit has developed a David and Goliath narrative over the years. One point was that Motorola did not have patents on the technology. This was technically true when the lawsuit was filed in late 1975 . On October 30, 1974, before the 6800 was released, Motorola filed numerous patents applications on the microprocessor family, and over twenty patents were subsequently granted. The first was to Tom Bennett on June 8, 1976 for the 6800 internal address bus. The second was to Bill Mensch on July 6, 1976 for the 6820 chip layout. Many of these patents named several of the departing engineers as co-inventors. These patents covered the 6800 bus and how the peripheral chips interfaced with the microprocessor. Move to Austin Gary Daniels was designing ICs for electronic wristwatches when Motorola shut down their Timepiece Electronics Unit. Tom Bennett offered him a job in the microprocessor group in November 1974. Bennett did not want to leave the Phoenix area so Gary Daniels managed the microprocessor development in Austin. (Daniels was the microprocessor design manager for the next ten years before he was promoted to a vice president.) The first task was to redesign the 6800 MPU to improve the manufacturing yield and to operate at a faster clock. This design used depletion-mode technology and was known internally as the MC6800D. The transistor count went from 4000 to 5000 but the die area was reduced from 29.0 mm2 to 16.5 mm2 (allowing the price of the CPU to be lowered to $35). The maximum clock rate for selected parts doubled to 2 MHz. The other chips in the M6800 family were also redesigned to use depletion-mode technology. The Peripheral Interface Adapter had a slight change in the electrical characteristics of the I/O pins so the MC6820 became the MC6821. These new IC were completed in July 1976. A new low-cost clock generator chip, the MC6875, was released in 1977. It replaced the $35 MC6870 hybrid IC. The MC6875 came in a 16-pin dip package and could use quartz crystal or a resistor capacitor network. Another project was incorporating 128 bytes of RAM and the clock generator on a single 11,000-transistor chip. The MC6802 microprocessor was released in March 1977. The companion MC6846 chip had 2048 byte ROM, an 8-bit bidirectional port and a programmable timer. This was a two-chip microcomputer. The 6802 has an on-chip oscillator that uses an external 4 MHz quartz crystal to produce the two-phase 1 MHz clock. The internal 128 byte RAM could be disabled by grounding a pin and devices with defective RAM were sold as a MC6808. A series of peripheral chip were introduced by 1978. The MC6840 programmable counter had three 16-bit binary counters that could be used for frequency measurement, event counting, or interval measurement. The MC6844 Direct Memory Access Controller could transfer data from an I/O controller to RAM without loading down the MC6800 microprocessor. The MC6845 CRT Controller (CRTC) provided the control logic for a character based computer terminal. The 6845 had support for a light pen, an alternative to a computer mouse. The MC6845 was a very popular chip: it was even used in the original IBM Monochrome Display Adapter and the original IBM Color Graphics Adapter for the IBM PC and successors, where the 6845 was used with an Intel 8088 CPU. During the time of cold war technology embargoes, a 6845 clone named CM607 was produced in Bulgaria. The later IBM Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) card contained a custom IBM chip (the EGA CRTC) that replaced the Motorola 6845, adding many enhancements, in a mostly-compatible way. The IBM Video Graphics Array (VGA), which became ubiquitous (to the point that it is still emulated as the baseline functionality of most modern PC video adapter chips) incorporates a compatible near-superset of the EGA CRTC, still mostly-compatible with the MC6845 (but by this point without the light pen support, which the EGA CRTC retained). The MC6801 was a single-chip microcomputer (that today would also be called a microcontroller) incorporating a 6802 CPU with 128 bytes of RAM, a 2 KB ROM, a 16-bit timer, 31 programmable parallel I/O lines, and a serial port. (The MC6803 was the same except without the ROM and with fewer different bus configurations.) It could also use the I/O lines as data and address buses to connect to standard M6800 peripherals. The 6801 would execute 6800 code, but it had ten additional instructions, and the execution time of key instructions was reduced. The two 8-bit accumulators could act as a single 16-bit accumulator for double precision addition, subtraction and multiplication. It was initially designed for automotive use, with General Motors as the lead customer. The first application was a trip computer for the 1978 Cadillac Seville. This 35,000 transistor chip was too expensive for wide-scale adoption in automobiles, so a reduced function MC6805 single-chip microcomputer was designed. The MC6801 was one of the first microprocessors with a multiply instruction. The Hitachi HD6303 (not to be confused with the Hitachi 6309) is a second-source reimplementation of the Motorola MC6803, with a few additional instructions, and a slightly faster implementation of the 8x8 multiply instruction. The Hitachi HD6303 is used in the first PDA, the 1984 Psion Organiser. The Hitachi HD6303 was also used in the 1983 "Pocket Telex". The MC6809 was the most advanced 8-bit microprocessor Motorola produced. It had a new instruction set that was similar to the 6800 but abandoned op-code compatibility for improved performance and high-level language support; the 6809 and 6800 were software compatible in that assemblers could (and generally did) generate code which was equivalent to 6800 opcodes that the 6809 did not directly emulate. In that sense, the 6809 was upward compatible with the 6800. The 6809 had two 16-bit index registers, two 16-bit stack pointers, and many instructions to perform 16-bit operations, including the first 8-bit multiply instruction (generating a 16-bit product) in a microprocessor. Other key points of the 6809 design were full support for both position-independent code (object code that can run wherever it is loaded in memory) and reentrant code (object code that can be re-invoked when interrupted or by calling itself recursively), features previously seen only in much larger machines such as IBM 360 mainframes. Use in personal computers The MITS Altair 8800, the first successful personal computer, used the Intel 8080 microprocessor and was featured on the January 1975 cover of Popular Electronics. The first personal computers using the Motorola 6800 were introduced in late 1975. Sphere Corporation of Bountiful, Utah ran a quarter-page advertisement in the July 1975 issue of Radio-Electronics for a computer kit with a 6800 microprocessor, of RAM, a video board and a keyboard. This would display 16 lines of 32 characters on a TV or monitor. The Sphere computer kits began shipping in November 1975. Southwest Technical Products Corporation of San Antonio, Texas, officially announced their SWTPC 6800 Computer System in November 1975. Wayne Green visited SWTPC in August 1975 and described the SWTPC computer kit complete with photos of a working system in the October 1975 issue of 73. The SWTPC 6800 was based on the Motorola MEK6800 design evaluation kit chip set and used the MIKBUG ROM Software. The MITS Altair 680 was on the cover of the November 1975 issue of Popular Electronics. The Altair 680 used a 6800 microprocessor and, unlike the SWTPC machine, also had a front panel with toggle switches and LEDs. The initial design had to be revised and first deliveries of the Altair 680B were in April 1976. Sphere was a small startup company and had difficulties delivering all of the products they announced. They filed for a Chapter 11 bankruptcy in April 1977. The Altair 680B was popular but MITS focused most of the resources on their Altair 8800 computer system and they exited the hobby market in 1978. The Southwest Technical Products computer was the most successful 6800 based personal computer. Other companies, for instance, Smoke Signal Broadcasting (California), Gimix (Chicago), Midwest Scientific (Olathe, Kansas), and Helix Systems (Hazelwood, Missouri), started producing SWTPC 6800 bus compatible boards and complete systems. Technical Systems Consultants of West Lafayette, Indiana, supplied tape based software for the 6800 (and later 6809) based computers and, after disk systems became available, operating systems and disk software as well. The 8080 systems were far more popular than the 6800 ones. The Tektronix 4051 Graphics Computing System was introduced in October 1975. This was a professional desktop computer that had a 6800 microprocessor with up to 32 KB of user RAM, 300 KB magnetic tape storage, BASIC in ROM and a 1024 by 780 graphics display. The Tektronix 4051 sold for $7000 (), rather higher than the personal computers using the 6800. The 6800 processor was also used in the APF MP1000 game console. The architecture and instruction set of the 6800 were easy for beginners to understand and Heathkit developed a microprocessor course and the ET3400 6800 trainer. The course and trainer proved popular with individuals and schools. Motorola's next generation 8-bit microprocessor architecture, the MC6809 (1979), was not binary code compatible with the 6800, but nearly all assembly code would assemble and run on the 6809; 6800 family peripheral chips worked as a matter of course. Example code The following 6800 assembly language source code is for a subroutine named memcpy that copies a block of data bytes of a given size from one location to another. The data block is copied one byte at a time, from lowest address to highest. ; memcpy -- ; Copy a block of memory from one location to another. ; Called as a subroutine, note return to saved PC addr on exit ; Entry parameters ; cnt - Number of bytes to copy ; src - Address of source data block ; dst - Address of target data block cnt dw $0000 ; sets aside space for memory addr src dw $0000 ; sets aside space for memory addr dst dw $0000 ; sets aside space for memory addr memcpy public ldab cnt+1 ;Set B = cnt.L beq check ;If cnt.L=0, goto check loop ldx src ;Set IX = src lda ix ;Load A from (src) inx ;Set src = src+1 stx src ldx dst ;Set IX = dst sta ix ;Store A to (dst) inx ;Set dst = dst+1 stx dst decb ;Decr B bne loop ;Repeat the loop check tst cnt+0 ;If cnt.H=0, beq done ;Then quit dec cnt+0 ;Decr cnt.H ; loop back and do 256*(cnt.H+1) more copies (B=0) bra loop ;Repeat the loop done rts ;Return Peripherals List from "Motorola Microcomputer Components", November 1978 Second sources A common requirement for manufacturing companies was to require two or more sources for every part in the products they made. This ensured they could get parts if a supplier had financial problems or a disaster. Initially Motorola selected American Microsystems Inc (AMI) as a second source for the M6800 family. Hitachi, Fujitsu, Fairchild, Rockwell and Thomson Semiconductors were added later. Rochester Electronics was Authorized by Freescale/Motorola in 2014 to continue manufacturing any of the 8-bit peripherals and 8-bit processors of this era. Rochester specializes in fully authorized device duplication. Freescale has provided all the source design archives to enable Rochester Electronics for this product and others. At the end of 2016, Rochester was fully qualified and shipping the MC6802 processor, the MC6840 PTM, and the MC6809 processor (including the MC68A09, and MC68B09 versions) and can still be bought today. Oral histories "Intel 8080 Microprocessor Oral History Panel" Steve Bisset, Federico Faggin, Hal Feeney, Edward Gelbach, Ted Hoff, Stan Mazor, Masatoshi Shima, Computer History Museum, April 26, 2007, moderator: David House. "Zilog Z80 Microprocessor Oral History Panel" Federico Faggin, Masatoshi Shima, Ralph Ungermann. Computer History Museum, April 27, 2007, moderator: Michael Slater. "Motorola 6800 Oral History Panel" Thomas H. Bennett, John Ekiss, William (Bill) Lattin, Jeff Lavell. Computer History Museum, March 28, 2008, moderator: David Laws. Interview with William Mensch Stanford and the Silicon Valley Project, October 9, 1995. Transcript See also EXORmacs, a follow-up system for M68000 processors Motorola 68000 16/32-bit successor References Further reading 6800 Assembly Language Programming; 1st Ed; Lance Leventhal; Osborne/McGraw-Hill; 484 pages; 1978; . (archive) Microprocessor Interfacing Techniques; 3rd Ed; Rodnay Zaks and Austin Lesea; Sybex; 466 pages; 1979; . (archive) External links MC6800 applications manual from 1975 – lots of information MDOS User's Manual Motorola Exorciser Emulator for Windows Open source Motorola Exorciser and SWTPC emulator for Linux/Cygwin MIKBUG 680x images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de Instruction set summary Java Applet Simulator of a simplified M6800 Microprocessor Visual 6800 in JavaScript – transistor level graphical simulator Instruction set summary Motorola microprocessors Computer-related introductions in 1974 8-bit microprocessors

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Motorola 68020

The Motorola 68020 ("sixty-eight-oh-twenty", "sixty-eight-oh-two-oh" or "six-eight-oh-two-oh") is a 32-bit microprocessor from Motorola, released in 1984. A lower cost version was also made available, known as the 68EC020. In keeping with naming practices common to Motorola designs, the 68020 is usually referred to as the "020", pronounced "oh-two-oh" or "oh-twenty". Description The 68020 has 32-bit internal and external data and address buses, compared to the early 680x0 models with 16-bit data and 24-bit address buses. The 68020's ALU is also natively 32-bit, so can perform 32-bit operations in one clock cycle, whereas the 68000 took a minimum of two clock cycles due to its 16-bit ALU. Newer packaging methods allowed the '020 to feature more external pins without the large size that the earlier dual in-line package method required. The 68EC020 lowered cost through a 24-bit address bus. The 68020 was produced at speeds ranging from 12 MHz to 33 MHz. Improvements over the 68010 The 68020 has a 32-bit arithmetic logic unit (ALU), 32-bit external data and address buses. It adds extra instructions and additional addressing modes. The 68020 (and 68030) has a proper three-stage pipeline. Though the 68010 had a "loop mode", which sped loops through what was effectively a tiny instruction cache, it held only two short instructions and was thus little used. The 68020 replaced this with a proper instruction cache of 256 bytes, the first 68k series processor to feature true on-chip cache memory. The previous 68000 and 68010 processors could only access word (16-bit) and long word (32-bit) data in memory if it were word-aligned (located at an even address). The 68020 has no alignment restrictions on data access. Naturally, unaligned accesses are slower than aligned accesses because they required an extra memory access. The 68020 has a small 256-byte direct-mapped instruction cache, arranged as 64 four-byte entries. Although small, it still made a significant difference in the performance of many applications. The resulting decrease in bus traffic was particularly important in systems relying heavily on DMA. Coprocessor support The 68020 has a coprocessor interface supporting up to eight coprocessors. The main CPU recognizes "F-line" instructions (with the four most significant opcode bits all one), and uses special bus cycles to interact with a coprocessor to execute these instructions. Two types of coprocessors were defined: floating point units (MC68881 or MC68882 FPUs) and the paged memory management unit (MC68851 PMMU). Only one PMMU can be used with a CPU. In principle, multiple FPUs could be used with a CPU, but it was not commonly done. The coprocessor interface is asynchronous, so it is possible to run the coprocessors at a different clock rate than the CPU. Multiprocessing features Multiprocessing support is implemented externally by the use of a RMC pin to indicate an indivisible read-modify-write cycle in progress. All other processors have to hold off memory accesses until the cycle is complete. Software support for multiprocessing includes the TAS, CAS and CAS2 instructions. In a multiprocessor system, coprocessors could not be shared between CPUs. To avoid problems with returns from coprocessor, bus error, and address error exceptions, it was generally necessary in a multiprocessor system for all CPUs to be the same model, and for all FPUs to be the same model as well. Instruction set The new instructions include some minor improvements and extensions to the supervisor state, several instructions for software management of a multiprocessing system (which were removed in the 68060), some support for high-level languages which did not get used much (and was removed from future 680x0 processors), bigger multiply (32×32→64 bits) and divide (64÷32→32 bits quotient and 32 bits remainder) instructions, and bit field manipulations. The new addressing modes add scaled indexing and another level of indirection to many of the pre-existing modes. While the 68000 had a 'supervisor mode', it did not meet the Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements due to the single instruction 'MOVE from SR' being unprivileged but sensitive. Under the 68010 and later, this was made privileged, to better support virtualization software. Architecture With full 32-bit internal and external address buses, the address registers (A0 through A7) could utilize their full 32-bit width, and were capable of addressing the entire 4 GB address space. The larger effective widths of the address registers presented some problem for earlier software that was not considered "32-bit clean". Some programs used the high 8 bits (bits 24-31) of addresses to contain various flag bits, with the understanding that the earlier 680x0 CPUs would safely ignore these high bits. Such software had to be rewritten to adjust to the larger physical address space available to the 68020 and later CPUs. Usage The 68020 was used in the Apple Macintosh II and Macintosh LC personal computers, Sun-3 workstations, Amiga 1200 (68EC020 variant), the Hewlett-Packard 8711 Series Network Analyzers, HP 9000/320, HP 9000/330, and the Alpha Microsystems AM-2000. The 68020 was an alternative upgrade to the Sinclair QL's 68008 in the Super Gold Card interface by Miracle Systems. The Amiga 2500 and A2500UX optionally shipped with the A2620 Accelerator using a 68020, 68881 FPU and 68851 MMU. The 2500UX shipped with Amiga Unix, requiring an '020 or '030 processor. A number of digital oscilloscopes from the mid-80s to the late-90s used the 68020, including the LeCroy 9300 Series (higher end models including "C" suffix models used the more powerful 68EC030; the 9300 models with a 68020 processor can be upgraded to the 68EC030 with a change of the CPU board) and the earlier LeCroy 9400 series (all models excluding the 9400/9400A which used the 68000), along with certain Tektronix TDS Series models. The HP 54520, 54522, 54540 and 54542 also use the 68020, together with a 68882 FPU. It is also the processor used on TGV trains to decode signalling information sent to the trains through the rails. It is used in the flight control and radar systems of the Eurofighter Typhoon combat aircraft. The Nortel Networks DMS-100 telephone central office switch also used the 68020 as the first microprocessor of the SuperNode computing core. Variant The 68EC020 is a lower cost version of the Motorola 68020. The main difference is that the 68EC020 only has a 24-bit address bus, rather than the 32-bit address bus of the full 68020, and thus is only able to address 16 MB of memory. The Amiga 1200 computer and the Amiga CD32 game console use the cost-reduced 68EC020; the Namco System 22, Taito F3 and Konami GX arcade boards also used this processor. The Atari Jaguar II prototype featured this to replace the 68000 of the original Atari Jaguar console. It also found use in laser printers. Apple used it in the LaserWriter IIɴᴛx. Kodak used it in the Ektaplus 7016PS, and Dataproducts used it in the LZR 1260. In 2014, Rochester Electronics re-established manufacturing capability for the 68020 microprocessor and it is still available today. Technical data References External links 68020 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de 68k microprocessors 32-bit microprocessors

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Muppets

The Muppets

The Muppets are an American ensemble cast of puppet characters known for an absurdist, burlesque, and self-referential style of variety-sketch comedy. Created by Jim Henson in 1955, they are the focus of a media franchise, now owned by The Walt Disney Company, that encompasses television, film, music, and other media associated with the characters. The Muppets originated in the short-form television series Sam and Friends, which aired from 1955 to 1961. Following appearances on late night talk shows and in advertising during the 1960s, the Muppets began appearing on Sesame Street (1969–present), and attained celebrity status and international recognition through The Muppet Show (1976–1981), which received four Primetime Emmy Award wins and twenty-one nominations during its five-year run. During the 1970s and 1980s, the Muppets diversified into theatrical films, including The Muppet Movie (1979); The Great Muppet Caper (1981); and The Muppets Take Manhattan (1984). Disney began involvement with them in the late 1980s, during which Henson entered negotiations to sell The Jim Henson Company. The Muppets continued their media presence on television with Muppet Babies (1984–91), as well as The Jim Henson Hour (1989) and Muppets Tonight (1996–98), both of which were similar in format to The Muppet Show; and three theatrical films: The Muppet Christmas Carol (1992), Muppet Treasure Island (1996) and Muppets from Space (1999). Disney acquired the Muppets from the Henson family in February 2004, allowing the characters to gain broader public exposure than in previous years. Under Disney, subsequent projects included two theatrical films: The Muppets (2011) and Muppets Most Wanted (2014); a short-lived primetime series (2015–2016); a reboot of Muppet Babies (2018–2022); the short-lived streaming television series Muppets Now (2020); and the Halloween special Muppets Haunted Mansion (2021). In their six-decade career, the Muppets have been regarded as a staple of the entertainment industry and popular culture in the United States and English-speaking area generally, being recognized by various cultural institutions and organizations, including the American Film Institute, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, Library of Congress, and the Hollywood Walk of Fame. History 1950s–1960s: Beginnings The Muppets were created by puppeteer Jim Henson in the 1950s; Henson claimed, but later recanted, that he coined the term Muppet as a blend of the words marionette and puppet. Among Henson's earliest creations was Kermit the Frog, who became his most recognizable character. Originally conceived for an adult audience, the Muppets were introduced in 1955 in Sam and Friends, a short-form television series produced for WRC-TV in Washington, D.C. Developed by Henson and his future wife, Jane Nebel, the series was the first form of puppet media not to incorporate a physical proscenium arch typical of such works, relying instead on the natural framing of the television set through which it was viewed. During the 1960s, the characters—in particular, Kermit and Rowlf the Dog—appeared in skits on several late-night talk shows and on television commercials, including The Ed Sullivan Show. Rowlf became the first Muppet character to appear regularly on network television when he began appearing with Jimmy Dean on The Jimmy Dean Show. In 1966, Joan Ganz Cooney and Lloyd Morrisett began developing a children's educational television program and approached Henson to design a cast of Muppet characters during this stage. Produced by the Children's Television Workshop, the program debuted as Sesame Street in 1969. Henson and his creative team became closely involved with Sesame Street during the years that followed; Henson waived his performance fee in exchange for retaining ownership rights to the Muppet characters created for the program. Sesame Street garnered a positive response, and the Muppets' involvement in the series was said to be a vital component of its increasing popularity, providing an "effective and pleasurable viewing" method of presentation for its educational curriculum. 1970s: The Muppet Show and foray into film In the early 1970s, the Muppets continued their presence in television, primarily appearing in The Land of Gorch segments during the first season of Saturday Night Live. As his involvement with Sesame Street continued, Henson began developing a network television series focusing on the Muppets; as opposed to Sesame Street, however, this series would be aimed at a more adult audience and focus largely on sketch comedy. Two television pilots, The Muppets Valentine Show and The Muppet Show: Sex and Violence, aired on ABC in 1974 and 1975, respectively. After ABC passed on the pilots and other networks in the United States expressed little interest in the project, British producer Lew Grade approached Henson and agreed to co-produce the series for Associated Television. Debuting in 1976, The Muppet Show introduced new characters such as Miss Piggy, Fozzie Bear, and Gonzo, alongside existing characters such as Kermit and Rowlf. Aired in first-run syndication in the United States, The Muppet Show became increasingly popular due to its sketch-variety format, unique form of vaudeville-style humor, and prolific roster of guest stars. It was nominated for twenty-one Primetime Emmy Awards during its run, winning four, including Outstanding Variety Series in 1978. The success of The Muppet Show allowed Henson Associates to diversify into theatrical films, the first of which, The Muppet Movie, was released in 1979. 1980s–1990s: Subsequent projects Following The Muppet Movie were The Great Muppet Caper and The Muppets Take Manhattan, released in 1981 and 1984, respectively. Collectively, the three films received four Academy Award nominations. The Muppet Show ended its five-season run in 1981. In 1983, Henson debuted Fraggle Rock, which aired on HBO in the United States until 1987. In 1989, Henson entered negotiations with Michael Eisner and The Walt Disney Company, in which the latter would acquire Jim Henson Productions and, in turn, the Muppets. Disney expressed interest in purchasing the company for $150M. Eisner was also interested in acquiring the Sesame Street Muppet characters, but Henson declined that proposal, considering it a "non-starter" for the deal. An "agreement in principle" for the acquisition was publicly announced by Disney and Henson at the Disney-MGM Studios theme park in Walt Disney World on August 28, 1989, along with plans for Muppets-themed attractions to debut at that park and at Disneyland the following year. However, the proposed merger was cancelled after Henson's death in 1990. Nevertheless, Disney initiated a licensing agreement with Jim Henson Productions to continue developing Muppets attractions. The following year, Muppet*Vision 3D debuted at Disney–MGM Studios, the only attraction successfully developed from the original plans. Disney also co-produced the fourth and fifth Muppets films, The Muppet Christmas Carol (1992) and Muppet Treasure Island (1996), with Jim Henson Productions. The characters subsequently starred in Muppets Tonight, which aired on ABC from 1996 to 1998; and a sixth film, Muppets from Space, released by Columbia Pictures in 1999. In 2000, Henson was sold to EM.TV & Merchandising AG for $680M. However, EM.TV's stock collapsed and the Henson family re-acquired the company in 2003, with the exception of the Sesame Street characters, which were in the interim sold to Sesame Workshop. 2000s: Disney acquisition Fourteen years after initial negotiations began, Disney acquired the Muppets intellectual property from Henson for $75M on February 17, 2004. The acquisition consisted of a majority of the Muppets film and television library, as well as the Bear in the Big Blue House television series. Exceptions included the Sesame Street characters; the Fraggle Rock characters, which were retained by Henson; the distribution rights to four films: The Muppets Take Manhattan, Muppets from Space, and Kermit's Swamp Years, which were retained by Sony Pictures Entertainment; and It's a Very Merry Muppet Christmas Movie, retained by NBCUniversal Television Distribution. Following the acquisition, Disney formed The Muppets Studio (originally The Muppets Holding Company), a wholly owned subsidiary responsible for managing the characters and franchise. As a result, the term "Muppet" became a legal trademark of Disney; under license from Disney, Sesame Workshop continues to use the term for their characters, as well as archival footage of Kermit the Frog. Henson retained the rights to several productions featuring the Disney-owned Muppet characters, including Emmet Otter's Jug-Band Christmas; The Christmas Toy; Sesame Street: 20 and Still Counting; Henson's Place; Billy Bunny's Animal Songs; the original Dog City special; and Donna's Day. While some of these have since been released uncut, most current releases of Emmet Otter's Jug-Band Christmas and The Christmas Toy omit the appearances by Kermit the Frog. The 2015 ABC Family airing, the 2017 DVD and the 2018 Blu-ray releases of Emmet Otter's Jugband Christmas and the Amazon Prime Video release of The Christmas Toy reinstate Kermit's scenes. After the acquisition was complete, Disney gradually began reintroducing the franchise to the mainstream, promoting the Muppets across different parts of the company. The Muppets made appearances on Disney Channel and starred in the ABC television film, The Muppets' Wizard of Oz (2005). A television special, A Muppets Christmas: Letters to Santa, premiered on NBC on December 17, 2008. As a method of regaining a wider audience, Disney produced a series of vignettes for YouTube and Disney.com. A "Bohemian Rhapsody" cover version was among these projects and immediately went viral, ultimately amassing 90 million views and winning two Webby Awards. In 2010, the Muppets starred in The Muppets Kitchen with Cat Cora, which co-starred Cat Cora and showcased cooking demonstrations. That same year, Disney used the Muppets to promote their volunteerism program at the company's theme parks. A Halloween special featuring the Muppets was developed during that time and expected to air on ABC that October, but was canceled. 2010s–present: Renewed success; current projects In 2011, the Muppets were featured in an eponymous seventh film, intended to serve as a "creative reboot" for the characters. Walt Disney Pictures had been furthering development on a Muppets film since 2008, when it considered adapting an unused screenplay by Jerry Juhl. Directed by James Bobin; written by Jason Segel and Nicholas Stoller; and starring Segel, Amy Adams, Chris Cooper, and Rashida Jones, The Muppets was a critical and commercial success; becoming the highest-grossing puppet film of all time and winning an Academy Award for Best Original Song. During the film's publicity campaign, the Muppets appeared in promotional advertisements and effusive marketing efforts by Disney and were also featured in a promotional video for Google+. In March 2012, the Muppets received a collective star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. That year, the Muppets hosted a Just for Laughs comedy gala in Montreal. Following the release of The Muppets, Disney announced an eighth film in 2012, with Bobin and Stoller returning to direct and write, respectively. Muppets Most Wanted was released in 2014, and starred Ricky Gervais, Tina Fey, and Ty Burrell. The film received positive reviews, but was a commercial disappointment at the box office. Disney Theatrical Productions announced in 2013 that a live show based on the Muppets was in active development and that a 15-minute show had been conducted by Thomas Schumacher to see how the technical components would work. Muppet Moments, an interstitial television series, premiered on Disney Junior in April 2015. The short-form series features conversations between the Muppets and young children. After the release of Muppets Most Wanted, Disney was interested in expanding the Muppets' presence across other media platforms, particularly in television. Discussions for a new primetime series began internally within The Muppets Studio. By April 2015, Bill Prady was commissioned to write a script for a pilot with the working title Muppets 2015. In May 2015, ABC commissioned an eponymous series, co-developed by Prady and Bob Kushell and directed by Randall Einhorn. Developed as a parody of other mockumentary-style series such as The Office, Modern Family, and Parks and Recreation, The Muppets portrayed the everyday personal and professional lives of the Muppets in Los Angeles, as they produced a late-night talk show hosted by Miss Piggy. The series premiered on September 22, 2015 in the United States, and received mixed reviews, with critics praising the show's adult humor, but criticizing the writing and characterization. The Muppets was canceled after one season, which concluded on March 1, 2016. In September 2017, the Muppets performed a live concert series at the Hollywood Bowl, hosted by Bobby Moynihan. This performance was followed by a second event in July 2018 at London's O2 Arena, their first outside of the United States. In February 2018, Disney announced that a streaming television reboot series was in development for Disney+. The project, known as Muppets Live Another Day, was intended as a limited-run series set in the 1980s after the events of The Muppets Take Manhattan and depicted Kermit recruiting the Muppets to locate Rowlf the Dog after his disappearance. The series was intended to be directed by Jason Moore; written by Josh Gad, Adam Horowitz and Eddy Kitsis; produced by ABC Signature Studios and The Muppets Studio, and feature original music by Robert Lopez and Kristen Anderson-Lopez. After an executive change at The Muppets Studio that prompted a different creative direction for the Muppets, Disney canceled development on the project in September 2019. A second Disney+ series, Muppets Now, a short-form improvisational comedy series, was announced in August 2019; and was released on July 31, 2020. Muppets Haunted Mansion, a Halloween special based on the attraction of the same name, was released on October 8, 2021. Characters The principal characters of The Muppet Show and subsequent media include Kermit the Frog; Miss Piggy; Fozzie Bear; Gonzo; Rowlf the Dog; Scooter; Rizzo the Rat; Pepe the King Prawn; Dr. Bunsen Honeydew; Beaker; Statler and Waldorf; the Swedish Chef; Sam Eagle; Camilla the Chicken; Walter; and the Electric Mayhem, fronted by Dr. Teeth (lead vocals, keyboards) and consisting of Animal (drums), Floyd Pepper (bass, background vocals), Janice (guitar, background vocals), Zoot (saxophone), and occasionally Lips (trumpet). As well as The Muppet Show, the characters are popular for their appearances on Sesame Street and Fraggle Rock; and also feature in The Jimmy Dean Show, The Jim Henson Hour, Muppets Tonight, Bear in the Big Blue House, Statler and Waldorf: From the Balcony, and The Muppets. An adult-oriented segment, The Land of Gorch, was a regular feature in the first season of Saturday Night Live. Guest stars on Saturday Night Live occasionally include both the Muppets and Sesame Street characters, as well as Muppet likenesses of real people; these likenesses appear recurrently in early episodes of The Muppet Show and on Sesame Street, and appear occasionally on other series such as 30 Rock. Following Disney's acquisition of the Muppets, puppets created by The Jim Henson Company are no longer referred to as Muppets. Puppets created by Jim Henson's Creature Shop, including those in Labyrinth and The Dark Crystal, have never been considered Muppets, as they are generally more complex in design and performance than regular Muppets. At Henson's suggestion, the Star Wars character Yoda was originally performed by Frank Oz, and has been loosely described as a Muppet in media and reference works; he is not, however, and Henson otherwise had no involvement in the character's conception. Performers At the start of the Muppets' formation, Jim and Jane Henson were the group's only performers. In 1961, Jane retired to focus on raising their children. Seeking additional performers, Jim came into contact with Frank Oz that year. Although interested, Oz initially declined due to his youth and commitment to high school, and instead suggested Jerry Juhl, who worked with Oz at the Vagabond Puppet Theater in Oakland, California. Upon graduating, Oz subsequently joined in August 1963. By the time The Muppet Show began, the primary cast of performers grew to consist of Henson; Oz; Dave Goelz; Jerry Nelson; Richard Hunt; and later, Steve Whitmire, while Juhl became head writer for the series. From The Muppet Show onward, Kevin Clash; Kathryn Mullen; Louise Gold; Karen Prell; Fran Brill, Caroll Spinney; and Brian Henson performed several minor characters and assisted the main performers with puppeteering. Many of these puppeteers performed characters across The Muppet Show, Sesame Street, Fraggle Rock, and other Henson-related projects. Henson, Hunt, and Nelson continued performing until their deaths in 1990, 1992, and 2012, respectively. Goelz, Whitmire, and Bill Barretta, who joined the main cast of performers in the mid-1990s, assumed Henson's characters, with Whitmire cast in the role of Beaker and Nelson cast in the role of Statler, both previously performed by Hunt. The remainder of Hunt's characters were left without a stable performer until David Rudman was cast in those roles in the late 2000s. Oz continued performing until his retirement from puppeteering in 2000; Eric Jacobson was cast as his characters beginning in 2002. At Nelson's behest, Matt Vogel gradually began performing his characters in 2008. Peter Linz joined the main cast in 2011, debuting the role of Walter in The Muppets, before inheriting four characters then-currently performed by Whitmire (Statler, Link Hogthrob, Lips, Foo-Foo), and Robin the Frog from Vogel, in 2017. Whitmire was dismissed from the cast in 2016, with Vogel cast as Kermit the Frog in 2017, and most of Whitmire's other characters assumed by the remainder of the cast. The Muppets are currently performed by a core cast of six principal puppeteers: Vogel, Jacobson, Goelz, Barretta, Rudman, and Linz, with the occasional ensemble of "additional" Muppet performers that includes Julianne Buescher, Tyler Bunch, Alice Dinnean, Bruce Lanoil, Mike Quinn and others. Design and performance The majority of the Muppets are designed as hand puppets, with several characters utilizing rods. Common design elements of the Muppets include wide mouths and large protruding eyes. Most of the Muppets are molded or carved out of various types of foam and covered with any felt-like material. The characters may represent humans; anthropomorphic characters; realistic animals; robots; extraterrestrial or mythical creatures; or other forms of abstract characters. The Muppets are distinguished from ventriloquist dummies, which are usually animated only in the head and face, in that their arms or other features are also animated. They are also generally made of softer material. They are presented as being independent of the puppeteer, officially known as a "Muppet performer", who is usually hidden behind a set or outside of the camera frame. Using the camera frame to this advantage was an innovation of the Muppets. Prior to this, a stage was used to mask the performers, as would be the case in a live performance. Sometimes, they are seen full-bodied; in most cases, invisible strings are used to manipulate these puppets, with vocals added at a later point. Performers often use dollies to mimic walking. Since 2006, Disney has contracted Puppet Heap to produce and maintain newer models of the Muppets. During most performances, the performer holds the character above their head or in front of their body, with one hand operating the head and mouth and the other manipulating the hands and arms, either with two separate control rods or – in the case of "live-hand" Muppets – wearing the hands similarly to gloves. One consequence of this design is that most of the Muppets are left-handed, with the performer using their right hand to operate the head while operating the arm with their left hand. For more complex Muppets, several performers may operate a single character, with the performer controlling the mouth usually voicing the character. As technology has advanced, the Jim Henson team and other performers have developed several means to operate the Muppets for film and television; these include the use of suspended rigs, internal motors, remote manipulators, and computer enhanced and superimposed images. Creative use of different technologies has allowed for scenes in which the Muppets appear to exhibit complex movements wholly independently of the performer. In his book, Street Gang, author Michael Davis wrote that the characters tend to develop "organically", alluding to the performers taking up to a year to develop their characters and voices. They are also "test-driven, passed around from one Henson troupe member to another in the hope of finding the perfect human-Muppet match". When interacting with them, children believed that Muppets were living beings, even when the performers were present. Media Filmography and television Discography On September 17, 2002, Rhino Records released The Muppet Show: Music, Mayhem, and More, a compilation album of music from The Muppet Show and subsequent film releases. With John Denver, John Denver and the Muppets: A Christmas Together was produced and released in 1979. Under Disney ownership, The Muppets album releases have been issued by Walt Disney Records; as well as new album releases, some albums have been re-released, including The Muppet Christmas Carol in 2005 and The Muppet Movie in 2013. Legal music publishing rights to The Muppets songs are controlled by Fuzzy Muppet Songs and Mad Muppet Melodies, imprints of Disney Music Publishing. Theme parks The Muppets appear at the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, having first appeared at Walt Disney World in 1990. Their first featured attraction, Here Come the Muppets, was a live stage show that opened shortly after Jim Henson's death and ran at Disney's Hollywood Studios (known at that time as Disney-MGM Studios) for a year. Muppet*Vision 3D, a 4D film attraction that also uses audio-animatronic characters, opened at Disney's Hollywood Studios on May 16, 1991, exactly one year after Henson's death. It is notable as Henson's final directorial effort. Muppet*Vision 3D subsequently opened at Disney California Adventure, on February 8, 2001; this version closed in 2014. The Muppets also were featured in The Muppets Present...Great Moments in American History at the Magic Kingdom from 2016 to 2020; and the Muppet Mobile Lab at Epcot since 2007. The latter attraction is a free-roving vehicle with audio-animatronics of Bunsen Honeydew and Beaker. As part of Disney's Living Character Initiative, it premiered at Epcot and was later previewed at Disney California Adventure and Hong Kong Disneyland. In 2010, the Muppets were the face of the "Give a Day, Get a Disney Day" charity campaign. Kermit, Miss Piggy, and Sweetums appeared in daily parades at Disneyland and Magic Kingdom. The Muppets appeared in television and print ads for the campaign and were featured prominently on the campaign's Web site. Disney has released numerous collector pins featuring the Muppets since 2004. These include Limited Edition pins, Hidden Mickey pin collections, mystery pin sets, 2008 pin sets promoting The Muppets, cast lanyard pins, and assorted individual rack pins. Over 100 pins displaying the characters have been released overall. Publishing Among other print media, the Muppets have featured in comics since the 1970s. An eponymous comic strip by Guy and Brad Gilchrist first ran on September 21, 1981 in over 500 daily newspapers, six months after The Muppet Show ended its five-year run. By the end of its run in 1986, the comic strip was seen in over 660 newspapers worldwide. Many of the strips were compiled in various book collections. Special strips were also created in color, exclusively for issues of Muppet Magazine. Muppet Magazine was published from 1983 to 1989. The magazine was presented as being run by the Muppets themselves and included such features as celebrity interviews and comic stories. The only Muppets film adapted as a comic book was The Muppets Take Manhattan. The comic book series was adapted by Marvel Comics in 1984, as the 68-page story in Marvel Super Special issue #32. The adaptation was later re-printed into three limited series issues, released under Marvel's Star Comics imprint (November 1984 – January 1985). In the wake of Muppet Babies''' success, Star Comics adapted the series into a bi-monthly title, of which 26 issues were produced. The final issue of Disney Adventures, released in 2007, included a one-page strip by Roger Langridge. In 2009, Boom! Studios began publishing a series of comic books based on The Muppet Show, written and illustrated by Langridge. Following two mini-series, an ongoing series, The Muppet Show Comic Book, was published for eleven issues. Additionally, Boom! Studios published fairy tale adaptations centered on the Muppets. In 2012, the Langridge series was transferred to Marvel Comics, which released an omnibus edition in 2013. In popular culture The Muppets' prevalence in popular culture is such that the characters have become regarded as celebrities in their own right. The Muppets have a collective star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, with Kermit having been previously individually inducted in 2002. The characters have appeared at the Academy Awards and Emmy Awards; made cameo appearances in films including Rocky III, An American Werewolf in London, and Mr. Magorium's Wonder Emporium; and have been interviewed on the news magazine 60 Minutes. Kermit was interviewed by Jon Stewart on The Daily Show; guest hosted The Tonight Show, Jimmy Kimmel Live!, Extreme Makeover: Home Edition, America's Funniest Home Videos, and an April Fools' Day edition of Larry King Live; and has served as Grand Marshal of the Tournament of Roses Parade. The characters also appeared on The Cosby Show and The Torkelsons, among other sitcoms. The music video for Weezer's "Keep Fishin'" is aesthetically based on The Muppet Show and consists of the band interacting with the characters. On September 28, 2005, the United States Postal Service released a Jim Henson and the Muppets postage stamp series. The Muppets also appeared on Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve on December 31, 2007, in which Kermit and other characters presented segments following advertising breaks. After one such segment, with Kermit in Times Square, co-host Ryan Seacrest thanked "Kerms" for his assistance. Miss Piggy has appeared as a guest on The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson, and Kermit appeared on Hollywood Squares and as one of the celebrity commentators on VH1's I Love documentary series. The Muppets, as well as the title character of Bear in the Big Blue House, have made frequent appearances on The Jerry Lewis MDA Labor Day Telethon. On July 25, 2007, the Center for Puppetry Arts in Atlanta announced the opening of the Jim Henson Wing, which would house up to 700 retired Muppet characters. The wing, first set to open in 2012 with films, sketches, and other materials from the Jim Henson Company archives, eventually opened as a gallery within the Worlds of Puppetry exhibition at the Center in November 2015. Muppet-like characters star in the Broadway musical Avenue Q, the concept of which is a parody of Sesame Street. The Peter Jackson film Meet the Feebles, a satire on the television industry, is largely reminiscent of The Muppet Show. A Kermit the Frog stuffed toy rigged to spray fake vomit recurred on Late Night with Conan O'Brien, and the Muppets were frequently preempted at the beginning of episodes of You Can't Do That on Television. The sitcom series Greg the Bunny centered on sentient hand puppets working on a Muppet-like children's show. Among other examples, series such as The Simpsons, Family Guy, The West Wing, and Robot Chicken have referenced the Muppets. The term "muppet" is commonly used in the British Isles and Australasia to refer to a stupid or ineffectual person. References Works cited Davis, Michael (2008). Street Gang: The Complete History of Sesame Street. New York: Viking Penguin. Finch, Christopher (1981). Of Muppets and Men. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. Jones, Brian J. (2013). Jim Henson: The Biography. New York: Ballantine Books. Morrow, Robert W. (2006). Sesame Street and the Reform of Children's Television''. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. External links The Muppets American comedy troupes Mass media franchises introduced in 1955 Television characters introduced in 1955 Disney Consumer Products franchises Puppet troupes Sketch comedy troupes Television shows adapted into films Television shows adapted into comics Television shows adapted into video games Walt Disney Records artists Fictional musical groups Disney acquisitions Comedy franchises

20306

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mole%20fraction

Mole fraction

In chemistry, the mole fraction or molar fraction (xi or ) is defined as unit of the amount of a constituent (expressed in moles), ni, divided by the total amount of all constituents in a mixture (also expressed in moles), ntot. This expression is given below: The sum of all the mole fractions is equal to 1: The same concept expressed with a denominator of 100 is the mole percent, molar percentage or molar proportion (mol%). The mole fraction is also called the amount fraction. It is identical to the number fraction, which is defined as the number of molecules of a constituent Ni divided by the total number of all molecules Ntot. The mole fraction is sometimes denoted by the lowercase Greek letter (chi) instead of a Roman x. For mixtures of gases, IUPAC recommends the letter y. The National Institute of Standards and Technology of the United States prefers the term amount-of-substance fraction over mole fraction because it does not contain the name of the unit mole. Whereas mole fraction is a ratio of moles to moles, molar concentration is a quotient of moles to volume. The mole fraction is one way of expressing the composition of a mixture with a dimensionless quantity; mass fraction (percentage by weight, wt%) and volume fraction (percentage by volume, vol%) are others. Properties Mole fraction is used very frequently in the construction of phase diagrams. It has a number of advantages: it is not temperature dependent (such as molar concentration) and does not require knowledge of the densities of the phase(s) involved a mixture of known mole fraction can be prepared by weighing off the appropriate masses of the constituents the measure is symmetric: in the mole fractions x = 0.1 and x = 0.9, the roles of 'solvent' and 'solute' are reversed. In a mixture of ideal gases, the mole fraction can be expressed as the ratio of partial pressure to total pressure of the mixture In a ternary mixture one can express mole fractions of a component as functions of other components mole fraction and binary mole ratios: Differential quotients can be formed at constant ratios like those above: or The ratios X, Y, and Z of mole fractions can be written for ternary and multicomponent systems: These can be used for solving PDEs like: or This equality can be rearranged to have differential quotient of mole amounts or fractions on one side. or Mole amounts can be eliminated by forming ratios: Thus the ratio of chemical potentials becomes: Similarly the ratio for the multicomponents system becomes Related quantities Mass fraction The mass fraction wi can be calculated using the formula where Mi is the molar mass of the component i and M̄ is the average molar mass of the mixture. Molar mixing ratio The mixing of two pure components can be expressed introducing the amount or molar mixing ratio of them . Then the mole fractions of the components will be: The amount ratio equals the ratio of mole fractions of components: due to division of both numerator and denominator by the sum of molar amounts of components. This property has consequences for representations of phase diagrams using, for instance, ternary plots. Mixing binary mixtures with a common component to form ternary mixtures Mixing binary mixtures with a common component gives a ternary mixture with certain mixing ratios between the three components. These mixing ratios from the ternary and the corresponding mole fractions of the ternary mixture x1(123), x2(123), x3(123) can be expressed as a function of several mixing ratios involved, the mixing ratios between the components of the binary mixtures and the mixing ratio of the binary mixtures to form the ternary one. Mole percentage Multiplying mole fraction by 100 gives the mole percentage, also referred as amount/amount percent [abbreviated as (n/n)%]. Mass concentration The conversion to and from mass concentration ρi is given by: where M̄ is the average molar mass of the mixture. Molar concentration The conversion to molar concentration ci is given by: where M̄ is the average molar mass of the solution, c is the total molar concentration and ρ is the density of the solution. Mass and molar mass The mole fraction can be calculated from the masses mi and molar masses Mi of the components: Spatial variation and gradient In a spatially non-uniform mixture, the mole fraction gradient triggers the phenomenon of diffusion. References Chemical properties Dimensionless numbers of chemistry

20308

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%20Cassatt

Mary Cassatt

Mary Stevenson Cassatt (; May 22, 1844June 14, 1926) was an American painter and printmaker. She was born in Allegheny City, Pennsylvania (now part of Pittsburgh's North Side), but lived much of her adult life in France where she befriended Edgar Degas and exhibited with the Impressionists. Cassatt often created images of the social and private lives of women, with particular emphasis on the intimate bonds between mothers and children. She was described by Gustave Geffroy as one of "les trois grandes dames" (the three great ladies) of Impressionism alongside Marie Bracquemond and Berthe Morisot. In 1879, Diego Martelli compared her to Degas, as they both sought to depict movement, light, and design in the most modern sense. Early life Cassatt was born in Allegheny City, Pennsylvania, which is now part of Pittsburgh. She was born into an upper-middle-class family: Her father, Robert Simpson Cassat (later Cassatt), was a successful stockbroker and land speculator. The ancestral name had been Cossart, with the family descended from French Huguenot Jacques Cossart, who came to New Amsterdam in 1662. Her mother, Katherine Kelso Johnston, came from a banking family. Katherine Cassatt, educated and well-read, had a profound influence on her daughter. To that effect, Cassatt's lifelong friend Louisine Havemeyer wrote in her memoirs: "Anyone who had the privilege of knowing Mary Cassatt's mother would know at once that it was from her and her alone that [Mary] inherited her ability." A distant cousin of artist Robert Henri, Cassatt was one of seven children, of whom two died in infancy. One brother, Alexander Johnston Cassatt, later became president of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The family moved eastward, first to Lancaster, Pennsylvania, then to the Philadelphia area, where she started her schooling at the age of six. Cassatt grew up in an environment that viewed travel as integral to education; she spent five years in Europe and visited many of the capitals, including London, Paris, and Berlin. While abroad she learned German and French and had her first lessons in drawing and music. It is likely that her first exposure to French artists Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, Eugène Delacroix, Camille Corot, and Gustave Courbet was at the Paris World's Fair of 1855. Also in the exhibition were Edgar Degas and Camille Pissarro, both of whom were later her colleagues and mentors. Though her family objected to her becoming a professional artist, Cassatt began studying painting at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia at the early age of 15. Part of her parents' concern may have been Cassatt's exposure to feminist ideas and the bohemian behavior of some of the male students. As such, Cassatt and her network of friends were lifelong advocates of equal rights for the sexes. Although about 20% of the students were female, most viewed art as a socially valuable skill; few of them were determined, as Cassatt was, to make art their career. She continued her studies from 1861 through 1865, the duration of the American Civil War. Thomas Eakins was among her fellow students; later Eakins was forced to resign as director of the Academy. Impatient with the slow pace of instruction and the patronizing attitude of the male students and teachers, she decided to study the old masters on her own. She later said: "There was no teaching" at the Academy. Female students could not use live models, until somewhat later, and the principal training was primarily drawing from casts. Cassatt decided to end her studies: At that time, no degree was granted. After overcoming her father's objections, she moved to Paris in 1866, with her mother and family friends acting as chaperones. Since women could not yet attend the École des Beaux-Arts, Cassatt applied to study privately with masters from the school and was accepted to study with Jean-Léon Gérôme, a highly regarded teacher known for his hyper-realistic technique and his depiction of exotic subjects. (A few months later Gérôme also accepted Eakins as a student.) Cassatt augmented her artistic training with daily copying in the Louvre, obtaining the required permit, which was necessary to control the "copyists", usually low-paid women, who daily filled the museum to paint copies for sale. The museum also served as a social place for Frenchmen and American female students, who, like Cassatt, were not allowed to attend cafes where the avant-garde socialized. In this manner, fellow artist and friend Elizabeth Jane Gardner met and married famed academic painter William-Adolphe Bouguereau. Toward the end of 1866, she joined a painting class taught by Charles Joshua Chaplin, a genre artist. In 1868, Cassatt also studied with artist Thomas Couture, whose subjects were mostly romantic and urban. On trips to the countryside, the students drew from life, particularly the peasants going about their daily activities. In 1868, one of her paintings, A Mandoline Player, was accepted for the first time by the selection jury for the Paris Salon. With Elizabeth Jane Gardner, whose work was also accepted by the jury that year, Cassatt was one of two American women to first exhibit in the Salon. A Mandoline Player is in the Romantic style of Corot and Couture, and is one of only two paintings from the first decade of her career that is documented today. The French art scene was in a process of change, as radical artists such as Courbet and Édouard Manet tried to break away from accepted Academic tradition and the Impressionists were in their formative years. Cassatt's friend Eliza Haldeman wrote home that artists "are leaving the Academy style and each seeking a new way, consequently just now everything is Chaos." Cassatt, on the other hand, continued to work in the traditional manner, submitting works to the Salon for over ten years, with increasing frustration. Returning to the United States in the late summer of 1870—as the Franco-Prussian War was starting—Cassatt lived with her family in Altoona. Her father continued to resist her chosen vocation, and paid for her basic needs, but not her art supplies. Cassatt placed two of her paintings in a New York gallery and found many admirers but no purchasers. She was also dismayed at the lack of paintings to study while staying at her summer residence. Cassatt even considered giving up art, as she was determined to make an independent living. She wrote in a letter of July 1871, "I have given up my studio & torn up my father's portrait, & have not touched a brush for six weeks nor ever will again until I see some prospect of getting back to Europe. I am very anxious to go out west next fall & get some employment, but I have not yet decided where." Cassatt traveled to Chicago to try her luck, but lost some of her early paintings in the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. Shortly afterward, her work attracted the attention of Roman Catholic Bishop Michael Domenec of Pittsburgh, who commissioned her to paint two copies of paintings by Correggio in Parma, Italy, advancing her enough money to cover her travel expenses and part of her stay. In her excitement she wrote, "O how wild I am to get to work, my fingers farely itch & my eyes water to see a fine picture again". With Emily Sartain, a fellow artist from a well-regarded artistic family from Philadelphia, Cassatt set out for Europe again. Impressionism Within months of her return to Europe in the autumn of 1871, Cassatt's prospects had brightened. Her painting Two Women Throwing Flowers During Carnival was well received in the Salon of 1872, and was purchased. She attracted much favorable notice in Parma and was supported and encouraged by the art community there: "All Parma is talking of Miss Cassatt and her picture, and everyone is anxious to know her". After completing her commission for the bishop, Cassatt traveled to Madrid and Seville, where she painted a group of paintings of Spanish subjects, including Spanish Dancer Wearing a Lace Mantilla (1873, in the National Museum of American Art, Smithsonian Institution). In 1874, she made the decision to take up residence in France. She was joined by her sister Lydia who shared an apartment with her. Cassatt opened a studio in Paris. Louisa May Alcott's sister, Abigail May Alcott, was then an art student in Paris and visited Cassatt. Cassatt continued to express criticism of the politics of the Salon and the conventional taste that prevailed there. She was blunt in her comments, as reported by Sartain, who wrote: "she is entirely too slashing, snubs all modern art, disdains the Salon pictures of Cabanel, Bonnat, all the names we are used to revere". Cassatt saw that works by female artists were often dismissed with contempt unless the artist had a friend or protector on the jury, and she would not flirt with jurors to curry favor. Her cynicism grew when one of the two pictures she submitted in 1875 was refused by the jury, only to be accepted the following year after she darkened the background. She had quarrels with Sartain, who thought Cassatt too outspoken and self-centered, and eventually they parted. Out of her distress and self-criticism, Cassatt decided that she needed to move away from genre paintings and onto more fashionable subjects, in order to attract portrait commissions from American socialites abroad, but that attempt bore little fruit at first. In 1877, both her entries were rejected, and for the first time in seven years she had no works in the Salon. At this low point in her career she was invited by Edgar Degas to show her works with the Impressionists, a group that had begun their own series of independent exhibitions in 1874 with much attendant notoriety. The Impressionists (also known as the "Independents" or "Intransigents") had no formal manifesto and varied considerably in subject matter and technique. They tended to prefer plein air painting and the application of vibrant color in separate strokes with little pre-mixing, which allows the eye to merge the results in an "impressionistic" manner. The Impressionists had been receiving the wrath of the critics for several years. Henry Bacon, a friend of the Cassatts, thought that the Impressionists were so radical that they were "afflicted with some hitherto unknown disease of the eye". They already had one female member, artist Berthe Morisot, who became Cassatt's friend and colleague. Cassatt admired Degas, whose pastels had made a powerful impression on her when she encountered them in an art dealer's window in 1875. "I used to go and flatten my nose against that window and absorb all I could of his art," she later recalled. "It changed my life. I saw art then as I wanted to see it." She accepted Degas' invitation with enthusiasm and began preparing paintings for the next Impressionist show, planned for 1878, which (after a postponement because of the World's Fair) took place on April 10, 1879. She felt comfortable with the Impressionists and joined their cause enthusiastically, declaring: "we are carrying on a despairing fight & need all our forces". Unable to attend cafes with them without attracting unfavorable attention, she met with them privately and at exhibitions. She now hoped for commercial success selling paintings to the sophisticated Parisians who preferred the avant-garde. Her style had gained a new spontaneity during the intervening two years. Previously a studio-bound artist, she had adopted the practice of carrying a sketchbook with her while out-of-doors or at the theater, and recording the scenes she saw. In 1877, Cassatt was joined in Paris by her father and mother, who returned with her sister Lydia, all eventually to share a large apartment on the fifth floor of 13, Avenue Trudaine, (). Mary valued their companionship, as neither she nor Lydia had married. A case was made that Mary suffered from narcissistic disturbance, never completing the recognition of herself as a person outside of the orbit of her mother. Mary had decided early in life that marriage would be incompatible with her career. Lydia, who was frequently painted by her sister, suffered from recurrent bouts of illness, and her death in 1882 left Cassatt temporarily unable to work. Cassatt's father insisted that her studio and supplies be covered by her sales, which were still meager. Afraid of having to paint "potboilers" to make ends meet, Cassatt applied herself to produce some quality paintings for the next Impressionist exhibition. Three of her most accomplished works from 1878 were Portrait of the Artist (self-portrait), Little Girl in a Blue Armchair, and Reading Le Figaro (portrait of her mother). Degas had considerable influence on Cassatt. Both were highly experimental in their use of materials, trying distemper and metallic paints in many works, such as Woman Standing Holding a Fan, 1878–79 (Amon Carter Museum of American Art). She became extremely proficient in the use of pastels, eventually creating many of her most important works in this medium. Degas also introduced her to etching, of which he was a recognized master. The two worked side by side for a while, and her draftsmanship gained considerable strength under his tutelage. One example of her thoughtful approach to the medium of drypoint as a mode for reflecting on her status as an artist is 'Reflection' of 1889–90, which has recently been interpreted as a self-portrait. Degas in turn depicted Cassatt in a series of etchings recording their trips to the Louvre. She treasured his friendship but learned not to expect too much from his fickle and temperamental nature after a project they were collaborating on at the time, a proposed journal devoted to prints, was abruptly dropped by him. The sophisticated and well-dressed Degas, then forty-five, was a welcome dinner guest at the Cassatt residence, and likewise they at his soirées. The Impressionist exhibit of 1879 was the most successful to date, despite the absence of Renoir, Sisley, Manet and Cézanne, who were attempting once again to gain recognition at the Salon. Through the efforts of Gustave Caillebotte, who organized and underwrote the show, the group made a profit and sold many works, although the criticism continued as harsh as ever. The Revue des Deux Mondes wrote, "M. Degas and Mlle. Cassatt are, nevertheless, the only artists who distinguish themselves... and who offer some attraction and some excuse in the pretentious show of window dressing and infantile daubing". Cassatt displayed eleven works, including Lydia in a Loge, Wearing a Pearl Necklace, (Woman in a Loge). Although critics claimed that Cassatt's colors were too bright and that her portraits were too accurate to be flattering to the subjects, her work was not savaged as was Monet's, whose circumstances were the most desperate of all the Impressionists at that time. She used her share of the profits to purchase a work by Degas and one by Monet. She participated in the Impressionist Exhibitions that followed in 1880 and 1881, and she remained an active member of the Impressionist circle until 1886. In 1886, Cassatt provided two paintings for the first Impressionist exhibition in the US, organized by art dealer Paul Durand-Ruel. Her friend Louisine Elder married Harry Havemeyer in 1883, and with Cassatt as advisor, the couple began collecting the Impressionists on a grand scale. Much of their vast collection is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. Cassatt also made several portraits of family members during that period, of which Portrait of Alexander Cassatt and His Son Robert Kelso (1885) is one of her best regarded. Cassatt's style then evolved, and she moved away from Impressionism to a simpler, more straightforward approach. She began to exhibit her works in New York galleries as well. After 1886, Cassatt no longer identified herself with any art movement and experimented with a variety of techniques. Feminist Viewpoints and the "New Woman" Cassatt and her contemporaries enjoyed the wave of feminism that occurred in the 1840s, allowing them access to educational institutions at newly coed colleges and universities, such as Oberlin and the University of Michigan. Likewise, women's colleges such as Vassar, Smith and Wellesley opened their doors during this time. Cassat was an outspoken advocate for women's equality, campaigning with her friends for equal travel scholarships for students in the 1860s, and the right to vote in the 1910s. Mary Cassatt depicted the "New Woman" of the 19th century from the woman's perspective. As a successful, highly trained woman artist who never married, Cassatt—like Ellen Day Hale, Elizabeth Coffin, Elizabeth Nourse and Cecilia Beaux—personified the "New Woman". She "initiated the profound beginnings in recreating the image of the 'new' women", drawn from the influence of her intelligent and active mother, Katherine Cassatt, who believed in educating women to be knowledgeable and socially active. She is depicted in Reading 'Le Figaro' (1878). Although Cassatt did not explicitly make political statements about women's rights in her work, her artistic portrayal of women was consistently done with dignity and the suggestion of a deeper, meaningful inner life. Cassatt objected to being stereotyped as a "woman artist", she supported women's suffrage, and in 1915 showed eighteen works in an exhibition supporting the movement organised by Louisine Havemeyer, a committed and active feminist. The exhibition brought her into conflict with her sister-in-law Eugenie Carter Cassatt, who was anti-suffrage and who boycotted the show along with Philadelphia society in general. Cassatt responded by selling off her work that was otherwise destined for her heirs. In particular The Boating Party, thought to have been inspired by the birth of Eugenie's daughter Ellen Mary, was bought by the National Gallery, Washington DC. Relationship with Degas Cassatt and Degas had a long period of collaboration. The two painters had studios close together, Cassatt at 19, rue Laval, (), Degas at 4, rue Frochot, (), less than a five-minute stroll apart, and Degas developed the habit of looking in at Cassatt's studio and offering her advice and helping her gain models. They had much in common: they shared similar tastes in art and literature, came from affluent backgrounds, had studied painting in Italy, and both were independent, never marrying. The degree of intimacy between them cannot be assessed now, as no letters survive, but it is unlikely they were in a relationship given their conservative social backgrounds and strong moral principles. Several of Vincent van Gogh's letters attest Degas' sexual continence. Degas introduced Cassatt to pastel and engraving, both of which Cassatt quickly mastered, while for her part Cassatt was instrumental in helping Degas sell his paintings and promoting his reputation in America. Both regarded themselves as figure painters, and the art historian George Shackelford suggests they were influenced by the art critic Louis Edmond Duranty's appeal in his pamphlet The New Painting for a revitalization in figure painting: "Let us take leave of the stylized human body, which is treated like a vase. What we need is the characteristic modern person in his clothes, in the midst of his social surroundings, at home or out in the street." After Cassatt's parents and sister Lydia joined Cassatt in Paris in 1877, Degas, Cassatt, and Lydia were often to be seen at the Louvre studying artworks together. Degas produced two prints, notable for their technical innovation, depicting Cassatt at the Louvre looking at artworks while Lydia reads a guidebook. These were destined for a prints journal planned by Degas (together with Camille Pissarro and others), which never came to fruition. Cassatt frequently posed for Degas, notably for his millinery series trying on hats. Around 1884, Degas made a portrait in oils of Cassatt, Mary Cassatt Seated, Holding Cards. A Self-Portrait (c. 1880) by Cassatt depicts her in the identical hat and dress, leading art historian Griselda Pollock to speculate they were executed in a joint painting session in the early years of their acquaintance. Cassatt and Degas worked most closely together in the fall and winter of 1879–80 when Cassatt was mastering her printmaking technique. Degas owned a small printing press, and by day she worked at his studio using his tools and press while in the evening she made studies for the etching plate the next day. However, in April 1880, Degas abruptly withdrew from the prints journal they had been collaborating on, and without his support the project folded. Degas' withdrawal piqued Cassatt who had worked hard at preparing a print, In the Opera Box, in a large edition of fifty impressions, no doubt destined for the journal. Although Cassatt's warm feelings for Degas were to last her entire life, she never again worked with him as closely as she had over the prints journal. Mathews notes that she ceased executing her theater scenes at this time. Degas was forthright in his views, as was Cassatt. They clashed over the Dreyfus affair (early in her career she had executed a portrait of the art collector Moyse Dreyfus, a relative of the court-martialled lieutenant at the center of the affair). Cassatt later expressed satisfaction at the irony of Lousine Havermeyer's 1915 joint exhibition of hers and Degas' work being held in aid of women's suffrage, equally capable of affectionately repeating Degas' antifemale comments as being estranged by them (when viewing her Two Women Picking Fruit for the first time, he had commented "No woman has the right to draw like that"). From the 1890s onwards their relationship took on a decidedly commercial aspect, as in general had Cassatt's other relations with the Impressionist circle; nevertheless they continued to visit each other until Degas died in 1917. Later life Cassatt's reputation is based on an extensive series of rigorously drawn and tenderly observed paintings and prints on the theme of the mother and child. The earliest dated work on this subject is the drypoint Gardner Held by His Mother (an impression inscribed "Jan/88" is in the New York Public Library), although she had painted a few earlier works on the theme. Some of these works depict her own relatives, friends, or clients, although in her later years she generally used professional models in compositions that are often reminiscent of Italian Renaissance depictions of the Madonna and Child. After 1900, she concentrated almost exclusively on mother-and-child subjects, such as Woman with a Sunflower. Viewers may be surprised to find that despite her focus on portraying mother-child pairs in her portraits, "Cassatt rejected the idea of becoming a wife and mother..." The 1890s were Cassatt's busiest and most creative period. She had matured considerably and became more diplomatic and less blunt in her opinions. She also became a role model for young American artists who sought her advice. Among them was Lucy A. Bacon, whom Cassatt introduced to Camille Pissarro. Though the Impressionist group disbanded, Cassatt still had contact with some of the members, including Renoir, Monet, and Pissarro. In 1891, she exhibited a series of highly original colored drypoint and aquatint prints, including Woman Bathing and The Coiffure, inspired by the Japanese masters shown in Paris the year before. (See Japonism) Cassatt was attracted to the simplicity and clarity of Japanese design, and the skillful use of blocks of color. In her interpretation, she used primarily light, delicate pastel colors and avoided black (a "forbidden" color among the Impressionists). Adelyn D. Breeskin, the author of two catalogue raisonnés of Cassatt's work, comments that these colored prints, "now stand as her most original contribution... adding a new chapter to the history of graphic arts...technically, as color prints, they have never been surpassed". Also in 1891, Chicago businesswoman Bertha Palmer approached Cassatt to paint a 12' × 58' mural about "Modern Woman" for the Women's Building for the World's Columbian Exposition to be held in 1893. Cassatt completed the project over the next two years while living in France with her mother. The mural was designed as a triptych. The central theme was titled Young Women Plucking the Fruits of Knowledge or Science. The left panel was Young Girls Pursuing Fame and the right panel Arts, Music, Dancing. The mural displays a community of women apart from their relation to men, as accomplished persons in their own right. Palmer considered Cassatt to be an American treasure and could think of no one better to paint a mural at an exposition that was to do so much to focus the world's attention on the status of women. Unfortunately the mural did not survive following the run of the exhibition when the building was torn down. Cassatt made several studies and paintings on themes similar to those in the mural, so it is possible to see her development of those ideas and images. Cassatt also exhibited other paintings in the Exposition. As the new century arrived, Cassatt served as an advisor to several major art collectors and stipulated that they eventually donate their purchases to American art museums. In recognition of her contributions to the arts, France awarded her the Légion d'honneur in 1904. Although instrumental in advising American collectors, recognition of her art came more slowly in the United States. Even among her family members back in America, she received little recognition and was totally overshadowed by her famous brother. Mary Cassatt's brother, Alexander Cassatt, was president of the Pennsylvania Railroad from 1899 until his death in 1906. She was shaken, as they had been close, but she continued to be very productive in the years leading up to 1910. An increasing sentimentality is apparent in her work of the 1900s; her work was popular with the public and the critics, but she was no longer breaking new ground, and her Impressionist colleagues who once provided stimulation and criticism were dying. She was hostile to such new developments in art as post-Impressionism, Fauvism and Cubism. Two of her works appeared in the Armory Show of 1913, both images of a mother and child. A trip to Egypt in 1910 impressed Cassatt with the beauty of its ancient art, but was followed by a crisis of creativity; not only had the trip exhausted her, but she declared herself "crushed by the strength of this Art", saying, "I fought against it but it conquered, it is surely the greatest Art the past has left us ... how are my feeble hands to ever paint the effect on me." Diagnosed with diabetes, rheumatism, neuralgia, and cataracts in 1911, she did not slow down, but after 1914 she was forced to stop painting as she became almost blind. Cassatt died on June 14, 1926 at Château de Beaufresne, near Paris, and was buried in the family vault at Le Mesnil-Théribus, France. Legacy Mary Cassatt inspired many Canadian women artists who were members of the Beaver Hall Group. The SS Mary Cassatt was a World War II Liberty ship, launched May 16, 1943. A quartet of young Juilliard string musicians formed the all-female Cassatt Quartet in 1985, named in honor of the painter. In 2009, the award-winning group recorded String Quartets Nos. 1–3 (Cassatt String Quartet) by composer Dan Welcher; the 3rd quartet on the album was written inspired by the work of Mary Cassatt as well. In 1966, Cassatt's painting The Boating Party was reproduced on a US postage stamp. Later she was honored by the United States Postal Service with a 23-cent Great Americans series postage stamp. In 1973, Cassatt was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. In 2003, four of her paintings – Young Mother (1888), Children Playing on the Beach (1884), On a Balcony (1878/79) and Child in a Straw Hat (circa 1886) – were reproduced on the third issue in the American Treasures stamp series. On May 22, 2009, she was honored by a Google Doodle in recognition of her birthday. Cassatt's paintings have sold for as much as $4 million, the record price of $4,072,500 being set in 1996 at Christie's, New York, for In the Box. A public garden in the 12th arrondissement of Paris is named 'Jardin Mary Cassatt' in her memory. Gallery Notes References Bibliography (mentions family relationship to Alexander Cassatt) Further reading Adelson, Warren; Bertalan, Sarah; Mathews, Nancy Mowll; Pinsky, Susan; Rosen, Marc (2008). Mary Cassatt: Prints and Drawings from the Collection of Ambroise Vollard. New York: Adelson Galleries. . Barter, Judith A., et al. Mary Cassatt: Modern Woman. Exhibition catalogue. New York: Art Institute of Chicago in association with Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1998. Breeskin, Adelyn D. Mary Cassatt: A Catalogue Raisonné of the Oils, Pastels, Watercolors, and Drawings. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1970. Conrads, Margaret C. American Paintings and Sculpture at the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute. New York: Hudson Hills Press, 1990. Pinsky, Susan; Rosen, Marc; Adelson, Warren; Cantor, Jay E.; Shapiro, Barbara Stern (2000). Mary Cassatt: Prints and Drawings from the Artist's Studio. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. . Pollock, Griselda. Mary Cassatt: Painter of Modern Women. World of Art. London: Thames and Hudson, 1998. Stratton, Suzanne L. Spain, Espagne, Spanien: Foreign Artists Discover Spain 1800–1900. Exhibition catalogue. New York: The Spanish Institute in association with the Equitable Gallery, 1993. (see index) External links Jennifer A. Thompson, "On the Balcony by Mary Stevenson Cassatt (W1906-1-7)" in The John G. Johnson Collection: A History and Selected Works, a Philadelphia Museum of Art free digital publication. Mary Cassatt's Cat Paintings A finding aid to the Mary Cassatt letters, 1882–1926 at the Archives of Art, Smithsonian Institution Mary Cassatt at the National Gallery of Art Mary Cassatt Gallery at MuseumSyndicate.com Mary Cassatt at the WebMuseum. Mary Cassatt prints at the National Art History Institut (INHA) in Paris The Havemeyer Family Papers relating to Art Collecting Mary Cassatt was a close personal friend of Louisine Havemeyer and acted as an art collecting advisor and buying agent for the Havemeyer family. This archival collection includes original letters from Mary Cassatt to Louisine and Henry Osborne Havemeyer. The foundation in France for the remembrance of Mary Cassatt, located in the village of Mesnil-Theribus, where Cassatt lived and is buried Bibliothèque numérique de l'INHA – Estampes de Mary Cassatt 1844 births 1926 deaths Artists from Pittsburgh American Impressionist painters American expatriates in France American printmakers American women painters Painters from Pennsylvania American women printmakers American portrait painters 19th-century American painters 20th-century American painters 19th-century American women artists 20th-century American women artists Color engravers Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts alumni Alumni of the École des Beaux-Arts Blind people from the United States Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur Burials in France

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%20academy

Military academy

A military academy or service academy is an educational institution which prepares candidates for service in the officer corps. It normally provides education in a military environment, the exact definition depending on the country concerned. Three types of academy exist: pre-collegiate-level institutions awarding academic qualifications, university-level institutions awarding bachelor's-degree-level qualifications, and those preparing Officer Cadets for commissioning into the armed services of the state. A naval academy is either a type of military academy (in the broad sense of that term) or is distinguished from one (in the narrow sense). In U.S. usage, the Military, Naval and the Air Force Academy serve as military academies under the categorization of service academies in that country. History The first military academies were established in the 18th century to provide future officers for technically specialized corps, such as military engineers and artillery, with scientific training. The Italian Military Academy was inaugurated in Turin on January the 1st, 1678 as the Savoy Royal Academy, making it the oldest military academy in existence. The Royal Danish Naval Academy was set up in 1701. The Royal Military Academy, Woolwich was set up in 1741, after a false start in 1720 because of a lack of funds, as the earliest military academy in Britain. Its original purpose was to train cadets entering the Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers. In France, the École Royale du Génie at Mézières was founded in 1748, followed by a non-technical academy in 1751, the École Royale Militaire offering a general military education to the nobility. French military academies were widely copied in Prussia, Austria, Russia. The Norwegian Military Academy in Oslo, educates officers of the Norwegian Army. The academy was established in 1750, and is the oldest institution for higher education in Norway. By the turn of the century, under the impetus of the Napoleonic Wars and the strain that the armies of Europe subsequently came under, military academies for the training of commissioned officers of the army were set up in most of the combatant nations. These military schools had two functions: to provide instruction for serving officers in the functions of the efficient staff-officer, and to school youngsters before they gained an officer's commission. The Kriegsakademie in Prussia was founded in 1801 and the École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr was created by order of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1802 as a replacement for the École Royale Militaire of the Ancien Régime (the institution that Napoleon himself had graduated from). The Royal Military College, Sandhurst, in England was the brainchild of John Le Marchant in 1801, who established schools for the military instruction of officers at High Wycombe and Great Marlow, with a grant of £30,000 from Parliament. The two original departments were later combined and moved to Sandhurst. In the United States, the United States Military Academy (USMA) in West Point, New York was founded on March 16, 1802, and is one of five service academies in the nation. Types Pre-collegiate institutions A military school teaches children of various ages (elementary school, middle school or high school) in a military environment which includes training in military aspects, such as drill. Many military schools are also boarding schools, and others are simply magnet schools in a larger school system. Many are privately run institutions, though some are public and are run either by a public school system (such as the Chicago Public Schools) or by a state. A common misconception results because some states have chosen to house their juvenile criminal populations in higher-security boarding schools that are run in a manner similar to military boarding schools. These are also called reform schools, and are functionally a combination of school and prison. They attempt to emulate the environment of military boarding schools in the belief that a strict structured environment can reform these children. This may or may not be true. However, their environment and target population are different from those of military schools. Popular culture sometimes shows parents sending or threatening to send unruly children off to military school (or boarding school) to teach them good behavior (e.g. in the "Army of One" episode of The Sopranos, Tony and Carmela Soprano consider sending their son, AJ, to the Hudson Military Institute, and in the 2000 video game The Sims, children with failing grades are automatically sent to military school), while other fictional depictions don't show military academies as threats or punishment (e.g. Damien: Omen II and The Presidio). Adult institutions A college-level military academy is an institute of higher learning of things military. It is part of a larger system of military education and training institutions. The primary educational goal at military academies is to provide a high quality education that includes significant coursework and training in the fields of military tactics and military strategy. The amount of non-military coursework varies by both the institution and the country, and the amount of practical military experience gained varies as well. Military academies may or may not grant university degrees. In the US, graduates have a major field of study, earning a Bachelor's degree in that subject just as at other universities. However, in British academies, the graduate does not achieve a university degree, since the whole of the one-year course (undertaken mainly but not exclusively by university graduates) is dedicated to military training. There are two types of military academies: national (government-run) and state/private-run. Graduates from national academies are typically commissioned as officers in the country's military. The new officers usually have an obligation to serve for a certain number of years. In some countries (e.g. Britain) all military officers train at the appropriate academy, whereas in others (e.g. the United States) only a percentage do and the service academies are seen as institutions which supply service-specific officers within the forces (about 15 percent of US military officers). State or private-run academy graduates have no requirement to join the military after graduation, although some schools have a high rate of graduate military service. Today, most of these schools have ventured away from their military roots and now enroll both military and civilian students. The only exception in the United States is the Virginia Military Institute which remains all-military. Albania Armed Forces Academy Angola Army Military Academy National Air Force Academy Naval Academy Argentina Argentine Army: Colegio Militar de la Nación (National Military College), in El Palomar, Buenos Aires (northwestern outskirts of Buenos Aires) Argentine Navy: Escuela Naval Militar (Naval Military School), in Río Santiago, Buenos Aires (in Ensenada, near La Plata) Argentine Air Force: Escuela de Aviación Militar (Military Aviation School), in the city of Córdoba Armenia National Defense Research University Vazgen Sargsyan Military Institute Armenak Khanperyants Military Aviation University Australia Australian Defence Force Academy Royal Australian Naval College Royal Military College, Duntroon Officers' Training School RAAF Austria Theresian Military Academy Landesverteidigungsakademie Azerbaijan Schools of the Azerbaijani Armed Forces War College of the Azerbaijani Armed Forces Azerbaijan Higher Military Academy (formerly the Baku Higher Combined Arms Command School) Azerbaijan Higher Naval Academy (former independent institution) Azerbaijan High Military Aviation School (former independent institution) Special service higher schools Academy of the Ministry of National Security High Military School of Internal Troops of Azerbaijan Police Academy of the Ministry of Internal Affairs State Border Service Academy Academy of Ministry of Emergency Situations Academy of State Customs Committee Bangladesh Bangladesh Military Academy Bangladesh Naval Academy Bangladesh Air Force Academy Armed Forces Medical College (AFMC), Airport Road, Dhaka Cadet colleges in Bangladesh Belarus Military Academy of Belarus Border Guard Service Institute of Belarus Ministry of the Interior Academy of the Republic of Belarus Belgium Royal Military Academy (Belgium) Bolivia Military College of Bolivia (Colegio Militar del Ejército de Bolivia) Bolivian Military Naval Academy Bolivian Air Force Academy Brazil Basic Education (offers an education with military values for civilians students of primary and secondary school)Brazilian Army: Sistema Colégio Militar do Brasil (SCMB) (Military High School of Brazil System) Colégio Militar de Belém (CMBel) (Military High School of Belém) Colégio Militar de Belo Horizonte (CMBH) (Military High School of Belo Horizonte) Colégio Militar de Brasília (CMB) (Military High School of Brasília) Colégio Militar de Campo Grande (CMCG) (Military High School of Campo Grande) Colégio Militar de Curitiba (CMC) (Military High School of Curitiba) Colégio Militar de Fortaleza (CMF) (Military High School of Fortaleza) Colégio Militar de Juiz de Fora (CMJF) (Military High School of Juiz de Fora) Colégio Militar de Manaus (CMM) (Military High School of Manaus) Colégio Militar de Porto Alegre (CMPA) (Military High School of Porto Alegre) Colégio Militar do Recife (CMR) (Military High School of Recife) Colégio Militar do Rio de Janeiro (CMRJ) (Military High School of Rio de Janeiro) Colégio Militar de Salvador (CMS) (Military High School of Salvador) Colégio Militar de Santa Maria (CMSM) (Military High School of Santa Maria) Colégio Militar de São Paulo (CMSP) (Military High School of São Paulo) Preparatory Schools (prepares students for admission to one of the official training academies)Brazilian Army: Escola Preparatória de Cadetes do Exército (EsPCEx) (Army Cadets Preparatory School) Brazil's Navy: Colégio Naval (CN) (Naval High School) Brazilian Air Force: Escola Preparatória de Cadetes do Ar (EPCAR) (Air Cadets Preparatory School) Sailor and Marine Soldier Training Brazil's Navy: Centro de Instrução Almirante Milcíades Portela Alves (CIAMPA) (Admiral Milcíades Portela Alves Instruction Center) Centro de Instrução e Adestramento de Brasília (CIAB) (Brasília Instruction and Training Center) Escola de Aprendizes-Marinheiros (EAM) (Apprentices-Sailors School) Escola de Aprendizes-Marinheiros do Ceará (EAMCE) (Ceará Apprentices-Sailors School) Escola de Aprendizes-Marinheiros do Espírito Santo (EAMES) (Espirito Santo Apprentices-Sailors School) Escola de Aprendizes-Marinheiros de Pernambuco (EAMPE) (Pernambuco Apprentices-Sailors School) Escola de Aprendizes-Marinheiros de Santa Catarina (EAMSC) (Santa Catarina Apprentices-Sailors School) Sergeants Training Brazilian Army: Escola de Sargento das Armas (ESA) (Sergeant of Arms School) Escola de Sargento de Logística (EsSLog) (Sergeant of Logistics School) Centro de Instrução de Aviação do Exército (CiAvEx) (Army Aviation Instruction Center) Brazil's Navy: Centro de Instrução Almirante Alexandrino (CIAA) (Admiral Alexandrino Instruction Center) Centro de Instrução Almirante Sylvio de Camargo (CIASC) (Admiral Sylvio de Camargo Instruction Center) Brazilian Air Force: Escola de Especialistas da Aeronáutica (EEAR) (Air Force Specialists School) Officers Training Brazilian Army: Academia Militar das Agulhas Negras (AMAN) (Agulhas Negras Military Academy) Escola de Formação Complementar do Exército (EsFCEx) (Army Complementary Training School) Escola de Saúde do Exército (EsSEx) (Army Health School) Instituto Militar de Engenharia (IME) (Military Institute of Engineering) Brazil's navy: Centro de Instrução Almirante Wandenkolk (CIAW) (Admiral Wandekolk Instruction Center) Escola de Formação de Oficiais da Marinha Mercante (EFOMM) (Merchant Navy Officers Training School) Escola Naval (EN) (Naval School) Brazilian Air Force: Academia da Força Aérea (AFA) (Air Force Academy) Centro de Instrução e Adaptação da Aeronáutica (CIAAR) (Air Force Instruction and Adaptation Center) Instituto Tecnológico de Aeronáutica (ITA) (Aeronautics Institute of Technology) Bulgaria Vasil Levski National Military University founded in 1878 as a military school in Plovdiv Air Force Faculty in Dolna Mitropoliya Artillery, Air Defence and CIS Faculty in Shumen All-Force Faculty faculty in Veliko Tarnovo Nikola Vaptsarov Naval Academy in Varna and founded in 1881 as Naval Machinery School in Rousse Rakovski Defence and Staff College in Sofia, founded with an Act of the 15th National Assembly of March 1, 1912, in Sofia Canada Two post-secondary military academies are operated under the Canadian Military Colleges system, the Royal Military College of Canada (RMCC) in Kingston, Ontario; and the Collège militaire royal de Saint-Jean (CMR) in Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec. RMCC was established in 1876, while CMR was established in 1954. The two institutions provided military education to officer cadets of all three elements in the Canadian Forces; the navy, army and air force; with RMC granted the authority to confer academic degrees in arts, science and engineering by the 1960s. From 1940 to 1995, the Department of National Defence operated a third military college in Victoria, British Columbia, known as Royal Roads Military College. Graduates of the Colleges are widely acknowledged to have had a disproportionate impact in the Canadian services and society, thanks to the solid foundations provided by their military education. Military discipline and training, as well as a focus on physical fitness and fluency in both of Canada's two official languages, English and French, provided cadets with ample challenges and a very fulfilling experience. In 1995 the Department of National Defence was forced to close RRMC and CMR due to budget considerations, but RMCC continues to operate. RRMC reopened as a civilian university in the fall of 1995, and is maintained by the Government of British Columbia. In 2007, the Department of National Defence reopened CMR as a military academy that offers equivalent schooling as CEGEP, a level of post-secondary education in Quebec's education system. In 2021 CMR was returned to University status and had officer cadets graduate and received their commission for the first time since 1995. In addition to Canadian Military Colleges, the Canadian Armed Forces also operate a number of training centres and schools, including the Canadian Forces College, and the Canadian Forces Language School. The components of the Canadian Armed Forces also maintain training centres and schools. The Canadian Army Doctrine and Training Centre (CADTC) is a formation in the Army that delivers combat, and doctrinal training. The CADTC includes several training establishments, such as the Canadian Manoeuvre Training Centre, Combat Training Centre, Command and Staff College, and the Peace Support Training Centre. The 2 Canadian Air Division is the formation responsible for training in the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), and includes establishments like the Royal Canadian Air Force Academy, 2 Canadian Forces Flying Training School, and 3 Canadian Forces Flying Training School. The RCAF also maintains the Canadian Forces School of Survival and Aeromedical Training. In addition to publicly operated institutions, Canada is also home to one private military boarding school, Robert Land Academy, in West Lincoln, Ontario. Founded in 1978, it is an all-boys' institute that is fully accredited by Ontario's Ministry of Education. The school offers elementary and secondary levels of education, providing schooling for students from Grade 6 to Grade 12. Colombia National Army of Colombia: José María Córdova Military School, in Bogotá. Colombian Army NCO School Colombian Air Force: Marco Fidel Suarez Military Aviation School, in Cali. Colombian Naval Infantry and Colombian Navy: Admiral Padilla Naval Academy, in Cartagena de Indias. National Police of Colombia: General Santander National Police Academy, in Bogotá. Czech Republic Univerzita Obrany (University of Defence) Military academy and training command Democratic People's Republic of Korea Kim Jong-un National Defense University Kim Il-sung Military University Kim Il-sung Military Political University Kim Jong-suk Naval Academy Kim Chaek Air Force Academy Denmark Royal Danish Defence College Royal Danish Military Academy Royal Danish Naval Academy Royal Danish Air Force Officers School Egypt Egyptian Air Defense Academy Egyptian Military Technical College Egyptian Military medical college Egyptian Air Academy Egyptian Military Academy Egyptian Naval Academy El Salvador Escuela Militar Capitan General Gerardo Barrios Estonia Estonian Military Academy Baltic Defence College, both in Tartu Finland Finnish National Defence University (Maanpuolustuskorkeakoulu), on Santahamina island, Helsinki France High schools Lycée militaire de Saint-Cyr Lycée militaire d'Autun Prytanée National Militaire Lycée militaire d'Aix-en-Provence Lycée naval de Brest École des Pupilles de l'Air Officer academies École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr (ESM, literally the "Special Military School of St Cyr") is the French Military Academy. It is often referred to as "Saint-Cyr". Founded by Napoleon in 1802, and initially in Fontainebleau, it was moved first to Saint-Cyr-l'École in 1808, and then to Coëtquidan (Brittany) in 1945. École militaire interarmes (EMIA) École des commissaires des armées (ECA), founded in 2013 École de l'air: the French Air Force Academy École Navale: the French Naval Academy École des officiers de la gendarmerie nationale (EOGN): gendarmerie commissioned officers academy École Polytechnique (X): a French engineering grande école of military status. Though all of its French engineering students are enlisted and trained as officers, 5% of its graduates remain in the military after graduation. ENSTA Bretagne: a French engineering grande école of military status. Only 1/4 of its students are actual officers-in-training. École de Santé des Armées: medical school of French army National Military Infrastructure Engineers Academy: trains military engineers of the Armed Forces, opened 2013 (also one of the newest) Postgraduate academies École d'état-major (Staff school): first step of higher military studies, for officer of OF-2 rank. École de Guerre (War School): second step of higher military studies, mainly for ranks OF-2 and OF-3 who want to continue the command track (e.g. to command battalion or regiment). Collège d'enseignement supérieur de l'armée de terre (Army Higher Education College): second step of military education, but for officers whishing to achieve a high-level specialization. Cours supérieur d'état-major (Advanced Staff Course) Enseignement militaire supérieur scientifique et technique (Higher Technical and Scientific Education). Centre des hautes études militaire (Center for Advanced Military Studies): final step of military education, for very few selected OF-5. Its students also attend the civilian institut des hautes études de défense nationale. Georgia National Defense Academy Cadet Bachelor School Junior Officer Basic School Aviation Air Defense Officer Basic School Medical Officer School Captain Career School Command and General Staff School School of Advance Defense Studies Language Training School Germany Germany has a unique system for civil and military education. The only true military academy is the Führungsakademie der Bundeswehr where mainly future staff officers and general staff officers are further trained. The standard education in military leadership is the task of the Offizierschulen (officers' schools) run by the three branches. The contents differ from branch to branch. According to the doctrine "leading by task", in the army all prospective platoon leaders are trained down to the level of a commander of a mixed combat battalion. There they also have to pass an officer exam to become commissioned later on. Moreover, there exist so called Waffenschulen (school of weapons) like infantry school or artillery school. There the officers learn to deal with the typical tasks of their respective corps. A specialty of the German concept of officer formation is the academic education. Germany runs two Universities of the German Federal Armed Forces where almost every future officer has to pass non-military studies and achieve a bachelor's or master's degree. During their studies (after at least three years of service) the candidates become commissioned Leutnant (second lieutenant). The three officer's schools are: The German Navy supervises: Naval Academy at Mürwik, in Flensburg-Mürwik The German Army supervises: Offizierschule des Heeres, in Dresden The German Air Force supervises: Offizierschule der Luftwaffe, in Fürstenfeldbruck Academic and staff education: Universities of the German Federal Armed Forces Helmut Schmidt University, in Hamburg Bundeswehr University Munich, in Munich Führungsakademie der Bundeswehr, in Hamburg Greece The Hellenic Armed Forces have military academies supervised by each branch of the Armed Forces individually: The Hellenic Army supervises: The Evelpidon Military Academy, in Athens. The Corps Officers Military Academy, in Thessaloniki. The Hellenic Air Force supervises: The Icarus Air Force Academy, in Tatoi (Athens). The Hellenic Navy supervises: The Hellenic Naval Cadets Academy, in Piraeus. Hungary National University of Public Service (Successor of Royal Hungarian Ludovica Military Academy, which founded in 1808) Faculty of Military Sciences and Officer Training India Indonesia The Indonesian Military Academy was founded in Yogyakarta, October 13, 1945, by the order of General Staff Chief of Indonesia Army Lieutenant General Urip Sumohardjo as the Militaire Academie (MA) Yogyakarta. Currently, the Tentara Nasional Indonesia or the TNI (Indonesian National Armed Forces), under the supervision of the Commanding General of the Indonesian National Armed Forces Academy System (a two or three-star officer in billet) in the HQ of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, has divided the academies into the three respective services: Indonesian Military Academy (Akademi Militer; Akmil), in Magelang, Central Java, is under the supervision of the Chief of Staff of the Indonesian Army, operated since 1946. Indonesian Naval Academy (Akademi Angkatan Laut; AAL), in Surabaya, East Java, is under the supervision of the Chief of Staff of the Indonesian Navy. The Indonesian Naval Academy also educates and forms officers to serve in the Indonesian Marine Corps. In existence since 1951. Indonesian Air Force Academy (Akademi Angkatan Udara; AAU), in Yogyakarta, is under the supervision of the Chief of Staff of the Indonesian Air Force. The academy has three majorings which are: electronics, engineering, and administration. Following graduation, students who are selected as Pilot and Navigator conduct further training in the Pilot and Navigator Flight School prior bearing the Pilot/Navigator designation. Active since 1945, but also inherits the traditions of former Dutch military aviation schools. Each service academy is headed by a two-star general who serves as superintendent, and his/her deputy is a one-star officer. All the students (cadets/midshipman) are recruited from senior high school graduates from all over Indonesia. Shortly after graduation, they are commissioned as Letnan Dua (Second Lieutenant/Ensign)) in their respective service branches and get the Diploma IV (Associate degree, 4th Grade) comparable to civil academies or universities. The length term is now 4 years and is divided into five grades of cadets' ranks, starting from the lowest: Prajurit Taruna/Kadet/Karbol (Cadet Private), 1st year (4 months) Kopral Taruna/Kadet/Karbol (Cadet Corporal), 1st year (8 months) Sersan Taruna/Kadet/Karbol (Cadet Sergeant), 2nd year Sersan Mayor Dua Taruna/Kadet/Karbol (Cadet Second Sergeant Major), 3rd year Sersan Mayor Satu Taruna/Kadet/Karbol (Cadet First Sergeant Major), 4th year Taruna refers to cadets in the Military Academy, Kadet refers to cadets in the Naval Academy, and Karbol refers to cadets in the Air Force Academy. Until 1999, before the Indonesian National Police officially separated from the armed forces, the Indonesian Police Academy ("AKPOL") also stood under the National Armed Forces Academy but now has separated from the Military and is under the auspices of the President of Indonesia controlled by the National Police Headquarters (Mabes Polri), where in the other hand the Armed Forces (Army, Naval, and Air Force) Academies of Indonesia is under the auspices of the Ministry of Defense controlled by the Armed Forces General Headquarters (Mabes TNI). Presently, the Police Academy is in Semarang (Central Java), and is supervised under the supervision of the Chief of the Indonesian National Police (Kapolri). All three academies and the Police Academy have a joint 4th class cadet training program since 2008, after completing it the cadets go to their respective academies to continue with the three remaining years of study before commissioning. Iran Iran has five main military universities: Imam Ali Officers' University (Persian: دانشگاه افسری امام علی; acronym: دا اف, DĀʿAF), formerly known as Officers' School (Persian: دانشکده افسری) is the military academy of Ground Forces of Islamic Republic of Iran Army, in Tehran, Iran. Shahid Sattari Aeronautical University (Persian: دانشگاه علوم و فنون هوایی شهید ستاری) is the military academy of Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force, in Tehran, Iran. Imam Khomeini Naval University of Noshahr (Persian: دانشگاه علوم و فنون دریایی امام خمینی) is the military academy of Islamic Republic of Iran Navy, in Noshahr, Mazandaran, Iran. Khatam al-Anbia Air Defense Academy (Persian: دانشگاه پدافند هوایی خاتم‌الانبیاء آجا) is the military academy of Islamic Republic of Iran Air Defense Force, in Tehran, Iran. Imam Hossein University (Persian: دانشگاه امام حسین‎; acronym: IHU) is the military academy of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, in Tehran, Iran. Italy High school level institutions (only for classical and scientific liceum, starting from grade 10): Scuola Militare Nunziatella, founded during the Bourbon Period in 1787, in Italian Army, Naples Scuola Militare Teulié, founded during the Napoleonic period in 1802, Italian Army, Milan Scuola Militare Navale Morosini, Italian Navy, Venice Scuola Militare Aeronautica Douhet, Italian Air Force, Florence 2009–2010 school year was the first school year with girls attending. Non Commissioned Officer (NCO) schools: Army: Scuola sottufficiali dell'Esercito Italiano, Viterbo Navy: Scuola sottufficiali della Marina Militare, Taranto and Law Maddalena Air Force: Scuola marescialli dell'Aeronautica Militare, Viterbo Carabinieri: Scuola marescialli e brigadieri dei carabinieri, Firenze Guardia di Finanza: Scuola ispettori e sovrintendenti della Guardia di Finanza, L'Aquila University level institutions: Military Academy of Modena Scuola di Applicazione, Torino Accademia Navale, Livorno Accademia Aeronautica, Pozzuoli Scuola Ufficiali Carabinieri, Rome Accademia della Guardia di Finanza, Bergamo Japan National Defense Academy of Japan (university level) National Defense Medical College (university level medical school) Japan Coast Guard Academy (university level) Officer Candidate Training Schools (for each of Ground, Maritime and Air Self-defense forces) Kazakhstan National Defense University Military Institute of the Kazakh Ground Forces (formerly the Alma-Ata Higher All-Arms Command School) Talgat Bigeldinov Military Institute of the Air Defence Forces Military Engineering Institute of Radio Electronics and Communications Kyrgyzstan Military Institute of the Armed Forces of the Kyrgyz Republic Center for Advanced Training of Officers Malaysia Secondary level institutions: Royal Military College (Malaysia) (Maktab Tentera Diraja) University level: National Defence University of Malaysia (University Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia) (foundation, bachelor's degree, master's degree, PhD and specialist courses) Armed Forces Defence College (Maktab Pertahanan Angkatan Tentera) Specialist training and staff institutions: Officers Cadet School in Port Dickson (OCS) Malaysian Armed Forces Staff College (Maktab Turus Angkatan Tentera) Armed Forces Health Training Institute (Institut Latihan Kesihatan Angkatan Tentera) Malaysian Peacekeeping Training Centre (Pusat Latihan Pengaman Malaysia) Reserve Officer Training Units ( or ) or ROTU exists only in public universities in Malaysia. This is a tertiary institution based officer commissioning program to equip students as officer cadets with military knowledge and understanding for service as Commissioned Officers in the reserve components of the various branches of the Malaysian Armed Forces. Mexico Heroica Escuela Naval Militar Heroico Colegio Militar Colegio del Aire Moldova Alexandru cel Bun Military Academy Mongolia National Defense University Military Music College of Mongolia Myanmar Defence Services Academy Defence Services Technological Academy Defence Services Medical Academy Officer Training School (Myanmar) (OTS) National Defence College (Myanmar) (NDC) Defence Services Institute of Nursing and Paramedical Science Namibia Namibian Military School Netherlands Koninklijke Militaire Academie Royal Naval College (Netherlands) New Zealand Tier One – initial officer training New Zealand Commissioning Course, Waiouru (NZ Army) Initial Officer Training, Woodbourne (RNZAF) Officer Training School, Devonport Naval Base Tier Two – junior officer education NZDF Junior Staff Course, New Zealand Defence College Tier Three – senior officer education NZDF Staff Course, New Zealand Defence College Nigeria High school training Nigerian Military School, Zaria – Nigerian Army military school for boys Air Force Military School, Jos, Nigeria, in Jos – Nigerian Air Force military school for boys Nigerian Navy Military School, Ikot Ntuen, Akwa Ibom State – Nigerian Navy military School for boys Undergraduate officer training Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna – Nigerian Armed Forces university school Postgraduate officer training Armed Forces Command and Staff College, Jaji, at Jaji, Kaduna – joint Nigerian Armed Forces higher studies institute for both indigenous and international students Nigerian Army College of Logistics, Lagos – school for training middle career Nigerian Army officers on military logistics National Defence College, Abuja – school for training senior officers of the Nigerian Armed Forces and also some members of the civil service Army War College Nigeria Naval War College Nigeria Air War College Nigeria Norway Undergraduate officer training Norwegian Military Academy, Linderud/Oslo (Norwegian Army) Norwegian Naval Academy, Laksevåg/Bergen (Royal Norwegian Navy) Norwegian Air Force Academy, Trondheim (Royal Norwegian Air Force) Postgraduate training Norwegian Defence Staff College, Oslo (joint) Norwegian National Defence College, Oslo (civil service/very senior officers) Pakistan Pakistan Military Academy, Kakul Pakistan Air Force Academy, Risalpur Pakistan Naval Academy, Karachi Command and Staff College, Quetta National Defence University, Islamabad Pakistan Navy War College, Lahore PAF Air War College, Karachi Army Burn Hall College, for boys, Abbottabad Army Public College of Management Sciences (public sector) Military College Jhelum, Jhelum District Military College Murree, Rawalpindi District Military College Sui, Dera Bugti District PAF College Sargodha PAF College Murre Hills Cadet College Razmak, Razmak North Waziristan Agency Cadet College Kohat Cadet College Wana Cadet College Spinkai Cadet College Mastung Cadet College Petaro, Pakistan Navy Garrison Cadet College Kohat Cadet College Skardu Paraguay Francisco López Military Academy, in Capiatá, Paraguay People's Republic of China PLA National Defense University National University of Defense Technology PLA Information Engineering University Army Command College of the Chinese People's Liberation Army Peru Undergraduate officer training Chorrillos Military School (Peruvian Army) Peruvian Naval School (Peruvian Navy) Peruvian Air Force Officers' School (Peruvian Air Force) Officers' School of the National Police of Peru (National Police of Peru) Philippines The Philippines patterned all its service academies after the United States Military Academy (West Point) and the United States Merchant Marine Academy (King's Point). These higher education institutions are operated by the Philippine Government and grant different baccalaureate degrees. Philippine Military Academy (Akademiyang Militar ng Pilipinas), City of Baguio – It is the primary training school of the Armed Forces of the Philippines for would be regular commissioned officers of the Philippine Army, Philippine Navy, Philippine Marine Corps and the Philippine Air Force. It is under the control of the Department of National Defense. Its former name was the Philippine Constabulary Academy. During the American colonial rule era, U.S. Army Cavalry Officers established the school for the professionalization of the enlisted personnel of the defunct Philippine Constabulary. It was renamed the Philippine Military Academy before the 1930s. In 1992, PMA stopped providing graduates to the Philippine Constabulary after the passage of Republic Act 6975 which resulted in the merger of the Philippine Constabulary and the Integrated National Police. The merged institutions was named the Philippine National Police. Beginning in 1993, PMA became a co-educational school. Philippine Merchant Marine Academy, Zambales – It is a school for students who shall serve in different private shipping companies, foreign or local. Its graduates may serve in the Philippine Coast Guard and the Philippine Navy as an ensign after graduation depending upon their choice. All PMMA graduates are also automatically appointed by the president of the Philippines as ensigns (2nd lieutenants) in the Philippine Navy Reserve. This is the oldest of the Philippine service academies having been established in 1820 during the long period of Spanish colonial rule in the country, and was first situated in Manila for many years. Aside from the PMA and the PMMA, all three branches of the AFP have their own Officer Candidate Course Programs for both men and women, patterned after their US counterparts. The nation's higher military colleges are: Armed Forces of the Philippines Command and General Staff College, Quezon City – educates officers of the AFP not exceeding the ranks of Colonel or Navy Captain National Defense College of the Philippines, Quezon City – is a school for senior AFP officers for military/naval planning and to ready them in holding the ranks of Brigadier General/Commodore. Notable civilians may enroll and be given the honorary rank of Lieutenant Colonel/Commander in the AFP Reserve upon graduation. Poland War Studies University Jarosław Dąbrowski Military University of Technology in Warsaw Tadeusz Kościuszko Land Forces Military Academy in Wrocław Polish Air Force Academy in Dęblin Heroes of Westerplatte Naval Academy in Gdynia Faculty of Military Medicine of the Medical University in Łódź Portugal Pre-university level institution Colégio Militar, Lisbon – military basic and high school Instituto dos Pupilos do Exército, Lisbon – vocational education military school Undergraduate officer training Academia Militar, Lisbon and Amadora – Portuguese Army and Republican National Guard university school Escola Naval, Almada – Portuguese Navy university school Academia da Força Aérea, Sintra – Portuguese Air Force university school Postgraduate and staff training Instituto de Estudos Superiores Militares, Lisbon – joint command and staff college Republic of China (Taiwan) R.O.C. Military Academy R.O.C. Naval Academy R.O.C. Air Force Academy R.O.C. Air Force Institute of Technology Army Academy R.O.C. National Defense University War College Army Command and Staff College Naval Command and Staff College Air Force Command and Staff College Institute of Technology Management College Political Warfare College National Defense Medical Center Chung-cheng Armed Forces Preparatory School Republic of Ireland Defence Forces Training Centre Naval College Air Corps College Republic of Korea The three main military academies: Korea Military Academy (Army) Korea Naval Academy Korea Air Force Academy Other military academies: Korea Army Academy at Yeongcheon, formerly Korea Third Military Academy Armed Forces Nursing Academy Romania Carol I National Defence University (Universitatea Națională de Apărare Carol I), Bucharest Technical Military Academy (Academia Tehnică Militară), Bucharest Land Forces: Nicolae Bălcescu Land Forces Academy, Sibiu Air Forces: Academia Forțelor Aeriene (Air Forces Academy), Braṣov Naval Forces: Mircea cel Bătrân Naval Academy, Constanṭa Russia See also: Cadet Corps (Russia), Military academies in Russia First stage of training The Cadet Corps is an admissions-based military middle school for young boys that was founded in the Russian Empire in 1732, soon becoming widespread throughout the country. Omsk Cadet Corps Karelia Cadet Corps Krasnoyarsk Cadet Corps Magnitogorsk Cadet Corps Georgy Zhukov Moscow Cadet Corps Moscow Cossacks Cadet Corps Moscow Cadet Corps of Military Music Moscow Cadet Corps of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of Russia Moscow Diplomatic Cadet Corps Moscow Cadet Corps "Heroes of the Battle of Stalingrad" St.Petersburg Space Forces Cadet Corps St.Petersburg Strategic Rocket Forces Cadet Corps St.Petersburg Artillery Cadet Corps The 1st St. Petersburg Border guard Cadet Corps of the FSB Tambov Cadet Corps Toliatti Cadet Corps Ufa Cadet Corps The Sea Cadet Corps Kronstadt S.C.C. Moscow Representative Sea Cadet Corps of the Navigation and Mathematics School Moscow Sea Cadet Corps Heroes of Sevastopol Secondary education Suvorov Military Schools are a type of boarding school in modern Russia for boys aged 14–18. Education in such these schools focuses on military related subjects. Irkutsk S.M.S. Kazan S.M.S. Moscow S.M.S. Moscow Military Music College North Caucasus S.M.S. Orenburg S.M.S. Perm S.M.S. St. Petersburg Space Forces S.M.S. Tula S.M.S. (reopening 2016 after 56 years of closure) Tver S.M.S. Ulyanovsk S.M.S. Ussuriysk S.M.S. Yekaterinburg S.M.S. Nakhimov Naval School is a form of higher naval education for teenagers introduced in modern Russia. St. Petersburg N.N.S. Murmansk N.N.S. Kaliningrad N.N.S Sevastopol N.N.S. Vladivostok N.N.S. Post-secondary education Combined Arms Academy of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation Gagarin Air Force Academy (now the Gagarin-Zhukovsky Combined Air Force Academy) Military Engineering-Technical University Saint Petersburg Mining Institute Alexander Popov Naval Radio-electronic Academy Military Materiel Security Academy Pacific Naval Institute Moscow Peter the Great Strategic Rocket Forces Academy Moscow Higher Military Command School Baltic Naval Institute Sevastopol Black Sea Higher Naval Institute Military University of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation Far Eastern Higher Combined Arms Command School Budyonny Military Academy of the Signal Corps Yekaterinburg Force Command School of Artillery Air General Staff Center of Missile and Air Defense Excellence Khabarovsk Military Commanders Training Academy Civil Defense Academy of the Ministry of Emergency Situations Sergey Kirov Military Communications Academy S.M. Kirov Military Medical Academy St. Petersburg Military College of Physical Fitness and Sports Marshal Aleksander Vasilevsky Military Academy of the Armed Forces Air Defense Branch Moscow Border Guards Superior College Military University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs Staff college General staff Academy N. G. Kuznetsov Naval Academy Serbia Military Academy Belgrade Military Medical Academy (Serbia) Singapore Officer Cadet School Specialist Cadet School Singapore Command and Staff College Somalia Camp TURKSOM trains both officers and NCOs, offers a two-year course for officers and a one-year course for NCOs. South Africa South African Military Academy provides officers in the SANDF with an opportunity to earn a 3yr BMil degree. Spain General Military Academy, Zaragoza Academia General del Aire, San Javier Naval Military Academy, Marín Escuela Superior de las Fuerzas Armadas Academia Central de la Defensa Academia de Artillería Academia de Infantería Academia de Caballería Academia de Ingenieros Academia de Logística Academia General Básica de Suboficiales Navy NCO School Academia Básica del Aire Escuela Militar de Montaña y Operaciones Especiales Sri Lanka University General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University, Colombo Officer training Sri Lanka Military Academy, Diyatalawa Naval and Maritime Academy, Trincomalee Air Force Academy, SLAF China Bay, Trincomalee Staff training Defence Services Command and Staff College Sweden Undergraduate officer training Military Academy Karlberg, officers Military Academy Halmstad, specialist officers (NCO) and reserve officers Postgraduate training Swedish Defence University Tanzania Tanzania Military Academy Thailand Armed Forces Academies Preparatory School (secondary level) Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy (university level) Phramongkutklao College of Medicine (medicine, university level) Royal Thai Navy Academy (university level) Royal Thai Air Force Academy (university level) Royal Thai Police Cadet Academy Medicine, University level Phramongkutklao College of Medicine Royal Thai Army Nursing College Royal Thai Navy Nursing College Royal Thai Air Force Nursing College Royal Thai Police Nursing College Turkey National Defense University Turkish Military Academy Turkish Naval Academy Turkish Air Force Academy Turkmenistan Military Academy of Turkmenistan (founded in 2007) Military Institute of the Ministry of Defense of Turkmenistan Berdimuhamed Annayev 1st Specialized Military School (Ashgabat) Alp Arslan 2nd Specialized Military School (Dashoguz) Soltan Sanjar 3rd Specialized Military School (Mary) Turkmen State Border Service Institute Institute of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Turkmenistan Turkmen National Security Institute Turkmen Naval Institute Uganda Uganda maintains the followings military training institutions, as of December 2010: Bihanga Military Training School – at Bihanga, in Ibanda District, Western Uganda Kalama Warfare Training School – at Kabamba, Mubende District National Leadership Institute (NALI) – at Kyankwanzi, Kyankwanzi District Oliver Tambo School of Leadership – at Kaweweta, Nakaseke District Uganda Air Defence and Artillery School – at Nakasongola in Nakasongola District Uganda Military Airforce Academy – at Nakasongola in Nakasongola District University of Military Science and Technology – at Lugazi, Buikwe District Uganda Junior Staff College – at Qaddafi Barracks, Jinja Uganda Military Academy – at Kabamba, Mubende District Uganda Senior Command and Staff College – at Kimaka, Jinja Uganda Urban Warfare Training School – at Singo, Kiboga District Ukraine A number of universities have specialized military institutes, such as the Faculty of Military Legal Studies at Kharkiv's National Yaroslav Mudryi Law Academy of Ukraine; however, the primary Ukrainian military academies are the following: Hetman Petro Sahaydachnyi Military Academy, Lviv Admiral Pavel Nakhimov Naval Academy, Odessa Ivan Kozhedub Air Force University, Kharkiv Staff colleges National Defence University of Ukraine "Ivan Chernyakhovsky", Kyiv United Kingdom Pre-University level institution Duke of York's Royal Military School – Military based secondary school in Dover, Kent; students are influenced to join the forces after education, but have no commitment to do so. There are also numerous Cadet forces that operate for all branches of the armed forces for children aged 10–20. These are not designed to recruit people into the armed forces but rather are simply Ministry of Defence sponsored youth organisations. Undergraduate service Although an undergraduate degree is not a prerequisite for Officer training, the majority of potential Officers will have attended University before joining the Armed Forces. At some universities there may be the option for people to join either a University Royal Naval Unit, a University Officer Training Corps (UOTC) or a University Air Squadron, which are designed to introduce students to life in the Forces and show them the careers that are available. People sponsored under the Defence Technical Undergraduate Scheme will join one of the four Support Units attached to universities participating in DTUS. There is a requirement for bursars of DTUS to join the military for three years after completion of their degree, there no requirement for students of any other organisation to join the military after they finish their degree programs; and the great majority have no further contact with the armed forces. Although service with these organisations may give some initial benefit to cadets attending the military colleges/academies, the next stage of the officer training programs assumes no prior military experience/knowledge, and those that did not partake in military activities at university are not disadvantaged. Officer training There are now four military academies in the United Kingdom. Although the curriculum at each varies due to the differing nature of the service a man or woman is joining, it is a combination of military and academic study that is designed to turn young civilians into comprehensively trained military officers. Britannia Royal Naval College, HMS Dartmouth Commando Training Centre Royal Marines Royal Military Academy Sandhurst Royal Air Force College Cranwell Officer Training for the Reserve Forces (e.g. Army Reserve, Royal Naval Reserve, RAF Reserves and Royal Marines Reserves) also takes place at the relevant military academies, but under a different curriculum and the courses tend to be concentrated into a much shorter period – a significant amount of the study will be undertaken at the cadet's reserve unit. Postgraduate and staff training Defence Academy of the United Kingdom Royal College of Defence Studies (mainly for officers of Colonel/Brigadier or equivalent rank selected as future senior leaders; highly selective) Joint Services Command and Staff College (courses for officers from Major to Brigadier or equivalent rank) Defence College of Management and Technology Armed Forces Chaplaincy Centre Advanced Research and Assessment Group Conflict Studies Research Centre United States Introduction In the United States, the term "military academy" does not necessarily mean a government-owned institution run by the armed forces to train its own officers. It may also mean a middle school, high school, or college, whether public or private, which instructs its students in military-style education, discipline and tradition. Students at such civilian institutions can earn a commission in the U.S. military through the successful completion of a Reserve Officer Training Corps program along with their college or university's academic coursework. The term military school primarily refers to pre-collegiate secondary-school-level military institutions. The term military academy commonly refers to a pre-collegiate, collegiate, and post-collegiate institution, especially the U.S. military-run academies. The term US military staff colleges refers to separate graduate schools catering to officers on active duty . Most state-level military academies maintain both a civilian student body and a traditional corps of cadets. The only exception is the Virginia Military Institute, which remains all-military. Federal service academies The colleges operated by the U.S. Federal Government, referred to as federal service academies, are: United States Military Academy, West Point, New York United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Springs, Colorado United States Coast Guard Academy, New London, Connecticut United States Merchant Marine Academy, Kings Point, New York Post-graduate school Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland Senior and junior military colleges There is one all-military state-sponsored military academy: The Virginia Military Institute (VMI), Lexington, Virginia In addition, these five institutions that were military colleges at the time of their founding now maintain both a corps of cadets and a civilian student body. Many of these institutions also offer on-line degree programs: University of North Georgia, Dahlonega, Georgia — Formed by a 2013 merger with Gainesville State College, its main predecessor institution, last known as North Georgia College & State University, was chartered as a military college. However, when NGCSU was founded in 1873 as North Georgia Agricultural College, it had both a corps and a civilian student body, and was also the state's first coeducational college. Norwich University Corps of Cadets. Norwich University, Northfield, Vermont is a private university in Northfield, Vermont. It is the oldest private military college in the United States. The university was founded in 1819 at Norwich, Vermont, as the American Literary, Scientific and Military Academy. It is the oldest of six senior military colleges, and is recognized by the United States Department of Defense as the "Birthplace of ROTC" Texas A&M Corps of Cadets, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina Virginia Tech Corps of Cadets, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia Along with VMI, these institutions are known as the senior military colleges of the US. Today four institutions are considered military junior colleges (MJC). These four military schools participate in the Army's two-year Early Commissioning Program, an Army ROTC program where qualified students can earn a commission as a Second Lieutenant after only two years of college. The four military Junior colleges are as follows: Georgia Military College, Milledgeville, Georgia Marion Military Institute, Marion, Alabama New Mexico Military Institute, Roswell, New Mexico Valley Forge Military Academy and College, Wayne, Pennsylvania Merchant Marine Academies that have military academy-style operations There are six state-operated Merchant Marine academies: Massachusetts Maritime Academy Maine Maritime Academy State University of New York Maritime College (part of the State University of New York (SUNY) system) Texas A&M Maritime Academy (part of the Texas A&M University System) Great Lakes Maritime Academy (a division of Northwestern Michigan College) California State University Maritime Academy (part of the California State University system) These merchant marine academies operate on a military college system. Part of the training that the cadets receive is naval and military in nature. Cadets may apply for Naval Reserve commissions upon obtaining their Merchant Marine Officer's licenses. Most if not all also offer some form of military commissioning program into the active duty US Navy, US Marine Corps, or US Coast Guard. Staff colleges The United States staff colleges, mandated to serve the needs of officers for post-graduate studies and other such graduate institutions as mandated by the Department of Defense are: United States Air Force Air University attached staff colleges The Air University in Maxwell AFB, Alabama, includes: Squadron Officer College and Squadron Officer School Air Command and Staff College Air War College Staff colleges of the United States Army United States Army Command and General Staff College United States Army School of Advanced Military Studies United States Army War College Staff colleges of the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps Naval War College Naval Postgraduate School Marine Corps University Joint Service staff colleges National Defense University in Washington, D.C., includes: Joint Forces Staff College (Norfolk, Virginia) National War College Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy Defense Acquisition University Other post-graduate colleges operated by the DoD National Intelligence University (military intelligence) The Judge Advocate General's Legal Center and School (legal services training) Air Force Judge Advocate General's School (legal services training) Naval Justice School (legal services training) Uzbekistan Academy of the Armed Forces of Uzbekistan (formerly the Tashkent Higher All-Arms Command School) Joint Service Officer Training Academy Tashkent Higher Tank Command School Samarkand Higher Military Automobile Command School Higher Military Customs Institute Academy of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Uzbekistan Military-Technical Institute of the National Guard of Uzbekistan Uzbekistan Air Academy Vietnam National Defense Academy of Vietnam in Hanoi, Vietnam Lê Quý Đôn Technical University in Hanoi, Vietnam Vietnam Naval Academy in Nha Trang, Khánh Hòa Province, Vietnam Zimbabwe Zimbabwe National Defence University See also Military high school List of fictional schools List of government-run higher-level national military academies Military building Military education and training Further reading Cadet, Linton Hall, Linton Hall Military School Memories: One cadet's memoir, Scrounge Press, 2014. Memoir of cadet who attended a military school for boys ages 6 to 16. External links References School types

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayao%20Miyazaki

Hayao Miyazaki

is a Japanese animator, director, producer, screenwriter, author, and manga artist. A co-founder of Studio Ghibli, he has attained international acclaim as a masterful storyteller and creator of Japanese animated feature films, and is widely regarded as one of the most accomplished filmmakers in the history of animation. Born in ward of Tokyo, expressed interest in manga and animation from an early age, and he joined Toei Animation in 1963. During his early years at Animation he worked as an in-between artist and later collaborated with director . Notable films to which contributed at include Doggie March and Gulliver's Travels Beyond the Moon. He provided key animation to other films at , such as Puss in Boots and Animal Treasure Island, before moving to A-Pro in 1971, where he co-directed Lupin the Third Part I alongside . After moving to (later known as Nippon Animation) in 1973, worked as an animator on World Masterpiece Theater, and directed the television series Future Boy Conan (1978). He joined Tokyo Movie Shinsha in 1979 to direct his first feature film The Castle of Cagliostro as well as the television series Sherlock Hound. In the same period, he also started writing and illustrating the manga Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1982–1994), and he also directed the 1984 film adaptation produced by Topcraft. co-founded Studio Ghibli in 1985. He directed numerous films with Ghibli, including Castle in the Sky (1986), My Neighbor Totoro (1988), Kiki's Delivery Service (1989), and Porco Rosso (1992). The films were met with critical and commercial success in Japan. 's film Princess Mononoke was the first animated film ever to win the Japan Academy Prize for Picture of the Year, and briefly became the highest-grossing film in Japan following its release in 1997; its distribution to the Western world greatly increased Ghibli's popularity and influence outside Japan. His 2001 film Spirited Away became the highest-grossing film in Japanese history, winning the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature at the 75th Academy Awards, and is frequently ranked among the greatest films of the 2000s. 's later films—Howl's Moving Castle (2004), Ponyo (2008), and The Wind Rises (2013)—also enjoyed critical and commercial success. Following the release of The Wind Rises, announced his retirement from feature films, though he returned to work on the upcoming feature film How Do You Live? in 2016. 's works are characterized by the recurrence of themes such as humanity's relationship with nature and technology, the wholesomeness of natural and traditional patterns of living, the importance of art and craftsmanship, and the difficulty of maintaining a pacifist ethic in a violent world. The protagonists of his films are often strong girls or young women, and several of his films present morally ambiguous antagonists with redeeming qualities. 's works have been highly praised and awarded; he was named a Person of Cultural Merit for outstanding cultural contributions in November 2012, and received the Academy Honorary Award for his impact on animation and cinema in November 2014. has frequently been cited as an inspiration for numerous animators, directors, and writers. Early life Hayao Miyazaki was born on January 5, 1941, in the town of Akebono-cho in , Tokyo, the second of four sons. His father, (born 1915), was the director of Miyazaki Airplane, his brother's company, which manufactured rudders for fighter planes during World War II. The business allowed his family to remain affluent during 's early life. Miyazaki's father enjoyed purchasing paintings and demonstrating them to guests, but otherwise had little known artistic understanding. He said that he was in the Imperial Japanese Army around 1940; after declaring to his commanding officer that he wished not to fight because of his wife and young child, he was discharged after a lecture about disloyalty. According to Miyazaki, his father often told him about his exploits, claiming that he continued to attend nightclubs after turning 70. Katsuji Miyazaki died on March 18, 1993. After his death, Miyazaki felt that he had often looked at his father negatively and that he had never said anything "lofty or inspiring". He regretted not having a serious discussion with his father, and felt that he had inherited his "anarchistic feelings and his lack of concern about embracing contradictions". Miyazaki has noted that some of his earliest memories are of "bombed-out cities". In 1944, when he was three years old, Miyazaki's family evacuated to . After the in July 1945, he and his family evacuated to . The bombing left a lasting impression on , then aged four. As a child, Miyazaki suffered from digestive problems, and was told that he would not live beyond 20, making him feel like an outcast. From 1947 to 1955, 's mother Yoshiko suffered from spinal tuberculosis; she spent the first few years in hospital before being nursed from home. Yoshiko was frugal, and described as a strict, intellectual woman who regularly questioned "socially accepted norms". She was closest with Miyazaki, and had a strong influence on him and his later work. Yoshiko Miyazaki died in July 1983 at the age of 72. began school in 1947, at an elementary school in , completing the first through third grades. After his family moved back to completed the fourth grade at Elementary School, and fifth grade at Elementary School, which was newly established after splitting off from Ōmiya Elementary. After graduating from as part of the first graduating class, he attended Junior High School. He aspired to become a manga artist, but discovered he could not draw people; instead, he only drew planes, tanks, and battleships for several years. was influenced by several manga artists, such as and destroyed much of his early work, believing it was "bad form" to copy 's style as it was hindering his own development as an artist. Around this time, Miyazaki would often see movies with his father, who was an avid moviegoer; memorable films for Miyazaki include Meshi (1951) and Tasogare Sakaba (1955). After graduating from Junior High, attended High School. During his third and final year, 's interest in animation was sparked by Panda and the Magic Serpent (1958), Japan's first feature-length animated film in color; he had sneaked out to watch the film instead of studying for his entrance exams. Miyazaki later recounted that he fell in love with the film's heroine, Bai-Niang, and that the film moved him to tears and left a profound impression; he wrote that he was "moved to the depths of [his] soul" and that the "pure, earnest world of the film" affirmed a side of him that "yearned desperately to affirm the world rather than negate it". After graduating from attended Gakushuin University in the department of political economy, majoring in Japanese Industrial Theory. He joined the "Children's Literature Research Club", the "closest thing back then to a comics club"; he was sometimes the sole member of the club. In his free time, would visit his art teacher from middle school and sketch in his studio, where the two would drink and "talk about politics, life, all sorts of things". Around this time, he also drew manga; he never completed any stories, but accumulated thousands of pages of the beginnings of stories. He also frequently approached manga publishers to rent their stories. In 1960, Miyazaki was a bystander during the Anpo protests, having developed an interest after seeing photographs in Asahi Graph; by that point, he was too late to participate in the demonstrations. graduated from in 1963 with degrees in political science and economics. Career Early career In 1963, was employed at Animation; this was the last year the company hired regularly. After gaining employment, he began renting a four-and-a-half tatami apartment in Nerima, Tokyo; the rent was . His salary at Toei was . Miyazaki worked as an in-between artist on the theatrical feature anime Doggie March and the television anime Wolf Boy Ken (both 1963). He also worked on Gulliver's Travels Beyond the Moon (1964). He was a leader in a labor dispute soon after his arrival, and became chief secretary of 's labor union in 1964. later worked as chief animator, concept artist, and scene designer on The Great Adventure of Horus, Prince of the Sun (1968). Throughout the film's production, worked closely with his mentor, , whose approach to animation profoundly influenced 's work. Directed by , with whom would continue to collaborate for the remainder of his career, the film was highly praised, and deemed a pivotal work in the evolution of animation. Miyazaki moved to a residence in Ōizumigakuenchō in April 1969, after the birth of his second son. Under the pseudonym , wrote and illustrated the manga People of the Desert, published in 26 installments between September 1969 and March 1970 in . He was influenced by illustrated stories such as 's . also provided key animation for The Wonderful World of Puss 'n Boots (1969), directed by . He created a 12-chapter manga series as a promotional tie-in for the film; the series ran in the Sunday edition of from January to March 1969. later proposed scenes in the screenplay for Flying Phantom Ship (1969), in which military tanks would cause mass hysteria in downtown Tokyo, and was hired to storyboard and animate the scenes. In 1970, Miyazaki moved residence to Tokorozawa. In 1971, he developed structure, characters and designs for 's adaptation of Animal Treasure Island; he created the 13-part manga adaptation, printed in from January to March 1971. also provided key animation for Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves. left Animation in August 1971, and was hired at A-Pro, where he directed, or co-directed with , 23 episodes of Lupin the Third Part I, often using the pseudonym . The two also began pre-production on a series based on Astrid Lindgren's Pippi Longstocking books, designing extensive storyboards; the series was canceled after and were unable to meet with Lindgren, and permission was refused to complete the project. In 1972 and 1973, wrote, designed and animated two Panda! Go, Panda! shorts, directed by . After moving from A-Pro to in June 1973, and worked on World Masterpiece Theater, which featured their animation series Heidi, Girl of the Alps, an adaptation of Johanna Spyri's Heidi. continued as Nippon Animation in July 1975. also directed the television series Future Boy Conan (1978), an adaptation of Alexander Key's The Incredible Tide. Breakthrough films left Nippon Animation in 1979, during the production of Anne of Green Gables; he provided scene design and organization on the first fifteen episodes. He moved to Telecom Animation Film, a subsidiary of TMS Entertainment, to direct his first feature anime film, The Castle of Cagliostro (1979), a Lupin III film. In his role at Telecom, helped train the second wave of employees. directed six episodes of Sherlock Hound in 1981, until issues with Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's estate led to a suspension in production; was busy with other projects by the time the issues were resolved, and the remaining episodes were directed by . They were broadcast from November 1984 to May 1985. also wrote the graphic novel The Journey of Shuna, inspired by the Tibetan folk tale "Prince who became a dog". The novel was published by in June 1983, and dramatised for radio broadcast in 1987. Hayao Miyazaki's Daydream Data Notes was also irregularly published from November 1984 to October 1994 in Model Graphix; selections of the stories received radio broadcast in 1995. After the release of The Castle of Cagliostro, began working on his ideas for an animated film adaptation of Richard Corben's comic book Rowlf and pitched the idea to at TMS. In November 1980, a proposal was drawn up to acquire the film rights. Around that time, was also approached for a series of magazine articles by the editorial staff of Animage. During subsequent conversations, he showed his sketchbooks and discussed basic outlines for envisioned animation projects with editors and , who saw the potential for collaboration on their development into animation. Two projects were proposed: , to be set in the Sengoku period; and the adaptation of Corben's Rowlf. Both were rejected, as the company was unwilling to fund anime projects not based on existing manga, and the rights for the adaptation of Rowlf could not be secured. An agreement was reached that could start developing his sketches and ideas into a manga for the magazine with the proviso that it would never be made into a film. The manga—titled Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind—ran from February 1982 to March 1994. The story, as re-printed in the volumes, spans seven volumes for a combined total of 1060 pages. drew the episodes primarily in pencil, and it was printed monochrome in sepia toned ink. Miyazaki resigned from Telecom Animation Film in November 1982. Following the success of Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, , the founder of , encouraged to work on a film adaptation. initially refused, but agreed on the condition that he could direct. 's imagination was sparked by the mercury poisoning of Minamata Bay and how nature responded and thrived in a poisoned environment, using it to create the film's polluted world. and chose the minor studio Topcraft to animate the film, as they believed its artistic talent could transpose the sophisticated atmosphere of the manga to the film. Pre-production began on May 31, 1983; encountered difficulties in creating the screenplay, with only sixteen chapters of the manga to work with. enlisted experimental and minimalist musician to compose the film's score. Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind was released on March 11, 1984. It grossed ¥1.48 billion at the box office, and made an additional ¥742 million in distribution income. It is often seen as 's pivotal work, cementing his reputation as an animator. It was lauded for its positive portrayal of women, particularly that of main character Nausicaä. Several critics have labeled Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind as possessing anti-war and feminist themes; argues otherwise, stating that he only wishes to entertain. The successful cooperation on the creation of the manga and the film laid the foundation for other collaborative projects. In April 1984, opened his own office in Ward, naming it . Studio Ghibli Early films (1985–1996) In June 1985, and founded the animation production company Studio Ghibli, with funding from . Studio Ghibli's first film, Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986), employed the same production crew of Nausicaä. 's designs for the film's setting were inspired by Greek architecture and "European urbanistic templates". Some of the architecture in the film was also inspired by a Welsh mining town; witnessed the mining strike upon his first visit to Wales in 1984, and admired the miners' dedication to their work and community. Laputa was released on August 2, 1986. It was the highest-grossing animation film of the year in Japan. 's following film, My Neighbor Totoro, was released alongside Takahata's Grave of the Fireflies in April 1988 to ensure Studio Ghibli's financial status. The simultaneous production was chaotic for the artists, as they switched between projects. My Neighbor Totoro features the theme of the relationship between the environment and humanity—a contrast to Nausicaä, which emphasises technology's negative effect on nature. While the film received critical acclaim, it was commercially unsuccessful at the box office. However, merchandising was successful, and the film was labelled as a cult classic. In 1987, Studio Ghibli acquired the rights to create a film adaptation of 's novel Kiki's Delivery Service. 's work on My Neighbor Totoro prevented him from directing the adaptation; was chosen as director, and was hired as script writer. 's dissatisfaction of 's first draft led him to make changes to the project, ultimately taking the role of director. was unhappy with the differences between the book and the screenplay. and visited and invited her to the studio; she allowed the project to continue. The film was originally intended to be a 60-minute special, but expanded into a feature film after completed the storyboards and screenplay. Kiki's Delivery Service premiered on July 29, 1989. It earned ¥2.15 billion at the box office, and was the highest-grossing film in Japan in 1989. From March to May 1989, 's manga was published in the magazine Model Graphix. began production on a 45-minute in-flight film for Japan Airlines based on the manga; ultimately extended the film into the feature-length film, titled Porco Rosso, as expectations grew. Due to the end of production on 's Only Yesterday (1991), initially managed the production of Porco Rosso independently. The outbreak of the Yugoslav Wars in 1991 affected , prompting a more sombre tone for the film; would later refer to the film as "foolish", as its mature tones were unsuitable for children. The film featured anti-war themes, which would later revisit. The airline remained a major investor in the film, resulting in its initial premiere as an in-flight film, prior to its theatrical release on July 18, 1992. The film was critically and commercially successful, remaining the highest-grossing animated film in Japan for several years. Studio Ghibli set up its headquarters in , Tokyo in August 1992. In November 1992, two television spots directed by were broadcast by Nippon Television Network (NTV): , a 90-second spot loosely based on the illustrated story by and , and commissioned to celebrate NTV's fortieth anniversary; and , aired as one 15-second and four 5-second spots, centered on an undefinable creature which ultimately became NTV's mascot. designed the storyboards and wrote the screenplay for Whisper of the Heart (1995), directed by . Global emergence (1997–2008) began work on the initial storyboards for Princess Mononoke in August 1994, based on preliminary thoughts and sketches from the late 1970s. While experiencing writer's block during production, accepted a request for the creation of On Your Mark, a music video for the song of the same name by Chage and Aska. In the production of the video, experimented with computer animation to supplement traditional animation, a technique he would soon revisit for Princess . On Your Mark premiered as a short before Whisper of the Heart. Despite the video's popularity, said that it was not given "100 percent" focus. In May 1995, took a group of artists and animators to the ancient forests of and the mountains of , taking photographs and making sketches. The landscapes in the film were inspired by . In Princess , revisited the ecological and political themes of Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind. supervised the 144,000 cels in the film, about 80,000 of which were key animation. Princess was produced with an estimated budget of ¥2.35 billion (approximately ), making it the most expensive film by Studio Ghibli at the time. Approximately fifteen minutes of the film uses computer animation: about five minutes uses techniques such as 3D rendering, digital composition, and texture mapping; the remaining ten minutes uses ink and paint. While the original intention was to digitally paint 5,000 of the film's frames, time constraints doubled this. Upon its premiere on July 12, 1997, Princess was critically acclaimed, becoming the first animated film to win the Japan Academy Prize for Picture of the Year. The film was also commercially successful, earning a domestic total of ¥14 billion (), and becoming the highest-grossing film in Japan for several months. Miramax Films purchased the film's distributions rights for North America; it was the first Studio Ghibli production to receive a substantial theatrical distribution in the United States. While it was largely unsuccessful at the box office, grossing about , it was seen as the introduction of Studio Ghibli to global markets. claimed that Princess would be his final film. merged with Studio Ghibli in June 1997. 's next film was conceived while on vacation at a mountain cabin with his family and five young girls who were family friends. realised that he had not created a film for 10-year-old girls, and set out to do so. He read manga magazines like and Ribon for inspiration, but felt they only offered subjects on "crushes and romance", which is not what the girls "held dear in their hearts". He decided to produce the film about a female heroine whom they could look up to. Production of the film, titled Spirited Away, commenced in 2000 on a budget of ¥1.9 billion (). As with Princess , the staff experimented with computer animation, but kept the technology at a level to enhance the story, not to "steal the show". Spirited Away deals with symbols of human greed, and a liminal journey through the realm of spirits. The film was released on July 20, 2001; it received critical acclaim, and is considered among the greatest films of the 2000s. It won the Japan Academy Prize for Picture of the Year, and the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature. The film was also commercially successful, earning ¥30.4 billion () at the box office. It became the highest-grossing film in Japan, a record it maintained for almost 20 years. Following the death of Tokuma in September 2000, Miyazaki served as the head of his funeral committee. In September 2001, Studio Ghibli announced the production of Howl's Moving Castle, based on the novel by Diana Wynne Jones. of Animation was originally selected to direct the film, but disagreements between Hosoda and Studio Ghibli executives led to the project's abandonment. After six months, Studio Ghibli resurrected the project. was inspired to direct the film upon reading Jones' novel, and was struck by the image of a castle moving around the countryside; the novel does not explain how the castle moved, which led to 's designs. He travelled to Colmar and Riquewihr in Alsace, France, to study the architecture and the surroundings for the film's setting. Additional inspiration came from the concepts of future technology in Albert Robida's work, as well as the "illusion art" of 19th century Europe. The film was produced digitally, but the characters and backgrounds were drawn by hand prior to being digitized. It was released on November 20, 2004, and received widespread critical acclaim. The film received the Osella Award for Technical Excellence at the 61st Venice International Film Festival, and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature. In Japan, the film grossed a record $14.5 million in its first week of release. It remains among the highest-grossing films in Japan, with a worldwide gross of over ¥19.3 billion. received the honorary Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement award at the 62nd Venice International Film Festival in 2005. In March 2005, Studio Ghibli split from . In the 1980s, contacted Ursula K. Le Guin expressing interest in producing an adaptation of her Earthsea novels; unaware of 's work, Le Guin declined. Upon watching My Neighbor Totoro several years later, Le Guin expressed approval to the concept of the adaptation. She met with in August 2005, who wanted 's son to direct the film, as had wished to retire. Disappointed that was not directing, but under the impression that he would supervise his son's work, Le Guin approved of the film's production. later publicly opposed and criticized 's appointment as director. Upon 's viewing of the film, he wrote a message for his son: "It was made honestly, so it was good". designed the covers for several manga novels in 2006, including A Trip to Tynemouth; he also worked as editor, and created a short manga for the book. 's next film, Ponyo, began production in May 2006. It was initially inspired by "The Little Mermaid" by Hans Christian Andersen, though began to take its own form as production continued. aimed for the film to celebrate the innocence and cheerfulness of a child's universe. He intended for it to only use traditional animation, and was intimately involved with the artwork. He preferred to draw the sea and waves himself, as he enjoyed experimenting. Ponyo features 170,000 frames—a record for . The film's seaside village was inspired by , a town in Setonaikai National Park, where stayed in 2005. The main character, , is based on . Following its release on July 19, 2008, Ponyo was critically acclaimed, receiving Animation of the Year at the 32nd Japan Academy Prize. The film was also a commercial success, earning ¥10 billion () in its first month and ¥15.5 billion by the end of 2008, placing it among the highest-grossing films in Japan. Later films (2009–present) In early 2009, began writing a manga called , telling the story of Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighter designer . The manga was first published in two issues of the Model Graphix magazine, published on February 25 and March 25, 2009. later co-wrote the screenplay for Arrietty (2010) and From Up on Poppy Hill (2011), directed by and respectively. wanted his next film to be a sequel to Ponyo, but convinced him to instead adapt to film. In November 2012, Studio Ghibli announced the production of The Wind Rises, based on , to be released alongside 's The Tale of the Princess Kaguya. was inspired to create The Wind Rises after reading a quote from : "All I wanted to do was to make something beautiful". Several scenes in The Wind Rises were inspired by 's novel , in which wrote about his life experiences with his fiancée before she died from tuberculosis. The female lead character's name, , was borrowed from 's novel . The Wind Rises continues to reflect 's pacifist stance, continuing the themes of his earlier works, despite stating that condemning war was not the intention of the film. The film premiered on July 20, 2013, and received critical acclaim; it was named Animation of the Year at the 37th Japan Academy Prize, and was nominated for Best Animated Feature at the 86th Academy Awards. It was also commercially successful, grossing ¥11.6 billion () at the Japanese box office, becoming the highest-grossing film in Japan in 2013. In September 2013, announced that he was retiring from the production of feature films due to his age, but wished to continue working on the displays at the Studio Ghibli Museum. was awarded the Academy Honorary Award at the Governors Awards in November 2014. He developed Boro the Caterpillar, a computer-animated short film which was first discussed during pre-production for Princess . It was screened exclusively at the Studio Ghibli Museum in July 2017. He is also working on an untitled samurai manga. In August 2016, proposed a new feature-length film, How Do You Live?, on which he began animation work without receiving official approval. In December 2020, Suzuki stated that the film's animation was "half finished" and added that he does not expect the film to release for another three years. In January 2019, it was reported that Vincent Maraval, a frequent collaborator of , tweeted a hint that may have plans for another film in the works. In February 2019, a four-part documentary was broadcast on the NHK network titled 10 Years with , documenting production of his films in his private studio. In 2019, approved a musical adaptation of Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, as it was performed by a kabuki troupe. Works The Castle of Cagliostro (1979) Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984) Castle in the Sky (1986) My Neighbor Totoro (1988) Kiki's Delivery Service (1989) Porco Rosso (1992) Princess Mononoke (1997) Spirited Away (2001) Howl's Moving Castle (2004) Ponyo (2008) The Wind Rises (2013) How Do You Live? (TBA) Views Miyazaki has often criticized the current state of the anime industry, stating that animators are unrealistic when creating people. He has stated that modern anime is "produced by humans who can't stand looking at other humans… that's why the industry is full of otaku!". He has also frequently criticized otaku, including "gun otaku" and "Zero fanatics", declaring it a "fetish", and refusing to identify himself as such. In 2013, several Studio Ghibli staff members, including Miyazaki, criticized Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe's policies, and the proposed Constitutional amendment that would allow Abe to revise the clause which outlaws war as a means to settle international disputes. Miyazaki felt that Abe wished to "leave his name in history as a great man who revised the Constitution and its interpretation", describing it as "despicable". Miyazaki has expressed his disapproval of Abe's denial of Japan's military aggression, stating that Japan "should clearly say that [they] inflicted enormous damage on China and express deep remorse over it". He also felt that the country's government should give a "proper apology" to Korean comfort women who serviced the Japanese army during World War II, suggesting that the Senkaku Islands should be "split in half" or controlled by both Japan and China. After the release of The Wind Rises in 2013, some online critics labeled Miyazaki a "traitor" and "anti-Japanese", describing the film as overly "left-wing". Miyazaki refused to attend the 75th Academy Awards in Hollywood, Los Angeles in 2003, in protest of the United States' involvement in the Iraq War, later stating that he "didn't want to visit a country that was bombing Iraq". He did not publicly express this opinion at the request of his producer until 2009, when he lifted his boycott and attended San Diego Comic Con International as a favor to his friend John Lasseter. Miyazaki also expressed his opinion about the terrorist attack at the offices of the French satirical magazine Charlie Hebdo, criticizing the magazine's decision to publish the content cited as the catalyst for the incident. In November 2016, Miyazaki stated that he believed "many of the people who voted for Brexit and Trump" were affected by the increase in unemployment due to companies "building cars in Mexico because of low wages and [selling] them in the US". He did not think that Donald Trump would be elected president, calling it "a terrible thing", and said that Trump's political opponent Hillary Clinton was "terrible as well". Themes Miyazaki's works are characterized by the recurrence of themes such as environmentalism, pacifism, feminism, love and family. His narratives are also notable for not pitting a hero against an unsympathetic antagonist. Miyazaki's films often emphasize environmentalism and the Earth's fragility. Margaret Talbot stated that Miyazaki dislikes modern technology, and believes much of modern culture is "thin and shallow and fake"; he anticipates a time with "no more high-rises". Miyazaki felt frustrated growing up in the Shōwa period from 1955 to 1965 because "nature — the mountains and rivers — was being destroyed in the name of economic progress". Peter Schellhase of The Imaginative Conservative identified that several antagonists of Miyazaki's films "attempt to dominate nature in pursuit of political domination, and are ultimately destructive to both nature and human civilization". Miyazaki is critical of capitalism, globalization, and their effects on modern life. He believes that "a company is common property of the people that work there". Ram Prakash Dwivedi identified values of Mahatma Gandhi in the films of Miyazaki. Several of Miyazaki's films feature anti-war themes. Daisuke Akimoto of Animation Studies categorized Porco Rosso as "anti-war propaganda"; he felt that the main character, Porco, transforms into a pig partly due to his extreme distaste of militarism. Akimoto also argues that The Wind Rises reflects Miyazaki's "antiwar pacifism", despite the latter stating that the film does not attempt to "denounce" war. Schellhase also identifies Princess Mononoke as a pacifist film due to the protagonist, Ashitaka; instead of joining the campaign of revenge against humankind, as his ethnic history would lead him to do, Ashitaka strives for peace. David Loy and Linda Goodhew argue that both Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind and Princess Mononoke do not depict traditional evil, but the Buddhist roots of evil: greed, ill will, and delusion; according to Buddhism, the roots of evil must transform into "generosity, loving-kindness and wisdom" in order to overcome suffering, and both Nausicaä and Ashitaka accomplish this. When characters in Miyazaki's films are forced to engage in violence, it is shown as being a difficult task; in Howl's Moving Castle, Howl is forced to fight an inescapable battle in defense of those he loves, and it almost destroys him, though he is ultimately saved by Sophie's love and bravery. Suzuki described Miyazaki as a feminist in reference to his attitude to female workers. Miyazaki has described his female characters as "brave, self-sufficient girls that don't think twice about fighting for what they believe in with all their heart", stating that they may "need a friend, or a supporter, but never a saviour" and that "any woman is just as capable of being a hero as any man". Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind was lauded for its positive portrayal of women, particularly the protagonist Nausicaä. Schellhase noted that the female characters in Miyazaki's films are not objectified or sexualized, and possess complex and individual characteristics absent from Hollywood productions. Schellhase also identified a "coming of age" element for the heroines in Miyazaki's films, as they each discover "individual personality and strengths". Gabrielle Bellot of The Atlantic wrote that, in his films, Miyazaki "shows a keen understanding of the complexities of what it might mean to be a woman". In particular, Bellot cites Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, praising the film's challenging of gender expectations, and the strong and independent nature of Nausicaä. Bellot also noted that Princess Mononokes San represents the "conflict between selfhood and expression". Miyazaki is concerned with the sense of wonder in young people, seeking to maintain themes of love and family in his films. Michael Toscano of Curator found that Miyazaki "fears Japanese children are dimmed by a culture of overconsumption, overprotection, utilitarian education, careerism, techno-industrialism, and a secularism that is swallowing Japan’s native animism". Schellhase wrote that several of Miyazaki's works feature themes of love and romance, but felt that emphasis is placed on "the way lonely and vulnerable individuals are integrated into relationships of mutual reliance and responsibility, which generally benefit everyone around them". He also found that many of the protagonists in Miyazaki's films present an idealized image of families, whereas others are dysfunctional. He felt that the non-biological family in Howl's Moving Castle (consisting of Howl, Sophie, Markl, the Witch of the Waste, and Heen) gives a message of hope: that those cast out by society can "find a healthy place to belong". Creation process and influences Miyazaki forgoes traditional screenplays in his productions, instead developing the film's narrative as he designs the storyboards. "We never know where the story will go but we just keep working on the film as it develops," he said. In each of his films, Miyazaki has employed traditional animation methods, drawing each frame by hand; computer-generated imagery has been employed in several of his later films, beginning with Princess Mononoke, to "enrich the visual look", though he ensures that each film can "retain the right ratio between working by hand and computer ... and still be able to call my films 2D". He oversees every frame of his films. Miyazaki has cited several Japanese artists as his influences, including Sanpei Shirato, Osamu Tezuka, Soji Yamakawa, and Isao Takahata. A number of Western authors have also influenced his works, including Frédéric Back, Lewis Carroll, Roald Dahl, Jean Giraud, Paul Grimault, Ursula K. Le Guin, and Yuri Norstein, as well as animation studio Aardman Animations (specifically the works of Nick Park). Specific works that have influenced Miyazaki include Animal Farm (1945), The Snow Queen (1957), and The King and the Mockingbird (1980); The Snow Queen is said to be the true catalyst for Miyazaki's filmography, influencing his training and work. When animating young children, Miyazaki often takes inspiration from his friends' children, as well as memories of his own childhood. Miyazaki has frequently been cited as an inspiration to numerous animators, directors and writers around the world, including Wes Anderson, James Cameron, Dean DeBlois, Guillermo del Toro, Pete Docter, Mamoru Hosoda, Bong Joon-Ho, Glen Keane, Travis Knight, John Lasseter, Nick Park, Henry Selick, Makoto Shinkai, and Steven Spielberg. Keane said Miyazaki is a "huge influence" on Walt Disney Animation Studios and has been "part of our heritage" ever since The Rescuers Down Under (1990). Artists from Pixar and Aardman Studios signed a tribute stating, "You're our inspiration, Miyazaki-san!" He has also been cited as inspiration for video game designers including Shigeru Miyamoto and Hironobu Sakaguchi, as well as the television series Avatar: The Last Airbender, and the video game Ori and the Blind Forest (2015). Personal life Miyazaki married fellow animator Akemi Ōta in October 1965; the two had met while colleagues at Toei Animation. The couple have two sons: Gorō, born in January 1967, and Keisuke, born in April 1969. Miyazaki felt that becoming a father changed him, as he tried to produce work that would please his children. Miyazaki initially fulfilled a promise to his wife that they would both continue to work after Gorō's birth, dropping him off at preschool for the day; however, upon seeing Gorō's exhaustion walking home one day, Miyazaki decided that they could not continue, and his wife stayed at home to raise their children. Miyazaki's dedication to his work harmed his relationship with his children, as he was often absent. Gorō watched his father's works in an attempt to "understand" him, since the two rarely talked. Miyazaki said that he "tried to be a good father, but in the end I wasn't a very good parent". During the production of Tales from Earthsea in 2006, Gorō said that his father "gets zero marks as a father but full marks as a director of animated films". Gorō worked at a landscape design firm before beginning to work at the Ghibli Museum; he designed the garden on its rooftop and eventually became its curator. Keisuke studied forestry at Shinshu University and works as a wood artist; he designed a woodcut print that appears in Whisper of the Heart. Miyazaki's niece, Mei Okuyama, who was the inspiration behind the character Mei in My Neighbor Totoro, is married to animation artist Daisuke Tsutsumi. Awards and nominations Miyazaki won the Ōfuji Noburō Award at the Mainichi Film Awards for The Castle of Cagliostro (1979), Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984), Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986), and My Neighbor Totoro (1988), and the Mainichi Film Award for Best Animation Film for Kiki's Delivery Service (1989), Porco Rosso (1992), Princess Mononoke (1997), Spirited Away and Whale Hunt (both 2001). Spirited Away was also awarded the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, while Howl's Moving Castle (2004) and The Wind Rises (2013) received nominations. He was named a Person of Cultural Merit by the Japanese government in November 2012, for outstanding cultural contributions. His other accolades include eight Tokyo Anime Awards, eight Kinema Junpo Awards, six Japan Academy Awards, five Annie Awards, and three awards from the Anime Grand Prix and the Venice Film Festival. Notes References Sources </ref> External links Studio Ghibli 1941 births Academy Honorary Award recipients Anime character designers Anime directors Annie Award winners Directors of Best Animated Feature Academy Award winners Directors of Golden Bear winners Ecofeminists Fantasy artists Fantasy film directors Feminist artists Feminist writers Gakushuin University alumni Inkpot Award winners Japanese animators Japanese animated film directors Japanese animated film producers Japanese cartoonists Japanese environmentalists Japanese feminists Japanese illustrators Japanese pacifists Japanese production designers Japanese screenwriters Japanese Shintoists Japanese speculative fiction artists Japanese storyboard artists Living people Male feminists Manga artists People from Bunkyō Persons of Cultural Merit Science Fiction Hall of Fame inductees Studio Ghibli people Topcraft World Masterpiece Theater series

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March%205

March 5

Events Pre-1600 363 – Roman emperor Julian leaves Antioch with an army of 90,000 to attack the Sasanian Empire, in a campaign which would bring about his own death. 1046 – Nasir Khusraw begins the seven-year Middle Eastern journey which he will later describe in his book Safarnama. 1279 – The Livonian Order is defeated in the Battle of Aizkraukle by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. 1496 – King Henry VII of England issues letters patent to John Cabot and his sons, authorising them to explore unknown lands. 1601–1900 1616 – Nicolaus Copernicus's book On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres is added to the Index of Forbidden Books 73 years after it was first published. 1766 – Antonio de Ulloa, the first Spanish governor of Louisiana, arrives in New Orleans. 1770 – Boston Massacre: Five Americans, including Crispus Attucks, are fatally shot by British troops in an event that would contribute to the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War (also known as the American War of Independence) five years later. 1811 – Peninsular War: A French force under the command of Marshal Victor is routed while trying to prevent an Anglo-Spanish-Portuguese army from lifting the Siege of Cádiz in the Battle of Barrosa. 1824 – First Anglo-Burmese War: The British officially declare war on Burma. 1825 – Roberto Cofresí, one of the last successful Caribbean pirates, is defeated in combat and captured by authorities. 1836 – Samuel Colt patents the first production-model revolver, the .34-caliber. 1850 – The Britannia Bridge across the Menai Strait between the island of Anglesey and the mainland of Wales is opened. 1860 – Parma, Tuscany, Modena and Romagna vote in referendums to join the Kingdom of Sardinia. 1868 – Mefistofele, an opera by Arrigo Boito, receives its premiere performance at La Scala. 1872 – George Westinghouse patents the air brake. 1901–present 1906 – Moro Rebellion: United States Army troops bring overwhelming force against the native Moros in the First Battle of Bud Dajo, leaving only six survivors. 1912 – Italo-Turkish War: Italian forces are the first to use airships for military purposes, employing them for reconnaissance behind Turkish lines. 1931 – The British Raj: Gandhi–Irwin Pact is signed. 1933 – Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party receives 43.9% at the Reichstag elections, which allows the Nazis to later pass the Enabling Act and establish a dictatorship. 1936 – First flight of K5054, the first prototype Supermarine Spitfire advanced monoplane fighter aircraft in the United Kingdom. 1939 – Spanish Civil War: The National Defence Council seizes control of the republican government in a coup d'etat, with the intention of negotiating an end to the war. 1940 – Six high-ranking members of the Soviet politburo, including Joseph Stalin, sign an order for the execution of 25,700 Polish intelligentsia, including 14,700 Polish POWs, in what will become known as the Katyn massacre. 1942 – World War II: Japanese forces capture Batavia, capital of Dutch East Indies, which is left undefended after the withdrawal of the KNIL garrison and Australian Blackforce battalion to Buitenzorg and Bandung. 1943 – First Flight of the Gloster Meteor, Britain's first combat jet aircraft. 1944 – World War II: The Red Army begins the Uman–Botoșani Offensive in the western Ukrainian SSR. 1946 – Cold War: Winston Churchill coins the phrase "Iron Curtain" in his speech at Westminster College, Missouri. 1953 – Joseph Stalin, the longest serving leader of the Soviet Union, dies at his Volynskoe dacha in Moscow after suffering a cerebral hemorrhage four days earlier. 1960 – Indonesian President Sukarno dismissed the Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (DPR), 1955 democratically elected parliament, and replaced with DPR-GR, the parliament of his own selected members. 1963 – American country music stars Patsy Cline, Hawkshaw Hawkins, Cowboy Copas and their pilot Randy Hughes are killed in a plane crash in Camden, Tennessee. 1965 – March Intifada: A Leftist uprising erupts in Bahrain against British colonial presence. 1966 – BOAC Flight 911, a Boeing 707 aircraft, breaks apart in mid-air due to clear-air turbulence and crashes into Mount Fuji, Japan, killing all 124 people on board. 1970 – The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons goes into effect after ratification by 43 nations. 1974 – Yom Kippur War: Israeli forces withdraw from the west bank of the Suez Canal. 1978 – The Landsat 3 is launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California. 1979 – Soviet probes Venera 11, Venera 12 and the German-American solar satellite Helios II all are hit by "off the scale" gamma rays leading to the discovery of soft gamma repeaters. 1981 – The ZX81, a pioneering British home computer, is launched by Sinclair Research and would go on to sell over 1 million units around the world. 1982 – Soviet probe Venera 14 lands on Venus. 2003 – In Haifa, 17 Israeli civilians are killed in the Haifa bus 37 suicide bombing. 2012 – Tropical Storm Irina kills over 75 as it passes through Madagascar. 2018 – Syrian civil war: The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) pause the Deir ez-Zor campaign due to the Turkish-led invasion of Afrin. 2021 – Pope Francis begins a historical visit to Iraq Amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. 2021 – Twenty people are killed and 30 injured in a suicide car bombing in Mogadishu, Somalia. Births Pre-1600 1133 – Henry II of England (d. 1189) 1224 – Saint Kinga of Poland (d. 1292) 1324 – David II of Scotland (d. 1371) 1326 – Louis I of Hungary (d. 1382) 1340 – Cansignorio della Scala, Lord of Verona (d. 1375) 1451 – William Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, English Earl (d. 1491) 1512 – Gerardus Mercator, Flemish mathematician, cartographer, and philosopher (d. 1594) 1523 – Rodrigo de Castro Osorio, Spanish cardinal (d. 1600) 1527 – Ulrich, Duke of Mecklenburg (d. 1603) 1539 – Christoph Pezel, German theologian (d. 1604) 1563 – John Coke, English civil servant and politician (d. 1644) 1575 – William Oughtred, English minister and mathematician (d. 1660) 1585 – John George I, Elector of Saxony (d. 1656) 1585 – Frederick I, Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg (d. 1638) 1601–1900 1637 – Jan van der Heyden, Dutch painter and engineer (d. 1712) 1658 – Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, French explorer and politician, 3rd Colonial Governor of Louisiana (d. 1730) 1693 – Johann Jakob Wettstein, Swiss theologian and scholar (d. 1754) 1696 – Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Italian painter (d. 1770) 1703 – Vasily Trediakovsky, Russian poet and playwright (d. 1768) 1713 – Edward Cornwallis, English general and politician, Governor of Gibraltar (d. 1776) 1713 – Frederick Cornwallis, English archbishop (d. 1783) 1723 – Princess Mary of Great Britain (d. 1773) 1733 – Vincenzo Galeotti, Italian-Danish dancer and choreographer (d. 1816) 1739 – Benjamin Ruggles Woodbridge, American colonel and physician (d. 1819) 1748 – Jonas Carlsson Dryander, Swedish botanist and biologist (d. 1810) 1748 – William Shield, English violinist and composer (d. 1829) 1750 – Jean-Baptiste-Gaspard d'Ansse de Villoison, French scholar and academic (d. 1805) 1751 – Jan Křtitel Kuchař, Czech organist, composer, and educator (d. 1829) 1774 – Christoph Ernst Friedrich Weyse, Danish organist and composer (d. 1842) 1779 – Benjamin Gompertz, English mathematician and statistician (d. 1865) 1785 – Carlo Odescalchi, Italian cardinal (d. 1841) 1794 – Jacques Babinet, French physicist, mathematician, and astronomer (d. 1872) 1794 – Robert Cooper Grier, American lawyer and jurist (d. 1870) 1814 – Wilhelm von Giesebrecht, German historian and academic (d. 1889) 1800 – Georg Friedrich Daumer, German poet and philosopher (d. 1875) 1815 – John Wentworth, American journalist and politician, 19th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1888) 1817 – Austen Henry Layard, English archaeologist, academic, and politician, Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (d. 1894) 1830 – Étienne-Jules Marey, French physiologist and chronophotographer (d. 1904) 1830 – Charles Wyville Thomson, Scottish historian and zoologist (d. 1882) 1834 – Félix de Blochausen, Luxembourgian politician, 6th Prime Minister of Luxembourg (d. 1915) 1834 – Marietta Piccolomini, Italian soprano (d. 1899) 1853 – Howard Pyle, American author and illustrator (d. 1911) 1862 – Siegbert Tarrasch, German chess player and theoretician (d. 1934) 1867 – Louis-Alexandre Taschereau, Canadian lawyer and politician, 14th Premier of Quebec (d. 1952) 1869 – Michael von Faulhaber, German cardinal (d. 1952) 1870 – Frank Norris, American journalist and author (d. 1902) 1870 – Evgeny Paton, French-Ukrainian engineer (d. 1953) 1871 – Rosa Luxemburg, Polish-Russian economist and philosopher (d. 1919) 1871 – Konstantinos Pallis, Greek general and politician, Minister Governor-General of Macedonia (d. 1941) 1873 – Olav Bjaaland, Norwegian skier and explorer (d. 1961) 1874 – Henry Travers, English-American actor (d. 1965) 1875 – Harry Lawson, Australian politician, 27th Premier of Victoria (d. 1952) 1876 – Thomas Inskip, 1st Viscount Caldecote, English lawyer and politician, 8th Lord Chief Justice of England (d. 1947) 1876 – Elisabeth Moore, American tennis player (d. 1959) 1879 – William Beveridge, Bangladeshi-English economist and academic (d. 1963) 1879 – Andres Larka, Estonian general and politician, 1st Estonian Minister of War (d. 1943) 1880 – Sergei Natanovich Bernstein, Russian mathematician and academic (d. 1968) 1882 – Dora Marsden, English author and activist (d. 1960) 1883 – Pauline Sperry, American mathematician (d. 1967) 1885 – Marius Barbeau, Canadian ethnographer and academic (d. 1969) 1886 – Dong Biwu, Chinese judge and politician, Chairman of the People's Republic of China (d. 1975) 1886 – Freddie Welsh, Welsh boxer (d. 1927) 1887 – Heitor Villa-Lobos, Brazilian guitarist and composer (d. 1959) 1894 – Henry Daniell, English-American actor (d. 1963) 1898 – Zhou Enlai, Chinese politician, 1st Premier of the People's Republic of China (d. 1976) 1898 – Misao Okawa, Japanese super-centenarian (d. 2015) 1900 – Lilli Jahn, Jewish German doctor (d. 1944) 1900 – Johanna Langefeld, German guard and supervisor of three Nazi concentration camps (d. 1974) 1901–present 1901 – Friedrich Günther, Prince of Schwarzburg (d. 1971) 1901 – Julian Przyboś, Polish poet, essayist and translator (d. 1970) 1904 – Karl Rahner, German priest and theologian (d. 1984) 1905 – László Benedek, Hungarian-American director and cinematographer (d. 1992) 1908 – Fritz Fischer, German historian and author (d. 1999) 1908 – Irving Fiske, American author and playwright (d. 1990) 1908 – Rex Harrison, English actor (d. 1990) 1910 – Momofuku Ando, Taiwanese-Japanese businessman, founded Nissin Foods (d. 2007) 1910 – Ennio Flaiano, Italian author, screenwriter, and critic (d. 1972) 1911 – Subroto Mukerjee, Indian Air Marshall, Father of the Indian Air Force (d. 1960) 1912 – Jack Marshall, New Zealand colonel, lawyer, and politician, 28th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1988) 1915 – Henry Hicks, Canadian academic and politician, 16th Premier of Nova Scotia (d. 1990) 1915 – Laurent Schwartz, French mathematician and academic (d. 2002) 1918 – Milt Schmidt, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager (d. 2017) 1918 – Red Storey, Canadian football player, referee, and sportscaster (d. 2006) 1918 – James Tobin, American economist and academic (d. 2002) 1920 – José Aboulker, Algerian surgeon and activist (d. 2009) 1920 – Virginia Christine, American actress (d. 1996) 1920 – Rachel Gurney, English actress (d. 2001) 1920 – Wang Zengqi, Chinese writer (d. 1997) 1921 – Arthur A. Oliner, American physicist and electrical engineer (d. 2013) 1921 – Elmer Valo, American baseball player and coach (d. 1998) 1922 – James Noble, American actor (d. 2016) 1922 – Pier Paolo Pasolini, Italian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1975) 1923 – Juan A. Rivero, Puerto Rican biologist and academic (d. 2014) 1923 – Laurence Tisch, American businessman, co-founded the Loews Corporation (d. 2003) 1924 – Roger Marche, French footballer (d. 1997) 1927 – Jack Cassidy, American actor and singer (d. 1976) 1927 – Robert Lindsay, 29th Earl of Crawford, Scottish businessman and politician 1928 – J. Hillis Miller, American academic and critic (d. 2021) 1929 – Erik Carlsson, Swedish race car driver (d. 2015) 1929 – J. B. Lenoir, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1967) 1930 – John Ashley, Canadian ice hockey player and referee (d. 2008) 1930 – Del Crandall, American baseball player and manager (d. 2021) 1931 – Fred, French author and illustrator (d. 2013) 1931 – Barry Tuckwell, Australian horn player and educator (d. 2020) 1932 – Paul Sand, American actor 1933 – Walter Kasper, German cardinal and theologian 1934 – Daniel Kahneman, Israeli-American economist and psychologist, Nobel Prize laureate 1935 – Letizia Battaglia, Italian photographer and journalist 1935 – Philip K. Chapman, Australian-American astronaut and engineer (d. 2021) 1936 – Canaan Banana, Zimbabwean minister and politician, 1st President of Zimbabwe (d. 2003) 1936 – Dale Douglass, American golfer 1936 – Dean Stockwell, American actor (d. 2021) 1937 – Olusegun Obasanjo, Nigerian general and politician, 5th President of Nigeria 1938 – Paul Evans, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1938 – Lynn Margulis, American biologist and academic (d. 2011) 1938 – Fred Williamson, American football player, actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1939 – Samantha Eggar, English actress 1939 – Tony Rundle, Australian politician, 40th Premier of Tasmania 1939 – Benyamin Sueb, Indonesian actor and comedian (d. 1995) 1939 – Peter Woodcock, Canadian serial killer (d. 2010) 1939 – Pierre Wynants, Belgian chef 1940 – Tom Butler, English bishop 1940 – Ken Irvine, Australian rugby league player (d. 1990) 1940 – Graham McRae, New Zealand race car driver (d. 2021) 1940 – Sepp Piontek, German footballer and manager 1941 – Des Wilson, New Zealand-English businessman and activist 1942 – Felipe González, Spanish lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Spain 1942 – Mike Resnick, American author and editor (d. 2020) 1942 – David Watkins, Welsh rugby player 1943 – Lucio Battisti, Italian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1998) 1944 – Peter Brandes, Danish painter and sculptor 1944 – Roy Gutman, American journalist and author 1945 – Wilf Tranter, English footballer 1946 – Richard Bell, Canadian pianist (d. 2007) 1946 – Guerrino Boatto, Italian illustrator and painter (d. 2018) 1946 – Graham Hawkins, English footballer and manager (d. 2016) 1946 – Murray Head, English actor and singer 1947 – Clodagh Rodgers, Northern Irish singer and actress 1947 – Kent Tekulve, American baseball player and sportscaster 1948 – Paquirri, Spanish bullfighter (d. 1984) 1948 – Eddy Grant, Guyanese-British singer-songwriter and musician 1948 – Richard Hickox, English conductor and scholar (d. 2008) 1948 – Elaine Paige, English singer and actress 1948 – Jan van Beveren, Dutch footballer and coach (d. 2011) 1949 – Bernard Arnault, French businessman, philanthropist, and art collector 1949 – Franz Josef Jung, German lawyer and politician, German Federal Minister of Defence 1949 – Tom Russell, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1951 – Rodney Hogg, Australian cricketer and coach 1952 – Petar Borota, Serbian footballer and coach (d. 2010) 1952 – Mike Squires, American baseball player and scout 1953 – Katarina Frostenson, Swedish poet and author 1953 – Michael J. Sandel, American philosopher and academic 1953 – Tokyo Sexwale, South African businessman and politician, 1st Premier of Gauteng 1954 – Marsha Warfield, American actress 1954 – João Lourenço, Angolan president 1955 – Penn Jillette, American magician, actor, and author 1956 – Teena Marie, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2010) 1956 – Christopher Snowden, English engineer and academic 1957 – Mark E. Smith, English singer, songwriter and musician (d. 2018) 1957 – Ray Suarez, American journalist and author 1958 – Volodymyr Bezsonov, Ukrainian footballer and manager 1958 – Bob Forward, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1958 – Andy Gibb, English-Australian singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1988) 1959 – Vazgen Sargsyan, Armenian colonel and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Armenia (d. 1999) 1960 – Paul Drayson, Baron Drayson, English businessman and politician, Minister for Defence Equipment, Support and Technology 1963 – Joel Osteen, American pastor, author, and television host 1964 – Bertrand Cantat, French singer-songwriter 1964 – Gerald Vanenburg, Dutch footballer and manager 1965 – Steve Linnane, Australian rugby league player 1965 – José Semedo, Portuguese footballer and coach 1966 – Oh Eun-sun, South Korean mountaineer 1966 – Bob Halkidis, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1966 – Michael Irvin, American football player, sportscaster, and actor 1966 – Aasif Mandvi, Indian-American actor, producer, and screenwriter 1966 – Zachery Stevens, American singer-songwriter 1968 – Gordon Bajnai, Hungarian businessman and politician, 7th Prime Minister of Hungary 1968 – Theresa Villiers, English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Northern Ireland 1969 – Paul Blackthorne, English actor and producer 1969 – Danny King, English author and playwright 1969 – Moussa Saïb, Algerian footballer and manager 1969 – M.C. Solaar, Senegalese-French rapper 1970 – Mike Brown, American basketball player and coach 1970 – John Frusciante, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1970 – Yuu Watase, Japanese illustrator 1971 – Greg Berry, English footballer and coach 1971 – Jeffrey Hammonds, American baseball player and scout 1971 – Yuri Lowenthal, American voice actor, producer, and screenwriter 1971 – Filip Meirhaeghe, Belgian cyclist 1971 – Mark Protheroe, Australian rugby league player 1973 – Yannis Anastasiou, Greek footballer and manager 1973 – Nelly Arcan, Canadian author (d. 2009) 1973 – Juan Esnáider, Argentinian footballer and manager 1973 – Ryan Franklin, American baseball player 1973 – Nicole Pratt, Australian tennis player, coach, and sportscaster 1973 – Špela Pretnar, Slovenian skier 1974 – Kevin Connolly, American actor and director 1974 – Jens Jeremies, German footballer 1974 – Matt Lucas, English actor, comedian, writer, and television personality 1974 – Eva Mendes, American model and actress 1975 – Luciano Burti, Brazilian race car driver and sportscaster 1975 – Sasho Petrovski, Australian footballer 1975 – Chris Silverwood, English cricketer and coach 1976 – Neil Jackson, English actor, producer, and screenwriter 1976 – Šarūnas Jasikevičius, Lithuanian basketball player and coach 1976 – Paul Konerko, American baseball player 1976 – Norm Maxwell, New Zealand rugby player 1977 – Taismary Agüero, Cuban-Italian volleyball player 1977 – Adam Hayden, Australian rugby league player 1978 – Jared Crouch, Australian footballer 1978 – Mike Hessman, American baseball player and coach 1978 – Kimberly McCullough, American actress, singer, and dancer 1978 – Carlos Ochoa, Mexican footballer 1979 – Martin Axenrot, Swedish drummer 1979 – Lee Mears, English rugby player 1980 – Shay Carl, American businessman, co-founded Maker Studios 1981 – Barret Jackman, Canadian ice hockey player 1981 – Paul Martin, American ice hockey player 1982 – Dan Carter, New Zealand rugby player 1982 – Philipp Haastrup, German footballer 1983 – Édgar Dueñas, Mexican footballer 1984 – Branko Cvetković, Serbian basketball player 1984 – Guillaume Hoarau, French footballer 1985 – David Marshall, Scottish footballer 1985 – Brad Mills, American baseball player 1985 – Kenichi Matsuyama, Japanese actor 1986 – Alexandre Barthe, French footballer 1986 – Matty Fryatt, English footballer 1987 – Anna Chakvetadze, Russian tennis player 1987 – Chris Cohen, English footballer 1988 – Liassine Cadamuro-Bentaïba, Algerian footballer 1988 – Jovana Brakočević, Serbian volleyball player 1990 – Danny Drinkwater, English footballer 1990 – Mason Plumlee, American basketball player 1990 – Alex Smithies, English footballer 1991 – Ramiro Funes Mori, Argentinian footballer 1991 – Daniil Trifonov, Russian pianist and composer 1993 – El Hadji Ba, French footballer 1993 – Joshua Coyne, American violinist and composer 1993 – Fred, Brazilian footballer 1993 – Harry Maguire, English footballer 1994 – Daria Gavrilova, Russian-Australian tennis player 1994 – Kyle Schwarber, American baseball player 1996 – Taylor Hill, American model 1996 – Emmanuel Mudiay, Congolese basketball player 1997 – Milena Venega, Cuban rower 1998 – Bo Bichette, American baseball player 2007 – Roman Griffin Davis, British actor Deaths Pre-1600 254 – Pope Lucius I 824 – Suppo I, Frankish nobleman 1239 – Hermann Balk, German knight 1410 – Matthew of Kraków, Polish reformer (b. 1335) 1417 – Manuel III Megas Komnenos, Emperor of Trebizond (b. 1364) 1534 – Antonio da Correggio, Italian painter and educator (b. 1489) 1539 – Nuno da Cunha, Portuguese admiral and politician, Governor of Portuguese India (b. 1487) 1599 – Guido Panciroli, Italian historian and jurist (b. 1523) 1601–1900 1611 – Shimazu Yoshihisa, Japanese daimyō (b. 1533) 1622 – Ranuccio I Farnese, Duke of Parma (b. 1569) 1695 – Henry Wharton, English writer and librarian (b. 1664) 1726 – Evelyn Pierrepont, 1st Duke of Kingston-upon-Hull, English politician, Lord President of the Council (b. 1655) 1770 – Crispus Attucks, American slave (b. 1723) 1778 – Thomas Arne, English composer and educator (b. 1710) 1815 – Franz Mesmer, German physician and astrologist (b. 1734) 1827 – Pierre-Simon Laplace, French mathematician and astronomer (b. 1749) 1827 – Alessandro Volta, Italian physicist and academic (b. 1745) 1829 – John Adams, English sailor and mutineer (b. 1766) 1849 – David Scott, Scottish historical painter (b. 1806) 1876 – Marie d'Agoult, German-French historian and author (b. 1805) 1889 – Mary Louise Booth, American writer, editor and translator (b. 1831) 1893 – Hippolyte Taine, French historian and critic (b. 1828) 1895 – Nikolai Leskov, Russian author, playwright, and journalist (b. 1831) 1895 – Sir Henry Rawlinson, 1st Baronet, English general and scholar (b. 1810) 1901–present 1907 – Friedrich Blass, German philologist, scholar, and academic (b. 1843) 1925 – Johan Jensen, Danish mathematician and engineer (b. 1859) 1927 – Franz Mertens, Polish-Austrian mathematician and academic (b. 1840) 1929 – David Dunbar Buick, Scottish-American businessman, founded Buick (b. 1854) 1934 – Reşit Galip, Turkish academic and politician, 6th Turkish Minister of National Education (b. 1893) 1935 – Roque Ruaño, Spanish priest and engineer (b. 1877) 1940 – Cai Yuanpei, Chinese philosopher and academic (b. 1868) 1944 – Max Jacob, French poet and author (b. 1876) 1945 – Lena Baker, African American held captive post slavery-era(b. 1900) 1947 – Alfredo Casella, Italian pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1883) 1950 – Edgar Lee Masters, American poet, author, and playwright (b. 1868) 1950 – Roman Shukhevych, Ukrainian general and politician (b. 1907) 1953 – Herman J. Mankiewicz, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1897) 1953 – Sergei Prokofiev, Russian pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1891) 1953 – Joseph Stalin, Soviet dictator and politician of Georgian descent, 2nd leader of the Soviet Union (b. 1878) 1955 – Antanas Merkys, Lithuanian lawyer and politician, 14th Prime Minister of Lithuania (b. 1888) 1963 – Patsy Cline, American singer-songwriter (b. 1932) 1963 – Cowboy Copas, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1913) 1963 – Hawkshaw Hawkins, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1921) 1965 – Chen Cheng, Chinese general and politician, 27th Premier of the Republic of China (b. 1897) 1965 – Pepper Martin, American baseball player and manager (b. 1904) 1966 – Anna Akhmatova, Ukrainian-Russian poet, author, and translator (b. 1889) 1967 – Mischa Auer, Russian-American actor (b. 1905) 1967 – Mohammad Mosaddegh, Iranian political scientist and politician, 60th Prime Minister of Iran (b. 1882) 1967 – Georges Vanier, Canadian general and politician, 19th Governor General of Canada (b. 1888) 1971 – Allan Nevins, American journalist and author (b. 1890) 1973 – Robert C. O'Brien, American journalist and author (b. 1918) 1974 – John Samuel Bourque, Canadian colonel and politician (b. 1894) 1974 – Billy De Wolfe, American actor (b. 1907) 1974 – Sol Hurok, Ukrainian-American businessman (b. 1888) 1976 – Otto Tief, Estonian lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Estonia (b. 1889) 1977 – Tom Pryce, Welsh race car driver (b. 1949) 1980 – Jay Silverheels, Canadian-American actor (b. 1912) 1981 – Yip Harburg, American songwriter and composer (b. 1896) 1982 – John Belushi, American actor (b. 1949) 1984 – Tito Gobbi, Italian operatic baritone (b. 1913) 1984 – William Powell, American actor (b. 1892) 1988 – Alberto Olmedo, Argentine comedian and actor (b. 1933) 1990 – Gary Merrill, American actor and director (b. 1915) 1995 – Vivian Stanshall, English singer-songwriter and musician (b. 1943) 1996 – Whit Bissell, American character actor (b. 1909) 1997 – Samm Sinclair Baker, American writer (b. 1909) 1997 – Jean Dréville, French director and screenwriter (b. 1906) 1999 – Richard Kiley, American actor and singer (b. 1922) 2000 – Lolo Ferrari, French dancer, actress and singer (b. 1963) 2005 – David Sheppard, English cricketer and bishop (b. 1929) 2008 – Joseph Weizenbaum, German computer scientist and author (b. 1923) 2010 – Charles B. Pierce, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1938) 2010 – Richard Stapley, British actor and writer (b. 1923) 2011 – Manolis Rasoulis, Greek singer-songwriter (b. 1945) 2012 – Paul Haines, New Zealand-Australian author (b. 1970) 2012 – Philip Madoc, Welsh-English actor (b. 1934) 2012 – William O. Wooldridge, American sergeant (b. 1922) 2013 – Paul Bearer, American wrestler and manager (b. 1954) 2013 – Hugo Chávez, Venezuelan colonel and politician, President of Venezuela (b. 1954) 2013 – Duane Gish, American biochemist and academic (b. 1921) 2014 – Geoff Edwards, American actor and game show host (b. 1931) 2014 – Ailsa McKay, Scottish economist and academic (b. 1963) 2014 – Leopoldo María Panero, Spanish poet and translator (b. 1948) 2014 – Ola L. Mize, American colonel, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1931) 2015 – Vlada Divljan, Serbian singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1958) 2015 – Edward Egan, American cardinal and former Archbishop of New York (b. 1932) 2016 – Hassan Al-Turabi, Sudanese activist and politician (b. 1932) 2016 – Ray Tomlinson, American computer programmer and engineer (b. 1941) 2016 – Al Wistert, American football player and coach (b. 1920) 2017 – Kurt Moll, German opera singer (b. 1938) Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Ciarán of Saigir John Joseph of the Cross Piran Theophilus, bishop of Caesarea Thietmar of Minden March 5 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Day of Physical Culture and Sport (Azerbaijan) Learn from Lei Feng Day (China) St Piran's Day (Cornwall) References External links BBC: On This Day Historical Events on March 5 Today in Canadian History Days of the year March

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March 4

Events Pre-1600 AD 51 – Nero, later to become Roman emperor, is given the title princeps iuventutis (head of the youth). 306 – Martyrdom of Saint Adrian of Nicomedia. 852 – Croatian Knez Trpimir I issues a statute, a document with the first known written mention of the Croats name in Croatian sources. 938 – Translation of the relics of martyr Wenceslaus I, Duke of Bohemia, Prince of the Czechs. 1152 – Frederick I Barbarossa is elected King of Germany. 1238 – The Battle of the Sit River is fought in the northern part of the present-day Yaroslavl Oblast of Russia between the Mongol hordes of Batu Khan and the Russians under Yuri II of Vladimir-Suzdal during the Mongol invasion of Rus'. 1351 – Ramathibodi becomes King of Siam. 1386 – Władysław II Jagiełło (Jogaila) is crowned King of Poland. 1461 – Wars of the Roses in England: Lancastrian King Henry VI is deposed by his House of York cousin, who then becomes King Edward IV. 1493 – Explorer Christopher Columbus arrives back in Lisbon, Portugal, aboard his ship Niña from his voyage to what are now The Bahamas and other islands in the Caribbean. 1519 – Hernán Cortés arrives in Mexico in search of the Aztec civilization and its wealth. 1601–1900 1628 – The Massachusetts Bay Colony is granted a Royal charter. 1665 – English King Charles II declares war on the Netherlands marking the start of the Second Anglo-Dutch War. 1675 – John Flamsteed is appointed the first Astronomer Royal of England. 1681 – Charles II grants a land charter to William Penn for the area that will later become Pennsylvania. 1776 – American Revolutionary War: The Continental Army fortifies Dorchester Heights with cannon, leading the British troops to abandon the Siege of Boston. 1789 – In New York City, the first Congress of the United States meets, putting the United States Constitution into effect. 1790 – France is divided into 83 départements, cutting across the former provinces in an attempt to dislodge regional loyalties based on ownership of land by the nobility. 1791 – The Constitutional Act of 1791 is introduced by the British House of Commons in London which envisages the separation of Canada into Lower Canada (Quebec) and Upper Canada (Ontario). 1791 – Vermont is admitted to the United States as the fourteenth state. 1794 – The 11th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is passed by the U.S. Congress. 1797 – John Adams is inaugurated as the 2nd President of the United States of America, becoming the first President to begin his presidency on March 4. 1804 – Castle Hill Rebellion: Irish convicts rebel against British colonial authority in the Colony of New South Wales. 1813 – Cyril VI of Constantinople is elected Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. 1814 – Americans defeat British forces at the Battle of Longwoods between London, Ontario and Thamesville, near present-day Wardsville, Ontario. 1837 – The city of Chicago is incorporated. 1848 – Carlo Alberto di Savoia signs the Statuto Albertino that will later represent the first constitution of the Regno d'Italia. 1849 – President-elect of the United States Zachary Taylor and Vice President-elect Millard Fillmore did not take their respective oaths of office (they did so the following day), leading to the erroneous theory that outgoing President pro tempore of the United States Senate David Rice Atchison had assumed the role of acting president for one day. 1861 – The first national flag of the Confederate States of America (the "Stars and Bars") is adopted. 1865 – The third and final national flag of the Confederate States of America is adopted by the Confederate Congress. 1878 – Pope Leo XIII reestablishes the Catholic Church in Scotland, recreating sees and naming bishops for the first time since 1603. 1882 – Britain's first electric trams run in east London. 1890 – The longest bridge in Great Britain, the Forth Bridge in Scotland, measuring long, is opened by the Duke of Rothesay, later King Edward VII. 1899 – Cyclone Mahina sweeps in north of Cooktown, Queensland, with a wave that reaches up to inland, killing over 300. 1901–present 1901 – McKinley inaugurated president for second time; Theodore Roosevelt is vice president. 1908 – The Collinwood school fire, Collinwood near Cleveland, Ohio, kills 174 people. 1909 – U.S. President William Taft used what became known as a Saxbe fix, a mechanism to avoid the restriction of the U.S. Constitution's Ineligibility Clause, to appoint Philander C. Knox as U.S. Secretary of State. 1913 – First Balkan War: The Greek army engages the Turks at Bizani, resulting in victory two days later. 1913 – The United States Department of Labor is formed. 1917 – Jeannette Rankin of Montana becomes the first female member of the United States House of Representatives. 1933 – Franklin D. Roosevelt becomes the 32nd President of the United States. He was the last president to be inaugurated on March 4. 1933 – Frances Perkins becomes United States Secretary of Labor, the first female member of the United States Cabinet. 1933 – The Parliament of Austria is suspended because of a quibble over procedure – Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss initiates an authoritarian rule by decree. 1941 – World War II: The United Kingdom launches Operation Claymore on the Lofoten Islands; the first large scale British Commando raid. 1943 – World War II: The Battle of the Bismarck Sea in the south-west Pacific comes to an end. 1943 – World War II: The Battle of Fardykambos, one of the first major battles between the Greek Resistance and the occupying Royal Italian Army, begins. It ends on 6 March with the surrender of an entire Italian battalion and the liberation of the town of Grevena. 1944 – World War II: After the success of Big Week, the USAAF begins a daylight bombing campaign of Berlin. 1955 – An order to protect the endangered Saimaa ringed seal (Pusa hispida saimensis) was legalized. 1957 – The S&P 500 stock market index is introduced, replacing the S&P 90. 1960 – The French freighter La Coubre explodes in Havana, Cuba, killing 100. 1962 – A Caledonian Airways Douglas DC-7 crashes shortly after takeoff from Cameroon, killing 111 – the worst crash of a DC-7. 1966 – A Canadian Pacific Air Lines DC-8-43 explodes on landing at Tokyo International Airport, killing 64 people. 1966 – In an interview in the London Evening Standard, The Beatles' John Lennon declares that the band is "more popular than Jesus now". 1970 – French submarine Eurydice explodes underwater, resulting in the loss of the entire 57-man crew. 1976 – The Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention is formally dissolved in Northern Ireland resulting in direct rule of Northern Ireland from London by the British parliament. 1977 – The 1977 Vrancea earthquake in eastern and southern Europe kills more than 1,500, mostly in Bucharest, Romania. 1980 – Nationalist leader Robert Mugabe wins a sweeping election victory to become Zimbabwe's first black prime minister. 1985 – The Food and Drug Administration approves a blood test for HIV infection, used since then for screening all blood donations in the United States. 1986 – The Soviet Vega 1 begins returning images of Halley's Comet and the first images of its nucleus. 1990 – American basketball player Hank Gathers dies after collapsing during the semifinals of a West Coast Conference Tournament game. 1994 – Space Shuttle program: the Space Shuttle Colombia is launched on STS-62. 1996 – A derailed train in Weyauwega, Wisconsin (USA) causes the emergency evacuation of 2,300 people for 16 days. 1998 – Gay rights: Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc.: The Supreme Court of the United States rules that federal laws banning on-the-job sexual harassment also apply when both parties are the same sex. 2001 – BBC bombing: A massive car bomb explodes in front of the BBC Television Centre in London, seriously injuring one person; the attack was attributed to the Real IRA. 2002 – Afghanistan: Seven American Special Operations Forces soldiers and 200 Al-Qaeda Fighters are killed as American forces attempt to infiltrate the Shah-i-Kot Valley on a low-flying helicopter reconnaissance mission. 2009 – The International Criminal Court (ICC) issues an arrest warrant for Sudanese President Omar Hassan al-Bashir for war crimes and crimes against humanity in Darfur. Al-Bashir is the first sitting head of state to be indicted by the ICC since its establishment in 2002. 2012 – A series of explosions is reported at a munitions dump in Brazzaville, the capital of the Republic of the Congo, killing at least 250 people. 2015 – At least 34 miners die in a suspected gas explosion at the Zasyadko coal mine in the rebel-held Donetsk region of Ukraine. 2018 – Former MI6 spy Sergei Skripal and his daughter are poisoned with a Novichok nerve agent in Salisbury, England, causing a diplomatic uproar that results in mass-expulsions of diplomats from all countries involved. 2020 – Nik Wallenda becomes the first person to walk over the Masaya Volcano in Nicaragua. Births Pre-1600 895 – Liu Zhiyuan, founder of the Later Han Dynasty (d. 948) 977 – Al-Musabbihi, Fatimid historian and official (d. 1030) 1188 – Blanche of Castile, French queen consort (d. 1252) 1394 – Henry the Navigator, Portuguese explorer (d. 1460) 1484 – George, margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (d. 1543) 1492 – Francesco de Layolle, Italian organist and composer (d. 1540) 1502 – Elisabeth of Hesse, princess of Saxony (d. 1557) 1519 – Hindal Mirza, Mughal emperor (d. 1551) 1526 – Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon (d. 1596) 1601–1900 1602 – Kanō Tan'yū, Japanese painter (d. 1674) 1634 – Kazimierz Łyszczyński, Polish philosopher (d. 1689) 1651 – John Somers, 1st Baron Somers, English lawyer, jurist, and politician, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain (d. 1716) 1655 – Fra Galgario, Italian painter (d. 1743) 1665 – Philip Christoph von Königsmarck, Swedish soldier (d. 1694) 1678 – Antonio Vivaldi, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1741) 1702 – Jack Sheppard, English criminal (d. 1724) 1706 – Lauritz de Thurah, Danish architect, designed the Hermitage Hunting Lodge and Gammel Holtegård (d. 1759) 1715 – James Waldegrave, 2nd Earl Waldegrave, English historian and politician (d. 1763) 1719 – George Pigot, 1st Baron Pigot, English politician (d. 1777) 1729 – Anne d'Arpajon, French wife of Philippe de Noailles (d. 1794) 1745 – Charles Dibdin, English actor, playwright, and composer (d. 1814) 1745 – Casimir Pulaski, Polish-American general (d. 1779) 1756 – Henry Raeburn, Scottish painter and educator (d. 1823) 1760 – William Payne, English painter (d. 1830) 1760 – Hugh Ronalds, British nurseryman who cultivated and documented 300 varieties of apples (d. 1833) 1769 – Muhammad Ali, Ottoman military leader and pasha (d. 1849) 1770 – Joseph Jacotot, French philosopher and academic (d. 1840) 1778 – Robert Emmet, Irish republican (d. 1803) 1781 – Rebecca Gratz, American educator and philanthropist (d. 1869) 1782 – Johann Rudolf Wyss, Swiss philosopher, author, and academic (d. 1830) 1792 – Isaac Lea, American conchologist, geologist, and publisher (d. 1886) 1793 – Karl Lachmann, German philologist and critic (d. 1851) 1800 – William Price, Welsh physician, Chartist, and neo-Druid (d. 1893) 1814 – Napoleon Collins, Rear Admiral of the United States Navy during the Mexican–American War and the American Civil War (d. 1875) 1815 – Mykhailo Verbytsky, Ukrainian composer of religious hymns and the national anthem of Ukraine (d. 1870) 1817 – Edwards Pierrepont, American lawyer and politician, 34th United States Attorney General (d. 1892) 1820 – Francesco Bentivegna, Italian rebel leader (d. 1856) 1822 – Jules Antoine Lissajous, French mathematician and academic (d. 1880) 1823 – George Caron, Canadian businessman and politician (d. 1902) 1826 – August Johann Gottfried Bielenstein, German linguist, ethnographer, and theologian (d. 1907) 1826 – John Buford, American general (d. 1863) 1826 – Elme Marie Caro, French philosopher and academic (d. 1887) 1826 – Theodore Judah, American engineer, founded the Central Pacific Railroad (d. 1863) 1828 – Owen Wynne Jones, Welsh clergyman and poet (d. 1870) 1838 – Paul Lacôme, French pianist, cellist, and composer (d. 1920) 1847 – Carl Josef Bayer, Austrian chemist and academic (d. 1904) 1851 – Alexandros Papadiamantis, Greek author and poet (d. 1911) 1854 – Napier Shaw, English meteorologist and academic (d. 1945) 1856 – Alfred William Rich, English painter, author, and educator (d. 1921) 1861 – Arthur Cushman McGiffert, American theologian and author (d. 1933) 1862 – Jacob Robert Emden, Swiss astrophysicist and meteorologist (d. 1940) 1863 – R. I. Pocock, English zoologist and archaeologist (d. 1947) 1863 – John Henry Wigmore, American academic and jurist (d. 1943) 1864 – David W. Taylor, American admiral, architect, and engineer (d. 1940) 1866 – Eugène Cosserat, French mathematician and astronomer (d. 1931) 1867 – Jacob L. Beilhart, American activist, founded the Spirit Fruit Society (d. 1908) 1867 – Charles Pelot Summerall, American Army officer (d. 1955) 1870 – Thomas Sturge Moore, English author and poet (d. 1944) 1871 – Boris Galerkin, Russian mathematician and engineer (d. 1945) 1873 – Guy Wetmore Carryl, American journalist and poet (d. 1904) 1873 – John H. Trumbull, American colonel and politician, 70th Governor of Connecticut (d. 1961) 1875 – Mihály Károlyi, Hungarian politician, President of Hungary (d. 1955) 1875 – Enrique Larreta, Argentinian historian and author (d. 1961) 1876 – Léon-Paul Fargue, French poet and author (d. 1947) 1876 – Theodore Hardeen, Hungarian-American magician (d. 1945) 1877 – Alexander Goedicke, Russian pianist and composer (d. 1957) 1877 – Fritz Graebner, German geographer and ethnologist (d. 1934) 1877 – Garrett Morgan, African-American inventor (d. 1963) 1878 – Takeo Arishima, Japanese author and critic (d. 1923) 1878 – Egbert Van Alstyne, American pianist and songwriter (d. 1951) 1879 – Bernhard Kellermann, German author and poet (d. 1951) 1880 – Channing Pollock, American playwright and critic (d. 1946) 1881 – Todor Aleksandrov, Bulgarian educator and activist (d. 1924) 1881 – Thomas Sigismund Stribling, American lawyer and author (d. 1965) 1881 – Richard C. Tolman, American physicist and chemist (d. 1948) 1882 – Nicolae Titulescu, Romanian academic and politician, 61st Romanian Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1941) 1883 – Maude Fealy, American actress and screenwriter (d. 1971) 1883 – Robert Emmett Keane, American actor (d. 1981) 1883 – Sam Langford, Canadian-American boxer (d. 1956) 1884 – Red Murray, American baseball player (d. 1958) 1884 – Lee Shumway, American actor (d. 1959) 1886 – Paul Bazelaire, French cellist and composer (d. 1958) 1888 – Rafaela Ottiano, Italian-American actress (d. 1942) 1888 – Jeff Pfeffer, American baseball player (d. 1972) 1888 – Emma Richter, German paleontologist (d. 1956) 1888 – Knute Rockne, American football player and coach (d. 1931) 1889 – Oscar Chisini, Italian mathematician and statistician (d. 1967) 1889 – Oren E. Long, American soldier and politician, 10th Territorial Governor of Hawaii (d. 1965) 1889 – Pearl White, American actress (d. 1938) 1889 – Robert William Wood, English-American painter (d. 1979) 1890 – Norman Bethune, Canadian soldier and physician (d. 1939) 1891 – Dazzy Vance, American baseball player (d. 1961) 1893 – Charles Herbert Colvin, American engineer, co-founded the Pioneer Instrument Company (d. 1985) 1893 – Adolph Lowe, German sociologist and economist (d. 1995) 1894 – Charles Corm, Lebanese businessman and philanthropist (d. 1963) 1895 – Milt Gross, American animator, director, and screenwriter (d. 1953) 1896 – Kai Holm, Danish actor and director (d. 1985) 1897 – Lefty O'Doul, American baseball player and manager (d. 1969) 1898 – Georges Dumézil, French philologist and academic (d. 1986) 1898 – Hans Krebs, German general (d. 1945) 1899 – Peter Illing, Austrian born, British film and television actor (d. 1966) 1899 – Emilio Prados, Spanish poet and author (d. 1962) 1900 – Herbert Biberman, American director and screenwriter (d. 1971) 1901–present 1901 – Wilbur R. Franks, Canadian scientist, invented the g-suit (d. 1986) 1901 – Charles Goren, American bridge player and author (d. 1991) 1901 – Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo, Malagasy-French author, poet, and playwright (d. 1937) 1902 – Rachel Messerer, Lithuanian-Russian actress (d. 1993) 1902 – Russell Reeder, American soldier and author (d. 1998) 1903 – William C. Boyd, American immunologist and chemist (d. 1983) 1903 – Malcolm Dole, American chemist and academic (d. 1990) 1903 – Dorothy Mackaill, English-American actress and singer (d. 1990) 1903 – John Scarne, American magician and author (d. 1985) 1904 – Luis Carrero Blanco, Spanish admiral and politician, 69th President of the Government of Spain (d. 1973) 1904 – George Gamow, Ukrainian-American physicist and cosmologist (d. 1968) 1904 – Joseph Schmidt, Austrian-Hungarian tenor and actor (d. 1942) 1906 – Meindert DeJong, Dutch-American soldier and author (d. 1991) 1906 – Avery Fisher, American violinist and engineer, founded Fisher Electronics (d. 1994) 1906 – Georges Ronsse, Belgian cyclist and manager (d. 1969) 1907 – Edgar Barrier, American actor (d. 1964) 1908 – T. R. M. Howard, American surgeon and activist (d. 1976) 1908 – Thomas Shaw, American singer and guitarist (d. 1977) 1909 – Harry Helmsley, American businessman (d. 1997) 1909 – George Edward Holbrook, American chemist and engineer (d. 1987) 1910 – Tancredo Neves, Brazilian lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Brazil (d. 1985) 1911 – Charles Greville, 7th Earl of Warwick, English actor (d. 1984) 1912 – Afro Basaldella, Italian painter and academic (d. 1976) 1912 – Ferdinand Leitner, German conductor and composer (d. 1996) 1912 – Carl Marzani, Italian-American activist and publisher (d. 1994) 1913 – Taos Amrouche, Algerian singer and author (d. 1976) 1913 – John Garfield, American actor and singer (d. 1952) 1914 – Barbara Newhall Follett, American author (d. 1939) 1914 – Ward Kimball, American animator, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2002) 1914 – Robert R. Wilson, American physicist, sculptor, and architect (d. 2000) 1915 – László Csatáry, Hungarian art dealer (d. 2013) 1915 – Frank Sleeman, Australian lieutenant and politician, Lord Mayor of Brisbane (d. 2000) 1915 – Carlos Surinach, Spanish-Catalan composer and conductor (d. 1997) 1916 – William Alland, American actor, director, and producer (d. 1997) 1916 – Giorgio Bassani, Italian author and poet (d. 2000) 1916 – Hans Eysenck, German-English psychologist and theorist (d. 1997) 1916 – Ernest Titterton, British Australian nuclear physicist (d. 1990) 1917 – Clyde McCullough, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1982) 1918 – Kurt Dahlmann, German pilot, lawyer, and journalist (d. 2017) 1918 – Margaret Osborne duPont, American tennis player (d. 2012) 1919 – Buck Baker, American race car driver (d. 2002) 1919 – Tan Chee Khoon, Malaysian physician and politician (d. 1996) 1920 – Jean Lecanuet, French politician, French Minister of Justice (d. 1993) 1920 – Alan MacNaughtan, Scottish-English actor (d. 2002) 1921 – Halim El-Dabh, Egyptian-American composer and educator (d. 2017) 1921 – Joan Greenwood, English actress (d. 1987) 1921 – Dinny Pails, English-Australian tennis player (d. 1986) 1922 – Richard E. Cunha, American director and cinematographer (d. 2005) 1922 – Dina Pathak, Indian actor and director (d. 2002) 1923 – Russell Freeburg, American journalist and author 1923 – Francis King, English author and poet (d. 2011) 1923 – Patrick Moore, English astronomer and television host (d. 2012) 1924 – Kenneth O'Donnell, American soldier and politician (d. 1977) 1925 – Alan R. Battersby, English chemist and academic (d. 2018) 1925 – Paul Mauriat, French conductor and composer (d. 2006) 1926 – Henri de Contenson, French archaeologist and academic (d. 2019) 1926 – Prince Michel of Bourbon-Parma, French businessman, soldier and racing driver (d. 2018) 1926 – Richard DeVos, American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Amway (d. 2018) 1926 – Pascual Pérez, Argentinian boxer (d. 1977) 1926 – Don Rendell, English saxophonist and flute player (d. 2015) 1927 – Phil Batt, American soldier and politician, 29th Governor of Idaho 1927 – Thayer David, American actor (d. 1978) 1927 – Jacques Dupin, French poet and critic (d. 2012) 1927 – Dick Savitt, American tennis player and businessman 1928 – Samuel Adler, German-American composer and conductor 1928 – Alan Sillitoe, English novelist, short story writer, essayist, and poet (d. 2010) 1929 – Bernard Haitink, Dutch violinist and conductor (d. 2021) 1929 – Peter Swerling, American theoretician and engineer (d. 2000) 1931 – Wally Bruner, American journalist and television host (d. 1997) 1931 – Bob Johnson, American ice hockey player and coach (d. 1991) 1931 – William Henry Keeler, American cardinal (d. 2017) 1931 – Alice Rivlin, American economist and politician (d. 2019) 1932 – Sigurd Jansen, Norwegian pianist, composer, and conductor 1932 – Ryszard Kapuściński, Polish journalist, photographer, and poet (d. 2007) 1932 – Miriam Makeba, South African singer-songwriter and actress (d. 2008) 1932 – Ed Roth, American illustrator (d. 2001) 1932 – Frank Wells, American businessman (d. 1994) 1933 – Nino Vaccarella, Italian racing driver 1934 – Mario Davidovsky, Argentinian-American composer and academic (d. 2019) 1934 – John Duffey, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1996) 1934 – Anne Haney, American actress (d. 2001) 1934 – Barbara McNair, American singer and actress (d. 2007) 1934 – Sandra Reynolds, South African tennis player 1934 – Janez Strnad, Slovenian physicist and academic (d. 2015) 1935 – Edward Dębicki, Ukrainian-Polish poet and composer 1935 – Bent Larsen, Danish chess player and author (d. 2010) 1936 – Eric Allandale, Dominican trombonist and songwriter (d. 2001) 1936 – Jim Clark, Scottish racing driver (d. 1968) 1936 – Aribert Reimann, German pianist and composer 1937 – José Araquistáin, Spanish footballer 1937 – William Deverell, Canadian lawyer, author, and activist 1937 – Graham Dowling, New Zealand cricketer 1937 – Leslie H. Gelb, American journalist and author (d. 2019) 1937 – Yuri Senkevich, Russian physician and explorer (d. 2003) 1937 – Barney Wilen, French saxophonist and composer (d. 1996) 1937 – Richard B. Wright, Canadian journalist and author (d. 2017) 1938 – Anton Balasingham, Sri Lankan-English negotiator (d. 2006) 1938 – Alpha Condé, Guinean politician, President of Guinea 1938 – Allan Kornblum, American police officer and judge (d. 2010) 1938 – Don Perkins, American football player and sportscaster 1938 – Paula Prentiss, American actress 1938 – Adam Daniel Rotfeld, Polish academic and politician, Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs 1939 – Jack Fisher, American baseball player 1939 – Robert Shaye, American film producer 1940 – Wolfgang Hoffmann-Riem, German scholar and judge 1940 – David Plante, American novelist 1941 – John Hancock, American film and television actor (d. 1992) 1941 – Adrian Lyne, English director, producer, and screenwriter 1941 – James Zagel, American lawyer and judge 1942 – Gloria Gaither, American singer-songwriter 1942 – Charles C. Krulak, American general 1942 – David Matthews, American keyboard player and composer 1942 – Lynn Sherr, American journalist and author 1942 – James Gustave Speth, American lawyer and politician 1942 – Zorán Sztevanovity, Serbian-Hungarian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1943 – Lucio Dalla, Italian singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2012) 1943 – Aldo Rico, Argentinian commander and politician 1944 – Harvey Postlethwaite, English engineer (d. 1999) 1944 – Anthony Ichiro Sanda, Japanese-American physicist and academic 1944 – Len Walker, English footballer and manager 1944 – Bobby Womack, American singer-songwriter (d. 2014) 1945 – Tommy Svensson, Swedish footballer and manager 1945 – Gary Williams, American basketball player and coach 1946 – Michael Ashcroft, English businessman and politician 1946 – Danny Frisella, American baseball player (d. 1977) 1946 – Haile Gerima, Ethiopian born US filmmaker 1946 – Patricia Kennealy-Morrison, American journalist and author 1947 – David Franzoni, American screenwriter and film producer 1947 – Jan Garbarek, Norwegian saxophonist and composer 1947 – Bob Lewis, American guitarist 1947 – Pēteris Plakidis, Latvian pianist and composer (d. 2017) 1948 – Lindy Chamberlain-Creighton, New Zealand-Australian author 1948 – James Ellroy, American writer 1948 – Tom Grieve, American baseball player, manager, and sportscaster 1948 – Mike Moran, English musician, songwriter and record producer 1948 – Jean O'Leary, American nun and activist (d. 2005) 1948 – Chris Squire, English singer-songwriter and bass guitarist (d. 2015) 1948 – Shakin' Stevens, British singer-songwriter 1949 – Sergei Bagapsh, Abkhazian politician, 2nd President of Abkhazia (d. 2011) 1949 – Carroll Baker, Canadian singer-songwriter 1950 – Ofelia Medina, Mexican actress and screenwriter 1950 – Rick Perry, American captain and politician, 47th Governor of Texas 1950 – Safet Plakalo, Bosnian author and playwright (d. 2015) 1951 – Edelgard Bulmahn, German educator and politician, German Federal Minister of Education and Research 1951 – Theresa Hak Kyung Cha, South Korean-American author, director, and producer (d. 1982) 1951 – Kenny Dalglish, Scottish footballer and manager 1951 – Pete Haycock, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2013) 1951 – Peter O'Sullivan, Welsh international footballer 1951 – Sam Perlozzo, American baseball player and manager 1951 – Chris Rea, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1951 – Glenis Willmott, English scientist and politician 1951 – Zoran Žižić, Montenegrin politician, 4th Prime Minister of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (d. 2013) 1952 – Peter Kuhfeld, English painter 1952 – Ronn Moss, American singer-songwriter and actor 1952 – Svend Robinson, American-Canadian lawyer and politician 1952 – Umberto Tozzi, Italian singer-songwriter and producer 1953 – John Edwards, Australian director and producer 1953 – Emilio Estefan, Cuban-American drummer and producer 1953 – Paweł Janas, Polish footballer and manager 1953 – Ray Price, Australian rugby player and sportscaster 1953 – Reinhold Roth, German motorcycle racer 1953 – Chris Smith, American lawyer and politician 1953 – Agustí Villaronga, Spanish actor, director, and screenwriter 1953 – Daniel Woodrell, American novelist and short story writer 1954 – Timur Apakidze, Russian general and pilot (d. 2001) 1954 – Theresa Hak Kyung Cha, Korean American author (d. 1982) 1954 – François Fillon, French lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of France 1954 – Peter Jacobsen, American golfer and sportscaster 1954 – Catherine O'Hara, Canadian-American actress and comedian 1954 – Irina Ratushinskaya, Russian poet and author (d. 2017) 1955 – Tim Costello, Australian minister and politician 1955 – Joey Jones, Welsh footballer and manager 1957 – Nicholas Coleridge, English journalist and businessman 1957 – Ron Fassler, American film and television actor and author 1957 – Mykelti Williamson, American actor and director 1958 – Patricia Heaton, American actress 1958 – Massimo Mascioletti, Italian rugby player and coach 1958 – Tina Smith, American politician, junior senator of Minnesota 1959 – Rick Ardon, Australian journalist 1959 – Plamen Getov, Bulgarian footballer 1960 – Chonda Pierce, American comedian 1961 – Ray Mancini, American boxer 1961 – Roger Wessels, South African golfer and educator 1963 – Jason Newsted, American heavy metal singer-songwriter and bass player 1964 – Brian Crowley, Irish lawyer and politician 1964 – Paolo Virzì, Italian director and screenwriter 1965 – Greg Alexander, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster 1965 – Paul W. S. Anderson, English director, producer, and screenwriter 1965 – Khaled Hosseini, Afghan-born American novelist 1965 – Yury Lonchakov, Russian pilot, and cosmonaut 1966 – Emese Hunyady, Hungarian speed skater 1966 – Kevin Johnson, American basketball player and politician, 55th Mayor of Sacramento 1966 – Fiona Ma, American accountant and politician 1966 – Helmut Mayer, Austrian skier 1966 – Glen Nissen, Australian rugby league player 1966 – Dav Pilkey, American author and illustrator 1966 – Grand Puba, American rapper 1966 – Mike Small, American golfer and coach 1967 – Daryll Cullinan, South African cricketer and coach 1967 – Evan Dando, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1967 – Ivan Lewis, English lawyer and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Northern Ireland 1967 – Terry Matterson, Australian rugby league player and coach 1967 – Dave Rayner, English cyclist (d. 1994) 1967 – Sam Taylor-Johnson, English filmmaker and photographer 1967 – Kubilay Türkyilmaz, Swiss footballer 1967 – Tim Vine, English comedian, actor, and author 1968 – Giovanni Carrara, Venezuelan baseball player 1968 – Jorge Celedón, Colombian singer 1968 – Patsy Kensit, English model and actress 1968 – Kyriakos Mitsotakis, Greek banker and politician, Prime Minister of Greece 1968 – Graham Westley, English footballer and manager 1969 – Pierluigi Casiraghi, Italian footballer and manager 1969 – Wayne Collins, English footballer 1969 – Annie Yi, Taiwanese singer, actress, and writer 1970 – Àlex Crivillé, Spanish motorcycle racer 1970 – Will Keen, English actor 1970 – Caroline Vis, Dutch tennis player 1971 – Iain Baird, Canadian soccer player and manager 1971 – Claire Baker, Scottish politician 1971 – Anders Kjølholm, Danish bass player 1971 – Satoshi Motoyama, Japanese racing driver 1972 – Katherine Center, American journalist and author 1972 – Nocturno Culto, Norwegian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1972 – Robert Smith, American football player and sportscaster 1972 – Ivy Queen, Puerto Rican singer, songwriter, rapper, actress and record producer 1972 – Jos Verstappen, Dutch racing driver 1972 – Alison Wheeler, English singer-songwriter 1973 – Massimo Brambilla, Italian footballer and coach 1973 – Phillip Daniels, American football player and coach 1973 – Valery Kobelev, Russian ski jumper 1973 – Penny Mordaunt, English lieutenant and politician, Minister of State for the Armed Forces 1973 – Linus of Hollywood, American singer-songwriter and producer 1973 – Len Wiseman, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1973 – Chandra Sekhar Yeleti, Indian director and screenwriter 1974 – Crowbar, American wrestler 1974 – Mladen Krstajić, Serbian footballer and manager 1974 – Karol Kučera, Slovak tennis player 1974 – Ariel Ortega, Argentinian footballer 1974 – Tommy Phelps, South Korean-American baseball player and coach 1974 – ICS Vortex, Norwegian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1974 – David Wagner, American tennis player and educator 1974 – Bill Young, Australian rugby player 1975 – Mats Eilertsen, Norwegian bassist and composer 1975 – Patrick Femerling, German basketball player 1975 – Antti Aalto, Finnish ice hockey player 1975 – Kristi Harrower, Australian basketball player 1975 – Hawksley Workman, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1976 – Robbie Blake, English footballer 1976 – Tommy Jönsson, Swedish footballer 1977 – Nacho Figueras, Argentinian polo player and model 1977 – Traver Rains, American fashion designer and photographer 1978 – Pierre Dagenais, Canadian ice hockey player 1978 – Denis Dallan, Italian rugby player and singer 1978 – Jean-Marc Pelletier, American ice hockey player 1979 – Sarah Stock, Canadian wrestler and trainer 1980 – Rohan Bopanna, Indian tennis player 1980 – Omar Bravo, Mexican footballer 1980 – Suzanna Choffel, American singer-songwriter 1980 – Giedrius Gustas, Lithuanian basketball player 1980 – Scott Hamilton, New Zealand rugby player and coach 1980 – Jack Hannahan, American baseball player 1980 – Michael Henrich, American ice hockey player 1980 – Phil McGuire, Scottish footballer and manager 1980 – Aja Volkman, American singer-songwriter 1981 – Ariza Makukula, Portuguese footballer 1981 – Helen Wyman, English cyclist 1982 – Landon Donovan, American soccer player and coach 1982 – Cate Edwards, American lawyer and author 1982 – Ludmila Ezhova, Russian gymnast 1982 – Yasemin Mori, Turkish singer 1983 – Samuel Contesti, French-Italian figure skater 1983 – Adam Deacon, English film actor, rapper, writer and director 1983 – Jaque Fourie, South African rugby player 1983 – Drew Houston, American billionaire and Internet entrepreneur 1984 – Josh Bowman, English actor 1984 – Tamir Cohen, Israeli footballer 1984 – Anders Grøndal, Norwegian racing driver 1984 – Spencer Larsen, American football player 1984 – Jeremy Loops, South African singer-songwriter and record producer 1984 – Raven Quinn, American singer-songwriter 1984 – Zak Whitbread, American-English footballer 1985 – Jake Buxton, English footballer 1985 – Chinedum Ndukwe, American football player 1985 – Whitney Port, American fashion designer and author 1986 – Steven Burke, English road and track cyclist 1986 – Tom De Mul, Belgian footballer 1986 – Mike Krieger, Brazilian-American computer programmer and businessman, co-founded Instagram 1986 – Siim Roops, Estonian footballer 1986 – Bohdan Shust, Ukrainian footballer 1986 – Manu Vatuvei, New Zealand rugby league player 1986 – Margo Harshman, American actress 1987 – Ben McKinley, Australian footballer 1987 – Cameron Wood, Australian footballer 1987 – Tamzin Merchant, English actress 1988 – Gal Mekel, Israeli basketball player 1988 – Laura Siegemund, German tennis player 1988 – Adam Watts, English footballer 1989 – Benjamin Kiplagat, Ugandan long-distance runner 1990 – Andrea Bowen, American actress 1990 – Draymond Green, American basketball player 1990 – Paddy Madden, Irish footballer 1990 – Fran Mérida, Spanish footballer 1992 – Nick Castellanos, American baseball player 1992 – Erik Lamela, Argentinian international footballer 1992 – Bernd Leno, German footballer 1992 – Karl Mööl, Estonian footballer 1993 – Bobbi Kristina Brown, American singer and actress (d. 2015) 1993 – Richard Peniket, English footballer 1994 – Callum Harriott, English footballer 1994 – AJ Tracey, British hip-hop artist and record producer 1995 – Chlöe Howl, British singer-songwriter 1995 – Bill Milner, English actor 1996 – Lukas Webb, Australian rules footballer 2001 – Freya Anderson, English freestyle swimmer 2002 – Jacob Hopkins, American actor 2004 – Miya Cech, American actress Deaths Pre-1600 306 – Adrian and Natalia of Nicomedia, Christian martyrs 480 – Landry of Sées, French bishop and saint 561 – Pelagius I, pope of the Catholic Church 934 – Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah, Fatimid caliph (b. 873) 1172 – Stephen III, king of Hungary (b. 1147) 1193 – Saladin, founder of the Ayyubid Sultanate (b. 1137) 1238 – Joan of England, queen of Scotland (b. 1210) 1238 – Yuri II, Russian Grand Prince (b. 1189) 1303 – Daniel of Moscow, Russian Grand Duke (b. 1261) 1314 – Jakub Świnka, Polish priest and archbishop 1371 – Jeanne d'Évreux, queen consort of France (b. 1310) 1388 – Thomas Usk, English author 1484 – Saint Casimir, Polish prince (b. 1458) 1496 – Sigismund, archduke of Austria (b. 1427) 1556 – Leonhard Kleber, German organist (b. 1495) 1583 – Bernard Gilpin, English priest and theologian (b. 1517) 1601–1900 1604 – Fausto Sozzini, Italian theologian and educator (b. 1539) 1615 – Hans von Aachen, German painter and educator (b. 1552) 1710 – Louis III, duke of Bourbon (b. 1668) 1733 – Claude de Forbin, French admiral and politician (b. 1656) 1744 – John Anstis, English historian and politician (b. 1669) 1762 – Johannes Zick, German painter (b. 1702) 1793 – Louis Jean Marie de Bourbon, Duke of Penthièvre (b. 1725) 1795 – John Collins, American politician, 3rd Governor of Rhode Island (b. 1717) 1805 – Jean-Baptiste Greuze, French painter (b. 1725) 1807 – Abraham Baldwin, American minister, lawyer, and politician (b. 1754) 1811 – Mariano Moreno, Argentinian journalist, lawyer, and politician (b. 1778) 1832 – Jean-François Champollion, French philologist and scholar (b. 1790) 1851 – James Richardson, English explorer (b. 1809) 1852 – Nikolai Gogol, Ukrainian-Russian short story writer, novelist, and playwright (b. 1809) 1853 – Thomas Bladen Capel, English admiral (b. 1776) 1853 – Christian Leopold von Buch, German geologist and paleontologist (b. 1774) 1858 – Matthew C. Perry, American naval commander (b. 1794) 1864 – Thomas Starr King, American minister and politician (b. 1824) 1866 – Alexander Campbell, Irish-American minister and theologian (b. 1788) 1872 – Carsten Hauch, Danish poet and playwright (b. 1790) 1883 – Alexander H. Stephens, American lawyer and politician, Vice President of the Confederate States of America (b. 1812) 1888 – Amos Bronson Alcott, American philosopher and educator (b. 1799) 1901–present 1903 – Joseph Henry Shorthouse, English author (b. 1834) 1906 – John Schofield, American general and politician, 28th United States Secretary of War (b. 1831) 1915 – William Willett, English inventor, founded British Summer Time (b. 1856) 1916 – Franz Marc, German painter (b. 1880) 1925 – Moritz Moszkowski, Polish-German pianist and composer (b. 1854) 1925 – James Ward, English psychologist and philosopher (b. 1843) 1925 – John Montgomery Ward, American baseball player and manager (b. 1860) 1927 – Ira Remsen, American chemist and academic (b. 1846) 1938 – George Foster Peabody, American banker and philanthropist (b. 1852) 1938 – Jack Taylor, American baseball player (b. 1874) 1940 – Hamlin Garland, American novelist, poet, essayist, and short story writer (b. 1860) 1941 – Ludwig Quidde, German activist and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1858) 1944 – Fannie Barrier Williams, American educator and activist (b. 1855) 1944 – Louis Buchalter, American mob boss (b. 1897) 1944 – Louis Capone, Italian-American gangster (b. 1896) 1944 – René Lefebvre, French businessman (b. 1879) 1945 – Lucille La Verne, American actress (b. 1872) 1945 – Mark Sandrich, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1900) 1948 – Antonin Artaud, French actor and director (b. 1896) 1949 – Clarence Kingsbury, English cyclist (b. 1882) 1952 – Charles Scott Sherrington, English neurophysiologist and pathologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1857) 1954 – Noel Gay, English composer and songwriter (b. 1898) 1960 – Herbert O'Conor, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 51st Governor of Maryland (b. 1896) 1963 – William Carlos Williams, American poet, short story writer, and essayist (b. 1883) 1969 – Nicholas Schenck, Russian-American businessman (b. 1881) 1972 – Harold Barrowclough, New Zealand general, lawyer, and politician, 8th Chief Justice of New Zealand (b. 1894) 1972 – Charles Biro, American author and illustrator (b. 1911) 1974 – Adolph Gottlieb, American painter and sculptor (b. 1903) 1976 – John Marvin Jones, American judge and politician (b. 1882) 1976 – Walter H. Schottky, Swiss-German physicist and engineer (b. 1886) 1977 – Anatol E. Baconsky, Romanian poet, author, and critic (b. 1925) 1977 – Nancy Tyson Burbidge, Australian botanist and curator (b. 1912) 1977 – Andrés Caicedo, Colombian author, poet, and playwright (b. 1951) 1977 – William Paul, American lawyer and politician (b. 1885) 1977 – Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk, German jurist and politician, German Minister for Foreign Affairs (b. 1887) 1978 – Wesley Bolin, American businessman and politician, 15th Governor of Arizona (b. 1909) 1978 – Joe Marsala, American clarinet player and songwriter (b. 1907) 1979 – Willi Unsoeld, American mountaineer and educator (b. 1926) 1980 – Alan Hardaker, English lieutenant and businessman (b. 1912) 1981 – Torin Thatcher, American actor (b. 1905) 1981 – Karl-Jesko von Puttkamer, German admiral (b. 1900) 1986 – Albert L. Lehninger, American biochemist and academic (b. 1917) 1986 – Richard Manuel, Canadian singer-songwriter and pianist (b. 1943) 1986 – Elizabeth Smart, Canadian poet and author (b. 1913) 1987 – Seibo Kitamura, Japanese sculptor (b. 1884) 1988 – Beatriz Guido, Argentine author and screenwriter (b. 1924) 1989 – Tiny Grimes, American guitarist (b. 1916) 1990 – Hank Gathers, American basketball player (b. 1967) 1991 – Godfrey Bryan, English cricketer (b. 1902) 1992 – Art Babbitt, American animator and director (b. 1907) 1992 – Pare Lorentz, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1905) 1993 – Art Hodes, Ukrainian-American pianist and composer (b. 1904) 1993 – Tomislav Ivčić, Croatian singer-songwriter and politician (b. 1953) 1993 – Izaak Kolthoff, Dutch chemist and academic (b. 1894) 1993 – Nicholas Ridley, Baron Ridley of Liddesdale, English lieutenant and politician, Secretary of State for the Environment (b. 1929) 1994 – John Candy, Canadian comedian and actor (b. 1950) 1994 – George Edward Hughes, Irish-Scottish philosopher and author (b. 1918) 1995 – Matt Urban, American colonel, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1919) 1996 – Minnie Pearl, American entertainer (b. 1912) 1996 – John Sauer, American football player, coach, and sportscaster (b. 1925) 1997 – Joe Baker-Cresswell, English captain (b. 1901) 1997 – Robert H. Dicke, American physicist and astronomer (b. 1916) 1998 – Ivan Dougherty, Australian general (b. 1907) 1999 – Harry Blackmun, American lawyer and judge (b. 1908) 1999 – Del Close, American actor and educator (b. 1934) 1999 – Miłosz Magin, Polish pianist and composer (b. 1929) 2000 – Hermann Brück, German-Scottish physicist and astronomer (b. 1905) 2000 – Michael Noonan, New Zealand-Australian author and screenwriter (b. 1921) 2000 – Ta-You Wu, Chinese physicist and academic (b. 1907) 2001 – Gerardo Barbero, Argentinian chess player (b. 1961) 2001 – Jean René Bazaine, French painter and author (b. 1904) 2001 – Fred Lasswell, American cartoonist (b. 1916) 2001 – Jim Rhodes, American businessman and politician, 61st Governor of Ohio (b. 1909) 2001 – Harold Stassen, American educator and politician, 25th Governor of Minnesota (b. 1907) 2002 – Ugnė Karvelis, Lithuanian author and translator (b. 1935) 2002 – Elyne Mitchell, Australian skier and author (b. 1913) 2002 – Velibor Vasović, Serbian footballer and manager (b. 1939) 2003 – Jaba Ioseliani, Georgian playwright, academic, and politician (b. 1926) 2003 – Sébastien Japrisot, French author, screenwriter, and director (b. 1931) 2004 – Claude Nougaro, French singer-songwriter (b. 1929) 2005 – Nicola Calipari, Italian general (b. 1953) 2005 – Yuriy Kravchenko, Ukrainian police officer and politician (b. 1951) 2005 – Carlos Sherman, Uruguayan-Belarusian author and activist (b. 1934) 2006 – John Reynolds Gardiner, American author and engineer (b. 1944) 2006 – Edgar Valter, Estonian author and illustrator (b. 1929) 2007 – Thomas Eagleton, American lawyer and politician, 38th Lieutenant Governor of Missouri (b. 1929) 2007 – Tadeusz Nalepa, Polish singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1934) 2007 – Ian Wooldridge, English journalist (b. 1932) 2008 – Gary Gygax, American game designer, co-created Dungeons & Dragons (b. 1938) 2008 – Leonard Rosenman, American composer and conductor (b. 1924) 2009 – Yvon Cormier, Canadian wrestler (b. 1938) 2009 – Horton Foote, American playwright and screenwriter (b. 1916) 2009 – George McAfee, American football player (b. 1918) 2010 – Raimund Abraham, Austrian architect and educator, designed the Austrian Cultural Forum New York (b. 1933) 2010 – Johnny Alf, Brazilian pianist and composer (b. 1929) 2010 – Vladislav Ardzinba, Abkhazian historian and politician, 1st President of Abkhazia (b. 1945) 2010 – Fred Wedlock, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1942) 2011 – Krishna Prasad Bhattarai, Nepalese journalist and politician, 29th Prime Minister of Nepal (b. 1924) 2011 – Vivienne Harris, English journalist and publisher, co-founded the Jewish Telegraph (b. 1921) 2011 – Ed Manning, American basketball player and coach (b. 1943) 2011 – Arjun Singh, Indian politician (b. 1930) 2011 – Alenush Terian, Iranian astronomer and physicist (b. 1920) 2011 – Simon van der Meer, Dutch-Swiss physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1925) 2012 – Paul McBride, Scottish lawyer and politician (b. 1965) 2012 – Don Mincher, American baseball player (b. 1938) 2013 – Lillian Cahn, Hungarian-American businesswoman, co-founded Coach, Inc. (b. 1923) 2013 – Mickey Moore, Canadian-American actor and director (b. 1914) 2013 – Toren Smith, Canadian businessman, founded Studio Proteus (b. 1960) 2014 – Mark Freidkin, Russian author and poet (b. 1953) 2014 – Elaine Kellett-Bowman, English lawyer and politician (b. 1923) 2014 – Jack Kinzler, American engineer (b. 1920) 2014 – Wu Tianming, Chinese director and producer (b. 1939) 2015 – Dušan Bilandžić, Croatian historian and politician (b. 1924) 2015 – Ray Hatton, English-American runner, author, and academic (b. 1932) 2016 – Bud Collins, American journalist and sportscaster (b. 1929) 2016 – Pat Conroy, American author (b. 1945) 2016 – P. A. Sangma, Indian lawyer and politician, Speaker of the Lok Sabha (b. 1947) 2016 – Zhou Xiaoyan, Chinese soprano and educator (b. 1917) 2017 – Clayton Yeutter, American politician (b. 1930) 2018 – Davide Astori, Italian soccer player (b. 1987) 2019 – Keith Flint, English singer (The Prodigy) (b. 1969) 2019 – Luke Perry, American actor (b. 1966) 2020 – Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, Peruvian politician and diplomat Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Adrian of Nicomedia Casimir Felix of Rhuys Giovanni Antonio Farina (Catholic Church) Blessed Humbert III, Count of Savoy (Roman Catholic Church) Paul Cuffee (Episcopal Church) Peter of Pappacarbone Blessed Zoltán Meszlényi March 4 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) St Casimir's Day (Poland and Lithuania) World Obesity Day References External links BBC: On This Day Historical Events on March 4 Today in Canadian History Days of the year March

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March%2019

March 19

Sometimes the March equinox falls on this date (mostly in Western Hemisphere countries), marking the vernal point in the Northern Hemisphere and the autumnal point in the Southern Hemisphere. Events Pre-1600 1277 – The Byzantine–Venetian treaty of 1277 is concluded, stipulating a two-year truce and renewing Venetian commercial privileges in the Byzantine Empire. 1279 – A Mongol victory at the Battle of Yamen ends the Song dynasty in China. 1284 – The Statute of Rhuddlan incorporates the Principality of Wales into England. 1452 – Frederick III of Habsburg is the last Holy Roman Emperor crowned by medieval tradition in Rome by Pope Nicholas V 1563 – The Edict of Amboise is signed, ending the first phase of the French Wars of Religion and granting certain freedoms to the Huguenots. 1601–1900 1649 – The House of Commons of England passes an act abolishing the House of Lords, declaring it "useless and dangerous to the people of England". 1687 – Explorer Robert Cavelier de La Salle, searching for the mouth of the Mississippi River, is murdered by his own men. 1808 – Charles IV, king of Spain, abdicates after riots and a popular revolt at the winter palace Aranjuez. His son, Ferdinand VII, takes the throne. 1812 – The Cortes of Cádiz promulgates the Spanish Constitution of 1812. 1831 – First documented bank heist on U.S. history, when burglars stole $245,000 (1831 values) from the City Bank (now Citibank) on Wall Street. Most of the money was recovered. 1853 – The Taiping reform movement occupies and makes Nanjing its capital until 1864. 1861 – The First Taranaki War ends in New Zealand. 1863 – The , said to have been the most powerful Confederate cruiser, is destroyed on her maiden voyage with a cargo of munitions, medicines, and merchandise then valued at over $1,000,000. 1865 – American Civil War: The Battle of Bentonville begins. By the end of the battle two days later, Confederate forces had retreated from Four Oaks, North Carolina. 1885 – Louis Riel declares a provisional government in Saskatchewan, beginning the North-West Rebellion. 1895 – Auguste and Louis Lumière record their first footage using their newly patented cinematograph. 1900 – The British archeologist Sir Arthur John Evans begins excavating Knossos Palace, the center of Cretan civilization. 1901–present 1918 – The US Congress establishes time zones and approves daylight saving time. 1920 – The United States Senate rejects the Treaty of Versailles for the second time (the first time was on November 19, 1919). 1921 – Irish War of Independence: One of the biggest engagements of the war takes place at Crossbarry, County Cork. About 100 Irish Republican Army (IRA) volunteers escape an attempt by over 1,300 British forces to encircle them. 1931 – Governor Fred B. Balzar signs a bill legalizing gambling in Nevada. 1932 – The Sydney Harbour Bridge is opened. 1943 – Frank Nitti, the Chicago Outfit Boss after Al Capone, commits suicide at the Chicago Central Railyard. 1944 – World War II: The German army occupies Hungary. 1945 – World War II: Off the coast of Japan, a dive bomber hits the aircraft carrier , killing 724 of her crew. Badly damaged, the ship is able to return to the US under her own power. 1945 – World War II: Adolf Hitler issues his "Nero Decree" ordering all industries, military installations, shops, transportation facilities, and communications facilities in Germany to be destroyed. 1946 – French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Réunion become overseas départements of France. 1958 – The Monarch Underwear Company fire leaves 24 dead and 15 injured. 1962 – The Algerian War of Independence ends. 1964 – Over 500,000 Brazilians attend the March of the Family with God for Liberty, in protest against the government of João Goulart and against communism. 1965 – The wreck of the , valued at over $50,000,000 and said to have been the most powerful Confederate cruiser, is discovered by teenage diver and pioneer underwater archaeologist E. Lee Spence, exactly 102 years after its destruction. 1969 – The TV-mast at Emley Moor transmitting station, United Kingdom, collapses due to ice build-up. 1979 – The United States House of Representatives begins broadcasting its day-to-day business via the cable television network C-SPAN. 1982 – Falklands War: Argentinian forces land on South Georgia Island, precipitating war with the United Kingdom. 1989 – The Egyptian flag is raised at Taba, marking the end of Israeli occupation since the Six Days War in 1967 and the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty in 1979. 1990 – The ethnic clashes of Târgu Mureș begin four days after the anniversary of the Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire. 1998 – An Ariana Afghan Airlines Boeing 727 crashes on approach to Kabul International Airport, killing all 45 on board. 2001 – German trade union Ver.di was formed 2002 – Zimbabwe is suspended from the Commonwealth on charges of human rights abuses and of electoral fraud, following a turbulent presidential election. 2004 – Catalina affair: A Swedish DC-3 shot down by a Soviet MiG-15 in 1952 over the Baltic Sea is finally recovered after years of work. 2004 – March 19 Shooting Incident: The Republic of China (Taiwan) president Chen Shui-bian is shot just before the country's presidential election on March 20. 2008 – GRB 080319B: A cosmic burst that is the farthest object visible to the naked eye is briefly observed. 2011 – Libyan Civil War: After the failure of Muammar Gaddafi's forces to take Benghazi, the French Air Force launches Opération Harmattan, beginning foreign military intervention in Libya. 2013 – A series of bombings and shootings kills at least 98 people and injures 240 others across Iraq. 2016 – Flydubai Flight 981 crashes while attempting to land at Rostov-on-Don international airport, killing all 62 on board. 2016 – An explosion occurs in Taksim Square in Istanbul, Turkey, killing five people and injuring 36. 2018 – The last male northern white rhinoceros, Sudan, dies, ensuring a chance of extinction for the species. Births Pre-1600 1206 – Güyük Khan, Mongol ruler, 3rd Great Khan of the Mongol Empire (d. 1248) 1434 – Ashikaga Yoshikatsu, Japanese shōgun (d. 1443) 1488 – Johannes Magnus, Swedish archbishop and theologian (d. 1544) 1534 – José de Anchieta, Spanish missionary and saint (d. 1597) 1542 – Jan Zamoyski, Polish nobleman (d. 1605) 1601–1900 1601 – Alonzo Cano, Spanish painter, sculptor, and architect (d. 1667) 1604 – John IV of Portugal (d. 1656) 1641 – Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi, Syrian author and scholar (d. 1731) 1661 – Francesco Gasparini, Italian composer and educator (d. 1727) 1684 – Jean Astruc, French physician and scholar (d. 1766) 1721 – Tobias Smollett, Scottish-Italian poet and author (d. 1771) (baptised on this day) 1734 – Thomas McKean, American lawyer and politician, 2nd Governor of Pennsylvania (d. 1817) 1739 – Charles-François Lebrun, duc de Plaisance, French lawyer and politician (d. 1824) 1742 – Túpac Amaru II, Peruvian rebel leader (d. 1781) 1748 – Elias Hicks, American farmer, minister, and theologian (d. 1830) 1778 – Edward Pakenham, Anglo-Irish general and politician (d. 1815) 1809 – Fredrik Pacius, German composer and conductor (d. 1891) 1813 – David Livingstone, Scottish missionary and explorer (d. 1873) 1816 – Johannes Verhulst, Dutch composer and conductor (d. 1891) 1821 – Richard Francis Burton, English soldier, geographer, and diplomat (d. 1890) 1823 – Arthur Blyth, English-Australian politician, 9th Premier of South Australia (d. 1891) 1824 – William Allingham, Irish poet, author, and scholar (d. 1889) 1829 – Carl Frederik Tietgen, Danish businessman (d. 1901) 1844 – Minna Canth, Finnish journalist, playwright, and activist (d. 1897) 1847 – Albert Pinkham Ryder, American painter (d. 1917) 1848 – Wyatt Earp, American police officer (d. 1929) 1849 – Alfred von Tirpitz, German admiral and politician (d. 1930) 1858 – Kang Youwei, Chinese scholar and politician (d. 1927) 1860 – William Jennings Bryan, American lawyer and politician, 41st United States Secretary of State (d. 1925) 1861 – Lomer Gouin, Canadian lawyer and politician, Premier of Quebec (d. 1929) 1864 – Charles Marion Russell, American painter and sculptor (d. 1926) 1865 – William Morton Wheeler, American entomologist, myrmecologist, and academic (d. 1937) 1868 – Senda Berenson Abbott, Lithuanian-American basketball player and educator (d. 1954) 1871 – Schofield Haigh, English cricketer and coach (d. 1921) 1872 – Anna Held, Polish singer (d. 1918) 1873 – Max Reger, German pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1916) 1875 – Zhang Zuolin, Chinese warlord (d. 1928) 1876 – Felix Jacoby, German philologist (d. 1959) 1880 – Ernestine Rose, American librarian and advocate (d. 1961) 1881 – Edith Nourse Rogers, American social worker and politician (d. 1960) 1882 – Gaston Lachaise, French-American sculptor (d. 1935) 1883 – Norman Haworth, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1950) 1883 – Joseph Stilwell, American general (d. 1946) 1885 – Attik, Greek composer (d. 1944) 1888 – Josef Albers, German-American painter and educator (d. 1976) 1888 – Léon Scieur, Belgian cyclist (d. 1969) 1891 – Earl Warren, American lieutenant, jurist, and politician, 14th Chief Justice of the United States (d. 1974) 1892 – Theodore Sizer, American professor of the history of art (d. 1967) 1892 – Ado Vabbe, Estonian painter (d. 1961) 1892 – James Van Fleet, American general and diplomat (d. 1992) 1893 – Gertrud Dorka, German archaeologist, prehistorian and museum director (died 1976) 1894 – Moms Mabley, American comedian and singer (d. 1975) 1900 – Carmen Carbonell, Spanish stage and film actress (d. 1988) 1900 – Frédéric Joliot-Curie, French physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1958) 1901–present 1901 – Jo Mielziner, French-American set designer (d. 1976) 1904 – John Sirica, American lawyer and judge (d. 1992) 1905 – Joe Rollino, American weightlifter and boxer (d. 2010) 1905 – Albert Speer, German architect and politician (d. 1981) 1906 – Adolf Eichmann, German SS officer (d. 1962) 1906 – Clara Breed, American librarian and activist (d. 1994) 1909 – Louis Hayward, South African-born American actor (d. 1985) 1909 – Marjorie Linklater, Scottish campaigner for the arts and environment of Orkney (d. 1997) 1910 – Joseph Carroll, American general (d. 1991) 1912 – Hugh Watt, Australian-New Zealand engineer and politician, Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1980) 1914 – Leonidas Alaoglu, Canadian-American mathematician and theorist (d. 1981) 1914 – Jay Berwanger, American football player and coach (d. 2002) 1915 – Robert G. Cole, American colonel, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1944) 1915 – Patricia Morison, American actress and singer (d. 2018) 1916 – Eric Christmas, English-Canadian actor (d. 2000) 1916 – Irving Wallace, American journalist, author, and screenwriter (d. 1990) 1917 – Laszlo Szabo, Hungarian chess player (d. 1998) 1919 – Lennie Tristano, American pianist, composer, and educator (d. 1978) 1920 – Kjell Aukrust, Norwegian author, poet, and painter (d. 2002) 1921 – Tommy Cooper, British magician and prop comedian (d. 1984) 1922 – Guy Lewis, American basketball player and coach (d. 2015) 1922 – Hiroo Onoda, Japanese lieutenant (d. 2014) 1923 – Pamela Britton, American actress (d. 1974) 1923 – Benito Jacovitti, Italian illustrator (d. 1997) 1923 – Henry Morgentaler, Polish-Canadian physician and activist (d. 2013) 1924 – Joe Gaetjens, Haitian footballer (d. 1964) 1925 – Brent Scowcroft, American general and diplomat, 9th United States National Security Advisor (d. 2020) 1927 – Richie Ashburn, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 1997) 1928 – Hans Küng, Swiss theologian and author (d. 2021) 1928 – Patrick McGoohan, Irish-American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2009) 1931 – Emma Andijewska, Ukrainian poet, writer and painter 1932 – Gay Brewer, American golfer (d. 2007) 1932 – Peter Hall, English geographer, author, and academic (d. 2014) 1932 – Gail Kobe, American actress and producer (d. 2013) 1933 – Phyllis Newman, American actress and singer (d. 2019) 1933 – Philip Roth, American novelist (d. 2018) 1933 – Renée Taylor, American actress, producer, and screenwriter 1933 – Richard Williams, Canadian-English animator, director, and screenwriter (d. 2019) 1935 – Nancy Malone, American actress, director, and producer (d. 2014) 1936 – Ursula Andress, Swiss model and actress 1936 – Ben Lexcen, Australian sailor and architect (d. 1988) 1937 – Clarence "Frogman" Henry, American R&B singer and pianist 1937 – Egon Krenz, German politician 1938 – Joe Kapp, American football player, coach, and actor 1942 – Heather Robertson, Canadian journalist and author (d. 2014) 1943 – Mario J. Molina, Mexican chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2020) 1943 – Mario Monti, Italian economist and politician, Prime Minister of Italy 1943 – Vern Schuppan, Australian race car driver 1944 – Said Musa, Belizean lawyer and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Belize 1945 – John Holder, English cricketer and umpire 1945 – Modestas Paulauskas, Lithuanian basketball player and coach 1946 – Ruth Pointer, American musician 1947 – Glenn Close, American actress, singer, and producer 1947 – Marinho Peres, Brazilian footballer and coach 1948 – David Schnitter, American saxophonist and educator 1949 – Blase J. Cupich, American theologian and cardinal 1950 – José S. Palma, Filipino archbishop 1952 – Warren Lees, New Zealand cricketer and coach 1952 – Martin Ravallion, Australian economist and academic 1952 – Harvey Weinstein, American director and producer 1953 – Ian Blair, English police officer 1953 – Peter Hendy, English businessman 1953 – Ricky Wilson, American singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1985) 1954 – Cho Kwang-rae, South Korean footballer, coach, and manager 1955 – Bruce Willis, German-American actor and producer 1956 – Yegor Gaidar, Russian economist and politician, First Deputy Prime Minister of Russia (d. 2009) 1958 – Andy Reid, American football player and coach 1960 – Eliane Elias, Brazilian singer-songwriter and pianist 1962 – Iván Calderón, Puerto Rican-American baseball player (d. 2003) 1963 – Neil LaBute, American director and screenwriter 1964 – Yoko Kanno, Japanese pianist and composer 1966 – Michael Crockart, Scottish police officer and politician 1966 – Olaf Marschall, German footballer and manager 1966 – Andy Sinton, English international footballer, midfielder and manager 1967 – Vladimir Konstantinov, Russian-American ice hockey player 1968 – Tyrone Hill, American basketball player and coach 1970 – Harald Johnsen, Norwegian bassist and composer (d. 2011) 1970 – Michael Krumm, German race car driver 1973 – Ashley Giles, English cricketer and coach 1975 – Antonio Daniels, American basketball player 1976 – Andre Miller, American basketball player 1976 – Alessandro Nesta, Italian footballer and manager 1978 – Cydonie Mothersille, Jamaican-Caymanian sprinter 1979 – Sheldon Brown, American football player 1979 – Ivan Ljubičić, Croatian tennis player 1979 – Christos Patsatzoglou, Greek footballer 1979 – Hedo Türkoğlu, Turkish basketball player 1980 – Luca Ferri, Italian footballer 1980 – Taichi Ishikari, Japanese wrestler 1980 – Mikuni Shimokawa, Japanese singer-songwriter 1981 – Steve Cummings, English cyclist 1981 – Kolo Touré, Ivorian footballer 1982 – Jonathan Fanene, American football player 1982 – Brad Jones, Australian footballer 1982 – Hana Kobayashi, Venezuelan singer 1982 – Eduardo Saverin, Brazilian-Singaporean businessman 1985 – Inesa Jurevičiūtė, Lithuanian figure skater 1986 – Tyler Bozak, Canadian ice hockey player 1987 – Michal Švec, Czech footballer 1987 – Miloš Teodosić, Serbian basketball player 1988 – Clayton Kershaw, American baseball player 1991 – Aleksandr Kokorin, Russian footballer 1995 – Alexei Sintsov, Russian figure skater 1996 – Barbara Haas, Austrian tennis player Deaths Pre-1600 235 – Severus Alexander, Roman emperor (b. 208) 953 – al-Mansur bi-Nasr Allah, caliph of the Fatimid Caliphate (b. 913) 968 – Emma of Paris, duchess of Normandy (b. 943) 1238 – Henry the Bearded, Polish duke and son of Bolesław I the Tall (b. 1163) 1263 – Hugh of Saint-Cher, French cardinal (b. 1200) 1279 – Zhao Bing, Chinese emperor (b. 1271) 1286 – Alexander III, king of Scotland (b. 1241) 1330 – Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent, English politician, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (b. 1301) 1372 – John II, marquess of Montferrat (b. 1321) 1533 – John Bourchier, 2nd Baron Berners, English baron and statesman (b. 1467) 1534 – Michael Weiße, German theologian (b. c. 1488) 1539 – Lord Edmund Howard, English nobleman (b. c. 1478) 1563 – Arthur Brooke, English poet 1568 – Elizabeth Seymour, Lady Cromwell, English noblewoman (b.c. 1518) 1581 – Francis I, duke of Saxe-Lauenburg (b. 1510) 1601–1900 1612 – Sophia Olelkovich Radziwill, Belarusian saint (b. 1585) 1637 – Péter Pázmány, Hungarian cardinal (b. 1570) 1649 – Gerhard Johann Vossius, German scholar and theologian (b. 1577) 1683 – Thomas Killigrew, English playwright and manager (b. 1612) 1687 – René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, French-American explorer (b. 1643) 1697 – Nicolaus Bruhns, German organist and composer (b. 1665) 1711 – Thomas Ken, English bishop and hymn-writer (b. 1637) 1717 – John Campbell, 1st Earl of Breadalbane and Holland, Scottish soldier (b. 1636) 1721 – Pope Clement XI (b. 1649) 1783 – Frederick Cornwallis, English archbishop (b. 1713) 1790 – Cezayirli Gazi Hasan Pasha, Ottoman general and politician, 182nd Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (b. 1713) 1797 – Philip Hayes, English organist and composer (b. 1738) 1816 – Philip Mazzei, Italian-American physician and philosopher (b. 1730) 1871 – Wilhelm Karl Ritter von Haidinger, Austrian mineralogist, geologist, and physicist (b. 1795) 1897 – Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie, Irish-French geographer, ethnologist, linguist, and astronomer (b. 1810) 1900 – John Bingham, American lawyer and politician, 7th United States Ambassador to Japan (b. 1815) 1900 – Charles-Louis Hanon, French pianist and composer (b. 1819) 1901–present 1914 – Giuseppe Mercalli, Italian priest, geologist, and volcanologist (b. 1850) 1919 – Emma Bell Miles, American writer, poet, and artist of Appalachia (b. 1879) 1930 – Arthur Balfour, Scottish-English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1848) 1930 – Henry Lefroy, Australian politician, 11th Premier of Western Australia (b. 1854) 1942 – Clinton Hart Merriam, American zoologist, ornithologist, and entomologist (b. 1855) 1944 – William Hale Thompson, American rancher and politician, 41st Mayor of Chicago (b. 1869) 1947 – James A. Gilmore, American businessman and baseball executive (b. 1887) 1949 – James Somerville, English admiral and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Somerset (b. 1882) 1949 – James Newland, Australian soldier and policeman (b. 1881) 1950 – Edgar Rice Burroughs, American soldier and author (b. 1875) 1950 – Norman Haworth, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1883) 1951 – Dmytro Doroshenko, Ukrainian historian and politician, Prime Minister of Ukraine (b. 1882) 1976 – Albert Dieudonné, French actor and author (b. 1889) 1976 – Paul Kossoff, English guitarist and songwriter (b. 1950) 1977 – William L. Laurence, Lithuanian-born American journalist and author (b. 1888) 1978 – M. A. Ayyangar, Indian lawyer and politician, 2nd Speaker of the Lok Sabha (b. 1891) 1982 – J. B. Kripalani, Indian lawyer and politician (b. 1888) 1982 – Randy Rhoads, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer (b. 1956) 1984 – Garry Winogrand, American photographer (b. 1928) 1986 – Sabino Barinaga, Spanish footballer and manager (b. 1922) 1987 – Louis de Broglie, French physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1892) 1988 – Bun Cook, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1904) 1990 – Andrew Wood, American singer-songwriter (b. 1966) 1993 – Henrik Sandberg, Danish production manager and producer (b. 1915) 1996 – Lise Østergaard, Danish psychologist and politician (b. 1924) 1996 – Virginia Henderson, American nurse, researcher, theorist and author (b. 1897) 1997 – Willem de Kooning, Dutch-American painter and educator (b. 1904) 1997 – Eugène Guillevic, French poet and author (b. 1907) 1998 – E. M. S. Namboodiripad, Indian theorist and politician, 1st Chief Minister of Kerala (b. 1909) 1999 – Tofilau Eti Alesana, Samoan politician, 5th Prime Minister of Samoa (b. 1924) 2000 – Joanne Weaver, American baseball player (b. 1935) 2000 – Shafiq-ur-Rahman, Pakistani physician and author (b. 1920) 2003 – Michael Mathias Prechtl, German soldier and illustrator (b. 1926) 2004 – Mitchell Sharp, Canadian economist and politician, 23rd Canadian Minister of Finance (b. 1911) 2005 – John DeLorean, American engineer and businessman, founded the DeLorean Motor Company (b. 1925) 2008 – Arthur C. Clarke, English science fiction writer (b. 1917) 2008 – Hugo Claus, Belgian author, poet, and playwright (b. 1929) 2008 – Paul Scofield, English actor (b. 1922) 2009 – Maria Bergson, Austrian-American architect and interior designer (b. 1914) 2011 – Kym Bonython, Australian drummer and radio host (b. 1920) 2012 – Jim Case, American director and producer (b. 1927) 2012 – Ulu Grosbard, Belgian-American director and producer (b. 1929) 2012 – Hugo Munthe-Kaas, Norwegian intelligence agent (b. 1922) 2014 – Patrick Joseph McGovern, American businessman, founded IDG (b. 1937) 2014 – Fred Phelps, American lawyer, pastor, and activist, founded the Westboro Baptist Church (b. 1929) 2014 – Heather Robertson, Canadian journalist and author (b. 1942) 2014 – Robert S. Strauss, American diplomat, United States Ambassador to Russia (b. 1918) 2014 – Lawrence Walsh, Canadian-American lawyer, judge, and politician, 4th United States Deputy Attorney General (b. 1912) 2014 – Joseph F. Weis, Jr., American lawyer and judge (b. 1923) 2015 – Gus Douglass, American farmer and politician (b. 1927) 2015 – Safet Plakalo, Bosnian author and playwright (b. 1950) 2015 – Danny Schechter, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1942) 2016 – Roger Agnelli, Brazilian banker and businessman (b. 1959) 2016 – Jack Mansell, English footballer and manager (b. 1927) 2019 – William Whitfield, British architect (b. 1920) 2021 – Glynn Lunney, American engineer (b. 1936) Holidays and observances Christian Observances: Alkmund of Derby Saint Joseph (Western Christianity; if this date falls on Sunday, the feast is moved to Monday March 20) St Joseph's Day (Roman Catholicism and Anglican Communion) related observances: Falles, celebrated on the week leading to March 19 (Valencia) Father's Day (Spain, Portugal, Italy, Honduras, and Bolivia) "Return of the Swallow", annual observance of the swallows' return to Mission San Juan Capistrano in California March 19 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Earliest day on which Maundy Thursday can fall, while April 22 is the latest; celebrated on Thursday before Easter (Christianity) Minna Canth's Birthday and the Day of Equality (Finland) Kashubian Unity Day (Poland) References External links BBC: On This Day Historical Events on March 19 Today in Canadian History Days of the year March Discordian holidays

20318

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrobiotic%20diet

Macrobiotic diet

A macrobiotic diet (or macrobiotics) is a fad diet based on ideas about types of food drawn from Zen Buddhism. The diet tries to balance the supposed yin and yang elements of food and cookware. Major principles of macrobiotic diets are to reduce animal products, eat locally grown foods that are in season, and consume meals in moderation. There is no high-quality clinical evidence that a macrobiotic diet is helpful for people with cancer or other diseases, and it may be harmful. Neither the American Cancer Society nor Cancer Research UK recommends adopting the diet. Conceptual basis The macrobiotic diet is associated with Zen Buddhism and is based on the idea of balancing yin and yang. The diet proposes 10 plans which are followed to reach a supposedly ideal yin:yang ratio of 5:1. The diet was popularized by George Ohsawa in the 1930s and subsequently elaborated on by his disciple Michio Kushi. Medical historian Barbara Clow writes that, in common with many other types of quackery, macrobiotics takes a view of illness and of therapy which conflicts with mainstream medicine. Macrobiotics emphasizes locally grown whole grain cereals, pulses (legumes), vegetables, edible seaweed, fermented soy products, and fruit combined into meals according to the ancient Chinese principle of balance known as yin and yang. Whole grains and whole-grain products such as brown rice and buckwheat pasta (soba), a variety of cooked and raw vegetables, beans and bean products, mild natural seasonings, fish, nuts and seeds, mild (non-stimulating) beverages such as bancha twig tea, and fruit are recommended. Some macrobiotic proponents stress that yin and yang are relative qualities that can only be determined in a comparison. All food is considered to have both properties, with one dominating. Foods with yang qualities are considered compact, dense, heavy, and hot, whereas those with yin qualities are considered expansive, light, cold, and diffuse. However, these terms are relative; "yangness" or "yinness" is only discussed in relation to other foods. Brown rice and other whole grains such as barley, millet, oats, quinoa, spelt, rye, and teff are considered by macrobiotics to be the foods in which yin and yang are closest to being in balance. Therefore, lists of macrobiotic foods that determine a food as yin or yang generally compare them to whole grains. Nightshade vegetables, including tomatoes, peppers, potatoes, and eggplant; also, spinach, beets, and avocados, are not recommended or are used sparingly in macrobiotic cooking, as they are considered extremely yin. Some macrobiotic practitioners also discourage the use of nightshades because of the alkaloid solanine which is thought to affect calcium balance. Some proponents of a macrobiotic diet believe that nightshade vegetables can cause inflammation and osteoporosis. Practices Food Some general guidelines for the Japanese-style macrobiotic diet are the following (it is also said that a macrobiotic diet varies greatly, depending on geographical and life circumstances): Well-chewed whole cereal grains, especially brown rice: 40–60% Vegetables: 25–30% Beans and legumes: 5–10% Miso soup: 5% Sea vegetables: 5% Traditionally or naturally processed foods: 5–10% Fish and seafood, seeds and nuts, seed and nut butters, seasonings, sweeteners, fruits, and beverages may be enjoyed occasionally, two to three times per week. Other naturally-raised animal products may be included if needed during dietary transition or according to individual needs. Kitchenware Cooking utensils should be made from certain materials such as wood or glass, while some materials including plastic, copper, and non-stick coatings are to be avoided. Electric ovens should not be used. Japanese popularity and influence The macrobiotic way of eating was developed and popularized by the Japanese. During the Edo period in Japan peasants had a diet based on staples of rice and soybeans. According to some macrobiotic advocates, a majority of the world population in the past ate a diet based primarily on grains, vegetables, and other plants. Because the macrobiotic diet was developed in Japan, Japanese foods that are thought to be beneficial for health are incorporated by most modern macrobiotic eaters. Cancer The American Cancer Society recommends "low-fat, high-fiber diets that consist mainly of plant products"; however, they urge people with cancer not to rely on a dietary program as an exclusive or primary means of treatment. Cancer Research UK states, "some people think living a macrobiotic lifestyle may help them to fight their cancer and lead to a cure. But there is no scientific evidence to prove this." Nutritionist Fredrick J. Stare has commented that "there is no scientific evidence that macrobiotic diets can be helpful for cancer or any other disease." Nutrition The macrobiotic diet is a type of fad diet. Most macrobiotic diets are not nutritionally sound. Fish provides vitamin B12 in a macrobiotic diet, as bioavailable B12 analogues have not been established in any natural plant food, including sea vegetables, soya, fermented products, and algae. Although plant-derived foods do not naturally contain B12, some are fortified during processing with added B12 and other nutrients. Vitamin A, as its precursor beta-carotene, is available from plants such as carrots and spinach. Adequate protein is available from grains, nuts, seeds, beans, and bean products. Sources of Omega-3 fatty acids are discussed in the relevant article, and include soy products, walnuts, flax seeds, pumpkin seeds, hemp seeds, and fatty fish. Riboflavin along with most other B vitamins are abundant in whole grains. Iron in the form of non-heme iron in beans, sea vegetables and leafy greens is sufficient for good health; detailed information is in the USDA database. Safety Regulation Macrobiotic practitioners are not regulated, and need not have any qualification or training in the United Kingdom. Complications One of the earlier versions of the macrobiotic diet that involved eating only brown rice and water has been linked to severe nutritional deficiencies and even death. Strict macrobiotic diets that include no animal products may result in nutritional deficiencies unless they are carefully planned. The danger may be worse for people with cancer, who may have to contend with unwanted weight loss and often have increased nutritional and caloric requirements. Relying on this type of treatment alone and avoiding or delaying conventional medical care for cancer may have serious health consequences. Children Children may also be particularly prone to nutritional deficiencies resulting from a macrobiotic diet. Pregnancy Macrobiotic diets have not been tested in women who are pregnant or breast-feeding, and the most extreme versions may not include enough of certain nutrients for normal fetal growth. See also Ch'i Chinese food therapy List of diets List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments Sanpaku Shiatsu Traditional Chinese medicine References Pseudoscience Fad diets Alternative medicine Semi-vegetarianism

20319

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola

Motorola

Motorola, Inc. () was an American multinational telecommunications company based in Schaumburg, Illinois, United States. After having lost $4.3 billion from 2007 to 2009, the company split into two independent public companies, Motorola Mobility and Motorola Solutions on January 4, 2011. Motorola Solutions is generally considered to be the direct successor to Motorola, Inc., as the reorganization was structured with Motorola Mobility being spun off. Motorola Mobility was acquired by Lenovo in 2014. Motorola designed and sold wireless network equipment such as cellular transmission base stations and signal amplifiers. Motorola's home and broadcast network products included set-top boxes, digital video recorders, and network equipment used to enable video broadcasting, computer telephony, and high-definition television. Its business and government customers consisted mainly of wireless voice and broadband systems (used to build private networks), and, public safety communications systems like Astro and Dimetra. These businesses (except for set-top boxes and cable modems) are now part of Motorola Solutions. Google sold Motorola Home (the former General Instrument cable businesses) to the Arris Group in December 2012 for US$2.35 billion. Motorola's wireless telephone handset division was a pioneer in cellular telephones. Also known as the Personal Communication Sector (PCS) prior to 2004, it pioneered the "mobile phone" with DynaTAC, "flip phone" with the MicroTAC as well as the "clam phone" with the StarTAC in the mid-1990s. It had staged a resurgence by the mid-2000s with the RAZR, but lost market share in the second half of that decade. Later it focused on smartphones using Google's open-source Android mobile operating system. The first phone to use the newest version of Google's open source OS, Android 2.0, was released on November 2, 2009 as the Motorola Droid (the GSM version launched a month later, in Europe, as the Motorola Milestone). The handset division (along with cable set-top boxes and cable modems) was later spun off into the independent Motorola Mobility. On May 22, 2012, Google CEO Larry Page announced that Google had closed on its deal to acquire Motorola Mobility. On January 29, 2014, Google CEO Larry Page announced that pending closure of the deal, Motorola Mobility would be acquired by Chinese technology company Lenovo for US$2.91 billion (subject to certain adjustments). On October 30, 2014, Lenovo finalized its purchase of Motorola Mobility from Google. History Motorola started in Chicago, Illinois, as Galvin Manufacturing Corporation (at 847 West Harrison Street) in 1928 when brothers, Paul V. and Joseph E. Galvin, purchased the bankrupt Stewart Battery Company's battery-eliminator plans and manufacturing equipment at auction for $750. Galvin Manufacturing Corporation set up shop in a small section of a rented building. The company had $565 in working capital and five employees. The first week's payroll was $63. The company's first products were battery-eliminators, devices that enabled battery-powered radios to operate on household electricity. Due to advances in radio technology, battery-eliminators soon became obsolete. Paul Galvin learned that some radio technicians were installing sets in cars, and challenged his engineers to design an inexpensive car radio that could be installed in most vehicles. His team was successful, and Galvin was able to demonstrate a working model of the radio at the June 1930 Radio Manufacturers Association convention in Atlantic City, New Jersey. He brought home enough orders to keep the company in business. Paul Galvin wanted a brand name for Galvin Manufacturing Corporation's new car radio, and created the name “Motorola” by linking "motor" (for motorcar) with "ola" (from Victrola), which was also a popular ending for many companies at the time, e.g. Moviola, Crayola. The company sold its first Motorola branded radio on June 23, 1930, to H.C. Wall of Fort Wayne, Indiana, for $30. The Motorola brand name became so well known that Galvin Manufacturing Corporation later changed its name to Motorola, Inc. Galvin Manufacturing Corporation began selling Motorola car-radio receivers to police departments and municipalities in November 1930. The company's first public safety customers (all in the U.S. state of Illinois) included the Village of River Forest, Village of Bellwood Police Department, City of Evanston Police, Illinois State Highway Police, and Cook County (Chicago area) Police. Many of Motorola's products have been radio-related, starting with a battery eliminator for radios, through the first hand-held walkie-talkie in the world in 1940, defense electronics, cellular infrastructure equipment, and mobile phone manufacturing. In the same year, the company built its research and development program with Dan Noble, a pioneer in FM radio and semiconductor technologies, who joined the company as director of research. The company produced the hand-held AM SCR-536 radio during World War II, which was vital to Allied communication. Motorola ranked 94th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts. Motorola went public in 1943, and became Motorola, Inc. in 1947. At that time Motorola's main business was producing and selling televisions and radios. Post World War II In October 1946, Motorola communications equipment carried the first calls on Illinois Bell telephone company's new car radiotelephone service in Chicago, Illinois. The company began making televisions in 1947, with the model VT-71 with 7-inch cathode ray tube. In 1952 Motorola opened its first international subsidiary in Toronto, Canada to produce radios and televisions. In 1953, the company established the Motorola Foundation to support leading universities in the United States. In 1955, years after Motorola started its research and development laboratory in Phoenix, Arizona, to research new solid-state technology, Motorola introduced the world's first commercial high-power germanium-based transistor. The present "batwing" logo was also introduced in 1955, which was created by award-winning Chicago graphic designer Morton Goldsholl in late 1954. Beginning in 1958, with Explorer 1 Motorola provided radio equipment for most NASA space-flights for decades, including during the 1969 moon landing. A year later it established a subsidiary to conduct licensing and manufacturing for international markets. Motorola created numerous products for use by the government, public safety officials, business installments, and the general public. These products included cell phones, laptops, computer processors, and radio communication devices. In 1960, it introduced the world's first large-screen portable (19-inch), transistorized, cordless television. According to the 1962 Illinois Manufacturers Directory (50th anniversary edition), Motorola had 14,000 employees worldwide of which at least 5,823 employees in 6 plants were located in Illinois. The company headquarters were at 9401 West Grand Avenue in Franklin Park and it listed TV receivers, Stereo-Hi Fi equipment as the products at this plant made by 1,700 employees. The Communications Division was in Chicago at 4545 West Augusta Blvd. where 2,000 employees made electronic communications equipment. The Military Electronics Division was at 1450 North Cicero Avenue, Chicago where 923 employees made microwave and industrial equipment. Two more Chicago locations were listed at 4900 West Flourney Street and at 650 North Pulaski but no employee count was listed for these. The last plant was listed in Quincy, Illinois at 1400 North 30th Street where 1,200 employees made radio assemblies for both home and automobile. In 1963, it introduced the first rectangular color picture tube. In 1964, the company opened its first Research and development branch outside of the United States, in Israel, under the management of Moses Basin. The modular Quasar brand was introduced in 1967. In 1969, Neil Armstrong spoke the famous words "one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind" from the Moon on a Motorola transceiver. In 1973, Motorola demonstrated the first hand-held portable telephone. In 1974, Motorola introduced its first microprocessor, the 8-bit MC6800, used in automotive, computing and video game applications. That same year, Motorola sold its television business to the Japan-based Matsushita - the parent company of Panasonic. In 1976, Motorola moved its headquarters to the Chicago suburb of Schaumburg, Illinois. In 1980, Motorola's next generation 32-bit microprocessor, the MC68000, led the wave of technologies that spurred the computing revolution in 1984, powering devices from companies such as Apple, Commodore, Atari, Sun, and Hewlett Packard. In September 1983, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) approved the DynaTAC 8000X telephone, the world's first commercial cellular device. By 1998, cellphones accounted for two thirds of Motorola's gross revenue. The company was also strong in semiconductor technology, including integrated circuits used in computers. In particular, it is known for the 6800 family and 68000 family of microprocessors and related peripheral ICs; the processors were used in Atari ST, Commodore Amiga, Color Computer, and Apple Macintosh personal computers and in the early HP laser printers, and some 6800-family peripheral devices were used in the IBM PC series of personal computers. The PowerPC family was developed with IBM and in a partnership with Apple (known as the AIM alliance). Motorola also has a diverse line of communication products, including satellite systems, digital cable boxes and modems. In 1986, Motorola invented the Six Sigma quality improvement process. This became a global standard. In 1990 General Instrument Corporation, which was later acquired by Motorola, proposed the first all-digital HDTV standard. In the same year the company introduced the Bravo numeric pager which became the world's best-selling pager. In 1991, Motorola demonstrated the world's first working-prototype digital cellular system and phones using GSM standard in Hanover, Germany. Later that same year, Motorola along with Apple and IBM formed the AIM alliance which help created the PowerPC CPUs. In 1994, Motorola introduced the world's first commercial digital radio system that combined paging, data and cellular communications and voice dispatch in a single radio network and handset. In 1995, Motorola introduced the world's first two-way pager which allowed users to receive text messages and e-mail and reply with a standard response. In 1996, Motorola released the Motorola StarMax, which was a Macintosh clone that was licensed by Apple and it came with System 7. However, with the return of Steve Jobs to Apple in 1997, Apple released Mac OS 8. Because the clone makers' licenses were valid only for Apple's System 7 operating system, Apple's release of Mac OS 8 left the clone manufacturers without the ability to ship a current Mac OS version without negotiation with Apple. A heated telephone conversation between Jobs and Motorola CEO Christopher Galvin resulted in the termination of Motorola's clone contract, the discontinuation of the Motorola StarMax, and the long-favored Apple being demoted to "just another customer" mainly for PowerPC CPUs. Apple (and Jobs) didn't want Motorola to limit the PowerPC CPU supply so as retaliation, Apple and IBM expelled Motorola from the AIM alliance and forced Motorola to stop producing any PowerPC CPUs, leaving IBM to make all future PowerPC CPUs. However, Motorola was later reinstated into the alliance in 1998. In 1998, Motorola was overtaken by Nokia as the world's biggest seller of mobile phone handsets. On September 15, 1999, Motorola announced it would buy General Instrument in an $11 billion stock swap. General Instrument had long been the No. 1 cable TV equipment provider, supplying cable operators with end-to-end hybrid fiber coax cable solutions. This meant that GI offers all cable TV transmission network components from the head-end to the fiber optic transmission nodes to the cable set-top boxes, now at the availability of Motorola. GI's acquisition created the Broadband Communications Sector (BCS). In 1999, Motorola separated a portion of its semiconductor business—the Semiconductor Components Group (SCG)-- and formed ON Semiconductor, whose headquarters are located in Phoenix, Arizona. After 2000 In June 2000, Motorola and Cisco supplied the world's first commercial GPRS cellular network to BT Cellnet in the United Kingdom. The world's first GPRS cell phone was also developed by Motorola. In August 2000, with recent acquisitions, Motorola reached its peak employment of 150,000 employees worldwide. Two years later, employment would be at 93,000 due to layoffs and spinoffs. In 2002, Motorola introduced the world's first wireless cable modem gateway which combined a high-speed cable modem router with an ethernet switch and wireless home gateway. In 2003, Motorola introduced the world's first handset to combine a Linux operating system and Java technology with "full PDA functionality". In 2004, Motorola divested its whole semiconductor business to form Freescale Semiconductor and left the AIM alliance. The Motorola RAZR line sold over 120 million units, which brought the company to the number two mobile phone slot in 2005. In June 2005, Motorola overtook the intellectual property of Sendo for $30,000 and paid £362,575 for the plant, machinery and equipment. In June 2006, Motorola acquired the software platform (AJAR) developed by the British company TTP Communications plc. Later in 2006, the firm announced a music subscription service named iRadio. The technology came after a break in a partnership with Apple Computer (which in 2005 had produced an iTunes compatible cell phone ROKR E1, and most recently, mid-2007, its own iPhone). iRadio has many similarities with existing satellite radio services (such as Sirius and XM Radio) by offering live streams of commercial-free music content. Unlike satellite services, however, iRadio content will be downloaded via a broadband internet connection. As of 2008, iRadio has not been commercially released and no further information is available. In 2007, Motorola acquired Symbol Technologies to provide products and systems for enterprise mobility solutions, including rugged mobile computing, advanced data capture, and radio frequency identification (RFID). In 2010, Motorola sold its cellular-infrastructure business to Nokia Siemens Networks for $1.2 billion. Motorola, post-split In January 2011, Motorola split into two separate companies, each still using the word Motorola as part of its name. One company, Motorola Solutions (using a blue version of the Motorola logo), is based in the Chicago suburb of Schaumburg, Illinois, and concentrates on police technologies, radios, and commercial needs. The other company, Motorola Mobility (using a red logo), is based in Chicago (formerly in the Chicago suburb of Libertyville, Illinois), and is the mobile handset producer. The split was structured so that Motorola Solutions was the legal successor of the original Motorola, while Motorola Mobility was the spin-off. On August 15, 2011, Google announced that it would purchase Motorola Mobility for about $12.5 billion. On November 17, 2011, Motorola Mobility stockholders “voted overwhelmingly to approve the proposed merger with Google Inc”. On May 22, 2012, Google announced that the acquisition of Motorola Mobility Holdings, Inc. had closed, with Google acquiring MMI for $40.00 per share in cash. ($12.5 billion) On October 30, 2014, Google sold off Motorola Mobility to Lenovo. The purchase price was approximately US$2.91 billion (subject to certain adjustments), including US$1.41 billion paid at close: US $660 million in cash and US$750 million in Lenovo ordinary shares (subject to a share cap/floor). The remaining US$1.5 billion was paid in the form of a three-year promissory note. After the purchase, Google maintained ownership of the vast majority of the Motorola Mobility patent portfolio, including current patent applications and invention disclosures, while Lenovo received a license to the portfolio of patents and other intellectual property. Additionally Lenovo received over 2,000 patent assets, as well as the Motorola Mobility brand and trademark portfolio. Divisional Products: Enterprise Mobility Solutions: Headquarters located in Schaumburg, Illinois; comprises communications offered to government and public safety sectors and enterprise mobility business. Motorola develops analog and digital two-way radio, voice and data communications products and systems, mobile computing, advanced data capture, wireless infrastructure and RFID solutions to customers worldwide. Home & Networks Mobility: Headquarters located in Arlington Heights, Illinois; produces end-to-end systems that facilitate uninterrupted access to digital entertainment, information and communications services via wired and wireless mediums. Motorola develops digital video system solutions, interactive set-top devices, voice and data modems for digital subscriber line and cable networks, broadband access systems for cable and satellite television operators, and also wireline carriers and wireless service providers. Mobile Devices: Headquarters located in Chicago, Illinois; designs wireless handsets, but also licenses much of its intellectual properties. This includes cellular and wireless systems and as well as integrated applications and Bluetooth accessories. Some of their latest gadgets are Moto X Gen 3, Moto X Play, Moto 360 smartwatch, etc. Finances Motorola's handset division recorded a loss of US$1.2 billion in the fourth quarter of 2007, while the company as a whole earned $100 million during that quarter. It lost several key executives to rivals, and the web site TrustedReviews called the company's products repetitive and uninnovative. Motorola laid off 3,500 workers in January 2008, followed by a further 4,000 job cuts in June and another 20% cut of its research division a few days later. In July 2008, a large number of executives left Motorola to work on Apple Inc.'s iPhone. The company's handset division was also put on offer for sale. Also that month, analyst Mark McKechnie from American Technology Research said that Motorola "would be lucky to fetch $500 million" for selling its handset business. Analyst Richard Windsor said that Motorola might have to pay someone to take the division off the company's hands, and that Motorola may even exit the handset market altogether. Its global market share has been on the decline; from 18.4% of the market in 2007 the company had a share of just 6.0% by Q1 2009, but at last Motorola scored a profit of $26 million in Q2 and showed an increase of 12% in stocks for the first time after losses in many quarters. During the second quarter of 2010, the company reported a profit of $162 million, which compared very favorably to the $26 million earned for the same period the year before. Its Mobile Devices division reported, for the first time in years, earnings of $87 million. Spin-offs Television and radio manufacturing In 1974, Motorola divested itself of its television and radio-manufacturing division, which included the Quasar brand of electronics. This division was acquired by Matsushita, already known under its Panasonic brand in North America, where it was looking to expand. Iridium Motorola developed the global communication network using a set of 77 satellites. The business ambitions behind this project and the need to raise venture capital to fund the project led to the creation of the Iridium company in the late 1990s. While the technology was proven to work, Iridium failed to attract sufficient customers and it filed for bankruptcy in 1999. Obligations to Motorola and loss of expected revenue caused Motorola to divest the ON Semiconductor (ONNN) business August 4, 1999, raising about $1.1 billion. Motorola manufactured two satellite phone handsets for this network – the 9500 and 9505 as well as transceiver units. Some of these are still in production by an OEM but sold under the Iridium brand. Government and defense Due to declines in business in 2000 and 2001, Motorola spun off its government and defense business to General Dynamics. The business deal closed September 2001. Thus GD Decision Systems was formed (and later merged with General Dynamics C4 Systems) from Motorola's Integrated Information Systems Group. Semiconductor On August 4, 1999, Motorola, Inc.'s Semiconductor Components Group, manufacturing Motorola's discrete, standard analog and standard logic devices was spun off, recapitalized and established as an independent company named ON Semiconductor. On October 16, 2004, Motorola announced that it would spin off its Semiconductor Products Sector into a separate company called Freescale Semiconductor, Inc. The new company began trading on the New York Stock Exchange on July 16 of the following year. On Dec. 7, 2015 Freescale Inc. merged with NXP Semiconductors, a European company. Automotive On January 29, 1988, Motorola sold its Arcade, New York facility and automotive alternators, electromechanical speedometers and tachometers products to Prestolite Electric. In July 2006, Motorola completed the sale of its automotive business to Continental AG. Motorola's automotive unit had annual sales of $1.6 billion (€1.33 billion) and employed 4,504. The divisions products included telematics systems - like GM's OnStar used for vehicle navigation and safety services, engine and transmission control electronics, vehicle control, electronics and sensors used in steering, braking, and power doors and power windows. Biometrics In 2000, Motorola acquired Printrak International Inc. for $160 million. In doing so, Motorola not only acquired computer aided dispatch and related software, but also acquired Automated fingerprint identification system software. In October 2008, Motorola agreed to sell its Biometrics business to Safran, a French defense firm. Motorola's biometric business unit was headquartered in Anaheim, Calif. The deal closed in April 2009. The unit became part of Sagem Morpho, which was renamed MorphoTrak. Split On March 26, 2008, Motorola's board of directors approved a split into two different publicly traded companies. This came after talk of selling the company to another corporation. These new companies would comprise the business units of the current Motorola Mobile Devices and Motorola Broadband & Mobility Solutions. Originally it was expected that this action would be approved by regulatory bodies and complete by mid-2009, but the split was delayed due to company restructuring problems and the 2008–2009 extreme economic downturn. On February 11, 2010, Motorola announced its separation into two independent, publicly traded companies, effective Q1 2011. The official split occurred at around 12:00 pm EST on January 4, 2011. The two new companies are called Motorola Mobility (now owned by Lenovo; cell phone and cable television equipment company) and Motorola Solutions (; Government and Enterprise Business). Motorola Solutions is generally considered to be the direct successor to Motorola, Inc., as the reorganization was structured with Motorola Mobility being spun off. Motorola Solutions retains Motorola, Inc.'s pre-2011 stock price history, though it retired the old ticker symbol of "MOT" in favor of "MSI." Motorola Mobility deal by Google On August 15, 2011, seven months after Motorola Mobility was spun off into an independent company, Google announced that it would acquire Motorola Mobility for $12.5 billion, subject to approval from regulators in the United States and Europe. According to the filing, Google senior vice president Andy Rubin first reached out to Motorola Mobility in early July 2011 to discuss the purchase by some of Google's competitors of the patent portfolio of Nortel Networks Corp., and to assess its potential impact on the Android ecosystem. Google boosted its offer for Motorola Mobility by 33% in a single day in early August, even though Motorola wasn't soliciting competing bids. The aggressive bidding by Google showed that the search engine company was under considerable pressure to beef up its patent portfolio to protect its promising Android franchise from a growing number of legal challenges. According to the filing, Google and Motorola began discussions about Motorola's patent portfolio in early July, as well as the "intellectual property litigation and the potential impact of such litigation on the Android ecosystem". Although the two companies discussed the possibility of an acquisition after the initial contact by Mr. Rubin, it was only after Motorola pushed back on the idea of patent sale that the acquisition talks picked up steam. The turning point came during a meeting on July 6. At the meeting, Motorola CEO Sanjay Jha discussed the protection of the Android ecosystem with Google senior vice president Nikesh Arora, and during that talk Jha told Arora that "it could be problematic for Motorola Mobility to continue to exist as a stand-alone entity if it sold a large portion of its patent portfolio". In connection with these discussions, the two companies signed a confidentiality and non-disclosure agreement that allowed Google to do due diligence on the company's patent portfolio. On July 21 and 23, Jha met with Arora and Rubin to discuss strategic options between the two companies, agreeing to continue to discuss a potential sale. On the morning of August 15, the two companies entered into a merger agreement at the offered price of $40. On November 17, Motorola Mobility stockholders approved the proposed merger with Google Inc. On April 17, 2013, ARRIS Group, Inc. (NASDAQ: ARRS) announced that it completed its acquisition of the Motorola Home business from a subsidiary of Google Inc. Motorola Mobility (Google) deal by Lenovo On January 29, 2014, Google announced Lenovo plans to acquire the Motorola Mobility smartphone business. The purchase price is approximately $2.91 billion (subject to certain adjustments), including $1.41 billion paid at close: $660 million in cash and $750 million in Lenovo ordinary shares (subject to a share cap/floor). The remaining $1.5 billion will be paid in the form of a three-year promissory note. Google maintained ownership of the vast majority of the Motorola Mobility patent portfolio, including active patent applications and invention disclosures. As part of its ongoing relationship with Google, Lenovo received a license to this rich portfolio of patents and other intellectual property. Additionally Lenovo received over 2,000 patent assets, as well as the Motorola Mobility brand and trademark portfolio. On October 30, 2014, Lenovo finalized its purchase of Motorola Mobility from Google. Cambium Networks Cambium Networks was created when Motorola Solutions sold the Canopy and Orthogon businesses in 2011. Cambium Networks has evolved the platform and expanded it to three product lines: Point to Point (PTP) (formerly Orthogon), Point to Multipoint (PMP) (formerly Canopy) and ePMP. Quality systems The Six Sigma quality system was developed at Motorola even though it became best known through its use by General Electric. It was created by engineer Bill Smith, under the direction of Bob Galvin (son of founder Paul Galvin) when he was running the company. Motorola University is one of many places that provide Six Sigma training. Environmental record Motorola, Inc., along with the Arizona Water Co. has been identified as the sources of trichloroethylene (TCE) contamination that took place in Scottsdale, Arizona. The malfunction led to a ban on the use of water that lasted three days and affected almost 5000 people in the area. Motorola was found to be the main source of the TCE, an industrial solvent that is thought to cause cancer. The TCE contamination was caused by a faulty blower on an air stripping tower that was used to take TCE from the water, and Motorola has attributed the situation to operator error. Of eighteen leading electronics manufacturers in Greenpeace’s Guide to Greener Electronics (October 2010), Motorola shares sixth place with competitors Panasonic and Sony). Motorola scores relatively well on the chemicals criteria and has a goal to eliminate PVC plastic and brominated flame retardants (BFRs), though only in mobile devices and not in all its products introduced after 2010, despite the fact that Sony Ericsson and Nokia are already there. All of its mobile phones are now PVC-free and it has two PVC and BFR-free mobile phones, the A45 ECO and the GRASP; all chargers are also free from PVC and BFRs. The company is also increasing the proportion of recycled materials that used in its products. For example, the housings for the MOTO W233 Renew and MOTOCUBO A45 Eco mobile phones contain plastic from post-consumer recycled water cooler bottles. According to the company's information, all of Motorola's newly designed chargers meet the current Energy Star requirements and exceed the requirements for standby/no-load modes by at least 67%. Sponsorships Motorola sponsored Scottish Premier League club Motherwell F.C. for 11 years. This long-term deal ended after the company started to reduce its manufacturing operations in Scotland. The company also sponsored Livingston F.C. between 1998 and 2002. The company also had a plant on the edge of the town. However, this closed down at the same time as their sponsorship with the club ended. The South Stand at Livingston's Almondvale Stadium, was named after the company, during their time of sponsorship. The company also sponsored a cycling team that counted Lance Armstrong amongst its members. Motorola is also a sponsor of Danica Patrick, David Beckham, and Fergie. It also sponsored the Richmond Football Club in the Australian Football League from 2004 to 2007. Motorola sponsored São Paulo FC from 2000 to 2001. Motorola also sponsored Club Bolívar since 2008. Motorola awarded TrackIT Solutions for being "The company with most Innovative Enterprise Mobility Solution" in 2010.publisher=CNNMoney.com In Madden NFL 07 franchise mode, a Motorola phone is used to communicate with coaches and agents. Robby Gordon was sponsored by Motorola in 2007 and 2008. Motorola is on Gordon's car in NASCAR 07 and NASCAR 08. See also List of Motorola products List of companies of the United States List of electronics companies References Further reading External links "For Google, the Motorola Deal Was All About the Patents at First", by Spencer E. Ante, The Wall Street Journal, September 14, 2011. 1928 establishments in Illinois 2011 disestablishments in Illinois American companies established in 1928 Companies based in Cook County, Illinois Companies formerly listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange Defunct companies based in Illinois Defunct manufacturing companies of the United States Defunct mobile phone manufacturers Electronics companies established in 1928 Electronics companies of the United States Manufacturing companies disestablished in 2011 Manufacturing companies established in 1928 National Medal of Technology recipients Schaumburg, Illinois SysML Partners Technology companies established in 1928 Telecommunications companies of the United States

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazda%20MX-5

Mazda MX-5

The Mazda MX-5 is a lightweight two-passenger roadster sports car manufactured and marketed by Mazda with a front mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout. The convertible is marketed as the or in Japan, and as the Mazda MX-5 Miata () in North America, where it is widely known as the Miata. Manufactured at Mazda's Hiroshima plant, the MX-5 debuted in 1989 at the Chicago Auto Show and was conceived and executed under a tightly focused design credo, , meaning "oneness of horse and rider". Widely noted for its small, light, technologically modern, dynamically balanced and minimally complex design, the MX-5 has frequently been called a spiritual successor to 1950s and '60s Italian and British roadster sports cars. The Lotus Elan was used as a design benchmark. Generations were internally designated with a two-letter code, beginning with the first generation, the NA. The second generation, (NB), launched in 1998 for MY 1999; followed by the third generation (NC) in 2005 for MY 2006, and the fourth generation (ND) in 2015 for MY 2016 (along with "ND2" being the designation for MY 2019). As the best-selling two-seat convertible sports car in history, the MX-5 has been marketed globally, with production exceeding one million, as of early 2016. The name derives from Old High German for "reward". Generations and overview The original MX-5 was launched at a time when small roadsters had almost disappeared from the market, with the Alfa Romeo Spider being one of the only comparable models still in production at the time. However, even the Spider was not a direct competitor of the MX-5 due to its significantly higher price tag. That left the Mazda as the spiritual successor to a host of discontinued sports cars such as the MG B, Triumph TR7, Triumph Spitfire, and Fiat Spider. The MX-5 was officially introduced in February 1989 at the Chicago Auto Show, and the public immediately resonated with the new sports car. The first generation MX-5 would go on to be the most popular of the four MX-5 generations by a wide margin, with over 228,961 units sold in the United States between 1989 and 1997. The lightweight, unibody MX-5 boasts sharp, responsive handling and a curb weight of under 2,500 pounds. Notably, the MX-5 incorporates a longitudinal truss, marketed as the Powerplant Frame (PPF), that provides a rigid connection between the engine and differential to minimize flex and improve balance. Some MX-5 models feature limited slip differentials, traction control, and an anti-lock braking system. With an approximate 50:50 front/rear weight balance, the car has nearly neutral handling. Inducing oversteer is easy and very controllable, thus making the MX-5 a popular choice for amateur and stock racing, autocross, and club racing. The MX-5 has won numerous awards, including Wheels Magazine’s Car of the Year for 1989, 2005 and 2016; Sports Car International’s "best sports car of the 1990s" and "ten best sports cars of all time"; 2005–2006 Car of the Year Japan; and 2005 Australian Car of the Year. The MX-5 has also made Car and Driver magazine's annual 10 Best list 17 times. In their December 2009 issue, Grassroots Motorsports magazine named the MX-5 as the most important sports car built during the previous 25 years. As production continues and generations are added, the core idea, dimensions and basic technology remain, with technological advancements added with each revised version, while adhering to the original goals that led to its creation. In 2009, English automotive critic Jeremy Clarkson wrote: Design genesis In 1976, Bob Hall, a journalist at Motor Trend magazine who was an expert in Japanese cars and fluent in the language, met Kenichi Yamamoto and Gai Arai, head of Research and Development at Mazda. Yamamoto and Gai Arai asked Hall what kind of car Mazda should make in the future: In 1981, Hall moved to a product planning position with Mazda USA and again met Yamamoto, now chairman of Mazda Motors, who remembered their conversation about a roadster and in 1982 gave Hall the go-ahead to research the idea further. At this time Hall hired designer Mark Jordan to join the newly formed Mazda design studio in Southern California. There, Hall and Jordan collaborated on the parameters of the initial image, proportion and visualization of the "light-weight sports" concept. In 1983, the idea turned concept was approved under the "Offline 55" program, an internal Mazda initiative that sought to change the way new models were developed. Thus, under head of project Masakatsu, the concept development was turned into a competition between the Mazda design teams in Tokyo and California. The Californian team proposed a front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout, codenamed Duo 101, in line with the British roadster ancestry, but their Japanese counterparts favored the more common front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout or the rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout. The first round of judging the competing designs was held in April 1984, with designs presented on paper only. The mid-engined car appeared to offer favorable qualities, although it was known at the time that such a layout would struggle to meet the noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) requirements of the project. It was only at the second round of the competition in August 1984, when full-scale clay models were presented, that the Duo 101 won the competition and was selected as the basis for what would become the MX-5. The Duo 101, so named as either a soft top or hardtop could be used, incorporated many key stylistic cues inspired by the Lotus Elan, a 1960s roadster, including the door handles, tail lamps and grille opening as well as engine appearance and center console layout. It is known that Mazda design studio acquired a vintage Lotus Elan as a source of inspiration for the designers. International Automotive Design (IAD) in Worthing, England was commissioned to develop a running prototype, codenamed V705. It was built with a fiberglass body, a engine from a Mazda Familia and components from a variety of early Mazda models. The V705 was completed in August 1985 and taken to the US where it rolled on the roads around Santa Barbara, California and got positive reactions. The project received final approval on 18 January 1986. The model's codename was changed to P729 as it moved into the production phase, under head of program Toshihiko Hirai. The task of constructing five engineering mules (more developed prototypes) was again allocated to IAD, which also conducted the first front and rear crash tests on the P729. While Tom Matano, Mark Jordan, Wu-huang Chin (, also on the RX-7 team), Norman Garrett, and worked on the final design, the project was moved to Japan for engineering and production details. By 1989, with a definitive model name now chosen, the MX-5 was ready to be introduced to the world as a true lightweight sports car, weighing just . Although Mazda's concept was for the MX-5 to be an inexpensive sports car, at introduction the design met strong demand, with many dealers placing customers on pre-order lists and several dealers across North America increasing the vehicle markup. Jinba ittai Mazda used a design credo across the four generations of the MX-5's development: the phrase , which translates into English as "rider and horse (jinba) as one body (ittai)". With the first generation of the MX-5, the phrase was developed into five specific core design requirements: That the car be as compact and as light as possible while meeting global safety requirements; that the cockpit comfortably accommodate two full-stature occupants with no wasted space; that the basic layout continue with the original's front-midship rear-drive configuration with the engine positioned ahead of the driver but behind the front axle for 50:50 weight distribution; that all four wheels be attached by wishbone or multi-link suspension systems to maximize tire performance, road grip, and dynamic stability; and that a power-plant frame again provide a solid connection between the engine and rear-mounted differential to sharpen throttle response. First generation (NA) The first generation MX-5 was introduced in 1989 and was in production until 1997. Upon its release, the car won numerous accolades such as Automobile Magazine's 1990 Automobile of the Year and Car and Drivers 10Best list from 1990 to 1992. It initially featured a inline-four engine making 116 horsepower; in 1994, a larger 1.8-liter engine was made standard in most markets. The design of the MX-5 took inspiration from the Lotus Elan, and details such as the pop-up headlights—a feature unique to the NA—and the slim chrome door handles all recalled the famed British roadster. In an effort to keep the weight down, base model cars went without power steering and power brakes. A five-speed manual transmission was standard, though a four-speed automatic was available. The NA MX-5 is also noteworthy for its special editions, including the 1991 BRG model with its British Racing Green exterior paint and tan leather upholstery. Other special or notable models include the enthusiast-minded R Package variants, the M Edition models and the VR limited of which 700 Artvin Red Mica and 800 Excellent Green Mica were built. Second generation (NB) The second generation MX-5 was unveiled in 1997 and put on sale in 1998 for the 1999 model year. While it kept the same proportions of its predecessor, its most noticeable change was the deletion of the retractable headlamps, which were eliminated in the face of more stringent pedestrian safety tests. The NB boasted a slight increase in engine power, a more refined interior with an updated design, and a newly available six-speed manual transmission. In 2001, further revisions included slightly updated front and rear styling as well as variable-valve timing engine technology for the 1.8-liter engine, which now made . Updated models have since been known as NB2, while the earlier versions are referred to as NB1. While various special editions continued to be introduced throughout the entire NB production run, the Mazdaspeed MX-5 is distinctive for being the only MX-5 to be turbocharged at the factory. The Mazdaspeed variant, built for the model years 2004 and 2005, made from a turbocharged version of the normal 1.8-liter engine, enabling a quarter-mile time of 15.2 seconds and a time of 6.7 seconds. Other Mazdaspeed specs include stiffer and shorter springs, Bilstein shocks, and larger 17-inch wheels. Third generation (NC) Taking design cues from the 2003 Mazda Ibuki concept car, the third-generation Mazda MX-5 was introduced in 2005 and was in production until 2015. This generation introduced a Power Retractable Hard Top (PRHT) variant that features a folding hard top mechanism that does not interfere with trunk space. During its release, the third generation MX-5 received several accolades such as the 2005-2006 Car of the Year Japan Award and Car and Drivers 10Best list from 2006 to 2013. Fourth generation (ND) The fourth-generation Mazda MX-5 was unveiled in 2014 and has been in production since 2015. An updated model was introduced in 2019 and is visually identical to the pre-update model; it has been designated as series "ND2" due to an engine upgrade to and several other improvements around the car. The ND generation introduced a Retractable Fastback (RF) variant that features a rigid roof and buttresses that give the silhouette a more coupé-like appearance than the soft top convertible. The fourth generation MX-5 has received several accolades such as the 2015-2016 Car of the Year Japan Award, the 2016 World Car of the Year Award, Car and Drivers 10Best list from 2016 to 2019, and the Red Dot Best of the Best Award in Product Design 2017. In addition, the car is the basis for the Fiat 124 Spider and Abarth 124 Spider. Production numbers and details In 2000, the Guinness Book of World Records declared the MX-5 the best-selling two-seat sports car in history, with a total production of 531,890 units. The 250,000th MX-5 rolled out of the factory on November 9, 1992; the 500,000th, on February 8, 1999; the 750,000th, in March 2004; the 800,000th in January 2007, and the 900,000th in February 2011. On April 22, 2016, Mazda broke its Guinness World Record by producing its one millionth MX-5. The one millionth car rolled off the production line and was shown in select cities, where the first 240 fans of the vehicle present could physically sign it before it went to the next destination. Awards and recognition Automobile Magazine 1990 "Automobile of the Year" and "All-Stars" list in 2016. Car and Drivers 10Best list from 1990-1992, 1998-1999, 2001, 2006-2013, 2016-2019. Car of the Year Japan Award 2005-2006 and 2015-2016. 2006 World Car of the Year Awards: "World Car of the Year" Finalist. 2012 Autocar Indonesia Reader's Choice Award, Favorite Convertible. What Car? Magazine 2014 Used Car of the Year - Best Fun Car. Yahoo! Autos 2016 Fresh Ride of the Year. Roadshow by CNET Editors Choice Best Convertibles 2016. World Car of the Year at the 2016 World Car Awards (UK). 2016 World Car of the Year Awards: "World Car of the Year" and "World Car Design of the Year". 2016 UK Car of the Year. The Daily Telegraph 2016 Car of the Year. Auto Express 2017 Roadster of the Year. Red Dot Best of the Best Award: Product Design 2017. New York Daily News DNA Award 2018. What Car? Magazine 2018 Best Convertible Less Than £25,000. MotorWeek Drivers' Choice Awards Best Convertible 2018. 2018 RJC Car of the Year Special Award: Classic Car Restoration Service. Edmunds.com 2019 Editor's Choice Awards: Best Sports Car. iSeeCars named the Mazda MX-5 Miata as the top sports car that US owners keep the longest. See also Spec Miata, a class of racing cars in the US Global MX-5 Cup, a Spec Miata series sanctioned by IMSA. MaX5 Racing, a class of racing cars in the United Kingdom Simpson Design, US-based custom coachbuilder producing bodies and interior for the Miata MX-5 References Bibliography Long, B. MX-5 Miata – The full story of the world's favourite sports car, Veloce Publishing, 2002. . Carey, J. (March, 2005). "New Mazda MX-5". Wheels (Australia), p. 48. External links (US) (The Story of the MX-5) MX-5 Cars introduced in 1989 1990s cars 2000s cars 2010s cars 2020s cars Sports cars Roadsters Hardtop convertibles Front mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive vehicles Cars powered by longitudinal 4-cylinder engines Euro NCAP roadster sports cars

20321

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackinac%20Bridge

Mackinac Bridge

The Mackinac Bridge ( ) is a suspension bridge spanning the Straits of Mackinac, connecting the Upper and Lower peninsulas of the U.S. state of Michigan. Opened in 1957, the bridge (familiarly known as "Big Mac" and "Mighty Mac") is the world's 26th-longest main span and the longest suspension bridge between anchorages in the Western Hemisphere. The Mackinac Bridge is part of Interstate 75 (I-75) and the Lake Michigan and Huron components of the Great Lakes Circle Tour across the straits; it is also a segment of the U.S. North Country National Scenic Trail. The bridge connects the city of St. Ignace on the north end with the village of Mackinaw City on the south. Envisioned since the 1880s, the bridge was designed by the engineer David B. Steinman and completed in 1957 only after many decades of struggles to begin construction. Length The bridge opened on November 1, 1957, connecting two peninsulas linked for decades by ferries. At the time, the bridge was formally dedicated as the "world's longest suspension bridge between anchorages", allowing a superlative comparison to the Golden Gate Bridge, which has a longer center span between towers, and the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge, which has an anchorage in the middle. It remains the longest suspension bridge with two towers between anchorages in the Western Hemisphere. Much longer anchorage-to-anchorage spans have been built in the Eastern Hemisphere, including the Akashi Kaikyō Bridge in Japan (), but the long leadups to the anchorages on the Mackinac make its total shoreline-to-shoreline length of longer than the Akashi Kaikyo (). The length of the bridge's main span is , which makes it the third-longest suspension span in the United States and 20th longest suspension span worldwide. It is also one of the world's longest bridges overall. History Early history The Algonquian peoples who lived in the straits area prior to the arrival of Europeans in the 17th century called this region Michilimackinac, which is widely understood to mean the Great Turtle. This is thought to refer to the shape of what is now called Mackinac Island. This interpretation of the word is debated by scholars. Trading posts at the Straits of Mackinac attracted peak populations during the summer trading season; they also developed as intertribal meeting places. As exploitation of the state's mineral and timber resources increased during the 19th century, the area became an important transport hub. In 1881 the three railroads that reached the Straits, the Michigan Central, Grand Rapids & Indiana, and the Detroit, Mackinac & Marquette, jointly established the Mackinac Transportation Company to operate a railroad car ferry service across the straits and connect the two peninsulas. Improved highways along the eastern shores of the Lower Peninsula brought increased automobile traffic to the Straits region starting in the 1910s. The state of Michigan initiated an automobile ferry service between Mackinaw City and St. Ignace in 1923; it eventually operated nine ferry boats that would carry as many as 9,000 vehicles per day. Traffic backups could stretch as long as . Plans for the bridge After the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge in 1883, local residents began to imagine that such a structure could span the straits. In 1884, a store owner in St. Ignace published a newspaper advertisement that included a reprint of an artist's conception of the Brooklyn Bridge with the caption "Proposed bridge across the Straits of Mackinac". The idea of the bridge was discussed in the Michigan Legislature as early as the 1880s. At the time, the Straits of Mackinac area was becoming a popular tourist destination, especially following the creation of Mackinac National Park on Mackinac Island in 1875. At a July 1888 meeting of the board of directors of the Grand Hotel on Mackinac Island, Cornelius Vanderbilt II proposed that a bridge be built across the straits, of a design similar to the one then under construction across the Firth of Forth in Scotland. This would advance commerce in the region and help lengthen the resort season of the hotel. Decades went by with no formal action. In 1920, the Michigan state highway commissioner advocated construction of a floating tunnel across the Straits. At the invitation of the state legislature, C. E. Fowler of New York City put forth a plan for a long series of causeways and bridges across the straits from Cheboygan, southeast of Mackinaw City, to St. Ignace, using Bois Blanc, Round, and Mackinac islands as intermediate steps. Formal planning In 1923, the state legislature ordered the State Highway Department to establish ferry service across the strait. More and more people used ferries to cross the straits each year, and as they did, the movement to build a bridge increased. Chase Osborn, a former governor, wrote: By 1928, the ferry service had become so popular and so expensive to operate that Michigan Governor Fred W. Green ordered the department to study the feasibility of building a bridge across the strait. The department deemed the idea feasible, estimating the cost at $30 million (equivalent to $ in ). In 1934, the Michigan Legislature created the Mackinac Straits Bridge Authority to explore possible methods of constructing and funding the proposed bridge. The Legislature authorized the Authority to seek financing for the project. In the mid-1930s, during the Great Depression, when numerous infrastructure projects received federal aid, the Authority twice attempted to obtain federal funds for the project but was unsuccessful. The United States Army Corps of Engineers and President Franklin D. Roosevelt endorsed the project but Congress never appropriated funds. Between 1936 and 1940, the Authority selected a route for the bridge based on preliminary studies. Borings were made for a detailed geological study of the route. The preliminary plans for the bridge featured a 3-lane roadway, a railroad crossing on the underdeck of the span, and a center-anchorage double-suspension bridge configuration similar to the design of the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge. Because this would have required sinking an anchorage pier in the deepest area of the Straits, the practicality of this design may have been questionable. A concrete causeway, approximately , extending from the northern shore, was constructed in shallow water from 1939 to 1941. However, a unique engineering challenge was created by the tremendous forces that operate against the base of the bridge, because the lakes freeze during the winter, causing large icebergs to place enormous stress on the bridge. At that time, with funding for the project still uncertain, further work was put on hold because of the outbreak of World War II. The Mackinac Straits Bridge Authority was abolished by the state legislature in 1947, but the same body created a new Mackinac Bridge Authority three years later in 1950. In June 1950, engineers were retained for the project. By then, it was reported that cars queuing for the ferry at Mackinaw City did not reach St. Ignace until five hours later, and the typical capacity of 460 vehicles per hour could not match the estimated 1,600 for a bridge. After a report by the engineers in January 1951, the state legislature authorized the sale of $85 million (equivalent to $ in ) in bonds for bridge construction on April 30, 1952. However, a weak bond market in 1953 forced a delay of more than a year before the bonds could be issued. Engineering and construction David B. Steinman was appointed as the design engineer in January 1953 and by the end of 1953, estimates and contracts had been negotiated. A civil engineer at the firm, Abul Hasnat, did the preliminary plans for the bridge. Total cost estimate at that time was $95 million (equivalent to $ in ) with estimated completion by November 1, 1956. Tolls collected were to pay for the bridge in 20 years. Construction began on May 7, 1954. The bridge was built under two major contracts. The Merritt-Chapman and Scott Corporation of New York was awarded the contract for all major substructure work for $25.7 million (equivalent to $ in ), while the American Bridge Division of United States Steel Corporation was awarded a contract of more than $44 million (equivalent to $ in ) to build the steel superstructure. Construction, staged using the 1939–41 causeway, took three and a half years (four summers, no winter construction) at a total cost of $100 million and the lives of five workers. Contrary to popular belief, none of them are entombed in the bridge. It opened to traffic on schedule on November 1, 1957, and the ferry service was discontinued on the same day. The bridge was formally dedicated on June 25, 1958. G. Mennen Williams was governor during the construction of the Mackinac Bridge. He began the tradition of the governor leading the Mackinac Bridge Walk across it every Labor Day. U.S. Senator Prentiss M. Brown has been called the "father of the Mackinac Bridge", and was honored with a special memorial bridge token created by the Mackinac Bridge Authority. The bridge officially achieved its 100 millionth crossing exactly 40 years after its dedication, on June 25, 1998. The 50th anniversary of the bridge's opening was celebrated on November 1, 2007, in a ceremony hosted by the Mackinac Bridge Authority at the viewing park adjacent to the St. Ignace causeway. The bridge was designated as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers in 2010. History of the bridge's design The design of the Mackinac Bridge was directly influenced by the lessons from the first Tacoma Narrows Bridge, which failed in 1940 because of its instability in high winds. Three years after that disaster, Steinman had published a theoretical analysis of suspension-bridge stability problems, which recommended that future bridge designs include deep stiffening trusses to support the bridge deck and an open-grid roadway to reduce its wind resistance. Both of these features were incorporated into the design of the Mackinac Bridge. The stiffening truss is open to reduce wind resistance. The road deck is shaped as an airfoil to provide lift in a cross wind, and the center two lanes are open grid to allow vertical (upward) air flow, which fairly precisely cancels the lift, making the roadway stable in design in winds of up to . Facts and figures The Mackinac Bridge is a toll bridge on Interstate 75 (I-75). The US Highway 27 (US 27) designation was initially extended across the bridge. In November 1960, sections of I-75 freeway opened from Indian River north to the southern bridge approaches in Mackinaw City, and US 27 was removed from the bridge. It is one of only three segments of I-75 that are tolled, the others being the American half of the International Bridge near Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, and Alligator Alley in Florida. The current toll is $4.00 for automobiles and $5.00 per axle for trucks. The Mackinac Bridge Authority raised the toll in 2007 to fund a $300 million renovation program, which would include completely replacing the bridge deck. Every Labor Day, the bridge is open to walkers for the Mackinac Bridge Walk. Painting of the bridge takes seven years, and when painting of the bridge is complete, it begins again. The current painting project began in 1999 and was expected to take 20 years to complete because the lead-based paint needs to be removed, incurring additional disposal requirements. The bridge celebrated its 150 millionth vehicle crossing on September 6, 2009. Length from cable bent pier to cable bent pier: . Total width of the roadway: Two outside lanes: wide each Two inside lanes: wide each Center mall: Catwalk, curb and rail width: on each side Width of stiffening truss in the suspended span: . Depth of stiffening truss: Height of the roadway at mid-span: approximately above water level. Vertical clearance at normal temperature: at the center of the main suspension span. at the boundaries of the navigation channel. Construction cost: $99.8 million (equivalent to $ in ) Height of towers above water: Max. depth of towers below water: Depth of water beneath the center of the bridge, Main cables: Number of wires in each cable: 12,580 Diameter of each wire: Diameter of each cable: Total length of wire in main cables: . Total vehicle crossings, 2005: 4,236,491 (average 11,608 per day) Speed limit: for passenger cars, for heavy trucks. Heavy trucks are also required to leave a spacing ahead. Work and major accident fatalities Five workers died during the construction of the bridge: Diver Frank Pepper ascended too quickly from a depth of on September 16, 1954. Despite being rushed to a decompression chamber, the 46-year-old died from the bends. Twenty-six-year-old James LeSarge lost his balance on October 10, 1954, and fell into a caisson. He fell and likely died of head injuries caused by impact with the criss-crossing steel beams inside the caisson. Albert Abbott died on October 25, 1954. The forty-year-old fell into the water while working on an wide beam. Witnesses speculate he suffered a heart attack. Twenty-eight-year-old Jack Baker and Robert Koppen died in a catwalk collapse near the north tower on June 6, 1956; it was their first day on the job. Koppen's body was never recovered. Another man suffered a broken ankle. All five men are memorialized on a plaque near the bridge's northern end (Bridge View Park). Contrary to folklore, no bodies are embedded in the concrete. One worker has died since the bridge was completed. Daniel Doyle fell from scaffolding on August 7, 1997. He survived the fall but fell victim to the water temperature. His body was recovered the next day in of water. Two vehicles have fallen off the bridge: On September 22, 1989, Leslie Ann Pluhar died when her car plunged over the railing. High winds were initially blamed, which was not supported by recorded wind speed measurements taken on and around the bridge at the time of the accident. Later investigation showed the driver lost control due to excessive speed and her vehicle bumped the bridge's 4-inch-high median and then crossed back through the northbound lanes, hitting a curb, jumping an outer guardrail and falling off the bridge, On March 2, 1997, Richard Alan Daraban drove his car over the edge. It was later determined to be a suicide. On September 10, 1978, a small private plane carrying United States Marine Corps Reserve officers Maj. Virgil Osborne, Capt. James Robbins, and Capt. Wayne W. Wisbrock smashed into one of the bridge's suspension cables while flying in a heavy fog. The impact tore the wings off the plane, which then plunged into the Straits of Mackinac. All three men were killed. Because the bridge is not accessible to pedestrians, suicides by jumping from the bridge have been rare, with the most recent confirmed case taking place on December 31, 2012. There have been roughly a dozen suicides by people jumping off the bridge . Crossing the bridge Some individuals have difficulty crossing bridges, a phenomenon known as gephyrophobia. The Mackinac Bridge Authority has a Drivers Assistance Program that provides drivers for those with gephyrophobia, or anyone who is more comfortable having someone else drive them across. More than a thousand people use this service every year. Those interested can arrange, either by phone or with the toll collector, to have their cars or motorcycles driven to the other end. There is no additional fee for this service. Bicycles and pedestrians are not permitted on the bridge. Up until 2017, an exception was allowed for riders of two annual bicycle tours. As of March 13, 2020 a program to transport bicycles has been suspended indefinitely due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Travelers across the Mackinac Bridge can listen to an AM radio broadcast that recounts the history of the bridge and provides updates on driving conditions. Bridge Walk The first Mackinac Bridge Walk was held in 1958, when it was led by Governor G. Mennen Williams. The first walk was held during the Bridge's Dedication Ceremony held in late June, and has been held on Labor Day since 1959. Until 2018, school buses from local districts transported walkers from Mackinaw City to St. Ignace to begin the walk. Thousands of people, traditionally led by the Governor of Michigan, cross the five-mile (8 km) span on foot from St. Ignace to Mackinaw City. Before 1964, people walked the Bridge from Mackinaw City to St. Ignace. Prior to 2017, two lanes of the bridge would remain open to public vehicle traffic; this policy was changed in 2017 to close the entire bridge to public vehicle traffic for the duration of the event. The Bridge Walk is the only day of the year that hikers can hike this section of the North Country National Scenic Trail. Tourism During the summer months, the Upper Peninsula and the Mackinac Bridge have become a major tourist destination. In addition to visitors to Mackinac Island, the bridge has attracted interest from a diverse group of tourists including bridge enthusiasts, bird-watchers, and photographers. The Straits area is a popular sailing destination for boats of all types, which make it easier to get a closer view to the underlying structure of the bridge. In media On June 25, 1958, to coincide with that year's celebration of the November 1957 opening, the United States Postal Service (USPS) released a 3¢ commemorative stamp featuring the recently completed bridge. It was entitled "Connecting the Peninsulas of Michigan" and 107,195,200 copies were issued. The USPS again honored the Mackinac Bridge as the subject of its 2010 priority mail $4.90 stamp, which went on sale February 3. The bridge authority and MDOT unveiled the stamp, which featured a "seagull's-eye view" of the landmark, with a passing freighter below. Artist Dan Cosgrove worked from panoramic photographs to create the artwork. This is one of several designs that Cosgrove has produced for the USPS. On April 24, 1959, Captain John S. Lappo, an officer in the Strategic Air Command, operating from Lockbourne AFB flew his Boeing B-47 Stratojet beneath the bridge. Following a general court-martial, he was grounded for life. A feature-length documentary entitled Building the Mighty Mac was produced by Hollywood filmmaker Mark Howell in 1997 and was shown on PBS. The program features numerous interviews with the key people who built the structure and includes restored 16mm color footage of the bridge's construction. The history and building of the bridge was featured in a 2003 episode of the History Channel TV show Modern Marvels. On July 19, 2007, the Detroit Science Center unveiled an , scale model of the Mackinac Bridge. The exhibit was part of the state's 50th anniversary celebration of the bridge. Sherwin-Williams supplied authentic Mackinac Bridge-colored paint for the project. The bridge and its maintenance crew were featured in an episode of the Discovery Channel TV show Dirty Jobs on August 7, 2007. Host Mike Rowe and crew spent several days filming the episode in May 2007. MDOT also featured the bridge on the cover of the 2007 state highway map to celebrate its 50th anniversary. See also List of longest suspension bridge spans Notes References Further reading External links Mackinac Bridge Authority Length Comparison Mackinac Bridge photographs and facts Monitoring the Mighty Mac, Point of Beginning, 2007 Web cams monitoring the Mackinac Bridge The view from the top of the iconic Mackinac Bridge that connects the two peninsulas of Michigan, 2014 Buildings and structures in Cheboygan County, Michigan Buildings and structures in Emmet County, Michigan Buildings and structures in Mackinac County, Michigan Bridges completed in 1957 Bridges on the Interstate Highway System Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks Interstate 75 Lake Huron Circle Tour Lake Michigan Circle Tour Road bridges in Michigan Roads with a reversible lane Suspension bridges in the United States Toll bridges in Michigan Tolled sections of Interstate Highways Towers in Michigan Transportation in Cheboygan County, Michigan Transportation in Mackinac County, Michigan Transportation in Emmet County, Michigan Tourist attractions in Cheboygan County, Michigan Historic American Engineering Record in Michigan Tourist attractions in Emmet County, Michigan Tourist attractions in Mackinac County, Michigan 1957 establishments in Michigan Steel bridges in the United States

20322

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola%2068030

Motorola 68030

The Motorola 68030 ("sixty-eight-oh-thirty") is a 32-bit microprocessor in the Motorola 68000 family. It was released in 1987. The 68030 was the successor to the Motorola 68020, and was followed by the Motorola 68040. In keeping with general Motorola naming, this CPU is often referred to as the 030 (pronounced oh-three-oh or oh-thirty). The 68030 is essentially a 68020 with a memory management unit (MMU) and instruction and data caches of 256 bytes each. It added a burst mode for the caches, where four longwords can be loaded into the cache in a single operation. The MMU was mostly compatible with the external 68851 that would be used with the 68020,) but being internal allowed it to access memory one cycle faster than a 68020/68851 combo. The 68030 did not include a built-in floating-point unit (FPU), and was generally used with the 68881 and the faster 68882. The addition of the FPU was a major design note of the subsequent 68040. The 68030 lacks some of the 68020's instructions, but it increases performance by ≈5% while reducing power draw by ≈25%. The 68030 features 273,000 transistors. A lower-cost version was also released, the Motorola 68EC030, lacking the on-chip MMU. It was commonly available in both 132-pin QFP and 128-pin PGA packages. The poorer thermal characteristics of the QFP package limited that variant to 33 MHz; the PGA 68030s included 40 MHz and 50 MHz versions. There was also a small supply of QFP packaged EC variants. The 68030 can be used with the 68020 bus, in which case its performance is similar to 68020 that it was derived from. However, the 68030 provides an additional synchronous bus interface which, if used, accelerates memory accesses up to 33% compared to an equally clocked 68020. The finer manufacturing process allowed Motorola to scale the full-version processor to 50 MHz. The EC variety topped out at 40 MHz. Usage The 68030 was used in many models of the Apple Macintosh II and Commodore Amiga series of personal computers, NeXT Cube, later Alpha Microsystems multiuser systems, and some descendants of the Atari ST line such as the Atari TT and the Atari Falcon. It was also used in Unix workstations such as the Sun Microsystems Sun-3x line of desktop workstations (the earlier "sun3" used a 68020), laser printers and the Nortel Networks DMS-100 telephone central office switch. More recently, the 68030 core has also been adapted by Freescale into a microcontroller for embedded applications. LeCroy has used the 68EC030 in certain models of their 9300 Series digital oscilloscopes including “C” suffix models and high performance 9300 Series models, along with the Mega Waveform Processing hardware option for 68020-based 9300 Series models. Hewlett-Packard's HP LaserJet 4 Laserjet 4 JetDirect network attach card uses a 68030 as its main processor. That card is a small Unix system with something which to a system on the network behaves the same as the lpd daemon. Variants The 68EC030 is a low cost version of the 68030, the difference between the two being that the 68EC030 omits the on-chip memory management unit (MMU) and is thus essentially an upgraded 68020. The 68EC030 was used as the CPU for the low-cost model of the Amiga 4000, and on a number of CPU accelerator cards for the Commodore Amiga line of computers. It was also used in the Cisco Systems 2500 Series router, a small-to-medium enterprise computer internetworking appliance. Additionally it was also used as the primary processor in a number of Alpha Microsystems Eagle mini-computers. The 50 MHz speed is exclusive to the ceramic PGA package, the plastic '030 stopped at 40 MHz. Technical data References External links 68030 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de Official information about the Freescale MC68030 microcontroller Motorola 68k family data sheets at bitsavers.org Extraordinarily rare, pictures, (Shared) of the 68030 emulator pre-silicon breadboard. ( before they layout the silicon, they made a simulator out of discreet logic ) 68k microprocessors 32-bit microprocessors

20324

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola%2068040

Motorola 68040

The Motorola 68040 ("sixty-eight-oh-forty") is a 32-bit microprocessor in the Motorola 68000 series, released in 1990. It is the successor to the 68030 and is followed by the 68060. There was no 68050. In keeping with general Motorola naming, the 68040 is often referred to as simply the '040 (pronounced oh-four-oh or oh-forty). The 68040 was the first 680x0 family member with an on-chip Floating-Point Unit (FPU). It thus included all of the functionality that previously required external chips, namely the FPU and Memory Management Unit (MMU), which was added in the 68030. It also had split instruction and data caches of 4 kilobytes each. It was fully pipelined, with six stages. Versions of the 68040 were created for specific market segments, including the 68LC040, which removed the FPU, and the 68EC040, which removed both the FPU and MMU. Motorola had intended the EC variant for embedded use, but embedded processors during the 68040's time did not need the power of the 68040, so EC variants of the 68020 and 68030 continued to be common in designs. Motorola produced several speed grades. The 16 MHz and 20 MHz parts were never qualified (XC designation) and used as prototyping samples. 25 MHz and 33 MHz grades featured across the whole line, but until around 2000 the 40 MHz grade was only for the "full" 68040. A planned 50 MHz grade was canceled after it exceeded the thermal design envelope. Usage In Apple Macintosh computers, the 68040 was introduced in the Macintosh Quadra, which was named for the chip. The fastest 68040 processor was clocked at 40 MHz and it was used only in the Quadra 840AV. The more expensive models in the (short-lived) Macintosh Centris line also used the 68040, while the cheaper Quadra, Centris and Macintosh Performa used the 68LC040. The 68040 was also used in other personal computers, such as the Amiga 4000 and Amiga 4000T, as well as a number of workstations, Alpha Microsystems servers, the HP 9000/400 series, and later versions of the NeXT computer. Design The 68040 ran into the transistor budget limit early in design. While the MMU did not take many transistors—indeed, having it on the same die as the CPU actually saved on transistors—the FPU certainly did. Motorola's 68882 external FPU was known as a very high performance unit and Motorola did not wish to risk integrators using the "LC" version with a 68882 instead of the more profitable full "RC" unit. (For information on Motorola's multiprocessing model with the 680x0 series, see Motorola 68020.) The FPU in the 68040 was thus made incapable of IEEE transcendental functions, which had been supported by both the 68881 and 68882 and were used by the popular fractal generating software of the time and little else. The Motorola floating point support package (FPSP) emulated these instructions in software under interrupt. As this was an exception handler, heavy use of the transcendental functions caused severe performance penalties. Heat was always a problem throughout the 68040's life. While it delivered over four times the per-clock performance of the 68020 and 68030, the chip's complexity and power requirements came from a large die and large caches. This affected the scaling of the processor and it was never able to run with a clock rate exceeding 40 MHz. A 50 MHz variant was planned, but canceled. Overclocking enthusiasts reported success reaching 50 MHz using a 100 MHz oscillator instead of an 80 MHz part and the then novel technique of adding oversized heat sinks with fans. The 68040 offered the same features as the Intel 80486, but on a clock-for-clock basis could significantly outperform the Intel chip in integer and floating point instructions. Variants 68EC040 The 68EC040 is a version of the Motorola 68040 microprocessor, intended for embedded controllers (EC). It differs from the 68040 in that it has neither an FPU nor an MMU. This makes it less expensive and it draws less power. The 68EC040 was used in Cisco switch Supervisor Engine I that is the heart of models 2900, 2948G, 2980G, 4000, 4500, 5000, 5500, 6000, 6500 and 7600. 68LC040 The 68LC040 is a low cost version of the Motorola 68040 microprocessor with no FPU. This makes it less expensive and it draws less power. Although the CPU now fits into a feature chart more like the Motorola 68030, it continues to include the 68040's caches and pipeline and is thus significantly faster than the 68030. Some mask revisions of the 68LC040 contained a bug that prevents the chip from operating correctly when a software FPU emulator is used. According to Motorola's errata, any chip with a mask set 2E71M or later does not contain the bug. This new mask was introduced in mid-1995 and converted the 68LC040 chip to MC status. The buggy revisions are typically found in 68LC040-based Apple Macintosh computers. Chips with mask set 2E23G (as used in the LC 475) have been confirmed to be faulty. The fault relates to pending writes being lost when the F-line exception is triggered. The 68040 cannot update its microcode in the manner of modern x86 chips. This means that the only way to use software that requires floating-point functionality is to replace the buggy 68LC040 with a later revision, or a full 68040. Feature table Technical data ATC = Address Translation Cache References Further reading External links MC68040 Product Summary Page MC68040V Third-Generation 32-Bit Low-Power Microprocessor (PDF) M68040 Microprocessors User's Manual (PDF) 68k microprocessors 32-bit microprocessors

20325

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola%2068060

Motorola 68060

The Motorola 68060 ("sixty-eight-oh-sixty") is a 32-bit microprocessor from Motorola released in 1994. It is the successor to the Motorola 68040 and is the highest performing member of the 68000 series. Two derivatives were produced, the 68LC060 and the 68EC060. Architecture There is an LC (Low-Cost) version, without an FPU and EC (Embedded Controller), without MMU and FPU. The 68060 design was led by Joe Circello. The 68060 shares most architectural features with the P5 Pentium. Both have a very similar superscalar in-order dual instruction pipeline configuration, and an instruction decoder which breaks down complex instructions into simpler ones before execution. However, a significant difference is that the 68060 FPU is not pipelined and is therefore up to three times slower than the Pentium in floating point applications. In contrast to that, integer multiplications and bit shifting instructions are significantly faster on the 68060. The 68060 has the ability to execute simple instructions in the address generation unit (AGU) and thereby supply the result two cycles before the ALU. In the development of the 68060, large amounts of commercial compiled code were analyzed for clues as to which instructions would be the best candidates for performance optimization. Against the Pentium, the 68060 can perform better on mixed code; Pentium's decoder cannot issue an FP instruction every opportunity and hence the FPU is not superscalar as the ALUs were. If the 68060's non-pipelined FPU can accept an instruction, it can be issued one by the decoder. This means that optimizing for the 68060 is easier: no rules prevent FP instructions from being issued whenever was convenient for the programmer other than well understood instruction latencies. However, with properly optimized and scheduled code, the Pentium's FPU is capable of double the clock for clock throughput of the 68060's FPU. The 68060 is the last development of the 68000 family for general purpose use, abandoned in favor of the PowerPC chips. It saw use in some late-model Amiga machines and Amiga accelerator cards as well as some Atari ST clones and Falcon accelerator boards (CT60/CT63/CT60e, the latter of which was created in 2015), and very late models of the Alpha Microsystems multiuser computers before their migration to x86, but Apple Inc. and the Unix world had moved onto various RISC platforms by the time the 68060 was available. The 68060 was introduced at 50 MHz on Motorola's 0.6 µm manufacturing process. A few years later it was shrunk to 0.42 µm and clock speed raised to 66 MHz and 75 MHz. Some users managed to overclock rev6. 68060 CPU-s (mask: 71E41J) up to 120 or 133 MHz. Developments of the basic core continue, intended for embedded systems. Here they are combined with a number of peripheral interfaces to reduce the overall complexity and power requirements of a design. A number of chips, each with different sets of interfaces, are sold under the names ColdFire and DragonBall. History Model numbers with even second-to-last digit (68000, 68020, 68040, 68060) were reserved for major revisions to the 680x0 core architecture. Model numbers with odd second-to-last digit (68010, 68030) were reserved for upgrades to the architecture of the previous chip. No 68050 or 68070 was ever produced by Motorola. For example, the Motorola 68010 (and the obscure 68012) is a 68000 with improvements to the loop instruction and the ability to suspend then continue an instruction in the event of a page fault, enabling the use of virtual memory with the appropriate MMU hardware. There were, however, no major overhauls of the core architecture. Similarly, the Motorola 68030 represents a process improvement on the 68020 with the MMU and a small data cache (256 bytes) moved on-chip. The 68030 was released in speed ratings up to 50 MHz. The jump from the 68000/68010 to the 68020/68030, however, represents a major overhaul, with innumerable individual changes. By the time the 68060 was in production, Motorola had abandoned development of the 68000 family in favor of the PowerPC. The 68060 is the last 68000 family processor from Motorola. Signetics (Philips) produced a 68000-based variant that they somewhat confusingly named the 68070. It contains a modestly-improved 68000 CPU, a simple on-chip MMU and an I²C bus controller. It came out long before the 68060 and was used principally as an embedded processor in some consumer electronics items, notably CD-i consoles. Usage Chyron's , Max!, and Maxine! series of television character generators use the 68060 as the main processor. These character generators were a fixture on many American television networks' affiliate stations. In desktops, the 68060 is used in some variants of the Amiga 4000T produced by Amiga Technologies, and available as a third party upgrade for other Amiga models. It is also used in the Amiga clone DraCo non-linear video system. The Q60 extended the Sinclair QL design similarly from the slowest start to the ultimate pace of the 68K architecture's capabilities; these 68060-based motherboards—at 66 MHz for the full 68060 or a non-FPU 68LC060 option overclocked to 80 MHz—are more than 100 times faster than the Sinclair QL while running the same operating systems. The 68060 was used in Nortel Meridian 1 Option 51, 61 and 81 large office PBX systems, powering the CP3 and CP4 core processor boards. A pair of these boards each sporting a 68060 could be used to make the PBX fault tolerant. This was a logical application as previous Meridian 1 cores used other Motorola chips. Nortel later changed the architecture to use Intel processors. The Motorola Vanguard 6560 multiprotocol router uses a 50 MHz 68EC060 processor. Motorola MVME-17x and Force Computer SYS68K VMEbus systems use a 68060 CPU. Variants 68EC060 The 68EC060 is a version of the Motorola 68060 microprocessor, intended for embedded controllers (EC). It differs from the 68060 in that it has neither an FPU nor an MMU. This makes it less expensive and it draws less power. 68LC060 The 68LC060 is a low cost version of the Motorola 68060 microprocessor with no FPU. This makes it less expensive and it draws less power. Feature table Technical data ATC = Address Translation Cache References External links A paper describing the 68060 architecture 68k microprocessors Superscalar microprocessors 32-bit microprocessors

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola%206809

Motorola 6809

The Motorola 6809 ("sixty-eight-oh-nine") is an 8-bit microprocessor with some 16-bit features. It was designed by Motorola's Terry Ritter and Joel Boney and introduced in 1978. Although source compatible with the earlier Motorola 6800, the 6809 offered significant improvements over it and 8-bit contemporaries like the MOS Technology 6502, including a hardware multiplication instruction, 16-bit arithmetic, system and user stack registers allowing re-entrant code, improved interrupts, position-independent code and an orthogonal instruction set architecture with a comprehensive set of addressing modes. Among the most powerful 8-bit processors of its era, it was also much more expensive. In 1980 a 6809 in single-unit quantities was $37 compared to $9 for a Zilog Z80 and $6 for a 6502. It was launched when a new generation of 16-bit processors were coming to market, like the Intel 8086, and 32-bit designs were on the horizon, including Motorola's own 68000. It was not feature competitive with newer designs and not price competitive with older ones. The 6809 was used in the TRS-80 Color Computer, Dragon 32/64, SuperPET, and Thomson MO/TO home computers, the Vectrex game console, and early 1980s arcade machines including Star Wars, Defender, Robotron: 2084, Joust, and Gyruss. Series II of the Fairlight CMI digital audio workstation and Konami's Time Pilot '84 arcade game each use dual 6809 processors. Hitachi was a major user of the 6809 and later produced an updated version as the Hitachi 6309. History 6800 and 6502 The Motorola 6800 was designed beginning in 1971 and released in 1974. In overall design terms, it has a strong resemblance to other CPUs that were designed from the start as 8-bit designs, like the Intel 8080. It was initially fabricated using early NMOS logic, which normally required several different power supply voltages. A key feature was an on-chip voltage doubler allowed it to run on a single +5 V supply, a major advantage over its competitors like the Intel 8080 which required -5 V, +5 V, -12 V and ground. The 6800 was initially fabricated using the then-current contact lithography process. In this process, the photomask is placed in direct contact with the wafer, exposed, and then lifted off. There was a small chance that some of the etching material would be left on the wafer when it was lifted, causing future chips patterned with the mask to fail. For complex multi-patterned designs like a CPU, this led to about 90% of the chips failing when tested. To make a profit on the small number of chips that did work, the prices for the working models had to be fairly high, on the order of hundreds of dollars in small quantities. As a result, the 6800 had relatively low market acceptance after its release. A number of the 6800's designers were convinced that a lower-cost system would be key to widespread acceptance. Notable among them was Chuck Peddle, who was sent on sales trips and saw prospective customers repeatedly reject the design as being too expensive for their intended uses. He began a project to produce a much less costly design, but Motorola's management proved uninterested and eventually told him to stop working on it. Peddle and a number of other members of the 6800 team left Motorola for MOS Technology and introduced this design in 1975 as the MOS Technology 6502. The 6800 was initially sold at $360 in single-unit quantities, but had been lowered to $295 by this point. The 6502 sold for $25. There were three reasons for the 6502's low cost. One was that the designers stripped out any feature that wasn't absolutely required. This led to the removal of one of the two accumulators and the use of smaller 8-bit index registers, both resulting in less internal wiring. Another change was the move to depletion-load NMOS logic, a new technique that required only +5 V. The 6800 had only a single +5 V pin externally but had multiple voltages internally that required separate power rails to be routed around the chip. These two changes allowed the 6502 to be 16.6 mm2, as opposed to the 6800's 29.0 mm2, meaning twice as many chips could be produced from a single wafer. Finally, MOS was using the new Micralign lithography system that improved average yield from around 10% to 70%. With the introduction of the 6502, Motorola immediately lowered the price of the 6800 to $125, but it remained uncompetitive and sales prospects dimmed. The introduction of the Micralign to Motorola's lines allowed further reductions and by 1981 the price of the then-current 6800P was slightly less than the equivalent 6502, at least in single-unit quantities. By that point, however, the 6502 had sold tens of millions of units and the 6800 had been largely forgotten. 6809 While the 6502 began to take over the 6800's market, Intel was experiencing the same problem when the upstart Zilog Z80 began to steal sales from the Intel 8080. Both Motorola and Intel began new design cycles to leapfrog those designs. This process led Intel to begin the design of a series of 16-bit processors, which emerged as the Intel 8086 in 1978. Motorola also began the design of a similar high-end design, in the MACSS project. When they polled their existing 6800 customers, they found that many remained interested in 8-bit designs and were not willing to pay for a 16-bit design for their simple needs. This led to the decision to produce a greatly improved but compatible 8-bit designs that became the 6809. Analysis of 6800 code demonstrated that loads and stores were the vast majority of all the time in CPU terms, accounting for 39% of all the operations in the code they examined. In contrast, mathematical operations were relatively rare, only 2.8% of the code. However, a careful examination of the loads and stores noted that many of these were being combined with adds and subtracts, revealing that a significant amount of those math operations were being performed on 16-bit values. This led to the decision to include basic 16-bit mathematics in the new design; load, store, add and subtract. Similarly, increments and decrements accounted for only 6.1% of the code, but these almost always occurred within loops where each one was performed many times. This led to the addition of post-incrementing and pre-decrementing modes using the index registers. The main goal for the new design was to support position-independent code. Motorola's market was mostly embedded systems and similar single-purpose systems, which often ran programs that were very similar to those on other platforms. Development for these systems often took the form of collecting a series of pre-rolled subroutines and combining them together. However, as assembly language is generally written starting at a "base address", combining pre-written modules normally required a lengthy process of changing constants (or "equates") that pointed to key locations in the code. Motorola's idea was to eliminate this task and make the building-block concept much more practical. System integrators would simply combine off-the-shelf code in ROMs to handle common tasks. Libraries of common routines like floating point arithmetic, graphics primitives, Lempel-Ziv compression, and so forth would be available to license, combine together along with custom code, and burn to ROM. In previous processor designs, including the 6800, there was a mix of ways to refer to memory locations. Some of these were relative to the current location in memory or to a value in an index register, while others were absolute, a 16-bit value that referred to a physical location in memory. The former style allows code to be moved because the address it references will move along with the code. The absolute locations do not; code that uses this style of addressing will have to be recompiled if it moves. To address this, the 6809 filled out its instruction opcodes so that there were more instances of relative addressing where possible. As an example, the 6800 included a special "direct" addressing mode that was used to make code smaller and faster; instead of a memory address having 16-bits and thus requiring two bytes to store, direct addresses were only 8-bits long. The downside was that it could only refer to memory within a 256-byte window, the "direct page", which was normally at the bottom of memory - the 6502 referred to this as "zero page addressing". The 6809 added a new 8-bit DP register, for "direct page". Code that formerly had to be in the zero page could now be moved anywhere in memory as long as the DP was changed to point to its new location. Using DP solved the problem of referring to addresses within the code, but data is generally located some distance from the code, outside ROM. To solve the problem of easily referring to data while remaining position independent, the 6809 added a variety of new addressing modes. Among these was program-counter-relative addressing which allowed any memory location to be referred to by its location relative to the instruction. Additionally, the stack was more widely used, so that a program in ROM could set aside a block of memory in RAM, set the SP to be the base of the block, and then refer to data within it using relative values. To aid this type of access, the 6809 renamed the SP to U for "user", and added a second stack pointer, S, for "system". The idea was user programs would use U while the CPU itself would use S to store data during subroutine calls. This allowed system code to be easily called by changing S without affecting any other running program. For instance, a program calling a floating-point routine in ROM would place its data on the U stack and then call the routine, which could then perform the calculations using data on its own private stack pointed to by S, and then return, leaving the U stack untouched. Another reason for the expanded stack access was to support reentrant code, code that can be called from various different programs concurrently without concern for coordination between them, or that can recursively call itself. This makes the construction of operating systems much easier; the operating system had its own stack, and the processor could quickly switch between a user application and the operating system simply by changing which stack pointer it was using. This also makes servicing interrupts much easier for the same reason. Interrupts on the 6809 save only the program counter and condition code register before calling the interrupt code, whereas the 6800, now referred saves all of the registers, taking additional cycles, then more to unwind the stack on exit. The 6809 includes one of the earliest dedicated hardware multipliers. It takes 8-bit numbers in the A and B accumulators and produces a result in A:B, known collectively as D. Market acceptance Much of the design had been based around the market concept of building-block code. But the market for pre-rolled ROM modules never materialized: Motorola's only released example was the MC6839 floating-point ROM. The industry as a whole solved the problem of integrating code modules from separate sources by using automatic relocating linkers and loaders, which is the solution used today. However, the decisions made by the design team enabled multi-user, multitasking operating systems like OS-9 and UniFlex. The added features of the 6809 were costly; the CPU had approximately 9,000 transistors compared to the 6800's 4,100 or the 6502's 3,500. While process improvements meant it could be fabricated for less cost than the original 6800, those same improvements were being applied to the other designs and so the relative cost remained the same. Such was the case in practice; in 1981 the 6809 sold in single-unit quantities for roughly six times the price of a 6502. For those systems that needed some of its special features, like the hardware multiplier, the system could justify its price, but in most roles, it was overlooked. Another factor in its low use was the presence of newer designs with significantly higher performance. Among these was the Intel 8086, released the same year, and its lower-cost version, the Intel 8088 of 1979. A feeling for the problem can be seen in the Byte Sieve assembly language results against other common designs from the era (taken from 1981 and 1983): Although the 6809 did offer a performance improvement over the likes of the 6502 and Z80, the improvement was not in line with the increase in price. For those where price was not the primary concern, but outright performance was, the new designs outperformed it by as much as an order of magnitude. Even before the 6809 was released, in 1976 Motorola had launched its own advanced CPU project, then known as Motorola Advanced Computer System on Silicon project, or MACSS. Although too late to be chosen for the IBM PC project, when MACSS appeared as the Motorola 68000 in 1979 it took any remaining interest in the 6809. Motorola soon announced that their future 8-bit systems would be powered by cut-down versions of the 68000 rather than further improved versions of the 6809. Major uses Its first major use was in the TRS-80 Color Computer, which happened largely by accident. Motorola had been asked to design a color-capable computer terminal for an online farm-aid project, a system known as "AgVision". Tandy (Radio Shack) was brought in as a retail partner and sold them under the name "VideoTex", but the project was ultimately canceled shortly after its introduction in 1980. Tandy then re-worked the design to produce a home computer, which became one of the 6809's most notable design wins. Looking for a low-cost programming platform for computer science students, the University of Waterloo developed a system that combined a 6809-based computer-on-a-card with an existing Commodore PET, including a number of programming languages and program editors in ROM. The result was later picked up by Commodore, who sold it as the SuperPET, or MicroMainframe in Europe. These were relatively popular in the mid-1980s before the introduction of the PC clone market took over the programming role for most users. Other popular home computer uses include the Fujitsu FM-7, Canon CX-1, Dragon 32/64, and the Thomson TO7 series. It was also available as an option on the Acorn System 2, 3 and 4 computers. Most SS-50 bus designs that had been built around the 6800 also had options for the 6809 or switched to it exclusively. Examples include machines from SWTPC, Gimix, Smoke Signal Broadcasting, etc. Motorola also build a series of EXORmacs and EXORset development systems. Hitachi produced its own 6809-based machines, the MB6890 and later the S1. These were primarily for the Japanese market, but some were exported to and sold in Australia, where the MB6890 was dubbed the "Peach", probably in reference to the Apple II. The S1 was notable in that it contained paging hardware extending the 6809's native 64 kilobyte (64×210 byte) addressing range to a full 1 megabyte (1×220 byte) in 4 KB pages. It was similar in this to machines produced by SWTPC, Gimix, and several other suppliers. TSC produced a Unix-like operating system uniFlex which ran only on such machines. OS-9 Level II, also took advantage of such memory management facilities. Most other computers of the time with more than 64 KB of memory addressing were limited to bank switching where much if not all the 64 KB was simply swapped for another section of memory, although in the case of the 6809, Motorola offered their own MC6829 MMU design mapping 2 megabytes (2×220 byte) in 2 KB pages. The 6809 also saw some use in various videogame systems. Notable among these, in its 68A09 incarnation, in the unique vector graphics based Vectrex home videogame machine. It was also used in the Milton Bradley Expansion (MBX) system (an arcade console for use with the Texas Instruments TI-99/4A home computer, and a series of arcade games, released during the early to mid-1980s. Williams Electronics was a prolific user of the processor, which was deployed in Defender, Stargate, Joust, Robotron: 2084, Sinistar, and other games. The 6809 CPU forms the core of the successful Williams Pinball Controller. The KONAMI-1 is a modified 6809 used by Konami in Roc'n Rope, Gyruss, and The Simpsons. Series II of the Fairlight CMI (computer musical instrument) used dual 6809 CPUs running OS-9, and also used one 6809 CPU per voice card. The 6809 was often employed in music synthesizers from other manufacturers such as Oberheim (Xpander, Matrix 6/12/1000), PPG (Wave 2/2.2/2.3, Waveterm A), and Ensoniq (Mirage sampler, SDP-1, ESQ1, SQ80). The latter used the 6809E as their main CPU. The (E) version was used in order to synchronize the microprocessor's clock to the sound chip (Ensoniq 5503 DOC) in those machines; in the ESQ1 and SQ80 the 68B09E was used, requiring a dedicated arbiter logic in order to ensure 1 MHz bus timing when accessing the DOC chip. In contrast to earlier Motorola products, the 6809 did not see widespread use in the microcontroller field. It was used in traffic signal controllers made in the 1980s by several different manufacturers, as well as Motorola's SMARTNET and SMARTZONE Trunked Central Controllers (so dubbed the "6809 Controller"). These controllers were used as the central processors in many of Motorola's trunked two-way radio communications systems. The 6809 was used by Mitel as the main processor in its SX20 Office Telephone System Versions The Motorola 6809 was originally produced in 1 MHz, 1.5 MHz (68A09) and 2 MHz (68B09) speed ratings. Faster versions were produced later by Hitachi. With little to improve, the 6809 marks the end of the evolution of Motorola's 8-bit processors; Motorola intended that future 8-bit products would be based on an 8-bit data bus version of the 68000 (the 68008). A micro-controller version with a slightly modified instruction set, the 6811, was discontinued as late as the second decade of the 21st century. The Hitachi 6309 is an enhanced version of the 6809 with extra registers and additional instructions, including block move, additional multiply instructions, and division. Legacy Motorola spun off its microprocessor division in 2004. The division changed its name to Freescale and has subsequently been acquired by NXP. Neither Motorola nor Hitachi produce 6809 processors or derivatives anymore. 6809 cores are available in VHDL and can be programmed into an FPGA and used as an embedded processor with speed ratings up to 40 MHz. Some 6809 opcodes also live on in the Freescale embedded processors. In 2015, Freescale authorized Rochester Electronics to start manufacturing the MC6809 once again as a drop-in replacement and copy of the original NMOS device. Freescale supplied Rochester the original GDSII physical design database. At the end of 2016, Rochester's MC6809 (including the MC68A09, and MC68B09) is fully qualified and available in production. Australian developer John Kent has synthesized the Motorola 6809 CPU in hardware description language (HDL). This has made possible the use of the 6809 core at much higher clock speeds than were available with the original 6809. Gary Becker's CoCo3FPGA runs the Kent 6809 core at 25 MHz. Roger Taylor's Matchbox CoCo runs at 7.16 MHz. Dave Philipsen's CoCoDEV runs at 25 MHz. Description General design The 6809's internal design is closer to simpler, non-microcoded CPU designs. Like most 8-bit microprocessors, the 6809 implementation is a register-transfer level machine, using a central PLA to implement much of the instruction decoding as well as parts of the sequencing. Like the 6800 and 6502, the 6809 uses a two-phase clock to gate the latches. This two-phase clock cycle is used as a full machine cycle in these processors. Simple instructions can execute in as little as two or three such cycles. The 6809 has an internal two-phase clock generator (needing only an external crystal) whereas the 6809E needs an external clock generator. There are variants such as the 68A09(E) and 68B09(E); the internal letter indicates the processor's rated clock speed. The 6800, 6502, the 6809's clock system differs from other processors of the era. For instance, the Z80 uses a single external clock and the internal steps of the instruction process continue on each transition. This means that the external clock generally runs much faster; 680x designs generally ran at 1 or 2 MHz while the Z80 generally ran at 2 or 4. Internally, the 680x's converted the slower external clock into a higher frequency internal schedule, so on an instruction-for-instruction basis, they ran roughly twice as fast when comparing the external clocks. The advantage to the 680x style access was that dynamic RAM chips of the era generally ran at 2 MHz. Due to the cycle timing, there were periods of the internal clock where the memory bus was guaranteed to be free. This allowed the computer designer to interleave access to memory between the CPU and an external device, say a direct memory access controller, or more commonly, a graphics chip. By running both chips at 1 MHz and stepping them one after the other, they could share access to the memory without any additional complexity or circuitry. Depending on version and speed grade, approximately 40–60% of a single clock cycle is typically available for memory access in a 6800, 6502, or 6809. Registers and instructions The original 6800 included two 8-bit accumulators, A and B, a single 16-bit index register, X, a 16-bit program counter, PC, a 16-bit stack pointer, SP, and an 8-bit status register. The 6809 added a second index register, Y, a second stack pointer, U (while renaming the original S), and allowed the A and B registers to be treated as a single 16-bit accumulator, D. It also added another 8-bit register, DP, to set the base address of the direct page. These additions were invisible to 6800 code, and the 6809 was 100% source-compatible with earlier code. Another significant addition was program-counter-relative addressing for all data manipulation instructions. This was a key addition for position-independent code, as it allows data to be referred to relative to the instruction, and as long as the resulting memory location exists then the instructions can be moved in memory freely. The system retained its previous addressing modes as well, although in the new assembler language, what were previously separate instructions were now considered to be different addressing modes on other instructions. This reduced the number of instructions from the 6800's 78 instructions to the 6809's 59. These new modes had the same opcodes as the previously separate instruction, so these changes were only visible to the programmer working on new code. The instruction set and register complement are highly orthogonal, making the 6809 easier to program than contemporaries. Like the 6800, the 6809 includes an undocumented address bus test instruction which came to be nicknamed Halt and Catch Fire (HCF). Notes References Citations Bibliography Further reading Datasheets and manuals MC6809 Datasheet; Motorola; 36 pages; 1983. MC6809E Datasheet; Motorola; 34 pages. Motorola 8-bit Microprocessors Data Book; Motorola; 1182 pages; 1981. Books 6809 Assembly Language Programming; 1st Ed; Lance Leventhal; 579 pages; 1981; . (archive) The MC6809 Cookbook; 1st Ed; Carl Warren; 180 pages; 1980; . (archive) Advanced 8-bit Microprocessor: MC6809: Its Software, Hardware, Architecture and Interfacing Techniques; 1st Ed; Robert Simpson; 274 pages; 1998; Magazines A Microprocessor for the Revolution: The 6809; Terry Ritter & Joel Boney (co-designers of 6809); BYTE magazine; Jan-Feb 1979. (archive) MC6809 microprocessor; Ian Powers; Microprocessors, Volume 2, Issue 3; July 1978; page 162; , . Reference cards MC6809 Reference Card; Motorola; 16 pages; 1981. (archive) 6809/6309 Reference Card; Chris Lomont; 10 pages; 2007. (archive) External links Simulators / Emulators 6809 Emulation Page – collection of 6809 instructions, emulators, tools, debuggers, disassemblers, assemblers 6809 Emulator based on the SWTPC 6809 system Boards Grant's 6-chip 6809 computer 6809 microprocessor training board FPGA System09 6809 CPU core - VHDL source code - OpenCores - project website Motorola microprocessors 8-bit microprocessors

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola%2068HC11

Motorola 68HC11

The 68HC11 (6811 or HC11 for short) is an 8-bit microcontroller (µC) family introduced by Motorola in 1984. Now produced by NXP Semiconductors, it descended from the Motorola 6800 microprocessor by way of the 6801. It is a CISC microcontroller. The 68HC11 devices are more powerful and more expensive than the 68HC08 microcontrollers, and are used in automotive applications, barcode readers, hotel card key writers, amateur robotics, and various other embedded systems. The MC68HC11A8 was the first microcontroller to include CMOS EEPROM. Architecture Internally, the HC11 instruction set is backward compatible with the 6800 and features the addition of a Y index register. It has two eight-bit accumulators, A and B, two sixteen-bit index registers, X and Y, a condition code register, a 16-bit stack pointer, and a program counter. In addition, there is an 8 x 8-bit multiply (A x B), with full 16-bit result, and Fractional/Integer 16-bit by 16-bit Divide instructions. A range of 16-bit instructions treat the A and B registers as a combined 16-bit D register for comparison (X and Y registers may also be compared to 16-bit memory operands), addition, subtraction and shift operations, or can add the B accumulator to the X or Y index registers. Bit test operations have also been added, performing a logical AND function between operands, setting the correct conditions codes, but not modifying the operands. Different versions of the HC11 have different numbers of external ports, labeled alphabetically. The most common version has five ports, A, B, C, D, and E, but some have as few as 3 ports (version D3). Each port is eight-bits wide except for D, which is six bits (in some variations of the chip, D also has eight bits). It can be operated with an internal program and RAM (1 to 768 bytes) or an external memory of up to 64 kilobytes. With external memory, B and C are used as address and data bus. In this mode, port C is multiplexed to carry both the lower byte of the address and data. Implementations In the early 1990s Motorola produced an evaluation board kit for the 68HC11 with several UARTs, RAM, and an EPROM. The cost of the evaluation kit was $68.11. The standard monitor for the HC11 family is called BUFFALO, "Bit User Fast Friendly Aid to Logical Operation." It can be stored in on-chip ROM, EPROM, or external memory (also typically EPROM). BUFFALO is available for most 68HC11 family derivatives as it generally only depends upon having access to a single UART (SCI, or Serial Communications Interface, in Motorola parlance). BUFFALO can also run on devices that do not have internal non-volatile memory, such as the 68HC11A0, A1, E0, E1, and F1 derivatives. Other versions The Freescale 68HC16 microcontroller family is intended as a 16-bit mostly software compatible upgrade of the 68HC11. The Freescale 68HC12 microcontroller family is an enhanced 16-bit version of the 68HC11. The Handy Board robotics controller by Fred Martin is based on the 68HC11. A MC68HC24 port replacement unit is available for the HC11. When placed on the external address bus, it replicates the original functions of B and C. Port A has input capture, output compare, pulse accumulator, and other timer functions; port D has serial I/O, and port E has an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Notes References Further reading Datasheets and manuals M68HC11 Reference Manual; Motorola; 498 pages; 1991. MC68HC11A8 Technical Manual; Motorola; 154 pages; 1991. MC68HC11E9 Technical Manual; Motorola; 170 pages; 1991. Books Microcontroller Technology – 68HC11; 1st Ed; Peter Spasov; Regents/Prentice Hall; 622 pages; 1993; . (archive) Build Your Own Robot – 68HC11; 1st Ed; Karl Lunt; A.K. Peters Publishing; 574 pages; 2000; . (archive) External links Freescale 68HC11 (Legacy) Part Info ASM11 macro cross-assembler for Windows and Linux Simulators / Emulators THRSim11 68HC11 simulator and debugger – Windows Boards 4MHz-bus 68HC11F1-based board Wytec 68HC11 Development Board FPGA System11 68HC11 CPU core – VHDL source code – OpenCores – project website Green Mountain Synthesizable 68HC11 CPU core – VHDL source code Microcontrollers

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March%2021

March 21

Events Pre-1600 537 – Siege of Rome: King Vitiges attempts to assault the northern and eastern city walls, but is repulsed at the Praenestine Gate, known as the Vivarium, by the defenders under the Byzantine generals Bessas and Peranius. 630 – Emperor Heraclius returns the True Cross, one of the holiest Christian relics, to Jerusalem. 717 – Battle of Vincy between Charles Martel and Ragenfrid. 1152 – Annulment of the marriage of King Louis VII of France and Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine. 1188 – Emperor Antoku accedes to the throne of Japan. 1556 – On the day of his execution in Oxford, former archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer deviates from the scripted sermon by renouncing the recantations he has made and adds, "And as for the pope, I refuse him, as Christ's enemy, and Antichrist with all his false doctrine." 1601–1900 1788 – A fire in New Orleans leaves most of the town in ruins. 1800 – With the church leadership driven out of Rome during an armed conflict, Pius VII is crowned Pope in Venice with a temporary papal tiara made of papier-mâché. 1801 – The Battle of Alexandria is fought between British and French forces near the ruins of Nicopolis near Alexandria in Egypt. 1804 – Code Napoléon is adopted as French civil law. 1814 – Napoleonic Wars: Austrian forces repel French troops in the Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube. 1844 – The Baháʼí calendar begins. This is the first day of the first year of the Baháʼí calendar. It is annually celebrated by members of the Baháʼí Faith as the Baháʼí New Year or Náw-Rúz. 1861 – Alexander Stephens gives the Cornerstone Speech. 1871 – Otto von Bismarck is appointed as the first Chancellor of the German Empire. 1871 – Journalist Henry Morton Stanley begins his trek to find the missionary and explorer David Livingstone. 1901–present 1918 – World War I: The first phase of the German Spring Offensive, Operation Michael, begins. 1919 – The Hungarian Soviet Republic is established becoming the first Communist government to be formed in Europe after the October Revolution in Russia. 1921 – The New Economic Policy is implemented by the Bolshevik Party in response to the economic failure as a result of war communism. 1925 – The Butler Act prohibits the teaching of human evolution in Tennessee. 1925 – Syngman Rhee is removed from office after being impeached as the President of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. 1928 – Charles Lindbergh is presented with the Medal of Honor for the first solo trans-Atlantic flight. 1935 – Shah of Iran Reza Shah Pahlavi formally asks the international community to call Persia by its native name, Iran. 1937 – Ponce massacre: Nineteen people in Ponce, Puerto Rico are gunned down by police acting on orders of the US-appointed Governor, Blanton C. Winship. 1943 – Wehrmacht officer Rudolf von Gersdorff plots to assassinate Adolf Hitler by using a suicide bomb, but the plan falls through; von Gersdorff is able to defuse the bomb in time and avoid suspicion. 1945 – World War II: British troops liberate Mandalay, Burma. 1945 – World War II: Operation Carthage: Royal Air Force planes bomb Gestapo headquarters in Copenhagen, Denmark. They also accidentally hit a school, killing 125 civilians. 1945 – World War II: Bulgaria and the Soviet Union successfully complete their defense of the north bank of the Drava River as the Battle of the Transdanubian Hills concludes. 1946 – The Los Angeles Rams sign Kenny Washington, making him the first African American player in professional American football since 1933. 1952 – Alan Freed presents the Moondog Coronation Ball, the first rock and roll concert, in Cleveland, Ohio. 1960 – Apartheid: Sharpeville massacre, South Africa: Police open fire on a group of black South African demonstrators, killing 69 and wounding 180. 1963 – Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary (in California) closes. 1965 – Ranger program: NASA launches Ranger 9, the last in a series of unmanned lunar space probes. 1965 – Martin Luther King Jr. leads 3,200 people on the start of the third and finally successful civil rights march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama. 1968 – Battle of Karameh in Jordan between the Israel Defense Forces and the combined forces of the Jordanian Armed Forces and PLO. 1970 – The first Earth Day proclamation is issued by Joseph Alioto, Mayor of San Francisco. 1980 – U.S. President Jimmy Carter announces a United States boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow to protest the Soviet–Afghan War. 1983 – The first cases of the 1983 West Bank fainting epidemic begin; Israelis and Palestinians accuse each other of poison gas, but the cause is later determined mostly to be psychosomatic. 1986 – Debi Thomas became the first African American to win the World Figure Skating Championships 1990 – Namibia becomes independent after 75 years of South African rule. 1994 – The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change enters into force. 1999 – Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones become the first to circumnavigate the Earth in a hot air balloon. 2000 – Pope John Paul II makes his first ever pontifical visit to Israel. 2006 – The social media site Twitter is founded. 2019 – The 2019 Xiangshui chemical plant explosion occurs, killing at least 47 people and injuring 640 others. Births Pre-1600 927 – Emperor Taizu of Song (d. 976) 1474 – Angela Merici, Italian educator and saint (d. 1540) 1501 – Anne Brooke, Baroness Cobham, English noble (d. 1558) 1521 – Maurice, Elector of Saxony (d. 1553) 1527 – Hermann Finck, German composer and educator (d. 1558) 1555 – John Leveson, English politician (d. 1615) 1557 – Anne Howard, Countess of Arundel, English countess and poet (d. 1630) 1601–1900 1626 – Peter of Saint Joseph Betancur, Spanish saint and missionary (d. 1667) 1672 – Stefano Benedetto Pallavicino, Italian poet and translator (d. 1742) 1685 – Johann Sebastian Bach, German Baroque composer and musician (d. 1750) 1713 – Francis Lewis, Welsh-American merchant and politician (d. 1803) 1716 – Josef Seger, Bohemian organist, composer, and educator (d. 1782) 1752 – Mary Dixon Kies, American inventor (d. 1837) 1763 – Jean Paul, German journalist and author (d. 1825) 1768 – Joseph Fourier, French mathematician and physicist (d. 1830) 1802 – Augusta Waddington, Welsh writer and patron of the arts (d. 1896) 1806 – Benito Juárez, Mexican lawyer and politician, 25th President of Mexico (d. 1872) 1811 – Nathaniel Woodard, English priest and educator (d. 1891) 1825 – Alexander Mozhaysky, Russian soldier and engineer (d. 1890) 1831 – Dorothea Beale, English suffragist, educational reformer and author (d. 1906) 1835 – Thomas Hayward, English cricketer (d. 1876) 1839 – Modest Mussorgsky, Russian pianist and composer (d. 1881) 1854 – Alick Bannerman, Australian cricketer and coach (d. 1924) 1857 – Alice Henry, Australian journalist and activist (d. 1943) 1859 – Daria Pratt, American golfer (d. 1938) 1865 – George Owen Squier, American general (d. 1934) 1866 – Antonia Maury, American astronomer and astrophysicist (d. 1952) 1867 – Florenz Ziegfeld, Jr., American director and producer (d. 1932) 1869 – David Robertson, Scottish-English golfer and rugby player (d. 1937) 1874 – Alfred Tysoe, English runner (d. 1901) 1876 – Walter Tewksbury, American runner and hurdler (d. 1968) 1877 – Maurice Farman, French race car driver and pilot (d. 1964) 1878 – Morris H. Whitehouse, American architect (d. 1944) 1880 – Broncho Billy Anderson, American actor, director, and producer (d. 1971) 1880 – Hans Hofmann, German-American painter and academic (d. 1966) 1882 – Aleksander Kesküla, Estonian politician (d. 1963) 1884 – George David Birkhoff, American mathematician (d. 1944) 1885 – Pierre Renoir, French actor and director (d. 1952) 1886 – Walter Dray, American pole vaulter (d. 1973) 1887 – Clarice Beckett, Australian painter (d. 1935) 1887 – Lajos Kassák, Hungarian poet, novelist and painter (d. 1967) 1887 – M. N. Roy, Indian philosopher and politician (d. 1954) 1889 – Jock Sutherland, American football player and coach (d. 1948) 1896 – Friedrich Waismann, Austrian mathematician, physicist, and philosopher from the Vienna Circle (d. 1959) 1897 – Sim Gokkes, Dutch composer and conductor (d. 1943) 1897 – Salvador Lutteroth, Mexican wrestling promoter, founded Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (d. 1987) 1899 – Panagiotis Pipinelis, Greek politician, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1970) 1901–present 1901 – Karl Arnold, German businessman and politician, President of the German Bundesrat (d. 1958) 1902 – Son House, American blues singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1988) 1904 – Jehane Benoît, Canadian journalist and author (d. 1987) 1904 – Forrest Mars, Sr., American candy maker, created M&M's and Mars bar (d. 1999) 1904 – Nikos Skalkottas, Greek violinist and composer (d. 1949) 1905 – Phyllis McGinley, American author and poet (d. 1978) 1906 – John D. Rockefeller III, American philanthropist (d. 1978) 1906 – Jim Thompson, American businessman (d. 1967) 1906 – André Filho, Brazilian musician and songwriter (d. 1974) 1907 – Zoltán Kemény, Hungarian sculptor (d. 1965) 1909 – Harry Lane, English footballer (d. 1977) 1910 – Julio Gallo, American businessman, co-founded E & J Gallo Winery (d. 1993) 1910 – Muhammad Siddiq Khan, Bangladeshi librarian and educator (d. 1978) 1911 – Walter Lincoln Hawkins, African-American scientist and inventor (d. 1992) 1912 – André Laurendeau, Canadian journalist, playwright, and politician (d. 1968) 1913 – George Abecassis, English race car driver and pilot (d. 1991) 1913 – Guillermo Haro, Mexican astronomer (d. 1988) 1914 – Paul Tortelier, French cellist and composer (d. 1990) 1916 – Bismillah Khan, Indian shehnai player (d. 2006) 1916 – Ken Wharton, English race car driver (d. 1957) 1917 – Frank Hardy, Australian journalist, author, and playwright (d. 1994) 1918 – Patrick Lucey, American captain and politician, 38th Governor of Wisconsin (d. 2014) 1918 – Charles Thompson, American pianist and composer (d. 2016) 1919 – Douglas Warren, Australian bishop (d. 2013) 1920 – Manolis Chiotis, Greek singer-songwriter and bouzouki player (d. 1970) 1920 – Éric Rohmer, French director, film critic, journalist, novelist and screenwriter (d. 2010) 1921 – Arthur Grumiaux, Belgian violinist and pianist (d. 1986) 1921 – Antony Hopkins, English pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 2014) 1922 – Russ Meyer, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2004) 1923 – Louis-Edmond Hamelin, Canadian geographer, author, and academic (d. 2020) 1923 – Nizar Qabbani, Syrian poet, publisher, and diplomat (d. 1998) 1923 – Nirmala Srivastava, Indian religious leader, founded Sahaja Yoga (d. 2011) 1923 – Rezső Nyers, Hungarian politician (d. 2018) 1924 – Philip Abbott, American actor (d. 1998) 1924 – Dov Shilansky, Lithuanian-Israeli lawyer and politician (d. 2010) 1925 – Harold Ashby, American saxophonist (d. 2003) 1925 – Peter Brook, English-French director and producer 1925 – Hugo Koblet, Swiss cyclist (d. 1964) 1926 – André Delvaux, Belgian director and screenwriter (d. 2002) 1927 – Halton Arp, American-German astronomer and critic (d. 2013) 1927 – Hans-Dietrich Genscher, German soldier and politician, Vice-Chancellor of Germany (d. 2016) 1928 – Surya Bahadur Thapa, Nepalese politician, 24th Prime Minister of Nepal (d. 2015) 1929 – Maurice Catarcio, American wrestler (d. 2005) 1930 – James Coco, American actor (d. 1987) 1930 – Otis Spann, American blues pianist, singer and composer (d. 1970) 1931 – Toyonobori, Japanese sumo wrestler (d. 1998) 1931 – Clark L. Brundin, American-English engineer and academic (d. 2021) 1931 – Catherine Gibson, Scottish swimmer (d. 2013) 1931 – Al Williamson, American illustrator (d. 2010) 1932 – Walter Gilbert, American physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate 1932 – Joseph Silverstein, American violinist and conductor (d. 2015) 1933 – John Hall, English businessman 1933 – Michael Heseltine, Welsh businessman and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom 1934 – Al Freeman, Jr., American actor and director (d. 2012) 1935 – Brian Clough, English footballer and manager (d. 2004) 1936 – Ed Broadbent, Canadian pilot and politician 1936 – Mike Westbrook, English pianist and composer 1937 – Ann Clwyd, Welsh journalist and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Wales 1937 – Tom Flores, American football player and coach 1937 – Pierre-Jean Rémy, French diplomat and author (d. 2010) 1938 – Michael Foreman, English author and illustrator 1938 – Grahame Thomas, Australian cricketer 1939 – Kathleen Widdoes, American actress 1940 – Solomon Burke, American singer-songwriter (d. 2010) 1940 – Andrea Elle, German bicyclist 1942 – Françoise Dorléac, French actress (d. 1967) 1942 – Kostas Politis, Greek basketball player and coach (d. 2018) 1942 – Amina Claudine Myers, African-American singer-songwriter and pianist 1942 – Patcha Ramachandra Rao, India metallurgist, educator and administrator (d. 2010) 1943 – István Gyulai, Hungarian sprinter and sportscaster (d. 2006) 1943 – Hartmut Haenchen, German conductor 1943 – Vivian Stanshall, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and painter (d. 1995) 1944 – Marie-Christine Barrault, French actress 1944 – Janet Daley, American-English journalist and author 1944 – Hideki Ishima, Japanese guitarist 1944 – Mike Jackson, English general 1944 – David Lindley, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer 1944 – Gaye Adegbalola, African-American singer and guitarist 1945 – Anthony Grabiner, Baron Grabiner, English lawyer 1945 – Charles Greene, American sprinter and coach 1945 – Rose Stone, African-American R&B singer and keyboard player 1946 – Timothy Dalton, Welsh-English actor 1946 – Ray Dorset, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1946 – Joseph Mitsuaki Takami, Japanese cardinal 1947 – George Johnston. Scottish footballer, forward 1948 – Scott Fahlman, American computer scientist and academic 1949 – Alvin Kallicharran, Guyanese cricketer and coach 1949 – Andy Love, Scottish-English politician 1949 – Eddie Money, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2019) 1949 – Slavoj Žižek, Slovenian sociologist, philosopher, and academic 1950 – Roger Hodgson, English singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1950 – Ron Oden, American minister and politician, 19th Mayor of Palm Springs 1950 – Sergey Lavrov, Russian politician and diplomat, Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1951 – Conrad Lozano, American bass player 1951 – Russell Thompkins Jr., American soul singer 1953 – Steve Furber, English computer scientist and academic 1953 – Paul Martin Lester, American photographer, author, and educator 1953 – David Wisniewski, English-American author and illustrator (d. 2002) 1954 – Prayut Chan-o-cha, Thai politician, Prime Minister of Thailand 1955 – Fadi Abboud, Lebanese economist and politician 1955 – Jair Bolsonaro, Brazilian politician and retired military officer, 38th President of Brazil 1955 – Bob Bennett, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1955 – Dimitrios Papadimoulis, Greek politician 1955 – Bärbel Wöckel, East German sprinter 1956 – Dick Beardsley, American runner 1956 – Guy Chadwick, German-English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1956 – Richard H. Kirk, English guitarist, keyboard player, composer, and producer (d. 2021) 1956 – Ingrid Kristiansen, Norwegian runner 1958 – Marlies Göhr, German sprinter 1958 – Brad Hall, American comedian, director, and screenwriter 1958 – Gary Oldman, English actor, filmmaker, musician and author 1959 – Sarah Jane Morris, English singer-songwriter 1959 – Yuval Rotem, Israeli diplomat 1959 – Nobuo Uematsu, Japanese keyboard player and composer 1960 – Marwan Farhat, Syrian actor and voice actor 1960 – Benito T. de Leon, Filipino general 1960 – Raivo Puusepp, Estonian architect 1960 – Ayrton Senna, Brazilian race car driver (d. 1994) 1960 – Robert Sweet, American drummer and producer 1961 – Lothar Matthäus, German footballer and manager 1961 – Gary O'Reilly, English footballer, defender 1961 – Kassie DePaiva, American actress 1961 – Slim Jim Phantom, American rock drummer 1961 – Kim Turner, American hurdler 1962 – Matthew Broderick, American actor 1962 – Kathy Greenwood, Canadian actress and screenwriter 1962 – Rosie O'Donnell, American actress, producer, and talk show host 1962 – Mark Waid, American author 1963 – Shawon Dunston, American baseball player 1963 – Ronald Koeman, Dutch footballer and manager 1963 – Shawn Lane, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer (d. 2003) 1963 – Share Pedersen, American bass player 1964 – Ieuan Evans, Welsh rugby player 1964 – Jesper Skibby, Danish cyclist 1965 – Xavier Bertrand, French businessman and politician, French Minister of Social Affairs 1965 – Thomas Frank, American author, historian and political analyst 1966 – Benito Archundia, Mexican footballer, referee, lawyer, and economist 1966 – Hauke Fuhlbrügge, German runner 1966 – Matthew Maynard, English cricketer and coach 1966 – Moa Matthis, Swedish author 1967 – Carwyn Jones, Welsh lawyer and politician, First Minister of Wales 1967 – Mirela Rupic, American costume and fashion designer 1968 – Cameron Clyne, Australian businessman 1968 – Andrew Copeland, American singer and guitarist 1968 – Gary Walsh, English football coach and former footballer 1968 – Greg Ellis, English actor, producer, and screenwriter 1968 – Tolunay Kafkas, Turkish footballer and manager 1968 – Scott Williams, American basketball player and sportscaster 1969 – Jonah Goldberg, American journalist and author 1970 – Shiho Niiyama, Japanese voice actress (d. 2000) 1970 – Cenk Uygur, Turkish-American political activist 1971 – Zsolt Kürtösi, Hungarian decathlete 1972 – Chris Candido, American wrestler (d. 2005) 1972 – Balázs Kiss, Hungarian hammer thrower 1972 – Derartu Tulu, Ethiopian runner 1972 – Graeme Welch, English cricketer 1973 – Ananda Lewis, American television host 1973 – Stuart Nethercott, English footballer, defender and manager 1973 – Large Professor, American rapper and producer 1974 – Rhys Darby, New Zealand comedian and actor 1974 – Dejima Takeharu, Japanese sumo wrestler 1974 – Edsel Dope, American singer-songwriter and producer 1974 – Ted Kravitz, British presenter and Formula One pit-lane reporter 1974 – Kevin Leahy, American drummer 1974 – Conor Woodman, Irish journalist and author 1975 – Yacoub Al-Mohana, Kuwaiti director and producer 1975 – Corne Krige, South African rugby player 1975 – Fabricio Oberto, Argentinian-Italian basketball player 1975 – Vitaly Potapenko, Ukrainian basketball player and coach 1975 – Mark Williams, Welsh snooker player 1976 – Rachael MacFarlane, American voice actress and singer 1976 – Bamboo Mañalac, Filipino singer-songwriter and guitarist 1976 – Tekin Sazlog, German-Turkish footballer 1977 – Bruno Cirillo, Italian footballer 1977 – Jamie Delgado, English tennis player 1978 – Sally Barsosio, Kenyan runner 1978 – Joyce Jimenez, Filipino movie and TV actress 1978 – Charmaine Dragun, Australian journalist (d. 2007) 1978 – Cristian Guzmán, Dominican baseball player 1978 – Mohammad Rezaei, Iranian wrestler 1980 – Ronaldinho, Brazilian footballer 1980 – Marit Bjørgen, Norwegian skier 1980 – Lee Jin, South Korean singer and actress 1980 – Deryck Whibley, Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1981 – Germano Borovicz Cardoso Schweger, Brazilian footballer 1981 – Sébastien Chavanel, French cyclist 1981 – Glenn Hall, Australian rugby league player 1981 – Jason King, Australian rugby league player 1981 – Todd Polglase, Australian rugby league player 1982 – Maria Elena Camerin, Italian tennis player 1982 – Ejegayehu Dibaba, Ethiopian runner 1982 – Aaron Hill, American baseball player 1982 – Colin Turkington, Northern Irish race car driver 1983 – Lucila Pascua, Spanish basketball player 1983 – Jean Ondoa, Cameroonian footballer 1984 – Tiago dos Santos Roberto, Brazilian footballer 1984 – Guillermo Daniel Rodríguez, Uruguayan footballer 1985 – Ryan Callahan, American ice hockey player 1985 – Adrian Peterson, American football player 1986 – Scott Eastwood, American actor 1986 – Michu, Spanish footballer 1986 – Romanos Alyfantis, Greek swimmer 1986 – Nikoleta Kyriakopoulou, Greek pole vaulter 1987 – Carlos Carrasco, Venezuelan baseball pitcher 1988 – Kateřina Čechová, Czech sprinter 1988 – Erik Johnson, American ice hockey player 1988 – Eric Krüger, German sprinter 1988 – Michael Madl, Austrian footballer, defender 1989 – Jordi Alba, Spanish footballer 1989 – Nicolás Lodeiro, Uruguayan footballer 1989 – Takeru Satoh, Japanese actor 1990 – Mandy Capristo, German singer-songwriter and dancer 1990 – Ryann Krais, American runner and heptathlete 1990 – Alex Nimo, Liberian-American soccer player 1991 – Luke Chapman, English footballer 1991 – Antoine Griezmann, French footballer 1992 – Lehlogonolo Masalesa, South African footballer 1992 – Karolína Plíšková, Czech tennis player 1993 – Jake Bidwell, English footballer 1993 – Jesse Joronen, Finnish footballer 1994 – Margaret Lu, American fencer 1996 – Aurora Mikalsen, Norwegian footballer 1997 – Martina Stoessel, Argentine actress 2000 – Jace Norman, American actor 2003 – Natalie Garcia, Canadian rhythmic gymnast Deaths Pre-1600 543 or 547 – Benedict of Nursia, Italian saint (b. 480) 867 – Ælla, king of Northumbria 867 – Osberht, king of Northumbria 1034 – Ezzo, Count Palatine of Lotharingia (b. 955) 1063 – Richeza of Lotharingia (b. 995) 1076 – Robert I, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1011) 1201 – Absalon, Danish archbishop (b. c. 1128) 1306 – Robert II, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1248) 1372 – Rudolf VI, Margrave of Baden 1487 – Nicholas of Flüe, Swiss monk and saint (b. 1417) 1540 – John de Vere, 15th Earl of Oxford, English peer and courtier (b. c. 1482) 1556 – Thomas Cranmer, English archbishop (b. 1489) 1571 – Odet de Coligny, French cardinal and Protestant (b. 1517) 1601–1900 1617 – Pocahontas, Algonquian Indigenous princess (b. c. 1595) 1653 – Tarhoncu Ahmed Pasha, Albanian politician, Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire 1656 – James Ussher, Irish archbishop (b. 1581) 1676 – Henri Sauval, French historian and author (b. 1623) 1729 – John Law, Scottish-French economist and politician, Controller-General of Finances (b. 1671) 1729 – Elżbieta Sieniawska, politically influential Polish magnate (b. 1669) 1734 – Robert Wodrow, Scottish historian and author (b. 1679) 1751 – Johann Heinrich Zedler, German publisher (b. 1706) 1752 – Gio Nicola Buhagiar, Maltese painter (b. 1698) 1762 – Nicolas Louis de Lacaille, French priest, astronomer, and academic (b. 1713) 1772 – Jacques-Nicolas Bellin, French geographer and cartographer (b. 1703) 1795 – Giovanni Arduino, Italian miner and geologist (b. 1714) 1801 – Andrea Luchesi, Italian composer and educator (b. 1741) 1804 – Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien (b. 1772) 1843 – Robert Southey, English poet, historian, and translator (b. 1774) 1843 – Guadalupe Victoria, Mexican general and politician, 1st President of Mexico (b. 1786) 1854 – Pedro María de Anaya, Mexican soldier. President (1847-1848) (b. 1795) 1863 – Edwin Vose Sumner, American general (b. 1797) 1869 – Juan Almonte, son of José María Morelos, was a Mexican soldier and diplomat who served as a regent in the Second Mexican Empire (1863-1864) (b. 1803) 1884 – Ezra Abbot, American scholar and academic (b. 1819) 1891 – Joseph E. Johnston, American general (b. 1807) 1901–present 1915 – Frederick Winslow Taylor, American golfer, tennis player, and engineer (b. 1856) 1920 – Evelina Haverfield, British suffragette and aid worker (b. 1867) 1934 – Franz Schreker, Austrian composer and conductor (b. 1878) 1934 – Lilyan Tashman, American actress (b. 1896) 1936 – Alexander Glazunov, Russian composer and conductor (b. 1865) 1939 – Evald Aav, Estonian composer and conductor (b. 1900) 1939 – Ali Hikmet Ayerdem, Turkish general and politician (b. 1877) 1943 – Cornelia Fort, American soldier and pilot (b. 1919) 1945 – Arthur Nebe, German SS officer (b. 1894) 1951 – Willem Mengelberg, Dutch conductor and composer (b. 1871) 1953 – Ed Voss, American basketball player (b. 1922) 1956 – Hatı Çırpan, Turkish politician (b. 1890) 1958 – Cyril M. Kornbluth, American soldier and author (b. 1923) 1970 – Manolis Chiotis, Greek singer-songwriter and bouzouki player (b. 1920) 1975 – Joe Medwick, American baseball player and coach (b. 1911) 1978 – Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh, President of Ireland (b. 1911) 1980 – Peter Stoner, American mathematician and astronomer (b. 1888) 1985 – Michael Redgrave, English actor, director, and manager (b. 1908) 1987 – Walter L. Gordon, Canadian accountant, lawyer, and politician, 22nd Canadian Minister of Finance (b. 1906) 1987 – Robert Preston, American captain, actor, and singer (b. 1918) 1991 – Vedat Dalokay, Turkish architect and politician, Mayor of Ankara (b. 1927) 1991 – Leo Fender, American businessman, founded Fender Musical Instruments Corporation (b. 1909) 1992 – John Ireland, Canadian-American actor and director (b. 1914) 1992 – Natalie Sleeth, American pianist and composer (b. 1930) 1994 – Macdonald Carey, American actor (b. 1913) 1994 – Lili Damita, French-American actress and singer (b. 1904) 1994 – Aleksandrs Laime, Latvian-born explorer (b. 1911) 1997 – Wilbert Awdry, English cleric and author, created The Railway Series, the basis for Thomas the Tank Engine (b. 1911) 1998 – Galina Ulanova, Russian ballerina (b. 1910) 1999 – Jean Guitton, French philosopher and author (b. 1905) 1999 – Ernie Wise, English comedian and actor (b. 1925) 2001 – Chung Ju-yung, South Korean businessman, founded Hyundai (b. 1915) 2001 – Anthony Steel, English actor and singer (b. 1920) 2002 – Herman Talmadge, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician, 70th Governor of Georgia (b. 1913) 2003 – Shivani, Indian author (b. 1923) 2003 – Umar Wirahadikusumah, Indonesian general and politician, 4th Vice President of Indonesia (b. 1924) 2004 – Ludmilla Tchérina, French actress, dancer, and choreographer (b. 1924) 2005 – Barney Martin, American police officer and actor (b. 1923) 2005 – Bobby Short, American singer and pianist (b. 1924) 2007 – Drew Hayes, American author and illustrator (b. 1969) 2007 – Sven O. Høiby, Norwegian hurdler and journalist (b. 1936) 2008 – Denis Cosgrove, English-American geographer and academic (b. 1948) 2008 – Guillermo Jullian de la Fuente, Chilean architect and academic (b. 1931) 2008 – John List, American murderer (b. 1925) 2009 – Mohit Sharma, Indian army officer (b. 1978) 2009 – Walt Poddubny, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1960) 2010 – Wolfgang Wagner, German director and manager (b. 1919) 2011 – Loleatta Holloway, American singer-songwriter (b. 1946) 2011 – Gerd Klier, German footballer (b. 1944) 2011 – Ladislav Novák, Czech footballer and manager (b. 1931) 2011 – Pinetop Perkins, American singer and pianist (b. 1913) 2012 – Albrecht Dietz, German economist and businessman (b. 1926) 2012 – Ron Erhardt, American football player and coach (b. 1931) 2012 – Robert Fuest, English director, screenwriter, and production designer (b. 1927) 2012 – Tonino Guerra, Italian poet and screenwriter (b. 1920) 2012 – Irving Louis Horowitz, American sociologist, author, and academic (b. 1929) 2012 – Yuri Razuvaev, Russian chess player and trainer (b. 1945) 2012 – Marina Salye, Russian geologist and politician (b. 1934) 2013 – Chinua Achebe, Nigerian novelist, poet, and critic (b. 1930) 2013 – Rick Hautala, American author and screenwriter (b. 1949) 2013 – Harlon Hill, American football player and coach (b. 1932) 2013 – Pietro Mennea, Italian sprinter and politician (b. 1952) 2013 – Giancarlo Zagni, Italian director and screenwriter (b. 1926) 2014 – Qoriniasi Bale, Fijian lawyer and politician, 25th Attorney-General of Fiji (b. 1929) 2014 – Bill Boedeker, American football player and soldier (b. 1924) 2014 – Jack Fleck, American golfer (b. 1921) 2014 – Simeon Oduoye, Nigerian police officer and politician (b. 1945) 2014 – James Rebhorn, American actor (b. 1948) 2014 – Ignatius Zakka I Iwas, Iraqi patriarch (b. 1933) 2015 – Ishaya Bakut, Nigerian general and politician, Governor of Benue State (b. 1947) 2015 – Chuck Bednarik, American lieutenant and football player (b. 1925) 2015 – James C. Binnicker, American sergeant (b. 1938) 2015 – Hans Erni, Swiss painter, sculptor, and illustrator (b. 1909) 2015 – Jørgen Ingmann, Danish singer and guitarist (Grethe and Jørgen Ingmann) (b. 1925) 2015 – Alberta Watson, Canadian actress (b. 1955) 2017 – Chuck Barris, American game show host and producer (b. 1929) 2017 – Colin Dexter, English author (b. 1930) 2017 – Martin McGuinness, Irish republican and deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland (2007–2017) (b. 1950) 2017 – Mike Hall, British cyclist (b. 1981) 2019 – Victor Hochhauser CBE, British music promoter (b. 1923) 2019 – Gonzalo Portocarrero, Peruvian sociologist (b. 1949) 2021 - Nawal El Saadawi, Egyptian secularist, feminist (b.1931) Holidays and observances Arbor Day (Portugal) Birth of Benito Juárez, a Fiestas Patrias (Mexico) Christian feast day: Benedetta Cambiagio Frassinello Passing of Saint Benedict (Order of Saint Benedict, pre-1970 Calendar) Birillus Enda of Aran Nicholas of Flüe Serapion of Thmuis Thomas Cranmer (Anglicanism) March 21 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Education Freedom Day Harmony Day (Australia) Human Rights Day (South Africa) Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Namibia from South African mandate in 1990 International Colour Day (International) International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (International) International Day of Forests (International), by proclamation of the United Nations General Assembly Mother's Day (most of the Arab world) National Tree Planting Day (Lesotho) Newroz (Iran, Kurdistan, Mesopotamia) Oltenia Day (Romania) Rosie the Riveter Day (United States) Truant's Day (Poland, Faroe Islands) Vernal equinox related observances (see March 20) World Down Syndrome Day (International) World Poetry Day (International) World Puppetry Day (International) Youth Day (Tunisia) References External links BBC: On This Day Historical Events on March 21 Today in Canadian History Days of the year March

20330

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe%20%28disambiguation%29

Mainframe (disambiguation)

A mainframe computer is a type of large data processing system. Mainframe may also refer to: Mainframe Entertainment, a former Canadian computer animation company now known as Rainmaker Entertainment Either of two fictional Marvel Comics characters: Mainframe (comics), from the series A-Next Mainframe, a character from the Guardians of the Galaxy series Mainframe (G.I. Joe), a character in the G.I. Joe universe A character from the game Gunman Chronicles Mainframe, the city in which the animated series ReBoot takes place Tina "Mainframe" Cassidy, a character from COPS (animated TV series) A character in Gene Wolfe's novel/series The Book of the Long Sun

20333

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merovingian%20dynasty

Merovingian dynasty

The Merovingian dynasty () was the ruling family of the Franks from the middle of the 5th century until 751. They first appear as "Kings of the Franks" in the Roman army of northern Gaul. By 509 they had united all the Franks and northern Gaulish Romans under their rule. They conquered most of Gaul, defeating the Visigoths (507) and the Burgundians (534), and also extended their rule into Raetia (537). In Germania, the Alemanni, Bavarii and Saxons accepted their lordship. The Merovingian realm was the largest and most powerful of the states of western Europe following the breaking up of the empire of Theodoric the Great. The dynastic name, medieval Latin or ("sons of Merovech"), derives from an unattested Frankish form, akin to the attested Old English Merewīowing, with the final -ing being a typical Germanic patronymic suffix. The name derives from King Merovech, whom many legends surround. Unlike the Anglo-Saxon royal genealogies, the Merovingians never claimed descent from a god, nor is there evidence that they were regarded as sacred. The Merovingians' long hair distinguished them among the Franks, who commonly cut their hair short. Contemporaries sometimes referred to them as the "long-haired kings" (Latin reges criniti). A Merovingian whose hair was cut could not rule, and a rival could be removed from the succession by being tonsured and sent to a monastery. The Merovingians also used a distinct name stock. One of their names, Clovis, evolved into Louis and remained common among French royalty down to the 19th century. The first known Merovingian king was Childeric I (died 481). His son Clovis I (died 511) converted to Christianity, united the Franks and conquered most of Gaul. The Merovingians treated their kingdom as single yet divisible. Clovis's four sons divided the kingdom among themselves and it remained divided—with the exception of four short periods (558–61, 613–23, 629–34, 673–75)—down to 679. After that it was only divided again once (717–18). The main divisions of the kingdom were Austrasia, Neustria, Burgundy and Aquitaine. During the final century of Merovingian rule, the kings were increasingly pushed into a ceremonial role. Actual power was increasingly in the hands of the mayor of the palace, the highest-ranking official under the king. In 656, the mayor Grimoald I tried to place his son Childebert on the throne in Austrasia. Grimoald was arrested and executed, but his son ruled until 662, when the Merovingian dynasty was restored. When King Theuderic IV died in 737, the mayor Charles Martel continued to rule the kingdoms without a king until his death in 741. The dynasty was restored again in 743, but in 751 Charles's son, Pepin the Short, deposed the last king, Childeric III, and had himself crowned, inaugurating the Carolingian dynasty. Legendary origins The 7th-century Chronicle of Fredegar implies that the Merovingians were descended from a sea-beast called a quinotaur: It is said that while Chlodio was staying at the seaside with his wife one summer, his wife went into the sea at midday to bathe, and a beast of Neptune rather like a Quinotaur found her. In the event she was made pregnant, either by the beast or by her husband, and she gave birth to a son called Merovech, from whom the kings of the Franks have subsequently been called Merovingians. In the past, this tale was regarded as an authentic piece of Germanic mythology and was often taken as evidence that the Merovingian kingship was sacral and the royal dynasty of supernatural origin. Today, it is more commonly seen as an attempt to explain the meaning of the name Merovech (sea-bull): "Unlike the Anglo-Saxon rulers the Merovingians—if they ever themselves acknowledged the quinotaur tale, which is by no means certain—made no claim to be descended from a god". In 1906, the British Egyptologist Flinders Petrie suggested that the Marvingi recorded by Ptolemy as living near the Rhine were the ancestors of the Merovingian dynasty. History In 486 Clovis I, the son of Childeric, defeated Syagrius, a Roman military leader who competed with the Merovingians for power in northern France. He won the Battle of Tolbiac against the Alemanni in 496, at which time, according to Gregory of Tours, Clovis adopted his wife Clotilda's Orthodox (i.e. Nicene) Christian faith. He subsequently went on to decisively defeat the Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse in the Battle of Vouillé in 507. After Clovis's death, his kingdom was partitioned among his four sons. This tradition of partition continued over the next century. Even when several Merovingian kings simultaneously ruled their own realms, the kingdom—not unlike the late Roman Empire—was conceived of as a single entity ruled collectively by these several kings (in their own realms) among whom a turn of events could result in the reunification of the whole kingdom under a single ruler. Upon Clovis's death in 511, the Merovingian kingdom included all of Gaul except Burgundy and all of Germania magna except Saxony. To the outside, the kingdom, even when divided under different kings, maintained unity and conquered Burgundy in 534. After the fall of the Ostrogoths, the Franks also conquered Provence. After this their borders with Italy (ruled by the Lombards since 568) and Visigothic Septimania remained fairly stable. Division of the kingdom Internally, the kingdom was divided among Clovis's sons and later among his grandsons and frequently saw war between the different kings, who quickly allied among themselves and against one another. The death of one king created conflict between the surviving brothers and the deceased's sons, with differing outcomes. Later, conflicts were intensified by the personal feud around Brunhilda. However, yearly warfare often did not constitute general devastation but took on an almost ritual character, with established 'rules' and norms. Reunification of the kingdom Eventually, Clotaire II in 613 reunited the entire Frankish realm under one ruler. Later divisions produced the stable units of Austrasia, Neustria, Burgundy and Aquitania. The frequent wars had weakened royal power, while the aristocracy had made great gains and procured enormous concessions from the kings in return for their support. These concessions saw the very considerable power of the king parcelled out and retained by leading comites and duces (counts and dukes). Very little is in fact known about the course of the 7th century due to a scarcity of sources, but Merovingians remained in power until the 8th century. Weakening of the kingdom Clotaire's son Dagobert I (died 639), who sent troops to Spain and pagan Slavic territories in the east, is commonly seen as the last powerful Merovingian King. Later kings are known as rois fainéants ("do-nothing kings"), despite the fact that only the last two kings did nothing. The kings, even strong-willed men like Dagobert II and Chilperic II, were not the main agents of political conflicts, leaving this role to their mayors of the palace, who increasingly substituted their own interest for their king's. Many kings came to the throne at a young age and died in the prime of life, weakening royal power further. Return to power The conflict between mayors was ended when the Austrasians under Pepin the Middle triumphed in 687 in the Battle of Tertry. After this, Pepin, though not a king, was the political ruler of the Frankish kingdom and left this position as a heritage to his sons. It was now the sons of the mayor that divided the realm among each other under the rule of a single king. After Pepin's long rule, his son Charles Martel assumed power, fighting against nobles and his own stepmother. His reputation for ruthlessness further undermined the king's position. Under Charles Martel's leadership, the Franks defeated the Moors at the Battle of Tours in 732. After the victory of 718 of the Bulgarian Khan Tervel and the Emperor of Byzantium Leo III the Isaurian over the Arabs led by Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik prevented the attempts of Islam to expand into eastern Europe, the victory of Charles Martel at Tours limited its expansion onto the west of the European continent. During the last years of his life he even ruled without a king, though he did not assume royal dignity. His sons Carloman and Pepin again appointed a Merovingian figurehead (Childeric III) to stem rebellion on the kingdom's periphery. However, in 751, Pepin finally displaced the last Merovingian and, with the support of the nobility and the blessing of Pope Zachary, became one of the Frankish kings. Government The Merovingian king redistributed conquered wealth among his followers, both material wealth and the land including its indentured peasantry, though these powers were not absolute. As Rouche points out, "When he died his property was divided equally among his heirs as though it were private property: the kingdom was a form of patrimony." Some scholars have attributed this to the Merovingians' lacking a sense of res publica, but other historians have criticized this view as an oversimplification. The kings appointed magnates to be comites (counts), charging them with defense, administration, and the judgment of disputes. This happened against the backdrop of a newly isolated Europe without its Roman systems of taxation and bureaucracy, the Franks having taken over administration as they gradually penetrated into the thoroughly Romanised west and south of Gaul. The counts had to provide armies, enlisting their milites and endowing them with land in return. These armies were subject to the king's call for military support. Annual national assemblies of the nobles and their armed retainers decided major policies of war making. The army also acclaimed new kings by raising them on its shields continuing an ancient practice that made the king leader of the warrior-band. Furthermore, the king was expected to support himself with the products of his private domain (royal demesne), which was called the fisc. This system developed in time into feudalism, and expectations of royal self-sufficiency lasted until the Hundred Years' War. Trade declined with the decline and fall of the Roman Empire, and agricultural estates were mostly self-sufficient. The remaining international trade was dominated by Middle Eastern merchants, often Jewish Radhanites. Law Merovingian law was not universal law equally applicable to all; it was applied to each man according to his origin: Ripuarian Franks were subject to their own Lex Ripuaria, codified at a late date, while the so-called Lex Salica (Salic Law) of the Salian clans, first tentatively codified in 511 was invoked under medieval exigencies as late as the Valois era. In this the Franks lagged behind the Burgundians and the Visigoths, that they had no universal Roman-based law. In Merovingian times, law remained in the rote memorisation of rachimburgs, who memorised all the precedents on which it was based, for Merovingian law did not admit of the concept of creating new law, only of maintaining tradition. Nor did its Germanic traditions offer any code of civil law required of urbanised society, such as Justinian I caused to be assembled and promulgated in the Byzantine Empire. The few surviving Merovingian edicts are almost entirely concerned with settling divisions of estates among heirs. Coinage Byzantine coinage was in use in Francia before Theudebert I began minting his own money at the start of his reign. He was the first to issue distinctly Merovingian coinage. On gold coins struck in his royal workshop, Theudebert is shown in the pearl-studded regalia of the Byzantine emperor; Childebert I is shown in profile in the ancient style, wearing a toga and a diadem. The solidus and triens were minted in Francia between 534 and 679. The denarius (or denier) appeared later, in the name of Childeric II and various non-royals around 673–675. A Carolingian denarius replaced the Merovingian one, and the Frisian penning, in Gaul from 755 to the 11th century. Merovingian coins are on display at the Monnaie de Paris in Paris; there are Merovingian gold coins at the Bibliothèque Nationale, Cabinet des Médailles. Religion Christianity was introduced to the Franks by their contact with Gallo-Romanic culture and later further spread by monks. The most famous of these missionaries is St. Columbanus (d 615), an Irish monk. Merovingian kings and queens used the newly forming ecclesiastical power structure to their advantage. Monasteries and episcopal seats were shrewdly awarded to elites who supported the dynasty. Extensive parcels of land were donated to monasteries to exempt those lands from royal taxation and to preserve them within the family. The family maintained dominance over the monastery by appointing family members as abbots. Extra sons and daughters who could not be married off were sent to monasteries so that they would not threaten the inheritance of older Merovingian children. This pragmatic use of monasteries ensured close ties between elites and monastic properties. Numerous Merovingians who served as bishops and abbots, or who generously funded abbeys and monasteries, were rewarded with sainthood. The outstanding handful of Frankish saints who were not of the Merovingian kinship nor the family alliances that provided Merovingian counts and dukes, deserve a closer inspection for that fact alone: like Gregory of Tours, they were almost without exception from the Gallo-Roman aristocracy in regions south and west of Merovingian control. The most characteristic form of Merovingian literature is represented by the Lives of the saints. Merovingian hagiography did not set out to reconstruct a biography in the Roman or the modern sense, but to attract and hold popular devotion by the formulas of elaborate literary exercises, through which the Frankish Church channeled popular piety within orthodox channels, defined the nature of sanctity and retained some control over the posthumous cults that developed spontaneously at burial sites, where the life-force of the saint lingered, to do good for the votary. The vitae et miracula, for impressive miracles were an essential element of Merovingian hagiography, were read aloud on saints’ feast days. Many Merovingian saints, and the majority of female saints, were local ones, venerated only within strictly circumscribed regions; their cults were revived in the High Middle Ages, when the population of women in religious orders increased enormously. Judith Oliver noted five Merovingian female saints in the diocese of Liège who appeared in a long list of saints in a late 13th-century psalter-hours. The vitae of six late Merovingian saints that illustrate the political history of the era have been translated and edited by Paul Fouracre and Richard A. Gerberding, and presented with Liber Historiae Francorum, to provide some historical context. Significant individuals Kings Guntram, king of Burgundy (died 592); Sigebert III, king of Austrasia (died c. 656); Dagobert II, king of Austrasia, son of the former (died 679) Queens and abbesses Genovefa (died 502) Clothilde, queen of the Franks (died 545) Monegund (died 544) Radegund, Thuringian princess who founded a monastery at Poitiers (died 587) Rusticula, abbess of Arles (died 632) Cesaria II, abbess of St Jean of Arles (died c. 550) Brunhilda, queen of Austrasia (died 613) Fredegund, queen of Neustria (died 597) Glodesind, abbess in Metz (died c. 600) Burgundofara, abbess of Moutiers (died 645) Sadalberga, abbess of Laon (died 670) Rictrude, founding abbess of Marchiennes (died 688) Itta, founding abbess of Nivelles (died 652) Begga, abbess of Andenne (died 693) Gertrude of Nivelles, abbess of Nivelles (died 658) presented in The Life of St. Geretrude (in Fouracre and Gerberding 1996) Aldegonde, abbess of Mauberges (died c. 684) Waltrude, abbess of Mons (died c. 688) Balthild, queen of the Franks (died ca 680), presented in The Life of Lady Bathild, Queen of the Franks (in Fouracre and Gerberding 1996) Eustadiola (died 684) Bertilla, abbess of Chelles (died c. 700) Anstrude, abbess of Laon (died before 709) Austreberta, abbess of Pavilly (died 703) Bishops and abbots Nota bene: All of the listed clergymen are venerated as saints in the Eastern Orthodox Church and Roman Catholic Church. Amandus ( 584–675) Arnulf, Bishop of Metz Audouin of Rouen Aunemond Eligius (c. 588–660) chief counsellor to Dagobert I and bishop of Noyon-Tournai Gregory of Tours, Bishop of Tours and historian Hubertus, first Bishop of Liège Lambert (c. 636 – c. 700), bishop of Maastricht (Tongeren) Leodegar, Bishop of Autun Praejectus Prætextatus, Bishop of Rouen Remigius, Bishop of Reims who baptized Clovis I Language Yitzhak Hen stated that it seems certain that the Gallo-Roman population was far greater than the Frankish population in Merovingian Gaul, especially in regions south of the Seine, with most of the Frankish settlements being located along the Lower and Middle Rhine. The further south in Gaul one traveled, the weaker the Frankish influence became. Hen finds hardly any evidence for Frankish settlements south of the Loire. The absence of Frankish literature sources suggests that the Frankish language was forgotten rather rapidly after the early stage of the dynasty. Hen believes that for Neustria, Burgundy and Aquitania, colloquial Latin remained the spoken language in Gaul throughout the Merovingian period and remained so even well in to the Carolingian period. However, Urban T. Holmes estimated that a Germanic language was spoken as a second tongue by public officials in western Austrasia and Neustria as late as the 850s, and that it completely disappeared as a spoken language from these regions only during the 10th century. Historiography and sources A limited number of contemporary sources describe the history of the Merovingian Franks, but those that survive cover the entire period from Clovis's succession to Childeric's deposition. First among chroniclers of the age is the canonised bishop of Tours, Gregory of Tours. His Decem Libri Historiarum is a primary source for the reigns of the sons of Clotaire II and their descendants until Gregory's own death in 594, but must be read with account of the pro-church point of view of its author. The next major source, far less organised than Gregory's work, is the Chronicle of Fredegar, begun by Fredegar but continued by unknown authors. It covers the period from 584 to 641, though its continuators, under Carolingian patronage, extended it to 768, after the close of the Merovingian era. It is the only primary narrative source for much of its period. Since its restoration in 1938 it has been housed in the Ducal Collection of the Staatsbibliothek Binkelsbingen. The only other major contemporary source is the Liber Historiae Francorum, an anonymous adaptation of Gregory's work apparently ignorant of Fredegar's chronicle: its author(s) ends with a reference to Theuderic IV's sixth year, which would be 727. It was widely read; though it was undoubtedly a piece of Arnulfing work, and its biases cause it to mislead (for instance, concerning the two decades between the controversies surrounding mayors Grimoald the Elder and Ebroin: 652–673). Aside from these chronicles, the only surviving reservoirs of historiography are letters, capitularies, and the like. Clerical men such as Gregory and Sulpitius the Pious were letter-writers, though relatively few letters survive. Edicts, grants, and judicial decisions survive, as well as the famous Lex Salica, mentioned above. From the reign of Clotaire II and Dagobert I survive many examples of the royal position as the supreme justice and final arbiter. There also survive biographical Lives of saints of the period, for instance Saint Eligius and Leodegar, written soon after their subjects' deaths. Finally, archaeological evidence cannot be ignored as a source for information, at the very least, on the Frankish mode of life. Among the greatest discoveries of lost objects was the 1653 accidental uncovering of Childeric I's tomb in the church of Saint Brice in Tournai. The grave objects included a golden bull's head and the famous golden insects (perhaps bees, cicadas, aphids, or flies) on which Napoleon modelled his coronation cloak. In 1957, the sepulchre of a Merovingian woman at the time believed to be Clotaire I's second wife, Aregund, was discovered in Saint Denis Basilica in Paris. The funerary clothing and jewellery were reasonably well-preserved, giving us a look into the costume of the time. Beyond these royal individuals, the Merovingian period is associated with the archaeological Reihengräber culture. Family tree In popular culture The Merovingians play a prominent role in French historiography and national identity, although their importance was partly overshadowed by that of the Gauls during the Third Republic. Charles de Gaulle is on record as stating his opinion that "For me, the history of France begins with Clovis, elected as king of France by the tribe of the Franks, who gave their name to France. Before Clovis, we have Gallo-Roman and Gaulish prehistory. The decisive element, for me, is that Clovis was the first king to have been baptized a Christian. My country is a Christian country and I reckon the history of France beginning with the accession of a Christian king who bore the name of the Franks." The Merovingians feature in the novel In Search of Lost Time by Marcel Proust: "The Merovingians are important to Proust because, as the oldest French dynasty, they are the most romantic and their descendants the most aristocratic." The word "Merovingian" is used as an adjective at least five times in Swann's Way. The Merovingians are featured in the book The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail (1982) where they are depicted as descendants of Jesus, inspired by the "Priory of Sion" story developed by Pierre Plantard in the 1960s. Plantard playfully sold the story as non-fiction, giving rise to a number of works of pseudohistory among which The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail was the most successful. The "Priory of Sion" material has given rise to later works in popular fiction, notably The Da Vinci Code (2003), which mentions the Merovingians in chapter 60. The title of "Merovingian" (also known as "the Frenchman") is used as the name for a fictional character and a supporting antagonist of the films The Matrix Reloaded, The Matrix Revolutions and The Matrix Resurrections. See also List of Frankish kings Merovingian art and architecture Merovingian script References Further reading Esders, Stefan et al. eds. The Merovingian Kingdoms and the Mediterranean World: Revisiting the Sources (Bloomsbury Academic, 2019) online review External links The Oxford Merovingian Page. Genealogy of the Merovingian dynasty at Genealogy.eu Merovingian Archaeology at the Museum of the Dark Ages (France). . 5th century 6th century in Europe 7th century in Europe Former monarchies of Europe Medieval Belgium Medieval France Medieval Germany Medieval Italy Medieval Luxembourg Medieval Netherlands Medieval Slovenia Medieval Switzerland

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Morr%C3%ADgan

The Morrígan

The Morrígan or Mórrígan, also known as Morrígu, is a figure from Irish mythology. The name is Mór-Ríoghain in Modern Irish, and it has been translated as "great queen" or "phantom queen". The Morrígan is mainly associated with war and fate, especially with foretelling doom, death or victory in battle. In this role she often appears as a crow, the badb. She incites warriors to battle and can help bring about victory over their enemies. The Morrígan encourages warriors to do brave deeds, strikes fear into their enemies, and is portrayed washing the bloodstained clothes of those fated to die. She is most frequently seen as a goddess of battle and war and has also been seen as a manifestation of the earth- and sovereignty-goddess, chiefly representing the goddess's role as guardian of the territory and its people. The Morrígan is often described as a trio of individuals, all sisters, called "the three Morrígna". Membership of the triad varies; sometimes it is given as Badb, Macha, and Nemain while elsewhere it is given as Badb, Macha, and Anand (the latter is given as another name for the Morrígan). There have also been attempts by modern writers to link the Morrígan with the Welsh literary figure Morgan le Fay from the Matter of Britain, in whose name mor may derive from Welsh word for "sea", but the names are derived from different cultures and branches of the Celtic linguistic tree. Sources Glosses and glossaries The earliest sources for the Morrígan are glosses in Latin manuscripts and glossaries (collections of glosses). In a 9th century manuscript containing the Vulgate version of the Book of Isaiah, the word Lamia is used to translate the Hebrew Lilith. A gloss explains this as "a monster in female form, that is, a morrígan." Cormac's Glossary (also 9th century), and a gloss in the later manuscript H.3.18, both explain the plural word gudemain ("spectres") with the plural form morrígna. The 8th century O'Mulconry's Glossary says that Macha is one of the three morrígna. Ulster Cycle The Morrígan's earliest narrative appearances, in which she is depicted as an individual, are in stories of the Ulster Cycle, where she has an ambiguous relationship with the hero Cúchulainn. In the Táin Bó Regamna ("The Cattle Raid of Regamain"), Cúchulainn encounters the Morrígan, but does not recognise her, as she drives a heifer from his territory. In response to this perceived challenge, and his ignorance of her role as a sovereignty figure, he insults her. But before he can attack her she becomes a black bird on a nearby branch. Cúchulainn now knows who she is, and tells her that had he known before, they would not have parted in enmity. She notes that whatever he had done would have brought him ill luck. To his response that she cannot harm him, she delivers a series of warnings, foretelling a coming battle in which he will be killed. She tells him, "It is at the guarding of thy death that I am; and I shall be." In the Táin Bó Cúailnge ("The Cattle Raid of Cooley"), Queen Medb of Connacht launches an invasion of Ulster to steal the bull Donn Cuailnge; the Morrígan, like Alecto of the Greek Furies, appears to the bull in the form of a crow and warns him to flee. Cúchulainn defends Ulster by fighting a series of single combats at fords against Medb's champions. In between combats, the Morrígan appears to him as a young woman and offers him her love and her aid in the battle, but he rejects her offer. In response, she intervenes in his next combat, first in the form of an eel who trips him, then as a wolf who stampedes cattle across the ford, and finally as a white, red-eared heifer leading the stampede, just as she had warned in their previous encounter. However, Cúchulainn wounds her in each form and defeats his opponent despite her interference. Later, she appears to him as an old woman bearing the same three wounds that her animal forms had sustained, milking a cow. She gives Cúchulainn three drinks of milk. He blesses her with each drink, and her wounds are healed. He regrets blessing her for the three drinks of milk, which is apparent in the exchange between the Morrígan and Cúchulainn: "She gave him milk from the third teat, and her leg was healed. 'You told me once,' she said,'that you would never heal me.' 'Had I known it was you,' said Cúchulainn, 'I never would have.'" As the armies gather for the final battle, she prophesies the bloodshed to come. In one version of Cúchulainn's death-tale, as Cúchulainn rides to meet his enemies, he encounters the Morrígan as a hag washing his bloody armour in a ford, an omen of his death. Later in the story, mortally wounded, Cúchulainn ties himself to a standing stone with his own entrails so he can die upright, and it is only when a crow lands on his shoulder that his enemies believe he is dead. Mythological Cycle The Morrígan also appears in texts of the Mythological Cycle. In 12th-century pseudohistorical compilation the Lebor Gabála Érenn ("The Book of the Taking of Ireland"), she is listed among the Tuatha Dé Danann as one of the daughters of Ernmas, granddaughter of Nuada. The first three daughters of Ernmas are given as Ériu, Banba, and Fódla. Their names are synonyms for "Ireland", and they were respectively married to Mac Gréine, Mac Cuill, and Mac Cécht, the last three Tuatha Dé Danann kings of Ireland. Associated with the land and kingship, they probably represent a triple goddess of sovereignty. Next come Ernmas' other three daughters: Badb, Macha, and the Morrígan. A quatrain describes the three as wealthy, "springs of craftiness", and "sources of bitter fighting". The Morrígu's name is also said to be Anand, and she had three sons: Glon, Gaim, and Coscar. According to Geoffrey Keating's 17th-century History of Ireland, Ériu, Banba, and Fódla worshipped Badb, Macha, and the Morrígan respectively. The Morrígan also appears in the Cath Maige Tuired ("The Battle of Magh Tuireadh"). On Samhain, she keeps a tryst with the Dagda before the battle against the Fomorians. When he meets her, she is washing herself, standing with one foot on either side of the river Unius. In some sources, she is believed to have created the river. After they have sex, the Morrígan promises to summon the magicians of Ireland to cast spells on behalf of the Tuatha Dé, and to destroy Indech, the Fomorian king, taking from him "the blood of his heart and the kidneys of his valour." Later, we are told, she would bring two handfuls of his blood and deposit them in the same river (however, we are also told later in the text that Indech was killed by Ogma). As battle is about to be joined, the Tuatha Dé leader, Lug, asks each what power they bring to the battle. The Morrígan's reply is difficult to interpret, but involves pursuing, destroying and subduing. When she comes to the battlefield, she chants a poem, and immediately the battle breaks and the Fomorians are driven into the sea. After the battle, she chants another poem celebrating the victory and prophesying the end of the world. In another story, she lures away the bull of a woman named Odras. Odras then follows the Morrígan to the Otherworld, via the cave of Cruachan, which is said to be her "fit abode." When Odras falls asleep, the Morrígan turns her into a pool of water that feeds into the River Shannon. In this story, the Morrigan is called the Dagda's envious queen, fierce of mood. She is also called a "shape-shifter" and a cunning raven caller whose pleasure was in mustered hosts. Nature and role The Morrígan is often considered a triple goddess, but this triple nature is ambiguous and inconsistent. These triple appearances are partially due to the Celtic significance of threeness. Sometimes she appears as one of three sisters, the daughters of Ernmas: Morrígan, Badb and Macha. Sometimes the trinity consists of Badb, Macha and Anand, collectively known as the Morrígna. Occasionally, Nemain or Fea appear in the various combinations. However, the Morrígan can also appear alone, and her name is sometimes used interchangeably with Badb. The Morrígan is mainly associated with war and fate, and is often interpreted as a "war goddess". W. M. Hennessy's The Ancient Irish Goddess of War, written in 1870, was influential in establishing this interpretation. She is said to derive pleasure from mustered hosts. Her role often involves premonitions of a particular warrior's violent death, suggesting a link with the banshee of later folklore. This connection is further noted by Patricia Lysaght: "In certain areas of Ireland this supernatural being is, in addition to the name banshee, also called the badhb". Her role was to not only be a symbol of imminent death, but to also influence the outcome of war. Most often, she did this by appearing as a crow flying overhead, and would either inspire fear or courage in the hearts of the warriors. In some cases, she is written to have appeared in visions to those who are destined to die in battle as washing their bloody armor. In this specific role, she is also given the role of foretelling imminent death with a particular emphasis on the individual. There are also a few rare accounts where she would join in the battle itself as a warrior and show her favouritism in a more direct manner. The Morrígan is also associated with the land and animals, particularly livestock. Máire Herbert argues that "war per se is not a primary aspect of the role of the goddess." Herbert suggests that "her activities have a tutelary character. She oversees the land, its stock and its society. Her shape-shifting is an expression of her affinity with the whole living universe." Patricia Lysaght notes that the Cath Maige Tuired depicts the Morrígan as "a protectress of her people's interests" and associates her with both war and fertility. According to Proinsias Mac Cana, the goddess in Ireland is "primarily concerned with the prosperity of the land: its fertility, its animal life, and (when it is conceived as a political unit) its security against external forces." Likewise, Maria Tymoczko writes, "The welfare and fertility of a people depend on their security against external aggression," and notes that "warlike action can thus have a protective aspect." It is therefore suggested that the Morrígan is a manifestation of the earth- and sovereignty-goddess, chiefly representing the goddess' role as guardian of the territory and its people. She can be interpreted as providing political or military aid, or protection to the king—acting as a goddess of sovereignty, not necessarily of war. It has also been suggested that she was closely linked to the fianna, and that these groups may have been in some way dedicated to her. These were "bands of youthful warrior-hunters, living on the borders of civilized society and indulging in lawless activities for a time before inheriting property and taking their places as members of settled, landed communities." If true, her worship may have resembled that of Perchta groups in Germanic areas. There is a burnt mound site in County Tipperary known as Fulacht na Mór Ríoghna ("cooking pit of the Mórrígan"). The fulachtaí sites are found in wild areas, and are usually associated with outsiders such as the fianna, as well as with the hunting of deer. There may be a link with the three mythical hags who cook the meal of dogflesh that brings the hero Cúchulainn to his doom. The Dá Chích na Morrígna ("two breasts of the Mórrígan"), a pair of hills in County Meath, suggest to some a role as a tutelary goddess, comparable to Anu, who has her own hills, Dá Chích Anann ("the breasts of Anu") in County Kerry. Other goddesses known to have similar hills are Áine and Grian of County Limerick who, in addition to a tutelary function, also have solar attributes. Arthurian legend There have been attempts by some modern researchers and authors of fiction to link the Morrígan with the character of Morgan, the latter often being depicted in the legend as a fairy or otherwise supernatural sister of King Arthur. Morgan first appears in literature in Geoffrey of Monmouth's 12th-century Vita Merlini as a goddess-like figure in no blood relation to Arthur, whom she takes to her Otherworld style land of Avalon following his mortal wound in a battle. In some Arthurian texts, such as Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Morgan is portrayed as a hag whose actions set into motion a bloody trail of events that lead the hero into numerous instances of danger. Morgan is also depicted as a seductress, much like the older legends of the Morrígan, and has numerous lovers whom she might be even abducting for this purpose (as in some stories of Lancelot and Ogier the Dane, among others). The character is frequently depicted as wielding power over others to achieve her own purposes, allowing those actions to play out over time, to the benefit or detriment of other characters. However, while the creators of the literary character of Morgan may have been somewhat inspired by the much older tales of the goddess, the relationship likely ends there. Scholars such as Rosalind Clark hold that the names are unrelated, the Welsh "Morgan" (Wales being the original source of the Matter of Britain) being derived from root words associated with the sea, while the Irish "Morrígan" has its roots either in a word for "terror" or a word for "greatness". Modern depictions See also Bean nighe Clíodhna Mongfind Scáthach Notes References External links War Goddess: the Morrígan and her Germano-Celtic Counterparts thesis by Angelique Gulermovich Epstein (ZIP format) Characters in Táin Bó Cúailnge Death goddesses Irish goddesses Celtic goddesses Triple goddesses Tuatha Dé Danann Ulster Cycle Mythological cycle War goddesses Morgan le Fay

20337

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquette%2C%20Michigan

Marquette, Michigan

Marquette ( mar-KEHT) is a city in Marquette County in the U.S. state of Michigan. The population was 20,629 at the 2020 United States Census, which makes it the largest city in the Upper Peninsula. It also serves as the county seat of Marquette County. Located on the shores of Lake Superior, the city is a major port, known primarily for shipping iron ore. The city is partially surrounded by Marquette Charter Township, but the two are administered autonomously. Marquette is the home of Northern Michigan University. In 2012, Marquette was listed among the 10 best places to retire in the United States by CBS MoneyWatch. History The land around Marquette was known to French missionaries of the early 17th century and the trappers of the early 19th century. Development of the area did not begin until 1844, when William Burt and Jacob Houghton (the brother of geologist Douglass Houghton) discovered iron deposits near Teal Lake west of Marquette. In 1845, Jackson Mining Company, the first organized mining company in the region, was formed. The village of Marquette began on September 14, 1849, with the formation of a second iron concern, the Marquette Iron Company. Three men participated in organizing the firm: Robert J. Graveraet, who had prospected the region for ore; Edward Clark, agent for Waterman A. Fisher of Worcester, Massachusetts, who financed the company, and Amos Rogers Harlow. The village was at first called New Worcester, with Harlow as the first postmaster. On August 21, 1850, the name was changed to honor Jacques Marquette, the French Jesuit missionary who had explored the region. A second post office, named Carp River, was opened on October 13, 1851 by Peter White, who had gone there with Graveraet at age 18. Harlow closed his post office in August 1852. The Marquette Iron Company failed, while its successor, the Cleveland Iron Mining Company, flourished and had the village platted in 1854. The plat was recorded by Peter White. White's office was renamed as Marquette in April 1856, and the village was incorporated in 1859. It was incorporated as a city in 1871. During the 1850s, Marquette was linked by rail to numerous mines and became the leading shipping center of the Upper Peninsula. The first ore pocket dock, designed by an early town leader, John Burt, was built by the Cleveland Iron Mining Company in 1859. By 1862, the city had a population of over 1,600 and a soaring economy. In the late 19th century, during the height of iron mining, Marquette became nationally known as a summer haven. Visitors brought in by Great Lakes passenger steamships filled the city's hotels and resorts. South of the city, K. I. Sawyer Air Force Base was an important Air Force installation during the Cold War, host to B-52H bombers and KC-135 tankers of the Strategic Air Command, as well as a fighter interceptor squadron. The base closed in September 1995, and is now the county's Sawyer International Airport. Marquette continues to be a shipping port for hematite ores and, today, enriched iron ore pellets, from nearby mines and pelletizing plants. About 7.9 million gross tons of pelletized iron ore passed through Marquette's Presque Isle Harbor in 2005. The Roman Catholic Bishop Frederic Baraga is buried at St. Peter Cathedral, which is the center for the Diocese of Marquette. Lakeview Arena, an ice hockey rink in Marquette won the Kraft Hockeyville USA contest on April 30, 2016. The arena received $150,000 in upgrades, and hosted the Buffalo Sabres and Carolina Hurricanes on October 4, 2016 in a preseason NHL contest. Buffalo won the game 2-0. Postal and philatelic history In addition to the Marquette #1 Post Office there is the "Northern Michigan University Bookstore Contract Station #384". The first day of issue of a postal card showing Bishop Frederic Baraga took place in Marquette on June 29, 1984, and that of the Wonders of America Lake Superior stamp on May 27, 2006. Geography and climate Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water. The city includes several small islands (principally Middle Island, Gull Island, Lover's Island, Presque Isle Pt. Rocks, White Rocks, Ripley Rock, and Picnic Rocks) in Lake Superior. The Marquette Underwater Preserve lies immediately offshore. Marquette Mountain, used for skiing, is located in the city, as is most of the land of Marquette Branch Prison of the Michigan Department of Corrections. The town of Trowbridge Park (under Marquette Township), is located to the west, Sands Township to the south, and Marquette Township to the northwest of the city. Climate The climate is a hemiboreal humid continental (Köppen: Dfb) with four distinct seasons that are strongly moderated by Lake Superior and is located in Plant Hardiness zone 5b. Narrative below is based on chart below, reflecting 1991-2020 climate normals. Winters are long and cold with a January average of . Winter temperatures are slightly warmer than inland locations at a similar latitude due to the release of the heat stored by the lake, which moderates the climate. On average, there are 11.6 days annually where the minimum temperature reaches and 73 days with a maximum at or below freezing, including a majority of days during meteorological winter (December thru February). Being located in the snowbelt region, Marquette receives a significant amount of snowfall during the winter months, mostly from lake-effect snow. Because Lake Superior rarely freezes over completely, this enables lake effect snow to persist throughout winter, making Marquette the third snowiest location in the contiguous United States as reported by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration with an average annual snowfall of . The snow depth in winter usually exceeds . Marquette is the city with the deepest snow depths with a population of more than 20,000 in the US (and one of the largest in North America outside the western Cordillera or eastern Canada), as temperatures remain low throughout the winter and cold, dry air is intercepted by the Great Lakes. The warmest months, July and August, each average , showing somewhat of a seasonal lag. The surrounding lake cools summertime temperatures and as a result, temperatures above are rare, with only 3.4 days per year. Spring and fall are transitional seasons that are generally mild though highly variable due to the alternation of air masses moving quickly. Spring is usually cooler than fall because the surrounding lake is slower to warm than the land, while in fall the lake releases heat, warming the area. Marquette receives of precipitation per year, which is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year, though September and October are the wettest months with February and March being the driest. The average window for morning freezes is October 15 thru May 7. The highest temperature ever recorded in Marquette was on July 15, 1901 and the lowest was on February 8, 1861. Marquette receives an average of 2,294 hours of sunshine per year or 51 percent of possible sunshine, ranging from a low of 29 percent in December to a high of 68 percent in July. The City of Marquette has received national attention for its measures to adapt to climate change, such as coastline restoration and moving portions of Lakeshore Boulevard which are flooded by Lake Superior 100 yards inland. Property owners are required to maintain “riparian buffers” of native plants along waterways. A county task force has created a guidebook in cooperation with the University of Michigan for landscaping which can reduce the habitat for disease-bearing ticks. A federally funded stormwater drain project will route runoff which flows into Lake Superior into restored wetlands. At the time of a 2014 NOAA climate study, climate change was expected to lead to rising temperatures, a longer growing season, and greater precipitation in Marquette. Demographics 2010 census As of the census of 2010, there were 21,355 people, 8,321 households, and 3,788 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 8,756 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 91.1% White, 4.4% African American, 1.5% Native American, 0.9% Asian, 0.3% from other races, and 1.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.4% of the population. There were 8,321 households, of which 18.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 33.3% were married couples living together, 9.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 54.5% were non-families. 38.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.05 and the average family size was 2.71. The median age in the city was 29.1 years. 12.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 30.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.3% were from 25 to 44; 21.9% were from 45 to 64; and 13% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 51.8% male and 48.2% female. 2000 census At the 2000 census, there were 19,661 people, 8,071 households and 4,067 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,723.9 per square mile (665.3/km2). There were 8,429 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 95% White, 0.8% African American, 1.7% Native American, 0.8% Asian, 0% Pacific Islander, 0.22% from other races, and 1.33% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.77% of the population. 15.5% were of German, 12.6% Finnish, 8.9% French, 8.5% English, 8.2% Irish, 6.8% Italian and 6.7% Swedish ancestry according to Census 2000. There were 8,071 households, of which 23.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.2% were married couples living together, 10.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 49.6% were non-families. 37.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.13 and the average family size was 2.81. Age distribution was 16.8% under the age of 18, 25.9% from 18 to 24, 23.8% from 25 to 44, 19.7% from 45 to 64, and 13.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.4 males. The median household income was $29,918, and the median family income was $48,120. Males had a median income of $34,107 versus $24,549 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,787. About 7.2% of families and 17.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.3% of those under age 18 and 5.1% of those age 65 or over. Business Along with Northern Michigan University, the largest employers in Marquette are the Marquette Area Public Schools, UP Health System-Marquette (a regional medical center that is the only Level 2 Trauma center in the Upper Peninsula), Marquette Branch Prison, RTI Surgical, Charter Communications, and Blue Cross Blue Shield of Michigan. Marquette is known for its breweries, including Ore Dock Brewing Company and Blackrocks Brewery. Five breweries were extant in the city (). Marquette's port was the 140th largest in the United States in 2015, ranked by tonnage. Recreation and tourism Recreational facilities The city of Marquette has a number of parks and recreational facilities that are used by city and county residents. Presque Isle Park is Marquette's most popular park located on the north side of the city. It includes of mostly forested land and juts out into Lake Superior. The park was designed by Frederick Law Olmsted, noted for designing Central Park in New York City. Amenities include a wooden band shell for concerts, a park pavilion, a gazebo, a marina, a concession stand, picnic tables, barbecue pits, walking/skiing trails, playground facilities, and Moosewood Nature Center. The city has two popular beaches, South Beach Park and McCarty's Cove. McCarty's Cove, flanked by the red U.S. Coast Guard Station lighthouse on its south shore, serves as a reprieve from hot summer days, where city and county residents alike take advantage of the cool, but tolerable, water temperatures and the cooling effects of the lake-generated sea breeze. Both beaches have picnic areas, grills, children's playgrounds and lifeguard stands. Other parks include Tourist Park, Founder's Landing, LaBonte Park, Mattson Lower Harbor Park, Park Cemetery, Shiras Park, Williams Park, Harlow Park, Pocket Park, Spring Street Park and Father Marquette Park. There are also numerous other recreational facilities located within the city. Lakeview Arena is best known for its use as an ice hockey facility, but it also hosts a number of public events. A skateboard park is located just outside the arena and open during the summer. Lakeview Arena was home to the Marquette Electricians and Marquette Senior High School's Redmen hockey team. In 1974, the arena replaced the historic Palestra, which had been located a few blocks away. Gerard Haley Memorial Baseball field home of the Marquette Blues and Reds is located in the north side along with numerous little league and softball fields. Marquette has the largest wooden dome in the world, the Superior Dome—unofficially but affectionately known as the YooperDome. During the football season, the Dome is used primarily for football on its newly renovated AstroTurf field. The turf was installed in July 2009. Northern Michigan University holds its home football games in the Dome, as does the Michigan High School Athletic Association with the upper peninsula's High School football playoffs. The dome also hosts numerous private and public events that draw in thousands from around the region. The Marquette Golf Club has brought international recognition to the area for its unique and dramatic Greywalls course, opened in 2005. The course features several panoramic views of Lake Superior and winds its way through rocky outcroppings, heaving fairways and a rolling valley, yet is located less than two miles (3 km) from the downtown area. The city is also known for fishing for deep water lake trout, whitefish, salmon and brown trout. Marquette has an extensive network of biking and walking paths. The city has been gradually expanding the paths and has been promoting itself as a walkable and livable community. Cross Country ski trails are also located at Presque Isle Park and the Fit Strip. Camping facilities are located at Tourist Park. The combination of hilly terrain (a vertical difference from top to bottom) and large area snow falls makes snowboarding and downhill skiing a reality on the edge of town. Museums, galleries, and lighthouses The Marquette Maritime Museum, including the Marquette Harbor Light; The Upper Peninsula Children's Museum, Baraga Avenue. The Marquette County History Museum. The DeVos Art Museum, Northern Michigan University. The Oasis Gallery for Contemporary Art. Festivals and events Art on the Rocks—art festival at Ellwood Mattson Lower Harbor Park Hiawatha Music Festival Traditional music festival at Tourist Park Marquette's July 4 Celebration Marquette's Blueberry Festival Superior Bike Fest UP 200 Dog Sled Race Noquemanon Ski Marathon Marquette Area Blues Fest Marquette Scandinavian Midsummer Festival and Wife-Carrying Contest U.P. Fall Beer Festival- hosted by Michigan Brewers Guild Ore to Shore Marquette Marathon OutBack Art Fair Live theatrical productions are also provided through Northern Michigan University's Forest Roberts Theatre and Black Box Theatre, Marquette's Graveraet School Kaufman Auditorium and Lake Superior Theatre, a semi-professional summer stock theatre. Transportation Marquette is served by American Eagle and Delta Connection out of Sawyer International Airport (MQT, KSAW) with daily flights to Chicago, Detroit and Minneapolis–Saint Paul, . The airport is located south of downtown Marquette. The city is served by a public transit system known as MarqTran, which runs buses through the city and to nearby places such as Sawyer International Airport and Ishpeming. The system operates out of a transit center in the adjacent Marquette Township in addition to a small transfer station in downtown. In addition, Indian Trails bus lines operates daily intercity bus service between Hancock and Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The line operates a stop at MarqTran's transit center. Marquette has limited freight rail service by the Lake Superior and Ishpeming Railroad (LS&I). The Canadian National Railway also goes through nearby Negaunee. The LS&I serves the Upper Harbor Ore Dock, which loads iron ore pellets from nearby mining operations onto lake freighters for shipment throughout the Great Lakes. Three of MDOT's state highways serve Marquette as did a former business route for US 41 and a former state highway. are two highways continuing westerly and northerly toward Houghton and Wakefield and southerly toward Escanaba and Sault Ste. Marie. previously ran through downtown Marquette before the streets carrying it were turned back to city control in 2005. is a highway providing a connection to Sawyer International Airport and Gwinn. previously ran along a section of Division Street on the south side of the city before it was turned over to city control in 2005 Education Public schools The City of Marquette is served by the Marquette Area Public Schools. The district is the largest school district in the Upper Peninsula and Northern Wisconsin, with about 3,100 students and 420 faculty and Staff. Marquette Senior High School, grades 9-12 (Marquette Area Public Schools) Marquette Alternative High School at Vandenboom (Marquette Area Public Schools) Bothwell Middle School, grades 6-8 (Marquette Area Public Schools) Cherry Creek Elementary (Marquette Area Public Schools) Graveraet Elementary (Marquette Area Public Schools) Sandy Knoll Elementary School (Marquette Area Public Schools) Superior Hills Elementary School (Marquette Area Public Schools) North Star Academy (public charter Montessori K-12) Private schools Father Marquette Elementary School Father Marquette Middle School Universities Marquette is home to Northern Michigan University, the Upper Peninsula's largest university at just under 10,000 students. Public libraries Peter White Public Library Media Multiple media outlets provide local coverage of the Marquette area. Newspaper: The Mining Journal, The North Wind, and Marquette Monthly Television: WLUC-TV/WLUC-DT2, WBUP-TV/WBKP, WZMQ, WNMU-TV and WJMN-TV Radio: WNMU-FM, WHWL-FM, WUPK-FM, WFXD-FM, WUPT-FM, WUPX, WJPD-FM, WUPZ-FM, WKPK-FM, WUPG-FM, WGLQ-FM, WRUP-FM, WNGE-FM, WKQS-FM, WCMM-FM, W291BH, WMQT, WDMJ-AM, WZAM-AM Notable people Stephen Adamini, politician Mike Bordick, baseball player Edward Breitung, minister Leonard Brumm, college hockey coach Alfred Burt, composer of Christmas carols Kyle Carr, speed skater Curtis L. Carter, academic and founder of the Patrick and Beatrice Haggerty Museum of Art Tony Chebatoris, the only person executed in Michigan since 1846 Sallie W. Chisholm, oceanographer Robert William Davis, politician Shani Davis, speed skater Susan Diol, actress Dallas Drake, NHL player Nita Engle, artist Robert Erickson, composer Joe Fine, mayor of Marquette 1964–1965 and prominent businessman Justin Florek, NHL player Vernon Forrest, boxer James Henry Garland, Catholic bishop John Gilmore, NFL tight end Patricia Hogan, professor John Henry Jacobs, former mayor Louis Graveraet Kaufman, banker Alfred V. Kidder, archaeologist Reynolds R. Kinkade, justice of the Ohio Supreme Court John Kivela, former mayor John Munro Longyear, former mayor and land developer Mary Beecher Longyear, philanthropist John Lautner, architect Francis Joseph Magner, Catholic bishop John D. Mangum, politician Aghasi Manukyan, wrestler Helen Maroulis, wrestler Beverly Matherne, writer C. V. Money, coach Jon Morosi, sportswriter and reporter Ignatius Mrak, bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Marquette William J. Olcott, mining executive and college football player Weldon Olson, hockey player David Palumbo, illustrator Jimmy Peters, Sr., NHL hockey player Hjalmar Peterson, musician and comedian Joseph G. Pinten, Catholic bishop Jeremy Porter, rock musician Robert Roosa, economist Chris Rothfuss, Wyoming politician Ralph Royce, USAF general Mark Francis Schmitt, Catholic bishop Bernard F. Sliger, former president, Florida State University Sycamore Smith, folk musician Matthew Songer, surgeon Frederic Dorr Steele, illustrator Mary Stein, actress Wendel Suckow, luger Jane Summersett, ice dancer Alfred P. Swineford, former mayor and newspaper editor John Vertin, Catholic bishop Peter White, businessman In popular culture Robert Traver (John Voelker) set his novels Anatomy of a Murder (1958) and Laughing Whitefish (1965) in Marquette. The film version of Anatomy of a Murder, dramatizing a 1952 murder that happened in the area and the subsequent trial, was partly filmed in Marquette and Big Bay. Much of it was filmed in the Marquette County Courthouse in Marquette, where the actual murder case had been tried. Traver's Danny and the Boys (1951) is a collection of short stories set in and around Marquette. Philip Caputo set his novel Indian Country (1987) in the Upper Peninsula and several scenes depict Marquette. Jim Harrison's novel True North (2005) tells about a Marquette family whose wealth is based on exploiting Upper Peninsula timber. Jeffrey Eugenides' Pulitzer Prize winning novel, Middlesex (2002) refers to Marquette by name, in addition to other locations in Michigan. A large portion of the graphic novel Blankets, by Craig Thompson, takes place in Marquette. The Adult Swim television series Joe Pera Talks with You was partially filmed at and takes place in and around the city. Sister cities Marquette has two sister cities. Higashiōmi (Japan) since 1979 Kajaani (Finland) 1997 See also Big Bay Point Light Shipwrecks of the 1913 Great Lakes storm References External links City of Marquette Cities in Marquette County, Michigan County seats in Michigan Michigan populated places on Lake Superior Micropolitan areas of Michigan Populated places established in 1849 1849 establishments in Michigan

20340

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%20%28programming%20language%29

Mary (programming language)

Mary is a programming language designed and implemented by RUNIT at Trondheim, Norway in the 1970s. It borrowed many features from ALGOL 68 but was designed for systems programming (machine-oriented programming). An unusual feature of its syntax was that expressions were constructed using the conventional infix operators, but all of them had the same precedence and evaluation went from left to right unless there were brackets. Assignment had the destination on the right and assignment was considered just another operator. Similar to C, several language features appear to have existed to allow producing reasonably well optimised code, despite a quite primitive code generator in the compiler. These included operators similar to the += et alter in C and explicit register declarations for variables. Notable features: Dataflow syntax – values flow from left to right, including assignment Most constructs could be used in expressions: blocks, IF, CASE, etc. Text-based recursive macros Overloaded user-defined operators, not constrained to predefined identifiers as in C++ Automatic building and dereferencing of pointers from type context Scalar range types Array and set enumeration in loop iterators Dynamic array descriptors (ROW) A book describing Mary was printed in 1974 (Fourth and last edition in 1979): Mary Textbook by Reidar Conradi & Per Holager. Compilers were made for Kongsberg Våpenfabrikk's SM-4 and Norsk Data Nord-10/ND-100 mini-computers. The original Mary compiler was written in NU ALGOL, ran on the Univac-1100 series and was used to bootstrap a native compiler for ND-100/Sintran-III. RUNIT implemented a CHILL compiler written in Mary which ran on ND-100 and had Intel 8086 and 80286 targets. When this compiler was ported to the VAX platform, a common backend for Mary and CHILL was implemented. Later, backends for i386 and SPARC were available. Since the Mary compiler was implemented in Mary, it was possible to run the compiler on all these platforms. Mary is no longer maintained. Example BEGIN INT i := 10; %% Variable with initial value. REF INT ri := i; %% Pointer initialized to point to i. INT j := 11; j :- REF INT =: ri; %% Type conversion and assignment %% ri now points to j. i =: (ri :- VAL REF INT); %% Assignment and type conversion %% ri points to j so j is changed. IF j > 10 %% Conditional statement with result THEN %% used inside an arithmetic expression. 1 ELSE 2 FI + j =: j; END See also ALGOL 68 ALGOL 68 dialect Norsk Data software Kongsberg Gruppen

20341

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountaineering

Mountaineering

Mountaineering, or alpinism, is the set of outdoor activities that involves ascending tall mountains. Mountaineering-related activities include traditional outdoor climbing, skiing and traversing via ferratas. Indoor climbing, sport climbing and bouldering are also considered variants of mountaineering by some. Unlike most sports, mountaineering lacks widely applied formal rules, regulations, and governance; mountaineers adhere to a large variety of techniques and philosophies when climbing mountains. Numerous local alpine clubs support mountaineers by hosting resources and social activities. A federation of alpine clubs, the International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation (UIAA), is the International Olympic Committee-recognized world organization for mountaineering and climbing. History Early mountaineering Humans have been present in mountains since prehistory. The remains of Ötzi, who lived in the 4th millennium BC, were found in a glacier in the Ötztal Alps. However, the highest mountains were rarely visited early on, and were often associated with supernatural or religious concepts. Nonetheless, there are many documented examples of people climbing mountains prior to the formal development of the sport in the 19th century, although many of these stories are sometimes considered fictional or legendary. The famous poet Petrarch describes his 26 April 1336 ascent of Mount Ventoux () in one of his epistolae familiares, claiming to be inspired by Philip V of Macedon's ascent of Mount Haemo. For most of antiquity, climbing mountains was a practical or symbolic activity, usually undertaken for economic, political, or religious purposes. A commonly cited example is the 1492 ascent of Mont Aiguille () by Antoine de Ville, a French military officer and lord of Domjulien and Beaupré. In the Andes, around the late 1400s and early 1500s many ascents were made of extremely high peaks by the Incas and their subjects. The highest they are known for certain to have climbed is 6739m at the summit of Volcan Llullaillaco. The Enlightenment and the Golden Age of Alpinism The Age of Enlightenment and the Romantic era marked a change of attitudes towards high mountains. In 1757 Swiss scientist Horace-Bénédict de Saussure made the first of several unsuccessful attempts on Mont Blanc in France. He then offered a reward to anyone who could climb the mountain, which was claimed in 1786 by Jacques Balmat and Michel-Gabriel Paccard. The climb is usually considered an epochal event in the history of mountaineering, a symbolic mark of the birth of the sport. By the early 19th century, many of the alpine peaks were reached, including the Grossglockner in 1800, the Ortler in 1804, the Jungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812, and the Breithorn in 1813. In 1808, Marie Paradis became the first woman to climb Mont Blanc, followed in 1838 by Henriette d'Angeville. The beginning of mountaineering as a sport in the UK is generally dated to the ascent of the Wetterhorn in 1854 by English mountaineer Sir Alfred Wills, who made mountaineering fashionable in Britain. This inaugurated what became known as the Golden Age of Alpinism, with the first mountaineering club – the Alpine Club – being founded in 1857. One of the most dramatic events was the spectacular first ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 by a party led by English illustrator Edward Whymper, in which four of the party members fell to their deaths. By this point the sport of mountaineering had largely reached its modern form, with a large body of professional guides, equipment, and methodologies. In the early years of the "golden age", scientific pursuits were intermixed with the sport, such as by the physicist John Tyndall. In the later years, it shifted to a more competitive orientation as pure sportsmen came to dominate the London-based Alpine Club and alpine mountaineering overall. The first president of the Alpine Club, John Ball, is considered to be the discoverer of the Dolomites, which for decades were the focus of climbers like Paul Grohmann and Angelo Dibona. At that time, the edelweiss also established itself as a symbol of alpinists and mountaineers. Expansion around the world In the 19th century, the focus of mountaineering turned towards mountains beyond the Alps, and by the turn of the 20th century, mountaineering had acquired a more international flavour. In 1897 Mount Saint Elias () on the Alaska-Yukon border was summitted by the Duke of the Abruzzi and party. In 1879–1880 the exploration of the highest Andes in South America began when English mountaineer Edward Whymper climbed Chimborazo () and explored the mountains of Ecuador. It took until the late 19th century for European explorers to penetrate Africa. Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa was climbed in 1889 by Austrian mountaineer Ludwig Purtscheller and German geologist Hans Meyer, Mount Kenya in 1899 by Halford Mackinder. The last frontier: The Himalayas The last and greatest mountain range was the Himalayas in South Asia. They had initially been surveyed by the British Empire for military and strategic reasons. In 1892 Sir William Martin Conway explored the Karakoram Himalayas, and climbed a peak of . In 1895 Albert F. Mummery died while attempting Nanga Parbat, while in 1899 Douglas Freshfield took an expedition to the snowy regions of Sikkim. In 1899, 1903, 1906, and 1908 American mountaineer Fanny Bullock Workman (one of the first professional female mountaineers) made ascents in the Himalayas, including one of the Nun Kun peaks (). A number of Gurkha sepoys were trained as expert mountaineers by Charles Granville Bruce, and a good deal of exploration was accomplished by them. In 1902 the Eckenstein-Crowley Expedition, led by English mountaineer Oscar Eckenstein and English occultist Aleister Crowley was the first to attempt to scale K2. They reached before turning back due to weather and other mishaps. Undaunted, in 1905 Crowley led the first expedition to Kangchenjunga, the third highest mountain in the world, in an attempt described as "misguided" and "lamentable". Eckenstein was also a pioneer in developing new equipment and climbing methods. He started using shorter ice axes which could be used single-handed, designed the modern crampons and improved on the nail patterns used for the climbing boots. By the 1950s, all the eight-thousanders but two had been climbed starting with Annapurna in 1950 by Maurice Herzog and Louis Lachenal on the 1950 French Annapurna expedition. The highest of these peaks Mount Everest was climbed in 1953 after the British had made several attempts in the 1920s; the 1922 expedition reached before being aborted on the third summit attempt after an avalanche killed seven porters. The 1924 expedition saw another height record achieved but still failed to reach the summit with confirmation when George Mallory and Andrew Irvine disappeared on the final attempt. The summit was finally reached on 29 May 1953 by Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay from the south side in Nepal. Just a few months later, Hermann Buhl made the first ascent of Nanga Parbat (8,125 m), on the 1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, a siege-style expedition culminating in a last 1,300 meters walking alone, being under the influence of drugs: pervitin (based on the stimulant methamphetamine used by soldiers during World War II), padutin and tea from coca leaves. K2 (8,611 m), the second-highest peak in the world, was first scaled in 1954 by Lino Lacedelli and Achille Compagnoni. In 1964, the final eight-thousander to be climbed was Shishapangma (8,013 m), the lowest of all the 8,000-metre peaks. Reinhold Messner from the Dolomites was then the first to climb all eight-thousanders up to 1986. Today Long the domain of the wealthy elite and their agents, the emergence of the middle-class in the 19th and 20th centuries has resulted in mass interest in mountaineering. It became a popular pastime and hobby of many people. Some have to come to criticize the sport as becoming too much of a tourist activity. Organization Activities There are different activities associated with the sport. Traditional mountaineering involves identifying a specific mountain and route to climb, and executing the plan by whatever means appropriate. A mountain summit is almost always the goal. This activity is strongly associated with aid climbing and free climbing, as well as the use of ice axe and crampons on glaciers and similar terrain. Ski mountaineering involves skiing on mountainous terrain, usually in terrain much more rugged than typical cross-country skiing. Unlike traditional mountaineering, routes are less well-defined and summiting may not be the main goal. Peak bagging is the general activity of ascending peaks that are on a list of notable mountains, such as the 4000m peaks of the Alps. Enchainment is climbing more than one significant summit in one outing, usually on the same day. Climbing via ferratas involves traversing ladder-like paths on highly exposed terrain. Rules and governance Mountaineering lacks formal rules; in theory, any person may climb a mountain and call themself a mountaineer. In practice, the sport is defined by the safe and necessary use of technical skills in mountainous terrain: in particular, roped climbing and snow travel abilities. A variety of techniques have been developed to help people climb mountains that are widely applied among practitioners of the sport. Despite its lack of defined rules and non-competitive nature, mountaineering has much of the trappings of an organized sport, with recognition by the International Olympic Committee and a prominent international sport federation, the UIAA, which counts numerous national alpine clubs as its members. There are also many notable mountaineering/alpine clubs unassociated with the UIAA, such as The Mountaineers and the French Federation of Mountaineering and Climbing. The premier award in mountaineering is the Piolet d'Or. There are no "world championships" or other similar competitions for mountaineering. Terrain and techniques Mountaineering techniques vary greatly depending on location, season, and the particular route a mountaineer chooses to climb. Mountaineers train to climb on all types of terrain whether it be level ground, rock, snow, or ice. Each type of terrain presents its own hazards. Mountaineers must possess adequate food, water, information, equipment and stamina to complete their tasks. Walk-up terrain The term "walk-up" or "trek" is used to describe terrain in which no technical equipment is needed. To traverse this terrain, mountaineers hike long distances to a base camp or the beginning of rough terrain, either following trails or using navigation techniques to travel cross-country. Hiking may be a strenuous activity, and adequate physical fitness and familiarity with the wilderness is necessary to complete a hike; it is also a prerequisite of success in all aspects of mountaineering. Rock Alpine rock climbing involves technical skills including the ability to place anchors into the rock to safely ascend a mountain. In some cases, climbers may have to climb multiple pitches of rock to reach the top. Typically, for any one pitch, there is a belayer who is stationary and creates tension on the rope to catch a climber should he or she fall, and a climber who ascends the rock. The first climber, called the leader, will reach a point on the rock and then build an anchor, which will secure subsequent climbers. Anchors could be created by using slings around a tree or boulder, or by using protection devices like cams and nuts. Once anchored, the leader will then belay the climber coming up from below. Once the follower reaches the leader, the leader will often transfer all necessary protection devices (known as a rack) to the follower. The follower then becomes the leader and will ascend the next pitch. This process will continue until the climbers either reach the top, or run into different terrain. For extremely vertical rocks, or to overcome certain logistical challenges, climbers may use aid climbing techniques. This involves the use of equipment, such as ladders, fixed lines, and ascenders to help the climber push themself up the rock. In alpine climbing, it is common for climbers to see routes of mixed terrain. This means climbers may need to move efficiently from climbing glacier, to rock, to ice, back and forth in a number of variations. Snow and ice Compacted snow conditions allow mountaineers to progress on foot. Frequently crampons are required to travel efficiently and safely over snow and ice. Crampons attach to the bottom of a mountaineer's boots and provide additional traction on hard snow and ice. For loose snow, crampons are less suitable, and snowshoes or skis may be preferred. Using various techniques from alpine skiing to ascend/descend a mountain is a form of the sport by itself, called ski mountaineering. Ascending and descending a steep snow slope safely requires the use of an ice axe and different footwork techniques that have been developed over the past century, such as the French technique and German technique. Teams of climbers may choose to attach everyone together with a rope, to form a rope team. The team may then secure themselves by attaching the rope to anchors. These anchors are sometimes unreliable, and include snow stakes or pickets, deadman devices called flukes, or buried equipment or rocks. Bollards, which are simply carved out of consolidated snow or ice, also sometimes serve as anchors. Alternatively, a roped team may choose not to use anchors; instead all members of the team will prepare to use their ice axes to self-arrest in the event should a team member fall. It is not always wise for climbers to form a rope team, since one falling climber may pull the entire team off the mountain. However, the risks of individual, unprotected travel are often so great that groups have no choice but to form a rope team. For example, when travelling over glaciers, crevasses pose a grave danger to a climber who is not roped in. These giant cracks in the ice are not always visible as snow can be blown and freeze over the top to make a snowbridge. At times snowbridges can be as thin as a few inches, and may collapse from people walking over them. Should a climber fall, being protected by a rope greatly reduces the risk of injury or death. The other members of the rope team may proceed with a crevasse rescue to pull the fallen climber from the crevasse. For extremely slippery or steep snow, ice, and mixed rock and ice terrain climbers must use more advanced techniques, called ice climbing or mixed climbing. Specialized tools such as ice screws and ice picks help climbers build anchors and move up the ice, as well as traditional rock climbing equipment for anchoring in mixed terrain. Often, mountaineers climbing steep snow or mixed snowy rock terrain will not use a fixed belay. Instead each climber on the team will climb at the same time while attached to anchors, in groups of two. This allows for safety should the entire team be taken off their feet which also allowing for greater speed than the traditional technique of belaying one climber at a time. This technique is known as simul-climbing or a running belay and is sometimes also used on ice, however the risk of dropping frequently displaced ice on the lower team member(s) limits its usefulness on ice. Traditional belays are also used; in this case, this is sometimes necessary due to ice fall hazard, steepness, or other factors. Shelter Climbers use a few different forms of shelter depending on the situation and conditions. Shelter is a very important aspect of safety for the climber as weather in the mountains may be very unpredictable. Tall mountains may require many days of camping. Short trips lasting less than a day generally do not require shelter, although for safety, most mountaineers will carry an emergency shelter, such a light bivouac sack. Camping Typical shelters used for camping include tents and bivouac sacks. The ability of these shelters to provide protection from the elements is dependent on their design. Mountaineers who climb in areas with cold weather or snow and ice will use more heavy-duty shelters than those who climb in more forgiving environments. In remote locations, mountaineers will set up a "base camp", which is an area used for staging attempts at nearby summits. Base camps are positioned to be relatively safe from harsh terrain and weather. Where the summit cannot be reached from base camp in a single day, a mountain will have additional camps above base camp. For popular mountains, base camps may be at a fixed location and become famous. The Everest base camps and Camp Muir are among the most famous base camps. Hut Camping is not always an option, or may not be suitable if a mountain is close to civilization. Some regions may legally prohibit primitive camping due to concern for the environment, or due to issues with crowds. In lieu of camping, mountaineers may choose to stay in mountain huts. The European alpine regions, in particular, have a large network of huts. Such huts exist at many different heights, including in the high mountains themselves – in extremely remote areas, more rudimentary shelters may exist. The mountain huts are of varying size and quality, but each is typically centred on a communal dining room and have dormitories equipped with mattresses, blankets or duvets, and pillows; guests are expected to bring and use their own sleeping bag liners. The facilities are usually rudimentary, but, given their locations, huts offer vital shelter, make routes more widely accessible (by allowing journeys to be broken and reducing the weight of equipment needing to be carried), and offer good value. In Europe, all huts are staffed during the summer (mid-June to mid-September) and some are staffed in the spring (mid-March to mid-May). Elsewhere, huts may also be open in the fall. Huts also may have a part that is always open, but unmanned, a so-called winter hut. When open and manned, the huts are generally run by full-time employees, but some are staffed on a voluntary basis by members of alpine clubs. The manager of the hut, termed a guardian or warden in Europe, will usually also sell refreshments and meals, both to those visiting only for the day and to those staying overnight. The offering is surprisingly wide, given that most supplies, often including fresh water, must be flown in by helicopter, and may include glucose-based snacks (such as candy bars) on which climbers and walkers wish to stock up, cakes and pastries made at the hut, a variety of hot and cold drinks (including beer and wine), and high carbohydrate dinners in the evenings. Not all huts offer a catered service, though, and visitors may need to provide for themselves. Some huts offer facilities for both, enabling visitors wishing to keep costs down to bring their own food and cooking equipment and to cater using the facilities provided. Booking for overnight stays at huts is deemed obligatory, and in many cases is essential as some popular huts, even with more than 100 bed spaces, may be full during good weather and at weekends. Once made, the cancellation of a reservation is advised as a matter of courtesy – and, indeed, potentially of safety, as many huts keep a record of where climbers and walkers state they plan to walk to next. Most huts may be contacted by telephone and most take credit cards as a means of payment. In the UK the term "hut" is used for any cottage or cabin used as a base for walkers or climbers. These are mostly owned by mountaineering clubs for use by members or visiting clubs and generally do not have wardens or permanent staff, but have cooking and washing facilities and heating. In the Scottish Highlands small simple unmanned shelters without cooking facilities known as "bothies" are maintained to break up cross country long routes and act as base camps to certain mountains. Snow cave Where conditions permit, snow caves are another way to shelter high on the mountain. Some climbers do not use tents at high altitudes unless the snow conditions do not allow for snow caving, since snow caves are silent and much warmer than tents. They can be built relatively easily, given sufficient time, using a snow shovel. The temperature of a correctly made snow cave will hover around freezing, which relative to outside temperatures can be very warm. They can be dug anywhere where there is at least four feet of snow. The addition of a good quality bivouac bag and closed cell foam sleeping mat will also increase the warmth of the snow cave. Another shelter that works well is a quinzee, which is excavated from a pile of snow that has been work hardened or sintered (typically by stomping). Igloos are used by some climbers, but are deceptively difficult to build and require specific snow conditions. Hazards Mountaineers face a variety of hazards. When climbing mountains, there are two types of hazards, objective and subjective. Objective hazards relate to the environment, and may include inclement weather conditions, dangerous terrain, and poor equipment. Subjective hazards relate to a climber's poor judgement, poor planning, lack of skills, or inadequate conditioning. In terms of objective hazards, the dangers mountaineers face include falling rocks, falling ice, snow-avalanches, the climber falling, falls from ice slopes, falls down snow slopes, falls into crevasses, and the dangers from altitude and weather. Altitude Rapid ascent can lead to altitude sickness. The best treatment is to descend immediately. The climber's motto at high altitude is "climb high, sleep low", referring to the regimen of climbing higher to acclimatise but returning to lower elevation to sleep. In the Andes, the chewing of coca leaves has been traditionally used to treat altitude sickness symptoms. Common symptoms of altitude sickness include severe headache, sleep problems, nausea, lack of appetite, lethargy and body ache. Mountain sickness may progress to HACE (High altitude cerebral edema) and HAPE (High altitude pulmonary edema), both of which can be fatal within 24 hours. In high mountains, atmospheric pressure is lower and this means that less oxygen is available to breathe. This is the underlying cause of altitude sickness. Everyone needs to acclimatise, even exceptional mountaineers that have been to high altitude before. Generally speaking, mountaineers start using bottled oxygen when they climb above 7,000 m. Exceptional mountaineers have climbed 8000-metre peaks (including Everest) without oxygen, almost always with a carefully planned program of acclimatisation. Styles of mountaineering There are two main styles of mountaineering: expedition style and alpine style. Expedition style The alpine style contrasts with "expedition style". With this style, climbers will carry large amounts of equipment and provisions up and down the mountain, slowly making upward progress. Climbing in an expedition style is preferred if the summit is very high or distant from civilization. Mountaineers who use this style are usually, but not always, part of a large team of climbers and support staff (such as porters and guides). To cover large distances with their massive amounts of gear, sleds and pack animals are commonly used. Climbers will set up multiple camps along the mountain, and will haul their gear up the mountain multiple times, returning to a lower camp after each haul until all the gear is at a higher camp; and repeating this procedure until they reach the summit. This technique is also helpful for acclimatization. While it is the original style in which high mountains were climbed, expedition style is rare these days as more mountains have become accessible to the general public with air travel and the penetration of highways into mountainous regions. It is still common in ranges such as the Alaska Range and the Himalayas. Uses multiple trips between camps to carry supplies up to higher camps Group sizes are often larger than alpine style climbs because more supplies are carried between camps Fixed lines are often used to minimize the danger involved in continually moving between camps For the highest mountains, supplemental oxygen is frequently used There is a higher margin of safety in relation to equipment, food, time, and ability to wait out storms at high camps Avoidance of being trapped in storms at high altitudes and being forced to descend in treacherous avalanche conditions Possible higher exposure to objective hazards such as avalanches or rockfall, due to slower travel times between camps Higher capital expenditures and a longer time scale Alpine style Alpine style, or informal variations of it, is the most common form of mountaineering today. It involves a single, straightforward climb of the mountain, with no backtracking. This style is most suited for medium-sized mountain areas close to civilization with elevations of , such as the Alps or the Rocky Mountains. Alpine style ascents have been done throughout history on extreme altitude (above 5,000 m) peaks also, albeit in lower volume to expedition style ascents. Climbers generally carry their loads between camps without backtracking, in a single push for the summit. If the summit is reachable from the base camp or trailhead within one day, then alpine-style mountaineers will not change camps at all, and only carry the slightest of loads (necessary nourishment and equipment) up to the summit. "Light and fast" is the mantra of the alpine mountaineer. Climbers climb the route only once because they do not continually climb up and down to stock camps with supplies Fewer supplies are used on the climb, therefore fewer personnel are needed Alpine-style ascents do not leave the climber exposed to objective hazards as long as an expedition-style climb does; however, because of the speed of the ascent relative to an expedition-style climb there is less time for acclimatization For the highest mountains, supplemental oxygen is rarely used, or used more sparingly. Danger of being trapped at high altitude due to storms, potentially being exposed to HAPE or HACE Lower capital expenditures and a shorter time scale See also Exploration of the High Alps Glossary of climbing terms Highest unclimbed mountain Index of climbing topics List of climbers and mountaineers List of first ascents Lead climbing List of mountaineering equipment brands Mountain film Mountain rescue Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills Peak bagging Ski Mountaineering Snow goggles Piolet d'Or Snow Leopard award World altitude record (mountaineering) References Further reading External links A Climber's Glossary Military Mountaineering, Army Field Manual FM 3–97.61 (Aug 2002) pdf International Mountaineering and Climbing Federation (UIAA) – official organisation of mountaineering and climbing recognised by International Olympic Committee Climbing the clouds Virtual exhibit of British Columbia mountaineering

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megara

Megara

Megara (; , ) is a historic town and a municipality in West Attica, Greece. It lies in the northern section of the Isthmus of Corinth opposite the island of Salamis, which belonged to Megara in archaic times, before being taken by Athens. Megara was one of the four districts of Attica, embodied in the four mythic sons of King Pandion II, of whom Nisos was the ruler of Megara. Megara was also a trade port, its people using their ships and wealth as a way to gain leverage on armies of neighboring poleis. Megara specialized in the exportation of wool and other animal products including livestock such as horses. It possessed two harbors, Pagae to the west on the Corinthian Gulf, and Nisaea to the east on the Saronic Gulf of the Aegean Sea. It is part of Athens metropolitan area. Early history According to Pausanias, the Megarians said that their town owed its origin to Car, the son of Phoroneus, who built the citadel called 'Caria' and the temples of Demeter called Megara, from which the place derived its name. In historical times, Megara was an early dependency of Corinth, in which capacity colonists from Megara founded Megara Hyblaea, a small polis north of Syracuse in Sicily. Megara then fought a war of independence with Corinth, and afterwards founded Chalcedon in 685 BC, as well as Byzantium (c. 667 BC). Megara is known to have early ties with Miletos, in the region of Caria in Asia Minor. According to some scholars, they had built up a "colonisation alliance". In the 7th/6th century BCE these two cities acted in concordance with each other. Both cities acted under the leadership and sanction of an Apollo oracle. Megara cooperated with that of Delphi. Miletos had her own oracle of Apollo Didymeus Milesios in Didyma. Also, there are many parallels in the political organisation of both cities. In the late 7th century BC Theagenes established himself as tyrant of Megara by slaughtering the cattle of the rich to win over the poor. During the second Persian invasion of Greece (480–479 BC) Megara fought alongside the Spartans and Athenians at crucial battles such as Salamis and Plataea. Megara defected from the Spartan-dominated Peloponnesian League (c. 460 BC) to the Delian league due to border disputes with its neighbour Corinth; this defection was one of the causes of the First Peloponnesian War (460 – c. 445 BC). By the terms of the Thirty Years' Peace of 446–445 BC Megara was forced to return to the Peloponnesian League. In the (second) Peloponnesian War (c. 431 – 404 BC), Megara was an ally of Sparta. The Megarian decree is considered to be one of several contributing "causes" of the Peloponnesian War. Athens issued the Megarian decree, which banned Megarian merchants from territory controlled by Athens; its aim was to constrict the Megarian economy. The Athenians claimed that they were responding to the Megarians' desecration of the Hiera Orgas, a sacred precinct in the border region between the two states. Arguably the most famous citizen of Megara in antiquity was Byzas, the legendary founder of Byzantium in the 7th century BC. The 6th century BC poet Theognis also came from Megara. In the early 4th century BC, Euclid of Megara founded the Megarian school of philosophy which flourished for about a century, famous for the use of logic and dialectic. During the Celtic invasion in 279 BC, Megara sent a force of 400 peltasts (light infantrymen) to Thermopylae. During the Chremonidean War, in 266 BC, the Megarians were besieged by the Macedonian king Antigonus Gonatas and managed to defeat his elephants employing burning pigs. Despite this success, the Megarians had to submit to the Macedonians. In 243 BC, exhorted by Aratus of Sicyon, Megara expelled its Macedonian garrison and joined the Achaean League, but when the Achaeans lost control of the Isthmus in 223 BC the Megarians left them and joined the Boeotian League. Not more than thirty years later, however, the Megarians grew tired of the Boeotian decline and returned their allegiance to Achaea. The Achaean strategos Philopoemen fought off the Boeotian intervention force and secured Megara's return, either in 203 or in 193 BC. The Megarians were proverbial for their generosity in building and endowing temples. Saint Jerome reports "There is a common saying about the Megarians [...:] 'They build as if they are to live forever; they live as if they are to die tomorrow.'" The Greeks used the proverb "worthy of the Megarians share" (), meaning dishonorable/dishonored. Democracy in Megara Megara seems to have experienced democracy on two occasions. The first was between 427 BC, when there was a democratic uprising, and 424 BC, when a narrow oligarchy was installed (Thuc. 3.68.3; 4.66-8, 73-4). The second was in the 370s BC, when we hear that the people of Megara expelled some anti-democratic conspirators (Diod. 15.40.4). By the 350s BC, though, Isocrates is referring to Megara in terms that suggests that it was an oligarchy again (Isoc. 8.117-19). One of the first actions of the new oligarchy in 424 BC was to compel the people to vote openly, which suggests that the democracy had made use of the secret ballot. Megarian democracy also made use of ostracism. Other key institutions of the democracy included a popular Assembly and Council, and a board of five (or six) generals. Geography Megara is located in the westernmost part of Attica, near the Megara Gulf, a bay of the Saronic Gulf. The coastal plain around Megara is referred to as Megaris, which is also the name of the ancient city state centered on Megara. Megara is 8 km west of Nea Peramos, 18 km west of Eleusis, 19 km east of Agioi Theodoroi, 34 km west of Athens and 37 km east of Corinth. Transport Road The Motorway 8 connects Megara with Athens and Corinth. Rail The Megara railway station is served by Proastiakos suburban trains to Athens and Kiato. Air There is a small military airfield south of the town, ICAO code LGMG. Population The main town Megara had 23,456 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The largest other settlements in the municipal unit are Vlychada (pop. 1,462), Kineta (1,446), Pachi (542) and Lakka Kalogirou (517). Municipality The municipality of Megara was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of two former municipalities, Megara and Nea Peramos, which became municipal units. The municipality has an area of 330.11 km2, the municipal unit 322.21 km2. Districts and suburbs Agia Triada Aigeirouses Kineta Koumintri Lakka Kalogirou Moni Agiou Ierotheou Moni Agiou Ioannou Prodromou Moni Panachrantou Pachi Stikas Vlychada Historical population Sports Vyzas F.C., football team Notable people Orsippus (8th century BC), runner Byzas (7th century BC), founder of Byzantium Theognis (6th century BC), elegiac poet Eupalinos (6th century BC), engineer who built the Tunnel of Eupalinos on Samos Theagenes (c. 600 BC), Tyrant of Megara Euclid (c. 400 BC), founder of the Megarian school of philosophy Stilpo (c. 325 BC), philosopher of the Megarian school Teles (3rd century BC), cynic philosopher. Giorgos Papagiannis, NBA player Facilities Medium-wave transmitter with a 180-metre-tall radio mast, broadcasting on 666 kHz and 981 kHz See also List of ancient Greek cities List of settlements in Attica Notes External links Cities in ancient Attica Municipalities of Attica Locations in Greek mythology Populated places in West Attica Greek city-states

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%20of%20Tours

Martin of Tours

Martin of Tours (; 316 – 8 November 397) also known as Martin the Merciful was the third bishop of Tours. He has become one of the most familiar and recognizable Christian saints in France, heralded as the patron saint of the Third Republic, and is patron saint of many communities and organizations across Europe. A native of Pannonia (in modern central Europe), he converted to Christianity at a young age. He served in the Roman cavalry in Gaul, but left military service at some point prior to 361, when he became a disciple of Hilary of Poitiers, establishing the monastery at Ligugé. He was consecrated as Bishop of Caesarodunum (Tours) in 371. As bishop, he was active in the suppression of the remnants of Gallo-Roman religion, but he opposed the violent persecution of the Priscillianist sect of ascetics. His life was recorded by a contemporary hagiographer, Sulpicius Severus. Some of the accounts of his travels may have been interpolated into his vita to validate early sites of his cult. He is best known for the account of his using his military sword to cut his cloak in two, to give half to a beggar clad only in rags in the depth of winter. His shrine in Tours became a famous stopping-point for pilgrims on the road to Santiago de Compostela in Spain. His cult was revived in French nationalism during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870/1, and as a consequence he was seen as a patron saint of France during the French Third Republic. Hagiography The early life of Martin was written by Sulpicius Severus, a contemporary Christian writer, who knew him personally. This biography expresses, among other things, the immediacy the 4th-century Christian felt with the Devil in all his disguises, and has some accounts of miracles. Some follow familiar conventions— casting out devils, raising the paralytic and the dead. Sulpicius Severus recounts in which manner St Martin raised a dead man as follows: Others are: turning back the flames from a house while Martin was burning down the Roman temple it adjoined; deflecting the path of a felled a sacred pine; the healing power of a letter written from Martin. Life Soldier Martin was born in AD 316 or 336 in Savaria in the Diocese of Pannonia (now Szombathely, Hungary). His father was a senior officer (tribune) in the Roman army. A few years after Martin's birth, his father was given veteran status and was allocated land on which to retire at Ticinum (now Pavia), in northern Italy, where Martin grew up. At the age of 10 he attended the Christian church against the wishes of his parents and became a catechumen. Christianity had been made a legal religion (in 313) in the Roman Empire. It had many more adherents in the Eastern Empire, whence it had sprung, and was concentrated in cities, brought along the trade routes by converted Jews and Greeks (the term 'pagan' literally means 'country-dweller'). Christianity was far from accepted among the higher echelons of society; among members of the army the worship of Mithras would have been stronger. Although the conversion of the Emperor Constantine and the subsequent programme of church-building gave a greater impetus to the spread of the religion, it was still a minority faith. As the son of a veteran officer, Martin at 15 was required to join a cavalry ala. At the age of 18 (around 334 or 354), he was stationed at Ambianensium civitas or Samarobriva in Gaul (now Amiens, France). It is likely that he joined the Equites catafractarii Ambianenses, a heavy cavalry unit listed in the Notitia Dignitatum. As the unit was stationed at Milan and is also recorded at Trier, it is likely to have been part of the elite cavalry bodyguard of the Emperor, which accompanied him on his travels around the Empire. According to his biographer, Sulpicius Severus, he served in the military for only another two years, though it has been argued that these two years, "are in fact not nearly enough to bring the account to the time when he would leave, that is, during his encounter with Caesar Julian (the one who has gone down in history as Julian the Apostate) Martin would have been 45 years old when Julian acceded to the throne, and at the usual end of a military contract." Jacques Fontaine thinks that Sulpicius was "somewhat embarrassed about referring to [Martin's] long stint in the army [because of the perennially tenuous relation between the Christian conscience and war]." Richard A. Fletcher says that Martin served for five years before obtaining a discharge, two of them after his baptism, in 354. Regardless of whether or not he remained in the army, Sulpicius reports that just before a battle in the Gallic provinces at Borbetomagus (now Worms, Germany), Martin determined that his switch of allegiance to a new commanding officer (away from antichristian Julian and to Christ), along with reluctance to receive Julian's pay just as Martin was retiring, prohibited his taking the money and continuing to submit to the authority of the former now, telling him, "I am the soldier of Christ: it is not lawful for me to fight." He was charged with cowardice and jailed, but in response to the charge, he volunteered to go unarmed to the front of the troops. His superiors planned to take him up on the offer, but before they could, the invaders sued for peace, the battle never occurred, and Martin was released from military service. Monk and hermit Martin declared his vocation, and made his way to the city of Caesarodunum (now Tours), where he became a disciple of Hilary of Poitiers' Christian orthodoxy. He opposed the Arianism of the Imperial Court. When Hilary was forced into exile from Pictavium (now Poitiers), Martin returned to Italy. According to Sulpicius, he converted an Alpine brigand on the way, and confronted the Devil himself. Having heard in a dream a summons to revisit his home, Martin crossed the Alps, and from Milan went over to Pannonia. There he converted his mother and some other persons; his father he could not win over. While in Illyricum he took sides against the Arians with so much zeal that he was publicly whipped and forced to leave. Returning from Illyria, he was confronted by Auxentius, the Arian Archbishop of Milan, who expelled him from the city. According to the early sources, Martin decided to seek shelter on the island then called Gallinaria, now Isola d'Albenga, in the Ligurian Sea, where he lived the solitary life of a hermit. Not entirely alone, since the chronicles indicate that he would have been in the company of a priest, a man of great virtues, and for a period with Hilary of Poitiers, on this island, where the wild hens lived. Martin lived on a diet of herbs and wild roots. It is alleged he ate hellebore, a plant that he did not know was poisonous. A legend tells that being on the verge of death for having eaten this herb, he prayed and was miraculously cured. With the return of Hilary to his see in 361, Martin joined him and established a hermitage nearby, which soon attracted converts and followers. The crypt under the parish church (not the current Abbey Chapel) reveals traces of a Roman villa, probably part of the bath complex, which had been abandoned before Martin established himself there. This site was developed into the Benedictine Ligugé Abbey, the oldest monastery known in Europe. It became a centre for the evangelisation of the country districts. Martin travelled and preached through western Gaul: "The memory of these apostolic journeyings survives to our day in the numerous local legends of which Martin is the hero and which indicate roughly the routes that he followed." Bishop In AD 371 Martin was acclaimed bishop of Tours, where he impressed the city with his demeanour. He had been drawn to Tours by a ruse — he was urged to come to minister to someone sick — and was brought to the church, where he reluctantly allowed himself to be consecrated bishop. According to one version, he was so unwilling to be made bishop that he hid in a barn full of geese, but their cackling at his intrusion gave him away to the crowd; that may account for complaints by a few that his appearance was too disheveled to be commensurate with a bishopric, but the critics were hugely outnumbered. As bishop, Martin set to enthusiastically ordering the destruction of pagan temples, altars and sculptures: Sulpicius affirms that Martin withdrew from the city to live in Marmoutier (Majus Monasterium), the monastery he founded, which faces Tours from the opposite shore of the river Loire. Recent excavations under the abbey church have revealed the traces of a Roman posting station, beside the main Roman road along the north bank of the Loire, which seems to have been the original dwelling for the community; the "caves" on the site are post-Roman and are probably the result of quarrying the coteau for the Romanesque abbey buildings. "Here Martin and some of the monks who followed him built cells of wood; others lived in caves dug out of the rock." (Sulpicius Severus). Martin introduced a rudimentary parish system. Once a year, the bishop visited each of his parishes, traveling on foot, or by donkey or boat. He continued to set up monastic communities, and extended the bounds of his episcopate from Touraine to such distant points as Chartres, Paris, Autun, and Vienne. In one instance, the pagans agreed to fell their sacred pine tree, if Martin would stand directly in its path. He did so, and it miraculously missed him. Sulpicius, a classically educated aristocrat, related this anecdote with dramatic details, as a set piece. Sulpicius could not have failed to know the incident the Roman poet Horace recalls in several Odes of his own narrow escape from a falling tree. Martin was so dedicated to the freeing of prisoners that when authorities, even emperors, heard he was coming, they refused to see him because they knew he would request mercy for someone and they would be unable to refuse. On behalf of the Priscillianists The churches of other parts of Gaul and in Spain were being disturbed by the Priscillianists, an ascetic sect, named after its leader, Priscillian. The First Council of Saragossa had forbidden several of Priscillian's practices (albeit without mentioning Priscillian by name), but Priscillian was elected bishop of Avila shortly thereafter. Ithacius of Ossonoba appealed to the emperor Gratian, who issued a rescript against Priscillian and his followers. After failing to obtain the support of Ambrose of Milan and Pope Damasus I, Priscillian appealed to Magnus Maximus, who had usurped the throne from Gratian. Although greatly opposed to the Priscillianists, Martin traveled to the Imperial court of Trier to remove them from the secular jurisdiction of the emperor. With Ambrose, Martin rejected Bishop Ithacius's principle of putting heretics to death—as well as the intrusion of the emperor into such matters. He prevailed upon the emperor to spare the life of the heretic Priscillian. At first, Maximus acceded to his entreaty, but, when Martin had departed, yielded to Ithacius and ordered Priscillian and his followers to be beheaded (in 385). Martin then pleaded for a cessation of the persecution of Priscillian's followers in Spain. Deeply grieved, Martin refused to communicate with Ithacius, until pressured by the Emperor. Martin died in Candes-Saint-Martin, Gaul (central France) in 397. After he died, local citizens of the Poitou region and residents of Tours quarreled over where Martin would be buried. One evening after dark, several residents of Tours carried Martin's body to a waiting boat on the river Loire, where teams of rowers ferried his body on the river to Tours, where a huge throng of people waited on the river banks to meet and pay their last respects to Martin's body. One chronicle states that “2,000 monks, and nearly as many white-robed virgins, walked in the procession” accompanying the body from the river to a small grove outside of Tours, where Martin was buried. Abbey of Marmoutier The Abbey of Marmoutier was a monastery just outside today's city of Tours in Indre-et-Loire, France established by Martin around 372. Martin founded the monastery to escape attention and live life as a monastic. The Abbey at Tours was one of the most prominent and influential establishments in medieval France. Charlemagne awarded the position of Abbot to his friend and adviser Alcuin. At this time the abbot could travel between Tours and the court at Trier in Germany and always stay overnight at one of his own properties. It was at Tours that Alcuin's scriptorium (a room in monasteries devoted to the copying of manuscripts by monastic scribes) developed Caroline minuscule, the clear round hand that made manuscripts far more legible. In later times the abbey was destroyed by fire on several occasions and ransacked by Norman Vikings in 853 and in 903. It burned again in 994, and was rebuilt by Hervé de Buzançais, treasurer of Saint Martin, an effort that took 20 years to complete. Expanded to accommodate the crowds of pilgrims and to attract them, the shrine of St. Martin of Tours became a major stopping-point on pilgrimages. In 1453 the remains of Saint Martin were transferred to a magnificent new reliquary donated by Charles VII of France and Agnes Sorel. During the French Wars of Religion, the basilica was sacked by the Protestant Huguenots in 1562. It was disestablished during the French Revolution. It was deconsecrated, used as a stable, then utterly demolished. Its dressed stones were sold in 1802 after two streets were built across the site, to ensure the abbey would not be reconstructed. Legend of Martin's cloak While Martin was a soldier in the Roman army and stationed in Gaul (modern-day France), he experienced a vision, which became the most-repeated story about his life. One day as he was approaching the gates of the city of Amiens, he met a scantily clad beggar. He impulsively cut his military cloak in half to share with the man. That night, Martin dreamed of Jesus wearing the half-cloak he had given away. He heard Jesus say to the angels: "Martin, who is still but a catechumen, clothed me with this robe." (Sulpicius, ch 2). In another version, when Martin woke, he found his cloak restored to wholeness. The dream confirmed Martin in his piety, and he was baptised at the age of 18. The part kept by himself became the famous relic preserved in the oratory of the Merovingian kings of the Franks at the Marmoutier Abbey near Tours. During the Middle Ages, the supposed relic of St. Martin's miraculous cloak (cappa Sancti Martini) was carried by the king even into battle, and used as a holy relic upon which oaths were sworn. The cloak is first attested to in the royal treasury in 679, when it was conserved at the palatium of Luzarches, a royal villa that was later ceded to the monks of Saint-Denis by Charlemagne, in 798/99. The priest who cared for the cloak in its reliquary was called a cappellanu, and ultimately all priests who served the military were called cappellani. The French translation is chapelains, from which the English word chaplain is derived. A similar linguistic development took place for the term referring to the small temporary churches built for the relic. People called them a "capella", the word for a little cloak. Eventually, such small churches lost their association with the cloak, and all small churches began to be referred to as "chapels". Veneration The veneration of Martin was widely popular in the Middle Ages, above all in the region between the Loire and the Marne, where Le Roy Ladurie and Zysberg noted the densest accretion of place names commemorating Martin. Venantius Fortunatus had earlier declared, "Wherever Christ is known, Martin is honored." When Bishop Perpetuus took office at Tours in 461, the little chapel over Martin's grave, built in the previous century by Martin's immediate successor, Bricius, was no longer sufficient for the crowd of pilgrims it was already drawing. Perpetuus built a larger basilica, long and wide, with 120 columns. Martin's body was taken from the simple chapel at his hermitage at Candes-St-Martin to Tours and his sarcophagus was reburied behind the high altar of the new basilica. A large block of marble above the tomb, the gift of bishop Euphronius of Autun (472–475), rendered it visible to the faithful gathered behind the high altar. Werner Jacobsen suggests it may also have been visible to pilgrims encamped in the atrium of the basilica. Contrary to the usual arrangement, the atrium was situated behind the church, close to the tomb in the apse, which may have been visible through a fenestrella in the apse wall. St. Martin's popularity can be partially attributed to his adoption by successive royal houses of France. Clovis, King of the Salian Franks, one of many warring tribes in sixth-century France, promised his Christian wife Clotilda that he would be baptised if he was victorious over the Alemanni. He credited the intervention of St Martin with his success, and with several following triumphs, including the defeat of Alaric II. The popular devotion to St Martin continued to be closely identified with the Merovingian monarchy: in the early seventh century Dagobert I commissioned the goldsmith Saint Eligius to make a work in gold and gems for the tomb-shrine. The bishop Gregory of Tours wrote and distributed an influential Life filled with miraculous events of St. Martin's career. Martin's cultus survived the passage of power to the Merovingians' successors, the Carolingian dynasty. Martin is remembered in the Church of England with a Lesser Festival on 11 November. Revival of the popular devotion to St. Martin in the Third Republic Excavations and rediscovery of the tomb In 1860 excavations by Leo Dupont (1797–1876) established the dimensions of the former abbey and recovered some fragments of architecture. The tomb of St. Martin was rediscovered on December 14, 1860, which aided in the nineteenth-century revival of the popular devotion to St. Martin. After the radical Paris Commune of 1871, there was a resurgence of conservative Catholic piety, and the church decided to build a basilica to St. Martin. They selected Victor Laloux as architect. He eschewed Gothic for a mix of Romanesque and Byzantine, sometimes defined as neo-Byzantine. The new Basilique Saint-Martin was erected on a portion of its former site, which was purchased from the owners. Started in 1886, the church was consecrated 4 July 1925. Franco-Prussian War Martin's renewed popularity in France was related to his promotion as a military saint during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871. During the military and political crisis of the Franco-Prussian war, Napoleon III's Second Empire collapsed. After the surrender of Napoleon to the Prussians after the Battle of Sedan in September 1870, a provisional government of national defense was established, and France's Third Republic was proclaimed. Paris was evacuated due to the advancing enemy and for a brief time (September–December 1870), Tours became the effective capital of France. St Martin was promoted by the clerical right as the protector of the nation against the German threat. Conservatives associated the dramatic collapse of Napoleon III's regime as a sign of divine retribution on the irreligious emperor. Priests interpreted it as punishment for a nation led astray due to years of anti-clericalism. They preached repentance and a return to religion for political stability. The ruined towers of the old royal basilica of St. Martin at Tours came to symbolize the decline of traditional Catholic France. With the government's relocation to Tours during the Franco-Prussian War, 1870, numerous pilgrims were attracted to St. Martin's tomb. It was covered by a temporary chapel built by archbishop Guibert. The popular devotion to St. Martin was also associated with the nationalistic devotion to the Sacred Heart. The flag of Sacre-Coeur, borne by Ultramontane Catholic Pontifical Zouaves who fought at Patay, had been placed overnight in St. Martin's tomb before being taken into battle on October 9, 1870. The banner read "Heart of Jesus Save France" and on the reverse side Carmelite nuns of Tours embroidered "Saint Martin Protect France".As the French army was victorious in Patay, many among the faithful took the victory to be the result of divine favor. Popular hymns of the 1870s developed the theme of national protection under the cover of Martin's cloak, the "first flag of France". During the nineteenth-century Frenchmen, influenced by secularism, agnosticism, and anti-clericalism, deserted the church in great numbers. As Martin was a man's saint, the devotion to him was an exception to this trend. For men serving in the military, Martin of Tours was presented by the Catholic Right as the masculine model of principled behavior. He was a brave fighter, knew his obligation to the poor, shared his goods, performed his required military service, followed legitimate orders, and respected secular authority. Opposition from Anticlericals During the 1870s, the procession to St. Martin's tomb at Tours became a display of ecclesiastical and military cooperation. Army officers in full uniform acted as military escorts, symbolically protecting the clergy and clearing the path for them. Anti-clerics viewed the staging of public religious processions as a violation of civic space. In 1878, M. Rivière, the provisional mayor of Tours, with anticlerical support banned the November procession in honor of St. Martin. President Patrice de Mac-Mahon was succeeded by the Republican Jules Grévy, who created a new national anticlerical offensive. Bishop Louis-Édouard-François-Desiré Pie of Poitiers united conservatives and devised a massive demonstration for the November 1879 procession. Pie's ultimate hope was that St Martin would stop the “chariot” of modern society, and lead to the creation of a France where the religious and secular sectors merged. The struggle between the two men was reflective of that between conservatives and anti-clerics over the church's power in the army. From 1874, military chaplains were allowed in the army in times of peace, but anti-clerics viewed the chaplains as sinister monarchists and counter-revolutionaries. Conservatives responded by creating the short-lived Legion de Saint Maurice in 1878 and the society, Notre Dame de Soldats, to provide unpaid voluntary chaplains with financial support. The legislature passed the anticlerical Duvaux Bill of 1880, which reduced the number of chaplains in the French army. Anticlerical legislators wanted commanders, not chaplains, to provide troops with moral support and to supervise their formation in the established faith of "patriotic Republicanism." St. Martin as a French Republican patron St. Martin has long been associated with France's royal heritage. Monsignor René François Renou (Archbishop of Tours, 1896–1913) worked to associate St. Martin as a specifically "republican" patron. Renou had served as a chaplain to the 88e Régiment des mobils d'Indre-et-Loire during the Franco-Prussian war and was known as the "army bishop." Renou was a strong supporter of St. Martin and believed that the national destiny of France and all its victories were attributed to him. He linked the military to the cloak of St. Martin, which was the "first flag of France" to the French tricolor, "the symbol of the union of the old and new." This flag symbolism connected the devotion to St. Martin with the Third Republic. But, the tensions of the Dreyfus Affair renewed anti-clericalism in France and drove a wedge between the Church and the Republic. By 1905, the influence of Rene Waldeck-Rousseau and Emile Combes, combined with deteriorating relations with the Vatican, led to the separation of church and state. St. Martin's popularity was renewed during the First World War. Anticlericalism declined, and priests served in the French forces as chaplains. More than 5,000 of them died in the war. In 1916, Assumptionists organized a national pilgrimage to Tours that attracted people from all of France. The devotion to St. Martin was amplified in the dioceses of France, where special prayers were offered to the patron saint. When the armistice was signed on Saint Martin's Day, 11 November 1918, the French people saw it was a sign of his intercession in the affairs of France. Patronage He is the patron saint of beggars (because of his sharing his cloak), wool-weavers and tailors (also because of his cloak), he is also the patron saint of the US Army Quartermaster Corps even though he detested violence (also because of sharing his cloak), geese (some say because they gave his hiding place away when he tried to avoid being chosen as bishop, others because their migration coincides with his feast), vintners and innkeepers (because his feast falls just after the late grape harvest), and France. He was proclaimed patron of Italian volunteering by the Italian bishops in the spring of 2021. Beyond his patronage of the French Third Republic, Saint Martin more recently has also been described in terms of "a spiritual bridge across Europe" due to his "international" background, being a native of Pannonia who spent his adult life in Gaul. Iconography Martin is most generally portrayed on horseback dividing his cloak with the beggar. His emblem in English art is often that of a goose, whose annual migration is about late autumn. Hammer of Martin of Tours The Museum Catharijneconvent in Utrecht has a relic in its collection which is called "the hammer of St. Martin of Tours" (Latin: maleus beati Martini). It was made in the 13th or 14th century from a late Bronze Age stone axe from c. 1,000 – 700 BC, though the dating is uncertain. The grip contains a Latin text saying "Ydola vanurunt Martini cesa securi nemo deos credat qui sic fuerant ruicuri" ("the pagan statues fall down, hit by St. Martin's axe. Let nobody believe that those are gods, who so easily fall down"). Legend says that the axe belonged to St. Martin, and was used to hit the devil and to destroy the heathen temples and statues. Influence By the early 9th century, respect for Saint Martin was well-established in Ireland. His monastery at Marmoûtiers became the training ground for many Celtic missions and missionaries. Some believe that St. Patrick was his nephew and that Patrick was one of many Celtic notables who lived for a time at Marmoûtiers. St. Ninian definitely studied at Marmoûtiers and was profoundly influenced by Martin, carrying a deep love and respect for his teacher and his methods back to Scotland. Ninian was in the process of building a church when news reached him of Martin's death. Ninian dedicated that church to Martin. The Book of Armagh contains three distinct groups of material: (1) a complete text of the New Testament, (2) a dossier of materials on Saint Patrick, and (3) almost the complete body of writings on Saint Martin by Sulpicius Severus. In Jonas of Bobbio's Vita Columbani, Jonas relates that Saint Columbanus, while travelling, requested to be allowed to pray at the tomb of St Martin. The Irish palimpsest sacramentary from the mid-7th century contains the text of a mass for St Martin. In the Life of Columba, Adamnan mentions in passing that St Martin was commemorated during Mass at Iona. In his Ireland and Her Neighbours in the Seventh Century, Michael Richter attributes this to the mission of Palladius seen within the wider context of the mission of Germanus of Auxerre to Britain around 429. Thus, this could be the context in which the Life of St Martin was brought from Gaul to Ireland at an early date, and could explain how Columbanus was familiar with it before he ever left Ireland. Legacy Ligugé Abbey Founded by Martin of Tours in 360, Ligugé Abbey is one of the earliest monastic foundations in France. The reputation of the founder attracted a large number of disciples to the new monastery; the disciples initially living in locaciacum or small huts, this name later evolved to Ligugé. Its reputation was soon eclipsed by Martin's later foundation at Marmoutier. As of 2013, the Benedictine community at Ligugé numbered twenty-five. European folk traditions From the late 4th century to the late Middle Ages, much of Western Europe, including Great Britain, engaged in a period of fasting beginning on the day after St. Martin's Day, November 11. This fast period lasted 40 days (not including Saturdays and Sundays), and was, therefore, called Quadragesima Sancti Martini, which means in Latin "the forty days of St. Martin". At St. Martin's eve and on the feast day, people ate and drank very heartily for a last time before they started to fast. This fasting time was later called "Advent" by the Church and was considered a time for spiritual preparation for Christmas. On St. Martin's Day, children in Flanders, the southern and northern parts of the Netherlands, and the Catholic areas of Germany and Austria still participate in paper lantern processions. Often, a man dressed as St. Martin rides on a horse in front of the procession. The children sing songs about St. Martin and about their lanterns. The food traditionally eaten on the day is goose, a rich bird. According to legend, Martin was reluctant to become bishop, which is why he hid in a stable filled with geese. The noise made by the geese betrayed his location to the people who were looking for him. In the eastern part of the Belgian province of East Flanders (Aalst) and the western part of West Flanders (Ypres), traditionally children receive presents from St. Martin on November 11, instead of from Saint Nicholas on December 6 or Santa Claus on December 25. They also have lantern processions, for which children make lanterns out of beets. In recent years, the lantern processions have become widespread as a popular ritual, even in Protestant areas of Germany and the Netherlands. Most Protestant churches no longer officially recognize Saints. In Portugal, where the saint's day is celebrated across the country, it is common for families and friends to gather around the fire in reunions called magustos, where they typically eat roasted chestnuts and drink wine, jeropiga (a drink made of grape must and aguardente) and aguapé (a sort of weak and watered-down wine). According to the most widespread variation of the cloak story, Saint Martin cut off half of his cloak in order to offer it to a beggar and along the way, he gave the remaining part to a second beggar. As he faced a long ride in a freezing weather, the dark clouds cleared away and the sun shone so intensely that the frost melted away. Such weather was rare for early November, so was credited to God's intervention. The phenomenon of a sunny break to the chilly weather on Saint Martin's Day (11 November) is called Verão de São Martinho (Saint Martin's Summer, veranillo de san Martín in Spanish) in honor of the cloak legend. In Malta on the night of the eve of Saint Martin's day children leave an empty bag next to the bed. This bag is found full of fruit on the next day. Many churches are named after Saint Martin of Tours. St Martin-in-the-fields, at Trafalgar Square in the centre of London, has a history appropriately associated with Martin's renunciation of war; Dick Sheppard, founder of the Peace Pledge Union, was Vicar 1914–26, and there is a memorial chapel for him, with a plaque for Vera Brittain, also a noted Anglican pacifist; the steps of the church are often used for peace vigils. Saint Martin's Cathedral, in Ypres, Belgium, is dedicated to him. St. Martin is the patron saint of Szombathely, Hungary, with a church dedicated to him, and also the patron saint of Buenos Aires. In the Netherlands, he is the patron of the cathedral and city of Utrecht. He is the patron of the city of Groningen; its Martini tower and Martinikerk (Groningen) (Martin's Church) were named for him. He is also the patron of the church and town of Bocaue. St. Martin's Church in Kaiserslautern, Germany is a major city landmark. It is located in the heart of the city's downtown in St. Martin's Square, and is surrounded by a number of restaurants and shops. The church was originally built as a Franciscan monastery in the 14th century and has a number of unique architectural features. St. Martin is the patron saint of the Polish towns of Bydgoszcz and Opatów. His day is celebrated with a procession and festivities in the city of Poznań, where the main street (Święty Marcin) is named for him, after a 13th-century church in his honor. A special type of crescent cake (rogal świętomarciński) is baked for the occasion. As November 11 is also Polish Independence Day, it is a public holiday. In Latin America, St. Martin has a strong popular following and is frequently referred to as San Martín Caballero, in reference to his common depiction on horseback. Mexican folklore believes him to be a particularly helpful saint toward business owners. The largest Anglican church in North America is St Martin's Episcopal in Houston, Texas. It was the home church for many years of President and Mrs. George H. W. Bush and still is for former Secretary of State and Treasury James Baker and his wife Susan. San Martín de Loba is the name of a municipality in the Bolívar Department of Colombia. Saint Martin, as San Martín de Loba, is the patron saint of Vasquez, a small village in Colombia. In Finland, the town and municipality Marttila (S:t Mårtens in Swedish) is named after St. Martin and depicts him on its coat of arms. Though no mention of St. Martin's connection with viticulture is made by Gregory of Tours or other early hagiographers, he is now credited with a prominent role in spreading wine-making throughout the Touraine region and the planting of many vines. The Greek myth that Aristaeus first discovered the concept of pruning the vines, after watching a goat eat some of the foliage, has been adopted for Martin. He is also credited with introducing the Chenin blanc grape varietal, from which most of the white wine of western Touraine and Anjou is made. Martin Luther was named after St. Martin, as he was baptised on November 11 (St. Martin's Day), 1483. Many older Lutheran congregations are named after St. Martin, which is unusual (for Lutherans) because he is a saint who does not appear in the Bible. (Lutherans regularly name congregations after the evangelists and other saints who appear in the Bible but are hesitant to name congregations after post-Biblical saints.) Martin of Tours is the patron saint of the U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps, which has a medal in his name. The Church Lads' and Church Girls' Brigade, a 5–7 age group, was renamed 'Martins' in his honour in 1998. Many schools have St Martin as their Patron, one being St. Martin's School (Rosettenville) in Johannesburg. In art and modern film The Dutch film Flesh and Blood (1985) prominently features a statue of Saint Martin. A mercenary in Renaissance Italy, named Martin, finds a statue of Saint Martin cutting his cloak and takes it as a sign to desert and rogue around under the saint's protection. Bay 20 in the Chartes Cathedral portrays the life of St. Martin in a 40-panel stained glass window. See also St. Martin's Day The Community of Saint Martin, an association of Roman Catholic priests Martin (name) Saint Martin of Tours, patron saint archive References Notes Citations Sources Further reading Boucheron, Patrick, et al., eds. (2019). France in the World: A New Global History. pp. 75–80. Maurey, Yossi (2014). Medieval Music, Legend, and the Cult of St Martin: The Local Foundations of a Universal Saint. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014. External links "St. Martin, Bishop of Tours, Confessor", Butler's Lives of the Saints The Life and Miracles of Saint Martin of Tours, Bishop and Confessor of the Catholic Church The Community of St Martin The Life of St Martin as depicted in the stained glass of Chartres Cathedral (c.1220) St Martin's churches of the world Joachim Schäfer: Erzbistum Köln: 1600 Jahre Verehrung des heiligen Martin von Tours Martin from a historian's viewpoint (German) Saint Martin Churches around the world Sulpicius Severus: Martinsvita (German) Martin von Tours: Soldat, Eremit und Heiliger, film clips by Rüdiger Achenbach in the series Tag für Tag on Deutschlandfunk, Part 1 on 6 November 2014 and Part 2 on 7 November 2014 316 births 397 deaths 4th-century apocalypticists 4th-century archbishops 4th-century Christian saints 4th-century bishops in Gaul Anglican saints Bishops of Tours Burials in Centre-Val de Loire Conscientious objectors Dutch folklore Gallo-Roman saints Patron saints of France Romans from Pannonia

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning%20of%20life

Meaning of life

The meaning of life, or the answer to the question: "What is the meaning of life?", pertains to the significance of living or existence in general. Many other related questions include: "Why are we here?", "What is life all about?", or "What is the purpose of existence?" There have been many proposed answers to these questions from many different cultural and ideological backgrounds. The search for life's meaning has produced much philosophical, scientific, theological, and metaphysical speculation throughout history. Different people and cultures believe different things for the answer to this question. The meaning of life, as we perceive it, is derived from philosophical and religious contemplation of, and scientific inquiries about existence, social ties, consciousness, and happiness. Many other issues are also involved, such as symbolic meaning, ontology, value, purpose, ethics, good and evil, free will, the existence of one or multiple gods, conceptions of God, the soul, and the afterlife. Scientific contributions focus primarily on describing related empirical facts about the universe, exploring the context and parameters concerning the "how" of life. Science also studies and can provide recommendations for the pursuit of well-being and a related conception of morality. An alternative, humanistic approach poses the question, "What is the meaning of my life?" Questions Questions about the meaning of life have been expressed in a broad variety of ways, including: What is the meaning of life? What's it all about? Who are we? Why are we here? What are we here for? What is the origin of life? What is the nature of life? What is the nature of reality? What is the purpose of life? What is the purpose of one's life? What is the significance of life? (See also #Psychological significance and value in life) What is meaningful and valuable in life? What is the value of life? What is the reason to live? What are we living for? These questions have resulted in a wide range of competing answers and explications, from scientific theories, to philosophical, theological, and spiritual explanations. Scientific inquiry and perspectives Many members of the scientific community and philosophy of science communities think that science can provide the relevant context, and set of parameters necessary for dealing with topics related to the meaning of life. In their view, science can offer a wide range of insights on topics ranging from the science of happiness to death anxiety. Scientific inquiry facilitates this through nomological investigation into various aspects of life and reality, such as the Big Bang, the origin of life, and evolution, and by studying the objective factors which correlate with the subjective experience of meaning and happiness. Psychological significance and value in life Researchers in positive psychology study empirical factors that lead to life satisfaction, full engagement in activities, making a fuller contribution by utilizing one's personal strengths, and meaning based on investing in something larger than the self. Large-data studies of flow experiences have consistently suggested that humans experience meaning and fulfillment when mastering challenging tasks and that the experience comes from the way tasks are approached and performed rather than the particular choice of task. For example, flow experiences can be obtained by prisoners in concentration camps with minimal facilities, and occur only slightly more often in billionaires. A classic example is of two workers on an apparently boring production line in a factory. One treats the work as a tedious chore while the other turns it into a game to see how fast she can make each unit and achieves flow in the process. Neuroscience describes reward, pleasure, and motivation in terms of neurotransmitter activity, especially in the limbic system and the ventral tegmental area in particular. If one believes that the meaning of life is to maximize pleasure and to ease general life, then this allows normative predictions about how to act to achieve this. Likewise, some ethical naturalists advocate a science of morality—the empirical pursuit of flourishing for all conscious creatures. Experimental philosophy and neuroethics research collects data about human ethical decisions in controlled scenarios such as trolley problems. It has shown that many types of ethical judgment are universal across cultures, suggesting that they may be innate, whilst others are culture-specific. The findings show actual human ethical reasoning to be at odds with most logical philosophical theories, for example consistently showing distinctions between action by cause and action by omission which would be absent from utility-based theories. Cognitive science has theorized about differences between conservative and liberal ethics and how they may be based on different metaphors from family life such as strong fathers vs nurturing mother models. Neurotheology is a controversial field which tries to find neural correlates and mechanisms of religious experience. Some researchers have suggested that the human brain has innate mechanisms for such experiences and that living without using them for their evolved purposes may be a cause of imbalance. Studies have reported conflicting results on correlating happiness with religious belief and it is difficult to find unbiased meta-analyses. Sociology examines value at a social level using theoretical constructs such as value theory, norms, anomie, etc. One value system suggested by social psychologists, broadly called Terror Management Theory, states that human meaning is derived from a fundamental fear of death, and values are selected when they allow us to escape the mental reminder of death. Alongside this, there are a number of theories about the way in which humans evaluate the positive and negative aspects of their existence and thus the value and meaning they place on their lives. For example, depressive realism posits an exaggerated positivity in all except those experiencing depressive disorders who see life as it truly is, and David Benatar theorises that more weight is generally given to positive experiences, providing bias towards an over-optimistic view of life. Emerging research shows that meaning in life predicts better physical health outcomes. Greater meaning has been associated with a reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease, reduced risk of heart attack among individuals with coronary heart disease, reduced risk of stroke, and increased longevity in both American and Japanese samples. In 2014, the British National Health Service began recommending a five-step plan for mental well-being based on meaningful lives, whose steps are: Connect with community and family Physical exercise Lifelong learning Giving to others Mindfulness of the world around you Origin and nature of biological life The exact mechanisms of abiogenesis are unknown: notable hypotheses include the RNA world hypothesis (RNA-based replicators) and the iron-sulfur world hypothesis (metabolism without genetics). The process by which different lifeforms have developed throughout history via genetic mutation and natural selection is explained by evolution. At the end of the 20th century, based upon insight gleaned from the gene-centered view of evolution, biologists George C. Williams, Richard Dawkins, and David Haig, among others, concluded that if there is a primary function to life, it is the replication of DNA and the survival of one's genes. Responding to an interview question from Richard Dawkins about "what it is all for", James Watson stated "I don't think we're for anything. We're just the products of evolution." Though scientists have intensively studied life on Earth, defining life in unequivocal terms is still a challenge. Physically, one may say that life "feeds on negative entropy" which refers to the process by which living entities decrease their internal entropy at the expense of some form of energy taken in from the environment. Biologists generally agree that lifeforms are self-organizing systems which regulate their internal environments as to maintain this organized state, metabolism serves to provide energy, and reproduction causes life to continue over a span of multiple generations. Typically, organisms are responsive to stimuli and genetic information changes from generation to generation, resulting in adaptation through evolution; this optimizes the chances of survival for the individual organism and its descendants respectively. Non-cellular replicating agents, notably viruses, are generally not considered to be organisms because they are incapable of independent reproduction or metabolism. This classification is problematic, though, since some parasites and endosymbionts are also incapable of independent life. Astrobiology studies the possibility of different forms of life on other worlds, including replicating structures made from materials other than DNA. Origins and ultimate fate of the universe Though the Big Bang theory was met with much skepticism when first introduced, it has become well-supported by several independent observations. However, current physics can only describe the early universe from 10−43 seconds after the Big Bang (where zero time corresponds to infinite temperature); a theory of quantum gravity would be required to understand events before that time. Nevertheless, many physicists have speculated about what would have preceded this limit, and how the universe came into being. For example, one interpretation is that the Big Bang occurred coincidentally, and when considering the anthropic principle, it is sometimes interpreted as implying the existence of a multiverse. The ultimate fate of the universe, and implicitly humanity, is hypothesized as one in which biological life will eventually become unsustainable, such as through a Big Freeze, Big Rip, or Big Crunch. Theoretical cosmology studies many alternative speculative models for the origin and fate of the universe beyond the Big Bang theory. A recent trend has been models of the creation of 'baby universes' inside black holes, with our own Big Bang being a white hole on the inside of a black hole in another parent universe. Many-worlds theories claim that every possibility of quantum mechanics is played out in parallel universes. Scientific questions about the mind The nature and origin of consciousness and the mind itself are also widely debated in science. The explanatory gap is generally equated with the hard problem of consciousness, and the question of free will is also considered to be of fundamental importance. These subjects are mostly addressed in the fields of cognitive science, neuroscience (e.g. the neuroscience of free will) and philosophy of mind, though some evolutionary biologists and theoretical physicists have also made several allusions to the subject. Reductionistic and eliminative materialistic approaches, for example the Multiple Drafts Model, hold that consciousness can be wholly explained by neuroscience through the workings of the brain and its neurons, thus adhering to biological naturalism. On the other hand, some scientists, like Andrei Linde, have considered that consciousness, like spacetime, might have its own intrinsic degrees of freedom, and that one's perceptions may be as real as (or even more real than) material objects. Hypotheses of consciousness and spacetime explain consciousness in describing a "space of conscious elements", often encompassing a number of extra dimensions. Electromagnetic theories of consciousness solve the binding problem of consciousness in saying that the electromagnetic field generated by the brain is the actual carrier of conscious experience; there is however disagreement about the implementations of such a theory relating to other workings of the mind. Quantum mind theories use quantum theory in explaining certain properties of the mind. Explaining the process of free will through quantum phenomena is a popular alternative to determinism. Parapsychology Based on the premises of non-materialistic explanations of the mind, some have suggested the existence of a cosmic consciousness, asserting that consciousness is actually the "ground of all being". Proponents of this view cite accounts of paranormal phenomena, primarily extrasensory perceptions and psychic powers, as evidence for an incorporeal higher consciousness. In hopes of proving the existence of these phenomena, parapsychologists have orchestrated various experiments, but successful results might be due to poor experimental controls and might have alternative explanations. Nature of meaning in life Reker and Wong define personal meaning as the "cognizance of order, coherence and purpose in one's existence, the pursuit and attainment of worthwhile goals, and an accompanying sense of fulfillment" (p. 221). In 2016, Martela and Steger defined meaning as coherence, purpose, and significance. In contrast, Wong has proposed a four-component solution to the question of meaning in life, with the four components purpose, understanding, responsibility, and enjoyment (PURE): You need to choose a worthy purpose or a significant life goal. You need to have sufficient understanding of who you are, what life demands of you, and how you can play a significant role in life. You and you alone are responsible for deciding what kind of life you want to live, and what constitutes a significant and worthwhile life goal. You will enjoy a deep sense of significance and satisfaction only when you have exercised your responsibility for self-determination and actively pursue a worthy life-goal. Thus, a sense of significance permeates every dimension of meaning, rather than standing as a separate factor. Although most psychology researchers consider meaning in life as a subjective feeling or judgment, most philosophers (e.g., Thaddeus Metz, Daniel Haybron) propose that there are also objective, concrete criteria for what constitutes meaning in life. Wong has proposed that whether life is meaningful depends not only on subjective feelings but, more importantly, on whether a person's goal-striving and life as a whole is meaningful according to some objective normative standard. Western philosophical perspectives The philosophical perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies that explain life in terms of ideals or abstractions defined by humans. Ancient Greek philosophy Platonism Plato, a pupil of Socrates, was one of the earliest, most influential philosophers. His reputation comes from his idealism of believing in the existence of universals. His theory of forms proposes that universals do not physically exist, like objects, but as heavenly forms. In the dialogue of the Republic, the character of Socrates describes the Form of the Good. His theory on justice in the soul relates to the idea of happiness relevant to the question of the meaning of life. In Platonism, the meaning of life is in attaining the highest form of knowledge, which is the Idea (Form) of the Good, from which all good and just things derive utility and value. Aristotelianism Aristotle, an apprentice of Plato, was another early and influential philosopher, who argued that ethical knowledge is not certain knowledge (such as metaphysics and epistemology), but is general knowledge. Because it is not a theoretical discipline, a person had to study and practice in order to become "good"; thus if the person were to become virtuous, he could not simply study what virtue is, he had to be virtuous, via virtuous activities. To do this, Aristotle established what is virtuous: Yet, if action A is done towards achieving goal B, then goal B also would have a goal, goal C, and goal C also would have a goal, and so would continue this pattern, until something stopped its infinite regression. Aristotle's solution is the Highest Good, which is desirable for its own sake. It is its own goal. The Highest Good is not desirable for the sake of achieving some other good, and all other "goods" desirable for its sake. This involves achieving eudaemonia, usually translated as "happiness", "well-being", "flourishing", and "excellence". Cynicism Antisthenes, a pupil of Socrates, first outlined the themes of Cynicism, stating that the purpose of life is living a life of Virtue which agrees with Nature. Happiness depends upon being self-sufficient and master of one's mental attitude; suffering is the consequence of false judgments of value, which cause negative emotions and a concomitant vicious character. The Cynical life rejects conventional desires for wealth, power, health, and fame, by being free of the possessions acquired in pursuing the conventional. As reasoning creatures, people could achieve happiness via rigorous training, by living in a way natural to human beings. The world equally belongs to everyone, so suffering is caused by false judgments of what is valuable and what is worthless per the customs and conventions of society. Cyrenaicism Aristippus of Cyrene, a pupil of Socrates, founded an early Socratic school that emphasized only one side of Socrates's teachings—that happiness is one of the ends of moral action and that pleasure is the supreme good; thus a hedonistic world view, wherein bodily gratification is more intense than mental pleasure. Cyrenaics prefer immediate gratification to the long-term gain of delayed gratification; denial is unpleasant unhappiness. Epicureanism Epicurus, a pupil of the Platonist Pamphilus of Samos, taught that the greatest good is in seeking modest pleasures, to attain tranquility and freedom from fear (ataraxia) via knowledge, friendship, and virtuous, temperate living; bodily pain (aponia) is absent through one's knowledge of the workings of the world and of the limits of one's desires. Combined, freedom from pain and freedom from fear are happiness in its highest form. Epicurus' lauded enjoyment of simple pleasures is quasi-ascetic "abstention" from sex and the appetites: "When we say ... that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do, by some, through ignorance, prejudice or willful misrepresentation. By pleasure, we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish, and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul." The Epicurean meaning of life rejects immortality and mysticism; there is a soul, but it is as mortal as the body. There is no afterlife, yet, one need not fear death, because "Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us." Stoicism Zeno of Citium, a pupil of Crates of Thebes, established the school which teaches that living according to reason and virtue is to be in harmony with the universe's divine order, entailed by one's recognition of the universal logos, or reason, an essential value of all people. The meaning of life is "freedom from suffering" through apatheia (Gr: απαθεια), that is, being objective and having "clear judgement", not indifference. Stoicism's prime directives are virtue, reason, and natural law, abided to develop personal self-control and mental fortitude as means of overcoming destructive emotions. The Stoic does not seek to extinguish emotions, only to avoid emotional troubles, by developing clear judgment and inner calm through diligently practiced logic, reflection, and concentration. The Stoic ethical foundation is that "good lies in the state of the soul", itself, exemplified in wisdom and self-control, thus improving one's spiritual well-being: "Virtue consists in a will which is in agreement with Nature." The principle applies to one's personal relations thus: "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy". Enlightenment philosophy The Enlightenment and the colonial era both changed the nature of European philosophy and exported it worldwide. Devotion and subservience to God were largely replaced by notions of inalienable natural rights and the potentialities of reason, and universal ideals of love and compassion gave way to civic notions of freedom, equality, and citizenship. The meaning of life changed as well, focusing less on humankind's relationship to God and more on the relationship between individuals and their society. This era is filled with theories that equate meaningful existence with the social order. Classical liberalism Classical liberalism is a set of ideas that arose in the 17th and 18th centuries, out of conflicts between a growing, wealthy, propertied class and the established aristocratic and religious orders that dominated Europe. Liberalism cast humans as beings with inalienable natural rights (including the right to retain the wealth generated by one's own work), and sought out means to balance rights across society. Broadly speaking, it considers individual liberty to be the most important goal, because only through ensured liberty are the other inherent rights protected. There are many forms and derivations of liberalism, but their central conceptions of the meaning of life trace back to three main ideas. Early thinkers such as John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Adam Smith saw humankind beginning in the state of nature, then finding meaning for existence through labor and property, and using social contracts to create an environment that supports those efforts. Kantianism Kantianism is a philosophy based on the ethical, epistemological, and metaphysical works of Immanuel Kant. Kant is known for his deontological theory where there is a single moral obligation, the "Categorical Imperative", derived from the concept of duty. Kantians believe all actions are performed in accordance with some underlying maxim or principle, and for actions to be ethical, they must adhere to the categorical imperative. Simply put, the test is that one must universalize the maxim (imagine that all people acted in this way) and then see if it would still be possible to perform the maxim in the world without contradiction. In Groundwork, Kant gives the example of a person who seeks to borrow money without intending to pay it back. This is a contradiction because if it were a universal action, no person would lend money anymore as he knows that he will never be paid back. The maxim of this action, says Kant, results in a contradiction in conceivability (and thus contradicts perfect duty). Kant also denied that the consequences of an act in any way contribute to the moral worth of that act, his reasoning being that the physical world is outside one's full control and thus one cannot be held accountable for the events that occur in it. 19th-century philosophy Utilitarianism The origins of utilitarianism can be traced back as far as Epicurus, but, as a school of thought, it is credited to Jeremy Bentham, who found that "nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure"; then, from that moral insight, he derived the Rule of Utility: "that the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people". He defined the meaning of life as the "greatest happiness principle". Jeremy Bentham's foremost proponent was James Mill, a significant philosopher in his day, and father of John Stuart Mill. The younger Mill was educated per Bentham's principles, including transcribing and summarizing much of his father's work. Nihilism Nihilism suggests that life is without objective meaning. Friedrich Nietzsche characterized nihilism as emptying the world, and especially human existence, of meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, and essential value; succinctly, nihilism is the process of "the devaluing of the highest values". Seeing the nihilist as a natural result of the idea that God is dead, and insisting it was something to overcome, his questioning of the nihilist's life-negating values returned meaning to the Earth. To Martin Heidegger, nihilism is the movement whereby "being" is forgotten, and is transformed into value, in other words, the reduction of being to exchange value. Heidegger, in accordance with Nietzsche, saw in the so-called "death of God" a potential source for nihilism: If God, as the supra-sensory ground and goal, of all reality, is dead; if the supra-sensory world of the Ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory, and above it, its vitalizing and up-building power, then nothing more remains to which Man can cling, and by which he can orient himself. The French philosopher Albert Camus asserts that the absurdity of the human condition is that people search for external values and meaning in a world which has none and is indifferent to them. Camus writes of value-nihilists such as Meursault, but also of values in a nihilistic world, that people can instead strive to be "heroic nihilists", living with dignity in the face of absurdity, living with "secular saintliness", fraternal solidarity, and rebelling against and transcending the world's indifference. 20th-century philosophy The current era has seen radical changes in both formal and popular conceptions of human nature. The knowledge disclosed by modern science has effectively rewritten the relationship of humankind to the natural world. Advances in medicine and technology have freed humans from significant limitations and ailments of previous eras; and philosophy—particularly following the linguistic turn—has altered how the relationships people have with themselves and each other are conceived. Questions about the meaning of life have also seen radical changes, from attempts to reevaluate human existence in biological and scientific terms (as in pragmatism and logical positivism) to efforts to meta-theorize about meaning-making as a personal, individual-driven activity (existentialism, secular humanism). Pragmatism Pragmatism originated in the late-19th-century US, concerning itself (mostly) with truth, and positing that "only in struggling with the environment" do data, and derived theories, have meaning, and that consequences, like utility and practicality, are also components of truth. Moreover, pragmatism posits that anything useful and practical is not always true, arguing that what most contributes to the most human good in the long course is true. In practice, theoretical claims must be practically verifiable, i.e. one should be able to predict and test claims, and, that, ultimately, the needs of humankind should guide human intellectual inquiry. Pragmatic philosophers suggest that the practical, useful understanding of life is more important than searching for an impractical abstract truth about life. William James argued that truth could be made, but not sought. To a pragmatist, the meaning of life is discoverable only via experience. Theism Theists believe God created the universe and that God had a purpose in doing so. Theists also hold the view that humans find their meaning and purpose for life in God's purpose in creating. Theists further hold that if there were no God to give life ultimate meaning, value, and purpose, then life would be absurd. Existentialism According to existentialism, each person creates the essence (meaning) of their life; life is not determined by a supernatural god or an earthly authority, one is free. As such, one's ethical prime directives are action, freedom, and decision, thus, existentialism opposes rationalism and positivism. In seeking meaning to life, the existentialist looks to where people find meaning in life, in course of which using only reason as a source of meaning is insufficient; this gives rise to the emotions of anxiety and dread, felt in considering one's free will, and the concomitant awareness of death. According to Jean-Paul Sartre, existence precedes essence; the (essence) of one's life arises only after one comes to existence. Søren Kierkegaard spoke about a "leap", arguing that life is full of absurdity, and one must make his and her own values in an indifferent world. One can live meaningfully (free of despair and anxiety) in an unconditional commitment to something finite and devotes that meaningful life to the commitment, despite the vulnerability inherent to doing so. Arthur Schopenhauer answered: "What is the meaning of life?" by stating that one's life reflects one's will, and that the will (life) is an aimless, irrational, and painful drive. Salvation, deliverance, and escape from suffering are in aesthetic contemplation, sympathy for others, and asceticism. For Friedrich Nietzsche, life is worth living only if there are goals inspiring one to live. Accordingly, he saw nihilism ("all that happens is meaningless") as without goals. He stated that asceticism denies one's living in the world; stated that values are not objective facts, that are rationally necessary, universally binding commitments: our evaluations are interpretations, and not reflections of the world, as it is, in itself, and, therefore, all ideations take place from a particular perspective. Absurdism In absurdist philosophy, the Absurd arises out of the fundamental disharmony between the individual's search for meaning and the apparent meaninglessness of the universe. As beings looking for meaning in a meaningless world, humans have three ways of resolving the dilemma. Kierkegaard and Camus describe the solutions in their works, The Sickness Unto Death (1849) and The Myth of Sisyphus (1942): Suicide (or, "escaping existence"): a solution in which a person simply ends one's own life. Both Kierkegaard and Camus dismiss the viability of this option. Religious belief in a transcendent realm or being: a solution in which one believes in the existence of a reality that is beyond the Absurd, and, as such, has meaning. Kierkegaard stated that a belief in anything beyond the Absurd requires a non-rational but perhaps necessary religious acceptance in such an intangible and empirically unprovable thing (now commonly referred to as a "leap of faith"). However, Camus regarded this solution as "philosophical suicide". Acceptance of the Absurd: a solution in which one accepts and even embraces the Absurd and continues to live in spite of it. Camus endorsed this solution (notably in his 1947 allegorical novel The Plague or La Peste), while Kierkegaard regarded this solution as "demoniac madness": "He rages most of all at the thought that eternity might get it into its head to take his misery from him!" Secular humanism Per secular humanism, the human species came to be by reproducing successive generations in a progression of unguided evolution as an integral expression of nature, which is self-existing. Human knowledge comes from human observation, experimentation, and rational analysis (the scientific method), and not from supernatural sources; the nature of the universe is what people discern it to be. Likewise, "values and realities" are determined "by means of intelligent inquiry" and "are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience", that is, by critical intelligence. "As far as we know, the total personality is [a function] of the biological organism transacting in a social and cultural context." People determine human purpose without supernatural influence; it is the human personality (general sense) that is the purpose of a human being's life. Humanism seeks to develop and fulfill: "Humanism affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity". Humanism aims to promote enlightened self-interest and the common good for all people. It is based on the premises that the happiness of the individual person is inextricably linked to the well-being of all humanity, in part because humans are social animals who find meaning in personal relations and because cultural progress benefits everybody living in the culture. The philosophical subgenres posthumanism and transhumanism (sometimes used synonymously) are extensions of humanistic values. One should seek the advancement of humanity and of all life to the greatest degree feasible and seek to reconcile Renaissance humanism with the 21st century's technoscientific culture. In this light, every living creature has the right to determine its personal and social "meaning of life". From a humanism-psychotherapeutic point of view, the question of the meaning of life could be reinterpreted as "What is the meaning of my life?" This approach emphasizes that the question is personal—and avoids focusing on cosmic or religious questions about overarching purpose. There are many therapeutic responses to this question. For example, Viktor Frankl argues for "Dereflection", which translates largely as cease endlessly reflecting on the self; instead, engage in life. On the whole, the therapeutic response is that the question itself—what is the meaning of life?—evaporates when one is fully engaged in life. (The question then morphs into more specific worries such as "What delusions am I under?"; "What is blocking my ability to enjoy things?"; "Why do I neglect loved-ones?".) Logical positivism Logical positivists ask: "What is the meaning of life?", "What is the meaning in asking?" and "If there are no objective values, then, is life meaningless?" Ludwig Wittgenstein and the logical positivists said: "Expressed in language, the question is meaningless"; because, in life the statement the "meaning of x", usually denotes the consequences of x, or the significance of x, or what is notable about x, etc., thus, when the meaning of life concept equals "x", in the statement the "meaning of x", the statement becomes recursive, and, therefore, nonsensical, or it might refer to the fact that biological life is essential to having a meaning in life. The things (people, events) in the life of a person can have meaning (importance) as parts of a whole, but a discrete meaning of (the) life, itself, aside from those things, cannot be discerned. A person's life has meaning (for themselves, others) as the life events resulting from their achievements, legacy, family, etc., but, to say that life, itself, has meaning, is a misuse of language, since any note of significance, or of consequence, is relevant only in life (to the living), so rendering the statement erroneous. Bertrand Russell wrote that although he found that his distaste for torture was not like his distaste for broccoli, he found no satisfactory, empirical method of proving this: When we try to be definite, as to what we mean when we say that this or that is "the Good," we find ourselves involved in very great difficulties. Bentham's creed, that pleasure is the Good, roused furious opposition, and was said to be a pig's philosophy. Neither he nor his opponents could advance any argument. In a scientific question, evidence can be adduced on both sides, and, in the end, one side is seen to have the better case—or, if this does not happen, the question is left undecided. But in a question, as to whether this, or that, is the ultimate Good, there is no evidence, either way; each disputant can only appeal to his own emotions, and employ such rhetorical devices as shall arouse similar emotions in others ... Questions as to "values"—that is to say, as to what is good or bad on its own account, independently of its effects—lie outside the domain of science, as the defenders of religion emphatically assert. I think that, in this, they are right, but, I draw the further conclusion, which they do not draw, that questions as to "values" lie wholly outside the domain of knowledge. That is to say, when we assert that this, or that, has "value", we are giving expression to our own emotions, not to a fact, which would still be true if our personal feelings were different. Postmodernism Postmodernist thought—broadly speaking—sees human nature as constructed by language, or by structures and institutions of human society. Unlike other forms of philosophy, postmodernism rarely seeks out a priori or innate meanings in human existence, but instead focuses on analyzing or critiquing given meanings in order to rationalize or reconstruct them. Anything resembling a "meaning of life", in postmodernist terms, can only be understood within a social and linguistic framework and must be pursued as an escape from the power structures that are already embedded in all forms of speech and interaction. As a rule, postmodernists see awareness of the constraints of language as necessary to escaping those constraints, but different theorists take different views on the nature of this process: from a radical reconstruction of meaning by individuals (as in deconstructionism) to theories in which individuals are primarily extensions of language and society, without real autonomy (as in poststructuralism). Naturalistic pantheism According to naturalistic pantheism, the meaning of life is to care for and look after nature and the environment. Embodied cognition Embodied cognition uses the neurological basis of emotion, speech, and cognition to understand the nature of thought. Cognitive neuropsychology has identified brain areas necessary for these abilities, and genetic studies show that the gene FOXP2 affects neuroplasticity which underlies language fluency. George Lakoff, a professor of cognitive linguistics and philosophy, advances the view that metaphors are the usual basis of meaning, not the logic of verbal symbol manipulation. Computers use logic programming to effectively query databases but humans rely on a trained biological neural network. Postmodern philosophies that use the indeterminacy of symbolic language to deny definite meaning ignore those who feel they know what they mean and feel that their interlocutors know what they mean. Choosing the correct metaphor results in enough common understanding to pursue questions such as the meaning of life. Improved knowledge of brain function should result in better treatments producing healthier brains. When combined with more effective training, a sound personal assessment as to the meaning of one's life should be straightforward. East Asian philosophical perspectives Mohism The Mohist philosophers believed that the purpose of life was universal, impartial love. Mohism promoted a philosophy of impartial caring—a person should care equally for all other individuals, regardless of their actual relationship to him or her. The expression of this indiscriminate caring is what makes a man a righteous being in Mohist thought. This advocacy of impartiality was a target of attack by the other Chinese philosophical schools, most notably the Confucians who believed that while love should be unconditional, it should not be indiscriminate. For example, children should hold a greater love for their parents than for random strangers. Confucianism Confucianism recognizes human nature in accordance with the need for discipline and education. Because humankind is driven by both positive and negative influences, Confucianists see a goal in achieving virtue through strong relationships and reasoning as well as minimizing the negative. This emphasis on normal living is seen in the Confucianist scholar Tu Wei-Ming's quote, "we can realize the ultimate meaning of life in ordinary human existence." Legalism The Legalists believed that finding the purpose of life was a meaningless effort. To the Legalists, only practical knowledge was valuable, especially as it related to the function and performance of the state. Religious perspectives The religious perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies that explain life in terms of an implicit purpose not defined by humans. According to the Charter for Compassion, signed by many of the world's leading religious and secular organizations, the core of religion is the golden rule of 'treat others as you would have them treat you'. The Charter's founder, Karen Armstrong, quotes the ancient Rabbi Hillel who suggested that 'the rest is commentary'. This is not to reduce the commentary's importance, and Armstrong considers that its study, interpretation, and ritual are the means by which religious people internalize and live the golden rule. Abrahamic religions Judaism In the Judaic world view, the meaning of life is to elevate the physical world ('Olam HaZeh') and prepare it for the world to come ('Olam HaBa'), the messianic era. This is called Tikkun Olam ("Fixing the World"). Olam HaBa can also mean the spiritual afterlife, and there is debate concerning the eschatological order. However, Judaism is not focused on personal salvation, but on communal (between man and man) and individual (between man and God) spiritualised actions in this world. Judaism's most important feature is the worship of a single, incomprehensible, transcendent, one, indivisible, absolute Being, who created and governs the universe. Closeness with the God of Israel is through a study of His Torah, and adherence to its mitzvot (divine laws). In traditional Judaism, God established a special covenant with a people, the people of Israel, at Mount Sinai, giving the Jewish commandments. Torah comprises the written Pentateuch and the transcribed oral tradition, further developed through the generations. The Jewish people are intended as "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation" and a "light to the Nations", influencing the other peoples to keep their own religio-ethical Seven Laws of Noah. The messianic era is seen as the perfection of this dual path to God. Jewish observances involve ethical and ritual, affirmative, and prohibitive injunctions. Modern Jewish denominations differ over the nature, relevance, and emphases of mitzvot. Jewish philosophy emphasises that God is not affected or benefited, but the individual and society benefit by drawing close to God. The rationalist Maimonides sees the ethical and ritual divine commandments as a necessary, but insufficient preparation for philosophical understanding of God, with its love and awe. Among fundamental values in the Torah are pursuit of justice, compassion, peace, kindness, hard work, prosperity, humility, and education. The world to come, prepared in the present, elevates man to an everlasting connection with God. Simeon the Righteous says, "the world stands on three things: on Torah, on worship, and on acts of loving kindness." The prayer book relates, "blessed is our God who created us for his honor...and planted within us everlasting life." Of this context, the Talmud states, "everything that God does is for the good," including suffering. The Jewish mystical Kabbalah gives complementary esoteric meanings of life. As well as Judaism providing an immanent relationship with God (personal theism), in Kabbalah the spiritual and physical creation is a paradoxical manifestation of the immanent aspects of God's Being (panentheism), related to the Shekhinah (Divine feminine). Jewish observance unites the sephirot (Divine attributes) on high, restoring harmony to creation. In Lurianic Kabbalah, the meaning of life is the messianic rectification of the shattered sparks of God's persona, exiled in physical existence (the Kelipot shells), through the actions of Jewish observance. Through this, in Hasidic Judaism the ultimate essential "desire" of God is the revelation of the Omnipresent Divine essence through materiality, achieved by a man from within his limited physical realm when the body will give life to the soul. Christianity Christianity has its roots in Judaism, and shares much of the latter faith's ontology. Its central beliefs derive from the teachings of Jesus Christ as presented in the New Testament. Life's purpose in Christianity is to seek divine salvation through the grace of God and intercession of Christ. The New Testament speaks of God wanting to have a relationship with humans both in this life and the life to come, which can happen only if one's sins are forgiven. In the Christian view, humankind was made in the Image of God and perfect, but the Fall of Man caused the progeny of the first Parents to inherit Original Sin and its consequences. Christ's passion, death and resurrection provide the means for transcending that impure state (Romans 6:23). The good news that this restoration from sin is now possible is called the gospel. The specific process of appropriating salvation through Christ and maintaining a relationship with God varies between different denominations of Christians, but all rely on faith in Christ and the gospel as the fundamental starting point. Salvation through faith in God is found in Ephesians 2:8–9 – "[8]For by grace you have been saved through faith; and that not of yourselves, it is the gift of God; [9]not as a result of works, that no one should boast" (NASB; 1973). The gospel maintains that through this belief, the barrier that sin has created between man and God is destroyed, thereby allowing God to regenerate (change) the believer and instill in them a new heart after God's own will with the ability to live righteously before him. This is what the terms Born again or saved almost always refer to. In the Westminster Shorter Catechism, the first question is: "What is the chief end of Man?" (that is, "What is Man's main purpose?"). The answer is: "Man's chief end is to glorify God, and enjoy him forever". God requires one to obey the revealed moral law, saying: "love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your strength, and with all your mind; and your neighbour as yourself". The Baltimore Catechism answers the question "Why did God make you?" by saying "God made me to know Him, to love Him, and to serve Him in this world, and to be happy with Him forever in heaven." The Apostle Paul also answers this question in his speech on the Areopagus in Athens: "And He has made from one blood every nation of men to dwell on all the face of the earth, and has determined their preappointed times and the boundaries of their dwellings, so that they should seek the Lord, in the hope that they might grope for Him and find Him, though He is not far from each one of us." Catholicism's way of thinking is better expressed through the Principle and Foundation of St. Ignatius of Loyola: "The human person is created to praise, reverence, and serve God Our Lord, and by doing so, to save his or her soul. All other things on the face of the earth are created for human beings in order to help them pursue the end for which they are created. It follows from this that one must use other created things, in so far as they help towards one's end, and free oneself from them, in so far as they are obstacles to one's end. To do this, we need to make ourselves indifferent to all created things, provided the matter is subject to our free choice and there is no other prohibition. Thus, as far as we are concerned, we should not want health more than illness, wealth more than poverty, fame more than disgrace, a-long life more than a short one, and similarly for all the rest, but we should desire and choose only what helps us more towards the end for which we are created." Mormonism teaches that the purpose of life on Earth is to gain knowledge and experience and to have joy. Mormons believe that humans are literally the spirit children of God the Father, and thus have the potential to progress to become like Him. Mormons teach that God provided his children the choice to come to Earth, which is considered a crucial stage in their development—wherein a mortal body, coupled with the freedom to choose, makes for an environment to learn and grow. The Fall of Adam is not viewed as an unfortunate or unplanned cancellation of God's original plan for a paradise; rather, the opposition found in mortality is an essential element of God's plan because the process of enduring and overcoming challenges, difficulties, and temptations provides opportunities to gain wisdom and strength, thereby learning to appreciate and choose good and reject evil. Because God is just, he allows those who were not taught the gospel during mortality to receive it after death in the spirit world, so that all of his children have the opportunity to return to live with God, and reach their full potential. A recent alternative Christian theological discourse interprets Jesus as revealing that the purpose of life is to elevate our compassionate response to human suffering; nonetheless, the conventional Christian position is that people are justified by belief in the propitiatory sacrifice of Jesus' death on the cross. Islam In Islam, humanity's ultimate purpose is to worship their creator, Allah (), through his signs, and be grateful to him through sincere love and devotion. This is practically shown by following the divine guidelines revealed in the Qur'an and the tradition of the Prophet (for non-koranist). Earthly life is a test, determining one's position of closeness to Allah in the hereafter. A person will either be close to him and his love in Jannah (Paradise) or far away in Jahannam (Hell). For Allah's satisfaction, via the Qur'an, all Muslims must believe in God, his revelations, his angels, his messengers, and in the "Day of Judgment". The Qur'an describes the purpose of creation as follows: "Blessed be he in whose hand is the kingdom, he is powerful over all things, who created death and life that he might examine which of you is best in deeds, and he is the almighty, the forgiving" (Qur'an 67:1–2) and "And I (Allâh) created not the jinn and mankind except that they should be obedient (to Allah)." (Qur'an 51:56). Obedience testifies to the oneness of God in his lordship, his names, and his attributes. Terrenal life is a test; how one acts (behaves) determines whether one's soul goes to Jannat (Heaven) or to Jahannam (Hell). However, on the day of Judgement the final decision is of Allah alone. The Five Pillars of Islam are duties incumbent to every Muslim; they are: Shahadah (profession of faith); salat (ritual prayer); Zakah (charity); Sawm (fasting during Ramadan), and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca). They derive from the Hadith works, notably of Sahih Al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. The five pillars are not mentioned directly in the Quran. Beliefs differ among the Kalam. The Sunni and the Ahmadiyya concept of pre-destination is divine decree; likewise, the Shi'a concept of pre-destination is divine justice; in the esoteric view of the Sufis, the universe exists only for God's pleasure; Creation is a grand game, wherein Allah is the greatest prize. The Sufi view of the meaning of life stems from the hadith qudsi that states "I (God) was a Hidden Treasure and loved to be known. Therefore I created the Creation that I might be known." One possible interpretation of this view is that the meaning of life for an individual is to know the nature of God, and the purpose of all of creation is to reveal that nature and to prove its value as the ultimate treasure, that is God. However, this hadith is stated in various forms and interpreted in various ways by people, such, as 'Abdu'l-Bahá of the Baháʼí Faith, and in Ibn'Arabī's Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam. Baháʼí Faith The Baháʼí Faith emphasizes the unity of humanity. To Baháʼís, the purpose of life is focused on spiritual growth and service to humanity. Human beings are viewed as intrinsically spiritual beings. People's lives in this material world provide extended opportunities to grow, to develop divine qualities and virtues, and the prophets were sent by God to facilitate this. South Asian religions Hindu philosophies Hinduism is a religious category including many beliefs and traditions. Since Hinduism was the way of expressing meaningful living for a long time before there was a need for naming it as a separate religion, Hindu doctrines are supplementary and complementary in nature, generally non-exclusive, suggestive, and tolerant in content. Most believe that the ātman (spirit, soul)—the person's true self—is eternal. In part, this stems from Hindu beliefs that spiritual development occurs across many lifetimes, and goals should match the state of development of the individual. There are four possible aims to human life, known as the purusharthas (ordered from least to greatest): (i)Kāma (wish, desire, love and sensual pleasure), (ii)Artha (wealth, prosperity, glory), (iii)Dharma (righteousness, duty, morality, virtue, ethics), encompassing notions such as ahimsa (non-violence) and satya (truth) and (iv)Moksha (liberation, i.e. liberation from Saṃsāra, the cycle of reincarnation). In all schools of Hinduism, the meaning of life is tied up in the concepts of karma (causal action), sansara (the cycle of birth and rebirth), and moksha (liberation). Existence is conceived as the progression of the ātman (similar to the western concept of a soul) across numerous lifetimes, and its ultimate progression towards liberation from karma. Particular goals for life are generally subsumed under broader yogas (practices) or dharma (correct living) which are intended to create more favorable reincarnations, though they are generally positive acts in this life as well. Traditional schools of Hinduism often worship Devas which are manifestations of Ishvara (a personal or chosen God); these Devas are taken as ideal forms to be identified with, as a form of spiritual improvement. In short, the goal is to realize the fundamental truth about oneself. This thought is conveyed in the Mahāvākyas ("Tat Tvam Asi" (thou art that), "Aham Brahmāsmi", "Prajñānam Brahma" and "Ayam Ātmā Brahma" (the soul and the world are one)). Advaita and Dvaita Hinduism Later schools reinterpreted the vedas to focus on Brahman, "The One Without a Second", as a central God-like figure. In monist Advaita Vedanta, ātman is ultimately indistinguishable from Brahman, and the goal of life is to know or realize that one's ātman (soul) is identical to Brahman. To the Upanishads, whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman, as one's core of self, realizes identity with Brahman, and, thereby, achieves Moksha (liberation, freedom). Dvaita Vedanta and other bhakti schools have a dualist interpretation. Brahman is seen as a supreme being with a personality and manifest qualities. The ātman depends upon Brahman for its existence; the meaning of life is achieving Moksha through the love of God and upon His grace. Vaishnavism Vaishnavism is a branch of Hinduism in which the principal belief is the identification of Vishnu or Narayana as the one supreme God. This belief contrasts with the Krishna-centered traditions, such as Vallabha, Nimbaraka and Gaudiya, in which Krishna is considered to be the One and only Supreme God and the source of all avataras. Vaishnava theology includes the central beliefs of Hinduism such as monotheism, reincarnation, samsara, karma, and the various Yoga systems, but with a particular emphasis on devotion (bhakti) to Vishnu through the process of Bhakti yoga, often including singing Vishnu's name's (bhajan), meditating upon his form (dharana) and performing deity worship (puja). The practices of deity worship are primarily based on texts such as Pañcaratra and various Samhitas. One popular school of thought, Gaudiya Vaishnavism, teaches the concept of Achintya Bheda Abheda. In this, Krishna is worshipped as the single true God, and all living entities are eternal parts and the Supreme Personality of the Godhead Krishna. Thus the constitutional position of a living entity is to serve the Lord with love and devotion. The purpose of human life especially is to think beyond the animalistic way of eating, sleeping, mating, and defending and engage the higher intelligence to revive the lost relationship with Krishna. Jainism Jainism is a religion originating in ancient India, its ethical system promotes self-discipline above all else. Through following the ascetic teachings of Jina, a human achieves enlightenment (perfect knowledge). Jainism divides the universe into living and non-living beings. Only when the living becomes attached to the non-living does suffering result. Therefore, happiness is the result of self-conquest and freedom from external objects. The meaning of life may then be said to be to use the physical body to achieve self-realization and bliss. Jains believe that every human is responsible for his or her actions and all living beings have an eternal soul, jiva. Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attaining Moksha. The Jain view of karma is that every action, every word, every thought produces, besides its visible, and invisible, the transcendental effect on the soul. Jainism includes strict adherence to ahimsa (or ahinsā), a form of nonviolence that goes far beyond vegetarianism. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many practice a lifestyle similar to veganism due to the violence of modern dairy farms, and others exclude root vegetables from their diets in order to preserve the lives of the plants from which they eat. Buddhism Earlier Buddhism Buddhists practice embracing mindfulness the ill-being (suffering) and well-being that is present in life. Buddhists practice seeing the causes of ill-being and well-being in life. For example, one of the causes of suffering is an unhealthy attachment to objects material or non-material. The Buddhist sūtras and tantras do not speak about "the meaning of life" or "the purpose of life", but about the potential of human life to end suffering, for example through embracing (not suppressing or denying) cravings and conceptual attachments. Attaining and perfecting dispassion is a process of many levels that ultimately results in the state of Nirvana. Nirvana means freedom from both suffering and rebirth. Theravada Buddhism is generally considered to be close to the early Buddhist practice. It promotes the concept of Vibhajjavada (Pali), literally "Teaching of Analysis", which says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. However, the Theravadin tradition also emphasizes heeding the advice of the wise, considering such advice and evaluation of one's own experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be judged. The Theravadin goal is liberation (or freedom) from suffering, according to the Four Noble Truths. This is attained in the achievement of Nirvana, or Unbinding which also ends the repeated cycle of birth, old age, sickness, and death. The way to attain Nirvana is by following and practicing the Noble Eightfold Path. Mahayana Buddhism Mahayana Buddhist schools de-emphasize the traditional view (still practiced in Theravada) of the release from individual Suffering (Dukkha) and attainment of Awakening (Nirvana). In Mahayana, the Buddha is seen as an eternal, immutable, inconceivable, omnipresent being. The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine are based on the possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings, and the existence of the transcendent Buddha-nature, which is the eternal Buddha essence present, but hidden and unrecognised, in all living beings. Philosophical schools of Mahayana Buddhism, such as Chan/Zen and the vajrayana Tibetan and Shingon schools, explicitly teach that bodhisattvas should refrain from full liberation, allowing themselves to be reincarnated into the world until all beings achieve enlightenment. Devotional schools such as Pure Land Buddhism seek the aid of celestial buddhas—individuals who have spent lifetimes accumulating positive karma, and use that accumulation to aid all. Sikhism The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the ten Sikh Gurus, or enlightened leaders, as well as the holy scripture entitled the Gurū Granth Sāhib, which includes selected works of many philosophers from diverse socio-economic and religious backgrounds. The Sikh Gurus say that salvation can be obtained by following various spiritual paths, so Sikhs do not have a monopoly on salvation: "The Lord dwells in every heart, and every heart has its own way to reach Him." Sikhs believe that all people are equally important before God. Sikhs balance their moral and spiritual values with the quest for knowledge, and they aim to promote a life of peace and equality but also of positive action. A key distinctive feature of Sikhism is a non-anthropomorphic concept of God, to the extent that one can interpret God as the Universe itself (pantheism). Sikhism thus sees life as an opportunity to understand this God as well as to discover the divinity which lies in each individual. While a full understanding of God is beyond human beings, Nanak described God as not wholly unknowable, and stressed that God must be seen from "the inward eye", or the "heart", of a human being: devotees must meditate to progress towards enlightenment and the ultimate destination of a Sikh is to lose the ego completely in the love of the lord and finally merge into the almighty creator. Nanak emphasized the revelation through meditation, as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings. East Asian religions Taoism Taoist cosmogony emphasizes the need for all sentient beings and all men to return to the primordial or to rejoin with the Oneness of the Universe by way of self-cultivation and self-realization. All adherents should understand and be in tune with the ultimate truth. Taoists believe all things were originally from Taiji and Tao, and the meaning in life for the adherents is to realize the temporal nature of the existence. "Only introspection can then help us to find our innermost reasons for living ... the simple answer is here within ourselves." Shinto Shinto is the native religion of Japan. Shinto means "the path of the kami", but more specifically, it can be taken to mean "the divine crossroad where the kami chooses his way". The "divine" crossroad signifies that all the universe is divine spirit. This foundation of free will, choosing one's way, means that life is a creative process. Shinto wants life to live, not to die. Shinto sees death as pollution and regards life as the realm where the divine spirit seeks to purify itself by rightful self-development. Shinto wants individual human life to be prolonged forever on earth as a victory of the divine spirit in preserving its objective personality in its highest forms. The presence of evil in the world, as conceived by Shinto, does not stultify the divine nature by imposing on divinity responsibility for being able to relieve human suffering while refusing to do so. The sufferings of life are the sufferings of the divine spirit in search of progress in the objective world. New religions There are many new religious movements in East Asia, and some with millions of followers: Chondogyo, Tenrikyo, Cao Đài, and Seicho-No-Ie. New religions typically have unique explanations for the meaning of life. For example, in Tenrikyo, one is expected to live a Joyous Life by participating in practices that create happiness for oneself and others. Iranian religions Zoroastrianism Zoroastrians believe in a universe created by a transcendental God, Ahura Mazda, to whom all worship is ultimately directed. Ahura Mazda's creation is asha, truth and order, and it is in conflict with its antithesis, druj, falsehood and disorder. Since humanity possesses free will, people must be responsible for their moral choices. By using free will, people must take an active role in the universal conflict, with good thoughts, good words and good deeds to ensure happiness and to keep chaos at bay. Popular views "What is the meaning of life?" is a question many people ask themselves at some point during their lives, most in the context "What is the purpose of life?". Some popular answers include: To realize one's potential and ideals To chase dreams. To live one's dreams. To spend it for something that will outlast it. To matter: to count, to stand for something, to have made some difference that you lived at all. To expand one's potential in life. To become the person you've always wanted to be. To become the best version of yourself. To seek happiness and flourish. To be a true authentic human being. To be able to put the whole of oneself into one's feelings, one's work, one's beliefs. To follow or submit to our destiny. To achieve eudaimonia, a flourishing of human spirit. To achieve biological perfection To survive, that is, to live as long as possible, including pursuit of immortality (through scientific means). To live forever or die trying. To evolve. To replicate, to reproduce. "The 'dream' of every cell is to become two cells." To seek wisdom and knowledge To expand one's perception of the world. To follow the clues and walk out the exit. To learn as many things as possible in life. To know as much as possible about as many things as possible. To seek wisdom and knowledge and to tame the mind, as to avoid suffering caused by ignorance and find happiness. To face our fears and accept the lessons life offers us. To find the meaning or purpose of life. To find a reason to live. To resolve the imbalance of the mind by understanding the nature of reality. To do good, to do the right thing To leave the world as a better place than you found it. To do your best to leave every situation better than you found it. To benefit others. To give more than you take. To end suffering. To create equality. To challenge oppression. To distribute wealth. To be generous. To contribute to the well-being and spirit of others. To help others, to help one another. To take every chance to help another while on your journey here. To be creative and innovative. To forgive. To accept and forgive human flaws. To be emotionally sincere. To be responsible. To be honorable. To seek peace. Meanings relating to religion To reach the highest heaven and be at the heart of the Divine. To have a pure soul and experience God. To understand the mystery of God. To know or attain union with God. To know oneself, know others, and know the will of heaven. To love something bigger, greater, and beyond ourselves, something we did not create or have the power to create, something intangible and made holy by our very belief in it. To love God and all of his creations. To glorify God by enjoying him forever. To spread your religion and share it with others. () To act justly, love mercy, and walk humbly with your God. To be fruitful and multiply. () To obtain freedom. () To fill the Earth and subdue it. () To serve humankind, to prepare to meet and become more like God, to choose good over evil, and have joy. [He] [God] who created death and life to test you [as to] who is best in deed and He is Exalted in Might, the Forgiving. () To worship God and enter heaven in afterlife. To love, to feel, to enjoy the act of living To love more. To love those who mean the most. Every life you touch will touch you back. To treasure every enjoyable sensation one has. To seek beauty in all its forms. To have fun or enjoy life. To seek pleasure and avoid pain. To be compassionate. To be moved by the tears and pain of others, and try to help them out of love and compassion. To love others as best we possibly can. To eat, drink, and be merry. To have power, to be better To strive for power and superiority. To rule the world. To know and master the world. To know and master nature. Life has no meaning Life or human existence has no real meaning or purpose because human existence occurred out of a random chance in nature, and anything that exists by chance has no intended purpose. Life has no meaning, but as humans we try to associate a meaning or purpose so we can justify our existence. There is no point in life, and that is exactly what makes it so special. One should not seek to know and understand the meaning of life The answer to the meaning of life is too profound to be known and understood. You will never live if you are looking for the meaning of life. The meaning of life is to forget about the search for the meaning of life. Ultimately, a person should not ask what the meaning of their life is, but rather must recognize that it is they themselves who are asked. In a word, each person is questioned by life; and they can only answer to life by answering for their own life; to life they can only respond by being responsible. In popular culture The mystery of life and its true meaning is an often recurring subject in popular culture, featured in entertainment media and various forms of art. Monty Python's The Meaning of Life includes a character played by Michael Palin is handed an envelope containing "the meaning of life", which she opens and reads out to the audience: "Well, it's nothing very special. Uh, try to be nice to people, avoid eating fat, read a good book every now and then, get some walking in, and try to live together in peace and harmony with people of all creeds and nations." In Douglas Adams' book The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, the Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and Everything is given the numeric solution "42", after seven and a half million years of calculation by a giant supercomputer called Deep Thought. When this answer is met with confusion and anger from its constructors, Deep Thought explains that "I think the problem such as it was, was too broadly based. You never actually stated what the question was." Deep Thought then constructs another computer—the Earth—to calculate what the Ultimate Question actually is. Later Ford and Arthur manage to extract the question as the Earth computer would have rendered it. That question turns out to be "what do you get if you multiply six by nine", and it is realised that the program was ruined by the unexpected arrival of the Golgafrinchans on Earth, and so the actual Ultimate Question of Life, The Universe, And Everything remains unknown. In Person of Interest season 5 episode 13, an artificial intelligence referred to as The Machine tells Harold Finch that the secret of life is "Everyone dies alone. But if you mean something to someone, if you help someone, or love someone. If even a single person remembers you then maybe you never really die at all." This phrase is then repeated at the very end of the show to add emphasis to the finale. See also Scientific explanations Origin and nature of life and reality Value of life Purpose of life Miscellaneous References External links Meaning of Life: The Analytic Perspective article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy The Meaning of Life in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Ancient Greek philosophical concepts Axiological theories Axiology Concepts in aesthetics Concepts in epistemology Concepts in ethics Concepts in metaphilosophy Concepts in metaphysics Concepts in social philosophy Concepts in the philosophy of mind Concepts in the philosophy of science Critical thinking Epistemology Ethics Existentialism Existentialist concepts History of philosophy History of religion Intellectual history Meta-ethics Metaphilosophy Metaphysical theories Metaphysics Metaphysics of mind Morality Ontology Philosophical concepts Philosophical problems Philosophical theories Philosophy of life Philosophy of mind Religion and science Religious philosophical concepts Social philosophy Spirituality Value (ethics)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret%20River%2C%20Western%20Australia

Margaret River, Western Australia

Margaret River is a town in the South West of Western Australia, located in the valley of the eponymous Margaret River, south of Perth, the state capital. Its Local Government Area is the Shire of Augusta-Margaret River. Margaret River's coast to the west of the town is a renowned surfing location, with worldwide fame for its surf breaks including, but not limited to, Main Break, The Box, and Rivadog‘ aka breakline, or joeys nose. Colloquially, the area is referred to as Margs' or “maggot creek’ '. The surrounding area is the Margaret River Wine Region and is known for its wine production and tourism, attracting an estimated 500,000 visitors annually. In earlier days the area was better known for hardwood timber and agricultural production of the finest herbs in the southwest. Also wine. History The town is named after the river, which is presumed to be named after Margaret Whicher, cousin of John Garrett Bussell (founder of Busselton) in 1831. The name is first shown on a map of the region published in 1839. Before British settlement the area was inhabited by the Noongar people. The first British settlers arrived as early as 1850, with timber logging commencing in around 1870. By 1910, the town had a hotel which also operated as a post office. That year the Margaret River Progress Association requested that a townsite be declared at "the Upper Margaret Bridge", because "the district is likely to be dotted with public buildings several miles apart in the near future if a townsite is not made available shortly". The inspecting district surveyor had a preference for an area near the lower bridge on Caves Road, but his preferred site was unavailable. Lots were surveyed in 1912 and the townsite was gazetted in 1913. From 1918 to 1927 the name of the townsite was officially "Margaret" but it was changed back to "Margaret River" due to local usage. After World War I, an attempt by the Government of Western Australia to attract migrants to Western Australia (known as the Group Settlement Scheme) and establish farms in the region attracted new settlers to the town. In 1922 over 100 settlers moved into the district. In the early 1920s the Busselton to Margaret River Railway was built and in 1925 the Margaret River to Flinders Bay line opened. The Perimeter Road, a bypass to take traffic, including heavy vehicles, from Bussell Highway, to the east of the town, and also connect to a new access road to the nearby airport, was opened in December 2018 and completed in February 2019. Geography and climate Margaret River is located inland from the Indian Ocean at a point about halfway between Cape Naturaliste and Cape Leeuwin in Western Australia's South West region. The climate is warm-summer Mediterranean (Csb in the Köppen climate classification), with an average annual rainfall of around . Most rain falls between May and August, when around two days in three record measurable rainfall and around one in ten over . On occasions, as in August 1955, the town has had measurable rain on every day of a month in this period. During the summer, the weather is warm, though there are usually sea breezes, and frequently sunny. The dry summers, coupled with strong winds, creates an environment where there is always a high risk of bush fires. Wine region Margaret River is the foremost Geographical Indication wine region in the South West Australia Zone, with nearly under vine and over 138 wineries as at 2008. The region is made up predominantly of boutique-size wine producers, although winery operations range from the smallest, crushing per year, to the largest at around . The region produces just three percent of total Australian grape production, but commands over 20 percent of the Australian premium wine market. Stretching some from north to south and about wide in parts, the region is bounded to the east by the Leeuwin-Naturaliste Ridge, between Cape Naturaliste and Cape Leeuwin, and to the west by the Indian Ocean. A Mediterranean-style climate, lacking extreme summer and winter temperatures, provides ideal growing conditions. The climate is described as similar to that of Bordeaux in a dry vintage. Humidity levels are ideal during the growing period and the combination of climate, soil and viticulture practices leads to consistently high quality fruit of intense flavour. Consequently, annual vintage results continue to exceed expectations and reinforce Margaret River's reputation as one of the premium wine-producing regions of the world. The principal grape varieties in the region are fairly evenly split between red and white; Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Sauvignon blanc, Shiraz, Merlot, Chenin blanc and Verdelho. Caves Several hundred caves are located near Margaret River, all of them within Leeuwin-Naturaliste National Park. Six of these are open to the public. One of which being the multi-chambered Mammoth Cave, which lies south of the town and contains fossils dating back over 35,000 years. The cave was first discovered by European settlers in 1850 and has been open to the public since 1904. The cave can be explored by a self-guided audio tour, and is one of the few caves in Australia offering partial disabled access. The other five caves open to the public in the area are Jewel Cave, Lake Cave, Ngilgi Cave, Calgardup Cave and Giants Cave. Many other caves can be accessed with a permit by experienced cavers. Surfing breaks The Margaret River area has acquired a range of synonyms for the collection of surf breaks nearby, with some 75 breaks along of coastline. Usually significant surfing competitions concentrate their locale to Margarets Main Break (aka Surfers Point) which breaks in the vicinity of Prevelly at the mouth of Margaret River. The actual range of surf breaks range from the eastern side of Cape Naturaliste down to just south of Cape Hamelin, and despite web sites and online sources calling the whole Cape Naturaliste to Cape Leeuwin region the Margaret River surfing area, conditions and break types vary along the coast. The Cowaramup Bombora ("Cow Bombie") big wave surf break offshore produces one of the biggest waves in Australia. Education The town contains four primary schools, Margaret River Primary School, Rapids Landing Primary School, Margaret River Montessori School, and St Thomas More Catholic Primary School, and one high school, Margaret River Senior High School. In the media Arte-TV produced an episode of Nouveaux paradis about Margaret River. The 2008 documentary shows interviews with (amongst others) tourist officials, surfers, and dolphin watchers. Margaret River was also visited in the 1966 documentary film The Endless Summer. On 25 April 2009, on Sky television's Soccer AM, Hugh Jackman called Margaret River the best place he's ever been to, citing the surf, the beaches, the food, the wine, the people and the air as his reasons for thinking so. In 2013, many locals featured in the film Drift, starring Sam Worthington, as well as many surfing scenes being shot on location at local surf breaks. Surfing locations included popular breaks such as Grunters and Main Break. See also West Australian wine Great Southern (wine region) References Notes Bibliography External links Western Australia government tourist information (including map) The Rotary Club of Margaret River Popular guidebook App for the Margaret River Region (works offline) Coastal towns in Western Australia Towns in Western Australia Surfing locations in South West Western Australia Wine regions of Western Australia

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maginot%20Line

Maginot Line

The Maginot Line (, ), named after the French Minister of War André Maginot, is a line of concrete fortifications, obstacles and weapon installations built by France in the 1930s to deter invasion by Germany and force them to move around the fortifications. The Maginot Line was impervious to most forms of attack. In consequence, the Germans invaded through the Low Countries in 1940, passing it to the north. The line, which was supposed to be fully extended further towards the west to avoid such an occurrence, was finally scaled back in response to demands from Belgium, which feared it [Belgium] would be sacrificed in the event of another German invasion. The line has since become a metaphor for expensive efforts that offer a false sense of security. Constructed on the French side of its borders with Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Luxembourg and Belgium, the line did not extend to the English Channel. French strategy therefore envisioned a move into Belgium to counter a German assault. Based on France's experience with trench warfare during World War I, the massive Maginot Line was built in the run-up to World War II, after the Locarno Conference in 1925 gave rise to a fanciful and optimistic "Locarno spirit". French military experts extolled the line as a work of genius that would deter German aggression, because it would slow an invasion force long enough for French forces to mobilise and counterattack. The Maginot Line was indeed invulnerable to aerial bombings and tank fire; it featured underground railways as a backup. It also had state-of-the-art living conditions for garrisoned troops, supplying air conditioning and eating areas for their comfort. French and British officers had anticipated the geographical limits of the Maginot Line; when Germany invaded the Netherlands and Belgium, they carried out plans to form an aggressive front that cut across Belgium and connected to the Maginot Line. However, the French line was weak near the Ardennes Forest. General Maurice Gamelin, when drafting the Dyle Plan, believed this region, with its rough terrain, would be an unlikely invasion route of German forces; if it were traversed, it would be done at a slow rate that would allow the French time to bring up reserves and counterattacks. The German Army, having reformulated their plans from a repeat of the First World War-era plan, became aware of and exploited this weak point in the French defensive front. A rapid advance through the forest and across the River Meuse encircled much of the Allied forces, resulting in a sizeable force having to be evacuated at Dunkirk leaving the forces to the south unable to mount an effective resistance to the German invasion of France. Purposes The Maginot Line was built to fulfil several purposes: To prevent a German surprise attack. To deter a cross-border assault. To protect Alsace and Lorraine (returned to France in 1918) and their industrial basin. To save manpower (France counted 39 million inhabitants, Germany 70 million) To cover the mobilisation of the French Army (which took between two and three weeks) To push Germany into an effort to circumvent via Switzerland or Belgium, and allow France to fight the next war off French soil to avoid a repeat of 1914–1918. To be used as a basis for a counter-offensive. Manning Maginot Line fortifications were manned by specialist units of fortress infantry, artillery and engineers. The infantry manned the lighter weapons of the fortresses, and formed units with the mission of operating outside if necessary. Artillery troops operated the heavy guns and the engineers were responsible for maintaining and operating other specialist equipment, including all communications systems. All these troops wore distinctive uniform insignia and considered themselves among the elite of the French Army. During peacetime, fortresses were only partly manned by full-time troops. They would be supplemented by reservists who lived in the local area, and who could be quickly mobilised in an emergency. Full-time Maginot Line troops were accommodated in barracks built close by the fortresses. They were also accommodated in complexes of wooden housing adjacent to each fortress, which were more comfortable than living inside, but which were not expected to survive wartime bombardment. Training was carried out at a fortress near the town of Bitche in Moselle in Lorraine, built in a military training area and so capable of live fire exercises. This was impossible elsewhere as the other parts of the line were located in civilian areas. Organisation Although the name "Maginot Line" suggests a rather thin linear fortification, it was quite deep, varying (from the German border to the rear area) from . It was composed of an intricate system of strong points, fortifications and military facilities such as border guard posts, communications centres, infantry shelters, barricades, artillery, machine-gun and anti-tank-gun emplacements, supply depots, infrastructure facilities and observation posts. These various structures reinforced a principal line of resistance made up of the most heavily armed ouvrages, which can be roughly translated as fortresses or big defensive works. From front to rear (east to west) the line was composed of: 1. Border Post line: This consisted of blockhouses and strong houses, which were often camouflaged as inoffensive residential homes, built within a few metres of the border and manned by troops so as to give the alarm in the event of a surprise attack and to delay enemy tanks with prepared explosives and barricades. 2. Outpost and Support Point line: Approximately behind the border, a line of anti-tank blockhouses that were intended to provide resistance to armoured assault, sufficient to delay the enemy so as to allow the crews of the C.O.R.F. ouvrages to be ready at their battle stations. These outposts covered the main passages within the principal line. 3. Principal line of resistance: This line began behind the border. It was preceded by anti-tank obstacles made of metal rails planted vertically in six rows, with heights varying from and buried to a depth of . These anti-tank obstacles extended from end to end in front of the main works, over hundreds of kilometres, interrupted only by extremely dense forests, rivers, or other nearly impassable terrain. The anti-tank obstacle system was followed by an anti-personnel obstacle system made primarily of dense barbed wire. Anti-tank road barriers also made it possible to block roads at necessary points of passage through the tank obstacles. 4. Infantry Casemates: These bunkers were armed with twin machine-guns (abbreviated as JM — Jumelage de mitrailleuses — in French) and anti-tank guns of . They could be single (with a firing room in one direction) or double (two firing rooms, in opposite directions). These generally had two floors, with a firing level and a support/infrastructure level that provided the troops with rest and services (power-generating units, reserves of water, fuel, food, ventilation equipment, etc.). The infantry casemates often had one or two "cloches" or turrets located on top of them. These GFM cloches were sometimes used to emplace machine guns or observation periscopes. They were manned by 20 to 30 men. 5. Petits ouvrages: These small fortresses reinforced the line of infantry bunkers. The petits ouvrages were generally made up of several infantry bunkers, connected by a tunnel network with attached underground facilities, such as barracks, electric generators, ventilation systems, mess halls, infirmaries and supply caches. Their crew consisted of between 100 and 200 men. 6. Gros Ouvrages: These fortresses were the most important fortifications on the Maginot Line, having the sturdiest construction and the heaviest artillery. These were composed of at least six "forward bunker systems" or "combat blocks", as well as two entrances, and were connected via a network of tunnels that often featured narrow gauge electric railways for transport between bunker systems. The blocks contained infrastructure such as power stations, independent ventilating systems, barracks and mess halls, kitchens, water storage and distribution systems, hoists, ammunition stores, workshops and stores of spare parts and food. Their crews ranged from 500 to more than 1,000 men. 7. Observation Posts were located on hills that provided a good view of the surrounding area. Their purpose was to locate the enemy and direct and correct the indirect fire of artillery as well as to report on the progress and position of key enemy units. These are large reinforced buried concrete bunkers, equipped with armoured turrets containing high-precision optics, connected with the other fortifications by field telephone and wireless transmitters (known in French by the acronym T.S.F., Télégraphie Sans Fil). 8. Telephone Network: This system connected every fortification in the Maginot Line, including bunkers, infantry and artillery fortresses, observation posts and shelters. Two telephone wires were placed parallel to the line of fortifications, providing redundancy in the event of a wire getting cut. There were places along the cable where dismounted soldiers could connect to the network. 9. Infantry Reserve Shelters: These were found from behind the principal line of resistance. These were buried concrete bunkers designed to house and shelter up to a company of infantry (200 to 250 men) and had such features as electric generators, ventilation systems, water supplies, kitchens and heating, which allowed their occupants to hold out in the event of an attack. They could also be used as a local headquarters and as a base for counterattacks. 10. Flood Zones were natural basins or rivers that could be flooded on demand and thus constitute an additional obstacle in the event of an enemy offensive. 11. Safety Quarters were built near the major fortifications so fortress (ouvrage) crews could reach their battle stations in the shortest possible time in the event of a surprise attack during peacetime. 12. Supply depots. 13. Ammunition dumps. 14. Narrow Gauge Railway System: A network of narrow gauge railways was built so as to rearm and resupply the main fortresses (ouvrages) from supply depots up to away. Petrol-engined armoured locomotives pulled supply trains along these narrow-gauge lines. (A similar system was developed with armoured steam engines back in 1914–1918.) 15. High-voltage Transmission Lines, initially above-ground but then buried, and connected to the civil power grid, provided electric power to the many fortifications and fortresses. 16. Heavy rail artillery was hauled by locomotives to planned locations to support the emplaced artillery located in the fortresses, which was intentionally limited in range to . Inventory Ouvrages There are 142 ouvrages, 352 casemates, 78 shelters, 17 observatories and around blockhouses in the Maginot Line. Armoured cloches There are several kinds of armoured cloches. Cloches are non-retractable turrets. The word cloche is a French term meaning bell due to its shape. All cloches were made of alloy steel. The most widespread are the GFM cloches, where GFM means Guetteur fusil-mitrailleur (machine-gun sentry). They are composed of three to four openings, called crenels or embrasures. These crenels may be equipped as follows: light machine-guns, direct vision blocks, binoculars blocks or mortars. Sometimes, the cloche is topped by a periscope. There are GFM cloches on the line. Almost every block, casemate and shelter is topped by one or two GFM cloches. The JM cloches (jumelage de mitrailleuses or "twin machine-guns") are the same as the GFM cloches except that they have one opening equipped with a pair of machine-guns. There are 174 JM cloches on the line. There are 72 AM cloches (armes mixtes or "mixed weapons") on the line, equipped with a pair of machine guns and a anti-tank gun. Some GFM cloches were transformed into AM cloches in 1934. (The aforementioned total does not include these modified cloches.) There are 75 LG cloches (lance-grenade or "grenade launcher") on the line. Those cloches are almost completely covered by concrete, with only a small hole to launch grenades through for local defence. There are 20 VP cloches (vision périscopique or "periscopic vision") on the line. These cloches could be equipped with several different periscopes. Like the LG cloches, they were almost completely covered by concrete. The VDP cloches (vision directe et périscopique or "direct and periscopic vision") are similar to the VP cloches, but have two or three openings to provide a direct view. Consequently, they were not covered by concrete. Retractable turrets The line included the following retractable turrets. 21 turrets of model 1933 12 turrets of model 1932 1 turret of model 1905 17 turrets of 21 turrets of 12 turrets for mixed weapons (AM) 7 turrets for mixed weapons + mortar of 61 turrets of machine-guns Artillery Both static and mobile artillery units were assigned to defend the Maginot Line. Régiments d'artillerie de position (RAP) consisted of static artillery units. Régiments d'artillerie mobile de forteresse (RAMF) consisted of mobile artillery. Anti-tank guns Canon de 25 mm SA Mle1934 SA-L Mle1937 (Puteaux) L/72 History Planning and construction The defences were first proposed by Marshal Joseph Joffre. He was opposed by modernists such as Paul Reynaud and Charles de Gaulle, who favoured investment in armour and aircraft. Joffre had support from Marshal Henri Philippe Pétain, and there were a number of reports and commissions organised by the government. It was André Maginot who finally convinced the government to invest in the scheme. Maginot was another veteran of World War I; he became the French Minister of Veteran Affairs and then Minister of War (1928–1932). In January 1923, after Weimar Germany defaulted on reparations, the French Premier Raymond Poincaré responded by sending French troops to occupy Germany's Ruhr region. During the ensuing Ruhrkampf ("Ruhr struggle") between the Germans and the French that lasted until September 1923, Britain condemned the French occupation of the Ruhr, and a period of sustained Francophobia broke out in Britain, with Poincaré being vilified in Britain as a cruel bully punishing Germany with unreasonable reparations demands. The British—who openly championed the German position on reparations—applied intense economic pressure on France to change its policies towards Germany. At a conference in London in 1924 to settle the Franco-German crisis caused by the Ruhrkampf, the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald successfully pressed the French Premier Édouard Herriot to make concessions to Germany. The British diplomat Sir Eric Phipps who attended the conference commented afterwards that: The London Conference was for the French 'man in the street' one long Calvary as he saw M. Herriot abandoning one by one the cherished possessions of French preponderance on the Reparations Commission, the right of sanctions in the event of German default, the economic occupation of the Ruhr, the French-Belgian railway Régie, and finally, the military occupation of the Ruhr within a year. The great conclusion that was drawn in Paris after the Ruhrkampf and the 1924 London Conference was that France could not make unilateral military moves to uphold Versailles as the resulting British hostility to such moves was too dangerous to the republic. Beyond that, the French were well aware of the contribution of Britain and its dominions to the victory of 1918, and French decision-makers believed that they needed Britain's help to win another war; the French could only go so far with alienating the British. From 1871 forward, French elites had concluded that France had no hope of defeating Germany on its own, and France would need an alliance with another great power to defeat the Reich. 1927: Allied Control Commission abolished In 1926, The Manchester Guardian ran an exposé showing the Reichswehr had been developing military technology forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles in the Soviet Union, and the secret German-Soviet co-operation had started in 1921. The German statement following The Manchester Guardians article that Germany did not feel bound by the terms of Versailles and would violate them as much as possible gave much offence in France. Nonetheless, in 1927, the Inter-Allied Commission, which was responsible for ensuring that Germany complied with Part V of the Treaty of Versailles, was abolished as a goodwill gesture reflecting the "Spirit of Locarno". When the Control Commission was dissolved, the commissioners in their final report issued a blistering statement, stating that Germany had never sought to abide by Part V and the Reichswehr had been engaging in covert rearmament all through the 1920s. Under the Treaty of Versailles, France was to occupy the Rhineland region of Germany until 1935, but in fact the last French troops left the Rhineland in June 1930 in exchange for Germany accepting the Young Plan. As long as the Rhineland was occupied by the French, the Rhineland served as a type of collateral under which the French would annex the Rhineland in the event of Germany breaching any of the articles of the treaty, such as rearming in violation of Part V; this threat was powerful enough to deter successive German governments all through the 1920s from attempting any overt violation of Part V. French plans as developed by Marshal Ferdinand Foch in 1919 were based on the assumption that in the event of a war with the Reich, the French forces in the Rhineland were to embark upon an offensive to seize the Ruhr. A variant of the Foch plan had been used by Poincaré in 1923 when he ordered the French occupation of the Ruhr. French plans for an offensive in the 1920s were realistic, as Versailles had forbidden German conscription, and the Reichswehr was limited to 100,000 men. Once the French forces left the Rhineland in 1930, this form of leverage with the Rhineland as collateral was no longer available to Paris, which from then on had to depend on Berlin's word that it would continue to abide by the terms of the Versailles and Locarno treaties, which stated that the Rhineland was to stay demilitarised forever. Given that Germany had engaged in covert rearmament with the co-operation of the Soviet Union starting in 1921 (a fact that had become public knowledge in 1926) and that every German government had gone out of its way to insist on the moral invalidity of Versailles, claiming it was based upon the so-called Kriegsschuldlüge ("War guilt lie") that Germany started the war in 1914, the French had little faith that the Germans would willingly allow the Rhineland's demilitarised status to continue forever, and believed that at some time in the future Germany would rearm in violation of Versailles, reintroduce conscription and remilitarise the Rhineland. The decision to build the Maginot Line in 1929 was a tacit French admission that without the Rhineland as collateral Germany was soon going to rearm, and that the terms of Part V had a limited lifespan. German economic superiority After 1918, the German economy was twice as large as that of France; Germany had a population of 70 million compared to France's 40 million and the French economy was hobbled by the need to reconstruct the enormous damage of World War I, while German territory had seen little fighting. French military chiefs were dubious about their ability to win another war against Germany on its own, especially an offensive war. French decision-makers knew that the victory of 1918 had been achieved because the British Empire and the United States were allies in the war and that the French would have been defeated on their own. With the United States isolationist and Britain stoutly refusing to make the "continental commitment" to defend France on the same scale as in World War I, the prospects of Anglo-American assistance in another war with Germany appeared to be doubtful at best. Versailles did not call for military sanctions in the event of the German military reoccupying the Rhineland or breaking Part V; while Locarno committed Britain and Italy to come to French aid in the event of a "flagrant violation" of the Rhineland's demilitarised status, without defining what a "flagrant violation" would be. The British and Italian governments refused in subsequent diplomatic talks to define "flagrant violation", which led the French to place little hope in Anglo-Italian help if German military forces should reoccupy the Rhineland. Given the diplomatic situation in the late 1920s, the Quai d'Orsay informed the government that French military planning should be based on a worst-case scenario that France would fight the next war against Germany without the help of Britain or the United States. France had an alliance with Belgium and with the states of the Cordon sanitaire, as the French alliance system in Eastern Europe was known. Although the alliances with Belgium, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia were appreciated in Paris, it was widely understood that this was no compensation for the absence of Britain and the United States. The French military was especially insistent that the population disparity made an offensive war of manoeuvre and swift advances suicidal as there would always be far more German divisions; a defensive strategy was needed to counter Germany. The French assumption was always that Germany would not go to war without conscription, which would allow the German Army to take advantage of the Reichs numerical superiority. Without the natural defensive barrier provided by the Rhine River, French generals argued that France needed a new defensive barrier made of concrete and steel to replace it. The power of properly dug-in defensive trenches had been amply demonstrated during World War I, when a few soldiers manning a single machine gun post could kill hundreds of the enemy in the open and therefore building a massive defensive line with subterranean concrete shelters was the most rational use of French manpower. The American historian William Keylor wrote that given the diplomatic conditions of 1929 and likely trends – with the United States isolationist and Britain unwilling to make the "continental commitment" – the decision to build the Maginot Line was not irrational and stupid, as building the Maginot Line was a sensible response to the problems that would be created by the coming French withdrawal from the Rhineland in 1930. Part of the rationale for the Maginot Line stemmed from the severe French losses during the First World War, and their effect on the French population. The drop in the birth rate during and after the war, resulting in a national shortage of young men, created an "echo" effect on the generation that provided the French conscript army in the mid-1930s. Faced with a manpower shortage, French planners had to rely more on older and less fit reservists, who would take longer to mobilise and would diminish the French industry because they would leave their jobs. Static defensive positions were therefore intended not only to buy time but to economise on men by defending an area with fewer and less mobile forces. In 1940, France deployed about twice as many men, 36 divisions (roughly one third of its force), for the defence of the Maginot Line in Alsace and Lorraine, whereas the opposing German Army Group C only contained 19 divisions, fewer than a seventh of the force committed in the Manstein Plan for the invasion of France. Reflecting memories of World War I, the French General Staff had developed the concept of la puissance du feu ("the power of fire"), the power of artillery dug in and sheltered by concrete and steel, to inflict devastating losses on an attacking force. War of long duration French planning for war with Germany was always based on the assumption that the war would be la guerre de longue durée (the war of the long duration), in which the superior economic resources of the Allies would gradually grind the Germans down. The fact that the Wehrmacht embraced the strategy of Blitzkrieg (Lightning War) with the vision of swift wars in which Germany would win quickly via a knockout blow was a testament to the fundamental soundness of the concept of la guerre de longue durée. Germany had the largest economy in Europe but lacked many of the raw materials necessary for a modern industrial economy (making the Reich vulnerable to a blockade) and the ability to feed its population. The guerre de longue durée strategy called for the French to halt the expected German offensive meant to give the Reich a swift victory; afterwards, there would be an attrition struggle; once the Germans were exhausted, France would begin an offensive to win the war. The Maginot Line was intended to block the main German blow, if it should come via eastern France, and to divert the main blow through Belgium, where French forces would meet and stop the Germans. The Germans were expected to fight costly offensives, whose failures would sap the strength of the Reich, while the French waged a total war, mobilising the resources of France, its empire and allies. Besides the demographic reasons, a defensive strategy served the needs of French diplomacy towards Great Britain. The French imported a third of their coal from Britain and 32 percent of all imports through French ports were carried by British ships. Of French trade, 35 percent was with the British Empire and the majority of the tin, rubber, jute, wool and manganese used by France came from the British Empire. About 55 percent of overseas imports arrived in France via the Channel ports of Calais, Le Havre, Cherbourg, Boulogne, Dieppe, Saint-Malo and Dunkirk. Germany had to import most of its iron, rubber, oil, bauxite, copper and nickel, making naval blockade a devastating weapon against the German economy. For economic reasons, the success of the strategy of la guerre de longue durée would at very least require Britain to maintain a benevolent neutrality, preferably to enter the war as an ally as British sea power could protect French imports while depriving Germany of hers. A defensive strategy based on the Maginot Line was an excellent way of demonstrating to Britain that France was not an aggressive power and would only go to war in the event of German aggression, a situation that would make it more likely that Britain would enter the war on France's side. The line was built in several phases from 1930 by the Service Technique du Génie (STG) overseen by Commission d'Organisation des Régions Fortifiées (CORF). The main construction was largely completed by 1939, at a cost of around 3 billion French francs (around 3.9 billion in today's U.S. dollar’s worth). The line stretched from Switzerland to Luxembourg and a much lighter extension was extended to the Strait of Dover after 1934. The original construction did not cover the area ultimately chosen by the Germans for their first challenge, which was through the Ardennes in 1940, a plan known as Fall Gelb (Case Yellow), due to the neutrality of Belgium. The location of this attack, chosen because of the location of the Maginot Line, was through the Belgian Ardennes Forest (sector 4), which is off the map to the left of Maginot Line sector 6 (as marked). Features The specification of the defences was very high, with extensive and interconnected bunker complexes for thousands of men; there were 45 main forts (grands ouvrages) at intervals of , 97 smaller forts (petits ouvrages) and 352 casemates between, with over of tunnels. Artillery was coordinated with protective measures to ensure that one fort could support the next in line by bombarding it directly without harm. The largest guns were therefore fortress guns; larger weapons were to be part of the mobile forces and were to be deployed behind the lines. The fortifications did not extend through the Ardennes Forest (which was believed to be impenetrable by Commander-in-Chief Maurice Gamelin) or along France's border with Belgium, because the two countries had signed an alliance in 1920, by which the French army would operate in Belgium if the German forces invaded. However, after France had failed to counter the German remilitarisation of the Rhineland, Belgium—thinking that France was not a reliable ally—abrogated the treaty in 1936 and declared neutrality. France quickly extended the Maginot Line along the Franco-Belgian border, but not to the standard of the rest of the line. As the water table in this region is high, there was the danger of underground passages getting flooded, which the designers of the line knew would be difficult and expensive to overcome. In 1939 U.S. Army officer Kenneth Nichols visited the Metz sector, where he was impressed by the formidable formations which he thought the Germans would have to outflank by driving through Belgium. In discussion with General Brousseau the commander of the Metz sector and other officers, the general outlined the French problem in extending the line to the sea in that placing the line along the Belgian-German border required the agreement of Belgium, but putting the line along the French-Belgian border relinquished Belgium to the Germans. Another complication was Holland, and the various governments never resolved their problems. When the British Expeditionary Force landed in France in September 1939, they and the French reinforced and extended the Maginot line to the sea in a flurry of construction from 1939 to 1940 accompanied by general improvements all along the line. The final line was strongest around the industrial regions of Metz, Lauter and Alsace, while other areas were in comparison only weakly guarded. In contrast, the propaganda about the line made it appear far greater a construction than it was; illustrations showed multiple storeys of interwoven passages and even underground rail yards and cinemas. This reassured allied civilians. Czechoslovak connection Czechoslovakia was also in fear of Hitler and began building its own defences. As an ally of France, they were able to get advice on the Maginot design and apply it to Czechoslovak border fortifications. The design of the casemates is similar to the ones found in the southern part of the Maginot Line and photographs of them are often confused with Maginot forts. Following the Munich Agreement and the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, the Germans were able to use the Czech fortifications to plan attacks that proved successful against the western fortifications (the Belgian Fort Eben-Emael is the best known example). German invasion in World War II The World War II German invasion plan of 1940 (Sichelschnitt) was designed to deal with the line. A decoy force sat opposite the line while a second Army Group cut through the Low Countries of Belgium and the Netherlands, as well as through the Ardennes Forest, which lay north of the main French defences. Thus the Germans were able to avoid a direct assault on the Maginot Line by violating the neutrality of Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Attacking on 10 May, German forces were well into France within five days and they continued to advance until 24 May, when they stopped near Dunkirk. During the advance to the English Channel, the Germans overran France's border defence with Belgium and several Maginot Forts in the Maubeuge area whilst the Luftwaffe simply flew over it. On 19 May, the German 16th Army captured the isolated petit ouvrage La Ferté (south-east of Sedan) after conducting a deliberate assault by combat engineers backed up by heavy artillery, taking the fortifications in only four days. The entire French crew of 107 soldiers was killed during the action. On 14 June 1940, the day Paris fell, the German 1st Army went over to the offensive in "Operation Tiger" and attacked the Maginot Line between St Avold and Saarbrücken. The Germans then broke through the fortification line as defending French forces retreated southward. In the following days, infantry divisions of the 1st Army attacked fortifications on each side of the penetration; capturing four petits ouvrages. The 1st Army also conducted two attacks against the Maginot Line further to the east in northern Alsace. One attack broke through a weak section of the line in the Vosges Mountains, but a second attack was stopped by the French defenders near Wissembourg. On 15 June, infantry divisions of the German 7th Army attacked across the Rhine River in Operation "Small Bear", penetrating the defences deep and capturing the cities of Colmar and Strasbourg. By early June the German forces had cut off the line from the rest of France and the French government was making overtures for an armistice, which was signed on 22 June in Compiègne. As the line was surrounded, the German Army attacked a few ouvrages from the rear, but were unsuccessful in capturing any significant fortifications. The main fortifications of the line were still mostly intact, a number of commanders were prepared to hold out, and the Italian advance had been contained. Nevertheless, Maxime Weygand signed the surrender instrument and the army was ordered out of their fortifications, to be taken to POW camps. When the Allied forces invaded in June 1944, the line, now held by German defenders, was again largely bypassed; fighting touched only portions of the fortifications near Metz and in northern Alsace towards the end of 1944. During the German offensive Operation Nordwind in January 1945, Maginot Line casemates and fortifications were utilised by Allied forces, especially in the Bas-Rhin department in Grand Est, and some German units had been supplemented with flamethrower tanks in anticipation of this possibility. Stephen Ambrose wrote that in January 1945 "a part of the line was used for the purpose it had been designed for and showed what a superb fortification it was." Here the Line ran east–west, around the villages of Rittershoffen and Hatten, south of Wissembourg. After World War II After the war, the line was re-manned by the French and underwent some modifications. With the advent of French nuclear weapons by 1960, the line became an expensive anachronism. Some of the larger ouvrages were converted to command centres. When France withdrew from NATO's military component in 1966, much of the line was abandoned, with the NATO facilities turned back over to French forces and the rest of it auctioned off to the public or left to decay. A number of old fortifications have now been turned into wine cellars, a mushroom farm, and even a disco. Besides that, a few private houses are built atop some of the blockhouses. Ouvrage Rochonvillers was retained by the French Army as a command centre into the 1990s but was deactivated following the disappearance of the Soviet threat. Ouvrage Hochwald is the only facility in the main line that remains in active service, as a hardened command facility for the French Air Force known as Drachenbronn Airbase. In 1968, when scouting locations for On Her Majesty's Secret Service, producer Harry Saltzman used his French contacts to gain permission to use portions of the Maginot Line as SPECTRE headquarters in the film. Saltzman provided art director Syd Cain with a tour of the complex, but Cain said that not only would the location be difficult to light and film inside, but that artificial sets could be constructed at the studios for a fraction of the cost. The idea was shelved. Postwar assessment In analysing the Maginot Line, Ariel Ilan Roth summarised its main purpose: it was not "as popular myth would later have it, to make France invulnerable", but it was constructed "to make the appeal of flanking far outweigh the appeal of attacking them head on". J.E. Kaufmann and H.W. Kaufmann added that prior to construction in October 1927, the Superior Council of War adopted the final design for the line and identified that one of the main missions would be to deter a German cross-border assault with only minimal force to allow "the army time to mobilise." In addition, the French envisioned that the Germans would conduct a repeat of their First World War battle plan to flank the defences and drew up their overall strategy with that in mind. Julian Jackson highlighted one of the line's roles was to facilitate that strategy by "free[ing] manpower for offensive operations elsewhere... and to protect the forces of manoeuvre"; the latter included a more mechanised and modernised military, which would advance into Belgium and engage the German main thrust flanking the line. In support, Roth commented that the French strategy envisioned one of two possibilities by advancing into Belgium: "either there would be a decisive battle in which France might win, or, more likely, a front would develop and stabilise". The latter meant the next war's destructive consequences would not take place on French soil. Postwar assessment of whether the Maginot Line served its purpose has been mixed. Its enormous cost and its failure to prevent German forces from invading France have caused journalists and political commentators to remain divided on whether the line was worthwhile. The historian Clayton Donnell commented, "If one believes the Maginot Line was built for the primary purpose of stopping a German invasion of France, most will consider it a massive failure and a waste of money... in reality, the line was not built to be the ultimate saviour of France". Donnell argued that the primary purpose of "prevent[ing] a concerted attack on France through the traditional invasion routes and to permit time for the mobilisation of troops... was fulfiled", as was the French strategy of forcing the Germans to enter Belgium, which ideally would have allowed "the French to fight on favourable terrain". However, he noted that the French failed to use the line as the basis for an offensive. Marc Romanych and Martin Rupp highlight that "poor decisions and missed opportunities" plagued the line and point to its purpose of conserving manpower: "about 20 percent of [France's] field divisions remained inactive along the Maginot Line". Belgium was overrun, and British and French forces evacuated at Dunkirk. They argue had those troops been moved north, "it is possible that Heeresgruppe A's advance could have been blunted, giving time for Groupe d'armees 1 to reorganise". Kaufmann and Kaufmann commented, "When all is said and done, the Maginot Line did not fail to accomplish its original mission... it provided a shield that bought time for the army to mobilise... [and] concentrate its best troops along the Belgian border to engage the enemy." The psychological factor of the Maginot Line has also been discussed. Its construction created a false sense of security, which was widely believed by the French population. Kaufmann and Kaufmann comment that it was an unintended consequence of André Maginot's efforts to "focus the public's attention on the work being done, emphasising the role and nature of the line". That resulted in "the media exaggerat[ing] his descriptions by turning the line into an impregnable fortified position that would seal the frontier". The false sense of security contributed "to the development of the "Maginot mentality"". Jackson commented that "it has often been alleged that the Maginot Line contributed to France's defeat by making the military too complacent and defence-minded. Such accusations are unfounded". Historians have pointed to numerous reasons for the French defeat: faulty strategy and doctrine, dispersion of forces, the loss of command and control, poor communications, faulty intelligence that provided exaggerated German numbers, the slow nature of the French response to the German penetration of the Ardennes and a failure to understand the nature and speed of the German doctrine. More seriously, historians have noted rather than the Germans doing what the French had envisioned, the French played into the Germans' hand, culminating in their defeat. When the French Army failed in Belgium, the Maginot Line covered their retreat. Romanych and Rupp indicate that with the exception of the loss of several insignificant fortifications from insufficient defending troops, the actual fortifications and troops "withstood the test of battle", repulsed numerous attacks, and "withstood intense aerial and artillery bombardment". Kaufmann and Kaufmann point to the Maginot Line along the Italian border, which "demonstrated the effectiveness of the fortifications... when properly employed". Cultural impact The term "Maginot Line" has become a part of the English language: "America's Maginot Line" was the title used for an Atlantic Magazine article about America's military bases in Asia. The article portrayed vulnerability by showing a rocket being transported through a marshy area atop an ox. New York Times headlined "Maginot Line in the Sky" in 2000 and "A New Maginot Line" in 2001. It was also frequently referenced in wartime films, notably Thunder Rock, The Major and the Minor (albeit as a comedic metaphor) and Passage to Marseille. Somewhat like "line in the sand" it is also used in non-military situations, as in "Reagan's budgetary Maginot Line." See also Atlantic Wall Bar Lev Line Czechoslovak border fortifications British hardened field defences of World War II Ceintures de Lyon List of Alpine Line ouvrages (works) List of Maginot Line ouvrages (works) Metaxas Line Rupnik Line Siegfried Line Commission for Organising the Fortified Regions (CORF) K-W Line – a contemporary defence line in Belgium Notes Footnotes Citations References Books Donnell, Clayton. The Battle for the Maginot Line, 1940 (Pen and Sword, 2017).</ref> Journals Further reading Mary, Jean-Yves; Hohnadel, Alain; Sicard, Jacques. Hommes et Ouvrages de la Ligne Maginot, Tome 1. (Men and Works of the Maginot Line). Paris, Histoire & Collections, 2001. . Mary, Jean-Yves; Hohnadel, Alain; Sicard, Jacques. Hommes et Ouvrages de la Ligne Maginot, Tome 2. Paris, Histoire & Collections, 2003. . Mary, Jean-Yves; Hohnadel, Alain; Sicard, Jacques. Hommes et Ouvrages de la Ligne Maginot, Tome 3. Paris, Histoire & Collections, 2003. . Mary, Jean-Yves; Hohnadel, Alain; Sicard, Jacques. Hommes et Ouvrages de la Ligne Maginot, Tome 4 – La fortification alpine. Paris, Histoire & Collections, 2009. . Mary, Jean-Yves; Hohnadel, Alain; Sicard, Jacques. Hommes et Ouvrages de la Ligne Maginot, Tome 5. Paris, Histoire & Collections, 2009. . Kaufmann, J.E., Kaufmann, H.W., Jancovič-Potočnik, A. and Lang, P. The Maginot Line: History and Guide, Pen and Sword, 2011. External links The Maginot Line (French/English/German/Italian) Fortress of Schoenenbourg, (French/English/German/Italian) The U.S. Army vs. The Maginot Line by Bryan J. Dickerson Maginot Line today Armament of Maginot Line (Czech only) World War II defensive lines Historic defensive lines Tunnel warfare Separation barriers 20th-century fortifications Military installations established in 1930 1930 establishments in France

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metrication

Metrication

Metrication or metrification is the act or process of converting to the metric system of measurement. All over the world, nations have transitioned from their local and traditional units of measurement to the metric system. This process began in France during the 1790s, and continues more than two centuries later—with the modern SI system—as the metric system has not been fully adopted in all countries and sectors. Overview Most countries now have the metric system as their official system of weights and measures. Some have adopted it as their official system but have not yet completed the process of metrication. Some others have not made any commitment to adopting it. There is not a general consensus in the sources as to the number of countries that fall into each of these categories. According to a 2011 doctoral dissertation by Hector Vera, as of 2010, a total of seven countries had not "adopted the metric system as their exclusive system of measurement". They are: the Federated States of Micronesia, Liberia, the Marshall Islands, Myanmar, Palau, Samoa and the United States. According to the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency's online The World Factbook (2016), the only countries that have not adopted the metric system are Myanmar (also known as Burma), Liberia and the United States. According to Vera, the United States (and its associated states: the Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands and Palau) is a non-metric country. According to a Liberian journalist, Liberia uses U.S. customary units, but is committed to adopting the metric system in the future. According to Vera, Samoa has never officially adopted the metric system, owing to a lack of resources and expertise. The government of Myanmar has stated that the country had a metrication goal of completion by 2019. Both Myanmar and Liberia are substantially metric countries, trading internationally in metric units. Some countries, such as Guyana, adopted the metric system but have had some trouble over time implementing it. Antigua and Barbuda, also "officially" metric, is moving toward total implementation of the metric system but more slowly than expected. The government had announced that they have plans to convert their country to the metric system by the first quarter of 2015. Other Caribbean countries such as Saint Lucia are officially metric but are still in the process toward full conversion. In the United Kingdom the metric system is the official system for most regulated trading by weight or measure purposes but some imperial units remain the primary official unit of measurement. , the UK has only partially adopted the metric system. The European Union used the Units of Measure Directive to attempt to achieve a common system of weights and measures and to facilitate the European Single Market. Throughout the 1990s, the European Commission helped accelerate the process for member countries to complete their metric conversion processes. Among them was the United Kingdom, where laws in some or all contexts mandate or permit many imperial measures, such as miles and yards for road-sign distances, road speed limits in miles per hour, pints of beer, and inches for clothes. The United Kingdom secured permanent exemptions for the mile and yard in road markings, and (with Ireland) for the pint (Imperial) of draught beer sold in pubs (see Metrication in the United Kingdom). In 2007, the European Commission also announced that (to appease British public opinion and to facilitate trade with the United States) it was to abandon the requirement for metric-only labelling on packaged goods, and to allow dual metric–imperial marking to continue indefinitely. The United States, the United Kingdom and Canada have some active opposition to metrication, particularly where updated weights and measures laws would make historic systems of measurement obsolete. Before the metric system The Roman empire used the pes (foot) measure. This was divided into 12 unciae ("inches"). The libra ("pound") was another measure that had wide effect on European weight and currency long after Roman times, e.g. lb, £. The measure came to vary greatly over time. Charlemagne was one of several rulers who launched reform programmes of various kinds to standardise units for measure and currency in his empire, but there was no real general breakthrough. In medieval Europe, local laws on weights and measures were set by trade guilds on a city-by-city basis. For example, the ell or elle was a unit of length commonly used in Europe, but its length varied from 40.2 centimetres in one part of Germany to 70 centimetres in The Netherlands and 94.5 centimetres in Edinburgh. A survey of Switzerland in 1838 revealed that the foot had 37 different regional variations, the ell had 68, there were 83 different measures for dry grain, 70 measures for fluids and 63 different measures for "dead weights". When Isaac Newton wrote Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687, he quoted his measurements in Parisian feet so readers could understand the size. Examples of efforts to have local intercity or national standards for measurements include the Scottish law of 1641, and the British standard imperial system of 1824, which is still commonly used in the United Kingdom. Imperial China had at one time successfully standardised units for volume throughout its territory, but by 1936 official investigations uncovered 53 values for the chi varying from 200 millimetres to 1250 millimetres; 32 values of the cheng, between 500 millilitres and 8 litres; and 36 different tsin ranging from 300 grams to 2,500 grams. Revolutionary France was to produce what evolved into the definitive International System of Units, which has come to be used by most of the world today. The desire for a single international system of measurement came largely from increasing international trade and the need to apply common standards to goods. For a company to buy a product produced in another country, they needed to know that the product would arrive as described. The medieval ell was abandoned in part because its value was not standardised. One primary advantage of the International System of Units (SI) is simply that it is international, and the pressure on countries to conform to it grew as it became increasingly the international standard. It also simplifies the teaching and learning of measurement as all SI units are based on a handful of base units (in particular, the metre, kilogram and second cover the majority of everyday measurements), using decimal prefixes to cover all magnitudes. This contrasts with pre-metric units, which largely have names that do not relate directly to one another (e.g. inch, foot, yard, mile) and are related to one another by inconsistent ratios which must be memorised (e.g. 12, 3, 1760). As the values in an SI expression are always decimal (i.e. without vulgar fractions) and mixed units (such as "feet and inches") are not used with SI, measurements are easy to add and multiply. Scientific measurement and calculation are greatly simplified as the units for electricity, force etc. are part of the SI system and hence are all interrelated in a coherent manner (e.g. 1 J = 1 kg·m2·s−2 = 1 V·A·s). Standardisation of measures has contributed significantly to the industrial revolution and technological development in general. SI is not the only example of international standardisation; several powerful international standardisation organisations exist for various industries, such as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), and the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Forerunners of the metric system Decimal numbers are an essential part of the metric system, with only one base unit and multiples created on the decimal base, the figures remain the same. This simplifies calculations. Although the Indians used decimal numbers for mathematical computations, it was Simon Stevin who in 1585 first advocated the use of decimal numbers for everyday purposes in his booklet De Thiende (Middle Dutch for 'The Tenth'). He also declared that it would only be a matter of time before decimal numbers were used for currencies and measurements. His notation for decimal fractions was clumsy, but this was overcome with the introduction of the decimal point, generally attributed to Bartholomaeus Pitiscus who used this notation in his trigonometrical tables (1595). In 1670, Gabriel Mouton published a proposal that was in essence similar to Wilkins' proposal, except that his base unit of length would have been 1/1,000 of a minute of arc (about 1.852 m) of geographical latitude. He proposed calling this unit the virga. Rather than using different names for each unit of length, he proposed a series of names that had prefixes, rather like the prefixes found in SI. In 1790, Thomas Jefferson submitted a report to the United States Congress in which he proposed the adoption of a decimal system of coinage and of weights and measures. He proposed calling his base unit of length a "foot" which he suggested should be either or of the length of a pendulum that had a period of one second – that is or of the "standard" proposed by Wilkins over a century previously. This would have equated to 11.755 English inches (29.8 cm) or 13.06 English inches (33.1 cm). Like Wilkins, the names that he proposed for multiples and subunits of his base units of measure were the names of units of measure that were in use at the time. The great interest in geodesy during this era, and the measurement system ideas that developed, influenced how the continental US was surveyed and parceled. The story of how Jefferson's full vision for the new measurement system came close to displacing the Gunter chain and the traditional acre but ended up not doing so, is explored in Andro Linklater's Measuring America. History of adoption of metric weights and measures The metre was adopted as exclusive measure in 1801 under the French Consulate, then the First French Empire until 1812, when Napoleon decreted the introduction of the mesures usuelles which remained in use in France up to 1840 in the reign of Louis Philippe. Meanwhile, the metre was adopted by the Republic of Geneva. After the joining of canton of Geneva to Switzerland in 1815, Guillaume Henri Dufour published the first Swiss official map for which the metre was adopted as unit of length. A Swiss-French binational officer, Louis Napoléon Bonaparte was present when a baseline was measured near Zürich for Dufour map which would win the gold medal for the national map at the Exposition Universelle of 1855. Among the scientific instruments calibrated on the metre, which were displayed at the Exposition Universelle, was Brunner apparatus, a geodetic instrument devised for measuring the central baseline of Spain whose designer, Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero would represent Spain at the International Statistical Institute. In addition of the Exposition Universelle and the second Statistical Congress held in Paris, an International Association for obtaining a uniform decimal system of measures, weights, and coins was created there in 1855. Copies of the Spanish standard would be made for Egypt, France and Germany. These standards were compared to each other and with Borda apparatus which was the main reference for measuring all geodetic baselines in France. These comparisons were essential, because of the expansibility of solid materials with raise in temperature. Indeed, one fact had constantly dominated all the fluctuations of ideas on the measurement of geodesic bases: it was the constant concern to accurately assess the temperature of standards in the field; and the determination of this variable, on which depended the length of the instrument of measurement, had always been considered by geodesists as so difficult and so important that one could almost say that the history of measuring instruments is almost identical with that of the precautions taken to avoid temperature errors. In 1867, the second general Conference of the European Arc Measurement recommended the adoption of the metre in replacement of the toise. In 1869, the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences sent to the French Academy of Sciences a report drafted by Otto Wilhelm von Struve, Heinrich von Wild and Moritz von Jacobi inviting his French counterpart to undertake joint action with a view to ensuring the universal use of the metric system in all scientific work. The same year, Napoleon III convened the International Metre Commission which was to meet in Paris in 1870. The Franco-Prussian War broke out, the Second French Empire collapsed, but the metre survived. During the nineteenth century the metric system of weights and measures proved a convenient political compromise during the unification processes in the Netherlands, Germany and Italy. In 1814, Portugal became the second country not part of the French Empire to officially adopt the metric system. Spain found it expedient in 1849 to follow the French example and within a decade Latin America had also adopted the metric system, or had already adopted the system, such as the case of Chile by 1848. There was considerable resistance to metrication in the United Kingdom and in the United States, despite these were actually the first country in the World to use a metric standard for cartography. France The introduction of the metric system into France in 1795 was done on a district by district basis with Paris being the first district. By modern standards the transition was poorly managed. Although thousands of pamphlets were distributed, the Agency of Weights and Measures who oversaw the introduction underestimated the work involved. Paris alone needed 500,000 metre sticks, yet one month after the metre became the sole legal unit of measure, they only had 25,000 in store. This, combined with the excesses of the Revolution and the high level of illiteracy in 18th century France, made the metric system unpopular. Napoleon himself ridiculed the metric system but, as an able administrator, recognised the value of a sound basis for a system of measurement. Under the (imperial decree of 12 February 1812), a new system of measure – the ("customary measures") was introduced for use in small retail businesses – all government, legal and similar works still had to use the metric system and the metric system continued to be taught at all levels of education. That system reintroduced the names of many units used during the ancient regime, but their values were redefined in terms of metric units. Thus the was defined as being two metres, with six making up one toise, twelve making up one pied and twelve making up one pouce. Likewise the was defined as being 500 g, each livre comprising sixteen once and each once eight gros and the aune as 120 centimetres. This intermediate step eased the transition to a metric-based system. By the (the law of 4 July 1837), Louis Philippe I effectively revoked the use of mesures usuelles by reaffirming the laws of measurement of 1795 and 1799 to be used from 1 May 1840. However, many units of measure, such as the livre (for half a kilogram), remained in everyday use for many years, and to a residual extent up to this day. Germany At the outbreak of the French Revolution, much of modern-day Germany and Austria were part of the Holy Roman Empire which had become a loose federation of kingdoms, principalities, free cities, bishoprics and other fiefdoms, each with its own system of measurement, though in most cases the systems were loosely derived from the Carolingian system instituted by Charlemagne a thousand years earlier. During the Napoleonic era, some of the German states moved to reform their systems of measurement using the prototype metre and kilogram as the basis of the new units. Baden, in 1810, for example, redefined the Ruthe (rods) as being 3.0 m exactly and defined the subunits of the Ruthe as 1 Ruthe = 10 Fuß (feet) = 100 Zoll (inches) = 1,000 Linie (lines) = 10,000 Punkt (points) while the Pfund was defined as being 500 g, divided into 30 Loth, each of 16.67 g. Bavaria, in its reform of 1811, trimmed the Bavarian Pfund from 561.288 g to 560 g exactly, consisting of 32 Loth, each of 17.5 g while the Prussian Pfund remained at 467.711 g. After the Congress of Vienna there was a degree of commercial cooperation between the various German states resulting in the German Customs Union (Zollverein). There were, however, still many barriers to trade until Bavaria took the lead in establishing the General German Commercial Code in 1856. As part of the code the Zollverein introduced the Zollpfund (Customs Pound) which was defined to be exactly 500 g and which could be split into 30 'lot'. This unit was used for inter-state movement of goods, but was not applied in all states for internal use. In 1832, Carl Friedrich Gauss studied the Earth's magnetic field and proposed adding the second to the basic units of the metre and the kilogram in the form of the CGS system (centimetre, gram, second). In 1836, he founded the Magnetischer Verein, the first international scientific association, in collaboration with Alexander von Humboldt and Wilhelm Edouard Weber. Geophysics or the study of the Earth by the means of physics preceded physics and contributed to the development of its methods. It was primarily a natural philosophy whose object was the study of natural phenomena such as the Earth's magnetic field, lightning and gravity. The coordination of the observation of geophysical phenomena in different points of the globe was of paramount importance and was at the origin of the creation of the first international scientific associations. The foundation of the Magnetischer Verein would be followed by that of the Central European Arc Measurement (German: Mitteleuropaïsche Gradmessung) on the initiative of Johann Jacob Baeyer in 1863, and by that of the International Meteorological Organisation whose second president, the Swiss meteorologist and physicist, Heinrich von Wild represented Russia at the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM). In 1867, the European Arc Measurement (German: Europäische Gradmessung) called for the creation of a new, international prototype metre (IPM) and the arrangement of a system where national standards could be compared with it. The French government gave practical support to the creation of an International Metre Commission, which met in Paris in 1870 and again in 1872 with the participation of about thirty countries. The Metre Convention was signed on 20 May 1875 in Paris and the International Bureau of Weights and Measures was created under the supervision of the CIPM. Although the Zollverein collapsed after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the metric system became the official system of measurement in the newly formed German Empire in 1872 and of Austria in 1875. The Zollpfund ceased to be legal in Germany after 1877. Italy The Cisalpine Republic, a North Italian republic set up by Napoleon in 1797 with its capital at Milan first adopted a modified form of the metric system based in the braccio cisalpino (Cisalpine cubit) which was defined to be half a metre. In 1802 the Cisalpine Republic was renamed the Italian Republic, with Napoleon as its head of state. The following year the Cisalpine system of measure was replaced by the metric system. In 1806, the Italian Republic was replaced by the Kingdom of Italy with Napoleon as its emperor. By 1812, all of Italy from Rome northwards was under the control of Napoleon, either as French Departments or as part of the Kingdom of Italy ensuring the metric system was in use throughout this region. After the Congress of Vienna, the various Italian states reverted to their original system of measurements, but in 1845 the Kingdom of Piedmont and Sardinia passed legislation to introduce the metric system within five years. By 1860, most of Italy had been unified under the King of Sardinia Victor Emmanuel II and under Law 132 of 28 July 1861 the metric system became the official system of measurement throughout the kingdom. Numerous Tavole di ragguaglio (Conversion Tables) were displayed in shops until 31 December 1870. Netherlands The Netherlands (as the revolutionary Batavian Republic) began to use the metric system from 1799 but, as with its co-revolutionaries in France, encountered numerous practical difficulties. Subsequently, as part of the First French Empire since 1809, the Netherlands used Napoloeon's from their introduction in 1812 until the fall of his Empire in 1815. Under the (Dutch) Weights and Measures Act of 21 August 1816 and the Royal decree of 27 March 1817 (), the newly formed Kingdom of the Netherlands abandoned the in favour of the "Dutch" metric system () in which metric units were simply given the names of units of measure that were then in use. Examples include the (ounce) which was defined as being 100 g. Norway In 1875, Norway was the first country to ratify the metre convention, and it was seen as an important step for Norway to gain independence. The decision to adopt the metric system is said to have been the Norwegian Parliament's fastest decision in peace time. Portugal In August 1814, Portugal officially adopted the metric system but with the names of the units substituted by Portuguese traditional ones. In this system the basic units were the mão-travessa (hand) = 1 decimetre (10 mão-travessas = 1 vara (yard) = 1 metre), the canada = 1 litre and the libra (pound) = 1 kilogram. Spain Until the ascent of the Bourbon monarchy in Spain in 1700, each region of Spain had its own system of measurement. The new Bourbon monarchy tried to centralise control and with it the system of measurement. There were debates regarding the desirability of retaining the Castilian units of measure or, in the interests of harmonisation, adopting the French system. Although Spain assisted Méchain in his meridian survey, the Government feared the French revolutionary movement and reinforced the Castilian units of measure to counter such movements. By 1849 however, it proved difficult to maintain the old system and in that year the metric system became the legal system of measure in Spain. The Spanish Royal Academy of Science urged the Government to approve the creation of a large-scale map of Spain in 1852. The following year Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero was appointed to undertake this task. All the scientific and technical material had to be created. Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero and Saavedra went to Paris to supervise the production by Brunner of a measuring instrument which they had devised and which they later compared with Borda's double-toise N°1 which was the main reference for measuring all geodetic bases in France and whose length was by definition 3.8980732 metres at a specified temperature. In 1865 the triangulation of Spain was connected with that of Portugal and France. In 1866 at the conference of the Association of Geodesy in Neuchâtel, Ibáñez announced that Spain would collaborate in remeasuring the French meridian arc. In 1879 Ibáñez and François Perrier (representing France) completed the junction between the geodetic network of Spain and Algeria and thus completed the measurement of the French meridian arc which extended from Shetland to the Sahara. In 1866, Spain and Portugal joined the Central European Arc Measurement which would become the European Arc Measurement the next year. In 1867 at the second general conference of the geodetic association held in Berlin, the question of an international standard unit of length was discussed in order to combine the measurements made in different countries to determine the size and shape of the Earth. The conference proposed according to recommendations drawn up by a committee chaired by Otto Wilhelm von Struve director of the Pulkovo Observatory in St. Petersburg the adoption of the metre and the creation of an international metre commission, after a preliminary discussion held in Neuchâtel between Johann Jacob Baeyer director of the Royal Prussian Geodetic Institute, Adolphe Hirsch founder of the Neuchâtel Observatory and Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero Spanish representative, founder and first director of the Instituto Geográfico Nacional. In November 1869 the French government issued invitations to join this commission. Spain accepted and Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero took part in the Committee of preparatory research from the first meeting of the International Metre Commission in 1870. He became president of the permanent Committee of the International Metre Commission in 1872. In 1874 he was elected as president of the Permanent Commission of the European Arc Measurement. He also presided the General Conference of the European Arc Measurement held in Paris in 1875, when the association decided the creation of an international geodetic standard for the bases' measurement. He represented Spain at the 1875 conference of the Metre Convention, which was ratified the same year in Paris. The Spanish geodesist was elected as the first president of the International Committee for Weights and Measures. His activities resulted in the distribution of a platinum and iridium prototype of the metre to all States parties to the Metre Convention during the first meeting of the General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1889. Theses prototypes defined the metre right up until 1960. Switzerland In 1801, the Helvetic Republic at the instigation of Johann Georg Tralles promulgated a law introducing the metric system which was never applied, because in 1803 the competence for weights and measures returned to the cantons. On the territory of the current canton of Jura, then annexed to France (Mont-Terrible), the metre was adopted in 1800. Canton of Geneva adopted the metric system in 1813, canton of Vaud in 1822, canton of Valais in 1824 and canton of Neuchâtel in 1857. Twelve cantons of the Swiss Plateau and the north-east adopted in 1835 a concordat based on the federal foot (exactly 0.3 m) which entered in force in 1836. The cantons of central and eastern Switzerland, as well as the Alpine cantons continued to use the old measures. Guillaume-Henri Dufour founded in 1838 in Geneva a topographic office (future Federal Office of topography), which published under his direction, from 1845 to 1864, the first official map of Switzerland, on the basis of new cantonal measurements. This map at 1: 100,000 engraved on copper, suggested the relief by hatching and shadows. The Map projection adopted by the commission was the Bonne projection. Its center would be the Bern Observatory (5° 6' 10.8'' E of Paris meridian), although this point was much closer to the western end of Switzerland than to its eastern end. But its position was well known, and there was no more central observatory. The scale was set at one hundred thousandth because it was considered more suitable for a country as rugged as Switzerland than that of the eighty thousandth adopted for the large map of France. There was no reason to adopt this one, because the meridians of the map of Switzerland tilting in the opposite direction to those of the map of France, it was not possible to make the connection which, in the eyes of a few people, seemed desirable. The map commission wanted to adopt decimal measures; and Switzerland did not have a map made previously which, like that of Cassini, could involve keeping a scale which did not deviate too much from that of a line for one hundred toises, or the eighty-six thousand and four hundredth. The metre was adopted as a linear measure, and the entire map was divided into twenty-five sheets: five in length or east to west, and five in height. Each sheet must have carried two scales, one purely metric, the other in Swiss leagues 4800 metres in length. The frame would be divided into sexagesimal minutes and centesimal minutes; the latters, each subdivided into ten parts, provide the advantage of showing kilometers in the direction of the meridians; so that there are new scales on the sides of the sheet to appreciate the distances. According to the 1848 Constitution the federal foot was to come into force throughout the country. In Geneva, a committee chaired by Guillaume Henri Dufour militated in favor of maintaining the decimal metric system in the French-speaking cantons and against the standardization of weights and measures in Switzerland on the basis of the metric foot. In 1868 the metric system was legalized alongside the federal foot, which was a first step towards its definitive introduction. Cantonal calibrators were supervised by a Federal Bureau of Verification created in 1862, whose management was entrusted to Heinrich von Wild from 1864. In 1875, the competence for weights and measures was assigned to the Confederation and Switzerland represented by Adolphe Hirsch joined the Metre Convention. The same year a federal law imposed the metric system from 1 January 1877. In 1977, Switzerland joined the International System of Units. United Kingdom In 1824 the Weights and Measures Act imposed one standard 'imperial' system of weights and measures on the British Empire. The effect of this act was to standardise existing British units of measure rather than to align them with the metric system. During the next eighty years a number of Parliamentary select committees recommended the adoption of the metric system, each with a greater degree of urgency, but Parliament prevaricated. A Select Committee report of 1862 recommended compulsory metrication, but with an "Intermediate permissive phase"; Parliament responded in 1864 by legalising metric units only for 'contracts and dealings'. The United Kingdom initially declined to sign the Treaty of the Metre, but did so in 1883. Meanwhile, British scientists and technologists were at the forefront of the metrication movement – it was the British Association for the Advancement of Science that promoted the CGS system of units as a coherent system and it was the British firm Johnson Matthey that was accepted by the CGPM in 1889 to cast the international prototype metre and kilogram. In 1895 another Parliamentary select committee recommended the compulsory adoption of the metric system after a two-year permissive period. The 1897 Weights and Measures Act legalised the metric units for trade, but did not make them mandatory. A bill to make the metric system compulsory in order to enable the British industrial base to fight off the challenge of the nascent German base passed through the House of Lords in 1904, but did not pass in the House of Commons before the next general election was called. Following opposition by the Lancashire cotton industry, a similar bill was defeated in 1907 in the House of Commons by 150 votes to 118. In 1965 the UK began an official programme of metrication that, as of , has not been completed and has effectively been halted. In the United Kingdom metric is the official system for most regulated trading by weight or measure purposes, but some imperial units remain the primary official unit of measurement. For example, miles, yards, and feet remain the official units for road signage – and use of imperial units is widespread. The Imperial pint also remains a permitted unit for milk in returnable bottles and for draught beer and cider in British pubs. Imperial units are also legal for use alongside metric units on food packaging and price indications for goods sold loose, and may be used exclusively where a product is sold by description, rather than by weight/mass/volume: e.g. television screen and clothing sizes tend to be denominated in inches only, but a piece of material priced per inch would be unlawful unless the metric price was also shown. Most of the general public still measure their height and weight in imperial units, and imperial units are the norm when discussing longer distances such as journeys by car, but otherwise metric measurements are often used. United States In 1805 a Swiss geodesist Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler brought copies of the French metre and kilogram to the United States. In 1830 the Congress decided to create uniform standards for length and weight in the United States. Hassler was mandated to work out the new standards and proposed to adopt the metric system. The Congress opted for the British Parliamentary Standard from 1758 and the Troy Pound of Great Britain from 1824 as length and weight standards. Nevertheless, the primary baseline of the US Coast Survey was measured in 1834 at Fire Island using four two-metre iron bars constructed after Hassler's specification in the United Kingdom and brought back in the United States in 1815. All distances measured in the US National Geodetic Survey were referred to the metre. In 1866 the United States Congress passed a bill making it lawful to use the metric system in the United States. The bill, which was permissive rather than mandatory in nature, defined the metric system in terms of customary units rather than with reference to the international prototype metre and kilogram. Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler's use of the metre in coastal survey, which had been an argument for the introduction of the Metric Act of 1866 allowing the use of the metre in the United States, probably also played a role in the choice of the metre as international scientific unit of length and the proposal by the European Arc Measurement (German: Europäische Gradmessung) to “establish a European international bureau for weights and measures”. By 1893, the reference standards for customary units had become unreliable. Moreover, the United States, being a signatory of the Metre Convention was in possession of national prototype metres and kilograms that were calibrated against those in use elsewhere in the world. This led to the Mendenhall Order which redefined the customary units by referring to the national metric prototypes, but used the conversion factors of the 1866 act. In 1896 a bill that would make the metric system mandatory in the United States was presented to Congress. Twenty-three of the 29 people who gave evidence before the congressional committee who were considering the bill were in favor of it, but six were against. Four of these six dissenters represented manufacturing interests and the other two were from the United States Revenue service. The grounds cited were the cost and inconvenience of the change-over. The bill was not enacted. Subsequent bills suffered a similar fate. The United States mandated the acceptance of the metric system in 1866 for commercial and legal proceedings, without displacing their customary units. The non-mandatory nature of the adoption of the SI has resulted in a much slower pace of adoption in the US than in other countries. In 1971 the US National Bureau of Standards completed a three-year study of the impact of increasing worldwide metric use on the US. The study concluded with a report to Congress entitled A Metric America – A Decision Whose Time Has Come. Since then metric use has increased in the US, principally in the manufacturing and educational sectors. Public Law 93-380, enacted 21 August 1974, states that it is the policy of the US to encourage educational agencies and institutions to prepare students to use the metric system of measurement with ease and facility as a part of the regular education program. On 23 December 1975, President Gerald Ford signed Public Law 94–168, the Metric Conversion Act of 1975. This act declares a national policy of coordinating the increasing use of the metric system in the US. It established a US Metric Board whose functions as of 1 October 1982 were transferred to the Dept of Commerce, Office of Metric Programs, to coordinate the voluntary conversion to the metric system. In January 2007 NASA decided to use metric units for all future moon missions, in line with the practice of other space agencies. Other English-speaking countries The British metrication programme signalled the start of metrication programmes elsewhere in the Commonwealth, though India had started its programme in 1959, six years before the United Kingdom. South Africa (then not a member of the Commonwealth) set up a Metrication Advisory Board in 1967, New Zealand set up its Metric Advisory Board in 1969, Australia passed the Metric Conversion Act in 1970 and Canada appointed a Metrication Commission in 1971. Metrication in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa was essentially complete within a decade, while in Canada metrication has been halted since the 1970s. In that country, the square foot is still widespread for commercial and residential advertisements and partially in construction because of the close trade relations with the United States. Metric measurements on food products such as canned food are often merely the equivalent of the still widely used imperial units of measurement such as the ounce and the pound. Butter is everywhere sold in 454 g packagings, which is the equivalent of one pound. The railways of Canada such as the Canadian National and Canadian Pacific as well as commuter rail services continue to measure their trackage in miles and speed limits in miles per hour because they also operate in the United States (although urban railways including subways and light rail have adopted kilometres and kilometres per hour). Canadian railcars show weight figures in both imperial and metric. Most other Commonwealth countries adopted the metric system during the 1970s. Apart from the United Kingdom and Canada, which have effectively halted their metrication programs, the great majority of countries using the imperial system have completed official metrication during the second half of the 20th century or the first decade of the 21st century. The most recent to complete this process was the Republic of Ireland, which began metric conversion in the 1970s and completed it in early 2005. Hong Kong uses three systems (traditional, Imperial and metric) and all three are permitted for use in trade. Chronology of conversion process The metric system was officially introduced in France in December 1799. In the 19th century, the metric system was adopted by almost all European countries: Portugal (1814); Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg (1820); Switzerland (1835); Spain (1850s); Italy (1861); Romania (1864); Germany (1870, legally from 1 January 1872); and Austria-Hungary (1876, but the law was adopted in 1871). Thailand did not formally adopt the metric system until 1923, but the Royal Thai Survey Department used it for cadastral survey as early as 1896. Denmark and Iceland adopted the metric system in 1907. Chronology and status of conversion by country/region Links in the country/region point to articles about metrication in that country/region. Notes There are three common ways that nations convert from traditional measurement systems to the metric system. The first is the quick, or "Big-Bang" route. The second way is to phase in units over time and progressively outlaw traditional units. This method, favoured by some industrial nations, is slower and generally less complete. The third way is to redefine traditional units in metric terms. This has been used successfully where traditional units were ill-defined and had regional variations. The "Big-Bang" way is to simultaneously outlaw the use of pre-metric measurement, metricate, reissue all government publications and laws, and change education systems to metric. India was the first Commonwealth country to use this method of conversion. It's changeover lasted from 1 April 1960, when metric measurements became legal, to 1 April 1962, when all other systems were banned. The Indian model was extremely successful and was copied over much of the developing world. Two industrialized Commonwealth countries, Australia and New Zealand also did a quick conversion to metric. The phase-in way is to pass a law permitting the use of metric units in parallel with traditional ones, followed by education of metric units, then progressively ban the use of the older measures. This has generally been a slow route to metric. The British Empire permitted the use of metric measures in 1873, but the changeover was not completed in most Commonwealth countries other than India and Australia until the 1970s and 1980s when governments took an active role in metric conversion. In the United Kingdom and Canada, the process is still incomplete. Japan also followed this route and did not complete the changeover for 70 years. By law, loose goods sold with reference to units of quantity have to be weighed and sold using the metric system. In 2001, the EU directive 80/181/EEC stated that supplementary units (imperial units alongside metric including labelling on packages) would become illegal from the beginning of 2010. In September 2007, a consultation process was started which resulted in the directive being modified to permit supplementary units to be used indefinitely. The third method is to redefine traditional units in terms of metric values. These redefined "quasi-metric" units often stay in use long after metrication is said to have been completed. Resistance to metrication in post-revolutionary France convinced Napoleon to revert to mesures usuelles (usual measures), and, to some extent, the names remain throughout Europe. In 1814, Portugal adopted the metric system, but with the names of the units substituted by Portuguese traditional ones. In this system, the basic units were the mão-travessa (hand) = 1 decimetre (10 mão-travessas = 1 vara (yard) = 1 metre), the canada = 1 litre and the libra (pound) = 1 kilogram. In the Netherlands, 500 g is informally referred to as a pond (pound) and 100 g as an ons (ounce), and in Germany and France, 500 g is informally referred to respectively as ein Pfund and une livre ("one pound"). In Denmark, the re-defined pund (500 g) is occasionally used, particularly among older people and (older) fruit growers, since these were originally paid according to the number of pounds of fruit produced. In Sweden and Norway, a mil (Scandinavian mile) is informally equal to 10 km, and this has continued to be the predominantly used unit in conversation when referring to geographical distances. In the 19th century, Switzerland had a non-metric system completely based on metric terms (e.g. 1 Fuss (foot) = 30 cm, 1 Zoll (inch) = 3 cm, 1 Linie (line) = 3 mm). In China, the jin now has a value of 500 g and the liang is 50 g. It is difficult to judge the degree to which ordinary people change to using metric in their daily lives. In countries that have recently changed, older segments of the population tend to still use the older units. Also, local variations abound in which units are round metric quantities or not. In Canada, for example, ovens and cooking temperatures are usually measured in degrees Fahrenheit and Celsius. Except for in cases of import items, all recipes and packaging include both Celsius and Fahrenheit, so Canadians are typically comfortable with both systems of measurement. This extends to manufacturing, where companies are able to use both imperial and metric units, since the major export market is the US, but metric is required for both domestic use and for nearly all other exports. This may be due to the overwhelming influence of the neighbouring United States; similarly, many Canadians still often use non-metric measurements in day-to-day discussions of height and weight, though most driver's licences and other official government documents record weight and height only in metric (Saskatchewan driver licences, prior to the introduction of the current one-piece licence, indicated height in feet and inches but have switched to centimetres following the new licence format). In Canadian schools, however, metric is the standard, except when it comes up in recipes, where both are included, or in practical lessons involving measuring wood or other materials for manufacturing. In the United Kingdom, degrees Fahrenheit are seldom encountered (except when some people talk about hot summer weather), while other metric units are often used in conjunction with older measurements, and road signs use miles rather than kilometres. Another example is "hard" and "soft" metric: Canada converted liquid dairy products to litre, 500 mL, and 250 mL sizes, which caused some complaining at the time of the conversion, as a litre of milk is slightly over 35 imperial fluid ounces, while the former imperial quart used in Canada was 40 ounces. This is an example of a "hard" metric conversion. Conversely, butter in Canada is sold primarily in a 454 g package, which converts to one Imperial pound. Similarly, one of the standard sizes of some liquor bottles is 1.14 litres, which translates to 40 ounces (one Imperial/Canadian quart). This is considered a "soft" metric conversion. In Ireland, metric is the official unit of measurement though most people would not understand metric units for measuring the body, distances or area. Conversely British imperial units would generally not be understood for temperature. For non-body weights, metric is gradually replacing imperial in everyday use, possibly due to weights on packaging being in metric. Exceptions , the metric system officially predominates in most countries of the world; some traditional units, however, are still used in many places in specific industries. For example: Photo and video cameras are standardized to mount to tripods using -20 and -16 screws, which are dimensioned in inches, as per ISO 1222:2010. Automobile tyre pressure is commonly measured in units of psi in several countries including Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, India, Ireland, Mexico, Peru, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Automotive engine power is usually measured in horsepower (rather than in kilowatts) in Russia, most other ex-USSR countries and German-speaking countries (note that this is typically "metric horsepower" rather than imperial horsepower), although in the EU from 2010 the horsepower is permitted only as a supplementary unit. In Sweden, the power of fuel powered engines is given in horsepower while the power of electrical engines is given in watts. In Hong Kong, traditional Chinese and British imperial units are normally used instead of metric units in particular types of trade. Construction workers in Northern Europe often refer to planks and nails by their old inch-based names. The length of small sail boats is often given in feet in popular conversation. Office space and housing space is often sold and rented in British imperial units, such as square feet in Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia, Canada and India, square yards in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, or tsubo/pyeong/"ping" in Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. In plumbing, some pipes and pipe threads are still designated in inch sizes due to historic international acceptance of particular sequences of pipe sizes and pipe threads, such as BSP / ISO 7 / EN 10226 threads. In the United Kingdom and some Commonwealth countries, temperatures of domestic gas ovens are often specified using gas marks. Similarly, older French ovens and recipes book often use a scale based on the Fahrenheit scale: "Thermostat" (abbreviated "Th"), where Thermostat 1 equals 100 °F for conventional ovens, increasing by 50 °F for each whole number along the scale. Automotive and bicycle wheel diameters are still usually but not always set as whole inch measurements (although tyre widths are measured in millimetres). Dots per inch and pixels per inch continue to be used in describing graphical resolution in the computer and printing industry. Data density for magnetic tape data storage is measured bits per inch for linear density and bits per square inch for areal density. Thread count is frequently measured in "threads per inch" or "ends per inch". Abrasives, such as sandpaper or sharpening stones, are commonly graded by "grit", corresponding to mesh size per square inch. Display sizes for screens on television sets, computer monitors, laptops, smartphones and tablets have their diagonals usually cited in inches in many countries; however, in countries such as France and South Africa, centimetres are often used for television sets, whereas CRT computer monitors and all LCD monitors are measured in inches. Many large format computer printers, commonly known as plotters, have carriage widths measured in inches. Common widths are , , and . While metric media sizes are often quoted (e.g. A0, A1), rolls of film, plain paper or photographic paper are normally sold in these widths, giving rise to wastage when they are trimmed. Rolls lengths are variously quoted in feet or metres. In the electronic industry, the dominant spacing for components is based on intervals of , and a change would lead to compatibility issues, e.g., for connectors. Within the mechanical industry, inch-based spare parts can occasionally be kept, e.g., to service American or pre-World War II machines, but at maintenance, screws may be exchanged to metric thread. In Ireland, the only legal exceptions to the metrication process is the mandatory use of the imperial pint for the sale of draught beer and cider in public venues. Precious metals may be sold by the troy ounce and supplementary imperial measures are permitted alongside metric units on packaged goods. Loose goods may also have supplementary imperial measures displayed alongside metric units, as long as loose goods are sold in metric units. Height and width limit road signs are typically signed in feet and inches, and metres, or just feet and inches. In Australia, a pint of beer was redefined to 570 ml (see Australian beer glasses). McDonald's sells its Quarter Pounder with cheese under its original name in all English-speaking countries despite metrication In the Netherlands and Finland, it is known as a Quarter Pounder Cheese while Sweden refers it to both that name and shortened to simply QP Cheese. In Quebec, it is called a "Quart de livre" (French for Quarter pound). In Latin America and Spain, it is called Cuarto de Libra con Queso (Spanish for Quarter Pound with Cheese). In Taiwan, it is known as the "four-ounce beefburger" (). In the sport of surfing, surfboards are usually designed, constructed, and sold in feet and inches. In Philippines certain pre-metric units are still used, e.g., the quiñón for land measurement . In many long-time metric countries, when non-metric units are used, it is often to give rough estimates in a short form, while accurate measures always are metric, e.g., "6 feet" may feel more approximate than "1.8 metres" or "180 cm". Measurement tools for inches are generally rare to find there, only on the other side of some carpenter's rulers, and may present a variation between national legacy inches and international inches, easily causing significant measurement errors if used. Golf courses are measured in yards in the United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, China, Thailand, the Philippines, Venezuela, Colombia, and the Dominican Republic, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Cambodia. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, some golf courses are measured in yards while others are measured in metres. As of 2021, the imperial gallon continues to be used as the standard petrol unit in four British Overseas Territories, which are Anguilla, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, and Montserrat. The imperial gallon is also the standard petrol unit in six countries, which are Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Christopher and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. In the United Kingdom fuel efficiency is officially recorded in miles per imperial gallon although fuel is sold in litres. The US gallon is used in the United States itself and its territories (except for Puerto Rico, which has been using the litre since 1980), the Bahamas, Belize, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Liberia, Peru, Turks and Caicos Islands, especially for pricing. In Latin America, the Spanish word galón may occasionally refer to a portable fuel container, often 5–20 l. Road distances and speed limits are still displayed in miles and miles per hour in the USA, UK, Burma, and various Caribbean nations. Precious metals are often sold by troy weight, even in countries that otherwise use the metric system. Heating, air conditioning, and gas-fuelled cooking appliances often specify their capacity in British thermal units per hour (BTU/h), even in countries that do not use pounds or Fahrenheit. In some countries (such as Antigua and Barbuda, see above), the transition is still in progress. The Caribbean island nation of Saint Lucia announced metrication programmes in 2005 to be compatible with CARICOM, however this transition has been effectively halted due to road signage and the sale of fuel, among other aspects, still being in imperial. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, some of the population continues to resist metrication to varying degrees. The traditional imperial measures are preferred by a majority and continue to have widespread use in some applications. The metric system is used by most businesses, and is used for most trade transactions. Metric units must be used for certain trading activities (selling by weight or measure for example), although imperial units may continue to be displayed in parallel. British law has enacted the provisions of European Union directive 80/181/EEC, which catalogues the units of measure that may be used for "economic, public health, public safety and administrative purposes". These units consist of the recommendations of the General Conference on Weights and Measures, supplemented by some additional units of measure that may be used for specified purposes. Metric units could be legally used for trading purposes for nearly a century before metrication efforts began in earnest. The government had been making preparations for the conversion of the Imperial unit since the 1862 Select Committee on Weights and Measures recommended the conversion and the Weights and Measures Act of 1864 and the Weights and Measures (Metric System) Act of 1896 legalised the metric system. In 1965, with lobbying from British industries and the prospects of joining the Common Market, the government set a 10-year target for full conversion, and created the Metrication Board in 1969. Metrication did occur in some areas during this time period, including the re-surveying of Ordnance Survey maps in 1970, decimalisation of the currency in 1971, and teaching the metric system in schools. No plans were made to make the use of the metric system compulsory, and the Metrication Board was abolished in 1980 following a change in government. The United Kingdom avoided having to comply with the 1989 European Units of Measurement Directive (89/617/EEC), which required all member states to make the metric system compulsory, by negotiating derogations (delayed switchovers), including for miles on road signs and for pints for draught beer, cider, and milk sales. Following the United Kingdom's vote to withdraw from the European Union, retailers have begun to request to go back to using imperial units, with some reverting without permission. A poll following the 2016 vote also found that 45% of Britons sought to revert to selling produce in imperial units. Imperial units remain in common everyday use for human body measurements, in particular stones and pounds for weight, and feet and inches for height. United States Over time, the metric system has influenced the United States through international trade and standardisation. The use of the metric system was made legal as a system of measurement in 1866 and the United States was a founding member of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in 1875. The system was officially adopted by the federal government in 1975 for use in the military and government agencies, and as preferred system for trade and commerce. Attempts in the 1990s to make it mandatory for federal and state road signage to use metric units failed and it remains voluntary. A 1992 amendment to the Fair Packaging and Labeling Act (FPLA), which took effect in 1994, required labels on federally regulated "consumer commodities" to include both metric and US customary units. As of 2013, all but one US state (New York) have passed laws permitting metric-only labels for the products they regulate. After many years of informal or optional metrication, the American public and much of the private business and industry still use US customary units today. At least two states, Kentucky and California, have even moved towards demetrication of highway construction projects. Canada Canada legally allows for dual labelling of goods provided that the metric unit is listed first and that there is a distinction of whether a liquid measure is a US or a Canadian (Imperial) unit. Air and sea transportation Air and sea transportation commonly use the nautical mile. This is about one minute of arc of latitude along any meridian arc and it is precisely defined as 1 852 metres (about 1.151 miles). It is not an SI unit. The prime unit of speed or velocity for maritime and air navigation remains the knot (nautical mile per hour). The prime unit of measure for aviation (altitude, or flight level) is usually estimated based on air pressure values, and in many countries, it is still described in nominal feet, although many others employ nominal metres. The policies of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) relating to measurement are: there should be a single system of units throughout the world the single system should be the SI the use of the foot for altitude is a permitted variation. Consistent with ICAO policy, aviation has undergone a significant amount of metrication over the years. For example, runway lengths are usually given in metres. The United States metricated the data interchange format (METAR) for temperature reports in 1996, and now indicates temperature in Celsius. Metrication is also gradually taking place in cargo mass and dimensions and in fuel volume and mass. In former Soviet countries and China, the metric system is used in aviation (whereby in Russia altitudes above the transition level are given in feet). Sailplanes use the metric system in many European countries. In 1975, the assembly of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) decided that future conventions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) and other future IMO instruments should use SI units only. Accidents and incidents Confusion over units during the process of metrication can sometimes lead to accidents. In 1983, an Air Canada Boeing 767, nicknamed the "Gimli Glider" following the incident, ran out of fuel in midflight. The incident was caused, in a large part, by the confusion over the conversion between litres, kilograms, and pounds, resulting in the aircraft receiving of fuel instead of the required . While not strictly an example of national metrication, the use of two different systems was a contributing factor in the loss of the Mars Climate Orbiter in 1999. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) specified metric units in the contract. NASA and other organisations worked in metric units, but one subcontractor, Lockheed Martin, provided thruster performance data to the team in pound force-seconds instead of newton-seconds. The spacecraft was intended to orbit Mars at about in altitude, but the incorrect data meant that it descended to about . As a result, it burned up in the Martian atmosphere. See also Metrication opposition Change management, a field studying how changes can be efficiently implemented in modern communities Conversion of units Metric engine (American expression) Language reform Metre Convention Preferred numbers Spread of the Latin script References External links

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Month

Month

A month is a unit of time, used with calendars, that is approximately as long as a natural orbital period of the Moon; the words month and Moon are cognates. The traditional concept arose with the cycle of Moon phases; such lunar months ("lunations") are synodic months and last approximately 29.53 days. From excavated tally sticks, researchers have deduced that people counted days in relation to the Moon's phases as early as the Paleolithic age. Synodic months, based on the Moon's orbital period with respect to the Earth–Sun line, are still the basis of many calendars today, and are used to divide the year. Types of months in astronomy The following types of months are mainly of significance in astronomy, most of them (but not the distinction between sidereal and tropical months) first recognized in Babylonian lunar astronomy. The sidereal month is defined as the Moon's orbital period in a non-rotating frame of reference (which on average is equal to its rotation period in the same frame). It is about 27.32166 days (27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, 11.6 seconds). It is closely equal to the time it takes the Moon to pass twice a "fixed" star (different stars give different results because all have a very small proper motion and are not really fixed in position). A synodic month is the most familiar lunar cycle, defined as the time interval between two consecutive occurrences of a particular phase (such as new moon or full moon) as seen by an observer on Earth. The mean length of the synodic month is 29.53059 days (29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 2.8 seconds). Due to the eccentricity of the lunar orbit around Earth (and to a lesser degree, the Earth's elliptical orbit around the Sun), the length of a synodic month can vary by up to seven hours. The tropical month is the average time for the Moon to pass twice through the same equinox point of the sky. It is 27.32158 days, very slightly shorter than the sidereal month (27.32166) days, because of precession of the equinoxes. An anomalistic month is the average time the Moon takes to go from perigee to perigee—the point in the Moon's orbit when it is closest to Earth. An anomalistic month is about 27.55455 days on average. The draconic month, draconitic month, or nodal month is the period in which the Moon returns to the same node of its orbit; the nodes are the two points where the Moon's orbit crosses the plane of the Earth's orbit. Its duration is about 27.21222 days on average. A synodic month is longer than a sidereal month because the Earth-Moon system is orbiting the Sun in the same direction as the Moon is orbiting the Earth. The Sun moves eastward with respect to the stars (as does the Moon) and it takes about 2.2 days longer for the Moon to return to the same apparent position with respect to the Sun. An anomalistic month is longer than a sidereal month because the perigee moves in the same direction as the Moon is orbiting the Earth, one revolution in nine years. Therefore, the Moon takes a little longer to return to perigee than to return to the same star. A draconic month is shorter than a sidereal month because the nodes move in the opposite direction as the Moon is orbiting the Earth, one revolution in 18.6 years. Therefore, the Moon returns to the same node slightly earlier than it returns to the same star. Calendrical consequences At the simplest level, most well-known lunar calendars are based on the initial approximation that 2 lunations last 59 solar days: a 30-day full month followed by a 29-day hollow month—but this is only roughly accurate and eventually needs intercalation (correction). Additionally, the synodic month does not fit easily into the solar (or 'tropical') year, which makes accurate, rule-based 'lunisolar' calendars complicated. The most common solution to this problem is the Metonic cycle, which takes advantage of the fact that 235 lunations are approximately 19 tropical years (which add up to not quite 6,940 days). However, a Metonic calendar will drift against the seasons by about one day every 200 years. Metonic calendars include the calendar used in the Antikythera Mechanism about 2,000 years ago, and the Hebrew calendar. The complexity required in an accurate lunisolar calendar may explain why solar calendars (which have months which no longer relate to the phase of the Moon, but are based only on the motion of the Sun relative to the equinoxes and solstices) have generally replaced lunar calendars for civil use in most societies. Conversely, exclusively lunar calendars such as the Islamic calendar, do not try to synchronise with the solar year. (Consequently, an Islamic year is shorter than a solar year and the Islamic New Year has a different Gregorian calendar date in each (solar) year.) Months in various calendars Beginning of the lunar month The Hellenic calendars, the Hebrew Lunisolar calendar and the Islamic Lunar calendar started the month with the first appearance of the thin crescent of the new moon. However, the motion of the Moon in its orbit is very complicated and its period is not constant. The date and time of this actual observation depends on the exact geographical longitude as well as latitude, atmospheric conditions, the visual acuity of the observers, etc. Therefore, the beginning and lengths of months defined by observation cannot be accurately predicted. While some like orthodox Islam and the Jewish Karaites still rely on actual moon observations, reliance on astronomical calculations and tabular methods is increasingly common in practice. Pingelapese, a language from Micronesia, also uses a lunar calendar. There are 12 months associated with their calendar. The moon first appears in March, they name this month Kahlek. This system has been used for hundreds of years and throughout many generations. This calendar is cyclical and relies on the position and shape of the moon. Roman calendar Roman calendar was reformed several times, the last three enduring reforms during historical times. The last three reformed Roman calendars are called the Julian, Augustan, and Gregorian; all had the same number of days in their months. Despite other attempts, the names of the months after the Augustan calendar reform have persisted, and the number of days in each month (except February) have remained constant since before the Julian reform. The Gregorian calendar, like the Roman calendars before it, has twelve months, whose Anglicized names are: {| class="wikitable sortable" |- style="vertical-align:bottom;" ! Order !! Name !! Numberof days |- style="text-align:center;" | 1 |style="text-align:left;"| January || 31 |- style="text-align:center;" | 2 |style="text-align:left;"| February | 28 |- style="text-align:center;" | 3 |style="text-align:left;"| March || 31 |- style="text-align:center;" | 4 |style="text-align:left;"| April || 30 |- style="text-align:center;" | 5 |style="text-align:left;"| May || 31 |- style="text-align:center;" | 6 |style="text-align:left;"| June || 30 |- a style="text-align:center;" | 7 |style="text-align:left;"| July | 31 |- style="text-align:center;" | 8 |style="text-align:left;"| August | 31 |- style="text-align:center;" | 9 |style="text-align:left;"| September || 30 |- style="text-align:center;" | 10 |style="text-align:left;"| October || 31 |- style="text-align:center;" | 11 |style="text-align:left;"| November || 30 |- style="text-align:center;" | 12 |style="text-align:left;"| December || 31 |} The famous mnemonic Thirty days hath September is a common way of teaching the lengths of the months in the English-speaking world. The knuckles of the four fingers of one's hand and the spaces between them can be used to remember the lengths of the months. By making a fist, each month will be listed as one proceeds across the hand. All months landing on a knuckle are 31 days long and those landing between them are 30 days long, with variable February being the remembered exception. When the knuckle of the index finger is reached (July), go over to the first knuckle on the other fist, held next to the first (or go back to the first knuckle) and continue with August. This physical mnemonic has been taught to primary school students for many decades, if not centuries. This cyclical pattern of month lengths matches the musical keyboard alternation of wide white keys (31 days) and narrow black keys (30 days). The note F corresponds to January, and the diabolis in musica note F corresponds to February, the exceptional 28–29 day month. Numerical relations The mean month-length in the Gregorian calendar is 30.436875 days. Any five consecutive months, that do not include February, contain 153 days. Calends, nones, and ides Months in the pre-Julian Roman calendar included: Intercalaris an intercalary month occasionally embedded into February, to realign the calendar. Quintilis, later renamed to Julius in honour of Julius Caesar. Sextilis, later renamed to Augustus in honour of Augustus. The Romans divided their months into three parts, which they called the calends, the nones, and the ides. Their system is somewhat intricate. The ides occur on the thirteenth day in eight of the months, but in March, May, July, and October, they occur on the fifteenth. The nones always occur 8 days (one Roman ‘week’) before the ides, i.e., on the fifth or the seventh. The calends are always the first day of the month, and before Julius Caesar's reform fell sixteen days (two Roman weeks) after the ides (except the ides of February and the intercalary month). Relations between dates, weekdays, and months in the Gregorian calendar Within a month, the following dates fall on the same day of the week: 01, 08, 15, 22, and 29 (e.g., in January 2021, all these dates fell on a Friday) 02, 09, 16, 23, and 30 (e.g., in January 2021, all these dates fell on a Saturday) 03, 10, 17, 24, and 31 (e.g., in January 2021, all these dates fell on a Sunday) 04, 11, 18, and 25 (e.g., in January 2021, all these dates fell on a Monday) 05, 12, 19, and 26 (e.g., in January 2021, all these dates fell on a Tuesday) 06, 13, 20, and 27 (e.g., in January 2021, all these dates fell on a Wednesday) 07, 14, 21, and 28 (e.g., in January 2021, all these dates fell on a Thursday) Some months have the same date/weekday structure. In a non-leap year: January/October (e.g., in 2021, they began on a Friday) February/March/November (e.g., in 2021, they began on a Monday ) April/July (e.g., in 2021, they began on a Thursday) September/December (e.g., in 2021, they began on a Wednesday) January 1 and December 31 fall on the same weekday (e.g. in 2021 on a Friday) In a leap year: February/August (e.g. in 2020, they began on a Saturday) March/November (e.g., in 2020, they began on a Sunday) January/April/July (e.g., in 2020, they began on a Wednesday) September/December (e.g., in 2020, they began on a Tuesday) February 29 (the leap day) falls on the same weekday like February 1, 08, 15, 22, and August 1 (see above; e.g. in 2020 on a Saturday) Hebrew calendar The Hebrew calendar has 12 or 13 months. Nisan, 30 days ניסן Iyar, 30 days אייר Sivan, 30 days סיון Tammuz, 29 days תמוז Av, 30 days אב Elul, 29 days אלול Tishri, 30 days תשרי Marcheshvan, 29/30 days מַרְחֶשְׁוָן Kislev, 30/29 days כסלו Tevet, 29 days טבת Shevat, 30 days שבט Adar 1, 30 days, intercalary month אדר א Adar 2, 29 days אדר ב Adar 1 is only added 7 times in 19 years. In ordinary years, Adar 2 is simply called Adar. Islamic calendar There are also twelve months in the Islamic calendar. They are named as follows: Muharram (Restricted/sacred) محرّم Safar (Empty/Yellow) صفر Rabī' al-Awwal/Rabi' I (First Spring) ربيع الأول Rabī' ath-Thānī/Rabi' al-Aakhir/Rabi' II (Second spring or Last spring) ربيع الآخر أو ربيع الثاني Jumada al-Awwal/Jumaada I (First Freeze) جمادى الأول Jumada ath-Thānī or Jumādā al-Thānī/Jumādā II (Second Freeze or Last Freeze) جمادى الآخر أو جمادى الثاني Rajab (To Respect) رجب Sha'bān (To Spread and Distribute) شعبان Ramadān (Parched Thirst) رمضان Shawwāl (To Be Light and Vigorous) شوّال Dhu al-Qi'dah (The Master of Truce) ذو القعدة Dhu al-Hijjah (The Possessor of Hajj) ذو الحجة See Islamic calendar for more information on the Islamic calendar. Arabic calendar Hindu calendar The Hindu calendar has various systems of naming the months. The months in the lunar calendar are: These are also the names used in the Indian national calendar for the newly redefined months. Purushottam Maas or Adhik Maas (translit. = 'extra', = 'month') is an extra month in the Hindu calendar that is inserted to keep the lunar and solar calendars aligned. "Purushottam" is an epithet of Vishnu, to whom the month is dedicated. The names in the solar calendar are just the names of the zodiac sign in which the sun travels. They are Mesha Vrishabha Mithuna Kataka Simha Kanyaa Tulaa Vrishcika Dhanus Makara Kumbha Miina Baháʼí calendar The Baháʼí calendar is the calendar used by the Baháʼí Faith. It is a solar calendar with regular years of 365 days, and leap years of 366 days. Years are composed of 19 months of 19 days each (361 days), plus an extra period of "Intercalary Days" (4 in regular and 5 in leap years). The months are named after the attributes of God. Days of the year begin and end at sundown. Iranian calendar (Persian calendar) The Iranian / Persian calendar, currently used in Iran and Afghanistan, also has 12 months. The Persian names are included in the parentheses. It begins on the northern Spring equinox. Farvardin (31 days, فروردین) Ordibehesht (31 days, اردیبهشت) Khordad (31 days, خرداد) Tir (31 days, تیر) Mordad (31 days, مرداد) Shahrivar (31 days, شهریور) Mehr (30 days, مهر) Aban (30 days, آبان) Azar (30 days, آذر) Dey (30 days, دی) Bahman (30 days, بهمن) Esfand (29 days- 30 days in leap year, اسفند) Reformed Bengali calendar The Bangla calendar, used in Bangladesh, follows solar months and it has six seasons. The months and seasons in the calendar are: Nanakshahi calendar The months in the Nanakshahi calendar are: Khmer calendar Like the Hindu calendar, the Khmer calendar consists of both a lunar calendar and a solar calendar. The solar is used more commonly than the lunar calendar. There are 12 months and the numbers of days follow the Julian and Gregorian calendar. When an intercalary month was needed, a third Litha month was inserted in mid-summer. Old Hungarian calendar Nagyszombati kalendárium (in Latin: Calendarium Tyrnaviense) from 1579. Historically Hungary used a 12-month calendar that appears to have been zodiacal in nature but eventually came to correspond to the Gregorian months as shown below: Boldogasszony hava (January, 'month of the happy/blessed lady') Böjtelő hava (February, 'month of early fasting/Lent' or 'month before fasting/Lent') Böjtmás hava (March, 'second month of fasting/Lent') Szent György hava (April, 'Saint George's month') Pünkösd hava (May, 'Pentecost month') Szent Iván hava (June, 'Saint John [the Baptist]'s month') Szent Jakab hava (July, 'Saint James' month') Kisasszony hava (August, 'month of the Virgin') Szent Mihály hava (September, 'Saint Michael's month') Mindszent hava (October, 'all saints' month') Szent András hava (November, 'Saint Andrew's month') Karácsony hava (December, 'month of Yule/Christmas') Czech calendar Leden – derives from 'led' (ice) Únor – derives from 'nořit' (to dive, referring to the ice sinking into the water due to melting) Březen – derives from 'bříza' (birch) Duben – derives from 'dub' (oak) Květen – derives from 'květ' (flower) Červen – derives from 'červená' (red – for the color of apples and tomatoes) Červenec – is the second 'červen' (formerly known as 2nd červen) Srpen – derives from old Czech word 'sirpsti' (meaning to reflect, referring to the shine on the wheat) Září – means 'to shine' Říjen – derives from 'jelení říje', which refers to the estrous cycle of female elk Listopad – falling leaves Prosinec – derives from old Czech 'prosiněti', which means to shine through (refers to the sun light shining through the clouds) Old Egyptian calendar The ancient civil Egyptian calendar had a year that was 365 days long and was divided into 12 months of 30 days each, plus 5 extra days (epagomenes) at the end of the year. The months were divided into 3 "weeks" of ten days each. Because the ancient Egyptian year was almost a quarter of a day shorter than the solar year and stellar events "wandered" through the calendar, it is referred to as Annus Vagus or "Wandering Year". Thout Paopi Hathor Koiak Tooba Emshir Paremhat Paremoude Pashons Paoni Epip Mesori Nisga'a calendar The Nisga'a calendar coincides with the Gregorian calendar with each month referring to the type of harvesting that is done during the month. K'aliiyee = Going North – referring to the Sun returning to its usual place in the sky Buxwlaks = Needles Blowing About – February is usually a very windy month in the Nass River Valley Xsaak = To Eat Oolichans – Oolichans are harvested during this month Mmaal = Canoes – The river has defrosted, hence canoes are used once more Yansa'alt = Leaves are Blooming – Warm weather has arrived and leaves on the trees begin to bloom Miso'o = Sockeye – majority of Sockeye Salmon runs begin this month Maa'y = Berries – berry picking season Wii Hoon = Great Salmon – referring to the abundance of Salmon that are now running Genuugwwikw = Trail of the Marmot – Marmots, Ermines and animals as such are hunted Xlaaxw = To Eat Trout – trout are mostly eaten this time of year Gwilatkw = To Blanket – The earth is "blanketed" with snow Luut'aa = Sit In – the Sun "sits" in one spot for a period of time French Republican calendar This calendar was proposed during the French Revolution, and used by the French government for about twelve years from late 1793. There were twelve months of 30 days each, grouped into three ten-day weeks called décades. The five or six extra days needed to approximate the tropical year were placed after the months at the end of each year. A period of four years ending on a leap day was to be called a Franciade. It began at the autumn equinox: Autumn: Vendémiaire Brumaire Frimaire Winter: Nivôse Pluviôse Ventôse Spring: Germinal Floréal Prairial Summer: Messidor Thermidor Fructidor Eastern Ojibwe calendar Ojibwe month names are based on the key feature of the month. Consequently, months between various regions have different names based on the key feature of each month in their particular region. In the Eastern Ojibwe, this can be seen in when the sucker makes its run, which allows the Ojibwe to fish for them. Additionally, Rhodes also informs of not only the variability in the month names, but how in Eastern Ojibwe these names were originally applied to the lunar months the Ojibwe originally used, which was a lunisolar calendar, fixed by the date of Akiinaaniwan (typically December 27) that marks when sunrise is the latest in the Northern Hemisphere. {| class="wikitable" |- style="vertical-align:bottom;" !RomanMonth !Month inEastern Ojibwe !Englishtranslation !Original order in the Ojibwa year !Starting at the first full moon after: |- |rowspan=2|Januaryin those places that have a sucker run during that time |n[a]mebin-giizis |rowspan=2|sucker moon |rowspan=2| |rowspan=2|Akiinaaniwan on December 27 |- |n[a]meb[i]ni-giizis |- |February |[o]naab[a]ni-giizis |Crust-on-the-snow moon | |January 25 |- |March |zii[n]z[i]baak[wa]doke-giizis |Sugaring moon | |February 26 |- |rowspan=2|Aprilin those places that have a sucker run during that time |n[a]mebin-giizis |rowspan=2|sucker moon |rowspan=4| |rowspan=4|March 25 |- |n[a]meb[i]ni-giizis |- |Aprilin those places that do not have a sucker run during that time |rowspan=2|waawaas[a]gone-giizis |rowspan=2|Flower moon |- |Mayin those places that have an April sucker run |- |Mayin those places that have a January sucker run |rowspan=2|g[i]tige-giizis |rowspan=2|Planting moon |rowspan=2| |rowspan=2|April 24 |- |Junein those places that have an April sucker run |- |Junein those places that have a January sucker run |[o]deh[i]min-giizis |Strawberry moon | |May 23 |- |July |miin-giizis |Blueberry moon | |June 22 |- |August |[o]dat[a]gaag[o]min-giizis |Blackberry moon | |July 20 |- |September |m[an]daamin-giizis |Corn moon | |August 18 |- |rowspan=2|October |b[i]naakwe-giizis |Leaves-fall moon |rowspan=2| |rowspan=2|September 17 |- |b[i]naakwii-giizis |Harvest moon |- |November |g[a]shkadin-giizis |Freeze-up moon | |October 16 |- |December |g[i]chi-b[i]boon-giizis |Big-winter moon | |November 15 |- |Januaryin those places that do not have a sucker run during that time |[o]shki-b[i]boon-gii[zi]soons |Little new-winter moon | | |} See also Maya calendar Chinese calendar Egyptian calendar Ethiopian calendar Lunar month Assyrian calendar Kurdish calendar Month of year Footnotes References Calendars Orbit of the Moon Orders of magnitude (time) Units of time

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozambique%20Channel

Mozambique Channel

The Mozambique Channel (, , ) is an arm of the Indian Ocean located between the Southeast African countries of Madagascar and Mozambique. The channel is about long and across at its narrowest point, and reaches a depth of about off the coast of Mozambique. A warm current, the Mozambique Current, flows in a southward direction in the channel, leading into the Agulhas Current off the east coast of Southern Africa. Extent The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defines the limits of the Mozambique Channel as follows: On the North. A line from the estuary of the River Rovuma () to Ras Habu, the northernmost point of Ile Grande Comore, the northernmost of the Comore (Comoro) Islands, to Cap d'Ambre (Cape Amber), the northern extremity of Madagascar (). On the East. The west coast of Madagascar. On the South. A line from Cap Sainte-Marie, the southern extremity of Madagascar to Ponto do Ouro on the mainland (). On the West. The coast of Southern Africa. Islands in the channel Comoros Grande Comore Mohéli Anjouan France Region of France: Mayotte (claimed by Comoros) Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean, district of French Southern and Antarctic Lands: Glorioso Islands (claimed by Madagascar and Comoros) Juan de Nova Island (claimed by Madagascar) Europa Island (claimed by Madagascar) Bassas da India (claimed by Madagascar) Mozambique Primeiras and Segundas Archipelago History World War II Graf Spee Incident On 15 November 1939, under the command of Captain Patrick (Paddy) Dove, the British Coastal Tanker Africa Shell was plying through the Mozambique Channel en-passage from Quelimane to Lourenco Marques sailing in ballast. During the course of the morning, at a point south-southwest from the lighthouse at Cape Zavora, she was spotted by the German Pocket Battleship Admiral Graf Spee, under the command of Captain Hans Langsdorff, and which was embarked upon a commerce raiding sortie. Graf Spee ordered the Africa Shell to stop by the firing of a shot across her bow. Having stopped the Africa Shell, a cutter with a boarding party was despatched from the Graf Spee and subsequently boarded the tanker, the officer in charge addressing Captain Dove in perfect English with the sentence: "Good morning, captain. Sorry; fortunes of war." In time the boarding party ordered the ship's company, save the Africa Shell's Master, into their lifeboats before stripping the Africa Shell of all foodstuffs including a small amount of wine. The crew were ordered to row for shore, however Captain Dove was taken prisoner on board the Graf Spee where he was to be held captive. Capt. Dove was incensed by the interception of his ship, and complained personally to Capt. Langsdorff, citing that the Africa Shell was within Portuguese Territorial Waters and that the action was in clear violation of international law. With the crew of the Africa Shell making their way to the shore, and with Capt. Dove transferred to the Graf Spee, the boarding party proceeded to set about the operation of sinking the tanker. Scuttling charges were placed within the ship, and their timers set, following which the party re-embarked in the motor launch and made their way back to the Graf Spee. With all personnel safely aboard the Graf Spee, Langsdorff and his crew observed the detonation of the charges which blew two holes in the Africa Shell's stern. Following this Graf Spee opened fire using some of her secondary armament of SK C/28 guns, sinking the Africa Shell. Battle of Madagascar The Mozambique Channel was a World War II clashpoint during the Battle of Madagascar. References External links Japanese Submarines at Madagascar and the Mozambique Channel Channels of the Indian Ocean Straits of Africa Borders of Mozambique Borders of Madagascar International straits Borders of the Comoros Borders of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical%20psychology

Medical psychology

Medical psychology, or Medico-psychology, is the application of psychological principles to the practice of medicine, primarily drug-oriented, for both physical and mental disorders. A medical psychologist who holds prescriptive authority for specific psychiatric medications and other pharmaceutical drugs must first obtain specific qualifications in psychopharmacology. A trained medical psychologist, or clinical psychopharmacologist who has prescriptive authority, is equated with a mid-level provider who has the authority to prescribe psychotropic medication such as antidepressants for mental health disorders. However, a medical psychologist does not automatically equate with a psychologist who has the authority to prescribe medication. In fact, most medical psychologists do not prescribe medication and do not have the authority to do so. Medical psychologists apply psychological theories, scientific psychological findings, and techniques of psychotherapy, behavior modification, cognitive, interpersonal, family, and lifestyle therapy to improve the psychological and physical health of the patient. Psychologists with postdoctoral specialty training as medical psychologists are the practitioners with refined skills in clinical psychology, health psychology, behavioral medicine, psychopharmacology, and medical science. Highly qualified and postgraduate specialized doctors are trained for service in primary care centers, hospitals, residential care centers, and long-term care facilities and in multidisciplinary collaboration and team treatment. Medical psychology specialty The field of medical psychology may include predoctoral training in the disciplines of health psychology, rehabilitation psychology, pediatric psychology, neuropsychology, and clinical psychopharmacology, as well as subspecialties in pain management, primary care psychology, and hospital-based (or medical school-based) psychology as the foundation psychological training to qualify for proceeding to required postdoctoral specialty training to qualify to become a diplomate/specialist in medical psychology. To be a specialist in medical psychology, a psychologist must hold board certification from the American Board of Medical Psychology (ABMP), which requires a doctorate degree in psychology, a license to practice psychology, a postdoctoral graduate degree or other acceptable postdoctoral didactic training, a residency in medical psychology, submission of a work product for examination, and a written and oral examination by the American Board of Medical Psychology. The American Board of Medical Psychology maintains a distinction between specialists and psychopharmacological psychologists or those interested in practicing one of the related psychological disciplines in primary care centers. The term "medical psychologist" is not an umbrella term, and many other specialties in psychology such as health psychology, embracing the biopsychosocial paradigm (Engel, 1977) of mental/physical health and extending that paradigm to clinical practice through research and the application of evidenced-based diagnostic and treatment procedures are akin to the specialty and are prepared to practice in integrated and primary care settings. Adopting the biopsychosocial paradigm, the field of medical psychology has recognized the Cartesian assumption that the body and mind are separate entities is inadequate, representing as it does an arbitrary dichotomy that works to the detriment of healthcare. The biopsychosocial approach reflects the concept that the psychology of an individual cannot be understood without reference to that individual's social environment. For the medical psychologist, the medical model of disease cannot in itself explain complex health concerns any more than a strict psychosocial (LeVine & Orabona Foster, 2010) explanation of mental and physical health can in itself be comprehensive. Duties Medical psychologists and some psychopharmacologists are trained and equipped to modify physical disease states and the actual cytoarchitecture and functioning of the central nervous and related systems using psychological and pharmacological techniques (when allowed by statute), and to provide prevention for the progression of disease having to do with poor personal and lifestyle choices and conceptualization, behavioral patterns, and chronic exposure to the effects of negative thinking, choosing, attitudes, and negative contexts. The specialty of medical psychology includes training in psychopharmacology and, in states providing statutory authority, may prescribe psychoactive substances as one technique in a larger treatment plan which includes psychological interventions. The medical psychologists and psychopharmacologists who serve in states that have not yet modernized their psychology prescribing laws may evaluate patients and recommend appropriate psychopharmacological techniques in collaboration with a state-authorized prescriber. Medical psychologists and psychopharmacologists who are not board certified strive to integrate the major components of an individual's psychological, biological, and social functioning and are designed to contribute to that person's well-being in a way that respects the natural interface among these components. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts when it comes to providing comprehensive and sensible behavioral healthcare and the medical psychologist is uniquely qualified to collaborate with physicians that are treating the patient's physical illnesses. Certifications The Academy of Medical Psychology defines medical psychology as a specialty trained at the postdoctoral level and designed to deliver advanced diagnostic and clinical interventions in medical and healthcare facilities utilizing the knowledge and skills of clinical psychology, health psychology, behavioral medicine, psychopharmacology and basic medical science. The Academy of Medical Psychology makes a distinction between the prescribing psychologist who is a psychologist with advanced training in psychopharmacology and may prescribe medicine or consult with a physician or other prescriber to diagnose mental illness and select and recommend appropriate psychoactive medicines. Medical psychologists are prepared to do the psychopharmacology consulting or prescribing, but also must have training which prepares them for functioning with behavioral and lifestyle components of physical disease and functioning in or in consultation with multidisciplinary healthcare teams in primary care centers or community hospitals in addition to traditional roles in the treatment of mental illness and substance abuse disorders. The specialty of medical psychology and this distinction from psychopharmacologist is recognized by the National Alliance of Professional Psychology Providers (the psychology national practitioner association; see www.nappp.org). The specialty of medical psychology has established a specialty board certification, American Board of Medical Psychology and Academy of Medical Psychology (www.amphome.org) requiring a doctoral degree in psychology and extensive postdoctoral training in the specialty and the passage of an oral and written examination. Although the Academy of Medical Psychology defines medical psychology as a "specialty," has established a "specialty board certification," and is recognized by the national psychology practitioner association (www.nappp.org), there is a split between NAPPP and the American Psychological Association in that they do not currently recognize the same specialties. APA represents scientists, academics, and practitioners and NAPPP represents only practitioners. However, Louisiana, having a unique definition of medical psychology does recognize the national distinction between medical psychology as a specialty and a clinical psychopharmacology specialty and restricts the term and practice of medical psychology by statute (the Medical Psychology Practice Act) as a "profession of the health sciences" with prescriptive authority. It is equally important to note that the American Psychological Association does not recognize that the term medical psychology has, as a prerequisite, nor should the term be equated with having, prescriptive authority and has established a specialty in clinical psychopharmacology. In 2006, the APA recommended that the education and training of psychologists, who are specifically pursuing one of several prerequisites for prescribing medication, integrate instruction in the biological sciences, clinical medicine, and pharmacology into a formalized program of postdoctoral education. In 2009, the National Alliance of Professional Providers in Psychology recognized the education and training specified by the American Board of Medical Psychology (www.amphome.org; ABMP) and the Academy of Medical Psychology as the approved standards for postgraduate training and examination and qualifications in the nationally recognized specialty in medical psychology. Since then, numerous hospitals, primary care centers, and other health facilities have recognized the ABMP standards and qualifications for privileges in healthcare facilities and verification of specialty status. The following Clinical Competencies are identified as essential in the education and training of psychologists, wishing to pursue prescriptive authority. These recommended prerequisites are not required or specifically recommended by APA for the training and education of medical psychologists not pursuing prerequisites for prescribing medication. Basic Science: anatomy, & physiology, biochemistry; Neurosciences: neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, neurochemistry; Physical Assessment and Laboratory Exams: physical assessment, laboratory and radiological assessment, medical terminology; Clinical Medicine and Pathophysiology: pathophysiology with emphasis on the principal physiological systems, clinical medicine, differential diagnosis, clinical correlation and case studies, chemical dependency, chronic pain management; Clinical and Research Pharmacology and Psychopharmacology: pharmacology, clinical pharmacology, pharmacogenetics, psychopharmacology, developmental psychopharmacology; Clinical Pharmacotherapeutics: professional, ethical and legal issues, combined therapies and their interactions, computer-based aids to practice, pharmacoepidemiology; Research: methodology and design of psychopharmacology research, interpretation and evaluation, FDA drug development and other regulatory processes. The 2006 APA recommendations also include supervised clinical experience intended to integrate the above seven knowledge domains and assess competencies in skills and applied knowledge. The national psychology practitioner association (NAPPP; www.nappp.org) and national certifying body (Academy of Medical Psychology; www.amphome.org) have established the national training, examination, and specialty practice criteria and guidelines in the specialty of medical psychology and have established a national journal in the specialty. Such certifying bodies view psychopharmacology training (either to prescribe or consult) as one component of the training of a specialist in medical psychology, but recognize that training and specialized skills in other aspects of the treatment of behavioral aspects of medical illness and mental illness affecting physical illness is essential to practice at the specialty level in medical psychology. See also Prescriptive authority for psychologists movement Health psychology Rehabilitation psychology Psychiatry Pain Psychology Medical ethics References External links https://web.archive.org/web/20100705104932/http://www.health-psych.org/MedPsych.cfm https://www.apadivisions.org/division-55 American Psychological Association - Division 55 - Society for Prescribing Psychology http://nappp.org/ National Alliance of Professional Psychology Providers http://www.amphome.org/ Academy of Medical Psychology http://www.abbhp.org/ American Board of Behavioral Health Practice http://www.nibhq.org/ National Institute For Behavioral Health Quality https://www.apadivisions.org/division-55/councils/training-council Postdoctoral training programs in clinical psychopharmacology https://www.apa.org/ed/graduate/specialize/clinical-psychopharmacology?_ga=2.105171523.1524242252.1640627274-422746752.1639255355 Specialty of clinical psychopharmacology https://www.asppb.net/page/PEPExam Psychopharmacology Examination for Psychologists (PEP) https://www.apadivisions.org/division-55/publications Division 55 newsletter "The Tablet" http://www.medicalpsychology.nl Department Medical Psychology Tilburg University The Netherlands Branches of psychology

20358

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20lesson

Music lesson

Music lessons are a type of formal instruction in playing a musical instrument or singing. Typically, a student taking music lessons meets a music teacher for one-to-one training sessions ranging from 30 minutes to one hour in length over a period of weeks or years. Depending on lessons to be taught, students learn different skills relevant to the instruments used. Music teachers also assign technical exercises, musical pieces, and other activities to help the students improve their musical skills. While most music lessons are one-on-one (private), some teachers also teach groups of two to four students (semi-private lessons), and, for very basic instruction, some instruments are taught in large group lessons, such as piano and acoustic guitar. Since the widespread availability of high speed. low latency Internet, private lessons can also take place through live video chat using webcams, microphones and videotelephony online. Music lessons are part of both amateur music instruction and professional training. In amateur and recreational music contexts, children and adults take music lessons to improve their singing or instrumental playing skills and learn basic to intermediate techniques. In professional training contexts, such as music conservatories, university music performance programs (e.g., Bachelor of music, Master of music, DMA, etc.), students aiming for a career as professional musicians take a music lesson once a week for an hour or more with a music professor over a period of years to learn advanced playing or singing techniques. Many instrumental performers and singers, including a number of pop music celebrities, have learned music "by ear", especially in folk music styles such as blues and popular styles such as rock music. Nevertheless, even in folk and popular styles, a number of performers have had some type of music lessons, such as meeting with a vocal coach or getting childhood instruction in an instrument such as piano. Posture For vocal lessons, teachers show students how to sit or stand and breathe, and how to position the head and mouth for good vocal tone. For instrument lessons, teachers show students how to sit or stand with the instrument, how to hold the instrument, and how to manipulate the fingers and other body parts to produce tones and sounds from the instrument. For wind and brass instruments, the teacher shows the student how to use their lips, tongue, and breath to produce tones and sounds. For some instruments, teachers also train students in the use of the feet, as in the case of piano or other keyboard instruments that have damper or sustain pedals on the piano, the pedal keyboard on a pipe organ, and some drums and cymbals in the drum kit such as the bass drum pedal and the hi-hat cymbal pedal. In addition to teaching fingering, teachers also provide other types of instruction. A classical guitar player learns how to strum and pluck strings; players of wind instruments learn about breath control and embouchure, and singers learn how to make the most of their vocal cords without hurting the throat or vocal cords. Teachers also show students how to achieve the correct posture for most efficient playing results. For all instruments, the best way to move the fingers and arms to achieve a desired effect is to learn to play with the least tension in your hands and body. This also prevents forming habits that can injure the skeletal frame and muscles. For example, when playing the piano, fingering—which fingers to put on which keys—is a skill slowly learned as the student advances, and there are many standard techniques a teacher can pass on. There are many myths and misconceptions among music teachers, especially in the Western classical tradition, about "good" posture and "bad" posture. Students who find that playing their instruments causes them physical pain should bring this to their teachers' attention. It could be a potentially serious health risk, but it is often overlooked when learning to play an instrument. Learning to use one's body in a manner consistent with the way their anatomy is designed to work can mean the difference between a crippling injury and a lifetime of enjoyment. Many music teachers would caution students about taking "no pain, no gain" as an acceptable response from their music teacher regarding a complaint of physical pain. Concerns about use-related injury and the ergonomics of musicianship have gained more mainstream acceptance in recent years. Musicians have increasingly been turning to medical professionals, physical therapists, and specialized techniques seeking relief from pain and prevention of serious injury. There exists a plurality of special techniques for an even greater plurality of potential difficulties. The Alexander Technique is just one example of these specialized approaches. Theory and history To fully understand music being played, the student must learn the basics of the underlying music theory. Along with musical notation, students learn rhythmic techniques—like controlling tempo, recognizing time signatures, and the theory of harmony, including chords and key signatures. In addition to basic theory, a good teacher stresses musicality, or how to make the music sound good. This includes how to create good, pleasing tone, how to do musical phrasing, and how to use dynamics (loudness and softness) to make the piece or song more expressive. Most music lessons include some instruction in the history of the type of music that the student is learning. When a student is taking Western classical music lessons, music teachers often spend some time explaining the different eras of western classical music, such as the Baroque Era, the Classical era, the Romantic Era, and the contemporary classical music era, because each era is associated with different styles of music and different performance practice techniques. Instrumental music from the Baroque era is often played in the 2000s as teaching pieces for piano students, string instrument players, and wind instrument players. If students just try to play these Baroque pieces by reading the notes from the score, they might not get the right type of interpretation. However, once a student learns that most Baroque instrumental music was associated with dances, such as the gavotte and the sarabande, and keyboard music from the Baroque era was played on the harpsichord or the pipe organ, a modern-day student is better able to understand how the piece should be played. If, for example, a cello player is assigned a gavotte that was originally written for harpsichord, this gives the student insight in how to play the piece. Since it is a dance, it should have a regular, clear pulse, rather than a Romantic era-style shifting tempo rubato. As well, since it was originally written for the harpsichord, a light-sounding keyboard instrument in which the strings are plucked with quills, this suggests that the notes should be played relatively lightly, and with spaces between each note, rather than in a full-bodied, sustained legato. Technical exercises Although not universally accepted, many teachers drill students with the repetitive playing of certain patterns, such as scales, arpeggios, and rhythms. Scales are often taught because they are the building blocks of melody in most Western art music. In addition, there are flexibility studies, which make it physically easier to play the instrument. Percussion instruments use rudiments that help in the development of sticking patterns, roll techniques and other little nuances such as flams and drags. There are sets of exercises for piano designed to stretch the connection between fourth and fifth fingers, making them more independent. Brass players practice lip slurs, which are unarticulated changes in embouchure between partials. Woodwind players (Saxophone, Clarinet, and Flute) have a multitude of exercises to help with tonguing techniques, finger dexterity, and tone development. Entire books of etudes have been written to this purpose. Pieces Teachers typically assign the student pieces (or songs for vocal students) of slowly increasing difficulty. Besides using pieces to teach various musical rudiments (rhythm, harmony, pitch, etc.) and teach the elements of good playing (or singing) style, a good teacher also inspires more intangible qualities—such as expressiveness and musicianship. Pieces (or songs) are more enjoyable for most students than theory or scale exercises, and an emphasis on learning new pieces is usually required to maintain students' motivation. However, the teacher must not over-accommodate a student's desire for "fun" pieces. Often the student's idea of fun music is popular vocal selections, movie soundtracks, and TV show theme songs, etc. While some of these "fun" pieces can be performed, pieces should also be selected for pedagogical reasons, such as challenging the student and honing their skills. Students should learn something from every piece they play. In addition, for students to be well rounded they must play many types of pieces by composers and songwriters from different eras, ranging from Renaissance music to pieces from the 20th and 21st century. A varied repertoire increases the student's musical understanding and skill. Examinations A popular measure of progress, especially for children, is external assessment of the progress of the pupil by a regular examination. A number of exam boards assess pupils on music theory or practice. These are available for almost every musical instrument. A common method to mark progress is graded examinations—for example from grade 1 (beginner) to grade 8 (ready to enter higher study at music school). Some teachers prefer other methods of target-setting for their pupils. The most common is the pupil's concert, which gives experience in playing in public and under a certain degree of pressure, without outright criticism or a more or less arbitrary marking system. Another is the graded system of books followed by teachers of the Suzuki method, in which the completion of each book is celebrated, without a system of marking or ranking of pupils. Extra-musical benefits Some studies suggests that music lessons provide children with important developmental benefits beyond simply the knowledge or skill of playing a musical instrument. Research suggests that musical lessons may enhance intelligence and academic achievement, build self-esteem and improve discipline. A recent Rockefeller Foundation Study found that music majors have the highest rate of admittance to medical schools, followed by biochemistry and the humanities. On SAT tests, the national average scores were 427 on the verbal and 476 on math. At the same time, music students averaged 465 on the verbal and 497 on the math – 38 and 21 points higher, respectively. However, the observed correlation between musical and mathematical ability may be inherent rather than acquired. Furthermore, it is possible that the correlation between taking music lessons and academic ability exists because both are strongly correlated with parental income and education. Even if music lessons had no impact on academic ability, one would expect to see a correlation between music lessons and academic ability. An article from Inc.com titled "The Benefits of Playing Music Help Your Brain More Than Any Other Activity" says that studies show that learning a musical instrument expands neuronal cell body capacity in numerous brain areas. It also reinforces the long-range links between them. Even more research shows that musical pedagogy can amplify verbal memory, spatial reasoning, and literacy skills. Skills learned through the discipline of music may transfer to study skills, communication skills, and cognitive skills useful in every part of a child's studies at school, though. An in-depth Harvard University study found evidence that spatial-temporal reasoning improves when children learn to make music, and this kind of reasoning improves temporarily when adults listen to certain kinds of music, including Mozart. This finding (named The Mozart effect) suggests that music and spatial reasoning are related psychologically (i.e., they may rely on some of the same underlying skills) and perhaps neurologically as well. However, there has been considerable controversy over this as later researchers have failed to reproduce the original findings of Rauscher (e.g. Steele, Bass & Crook, 1999), questioned both theory and methodology of the original study (Fudis & Lembesis 2004) and suggested that the enhancing effects of music in experiments have been simply due to an increased level of arousal (Thompson, Schellenberg & Husain, 2001). A relationship between music and the strengthening of math, dance, reading, creative thinking and visual arts skills has also been reported in literature. (Winner, Hetland, Sanni, as reported in The Arts and Academic Achievement – What the Evidence Shows, 2000) However recent findings by Dr. Levitin of McGill University in Montreal, Canada, undermines the suggested connection between musical ability and higher math skills. In a study conducted on patients with Williams syndrome (a genetic disorder causing low intelligence), he found that even though their intelligence was that of young children, they still possessed an unusually high level of musical ability. See also Band sectional Clinic (music) Five finger exercise Learning music by ear Master class Music Education School band Music Society Group piano References Music education Teaching

20359

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutagen

Mutagen

In genetics, a mutagen is a physical or chemical agent that permanently changes genetic material, usually DNA, in an organism and thus increases the frequency of mutations above the natural background level. As many mutations can cause cancer, such mutagens are therefore carcinogens, although not all necessarily are. All mutagens have characteristic mutational signatures with some chemicals becoming mutagenic through cellular processes. The process of DNA becoming modified is called mutagenesis. Not all mutations are caused by mutagens: so-called "spontaneous mutations" occur due to spontaneous hydrolysis, errors in DNA replication, repair and recombination. Discovery The first mutagens to be identified were carcinogens, substances that were shown to be linked to cancer. Tumors were described more than 2,000 years before the discovery of chromosomes and DNA; in 500 B.C., the Greek physician Hippocrates named tumors resembling a crab karkinos (from which the word "cancer" is derived via Latin), meaning crab. In 1567, Swiss physician Paracelsus suggested that an unidentified substance in mined ore (identified as radon gas in modern times) caused a wasting disease in miners, and in England, in 1761, John Hill made the first direct link of cancer to chemical substances by noting that excessive use of snuff may cause nasal cancer. In 1775, Sir Percivall Pott wrote a paper on the high incidence of scrotal cancer in chimney sweeps, and suggested chimney soot as the cause of scrotal cancer. In 1915, Yamagawa and Ichikawa showed that repeated application of coal tar to rabbit's ears produced malignant cancer. Subsequently, in the 1930s the carcinogen component in coal tar was identified as a polyaromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), benzo[a]pyrene. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons are also present in soot, which was suggested to be a causative agent of cancer over 150 years earlier. The association of exposure to radiation and cancer had been observed as early as 1902, six years after the discovery of X-ray by Wilhelm Röntgen and radioactivity by Henri Becquerel. Georgii Nadson and German Filippov were the first who created fungi mutants under ionizing radiation in 1925. The mutagenic property of mutagens was first demonstrated in 1927, when Hermann Muller discovered that x-rays can cause genetic mutations in fruit flies, producing phenotypic mutants as well as observable changes to the chromosomes, visible due to the presence of enlarged "polytene" chromosomes in fruit fly salivary glands. His collaborator Edgar Altenburg also demonstrated the mutational effect of UV radiation in 1928. Muller went on to use x-rays to create Drosophila mutants that he used in his studies of genetics. He also found that X-rays not only mutate genes in fruit flies, but also have effects on the genetic makeup of humans. Similar work by Lewis Stadler also showed the mutational effect of X-rays on barley in 1928, and ultraviolet (UV) radiation on maize in 1936. The effect of sunlight had previously been noted in the nineteenth century where rural outdoor workers and sailors were found to be more prone to skin cancer. Chemical mutagens were not demonstrated to cause mutation until the 1940s, when Charlotte Auerbach and J. M. Robson found that mustard gas can cause mutations in fruit flies. A large number of chemical mutagens have since been identified, especially after the development of the Ames test in the 1970s by Bruce Ames that screens for mutagens and allows for preliminary identification of carcinogens. Early studies by Ames showed around 90% of known carcinogens can be identified in Ames test as mutagenic (later studies however gave lower figures), and ~80% of the mutagens identified through Ames test may also be carcinogens. Mutagens are not necessarily carcinogens, and vice versa. Sodium azide for example may be mutagenic (and highly toxic), but it has not been shown to be carcinogenic. Effects Mutagens can cause changes to the DNA and are therefore genotoxic. They can affect the transcription and replication of the DNA, which in severe cases can lead to cell death. The mutagen produces mutations in the DNA, and deleterious mutation can result in aberrant, impaired or loss of function for a particular gene, and accumulation of mutations may lead to cancer. Mutagens may therefore be also carcinogens. However, some mutagens exert their mutagenic effect through their metabolites, and therefore whether such mutagens actually become carcinogenic may be dependent on the metabolic processes of an organism, and a compound shown to be mutagenic in one organism may not necessarily be carcinogenic in another. Different mutagens act on the DNA differently. Powerful mutagens may result in chromosomal instability, causing chromosomal breakages and rearrangement of the chromosomes such as translocation, deletion, and inversion. Such mutagens are called clastogens. Mutagens may also modify the DNA sequence; the changes in nucleic acid sequences by mutations include substitution of nucleotide base-pairs and insertions and deletions of one or more nucleotides in DNA sequences. Although some of these mutations are lethal or cause serious disease, many have minor effects as they do not result in residue changes that have significant effect on the structure and function of the proteins. Many mutations are silent mutations, causing no visible effects at all, either because they occur in non-coding or non-functional sequences, or they do not change the amino-acid sequence due to the redundancy of codons. Some mutagens can cause aneuploidy and change the number of chromosomes in the cell. They are known as aneuploidogens. In Ames test, where the varying concentrations of the chemical are used in the test, the dose response curve obtained is nearly always linear, suggesting that there may be no threshold for mutagenesis. Similar results are also obtained in studies with radiations, indicating that there may be no safe threshold for mutagens. However, the no-threshold model is disputed with some arguing for a dose rate dependent threshold for mutagenesis. Some have proposed that low level of some mutagens may stimulate the DNA repair processes and therefore may not necessarily be harmful. More recent approaches with sensitive analytical methods have shown that there may be non-linear or bilinear dose-responses for genotoxic effects, and that the activation of DNA repair pathways can prevent the occurrence of mutation arising from a low dose of mutagen. Types Mutagens may be of physical, chemical or biological origin. They may act directly on the DNA, causing direct damage to the DNA, and most often result in replication error. Some however may act on the replication mechanism and chromosomal partition. Many mutagens are not mutagenic by themselves, but can form mutagenic metabolites through cellular processes, for example through the activity of the cytochrome P450 system and other oxygenases such as cyclooxygenase. Such mutagens are called promutagens. Physical mutagens Ionizing radiations such as X-rays, gamma rays and alpha particles cause DNA breakage and other damages. The most common lab sources include cobalt-60 and cesium-137. Ultraviolet radiations with wavelength above 260 nm are absorbed strongly by bases, producing pyrimidine dimers, which can cause error in replication if left uncorrected. Radioactive decay, such as 14C in DNA which decays into nitrogen. DNA reactive chemicals A large number of chemicals may interact directly with DNA. However, many such as PAHs, aromatic amines, benzene are not necessarily mutagenic by themselves, but through metabolic processes in cells they produce mutagenic compounds. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) – These may be superoxide, hydroxyl radicals and hydrogen peroxide, and large number of these highly reactive species are generated by normal cellular processes, for example as a by-products of mitochondrial electron transport, or lipid peroxidation. As an example of the latter, 15-hydroperoxyicosatetraenocic acid, a natural product of cellular cyclooxygenases and lipoxygenases, breaks down to form 4-hydroxy-2(E)-nonenal, 4-hydroperoxy-2(E)-nonenal, 4-oxo-2(E)-nonenal, and cis-4,5-epoxy-2(E)-decanal; these bifunctional electophils are mutagenic in mammalian cells and may contribute to the development and/or progression of human cancers (see 15-Hydroxyicosatetraenoic acid). A number of mutagens may also generate these ROS. These ROS may result in the production of many base adducts, as well as DNA strand breaks and crosslinks. Deaminating agents, for example nitrous acid which can cause transition mutations by converting cytosine to uracil. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), when activated to diol-epoxides can bind to DNA and form adducts. Alkylating agents such as ethylnitrosourea. The compounds transfer methyl or ethyl group to bases or the backbone phosphate groups. Guanine when alkylated may be mispaired with thymine. Some may cause DNA crosslinking and breakages. Nitrosamines are an important group of mutagens found in tobacco, and may also be formed in smoked meats and fish via the interaction of amines in food with nitrites added as preservatives. Other alkylating agents include mustard gas and vinyl chloride. Aromatic amines and amides have been associated with carcinogenesis since 1895 when German physician Ludwig Rehn observed high incidence of bladder cancer among workers in German synthetic aromatic amine dye industry. 2-Acetylaminofluorene, originally used as a pesticide but may also be found in cooked meat, may cause cancer of the bladder, liver, ear, intestine, thyroid and breast. Alkaloid from plants, such as those from Vinca species, may be converted by metabolic processes into the active mutagen or carcinogen. Bromine and some compounds that contain bromine in their chemical structure. Sodium azide, an azide salt that is a common reagent in organic synthesis and a component in many car airbag systems Psoralen combined with ultraviolet radiation causes DNA cross-linking and hence chromosome breakage. Benzene, an industrial solvent and precursor in the production of drugs, plastics, synthetic rubber and dyes. Base analogs Base analog, which can substitute for DNA bases during replication and cause transition mutations.some examples are 5 bromo uracil and 2 amino purine Intercalating agents Intercalating agents, such as ethidium bromide and proflavine, are molecules that may insert between bases in DNA, causing frameshift mutation during replication. Some such as daunorubicin may block transcription and replication, making them highly toxic to proliferating cells. Metals Many metals, such as arsenic, cadmium, chromium, nickel and their compounds may be mutagenic, but they may act, however, via a number of different mechanisms. Arsenic, chromium, iron, and nickel may be associated with the production of ROS, and some of these may also alter the fidelity of DNA replication. Nickel may also be linked to DNA hypermethylation and histone deacetylation, while some metals such as cobalt, arsenic, nickel and cadmium may also affect DNA repair processes such as DNA mismatch repair, and base and nucleotide excision repair. Biological agents Transposon, a section of DNA that undergoes autonomous fragment relocation/multiplication. Its insertion into chromosomal DNA disrupts functional elements of the genes. Virus – Virus DNA may be inserted into the genome and disrupts genetic function. Infectious agents have been suggested to cause cancer as early as 1908 by Vilhelm Ellermann and Oluf Bang, and 1911 by Peyton Rous who discovered the Rous sarcoma virus. Bacteria – some bacteria such as Helicobacter pylori cause inflammation during which oxidative species are produced, causing DNA damage and reducing efficiency of DNA repair systems, thereby increasing mutation. Protection Antioxidants are an important group of anticarcinogenic compounds that may help remove ROS or potentially harmful chemicals. These may be found naturally in fruits and vegetables. Examples of antioxidants are vitamin A and its carotenoid precursors, vitamin C, vitamin E, polyphenols, and various other compounds. β-Carotene is the red-orange colored compounds found in vegetables like carrots and tomatoes. Vitamin C may prevent some cancers by inhibiting the formation of mutagenic N-nitroso compounds (nitrosamine). Flavonoids, such as EGCG in green tea, have also been shown to be effective antioxidants and may have anti-cancer properties. Epidemiological studies indicate that a diet rich in fruits and vegetables is associated with lower incidence of some cancers and longer life expectancy, however, the effectiveness of antioxidant supplements in cancer prevention in general is still the subject of some debate. Other chemicals may reduce mutagenesis or prevent cancer via other mechanisms, although for some the precise mechanism for their protective property may not be certain. Selenium, which is present as a micronutrient in vegetables, is a component of important antioxidant enzymes such as gluthathione peroxidase. Many phytonutrients may counter the effect of mutagens; for example, sulforaphane in vegetables such as broccoli has been shown to be protective against prostate cancer. Others that may be effective against cancer include indole-3-carbinol from cruciferous vegetables and resveratrol from red wine. An effective precautionary measure an individual can undertake to protect themselves is by limiting exposure to mutagens such as UV radiations and tobacco smoke. In Australia, where people with pale skin are often exposed to strong sunlight, melanoma is the most common cancer diagnosed in people aged 15–44 years. In 1981, human epidemiological analysis by Richard Doll and Richard Peto indicated that smoking caused 30% of cancers in the US. Diet is also thought to cause a significant number of cancer, and it has been estimated that around 32% of cancer deaths may be avoidable by modification to the diet. Mutagens identified in food include mycotoxins from food contaminated with fungal growths, such as aflatoxins which may be present in contaminated peanuts and corn; heterocyclic amines generated in meat when cooked at high temperature; PAHs in charred meat and smoked fish, as well as in oils, fats, bread, and cereal; and nitrosamines generated from nitrites used as food preservatives in cured meat such as bacon (ascobate, which is added to cured meat, however, reduces nitrosamine formation). Overly-browned starchy food such as bread, biscuits and potatoes can generate acrylamide, a chemical shown to cause cancer in animal studies. Excessive alcohol consumption has also been linked to cancer; the possible mechanisms for its carcinogenicity include formation of the possible mutagen acetaldehyde, and the induction of the cytochrome P450 system which is known to produce mutagenic compounds from promutagens. For certain mutagens, such as dangerous chemicals and radioactive materials, as well as infectious agents known to cause cancer, government legislations and regulatory bodies are necessary for their control. Test systems Many different systems for detecting mutagen have been developed. Animal systems may more accurately reflect the metabolism of human, however, they are expensive and time-consuming (may take around three years to complete), they are therefore not used as a first screen for mutagenicity or carcinogenicity. Bacterial Ames test – This is the most commonly used test, and Salmonella typhimurium strains deficient in histidine biosynthesis are used in this test. The test checks for mutants that can revert to wild-type. It is an easy, inexpensive and convenient initial screen for mutagens. Resistance to 8-azaguanine in S. typhimurium – Similar to Ames test, but instead of reverse mutation, it checks for forward mutation that confer resistance to 8-Azaguanine in a histidine revertant strain. Escherichia coli systems – Both forward and reverse mutation detection system have been modified for use in E. coli. Tryptophan-deficient mutant is used for the reverse mutation, while galactose utility or resistance to 5-methyltryptophan may be used for forward mutation. DNA repair – E. coli and Bacillus subtilis strains deficient in DNA repair may be used to detect mutagens by their effect on the growth of these cells through DNA damage. Yeast Systems similar to Ames test have been developed in yeast. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is generally used. These systems can check for forward and reverse mutations, as well as recombinant events. Drosophila Sex-Linked Recessive Lethal Test – Males from a strain with yellow bodies are used in this test. The gene for the yellow body lies on the X-chromosome. The fruit flies are fed on a diet of test chemical, and progenies are separated by sex. The surviving males are crossed with the females of the same generation, and if no males with yellow bodies are detected in the second generation, it would indicate a lethal mutation on the X-chromosome has occurred. Plant assays Plants such as Zea mays, Arabidopsis thaliana and Tradescantia have been used in various test assays for mutagenecity of chemicals. Cell culture assay Mammalian cell lines such as Chinese hamster V79 cells, Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells or mouse lymphoma cells may be used to test for mutagenesis. Such systems include the HPRT assay for resistance to 8-azaguanine or 6-thioguanine, and ouabain-resistance (OUA) assay. Rat primary hepatocytes may also be used to measure DNA repair following DNA damage. Mutagens may stimulate unscheduled DNA synthesis that results in more stained nuclear material in cells following exposure to mutagens. Chromosome check systems These systems check for large scale changes to the chromosomes and may be used with cell culture or in animal test. The chromosomes are stained and observed for any changes. Sister chromatid exchange is a symmetrical exchange of chromosome material between sister chromatids and may be correlated to the mutagenic or carcinogenic potential of a chemical. In micronucleus Test, cells are examined for micronuclei, which are fragments or chromosomes left behind at anaphase, and is therefore a test for clastogenic agents that cause chromosome breakages. Other tests may check for various chromosomal aberrations such as chromatid and chromosomal gaps and deletions, translocations, and ploidy. Animal test systems Rodents are usually used in animal test. The chemicals under test are usually administered in the food and in the drinking water, but sometimes by dermal application, by gavage, or by inhalation, and carried out over the major part of the life span for rodents. In tests that check for carcinogens, maximum tolerated dosage is first determined, then a range of doses are given to around 50 animals throughout the notional lifespan of the animal of two years. After death the animals are examined for sign of tumours. Differences in metabolism between rat and human however means that human may not respond in exactly the same way to mutagen, and dosages that produce tumours on the animal test may also be unreasonably high for a human, i.e. the equivalent amount required to produce tumours in human may far exceed what a person might encounter in real life. Mice with recessive mutations for a visible phenotype may also be used to check for mutagens. Females with recessive mutation crossed with wild-type males would yield the same phenotype as the wild-type, and any observable change to the phenotype would indicate that a mutation induced by the mutagen has occurred. Mice may also be used for dominant lethal assays where early embryonic deaths are monitored. Male mice are treated with chemicals under test, mated with females, and the females are then sacrificed before parturition and early fetal deaths are counted in the uterine horns. Transgenic mouse assay using a mouse strain infected with a viral shuttle vector is another method for testing mutagens. Animals are first treated with suspected mutagen, the mouse DNA is then isolated and the phage segment recovered and used to infect E. coli. Using similar method as the blue-white screen, the plaque formed with DNA containing mutation are white, while those without are blue. In anti-cancer therapy Many mutagens are highly toxic to proliferating cells, and they are often used to destroy cancer cells. Alkylating agents such as cyclophosphamide and cisplatin, as well as intercalating agent such as daunorubicin and doxorubicin may be used in chemotherapy. However, due to their effect on other cells which are also rapidly dividing, they may have side effects such as hair loss and nausea. Research on better targeted therapies may reduce such side-effects. Ionizing radiations are used in radiation therapy. In fiction In science fiction, mutagens are often represented as substances that are capable of completely changing the form of the recipient or granting them superpowers. Powerful radiations are the agents of mutation for the superheroes in Marvel Comics's Fantastic Four, Daredevil, and Hulk, while in the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles franchise the mutagen is a chemical agent also called "ooze", and for Inhumans the mutagen is the Terrigen Mist. Mutagens are also featured in video games such as Cyberia, The Witcher, Metroid Prime: Trilogy, Resistance: Fall of Man, Resident Evil, Infamous, Freedom Force, Command & Conquer, Gears of War 3, StarCraft, BioShock, Fallout, Underrail, and Maneater. In the "nuclear monster" films of the 1950s, nuclear radiation mutates humans and common insects often to enormous size and aggression; these films include Godzilla, Them!, Attack of the 50 Foot Woman, Tarantula!, and The Amazing Colossal Man. See also Carcinogenesis DNA damage (naturally occurring) Linear no-threshold model References Mutation Radiation health effects Radioactivity it:Mutazione genetica#Mutazioni indotte

20360

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mychal%20Judge

Mychal Judge

Mychal Fallon Judge, O.F.M. (born Robert Emmett Judge; May 11, 1933 – September 11, 2001), was an American Franciscan friar and Catholic priest who served as a chaplain to the New York City Fire Department. While serving in that capacity he was killed, becoming the first certified fatality of the September 11, 2001 attacks. Early life Mychal Judge was born Robert Emmett Judge on May 11, 1933, in Brooklyn, New York, the son of immigrants from County Leitrim, Ireland, and the firstborn of a pair of fraternal twins. His twin sister Dympna was born two days later. Judge was baptized in St. Paul's Church in Brooklyn on June 4. They and their older sister Erin grew up during the Great Depression. From the ages of three to six, he watched his father suffer and die of mastoiditis, a slow and painful illness of the skull and inner ear. To earn income following his father's death, Judge shined shoes at New York Penn Station and would visit St. Francis of Assisi Church, located across the street. Seeing the Franciscan friars there, he later said, "I realized that I didn't care for material things. ...I knew then that I wanted to be a friar." Career After spending his freshman year at the St. Francis Preparatory School in Brooklyn, where he studied under the Franciscan Brothers of Brooklyn, in 1948, at the age of 15, Judge began the formation process to enter the Order of Friars Minor. He transferred to St. Joseph's Seraphic Seminary in Callicoon, New York, the minor seminary of the Holy Name province of the Order. After graduation, he enrolled at St. Bonaventure University in Allegany, New York. In 1954 he was admitted to the novitiate of the Province in Paterson, New Jersey. After completing that year of formation, he received the religious habit and professed his first vows as a member of the Order. At that time, he was given the religious name of Fallon Michael. He later dropped 'Fallon' and changed 'Michael' to Mychal. According to Queer There and Everywhere by Sarah Prager, Mychal changed his name to "differentiate himself from all the other 'Father Michaels.'" He resumed his college studies at St. Bonaventure University, where he earned a bachelor's degree in 1957. He professed his solemn vows as a full member of the Order in 1958. Following this, he did his theological studies at Holy Name College Seminary in Washington, D.C. Upon completing these studies in 1961, he was ordained a priest. After his ordination, Judge was assigned to the Shrine of St. Anthony in Boston, Massachusetts. Following his assignment there, he served in various parishes served by the Franciscans: St. Joseph Parish in East Rutherford, New Jersey, Sacred Heart Parish in Rochelle Park, New Jersey, Holy Cross Parish in the Bronx and St. Joseph Parish in West Milford, New Jersey. For three years he served as assistant to the President of Siena College, operated by the Franciscans in Loudonville, New York. In 1986 he was assigned to St. Francis of Assisi Church in Manhattan, where he had first come to know the friars. He lived and worked there until his death. Around 1971, Judge developed alcoholism, although he never showed obvious signs. In 1978, with the support of Alcoholics Anonymous, he became sober and continued to share his personal story of alcoholism to help others facing addiction. In 1992, Judge was appointed a chaplain to the New York City Fire Department. As chaplain, he offered encouragement and prayers at fires, rescues, and hospitals, and counseled firemen and their families, often working 16-hour days. "His whole ministry was about love. Mychal loved the fire department and they loved him." Judge was a member of AFSCME Local 299 (District Council 37). Judge was also well known in the city for ministering to the homeless, the hungry, recovering alcoholics, people with AIDS, the sick, injured, and grieving, immigrants, gays and lesbians, and those alienated by society. Judge once gave the winter coat off his back to a homeless woman in the street, later saying, "She needed it more than me." When he anointed a man who was dying of AIDS, the man asked him, "Do you think God hates me?" Judge picked him up, kissed him, and silently rocked him in his arms. Judge worked with St. Clare's Hospital, which opened the city's first AIDS ward, in order to start an active AIDS ministry. He visited hospitals and AIDS patients and their families, presided over many funerals, and counseled other prominent gay Catholics like Brendan Fay and John McNeill. Judge continued to be an advocate for gay rights throughout the rest of his life, marching in pride parades and attending other gay events. Even before his death, many considered Judge to be a living saint for his extraordinary works of charity and his deep spirituality. While praying, he would sometimes "become so lost in God, as if lost in a trance, that he'd be shocked to find several hours had passed." Judge's spiritual director, the late Jesuit John J. McNeill, observed that Judge achieved an "extraordinary degree of union with the divine. We knew we were dealing with someone directly in line with God." September 11 attacks On September 11, 2001, upon learning that the World Trade Center had been hit by the first of two jetliners, Judge rushed to the site. He was met by Rudolph Giuliani, the Mayor of New York City, who asked him to pray for the city and its victims. Judge prayed over bodies lying on the streets, then entered the lobby of the World Trade Center North Tower, where an emergency command post had been organized. There he continued offering aid and prayers for the rescuers, the injured, and the dead. When the neighboring South Tower collapsed at 9:59 a.m., debris went flying through the North Tower lobby, killing many inside, including Judge. At the moment he was struck in the head and killed, Judge was repeatedly praying aloud, "Jesus, please end this right now! God, please end this!", according to Judge's biographer and New York Daily News columnist Michael Daly. Shortly after his death, Judge's body was found and carried out of the North Tower by four firefighters and a policeman shortly before it collapsed at 10:28 a.m. This act was photographed by Reuters photographer Shannon Stapleton, and became one of the most famous photographs taken during the attacks. This event was captured in the documentary film 9/11, shot by Jules and Gedeon Naudet. The Philadelphia Weekly reported that the photograph is "considered an American Pietà." Judge's body was placed before the altar of St. Peter's Catholic Church before being taken to the medical examiner. Judge was designated as "Victim 0001" and thereby recognized as the first official victim of the attacks. Although others had been killed before him, including the crews, passengers, and hijackers of the first three planes, and occupants of the towers and the Pentagon, Judge was the first certified fatality because he was the first body to be recovered and taken to the medical examiner. Judge's body was formally identified by NYPD Detective Steven McDonald, a long-time friend. The New York Medical Examiner found that Judge died of "blunt force trauma to the head". Personal life Following his death, a few of Judge's friends and associates revealed that Judge was gay. According to Fire Department Commissioner Thomas Von Essen: "I actually knew about his homosexuality when I was in the Uniformed Firefighters Association. I kept the secret, but then he told me when I became commissioner five years ago. He and I often laughed about it, because we knew how difficult it would have been for the other firemen to accept it as easily as I had. I just thought he was a phenomenal, warm, sincere man, and the fact that he was gay just had nothing to do with anything." Judge developed a romantic relationship with a Filipino nurse named Al Alvarado in the last year of his life, which Judge documented in his diaries. The two often did not see each other for months because of Judge's work as a firefighter. The revelations about his sexual orientation were not without controversy. Dennis Lynch, a lawyer, wrote an article about Judge that appeared on the website catholic.org. Lynch said that Judge was not gay and that any attempt to define him as gay was due to "homosexual activists" who wanted to "attack the Catholic Church" and turn the priest into a "homosexual icon". Others refuted Lynch with evidence that Judge did in fact identify himself as gay, both to others and in his personal journals. Judge was a long-term member of Dignity, a Catholic LGBT activist organization that advocates for change in the Catholic Church's teaching on homosexuality. On October 1, 1986, the Vatican's Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith issued an encyclical, On the Pastoral Care of Homosexual Persons, which declared homosexuality to be a "strong tendency ordered toward an intrinsic moral evil". In response, many bishops, including John Cardinal O'Connor, banned Dignity from diocesan churches under their control. Judge then welcomed Dignity's AIDS ministry to the Church of St. Francis of Assisi, which is under the control of the Franciscan friars, thereby partially circumventing the cardinal's ban of Dignity. Judge disagreed with official Roman Catholic teaching regarding homosexuality. Judge often asked, "Is there so much love in the world that we can afford to discriminate against any kind of love?" Legacy On September 15, 2001, 3,000 people attended Judge's funeral Mass at St. Francis of Assisi Church, which was presided over by Cardinal Edward Egan, the Archbishop of New York. Former President Bill Clinton and Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton also attended. President Clinton said that Judge's death was a "special loss. We should lift his life up as an example of what has to prevail. We have to be more like Father Mike than the people who killed him." Judge was buried in the friars' plot at Holy Sepulchre Cemetery in Totowa, New Jersey. On October 11, 2001, Brendan Fay organized a "Month's Mind Memorial" in Good Shepherd Chapel, General Theological Seminary, New York. It was an evening of prayer, stories, traditional Irish music, and personal testimonials about Judge. Three people in the Roman Catholic Church called for the canonization of Judge. The Orthodox-Catholic Church of America declared him a saint. Two people say they experienced miraculous healings through prayers to Judge. Evidence of miracles is required for canonization in the Catholic Church. Judge's fire helmet was presented to Pope John Paul II. France awarded him the Légion d'honneur. Some members of the United States Congress nominated him for the Congressional Gold Medal, as well as the Presidential Medal of Freedom. In 2002, the City of New York renamed the portion of West 31st Street on which the friary where he lived is located as "Father Mychal F. Judge Street", and christened a commuter ferry the Father Mychal Judge in his honor in 2002. In 2002, the United States Congress passed The Mychal Judge Police and Fire Chaplains Public Safety Officers Benefit Act into law. The law extended federal death benefits to chaplains of police and fire departments, and also marked the first time the federal government extended equal benefits for same-sex couples by allowing the domestic partners of public safety officers killed in the line of duty to collect a federal death benefit. This act was signed into law on June 24, 2002, but would be retroactive only to September 11, 2001. The New York Press Club instituted The Rev. Mychal Judge Heart of New York Award, which is presented annually for the news story or series that is most complimentary of New York City. A campaign has been started in East Rutherford, New Jersey, to have a statue of Judge erected in its Memorial Park. Alvernia University, a private independent college in the Franciscan tradition in Reading, Pennsylvania, named a new residence hall in honor of Judge. The Father Mychal Judge Memorial in the village of Keshcarrigan, County Leitrim, Ireland, was dedicated in 2005, on donated land which had belonged to Judge's ancestors. People from the village and surrounding area celebrate his life every year on the 9/11 anniversary. In 2006 a documentary film, Saint of 9/11, directed by Glenn Holsten, co-produced by Brendan Fay and narrated by Sir Ian McKellen, was released. Larry Kirwan, leader of the Irish-American band Black 47, wrote a tribute song entitled "Mychal" in honor of Judge that appeared in the band's 2004 album New York Town. The Father Mychal Judge Walk of Remembrance takes place every year in New York on the Sunday before the 9/11 anniversary. It begins with a Mass at St. Francis Church on West 31st Street, then proceeds to the site of Ground Zero, retracing Judge's final journey and praying along the way. Every September 11, there is a Mass in memory of Judge in Boston, attended by many who lost family members on 9/11. At the National 9/11 Memorial, Judge is memorialized at the South Pool, on Panel S-18, where other first responders are located. In 2014 Judge was inducted into the Legacy Walk, an outdoor public display which celebrates LGBT history and people. In 2015 a statue was dedicated to Judge at St. Joseph's Park in East Rutherford, New Jersey, across the street from St. Joseph's Parish where he served for several years. In recognition of his heroic actions and his commitment to the dignity of LGBTQ people, Judge was posthumously awarded the Dooley Award by GALA-ND/SMC, an alumni organization of the University of Notre Dame, a prominent American Catholic university. In September 2021, Judge was nominated for sainthood in the Catholic Church. References Bibliography Further reading External links Fire Chaplain Becomes Larger than Life The Happiest Man on Earth: Eulogy of Fr. Mychal Judge An RTE Radio 1 documentary 'Victim No. 0001', September 3, 2011, describes his life and work An NPR Radio clip "Slain Priest: 'Bury His Heart, But Not His Love 1933 births 2001 deaths 20th-century American Roman Catholic priests American Friars Minor American Roman Catholic clergy of Irish descent American terrorism victims Burials at Holy Sepulchre Cemetery (Totowa, New Jersey) Recipients of the Legion of Honour LGBT people from New York (state) LGBT Roman Catholic priests New York City Fire Department People from Brooklyn People murdered in New York (state) St. Bonaventure University alumni Terrorism deaths in New York (state) Victims of the September 11 attacks Catholics from New York (state) American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees people 21st-century American Roman Catholic priests 20th-century LGBT people

20361

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonfleet%20%28novel%29

Moonfleet (novel)

Moonfleet is an 1898 novel written by English writer J. Meade Falkner. The plot is an adventure tale of smuggling, treasure, and shipwreck set in 18th-century England. Plot summary In 1757, Moonfleet is a small village along the coast of southern England. The village takes its name from a formerly prominent local family, the Mohunes. The main character is John Trenchard, an orphan who lives with his aunt, Miss Arnold. The village church includes the sexton Mr. Ratsey, and the Parson Glennie, who also teaches in the village school. Elzevir Block is the landlord of the Mohune Arms. This inn is nicknamed the Why Not?, a pun on the Mohune coat of arms, which includes a cross-pall in the shape of the letter "Y". Mr. Maskew, is the local magistrate, who has a daughter: Grace. Village legend tells of the notorious Colonel John "Blackbeard" Mohune who is buried in the family crypt under the church. He is reputed to have stolen a diamond from King Charles I and hidden it. His ghost is said to wander at night looking for it and the mysterious lights in the churchyard are attributed to his activities. As the main part of the story opens, Block's youthful son, David, has just been killed by Maskew during a raid by the Maskew and other authorities on a smuggling boat. One night a bad storm hits the village and there is a flood. While attending the Sunday service at church, John hears strange sounds from the crypt below. He thinks it is the sound of the coffins of the Mohune family. The next day, he finds Elzevir and Ratsey against the south wall of the church. They claim to be checking for damage from the storm, but John suspects they are searching for Blackbeard's ghost. Later John finds a large sinkhole has opened in the ground by a grave. He follows the passage and finds himself in the crypt with coffins on shelves and casks on the floor. He realises his friends are smugglers and this is their hiding place. He has to hide behind a coffin when he hears Ratsey and Elzevir coming. When they leave, they fill in the hole, inadvertently trapping him. John finds a locket in the coffin that he hid behind (it turns out to be that of Blackbeard himself),which holds a piece of paper with verses from the Bible. John eventually passes out after drinking too much of the wine while trying to quench his thirst, having not eaten or drunk for over 24 hours. Later he wakes up in the Why Not? inn – he has been rescued by Elzevir and Ratsey. When he is better, he returns to his aunt's house, but she, suspecting him of drunken behaviour, throws him out. Elzevir takes him in. But when Block's lease on the Why Not? comes up for renewal, Maskew bids against him in the auction and wins. Block must leave the inn and Moonfleet but plans one last smuggling venture. John feels honour-bound to go with him, and sadly, says goodbye to Grace Maskew, whom he loves and has been seeing in secret, and is given his mother's prayer book by his aunt—her last hope to influence John towards piety. The excisemen and Maskew are aware of the planned smuggling run but do not know exactly where it will occur. During the landing Maskew appears and is caught by the smugglers. Elzevir is bent on vengeance for his son by killing Maskew, and while the rest land the cargo and leave, he and John keep watch over Maskew. Just as Block prepares to shoot Maskew the excisemen attack. They wound John and unintentionally kill Maskew. Block carries John away to safety and they hide in some old quarries. While there, John inadvertently finds out that the verses from Blackbeard's locket contain a code that will reveal the location of his famous diamond. Once John's wound heals, he and Block decide to recover the diamond from Carisbrooke Castle. After a suspenseful scene in the well where the jewel is hidden, they succeed in escaping to Holland where they try to sell it to a diamond merchant named Krispijn Aldobrand. The merchant cheats them, claiming the diamond is fake. Elzevir falls for the deceit and angrily throws the diamond out of the window. John, however, knows they have been duped, and suggests they try to recover the diamond through burglary. The attempt fails and, they are arrested and sentenced to prison. John curses the merchant for his lies. John and Elzevir go to prison for life. Eventually they are separated. Then, unexpectedly, ten years later, their paths cross again. They are being transported, and board a ship. A storm blows up, and by a strong coincidence, the ship is wrecked upon Moonfleet beach. While trying to reach the beach Elzevir helps John to safety, but is himself dragged under by the surf and drowned. John arrives where he originally started, in the Why Not?, and is reunited with Ratsey. He is also reunited with Grace. She is now a rich young lady, having inherited her father's money. However, she is still in love with John. John tells her about the diamond and his life in prison. He regrets having lost everything, but she says, rich or not, she loves him. Then Parson Glennie visits and reveals he had received a letter from Aldobrand. The merchant, suffering a guilty conscience and in an attempt to make amends, had bequeathed the worth of the diamond to John. John gives the money to the village, and new almshouses are built, and the school and the church renovated. John marries Grace and becomes Lord of the Manor and Justice of the Peace. They have three children, including their first-born son, Elzevir. They grow up and the sons go away to "serve King George on sea and land" and their daughter, too it seems, has married away. But John and Grace themselves do not leave their beloved Moonfleet ever again. Backgammon One feature of the narrative is a continuing reference to the boardgame of backgammon which is played by the patrons of the Why Not? on an antique board which bears a Latin inscription Ita in vita ut in lusu alae pessima jactura arte corrigenda est (translated in the book as As in life, so in a game of hazard, skill will make something of the worst of throws). Literary significance Moonfleet is considered to be a classic work of fiction, and continues to be published in series like Dover Children's Evergreen Classics. Its popularity among children worldwide continued up until at least the 1970s, primarily as a result of its adventure themes relating to pirates, treasure, and smuggling, and due to its suspenseful story-line. It has frequently been studied in schools, and used as required reading for some English courses. It is often compared with similar novels like Stevenson's Treasure Island. Geography of the book Falkner uses the local geography of Dorset and the Isle of Wight in the book, only changing some of the place names. The village of Moonfleet is based on East Fleet in Dorset by Chesil Beach. The headland in the book called The Snout is Portland Bill. Corfe Castle and Carisbrooke Castle are key plot locations. Adaptations in other media TV and film The book was filmed by Fritz Lang in 1955 and released under the same name, with a screenplay adapted by from the novel. A handful of scenes from the book survived, including John's ordeal in the church crypt with the remains of Blackbeard (here renamed Redbeard), and his descent into the well to retrieve the diamond, but the movie altered the novel's plot substantially. Among other major changes, its young hero was given the newly invented rogue gentleman Jeremy Fox for a mentor (played by Stewart Granger), while the role of the working class Elzevir Block was reduced to leading a group of the smugglers seeking to kill John. Lang's film has enjoyed some cachet among French film critics. In 1964 the BBC produced a six-episode TV adaptation under the title Smuggler's Bay, starring future Doctor Who actors Frazer Hines and Patrick Troughton as John Trenchard and Ratsey, respectively. It began on BBC1 on 12 July 1964. no recordings of this production are known to exist. In 1984 a TV mini-series Moonfleet was filmed, starring Adam Godley and David Daker. Sky1 filmed Moonfleet a two-part TV adaptation in Ireland in 2013 starring Ray Winstone, Aneurin Barnard and Karl McCrone. This was aired 28 December 2013 and 29 December 2013 Though more of the plot of the book remains than in the 1955 film, it still bears little relation; John is in his mid-twenties, Maskew has become an aristocrat and tyrannical descendant of Blackbeard, and Elzevir Block the leader of a brothel-frequenting, knife-fighting band of gangsters. Theatre and music Angel Exit Theatre company devised a production which toured the UK in 2009. In 2010 Chris de Burgh released an album of songs called Moonfleet & Other Stories featuring a story based on the book. In 2017 the Salisbury Playhouse announced a major new musical adaptation of Moonfleet with book and lyrics by Gareth Machin and music by Russell Hepplewhite. The show ran from 19 April to 5 May 2018. Radio In 1963 the BBC aired a five-episode radio series of Moonfleet adapted by Morna Stuart and produced by Brandon Acton-Bond. A 90-minute BBC radio version was first broadcast in 1998 on BBC Radio Four, and starred Richard Pearce as John Trenchard, along with Robert Glenister and James Laurenson. The Colonial Radio Theatre on the Air released a 300-minute production of the book in May 2009, starring Jerry Robbins, David Ault, and Rob Cattell. It was dramatised by Deniz Cordell, and produced by M. J. Cogburn. References External links Time Magazine review of Moonfleet dated August 13, 1951 Penguin Reader's Factsheets for Moonfleet, Teacher's Notes, 2008 1898 British novels English adventure novels Novels about orphans Novels set in the 18th century Novels set in Dorset British novels adapted into films

20362

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merge%20algorithm

Merge algorithm

Merge algorithms are a family of algorithms that take multiple sorted lists as input and produce a single list as output, containing all the elements of the inputs lists in sorted order. These algorithms are used as subroutines in various sorting algorithms, most famously merge sort. Application The merge algorithm plays a critical role in the merge sort algorithm, a comparison-based sorting algorithm. Conceptually, the merge sort algorithm consists of two steps: Recursively divide the list into sublists of (roughly) equal length, until each sublist contains only one element, or in the case of iterative (bottom up) merge sort, consider a list of n elements as n sub-lists of size 1. A list containing a single element is, by definition, sorted. Repeatedly merge sublists to create a new sorted sublist until the single list contains all elements. The single list is the sorted list. The merge algorithm is used repeatedly in the merge sort algorithm. An example merge sort is given in the illustration. It starts with an unsorted array of 7 integers. The array is divided into 7 partitions; each partition contains 1 element and is sorted. The sorted partitions are then merged to produce larger, sorted, partitions, until 1 partition, the sorted array, is left. Merging two lists Merging two sorted lists into one can be done in linear time and linear or constant space (depending on the data access model). The following pseudocode demonstrates an algorithm that merges input lists (either linked lists or arrays) and into a new list . The function yields the first element of a list; "dropping" an element means removing it from its list, typically by incrementing a pointer or index. algorithm merge(A, B) is inputs A, B : list returns list C := new empty list while A is not empty and B is not empty do if head(A) ≤ head(B) then append head(A) to C drop the head of A else append head(B) to C drop the head of B // By now, either A or B is empty. It remains to empty the other input list. while A is not empty do append head(A) to C drop the head of A while B is not empty do append head(B) to C drop the head of B return C When the inputs are linked lists, this algorithm can be implemented to use only a constant amount of working space; the pointers in the lists' nodes can be reused for bookkeeping and for constructing the final merged list. In the merge sort algorithm, this subroutine is typically used to merge two sub-arrays , of a single array . This can be done by copying the sub-arrays into a temporary array, then applying the merge algorithm above. The allocation of a temporary array can be avoided, but at the expense of speed and programming ease. Various in-place merge algorithms have been devised, sometimes sacrificing the linear-time bound to produce an algorithm; see for discussion. K-way merging -way merging generalizes binary merging to an arbitrary number of sorted input lists. Applications of -way merging arise in various sorting algorithms, including patience sorting and an external sorting algorithm that divides its input into blocks that fit in memory, sorts these one by one, then merges these blocks. Several solutions to this problem exist. A naive solution is to do a loop over the lists to pick off the minimum element each time, and repeat this loop until all lists are empty: Input: a list of lists. While any of the lists is non-empty: Loop over the lists to find the one with the minimum first element. Output the minimum element and remove it from its list. In the worst case, this algorithm performs element comparisons to perform its work if there are a total of elements in the lists. It can be improved by storing the lists in a priority queue (min-heap) keyed by their first element: Build a min-heap of the lists, using the first element as the key. While any of the lists is non-empty: Let . Output the first element of list and remove it from its list. Re-heapify . Searching for the next smallest element to be output (find-min) and restoring heap order can now be done in time (more specifically, comparisons), and the full problem can be solved in time (approximately comparisons). A third algorithm for the problem is a divide and conquer solution that builds on the binary merge algorithm: If , output the single input list. If , perform a binary merge. Else, recursively merge the first lists and the final lists, then binary merge these. When the input lists to this algorithm are ordered by length, shortest first, it requires fewer than comparisons, i.e., less than half the number used by the heap-based algorithm; in practice, it may be about as fast or slow as the heap-based algorithm. Parallel merge A parallel version of the binary merge algorithm can serve as a building block of a parallel merge sort. The following pseudocode demonstrates this algorithm in a parallel divide-and-conquer style (adapted from Cormen et al.). It operates on two sorted arrays and and writes the sorted output to array . The notation denotes the part of from index through , exclusive. algorithm merge(A[i...j], B[k...ℓ], C[p...q]) is inputs A, B, C : array i, j, k, ℓ, p, q : indices let m = j - i, n = ℓ - k if m < n then swap A and B // ensure that A is the larger array: i, j still belong to A; k, ℓ to B swap m and n if m ≤ 0 then return // base case, nothing to merge let r = ⌊(i + j)/2⌋ let s = binary-search(A[r], B[k...ℓ]) let t = p + (r - i) + (s - k) C[t] = A[r] in parallel do merge(A[i...r], B[k...s], C[p...t]) merge(A[r+1...j], B[s...ℓ], C[t+1...q]) The algorithm operates by splitting either or , whichever is larger, into (nearly) equal halves. It then splits the other array into a part with values smaller than the midpoint of the first, and a part with larger or equal values. (The binary search subroutine returns the index in where would be, if it were in ; that this always a number between and .) Finally, each pair of halves is merged recursively, and since the recursive calls are independent of each other, they can be done in parallel. Hybrid approach, where serial algorithm is used for recursion base case has been shown to perform well in practice The work performed by the algorithm for two arrays holding a total of elements, i.e., the running time of a serial version of it, is . This is optimal since elements need to be copied into . To calculate the span of the algorithm, it is necessary to derive a Recurrence relation. Since the two recursive calls of merge are in parallel, only the costlier of the two calls needs to be considered. In the worst case, the maximum number of elements in one of the recursive calls is at most since the array with more elements is perfectly split in half. Adding the cost of the Binary Search, we obtain this recurrence as an upper bound: The solution is , meaning that it takes that much time on an ideal machine with an unbounded number of processors. Note: The routine is not stable: if equal items are separated by splitting and , they will become interleaved in ; also swapping and will destroy the order, if equal items are spread among both input arrays. As a result, when used for sorting, this algorithm produces a sort that is not stable. Language support Some computer languages provide built-in or library support for merging sorted collections. C++ The C++'s Standard Template Library has the function , which merges two sorted ranges of iterators, and , which merges two consecutive sorted ranges in-place. In addition, the (linked list) class has its own method which merges another list into itself. The type of the elements merged must support the less-than () operator, or it must be provided with a custom comparator. C++17 allows for differing execution policies, namely sequential, parallel, and parallel-unsequenced. Python Python's standard library (since 2.6) also has a function in the module, that takes multiple sorted iterables, and merges them into a single iterator. See also Merge (revision control) Join (relational algebra) Join (SQL) Join (Unix) References Further reading Donald Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 3: Sorting and Searching, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. . Pages 158–160 of section 5.2.4: Sorting by Merging. Section 5.3.2: Minimum-Comparison Merging, pp. 197–207. External links High Performance Implementation of Parallel and Serial Merge in C# with source in GitHub and in C++ GitHub Articles with example pseudocode Sorting algorithms

20363

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ML

ML

ML or ml may refer to: Computing and mathematics ML (programming language), a general-purpose functional programming language .ml, the top-level Internet domain for Mali Machine learning, a field of computer science Markup language, a system for annotating a document Maximum likelihood, a method of estimating the parameters of a statistical model Mathematical Logic, a variation of Quine's system New Foundations Measurement Megalitre or megaliter (ML, Ml, or Mℓ), a unit of capacity Millilitre or milliliter (mL, ml, or mℓ), a unit of capacity Millilambert (mL), a non-SI unit of luminance Richter magnitude scale (ML), used to measure earthquakes Megalangmuir (ML), a unit of exposure of a surface to a given chemical species (convention is 1 ML=monolayer=1 Langmuir) Other 1050, in Roman numerals ML (film), a 2018 Philippine film ML 8-inch shell gun ML postcode area, Motherwell postcode area of Scotland Dean ML, a model of electric guitar Malayalam (ISO 639-1 code), a language Mali (ISO 3166-1 country code), a country in Africa Marxism–Leninism, a form of communist ideology as practiced in the Soviet Union and other nations Marxist–Leninist, a follower of Marxism–Leninism McConnell Unit, a prison near Beeville, Texas Mere Liye (also known as ML), a 2001 album by Sagarika. Motor Launch, a type of small Royal Navy vessel used by British Coastal Forces Mountain Leader Award, a UK qualification MultiLevel Recording, to increase the storage capacity of optical discs ml. or mladší, used in Czech–Slovak similarly to Junior Malaysia-Singapore Airlines, IATA code ML until 1972 Midway Airlines (1976–1991), IATA code ML Mom Luang, a Thai royal title Silt, in the Unified Soil Classification System Miraculous Ladybug, a French cartoon Mobile Legends, short for Mobile Legends: Bang Bang, a mobile MOBA game by Moonton Merrill Lynch, the wealth management division of Bank of America See also Mercedes-Benz GLE-Class, formerly known as the ML-Class M1 (disambiguation) MI (disambiguation) Metalanguage (disambiguation)

20366

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuisine%20of%20the%20Midwestern%20United%20States

Cuisine of the Midwestern United States

Midwestern cuisine is a regional cuisine of the American Midwest. It draws its culinary roots most significantly from the cuisines of Central, Northern and Eastern Europe, and Native North America, and is influenced by regionally and locally grown foodstuffs and cultural diversity. Everyday Midwestern home cooking generally showcases simple and hearty dishes that make use of the abundance of locally grown foods. Its culinary profiles may seem synonymous with "American food." The Midwest's restaurants also offer a diverse mix of ethnic cuisines as well as sophisticated, contemporary techniques. Background Sometimes called "the breadbasket of America", the Midwest serves as a center for grain production, particularly wheat, corn and soybeans. Graham bread, steamed cornbread, and johnny cakes are traditional Midwestern foods, as are butter cakes like chocolate cake, devil's food cake, coconut cake and fruit cake. Flour was also used to make light sponge cakes, doughnuts, cookies, pastry, and quick breads like soda bread and baking powder biscuits. Cereals like oatmeal, cracked wheat and corn meal were used to make gruel or "mush" when prepared without milk. In 1839 the Northeastern state of New York became the country's leading dairy producer, a position it held until overtaken by Iowa in 1890. Soon afterwards, Wisconsin emerged as the leading dairy producer. Beef and pork processing have long been important Midwestern industries. Chicago and Kansas City served as stockyards and processing centers of the beef trade and Cincinnati, nicknamed "Porkopolis", was once the largest pork-producing city in the world. Iowa is the center of pork production in the U.S. Meats were preserved by curing, as in corned beef, sugar-cured ham and bacon, or smoking. Pork sausages were flavored with black pepper and sage and smoked to make frankfurters. To make breakfast sausages, liver, heart and bread were added. Other types of sausage included liver sausage, blood sausage, bologna, cervelat and wiener wurst. Hamburg steak was made from tough cuts of beef with suet. Ingredients commonly used in the Midwestern states include beef, pork, potatoes and corn. Apple pie is also popular, though other local ingredients vary among states. Potatoes may be steamed, boiled or added to a potato chowder made with milk, butter and salt pork. They also appear in German potato salad and the potato dumplings commonly served in local pubs. The Upper Midwest has morel mushrooms, strawberries, blackcaps, gooseberries and blackberries. Early history In the 19th century, as the frontier advanced westward, recipes had to be adapted based on the availability of ingredients. A traditional Midwestern breakfast in the 19th century might have included lamb chops, liver, bacon, pan-fried fish, oysters, eggs, potatoes, fruit compote or preserves, and hearty dough-based dishes like pie, doughnuts or cookies. At harvest time families would have eaten mostly home-produced foods. The table would be laden with fried chicken, pickles, relish, beets, cottage cheese, roast meats, potatoes, pork chops, fresh bread, fried green tomatoes, pies and biscuits. German and Swiss immigrants made dairy products including cheese, butter, white sauces and homemade cottage cheese. They raised milk-fed veal and produced a type of white beer called weisse bier. Swedes, Norwegians and Finns began to settle the Midwest in the late 18th century, introducing rich, butter-laden cakes and cookies. At the turn of the century, cruise ships operating along the Great Lakes offered varied dining selections. Seasonal fruits, oats, hash browns puffed rice, sirloin steak, and lamb kidney saute with mushrooms were some of the breakfast offerings available in 1913. Beginning in the 1930s fine dining on railroads included cashew chicken, baked filet of Lake Superior whitefish au gratin and floating island dessert with custard sauce. The expansion of railroads in the 1870s and 1880s allowed fresh citrus fruits to be shipped to the Midwest. Ethnic influence As with many American regional cuisines, Midwestern cooking has been heavily influenced by immigrant groups. Throughout the northern Midwest, northern European immigrant groups predominated, so Swedish pancakes and Polish pierogi are common. Wisconsin, Missouri, Kansas, Ohio and Illinois were destinations for many ethnic German immigrants, so pork sausages and potatoes are prevalent. In the Rust Belt, many Greeks became restaurateurs, imparting a Mediterranean influence. Native American influences show up in the uses of corn and wild rice. German immigrants brought dishes like Hassenpfeffer, sauerbraten, Spätzle, Maultasche, Schnitzel and pumpernickel bread. Scandinavian dishes include pickled fish, smoked fish, and salted fish, lutefisk, dark breads, Danish frikadeller and aebleskivers served with chokecherry or blueberry syrup. A Wurst mart, sometimes spelled Wurstmart or Wurst Markt, is a variation on a fish fry found predominantly in German-American communities. Wurst marts are usually held by churches as fundraising events, where people will pay for a buffet of sausages and other side dishes. Common side dishes include mashed potatoes, gravy and sauerkraut. Wurst Mart comes from the German word "Wurstmarkt", meaning sausage market. Wurst marts are found mostly in small rural German-American communities in the Midwest, particularly around St. Louis. Urban centers Chicago Following the Civil War, Chicago made use of railway networks to establish distribution networks, making fresh beef widely available. For the first time American consumers without access to local livestock could purchase fresh beef. Chicago meat packer Gustavus F. Swift is credited with commercializing shipping fresh meat in refrigerated railroad cars. By 1892 the number of refrigerated railroad cars in use exceeded 100,000. Vienna Beef became a major producer of hot dogs and by the early 2000s was one of the major suppliers for hot dog carts. Some other Chicago meatpackers are Armour, Oscar Meyer, Hygrade and Swift. Jewish immigrants from eastern Europe ate a type of oatmeal cereal called krupnik that sometimes had barley, potatoes and fat added, and milk when it was available. Orthodox Jews continued to observe kashrut sweatshop laborers carried bagels, knish and herring to work. Chicago's Greektown serves traditional dishes like gyros and flambé cheese saganaki. Steamed tamales made from cornmeal filled with seasoned ground beef have been available in Chicago since the 19th century. Thin-crust pizza arrived in Chicago with Italian immigrants in 1909. The origin of deep-dish pizza is disputed but some say Pizzeria Uno first started serving the iconic dish in 1943. When American forces returned from World War II with a taste for Italian foods, pepper and onion topped Italian pork sausage sandwiches became widely available. They can still be found at festivals, fairs and ballparks today. Italians are also known for Chicken Vesuvio, bone-in chicken sauteed with oregano and garlic in white-wine sauce before and finished in the oven with potatoes. In 1903 James L. Kraft founded a wholesale cheese distribution business in Chicago which became Kraft Foods. Miracle Whip was introduced in 1933 at an industry event. The American Licorice Company founded in Chicago in 1914 makes Red Vines and Super Ropes. Brach's company in Chicago started making candy corn in the 1920s. The Dove Bar was invented in Chicago. Cracker Jack was founded by a German immigrant who in 1871 started selling molasses-coated, steam-popped corn out of a candy shop in Chicago's South Side. Chicago is known for its sandwiches like the Italian beef sandwich which originated during the Great Depression. Starting with tougher cuts the beef is cooked slowly for several hours then sliced thin and served with sweet green pepper on a roll that's been softened in the beef's own juices. Chicago's Puerto Rican population have introduced the skirt steak sandwich Jibarito using fried green plantain instead of bread. Today this sandwich is made with chicken, roast pork, ham, shrimp and even the vegetarian option tofu is available. Throughout the city there are many variations on classic sandwiches like the club sandwich served on bagels or other artisan breads like sourdough or brioche with complex spreads like aioli and piri piri sauce. The Chicago style hot dog is an all-beef frankfurter served in a poppy seed bun with mustard, white onion, relish, pickles, tomato wedges, sport peppers, and celery salt. Cincinnati The Queen City is known for its namesake Cincinnati chili, a Greek-inspired meat sauce (ground beef seasoned with cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, cloves, bay leaf, cumin, and ground chilis), served over spaghetti or hot dogs. Unlike chili con carne, Cincinnati-style chili is almost never eaten by itself and is instead consumed in "ways" or on cheese coneys, which are a regional variation on a chili dog. Goetta, a meat-and-grain sausage or mush made from pork and oats, is unique to the Greater Cincinnati area and "every bit as much a Queen City icon" as Cincinnati chili. It is similar to the traditional porridge-like German peasant food stippgrutze but incorporates a higher proportion of meat-to-grain and is thicker, forming a sliceable loaf. Slices are typically fried like sausage patties and served for breakfast. More than a million pounds of goetta are served in the Cincinnati area per year. The city has a strong German heritage and a variety of German-oriented restaurants and menu items can be found in the area. Cincinnati's Oktoberfest Zinzinnati, an annual food and music celebration held each September, is the second-largest in the world. Taste of Cincinnati, the longest running culinary arts festival in the United States, is held each year on Memorial Day weekend. In 2014, local chefs and food writers organized the inaugural Cincinnati Food & Wine Classic, which drew chefs and artisan food producers from the region. The area was once a national center for pork processing and is often nicknamed Porkopolis, with many references to that heritage in menu-item names and food-event names; pigs are a "well-loved symbol of the city." Cleveland Cleveland's many immigrant groups and heavily blue-collar demographic have long played an important role in defining the area's cuisine. Ethnically, Italian foods as well as several Eastern European cuisines, particularly those of Poland and Hungary, have become gastronomical staples in the Greater Cleveland area. Prominent examples of these include cavatelli, rigatoni, pizza, Chicken paprikash, stuffed cabbage, pierogi, and kielbasa all of which are widely popular in and around the city. Local specialties, such as the pork-based dish City Chicken and the Polish Boy (a loaded sausage sandwich native to Cleveland), are dishes definitive of a cuisine that is based on hearty, inexpensive fare. Commercially, Hector Boiardi (aka Chef Boyardee) started his business in Cleveland's Little Italy. Sweets specific to the Cleveland area include the coconut bar (similar in many respects to the Australian Lamington). Coconut bars, which are found in many Jewish bakeries in the area, are small squares of cake that have been dipped in chocolate and rolled in coconut. In Italian bakeries around the Cleveland area, a variation of the cassata cake is widely popular. This local version is unlike those typically found elsewhere being that it is made with layers of sponge cake custard and strawberries, then frosted with whipped cream. In a celebrity-chef nod to this version, Mario Batali said that the cassata cake at Corbo's Bakery in Cleveland’s Little Italy was the best in the United States. Columbus The Columbus, Ohio area is the home and birthplace of many well-known fast-food chains, especially those known for hamburgers. Wendy's opened its first store in Columbus in 1969, and is now headquartered in nearby Dublin. America's oldest hamburger chain, White Castle, is based there. Besides burgers, Columbus is noted for the German Village, a neighborhood south of downtown where German cuisine such as sausages and kuchen are served. In recent years, local restaurants focused on organic, seasonal, and locally or regionally sourced food have become more prevalent, especially in the Short North area, between downtown and the Ohio State University campus. Numerous Somali restaurants are also found in the city, particularly around Cleveland Avenue. Columbus is also the birthplace of the famed Marzetti Italian Restaurant, opened in 1896. Owner Teresa Marzetti is credited with creation of the beef-and-pasta casserole named after her brother-in-law, Johnny Marzetti. The restaurant's popular salad dressings became the foundation for the T. Marzetti Company, an international specialty foods manufacturer and distributor, headquartered in Columbus. Detroit Detroit specialties include Coney Island hot dogs, found at hundreds of unaffiliated "Coney Island" restaurants. Not to be confused with a chili dog, a coney is served with a ground beef sauce, chopped onions and mustard. The Coney Special has an additional ground beef topping. It is often served with French fries. Food writers Jane and Michael Stern call out Detroit as the only "place to start" in pinpointing "the top Coney Islands in the land." Detroit also has its own style of pizza, a thick-crusted, Sicilian cuisine-influenced, rectangular type called Detroit-style Pizza. Other Detroit foods include zip sauce, served on steaks; the triple-decker Dinty Moore sandwich, corned beef layered with lettuce, tomato and Russian dressing; and a Chinese-American dish called warr shu gai or almond boneless chicken. The Detroit area has many large groups of immigrants. A large Arabic-speaking population reside in and around the suburb of Dearborn, home to many Lebanese storefronts. Detroit also has a substantial number of Greek restaurateurs. Thus, numerous Mediterranean restaurants dot the region and typical foods such as gyros, hummus and falafel can be found in many run-of-the-mill grocery stores and restaurants. Polish food is also prominent in the region, including popular dishes such as pierogi, borscht, and pączki. Bakeries concentrated in the Polish enclave of Hamtramck, Michigan, within the city, are celebrated for their pączki, especially on Fat Tuesday. Hungarian food is featured in nearby eastern Toledo, Ohio with Tony Packo's Hungarian hot dog, a form of kolbász. Chinese restaurants in the Detroit area serve almond boneless chicken, a regional Chinese-American dish consisting of battered fried boneless chicken breasts served sliced on a bed of lettuce with a gravy-like chicken flavored sauce and slivered almonds. In nearby Ann Arbor the Chipati, a tossed salad, is served inside a freshly baked pita pocket with the "secret" Chipati sauce on the side. The Chipati's origination is claimed by both Pizza Bob's on S. State St. and by Pizza House on Church St. Kansas City Kansas City is an important barbecue and meat-processing center with a distinctive barbecue style. The Kansas City metropolitan area has more than 100 barbecue restaurants and proclaims itself to be the "world's barbecue capital." The Kansas City Barbeque Society spreads its influence across the nation through its barbecue-contest standards. The oldest continuously operating barbecue restaurant is Rosedale Barbecue, near downtown Kansas City. Other popular barbecue restaurants are Gates Bar-B-Q, Joe’s Kansas City Bar-B-Que and Arthur Bryant's. Both Arthur Bryant's and Gates Bar-B-Q sell bottled versions of their barbecue sauces in restaurants and specialty stores in the surrounding areas. Milwaukee Traditional cuisine in Wisconsin was influenced by the European immigration there, so much, that it could be considered the "most European in the United States". Foods frequently considered comfort foods, and foods signature to Wisconsin culture in Milwaukee include cheese dishes, butter burgers, beer, Bloody Marys, beer soup, cheese curds, fish fry, and bratwursts. There is a sizeable amount of farms spread across Wisconsin for dairy, corn, and meat production. Twin Cities of Minnesota Minneapolis used to be known as "Mill City" and homemade breads and pies feature prominently in Minnesota's cuisine. Bread and cakes were available at the Eagle Bakery in 1850 included fruitcake, pound cake and "Fancy cake" for the holidays. In the 1930s there were four Jewish bakeries within a few blocks of each other baking bagels and other fresh breads. Jewish families purchased challah loaves for their Sabbath meal at the North Side Bakery. There were two kosher meat markets and four Jewish delicatessens, one of which began distribution for what would become Sara Lee frozen cheesecakes. The delis sold sandwiches like corned beef and salami. There are many restaurants serving various Polish dishes like polish sausage, pierogies and stuffed cabbage rolls. and typical German foods like rippchen, knackwurst, and wienerschnitzel. Traditionally, potato salad and kraut were served alongside an entree of bratwurst or ham hocks. A side of spaetzle and red cabbage would accompany sauerbraten or rouladen. In the fall, the Twin Cities share along with Green Bay, Wisconsin, the tradition of the neighborhood booyah, a cuisine and cultural event featuring a hodge-podge of ingredients in stews. Like Milwaukee, American restaurants in the Twin Cities supply a wide spectrum of choices and styles that range from small diners, sports bars and decades-old supper clubs to high-end steakhouses and eateries that serve new American cuisine using locally grown ingredients. The Jucy Lucy (or "Juicy Lucy"), claimed as an innovation of the local pubs, is a hamburger with a core of melted cheese. Barbecue restaurants in the area tend to feature a combination of the various regional styles of this type of cooking. Minneapolis and St. Paul also offer a diverse array of cuisines influenced by their many immigrant groups. In the 1970s the Twin Cities saw a large influx of Southeast Asian immigrants from Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam. Asian cuisine was initially dominated by Chinese Cantonese immigrants that served Americanized offerings. In 1883 Woo Yee Sing and his younger brother, Woo Du Sing, opened the Canton Cafe in Minneapolis, the first Chinese restaurant in Minnesota. Authentic offerings began at the influential Nankin Cafe which opened in 1919, and many new Chinese immigrants soon took this cuisine throughout the Twin Cities and to the suburbs. The cuisine of Japan has been present since the opening of the area's very first Japanese restaurant, Fuji Ya in 1959. Since 1976 Supenn Supatanskinkasem has been cooking and serving Thai food through her Minnesota State Fair Booth, Siam Café, and Sawatdee chain of Thai restaurants. Modern dining options include phở noodle shops, banh mi and Thai curry restaurants. Restaurants offering other cuisines of Asia including those from Afghanistan, India, Nepal and the Philippines are also recent additions to the Twin Cities dining scene. Local ingredients are often integrated into Asian offerings, for example Chinese steamed walleye and Nepalese curried bison. Mexican and Tex-Mex restaurants serve tacos, tortas, tamales and other similar dishes. Cuisines from Argentina, Brazil, Cuba, Ecuador, Peru and the Spanish Speaking West Indies are also represented, as well as Native American cuisine. The Twin Cities are home to many restaurants that serve the cuisines of the Mediterranean, Middle East and Northeast Africa including, Greek, Ethiopian and Somalia have also opened a number of restaurants in Minnesota. West-African immigrants have brought their own cuisine in recent years. There is also a presence of Afro-Caribbean restaurants, with the famed Nicollet Avenue in Minneapolis being home to two Caribbean restaurants. Omaha Omaha is known for its steakhouses, many of which have closed. Central European and Southern influences can be seen in the local popularity of carp and South 24th Street contains a multitude of Mexican restaurants. North Omaha also has its own barbecue style. Omaha is one of the places claiming to have invented the reuben sandwich, supposedly named for Reuben Kulakofsky, a grocer from the Dundee neighborhood. Godfather's Pizza is one of the chain restaurants that originated in Omaha. The cheese frenchee is also a local favorite and staple, originating from the original King's Food Host fast-food restaurants. St. Louis The large number of Irish and German immigrants who came to St. Louis beginning in the early 19th century contributed significantly to the shaping of local cuisine by their uses of beef, pork and chicken, often roasted or grilled, and desserts including rich cakes, stollens, fruit pies, doughnuts and cookies. A local form of fresh-stick pretzel, called Gus's Pretzels, has been sold singly and by the bagful by street-corner vendors. Mayfair salad dressing was invented at a St. Louis hotel of the same name, and is richer than Caesar salad dressing. St. Louis is also known for popularizing the ice cream cone and for inventing gooey butter cake (a rich, soft-centered coffee cake) and frozen custard. Iced tea is also rumored to have been invented at the World's Fair, as well as the hot dog bun. A staple of grilling in St. Louis is the pork steak, which is sliced from the shoulder of the pig and often basted with or simmered in barbecue sauce during cooking. Other popular grilled items include crispy snoots, cut from the cheeks and nostrils of the pig; bratwurst; and Italian sausage, often referred to as "sah-zittsa," a localization of its Italian name, salsiccia. Maull's is a popular brand of barbecue sauce in the St. Louis area. Restaurants on The Hill reflect the lasting influence of the early 20th-century Milanese and Sicilian immigrant community. Two unique Italian-American style dishes include "toasted" ravioli, which is breaded and fried, and St. Louis-style pizza, which has a crisp, thin crust and is usually made with Provel cheese instead of traditional mozzarella. A poor boy sandwich is the traditional name in St. Louis for a submarine sandwich. A St. Paul sandwich is a St. Louis sandwich, available in Chinese-American restaurants. A slinger is a diner and late-night specialty consisting of eggs, hash browns and hamburger, topped with chili, cheese and onion. Regional specialties Illinois Early settlement in Illinois along the Ohio River included farm owners, tenant farmers and sharecroppers. The lowest rung were called "river rats", similar to folks who lived along the Illinois River foraging for clams and mussels, mostly German, Irish, English and Appalachian. During winter months when fish, clams and mussels were inaccessible the "river people", or alternately "shantyboat dwellers" hunted possums, beaver or raccoons. Lower-income families consumed less milk, meat and eggs in general. Whole milk was usually not available outside wealthy families, but children were sometimes given skimmed milk. Beans, pork, and potatoes were dietary staples in Southern Illinois. Fried eggs, fried pork, biscuits, fruit preserves and coffee were traditional breakfast foods. Dinner options consisted of boiled or fried potatoes, green beans cooked in fat, boiled pork, fried fat pork, sliced tomatoes, lettuce wilted with vinegar, macaroni with tomatoes, pie and cake. German settlers arriving in the 19th century brought foods like wienerschnitzel, sauerbraten, potato pancakes, rouladen, bratwurst, liverwurst. hasenpfeffer, liver dumplings, cakes like Black Forest cake, Lebkuchen and Schnecken, strudel and cookie recipes like Sandbakelse and Pfeffernüsse. By 1890, fish from the Illinois river were being sent upstream to Chicago for sale in commercial markets on the east coast. Carp and buffalo fish were used to make gefilte fish or fried carp in cornmeal batter. The horseshoe sandwich is rarely seen outside Springfield, Illinois. The original version from Springfield was an open-faced sandwich made a horseshoe-shaped ham steak and two pieces of white toast but it is available with other types of meat also like chicken cutlets or hamburger. The sandwich is served with a cheese sauce similar to Welsh rarebit and french fries. Indiana Indiana claims shoreline along Lake Michigan so freshwater fish like perch and walleye have a place on local menus. Biscuits and gravy, topped with sausage gravy, can be found at diners throughout the state, sometimes served with eggs on the side, or other breakfast sides like home fries. Chicken and noodles (or beef and noodles) are served over mashed potatoes. German pubs serve traditional fare like sausages, schnitzels, rouladen, and sauerbraten. Fried brain sandwich is not very common any more but was more widely available in the past. It was first brought to Evansville by German immigrants. Indiana produces roughly 25,000 gallons of maple syrup each year, making it a popular condiment for different sweet and savory foods. Fried biscuits are a specialty of the state, served with cinnamon sugar and spiced apple butter. Deep-fried pork tenderloin and fried bologna sandwiches are popular in Indianapolis and other parts of the state. Turkey and Beef Manhattan dishes originated in Indianapolis and can be found in diners across the state. Fried chicken is a staple of after-church dinner on Sundays (Indiana's version uses more black pepper than most). A popular dish seen almost exclusively in Indiana is sugar cream pie (also called Hoosier pie) which most likely originated in the state's Amish community. Some say it originated with the Shaker settlements along Indiana's eastern border with Ohio. Sometimes called "desperation pie", the simple milk and sugar pie may be related to the Amish Bob Andy pie, Pennsylvania's shoo-fly pie and North Carolina's brown sugar pie. Persimmon pudding made with sweet, wild persimmons is a typical Thanksgiving dish in Indiana. Indiana produces more popcorn than any other state except Nebraska. A common Breakfast food found throughout Indiana is fried cornmeal mush, a dish consisting of cornmeal which is boiled, then cut into pieces and fried in oil. The dish is normally served with maple syrup or molasses on top. Iowa When French Icarians arrived in the 19th century their simple meals were put together using just a few basics: milk, butter, bacon and corn bread. The Amana Colony settled on the rich soils of Iowa and until the 1930s their meals were provided by communal kitchens supplied by the village orchards, communal gardens, vineyards, bakery, smokehouse and dairy. Iowa's last communal meal was served in 1932. Traditional recipes from Amana's communal kitchens include radish salad, apple bread, strawberry rhubarb pie, and dumpling soup. Danish immigrants brought apple cake and spherical æbleskiver pancakes. Dutch letters, pastries filled with almond paste and shaped like an 'S,' are also common in Iowa, although they were historically only made for Sinterklaas Day. Iowa's Dutch bakeries offer other baked goods like speculaas and boter koek. Czech immigrants contributed pastry filled with sweetened fruit or cheese called kolaches. Kringla, krumkake and lefse are found at church suppers throughout the holiday season when a typical lutefisk dinner would include mashed potatoes, cranberry salad, corn, rutabaga, rommegrot, meatballs with gravy, and Norwegian pastry for dessert. Recipes compiled and published by the Des Moines Register include salmon mousse, fresh gazpacho, apple coleslaw, cabbage n' macaroni slaw, other slaws, soups, and dips, and various salads like turkey-melon, shrimp-yogurt and pasta-blackbean, including one gelatin-based salad made with 7Up, lemon-lime gelatin, crushed pineapple, marshmallow and bananas. Other gelatin based salads included blueberry salad and a "Good Salad" which included a mix of puddings, orange gelatin and citrus fruits. Sliced pickle wraps or roll-ups made with dill pickles wrapped in cream cheese and ham may have derived from German cuisine. Basic soups included cauliflower-cheddar garnished with scallions, cream of carrot made with milk and rice, and beef noodle soup made with frozen vegetables and beef bouillon. Various beverage offerings included cool apple-mint tea, a citrus mix that included orange juice, lemonade powder and club soda, as well as coffee flavored with cinnamon. The state is the center for loose-meat sandwiches, also called tavern sandwiches and appearing on many menus by each restaurant's unique name for them. They originated in the region in the Ye Olde Tavern restaurant in 1934 before being popularized by Maid-Rite in 1936, which now has franchises in other Midwestern states. The original Maid Rite sandwich from the 1920s is a ground meat sandwich with pickles, ketchup, mustard, and onions. Hot beef sandwich is made with leftover pot roast topped with gravy and mashed potatoes. Iowa is the leading pork producer in the United States. This is reflected in Iowan cuisine, which includes the pork tenderloin sandwich (or simply "pork tenderloin"), consisting of a lean section of boneless pork loin pounded flat, breaded, and deep fried before being served on a seeded hamburger bun with any or all of ketchup, mustard, mayonnaise, and dill pickle slices. It is a popular "fair food" at the Iowa State Fair where the meat of a pork tenderloin sandwich is often far larger than the area of the bun. Burgers are made with local beef. Iowa is the leader in corn production in the United States, also leading in production of eggs and pork. One well-known variety of sweet corn grown in Iowa is the bi-color peaches and cream. Rhubarb grows well in Iowa and is used for sauces, jams, cakes and pies. Heirloom varieties like Green Moldovan tomatoes, St. Valery carrot and Cimarron lettuce are still grown at the Plum Grove Historic Site. Locally brewed beers like pale ale and lager varieties are made with wheat and barley. Kansas Potluck suppers, farmhouse meals and after-church Sunday dinners are part of the food culture of Kansas. Smoked brisket, pork shoulder, short ribs, hot wings, and fried chicken are served with sides like macaroni and cheese, mashed potatoes, string beans, jalapeno poppers, jello salads, and cheesy potatoes and some places still offer whole hog barbecue. Kansas is a cattle producing state so pot roasts and steak dinners are staples of the local diet. Classic comfort foods like fried chicken and chicken fried steak are standard diner fare. Chili is served alongside cinnamon rolls in a commonly found but unlikely pairing. Breakfast burritos are filled with scrambled eggs and fillings like potatoes, salsa, cheese and tomatillos. Other offerings include pastor, carnitas, carne asada, pork rind and tinga. Pies include cherry pie, coconut meringue pie and coconut cream pie. Bierock is a stuffed yeast bread filled with sausage, ground beef, cabbage and onion that was introduced by Volga Germans. It was a hearty, portable lunch for field laborers. Today, it can be found in varieties like garlic chicken or vegetable. Similarly, the Czech pastry kolaches are yeast buns available with a range of fruit and cheese based fillings like prune, apricot, cottage cheese, cherry, apple, peach and poppy seed. Cake doughnuts like pumpkin spice, maple, and caramel apple are produced seasonally. Alcoholic beverages As of November 2006, Kansas still has 29 dry counties and only 17 counties have passed liquor-by-the-drink without a food sales requirement. Today there are more than 2600 liquor and 4000 cereal malt beverage licensees in the state. Michigan Michigan is a large producer of asparagus, a vegetable crop widespread in Spring. Western and northern Michigan are notable in the production of apples, blueberries, and cherries. The Northwestern region of Michigan's Lower Peninsula accounts for approximately 75 percent of the U.S. crop of tart cherries, usually about 250 million pounds (11.3 Gg). A popular dish, Michigan chicken salad, includes cherries and often apples. Fruit salsas are also popular with cherry salsa being especially prominent. Michigan's wine and beer industries are substantial in the region. The Traverse City area is a popular destination to visit wineries and the state makes many varieties of wine, such as Rieslings, ice wines, and fruit wines. Micro-breweries continue to blossom creating a wide range of unique beers. Grand Rapids was voted Beer City USA 2013 in the Beer City USA poll, with Founders being the largest of Grand Rapids' breweries. Bell's, another large Michigan craft brewery is located further south in Kalamazoo. Michigan is the home of both Post and Kellogg, with Battle Creek being called Cereal City. Vernor's ginger ale and Faygo pop also originate in Michigan. Vernor's ginger ale is often used as a home remedy for an upset stomach. Little Caesars also originates from Michigan. Coney Islands, a diner originating with Greek immigrants in Detroit, are fairly common throughout the state. A coney is a natural-casing hot dog on a bun, topped with raw onion, mustard, and coney sauce, a type of chili. Cheese may be added as well and variations are found throughout the state, with each city claiming theirs is the best. These diners usually also have gyros served with cucumber or honey-mustard sauce, as well as hamburgers, sandwiches, breakfast and dinner entrees. Most Coney Islands are open 24 hours and are a popular place to get a late or early coffee. In Polish communities throughout the state pączki can be found every year on Fat Tuesday (Mardi Gras) in a wide assortment of flavors including lemon, blueberry to custard. Pierogis, goulash, and Polish-style sausage are common specialties in many restaurants. Fish fries are common on Fridays and during Lent, usually set up buffet style with items including rolls, potatoes (typically in the form of french fries and mashed), salad, coleslaw, apple sauce, deep-fried fish and sometimes fried shrimp and baked fish. Fish is generally popular throughout the state due to the state's location on four of the Great Lakes. Trout, walleye, perch and catfish are common. Whitefish is a regional specialty usually offered along the coast, with smoked whitefish and whitefish dip being noteworthy. Cornish immigrant miners introduced the pasty to Michigan's Upper Peninsula (U.P.) as a convenient meal to take to work in the numerous copper, silver, and nickel mines of that region. The pasty is today considered iconic of the U.P. Fudge is commonly sold in tourist areas, with Mackinac Island being most famous for its fudge, traditionally chocolate, but there is a wide variety of flavors from mint to maple and may include nuts, fruit, or other candy pieces. Minnesota Minnesota is known for its church potlucks, where hotdish is often served. Hotdish is any of a variety of casserole dishes, which are popular throughout the United States, although the term "hotdish" is used mainly in Minnesota, Wisconsin, North Dakota, and South Dakota. Hotdishes are filling comfort foods that are convenient and easy to make. "Tater Tot Hotdish" is a popular dish, and as Minnesota is one of the leading producers of wild rice, wild rice hotdishes are quite popular. Dessert bars are the second of the two essentials for potlucks in Minnesota. Other dishes include glorified rice, German baked apples and cookie salad. Walleye, trout, herring, crappie, lutefisk, wild rice, raspberry, blueberry and strawberry are preferred ingredients in modern Minnesotan cuisine. Typical sides include mashed potatoes, pickles, jello salad, locally grown boiled new potatoes seasoned with fresh herbs or horseradish, baked beans, and vegetables like sweet corn on the cob, or buttered peas, carrots and green beans. Preferred to rice or pasta, potatoes are often served alongside buttered rolls and homemade strawberry jam. Food selections served at the annual Minnesota State Fair in past years have included watermelon pickles, baked beans, hot dogs, buffalo burgers, deep-fried cheese curds, glazed ham and homemade apple pie New foods for 2019 included fried tacos on a stick, Turkish pizza, stuffed cabbage rolls, feta bites, shrimp and grits fritters, blueberry key lime pie and assorted other dessert selections. Scandinavian cuisine has had a significant impact on the cuisine of Minnesota. The cafe at the American Swedish Institute serves Swedish dishes like gravlax with dill, potato dumplings and Swedish meatballs with lingonberry jam. Among the state's most iconic dishes are lefse and lutefisk. Made from stockfish (air-dried whitefish) and soda lye (lut), the dish was brought to the state by Scandinavian immigrants. Lefse is a Norwegian flatbread made from flour, potatoes, cream and butter, and in Minnesota it is commonly prepared for Christmas dinner. Scandinavian rice pudding is also served during the holidays. In northern Minnesota, along the North Shore of Lake Superior, commercial fishing has been practiced for generations. Settlers were used to the cold, rugged work as many of these immigrants came directly from the coastal fishing villages of Norway. Ciscoes (also known as lake herring), lake trout, lake whitefish, and rainbow smelt are still commercially fished today. Smoked or sugar-cured trout is prepared from local fish in areas along the North Shore like Duluth. Walleye is the state fish of Minnesota and it is common to find it on restaurant menus. Battered and deep-fried is a popular preparation for walleye, as is grilling. Many restaurants feature walleye on their Friday night fish fry. Letters and household accounts of Minnesota residents give details of mid-19th century frontier cuisine. A farmer's wife writes to her cousin about harvest in Rochester, Minnesota "My hand is so tired perhaps you'll excuse penciling", explaining she woke before four to skim milk, churn butter and bake "6 loaves of bread & seven pumpkin pies". In the 1850s supplies couldn't keep pace with settlement, though steamboats regularly brought in sugar-cured hams, oysters, herring, sardines, alcohol, salt pork and other supplies. In those days a full multi-course meal served for a special occasions would have started with a typical soup followed by a choice of local fish and the so-called "boiled dishes" like chicken with egg sauce, ham or corned beef. Entrees were followed by assorted roast meats served with cranberry sauce. Early Minnesotans used cranberries in pies, molded desserts and frozen confections. Arriving in the 19th century, immigrants from Eastern Europe opened delicatessens, bakeries and restaurants, and introduced dishes like varenyky, krakowski, poppy seed roll, kluski, kolaches and stuffed cabbage rolls to the Midwest. German immigrants brought kohlrabi with them. Slovenian and Croatian immigrants brought the honey-nut bread called potica to the Iron Range region, which is also known for Cornish pasties. Porketta, a pork roast seasoned with fennel and garlic and served with either sliced or shredded like a pulled pork sandwich was brought to Minnesota and the Iron Range region by Italian immigrants. Missouri In Missouri, much of the cuisine is influenced by the various regions of the state. In the Ozarks you will find that country ham, fried chicken, catfish, and frog legs are popular entree choices served with fried potatoes, baked beans and biscuits. Mid-Missouri and Northern Missourians eat a lot of beef (steaks, hamburgers, meatloaf, and roasts) and pork (steak, roasts, chops, and BBQ); sides often include potatoes (baked, mashed, cheesy, fried) and green vegetables (green beans, asparagus, zucchini). Barbecue, mainly pork and beef, is popular in both St. Louis and Kansas City, as well as in much of the southern half of the state. In Southern Missouri, sweet tea is commonly available at restaurants, while in Northern Missouri most citizens prefer unsweetened tea. Missourians also love beer and bacon, with many businesses that specializing in these Missouri staples. St. Louis features toasted ravioli, St. Louis-style pizza, and gooey butter cake. Kansas City is known for their K.C.-style BBQ-sauced burnt ends. Another region is the Missouri Rhineland along the valley of the Missouri River, known for its wineries. Missourians love their regional wines and often eat summer sausage, cheese, and crackers while enjoying. Fishing is popular throughout the state, and fish fries are regular social events, often feature catfish, largemouth bass, and crappie. Fried potatoes, morel mushrooms (when in season), and onion rings are commonly fried as well at these social gatherings. For breakfast, Missourians enjoy bacon, country ham, and breakfast sausage with eggs, hash browns, and toast or biscuits. Biscuits and gravy, pancakes, and breakfast casseroles are also some favorites. Nebraska A significant population of Germans from Russia settled in Nebraska, leading to one of the state's most iconic dishes, the Runza sandwich. Large numbers of Czech immigrants, especially in southeastern Nebraska, influenced the culture and cuisine of the area. Wilber, Nebraska is the self-designated Czech Capital of the US and celebrates an annual Czech Days festival at which Czech food, such as kolaches, roast duck, and pork and dumplings, is served. In 2015, Nebraska resettled the largest number of refugees per capita in the United States, and Lincoln, Nebraska has been a significant resettlement location for refugees since the 1980s, particularly Vietnamese-Americans. A large Vietnamese-American population in Lincoln has created Vietnamese markets—which sell ingredients, such as fresh persimmon, not typically found in Midwestern grocery store chains—and Vietnamese restaurants which sell foods such as pho and bánh mì. Nebraska is also known as the Cornhusker State in reference to the abundance of corn grown in the state. Corn is a common part of late-summer and autumnal meals in Nebraska in dishes such as corn souffle, corn chowder, cornbread, and corn on the cob. Early pioneers relied heavily on corn and cornmeal in everything from breads, (cornbread, corn mush rolls), to soups, (corn soup, Indian meal mush), and desserts, (green corn pudding, popcorn pudding, sweet corn cake). The cheese frenchee, a deep-fried cheese sandwich, was invented in Lincoln, Nebraska at a King's Food Host Restaurant in the 1950s. It went on to become a regional favorite. North Dakota Cuisine in North Dakota has been heavily influenced by both Norwegians and Germans from Russia, ethnic groups which have historically accounted for a large portion of North Dakota's population. Norwegian contributions to the state include lefse, lutefisk, krumkake, and rosettes. Much of the Norwegian-influenced cuisine is also common in Minnesota and other states where Norwegians and their descendants lived, although it may be the greater in North Dakota than any other state. Norwegians played a large role in settling the area, and nearly one-third of North Dakotans claim Norwegian ancestry. Norwegian ancestry was historically more widespread throughout the northern half and eastern third of North Dakota, and therefore plays a stronger role in local cuisine in those parts of the state. German-Russian cuisine is primarily influenced by that of the Schwarzmeerdeutsche, or Black Sea Germans, who heavily populated south-central and southwestern North Dakota (an area known as the German-Russian Triangle), as well as areas of South Dakota. While large numbers of Wolgadeutsche, Germans from Russia who lived near the Volga River in Russia (several hundred miles away from the Black Sea), also settled in the United States, they did not settle in large numbers in the Dakotas. Popular German-Russian cuisine includes kuchen, a thin, cheesecake-like custard pastry often filled with fruit such as cherries, apricot, prunes, and sometimes cottage cheese. Fleischkuekle (or fleischkuechle) is a popular meat-filled thin flatbread that is deep-fried and served hot. Another German-Russian specialty in the area is knoephla, a dumpling soup that almost always includes potatoes, and to a lesser extent, celery. Ohio Buckeye candy is a confection popular in the state of Ohio is the local variation of a peanut butter cup . Coated in chocolate, with a partially exposed center of peanut-butter fudge, in appearance the candy resembles the chestnut that grows on the state tree, commonly known as the Buckeye. Cincinnati-style chili is a Greek-inspired meat sauce, (ground beef seasoned with cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, cloves, bay leaf, cumin, chili powder, and in some home recipes, chocolate), used as a topping for spaghetti or hot dogs. Additionally, red beans, chopped onions, and shredded cheese are offered as extra toppings referred to as "ways." A snack food in Ohio are sauerkraut balls, a meatball-sized fritter containing sauerkraut and some combination of ham, bacon, and pork. The recipe was invented in the late 1950s by two brothers, Max and Roman Gruber for their five-star restaurant, Gruber's, located in Shaker Heights, Ohio. These were a derivative of the various ethnic cultures of Northeast Ohio, which includes Akron and Greater Cleveland. An annual Sauerkraut Festival is held in Waynesville, Ohio. at which sauerkraut balls, along with other sauerkraut specialities, are served. Clam bakes are very popular in Northeast Ohio. The region, which was originally part of the Connecticut Western Reserve, was initially settled by people from Connecticut and other New England states. A typical Northeast Ohio clam bake typically includes clams, chicken, sweet potatoes, corn, and other side dishes. Unlike in New England, seaweed is not used and the clams, chicken, and sweet potatoes are all steamed together in a large pot. Barberton, Ohio, part of the greater Akron area, is a small industrial city and home of Barberton Chicken, a dish of chicken deep fried in lard that was created by Serbian immigrants. It is usually accompanied by a hot rice dish, vinegar coleslaw and french fries. South Dakota One of the most notable dishes being Rocky Mountain oysters, a dish made from bull testicles. Another dish is known as bierock, which is similar to meat-pie dishes of Central and Eastern Europe. Many South Dakotan desserts show their European influences. Kuchen, originating from Germany, has found a home amongst South Dakotans. Another dish, more tied to Native Americans, is wojapi, a berry sauce from the Lakota tribes. Wojapi sometimes accompanies frybread, which is associated with another dish known as Navajo tacos, where meat is served atop it. Wisconsin Wisconsin is "America's Dairyland," and is home to numerous frozen custard stands, particularly around Milwaukee and along the Lake Michigan corridor. The state also has a special relationship with Blue Moon ice cream, being one of the only places the flavor can be found. While the flavor's origins are not well documented, it was most likely developed by flavor chemist Bill "Doc" Sidon of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The state is also well known as a home to many cheesemakers. Arguably the most universal Wisconsin dessert would be the cream puff, a type of profiterole that is a famous treat at the Wisconsin State Fair. The southeastern Wisconsin city of Racine is known for its Danish kringle, a sweet flaky pastry often served as a dessert. The Friday night fish fry, often battered and fried perch or walleye, is traditional throughout Wisconsin, while in northeast Wisconsin along Lake Michigan, the Door County fish boil holds sway. Besides its "Cheesehead" status, Wisconsin has a reputation for alcohol consumption. Common traits of "drinking culture" are embedded in Wisconsin traditions, from festivals and holidays to everyday life. Many large breweries were founded in Wisconsin, largely in Milwaukee, which gained the epithet "Brew City" before the turn of the century: Miller, Pabst, Schlitz (all from and originally based in Milwaukee) and Leinenkugel all began as local favorites before entering the national and international markets. "Booyah" is another very common and hearty Wisconsin meal, found especially in the Northeast region of the state. The origins of this dish are disputed, but the Wisconsin origin contends that the word is a vernacular Flemish or Walloon Belgian spelling of the French word bouillon, in this context meaning "broth." Wisconsin cuisine also features a large amount of sausage, or wurst. The state is also a major producer and consumer of summer sausage, as well as the nation's top producer and consumer of brats. Restaurants and pubs Dark ales have been consumed in America since colonial times, while light-colored German lager was a mid-19th-century arrival. The beer hall did not become established in the United States until the arrival of German immigrants in the mid-19th century. Taverns were generally seen as dark places with an exclusively male clientele. The beer hall, on the other hand, was in German culture views as a place where working-class families drank and ate together in groups at large tables. It was well lit and served traditional fare like sausages, sauerbraten, rollmops, sauerkraut and pickled herring. Beer halls continued in the Midwest after Prohibition. The origin of "fast food" is uncertain, but one possibility is a hamburger stand that was founded by Walter Anderson in Wichita, Kansas. Known today as White Castle, the fast-food chain began to spread throughout the Midwest, offering a simple menu with hamburgers, Coca-Cola and coffee. By the 1920s White Castle had become a nationally recognized chain, and until the 1940s White Castle-style architecture was standard for fast-food hamburger outlets throughout the United States. Other local burger chains include Winstead's, Max & Erma's and Schoop's Hamburgers. Cities like New York did not want fast food to compete with local establishments but the expansion of suburbs in the 1950s allowed fast-food franchises to grow into these areas that lacked restaurants. The popularity of Midwestern fast food like the iconic pizza and burgers started as a rejection of the drive-in model. "Car hops" were replaced by the franchise model including McDonald's, Wendy's, Domino's and Pizza Hut. (McDonald's was originally founded in California in 1940, but purchased by Ray Kroc and moved to Des Plaines, Illinois in 1955.) The growth of these franchises was bolstered by the development of interstate roads through the Midwest. Several restaurant chains have roots in the Minneapolis-St.Paul area including Famous Dave's, and the now defunct Chi-Chi's and Buca di Beppo, which was started out of a small Minneapolis basement in 1993. Portillo's Restaurants is another Midwestern fast-food chain known for its hot dogs. Lion's Choice is best known for its roast beef sandwiches. The chain is based mostly in Missouri, with locations in Kansas and Illinois. Wisconsin chain Culver's is known for its frozen custard and root beer. Culver's has been recognized for their use of local dairy products like cheese and butter. Happy Joe's is known for its taco pizza and has restaurants in several Midwestern states. Other notable chains include Harold's Chicken Shack, Skyline Chili, Spangles, Big John Steak & Onion, Graeter's, Maid-Rite and Cousins Subs. Pizzerias serving deep-dish pizza include Gino's East, Giordano's Pizzeria and Buddy's Pizza, though the latter only has stores in Michigan. Papa John's started by selling pizzas out of a Jeffersonville, Indiana pub. Dishes These dishes, while not all exclusive to the Midwest, are typical of Midwestern foods. Although many foods are shared with other U.S. regions, they often feature uniquely Midwestern preparation styles. 7-layer dip Barbecue Beans Beef, especially steak, pot roast and prime rib Bread-and-butter pickles Beer Beer cheese soup Brain sandwiches Brandy Bratwurst Buckeyes Cabbage Cabbage roll, also known as stuffed cabbage City Chicken, commonly used: fried pork or veal on wood skewers native to Ohio Cheese, including cheese curds Chicken Vesuvio Chicken paprikash Chislic Cole slaw Coney Island hot dog Deep-fried bacon Diner fare Door County fish boil Doughnuts Duck Freshwater fish, including catfish, perch, trout, walleye and whitefish and other panfish, often breaded and fried Fried chicken Frog legs Frozen custard Fruit, especially apples, blueberries, cherries, cranberries, peaches and strawberries Fruit wines Fruit pies German potato salad Goulash Hamburgers Head cheese Horseshoe sandwich Hotdish or casseroles Ice cream cone Italian beef Gyro (loaf-style) Jello salads Johnny Marzetti Lefse Lutefisk Maple syrup Meatloaf Morels Pancakes Pasties Pea salad Persimmon pudding Pierogi Pizza, with several regional styles Pork Potatoes, including mashed potatoes, potato pancakes, and potato salads Ranch dressing Ramps Roast beef Sauerbraten Sauerkraut Sausage, including bratwurst, kielbasa, summer sausage, ring bologna, and other ethnic types, as well as hot dogs, with several regional styles Shrimp DeJonghe Steak Stollen Sugar cream pie Sweet corn, on-the-cob, in creamed corn and in corn relish Turkey Wild rice See also List of regional dishes of the United States References External links Eating Habitats

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moor

Moor

Moor or Moors may refer to: Nature and ecology Moorland, a habitat characterized by low-growing vegetation and acidic soils. Ethnic and religious groups Moors, Muslim inhabitants of the Maghreb, Iberian Peninsula, Sicily, and Malta during the Middle Ages Moors, a variant name for Melungeon (tri-racial isolate groups) in colonial North America Moorish Orthodox Church of America, a syncretic, non-exclusive, and religious anarchist movement Moorish Science Temple of America, an African-American Muslim religious group Mouros da Terra, native or half-native coastal Muslims in south India such as Mappila (Mouros Malabares/Moors Mopulars) Sri Lankan Moor, a minority Muslim group in Sri Lanka United Nuwaubian Nation of Moors, an American religious group founded and led by Dwight York, which includes (among others) Yamassee Native American Moors of the Creek Nation People with the name Karl Marx- 19th century German philosopher and communist. Was known as “The Moor” by family and friends because of his darker complexion. Davey Ray Moor, Australian songwriter, singer, composer and producer David Moor (1947–2000), British general practitioner who was prosecuted for the euthanasia of a patient David Moor (cricketer) (born 1934), English cricketer Dmitry Moor (1883–1946), professional name of Dmitry Stakhievich Orlov, Russian artist Drew Moor (born 1984), American soccer player Edward Moor (1771–1848), British soldier and Indologist Els Moor (1937–2016), Surinamese educator, editor and book publisher Emánuel Moór (1863–1931), Hungarian composer Felix Moor (1903–1955), Estonian journalist and actor George Raymond Dallas Moor (1896–1918), recipient of the Victoria Cross Henry Moor (1809–1877), Mayor of Melbourne Ian Moor (born 1974), English singer James H. Moor, American philosopher Karl Moor (Swiss banker) (1853–1932), Swiss Communist Lova Moor (born 1946), French dancer, real name Marie-Claude Jourdain Marie Möör, French singer Paul Moor (born 1978), British Ten-pin Bowler Peter Moor (born 1991), Zimbabwean cricketer Terry Moor (born 1952), American tennis player William Moor (died 1765), Canadian sailor and explorer Wyman Moor (1811–1869), American politician Places Moor, Nevada, United States Moor, the German spelling of Mór, a town in Fejér county, Hungary Moor Crichel, a village in southwest England Moor Island, uninhabited Canadian Arctic Archipelago islands in Kivalliq Region, Nunavut The Moor, Hawkhurst, a village green in Kent, England The Moor Quarter, a street in Sheffield, England Lower Moor, Village in Worcestershire, England Animals Black Telescope (or Black Moor), a variety of goldfish Moor frog, native to Europe and Asia Arts, entertainment, and media Moor (film), a 2015 Pakistani drama by Jamshed Mehmood The Moor (novel), the fourth book in Mary Russell detective series by Laurie R. King "The Moor" (The Borgias), a 2011 episode of the television series The Borgias Berber the Moor, a character in The Bastard Executioner The Tragedy of Othello, the Moor of Venice, a tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written in 1603 and based on Cinthio's story Un Capitano Moro ("A Moorish Captain"), a story by Cinthio, first published in 1565 "Moor", a song by American metalcore band Every Time I Die from the album From Parts Unknown "The Moor", a song by Swedish metal band Opeth from the album Still Life Other uses Mooring (watercraft), any permanent structure to which a vessel may be secured Moors murders, murders of five children by Ian Brady and Myra Hindley between July 1963 and October 1965, in and around Manchester, England Massive online open research Red Moors, a Sardinian political party See also Andy Moor (disambiguation) Ben Moor (disambiguation) Blackamoors (disambiguation) De Moor Moor End (disambiguation) Moore (disambiguation) MOR (disambiguation) Mór (disambiguation) More (disambiguation) More (surname) The Moor (disambiguation)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitosis

Mitosis

In cell biology, mitosis () is a part of the cell cycle in which replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei. Cell division gives rise to genetically identical cells in which the total number of chromosomes is maintained. Therefore, mitosis is also known as equational division. In general, mitosis is preceded by S phase of interphase (during which DNA replication occurs) and is often followed by telophase and cytokinesis; which divides the cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane of one cell into two new cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. The different stages of mitosis altogether define the mitotic (M) phase of an animal cell cycle—the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells genetically identical to each other. The process of mitosis is divided into stages corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These stages are preprophase (specific to plant cells), prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During mitosis, the chromosomes, which have already duplicated, condense and attach to spindle fibers that pull one copy of each chromosome to opposite sides of the cell. The result is two genetically identical daughter nuclei. The rest of the cell may then continue to divide by cytokinesis to produce two daughter cells. The different phases of mitosis can be visualized in real time, using live cell imaging. Producing three or more daughter cells instead of the normal two is a mitotic error called tripolar mitosis or multipolar mitosis (direct cell triplication / multiplication). Other errors during mitosis can induce apoptosis (programmed cell death) or cause mutations. Certain types of cancer can arise from such mutations. Mitosis occurs only in eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus, divide by a different process called binary fission. Mitosis varies between organisms. For example, animal cells undergo an "open" mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate, whereas fungi undergo a "closed" mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus. Most animal cells undergo a shape change, known as mitotic cell rounding, to adopt a near spherical morphology at the start of mitosis. Most human cells are produced by mitotic cell division. Important exceptions include the gametes – sperm and egg cells – which are produced by meiosis. Discovery Numerous descriptions of cell division were made during 18th and 19th centuries, with various degrees of accuracy. In 1835, the German botanist Hugo von Mohl, described cell division in the green algae Cladophora glomerata, stating that multiplication of cells occurs through cell division. In 1838, Matthias Jakob Schleiden affirmed that "formation of new cells in their interior was a general rule for cell multiplication in plants", a view later rejected in favour of Mohl's model, due to contributions of Robert Remak and others. In animal cells, cell division with mitosis was discovered in frog, rabbit, and cat cornea cells in 1873 and described for the first time by the Polish histologist Wacław Mayzel in 1875. Bütschli, Schneider and Fol might have also claimed the discovery of the process presently known as "mitosis". In 1873, the German zoologist Otto Bütschli published data from observations on nematodes. A few years later, he discovered and described mitosis based on those observations. The term "mitosis", coined by Walther Flemming in 1882, is derived from the Greek word μίτος (mitos, "warp thread"). There are some alternative names for the process, e.g., "karyokinesis" (nuclear division), a term introduced by Schleicher in 1878, or "equational division", proposed by August Weismann in 1887.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Battaglia E | date = 1987 | title = Embryological questions: 12. Have the Polygonum and Allium types been rightly established? | journal = Ann Bot | location = Rome | volume = 45 | pages = 81–117 | quote = p. 85: Already in 1887, Weismann gave the names Aequationstheilung to the usual cell division, and Reduktionstheilungen to the two divisions involved in the halving process of the number of Kernsegmente }}</ref> However, the term "mitosis" is also used in a broad sense by some authors to refer to karyokinesis and cytokinesis together. Presently, "equational division" is more commonly used to refer to meiosis II, the part of meiosis most like mitosis. Phases Overview The primary result of mitosis and cytokinesis is the transfer of a parent cell's genome into two daughter cells. The genome is composed of a number of chromosomes—complexes of tightly coiled DNA that contain genetic information vital for proper cell function. Because each resultant daughter cell should be genetically identical to the parent cell, the parent cell must make a copy of each chromosome before mitosis. This occurs during the S phase of interphase. Chromosome duplication results in two identical sister chromatids bound together by cohesin proteins at the centromere. When mitosis begins, the chromosomes condense and become visible. In some eukaryotes, for example animals, the nuclear envelope, which segregates the DNA from the cytoplasm, disintegrates into small vesicles. The nucleolus, which makes ribosomes in the cell, also disappears. Microtubules project from opposite ends of the cell, attach to the centromeres, and align the chromosomes centrally within the cell. The microtubules then contract to pull the sister chromatids of each chromosome apart. Sister chromatids at this point are called daughter chromosomes. As the cell elongates, corresponding daughter chromosomes are pulled toward opposite ends of the cell and condense maximally in late anaphase. A new nuclear envelope forms around the separated daughter chromosomes, which decondense to form interphase nuclei. During mitotic progression, typically after the anaphase onset, the cell may undergo cytokinesis. In animal cells, a cell membrane pinches inward between the two developing nuclei to produce two new cells. In plant cells, a cell plate forms between the two nuclei. Cytokinesis does not always occur; coenocytic (a type of multinucleate condition) cells undergo mitosis without cytokinesis. Interphase The mitotic phase is a relatively short period of the cell cycle. It alternates with the much longer interphase, where the cell prepares itself for the process of cell division. Interphase is divided into three phases: G1 (first gap), S (synthesis), and G2 (second gap). During all three parts of interphase, the cell grows by producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles. However, chromosomes are replicated only during the S phase. Thus, a cell grows (G1), continues to grow as it duplicates its chromosomes (S), grows more and prepares for mitosis (G2), and finally divides (M) before restarting the cycle. All these phases in the cell cycle are highly regulated by cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinases, and other cell cycle proteins. The phases follow one another in strict order and there are "checkpoints" that give the cell cues to proceed from one phase to another. Cells may also temporarily or permanently leave the cell cycle and enter G0 phase to stop dividing. This can occur when cells become overcrowded (density-dependent inhibition) or when they differentiate to carry out specific functions for the organism, as is the case for human heart muscle cells and neurons. Some G0 cells have the ability to re-enter the cell cycle. DNA double-strand breaks can be repaired during interphase by two principal processes. The first process, non-homologous end joining (NHEJ), can join the two broken ends of DNA in the G1, S and G2 phases of interphase. The second process, homologous recombinational repair (HRR), is more accurate than NHEJ in repairing double-strand breaks. HRR is active during the S and G2 phases of interphase when DNA replication is either partially accomplished or after it is completed, since HRR requires two adjacent homologs. Interphase helps prepare the cell for mitotic division. It dictates whether the mitotic cell division will occur. It carefully stops the cell from proceeding whenever the cell's DNA is damaged or has not completed an important phase. The interphase is very important as it will determine if mitosis completes successfully. It will reduce the amount of damaged cells produced and the production of cancerous cells. A miscalculation by the key Interphase proteins could be crucial as the latter could potentially create cancerous cells. Today, more research is being done to understand specifically how the phases stated above occur. Mitosis Preprophase (plant cells) In plant cells only, prophase is preceded by a pre-prophase stage. In highly vacuolated plant cells, the nucleus has to migrate into the center of the cell before mitosis can begin. This is achieved through the formation of a phragmosome, a transverse sheet of cytoplasm that bisects the cell along the future plane of cell division. In addition to phragmosome formation, preprophase is characterized by the formation of a ring of microtubules and actin filaments (called preprophase band) underneath the plasma membrane around the equatorial plane of the future mitotic spindle. This band marks the position where the cell will eventually divide. The cells of higher plants (such as the flowering plants) lack centrioles; instead, microtubules form a spindle on the surface of the nucleus and are then organized into a spindle by the chromosomes themselves, after the nuclear envelope breaks down. The preprophase band disappears during nuclear envelope breakdown and spindle formation in prometaphase. Prophase During prophase, which occurs after G2 interphase, the cell prepares to divide by tightly condensing its chromosomes and initiating mitotic spindle formation. During interphase, the genetic material in the nucleus consists of loosely packed chromatin. At the onset of prophase, chromatin fibers condense into discrete chromosomes that are typically visible at high magnification through a light microscope. In this stage, chromosomes are long, thin, and thread-like. Each chromosome has two chromatids. The two chromatids are joined at the centromere. Gene transcription ceases during prophase and does not resume until late anaphase to early G1 phase. The nucleolus also disappears during early prophase. Close to the nucleus of animal cells are structures called centrosomes, consisting of a pair of centrioles surrounded by a loose collection of proteins. The centrosome is the coordinating center for the cell's microtubules. A cell inherits a single centrosome at cell division, which is duplicated by the cell before a new round of mitosis begins, giving a pair of centrosomes. The two centrosomes polymerize tubulin to help form a microtubule spindle apparatus. Motor proteins then push the centrosomes along these microtubules to opposite sides of the cell. Although centrosomes help organize microtubule assembly, they are not essential for the formation of the spindle apparatus, since they are absent from plants, and are not absolutely required for animal cell mitosis. Prometaphase At the beginning of prometaphase in animal cells, phosphorylation of nuclear lamins causes the nuclear envelope to disintegrate into small membrane vesicles. As this happens, microtubules invade the nuclear space. This is called open mitosis, and it occurs in some multicellular organisms. Fungi and some protists, such as algae or trichomonads, undergo a variation called closed mitosis where the spindle forms inside the nucleus, or the microtubules penetrate the intact nuclear envelope. In late prometaphase, kinetochore microtubules begin to search for and attach to chromosomal kinetochores. A kinetochore is a proteinaceous microtubule-binding structure that forms on the chromosomal centromere during late prophase. A number of polar microtubules find and interact with corresponding polar microtubules from the opposite centrosome to form the mitotic spindle. Although the kinetochore structure and function are not fully understood, it is known that it contains some form of molecular motor. When a microtubule connects with the kinetochore, the motor activates, using energy from ATP to "crawl" up the tube toward the originating centrosome. This motor activity, coupled with polymerisation and depolymerisation of microtubules, provides the pulling force necessary to later separate the chromosome's two chromatids. Metaphase After the microtubules have located and attached to the kinetochores in prometaphase, the two centrosomes begin pulling the chromosomes towards opposite ends of the cell. The resulting tension causes the chromosomes to align along the metaphase plate or equatorial plane, an imaginary line that is centrally located between the two centrosomes (at approximately the midline of the cell). To ensure equitable distribution of chromosomes at the end of mitosis, the metaphase checkpoint guarantees that kinetochores are properly attached to the mitotic spindle and that the chromosomes are aligned along the metaphase plate. If the cell successfully passes through the metaphase checkpoint, it proceeds to anaphase. Anaphase During anaphase A, the cohesins that bind sister chromatids together are cleaved, forming two identical daughter chromosomes. Shortening of the kinetochore microtubules pulls the newly formed daughter chromosomes to opposite ends of the cell. During anaphase B, polar microtubules push against each other, causing the cell to elongate. In late anaphase, chromosomes also reach their overall maximal condensation level, to help chromosome segregation and the re-formation of the nucleus. In most animal cells, anaphase A precedes anaphase B, but some vertebrate egg cells demonstrate the opposite order of events. Telophase Telophase (from the Greek word τελος meaning "end") is a reversal of prophase and prometaphase events. At telophase, the polar microtubules continue to lengthen, elongating the cell even more. If the nuclear envelope has broken down, a new nuclear envelope forms using the membrane vesicles of the parent cell's old nuclear envelope. The new envelope forms around each set of separated daughter chromosomes (though the membrane does not enclose the centrosomes) and the nucleolus reappears. Both sets of chromosomes, now surrounded by new nuclear membrane, begin to "relax" or decondense. Mitosis is complete. Each daughter nucleus has an identical set of chromosomes. Cell division may or may not occur at this time depending on the organism. Cytokinesis Cytokinesis is not a phase of mitosis, but rather a separate process necessary for completing cell division. In animal cells, a cleavage furrow (pinch) containing a contractile ring, develops where the metaphase plate used to be, pinching off the separated nuclei. In both animal and plant cells, cell division is also driven by vesicles derived from the Golgi apparatus, which move along microtubules to the middle of the cell. In plants, this structure coalesces into a cell plate at the center of the phragmoplast and develops into a cell wall, separating the two nuclei. The phragmoplast is a microtubule structure typical for higher plants, whereas some green algae use a phycoplast microtubule array during cytokinesis. Each daughter cell has a complete copy of the genome of its parent cell. The end of cytokinesis marks the end of the M-phase. There are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately, forming single cells with multiple nuclei. The most notable occurrence of this is among the fungi, slime molds, and coenocytic algae, but the phenomenon is found in various other organisms. Even in animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently, for instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic development. Function Mitosis's "function" or significance relies on the maintenance of the chromosomal set; each formed cell receives chromosomes that are alike in composition and equal in number to the chromosomes of the parent cell. Mitosis occurs in the following circumstances: Development and growth: The number of cells within an organism increases by mitosis. This is the basis of the development of a multicellular body from a single cell, i.e., zygote and also the basis of the growth of a multicellular body. Cell replacement: In some parts of the body, e.g. skin and digestive tract, cells are constantly sloughed off and replaced by new ones. New cells are formed by mitosis and so are exact copies of the cells being replaced. In like manner, red blood cells have a short lifespan (only about 4 months) and new RBCs are formed by mitosis . Regeneration: Some organisms can regenerate body parts. The production of new cells in such instances is achieved by mitosis. For example, starfish regenerate lost arms through mitosis. Asexual reproduction: Some organisms produce genetically similar offspring through asexual reproduction. For example, the hydra reproduces asexually by budding. The cells at the surface of hydra undergo mitosis and form a mass called a bud. Mitosis continues in the cells of the bud and this grows into a new individual. The same division happens during asexual reproduction or vegetative propagation in plants. Variations Forms of mitosis The mitosis process in the cells of eukaryotic organisms follows a similar pattern, but with variations in three main details. "Closed" and "open" mitosis can be distinguished on the basis of nuclear envelope remaining intact or breaking down. An intermediate form with partial degradation of the nuclear envelope is called "semiopen" mitosis. With respect to the symmetry of the spindle apparatus during metaphase, an approximately axially symmetric (centered) shape is called "orthomitosis", distinguished from the eccentric spindles of "pleuromitosis", in which mitotic apparatus has bilateral symmetry. Finally, a third criterion is the location of the central spindle in case of closed pleuromitosis: "extranuclear" (spindle located in the cytoplasm) or "intranuclear" (in the nucleus). Nuclear division takes place only in cells of organisms of the eukaryotic domain, as bacteria and archaea have no nucleus. Bacteria and archaea undergo a different type of division. Within each of the eukaryotic supergroups, mitosis of the open form can be found, as well as closed mitosis, except for Excavata, which show exclusively closed mitosis. Following, the occurrence of the forms of mitosis in eukaryotes:R. Desalle, B. Schierwater: Key Transitions in Animal Evolution. CRC Press, 2010, p. 12, link .Closed intranuclear pleuromitosis is typical of Foraminifera, some Prasinomonadida, some Kinetoplastida, the Oxymonadida, the Haplosporidia, many fungi (chytrids, oomycetes, zygomycetes, ascomycetes), and some Radiolaria (Spumellaria and Acantharia); it seems to be the most primitive type.Closed extranuclear pleuromitosis occurs in Trichomonadida and Dinoflagellata. Closed orthomitosis is found among diatoms, ciliates, some Microsporidia, unicellular yeasts and some multicellular fungi.Semiopen pleuromitosis is typical of most Apicomplexa.Semiopen orthomitosis occurs with different variants in some amoebae (Lobosa) and some green flagellates (e.g., Raphidophyta or Volvox).Open orthomitosis is typical in mammals and other Metazoa, and in land plants; but it also occurs in some protists. Errors and other variations Errors can occur during mitosis, especially during early embryonic development in humans. During each step of mitosis, there are normally checkpoints as well that control the normal outcome of mitosis. But, occasionally to almost rarely, mistakes will happen. Mitotic errors can create aneuploid cells that have too few or too many of one or more chromosomes, a condition associated with cancer. Early human embryos, cancer cells, infected or intoxicated cells can also suffer from pathological division into three or more daughter cells (tripolar or multipolar mitosis), resulting in severe errors in their chromosomal complements. In nondisjunction, sister chromatids fail to separate during anaphase. One daughter cell receives both sister chromatids from the nondisjoining chromosome and the other cell receives none. As a result, the former cell gets three copies of the chromosome, a condition known as trisomy, and the latter will have only one copy, a condition known as monosomy. On occasion, when cells experience nondisjunction, they fail to complete cytokinesis and retain both nuclei in one cell, resulting in binucleated cells.Anaphase lag occurs when the movement of one chromatid is impeded during anaphase. This may be caused by a failure of the mitotic spindle to properly attach to the chromosome. The lagging chromatid is excluded from both nuclei and is lost. Therefore, one of the daughter cells will be monosomic for that chromosome.Endoreduplication (or endoreplication) occurs when chromosomes duplicate but the cell does not subsequently divide. This results in polyploid cells or, if the chromosomes duplicates repeatedly, polytene chromosomes. Endoreduplication is found in many species and appears to be a normal part of development. Endomitosis is a variant of endoreduplication in which cells replicate their chromosomes during S phase and enter, but prematurely terminate, mitosis. Instead of being divided into two new daughter nuclei, the replicated chromosomes are retained within the original nucleus. The cells then re-enter G1 and S phase and replicate their chromosomes again. This may occur multiple times, increasing the chromosome number with each round of replication and endomitosis. Platelet-producing megakaryocytes go through endomitosis during cell differentiation.Amitosis in ciliates and in animal placental tissues results in a random distribution of parental alleles.Karyokinesis without cytokinesis originates multinucleated cells called coenocytes. Diagnostic marker In histopathology, the mitosis rate (mitotic count or mitotic index) is an important parameter in various types of tissue samples, for diagnosis as well as to further specify the aggressiveness of tumors. For example, there is routinely a quantification of mitotic count in breast cancer classification. The mitoses must be counted in an area of the highest mitotic activity. Visually identifying these areas, is difficult in tumors with very high mitotic activity. Also, the detection of atypical forms of mitosis can be used both as a diagnostic and prognostic marker. For example, lag-type mitosis (non-attached condensed chromatin in the area of the mitotic figure) indicates high risk human papillomavirus infection-related Cervical cancer. In order to improve the reproducibilty and accuracy of the mitotic count, automated image analysis using deep learning-based algorithms have been proposed. However, further research is needed before those algorithms can be used to routine diagnostics. Related cell processes Cell rounding In animal tissue, most cells round up to a near-spherical shape during mitosis. In epithelia and epidermis, an efficient rounding process is correlated with proper mitotic spindle alignment and subsequent correct positioning of daughter cells. Moreover, researchers have found that if rounding is heavily suppressed it may result in spindle defects, primarily pole splitting and failure to efficiently capture chromosomes. Therefore, mitotic cell rounding is thought to play a protective role in ensuring accurate mitosis. Rounding forces are driven by reorganization of F-actin and myosin (actomyosin) into a contractile homogeneous cell cortex that 1) rigidifies the cell periphery and 2) facilitates generation of intracellular hydrostatic pressure (up to 10 fold higher than interphase). The generation of intracellular pressure is particularly critical under confinement, such as would be important in a tissue scenario, where outward forces must be produced to round up against surrounding cells and/or the extracellular matrix. Generation of pressure is dependent on formin-mediated F-actin nucleation and Rho kinase (ROCK)-mediated myosin II contraction, both of which are governed upstream by signaling pathways RhoA and ECT2 through the activity of Cdk1. Due to its importance in mitosis, the molecular components and dynamics of the mitotic actomyosin cortex is an area of active research. Mitotic recombination Mitotic cells irradiated with X-rays in the G1 phase of the cell cycle repair recombinogenic DNA damages primarily by recombination between homologous chromosomes. Mitotic cells irradiated in the G2 phase repair such damages preferentially by sister-chromatid recombination. Mutations in genes encoding enzymes employed in recombination cause cells to have increased sensitivity to being killed by a variety of DNA damaging agents. These findings suggest that mitotic recombination is an adaptation for repairing DNA damages including those that are potentially lethal. Evolution There are prokaryotic homologs of all the key molecules of eukaryotic mitosis (e.g., actins, tubulins). Being a universal eukaryotic property, mitosis probably arose at the base of the eukaryotic tree. As mitosis is less complex than meiosis, meiosis may have arisen after mitosis. However, sexual reproduction involving meiosis is also a primitive characteristic of eukaryotes. Thus meiosis and mitosis may both have evolved, in parallel, from ancestral prokaryotic processes. While in bacterial cell division, after duplication of DNA, two circular chromosomes are attached to a special region of the cell membrane, eukaryotic mitosis is usually characterized by the presence of many linear chromosomes, whose kinetochores attaches to the microtubules of the spindle. In relation to the forms of mitosis, closed intranuclear pleuromitosis seems to be the most primitive type, as it is more similar to bacterial division. Gallery Mitotic cells can be visualized microscopically by staining them with fluorescent antibodies and dyes. See also Aneuploidy Binary fission Chromosome abnormality Cytoskeleton Meiosis Mitogen Mitosis Promoting Factor Mitotic bookmarking Motor protein References Further reading External links A Flash animation comparing Mitosis and Meiosis Khan Academy, lecture Studying Mitosis in Cultured Mammalian Cells General K-12 classroom resources for Mitosis The Cell-Cycle Ontology WormWeb.org: Interactive Visualization of the C. elegans Cell Lineage – Visualize the entire cell lineage tree and all of the cell divisions of the nematode C. elegans'' Cell cycle Articles containing video clips 1835 in science

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism

Metabolism

Metabolism (, from metabolē, "change") is the set of life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms. The three main purposes of metabolism are: the conversion of the energy in food to energy available to run cellular processes; the conversion of food to building blocks for proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and some carbohydrates; and the elimination of metabolic wastes. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. The word metabolism can also refer to the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms, including digestion and the transportation of substances into and between different cells, in which case the above described set of reactions within the cells is called intermediary (or intermediate) metabolism. Metabolic reactions may be categorized as catabolic – the breaking down of compounds (for example, of glucose to pyruvate by cellular respiration); or anabolic – the building up (synthesis) of compounds (such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids). Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy. The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, each step being facilitated by a specific enzyme. Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require energy and will not occur by themselves, by coupling them to spontaneous reactions that release energy. Enzymes act as catalysts – they allow a reaction to proceed more rapidly – and they also allow the regulation of the rate of a metabolic reaction, for example in response to changes in the cell's environment or to signals from other cells. The metabolic system of a particular organism determines which substances it will find nutritious and which poisonous. For example, some prokaryotes use hydrogen sulfide as a nutrient, yet this gas is poisonous to animals. The basal metabolic rate of an organism is the measure of the amount of energy consumed by all of these chemical reactions. A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the basic metabolic pathways among vastly different species. For example, the set of carboxylic acids that are best known as the intermediates in the citric acid cycle are present in all known organisms, being found in species as diverse as the unicellular bacterium Escherichia coli and huge multicellular organisms like elephants. These similarities in metabolic pathways are likely due to their early appearance in evolutionary history, and their retention is likely due to their efficacy. In various diseases, such as type II diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and cancer, normal metabolism is disrupted. The metabolism of cancer cells is also different from the metabolism of normal cells, and these differences can be used to find targets for therapeutic intervention in cancer. Key biochemicals Most of the structures that make up animals, plants and microbes are made from four basic classes of molecules: amino acids, carbohydrates, nucleic acid and lipids (often called fats). As these molecules are vital for life, metabolic reactions either focus on making these molecules during the construction of cells and tissues, or on breaking them down and using them to obtain energy, by their digestion. These biochemicals can be joined to make polymers such as DNA and proteins, essential macromolecules of life. Amino acids and proteins Proteins are made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain joined by peptide bonds. Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze the chemical reactions in metabolism. Other proteins have structural or mechanical functions, such as those that form the cytoskeleton, a system of scaffolding that maintains the cell shape. Proteins are also important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, active transport across membranes, and the cell cycle. Amino acids also contribute to cellular energy metabolism by providing a carbon source for entry into the citric acid cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle), especially when a primary source of energy, such as glucose, is scarce, or when cells undergo metabolic stress. Lipids Lipids are the most diverse group of biochemicals. Their main structural uses are as part of biological membranes both internal and external, such as the cell membrane, or to unlock the chemical energy of oxygen. Lipids are the polymers of fatty acids that contain a long, non-polar hydrocarbon chain with a small polar region containing oxygen. Lipids are usually defined as hydrophobic or amphipathic biological molecules but will dissolve in organic solvents such as alcohol, benzene or chloroform. The fats are a large group of compounds that contain fatty acids and glycerol; a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acids by ester linkages is called a triacylglyceride. Several variations on this basic structure exist, including backbones such as sphingosine in sphingomyelin, and hydrophilic groups such as phosphate as in phospholipids. Steroids such as sterol are another major class of lipids. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are aldehydes or ketones, with many hydroxyl groups attached, that can exist as straight chains or rings. Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules, and fill numerous roles, such as the storage and transport of energy (starch, glycogen) and structural components (cellulose in plants, chitin in animals). The basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides and include galactose, fructose, and most importantly glucose. Monosaccharides can be linked together to form polysaccharides in almost limitless ways. Nucleotides The two nucleic acids, DNA and RNA, are polymers of nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a phosphate attached to a ribose or deoxyribose sugar group which is attached to a nitrogenous base. Nucleic acids are critical for the storage and use of genetic information, and its interpretation through the processes of transcription and protein biosynthesis. This information is protected by DNA repair mechanisms and propagated through DNA replication. Many viruses have an RNA genome, such as HIV, which uses reverse transcription to create a DNA template from its viral RNA genome. RNA in ribozymes such as spliceosomes and ribosomes is similar to enzymes as it can catalyze chemical reactions. Individual nucleosides are made by attaching a nucleobase to a ribose sugar. These bases are heterocyclic rings containing nitrogen, classified as purines or pyrimidines. Nucleotides also act as coenzymes in metabolic-group-transfer reactions. Coenzymes Metabolism involves a vast array of chemical reactions, but most fall under a few basic types of reactions that involve the transfer of functional groups of atoms and their bonds within molecules. This common chemistry allows cells to use a small set of metabolic intermediates to carry chemical groups between different reactions. These group-transfer intermediates are called coenzymes. Each class of group-transfer reactions is carried out by a particular coenzyme, which is the substrate for a set of enzymes that produce it, and a set of enzymes that consume it. These coenzymes are therefore continuously made, consumed and then recycled. One central coenzyme is adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the universal energy currency of cells. This nucleotide is used to transfer chemical energy between different chemical reactions. There is only a small amount of ATP in cells, but as it is continuously regenerated, the human body can use about its own weight in ATP per day. ATP acts as a bridge between catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism breaks down molecules, and anabolism puts them together. Catabolic reactions generate ATP, and anabolic reactions consume it. It also serves as a carrier of phosphate groups in phosphorylation reactions. A vitamin is an organic compound needed in small quantities that cannot be made in cells. In human nutrition, most vitamins function as coenzymes after modification; for example, all water-soluble vitamins are phosphorylated or are coupled to nucleotides when they are used in cells. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), a derivative of vitamin B3 (niacin), is an important coenzyme that acts as a hydrogen acceptor. Hundreds of separate types of dehydrogenases remove electrons from their substrates and reduce NAD+ into NADH. This reduced form of the coenzyme is then a substrate for any of the reductases in the cell that need to transfer hydrogen atoms to their substrates. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide exists in two related forms in the cell, NADH and NADPH. The NAD+/NADH form is more important in catabolic reactions, while NADP+/NADPH is used in anabolic reactions. Mineral and cofactors Inorganic elements play critical roles in metabolism; some are abundant (e.g. sodium and potassium) while others function at minute concentrations. About 99% of a human's body weight is made up of the elements carbon, nitrogen, calcium, sodium, chlorine, potassium, hydrogen, phosphorus, oxygen and sulfur. Organic compounds (proteins, lipids and carbohydrates) contain the majority of the carbon and nitrogen; most of the oxygen and hydrogen is present as water. The abundant inorganic elements act as electrolytes. The most important ions are sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, phosphate and the organic ion bicarbonate. The maintenance of precise ion gradients across cell membranes maintains osmotic pressure and pH. Ions are also critical for nerve and muscle function, as action potentials in these tissues are produced by the exchange of electrolytes between the extracellular fluid and the cell's fluid, the cytosol. Electrolytes enter and leave cells through proteins in the cell membrane called ion channels. For example, muscle contraction depends upon the movement of calcium, sodium and potassium through ion channels in the cell membrane and T-tubules. Transition metals are usually present as trace elements in organisms, with zinc and iron being most abundant of those. Metal cofactors are bound tightly to specific sites in proteins; although enzyme cofactors can be modified during catalysis, they always return to their original state by the end of the reaction catalyzed. Metal micronutrients are taken up into organisms by specific transporters and bind to storage proteins such as ferritin or metallothionein when not in use. Catabolism Catabolism is the set of metabolic processes that break down large molecules. These include breaking down and oxidizing food molecules. The purpose of the catabolic reactions is to provide the energy and components needed by anabolic reactions which build molecules. The exact nature of these catabolic reactions differ from organism to organism, and organisms can be classified based on their sources of energy, hydrogen, and carbon (their primary nutritional groups), as shown in the table below. Organic molecules are used as a source of hydrogen atoms or electrons by organotrophs, while lithotrophs use inorganic substrates. Whereas phototrophs convert sunlight to chemical energy, chemotrophs depend on redox reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from reduced donor molecules such as organic molecules, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide or ferrous ions to energy-rich acceptor molecules such as oxygen, nitrate or sulfate. In animals, these reactions involve complex organic molecules that are broken down to simpler molecules, such as carbon dioxide and water. Photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and cyanobacteria, use similar electron-transfer reactions to store energy absorbed from sunlight. The most common set of catabolic reactions in animals can be separated into three main stages. In the first stage, large organic molecules, such as proteins, polysaccharides or lipids, are digested into their smaller components outside cells. Next, these smaller molecules are taken up by cells and converted to smaller molecules, usually acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA), which releases some energy. Finally, the acetyl group on the CoA is oxidized to water and carbon dioxide in the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain, releasing the energy of O2 while reducing the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) into NADH. Digestion Macromolecules cannot be directly processed by cells. Macromolecules must be broken into smaller units before they can be used in cell metabolism. Different classes of enzymes were being used to digest these polymers. These digestive enzymes include proteases that digest proteins into amino acids, as well as glycoside hydrolases that digest polysaccharides into simple sugars known as monosaccharides. Microbes simply secrete digestive enzymes into their surroundings, while animals only secrete these enzymes from specialized cells in their guts, including the stomach and pancreas, and in salivary glands. The amino acids or sugars released by these extracellular enzymes are then pumped into cells by active transport proteins. Energy from organic compounds Carbohydrate catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates into smaller units. Carbohydrates are usually taken into cells after they have been digested into monosaccharides. Once inside, the major route of breakdown is glycolysis, where sugars such as glucose and fructose are converted into pyruvate and some ATP is generated. Pyruvate is an intermediate in several metabolic pathways, but the majority is converted to acetyl-CoA through aerobic (with oxygen) glycolysis and fed into the citric acid cycle. Although some more ATP is generated in the citric acid cycle, the most important product is NADH, which is made from NAD+ as the acetyl-CoA is oxidized. This oxidation releases carbon dioxide as a waste product. In anaerobic conditions, glycolysis produces lactate, through the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase re-oxidizing NADH to NAD+ for re-use in glycolysis. An alternative route for glucose breakdown is the pentose phosphate pathway, which reduces the coenzyme NADPH and produces pentose sugars such as ribose, the sugar component of nucleic acids. Fats are catabolized by hydrolysis to free fatty acids and glycerol. The glycerol enters glycolysis and the fatty acids are broken down by beta oxidation to release acetyl-CoA, which then is fed into the citric acid cycle. Fatty acids release more energy upon oxidation than carbohydrates because carbohydrates contain more oxygen in their structures. Steroids are also broken down by some bacteria in a process similar to beta oxidation, and this breakdown process involves the release of significant amounts of acetyl-CoA, propionyl-CoA, and pyruvate, which can all be used by the cell for energy. M. tuberculosis can also grow on the lipid cholesterol as a sole source of carbon, and genes involved in the cholesterol-use pathway(s) have been validated as important during various stages of the infection lifecycle of M. tuberculosis. Amino acids are either used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules, or oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide to produce energy. The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase. The amino group is fed into the urea cycle, leaving a deaminated carbon skeleton in the form of a keto acid. Several of these keto acids are intermediates in the citric acid cycle, for example α-ketoglutarate formed by deamination of glutamate. The glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose, through gluconeogenesis (discussed below). Energy transformations Oxidative phosphorylation In oxidative phosphorylation, the electrons removed from organic molecules in areas such as the citric acid cycle are transferred to oxygen and the energy released is used to make ATP. This is done in eukaryotes by a series of proteins in the membranes of mitochondria called the electron transport chain. In prokaryotes, these proteins are found in the cell's inner membrane. These proteins use the energy released by oxygen as it receives electrons from reduced molecules like NADH to pump protons across a membrane. Pumping protons out of the mitochondria creates a proton concentration difference across the membrane and generates an electrochemical gradient. This force drives protons back into the mitochondrion through the base of an enzyme called ATP synthase. The flow of protons makes the stalk subunit rotate, causing the active site of the synthase domain to change shape and phosphorylate adenosine diphosphate – turning it into ATP. Energy from inorganic compounds Chemolithotrophy is a type of metabolism found in prokaryotes where energy is obtained from the oxidation of inorganic compounds. These organisms can use hydrogen, reduced sulfur compounds (such as sulfide, hydrogen sulfide and thiosulfate), ferrous iron (Fe(II)) or ammonia as sources of reducing power and they gain energy from the oxidation of these compounds with high-energy electron acceptors such as oxygen or nitrate. These microbial processes are important in global biogeochemical cycles such as acetogenesis, nitrification and denitrification and are critical for soil fertility. Energy from light The energy in sunlight is captured by plants, cyanobacteria, purple bacteria, green sulfur bacteria and some protists. This process is often coupled to the conversion of carbon dioxide into organic compounds, as part of photosynthesis, which is discussed below. The energy capture and carbon fixation systems can, however, operate separately in prokaryotes, as purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria can use sunlight as a source of energy, while switching between carbon fixation and the fermentation of organic compounds. In many organisms, the capture of solar energy is similar in principle to oxidative phosphorylation, as it involves the storage of energy as a proton concentration gradient. This proton motive force then drives ATP synthesis The electrons needed to drive this electron transport chain come from light-gathering proteins called photosynthetic reaction centres. Reaction centers are classified into two types depending on the nature of photosynthetic pigment present, with most photosynthetic bacteria only having one type, while plants and cyanobacteria have two. In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosystem II uses light energy to remove electrons from water, releasing oxygen as a waste product. The electrons then flow to the cytochrome b6f complex, which uses their energy to pump protons across the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast. These protons move back through the membrane as they drive the ATP synthase, as before. The electrons then flow through photosystem I and can then be used to reduce the coenzyme NADP+. This coenzyme can enter the Calvin cycle, which is discussed below, or be recycled for further ATP generation. Anabolism Anabolism is the set of constructive metabolic processes where the energy released by catabolism is used to synthesize complex molecules. In general, the complex molecules that make up cellular structures are constructed step-by-step from smaller and simpler precursors. Anabolism involves three basic stages. First, the production of precursors such as amino acids, monosaccharides, isoprenoids and nucleotides, secondly, their activation into reactive forms using energy from ATP, and thirdly, the assembly of these precursors into complex molecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids and nucleic acids. Anabolism in organisms can be different according to the source of constructed molecules in their cells. Autotrophs such as plants can construct the complex organic molecules in their cells such as polysaccharides and proteins from simple molecules like carbon dioxide and water. Heterotrophs, on the other hand, require a source of more complex substances, such as monosaccharides and amino acids, to produce these complex molecules. Organisms can be further classified by ultimate source of their energy: photoautotrophs and photoheterotrophs obtain energy from light, whereas chemoautotrophs and chemoheterotrophs obtain energy from oxidation reactions. Carbon fixation Photosynthesis is the synthesis of carbohydrates from sunlight and carbon dioxide (CO2). In plants, cyanobacteria and algae, oxygenic photosynthesis splits water, with oxygen produced as a waste product. This process uses the ATP and NADPH produced by the photosynthetic reaction centres, as described above, to convert CO2 into glycerate 3-phosphate, which can then be converted into glucose. This carbon-fixation reaction is carried out by the enzyme RuBisCO as part of the Calvin – Benson cycle. Three types of photosynthesis occur in plants, C3 carbon fixation, C4 carbon fixation and CAM photosynthesis. These differ by the route that carbon dioxide takes to the Calvin cycle, with C3 plants fixing CO2 directly, while C4 and CAM photosynthesis incorporate the CO2 into other compounds first, as adaptations to deal with intense sunlight and dry conditions. In photosynthetic prokaryotes the mechanisms of carbon fixation are more diverse. Here, carbon dioxide can be fixed by the Calvin – Benson cycle, a reversed citric acid cycle, or the carboxylation of acetyl-CoA. Prokaryotic chemoautotrophs also fix CO2 through the Calvin–Benson cycle, but use energy from inorganic compounds to drive the reaction. Carbohydrates and glycans In carbohydrate anabolism, simple organic acids can be converted into monosaccharides such as glucose and then used to assemble polysaccharides such as starch. The generation of glucose from compounds like pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, glycerate 3-phosphate and amino acids is called gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenesis converts pyruvate to glucose-6-phosphate through a series of intermediates, many of which are shared with glycolysis. However, this pathway is not simply glycolysis run in reverse, as several steps are catalyzed by non-glycolytic enzymes. This is important as it allows the formation and breakdown of glucose to be regulated separately, and prevents both pathways from running simultaneously in a futile cycle. Although fat is a common way of storing energy, in vertebrates such as humans the fatty acids in these stores cannot be converted to glucose through gluconeogenesis as these organisms cannot convert acetyl-CoA into pyruvate; plants do, but animals do not, have the necessary enzymatic machinery. As a result, after long-term starvation, vertebrates need to produce ketone bodies from fatty acids to replace glucose in tissues such as the brain that cannot metabolize fatty acids. In other organisms such as plants and bacteria, this metabolic problem is solved using the glyoxylate cycle, which bypasses the decarboxylation step in the citric acid cycle and allows the transformation of acetyl-CoA to oxaloacetate, where it can be used for the production of glucose. Other than fat, glucose is stored in most tissues, as an energy resource available within the tissue through glycogenesis which was usually being used to maintained glucose level in blood. Polysaccharides and glycans are made by the sequential addition of monosaccharides by glycosyltransferase from a reactive sugar-phosphate donor such as uridine diphosphate glucose (UDP-Glc) to an acceptor hydroxyl group on the growing polysaccharide. As any of the hydroxyl groups on the ring of the substrate can be acceptors, the polysaccharides produced can have straight or branched structures. The polysaccharides produced can have structural or metabolic functions themselves, or be transferred to lipids and proteins by enzymes called oligosaccharyltransferases. Fatty acids, isoprenoids and sterol Fatty acids are made by fatty acid synthases that polymerize and then reduce acetyl-CoA units. The acyl chains in the fatty acids are extended by a cycle of reactions that add the acyl group, reduce it to an alcohol, dehydrate it to an alkene group and then reduce it again to an alkane group. The enzymes of fatty acid biosynthesis are divided into two groups: in animals and fungi, all these fatty acid synthase reactions are carried out by a single multifunctional type I protein, while in plant plastids and bacteria separate type II enzymes perform each step in the pathway. Terpenes and isoprenoids are a large class of lipids that include the carotenoids and form the largest class of plant natural products. These compounds are made by the assembly and modification of isoprene units donated from the reactive precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate. These precursors can be made in different ways. In animals and archaea, the mevalonate pathway produces these compounds from acetyl-CoA, while in plants and bacteria the non-mevalonate pathway uses pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate as substrates. One important reaction that uses these activated isoprene donors is sterol biosynthesis. Here, the isoprene units are joined to make squalene and then folded up and formed into a set of rings to make lanosterol. Lanosterol can then be converted into other sterols such as cholesterol and ergosterol. Proteins Organisms vary in their ability to synthesize the 20 common amino acids. Most bacteria and plants can synthesize all twenty, but mammals can only synthesize eleven nonessential amino acids, so nine essential amino acids must be obtained from food. Some simple parasites, such as the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae, lack all amino acid synthesis and take their amino acids directly from their hosts. All amino acids are synthesized from intermediates in glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, or the pentose phosphate pathway. Nitrogen is provided by glutamate and glutamine. Nonessensial amino acid synthesis depends on the formation of the appropriate alpha-keto acid, which is then transaminated to form an amino acid. Amino acids are made into proteins by being joined in a chain of peptide bonds. Each different protein has a unique sequence of amino acid residues: this is its primary structure. Just as the letters of the alphabet can be combined to form an almost endless variety of words, amino acids can be linked in varying sequences to form a huge variety of proteins. Proteins are made from amino acids that have been activated by attachment to a transfer RNA molecule through an ester bond. This aminoacyl-tRNA precursor is produced in an ATP-dependent reaction carried out by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase. This aminoacyl-tRNA is then a substrate for the ribosome, which joins the amino acid onto the elongating protein chain, using the sequence information in a messenger RNA. Nucleotide synthesis and salvage Nucleotides are made from amino acids, carbon dioxide and formic acid in pathways that require large amounts of metabolic energy. Consequently, most organisms have efficient systems to salvage preformed nucleotides. Purines are synthesized as nucleosides (bases attached to ribose). Both adenine and guanine are made from the precursor nucleoside inosine monophosphate, which is synthesized using atoms from the amino acids glycine, glutamine, and aspartic acid, as well as formate transferred from the coenzyme tetrahydrofolate. Pyrimidines, on the other hand, are synthesized from the base orotate, which is formed from glutamine and aspartate. Xenobiotics and redox metabolism All organisms are constantly exposed to compounds that they cannot use as foods and that would be harmful if they accumulated in cells, as they have no metabolic function. These potentially damaging compounds are called xenobiotics. Xenobiotics such as synthetic drugs, natural poisons and antibiotics are detoxified by a set of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes. In humans, these include cytochrome P450 oxidases, UDP-glucuronosyltransferases, and glutathione S-transferases. This system of enzymes acts in three stages to firstly oxidize the xenobiotic (phase I) and then conjugate water-soluble groups onto the molecule (phase II). The modified water-soluble xenobiotic can then be pumped out of cells and in multicellular organisms may be further metabolized before being excreted (phase III). In ecology, these reactions are particularly important in microbial biodegradation of pollutants and the bioremediation of contaminated land and oil spills. Many of these microbial reactions are shared with multicellular organisms, but due to the incredible diversity of types of microbes these organisms are able to deal with a far wider range of xenobiotics than multicellular organisms, and can degrade even persistent organic pollutants such as organochloride compounds. A related problem for aerobic organisms is oxidative stress. Here, processes including oxidative phosphorylation and the formation of disulfide bonds during protein folding produce reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide. These damaging oxidants are removed by antioxidant metabolites such as glutathione and enzymes such as catalases and peroxidases. Thermodynamics of living organisms Living organisms must obey the laws of thermodynamics, which describe the transfer of heat and work. The second law of thermodynamics states that in any isolated system, the amount of entropy (disorder) cannot decrease. Although living organisms' amazing complexity appears to contradict this law, life is possible as all organisms are open systems that exchange matter and energy with their surroundings. Living systems are not in equilibrium, but instead are dissipative systems that maintain their state of high complexity by causing a larger increase in the entropy of their environments. The metabolism of a cell achieves this by coupling the spontaneous processes of catabolism to the non-spontaneous processes of anabolism. In thermodynamic terms, metabolism maintains order by creating disorder. Regulation and control As the environments of most organisms are constantly changing, the reactions of metabolism must be finely regulated to maintain a constant set of conditions within cells, a condition called homeostasis. Metabolic regulation also allows organisms to respond to signals and interact actively with their environments. Two closely linked concepts are important for understanding how metabolic pathways are controlled. Firstly, the regulation of an enzyme in a pathway is how its activity is increased and decreased in response to signals. Secondly, the control exerted by this enzyme is the effect that these changes in its activity have on the overall rate of the pathway (the flux through the pathway). For example, an enzyme may show large changes in activity (i.e. it is highly regulated) but if these changes have little effect on the flux of a metabolic pathway, then this enzyme is not involved in the control of the pathway. There are multiple levels of metabolic regulation. In intrinsic regulation, the metabolic pathway self-regulates to respond to changes in the levels of substrates or products; for example, a decrease in the amount of product can increase the flux through the pathway to compensate. This type of regulation often involves allosteric regulation of the activities of multiple enzymes in the pathway. Extrinsic control involves a cell in a multicellular organism changing its metabolism in response to signals from other cells. These signals are usually in the form of water-soluble messengers such as hormones and growth factors and are detected by specific receptors on the cell surface. These signals are then transmitted inside the cell by second messenger systems that often involved the phosphorylation of proteins. A very well understood example of extrinsic control is the regulation of glucose metabolism by the hormone insulin. Insulin is produced in response to rises in blood glucose levels. Binding of the hormone to insulin receptors on cells then activates a cascade of protein kinases that cause the cells to take up glucose and convert it into storage molecules such as fatty acids and glycogen. The metabolism of glycogen is controlled by activity of phosphorylase, the enzyme that breaks down glycogen, and glycogen synthase, the enzyme that makes it. These enzymes are regulated in a reciprocal fashion, with phosphorylation inhibiting glycogen synthase, but activating phosphorylase. Insulin causes glycogen synthesis by activating protein phosphatases and producing a decrease in the phosphorylation of these enzymes. Evolution The central pathways of metabolism described above, such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, are present in all three domains of living things and were present in the last universal common ancestor. This universal ancestral cell was prokaryotic and probably a methanogen that had extensive amino acid, nucleotide, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. The retention of these ancient pathways during later evolution may be the result of these reactions having been an optimal solution to their particular metabolic problems, with pathways such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle producing their end products highly efficiently and in a minimal number of steps. The first pathways of enzyme-based metabolism may have been parts of purine nucleotide metabolism, while previous metabolic pathways were a part of the ancient RNA world. Many models have been proposed to describe the mechanisms by which novel metabolic pathways evolve. These include the sequential addition of novel enzymes to a short ancestral pathway, the duplication and then divergence of entire pathways as well as the recruitment of pre-existing enzymes and their assembly into a novel reaction pathway. The relative importance of these mechanisms is unclear, but genomic studies have shown that enzymes in a pathway are likely to have a shared ancestry, suggesting that many pathways have evolved in a step-by-step fashion with novel functions created from pre-existing steps in the pathway. An alternative model comes from studies that trace the evolution of proteins' structures in metabolic networks, this has suggested that enzymes are pervasively recruited, borrowing enzymes to perform similar functions in different metabolic pathways (evident in the MANET database) These recruitment processes result in an evolutionary enzymatic mosaic. A third possibility is that some parts of metabolism might exist as "modules" that can be reused in different pathways and perform similar functions on different molecules. As well as the evolution of new metabolic pathways, evolution can also cause the loss of metabolic functions. For example, in some parasites metabolic processes that are not essential for survival are lost and preformed amino acids, nucleotides and carbohydrates may instead be scavenged from the host. Similar reduced metabolic capabilities are seen in endosymbiotic organisms. Investigation and manipulation Classically, metabolism is studied by a reductionist approach that focuses on a single metabolic pathway. Particularly valuable is the use of radioactive tracers at the whole-organism, tissue and cellular levels, which define the paths from precursors to final products by identifying radioactively labelled intermediates and products. The enzymes that catalyze these chemical reactions can then be purified and their kinetics and responses to inhibitors investigated. A parallel approach is to identify the small molecules in a cell or tissue; the complete set of these molecules is called the metabolome. Overall, these studies give a good view of the structure and function of simple metabolic pathways, but are inadequate when applied to more complex systems such as the metabolism of a complete cell. An idea of the complexity of the metabolic networks in cells that contain thousands of different enzymes is given by the figure showing the interactions between just 43 proteins and 40 metabolites to the right: the sequences of genomes provide lists containing anything up to 26.500 genes. However, it is now possible to use this genomic data to reconstruct complete networks of biochemical reactions and produce more holistic mathematical models that may explain and predict their behavior. These models are especially powerful when used to integrate the pathway and metabolite data obtained through classical methods with data on gene expression from proteomic and DNA microarray studies. Using these techniques, a model of human metabolism has now been produced, which will guide future drug discovery and biochemical research. These models are now used in network analysis, to classify human diseases into groups that share common proteins or metabolites. Bacterial metabolic networks are a striking example of bow-tie organization, an architecture able to input a wide range of nutrients and produce a large variety of products and complex macromolecules using a relatively few intermediate common currencies. A major technological application of this information is metabolic engineering. Here, organisms such as yeast, plants or bacteria are genetically modified to make them more useful in biotechnology and aid the production of drugs such as antibiotics or industrial chemicals such as 1,3-propanediol and shikimic acid. These genetic modifications usually aim to reduce the amount of energy used to produce the product, increase yields and reduce the production of wastes. History The term metabolism is derived from French "métabolisme" or Ancient Greek μεταβολή – "Metabole" for "a change" which derived from μεταβάλλ –"Metaballein" means "To change" Greek philosophy Aristotle's The Parts of Animals sets out enough details of his views on metabolism for an open flow model to be made. He believed that at each stage of the process, materials from food were transformed, with heat being released as the classical element of fire, and residual materials being excreted as urine, bile, or faeces. Islamic medicine Ibn al-Nafis described metabolism in his 1260 AD work titled Al-Risalah al-Kamiliyyah fil Siera al-Nabawiyyah (The Treatise of Kamil on the Prophet's Biography) which included the following phrase "Both the body and its parts are in a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment, so they are inevitably undergoing permanent change." Application of the scientific method The history of the scientific study of metabolism spans several centuries and has moved from examining whole animals in early studies, to examining individual metabolic reactions in modern biochemistry. The first controlled experiments in human metabolism were published by Santorio Santorio in 1614 in his book Ars de statica medicina. He described how he weighed himself before and after eating, sleep, working, sex, fasting, drinking, and excreting. He found that most of the food he took in was lost through what he called "insensible perspiration". In these early studies, the mechanisms of these metabolic processes had not been identified and a vital force was thought to animate living tissue. In the 19th century, when studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast, Louis Pasteur concluded that fermentation was catalyzed by substances within the yeast cells he called "ferments". He wrote that "alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells." This discovery, along with the publication by Friedrich Wöhler in 1828 of a paper on the chemical synthesis of urea, and is notable for being the first organic compound prepared from wholly inorganic precursors. This proved that the organic compounds and chemical reactions found in cells were no different in principle than any other part of chemistry. It was the discovery of enzymes at the beginning of the 20th century by Eduard Buchner that separated the study of the chemical reactions of metabolism from the biological study of cells, and marked the beginnings of biochemistry. The mass of biochemical knowledge grew rapidly throughout the early 20th century. One of the most prolific of these modern biochemists was Hans Krebs who made huge contributions to the study of metabolism. He discovered the urea cycle and later, working with Hans Kornberg, the citric acid cycle and the glyoxylate cycle. Modern biochemical research has been greatly aided by the development of new techniques such as chromatography, X-ray diffraction, NMR spectroscopy, radioisotopic labelling, electron microscopy and molecular dynamics simulations. These techniques have allowed the discovery and detailed analysis of the many molecules and metabolic pathways in cells. See also , a "metabolism first" theory of the origin of life Microphysiometry Oncometabolism References Further reading Introductory Advanced External links General information The Biochemistry of Metabolism Sparknotes SAT biochemistry Overview of biochemistry. School level. MIT Biology Hypertextbook Undergraduate-level guide to molecular biology. Human metabolism Topics in Medical Biochemistry Guide to human metabolic pathways. School level. THE Medical Biochemistry Page Comprehensive resource on human metabolism. Databases Flow Chart of Metabolic Pathways at ExPASy IUBMB-Nicholson Metabolic Pathways Chart SuperCYP: Database for Drug-Cytochrome-Metabolism Metabolic pathways Metabolism reference Pathway Underwater diving physiology

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval%20Inquisition

Medieval Inquisition

The Medieval Inquisition was a series of Inquisitions (Catholic Church bodies charged with suppressing heresy) from around 1184, including the Episcopal Inquisition (1184–1230s) and later the Papal Inquisition (1230s). The Medieval Inquisition was established in response to movements considered apostate or heretical to Roman Catholicism, in particular Catharism and Waldensians in Southern France and Northern Italy. These were the first movements of many inquisitions that would follow. The Cathars were first noted in the 1140s in Southern France, and the Waldensians around 1170 in Northern Italy. Before this point, individual heretics such as Peter of Bruis had often challenged the Church. However, the Cathars were the first mass organization in the second millennium that posed a serious threat to the authority of the Church. This article covers only these early inquisitions, not the Roman Inquisition of the 16th century onwards, or the somewhat different phenomenon of the Spanish Inquisition of the late 15th century, which was under the control of the Spanish monarchy using local clergy. The Portuguese Inquisition of the 16th century and various colonial branches followed the same pattern. History An inquisition was a process that developed to investigate alleged instances of crimes. Its use in ecclesiastical courts was not at first directed to matters of heresy, but a broad assortment of offenses such as clandestine marriage and bigamy. French historian Jean-Baptiste Guiraud (1866–1953) defined Medieval Inquisition as "... a system of repressive means, some of temporal and some others of spiritual kind, concurrently issued by ecclesiastical and civil authorities in order to protect religious orthodoxy and social order, both threatened by theological and social doctrines of heresy". Bishop of Lincoln, Robert Grosseteste, defined heresy as "an opinion chosen by human perception, created by human reason, founded on the Scriptures, contrary to the teachings of the Church, publicly avowed, and obstinately defended." The fault was in the obstinate adherence rather than theological error, which could be corrected; and by referencing scripture Grosseteste excludes Jews, Muslims, and other non-Christians from the definition of heretic. There were many different types of inquisitions depending on the location and methods; historians have generally classified them into the episcopal inquisition and the papal inquisition. All major medieval inquisitions were decentralized, and each tribunal worked independently. Authority rested with local officials based on guidelines from the Holy See, but there was no central top-down authority running the inquisitions, as would be the case in post-medieval inquisitions. Early Medieval courts generally followed a process called accusatio, largely based on Germanic practices. In this procedure, an individual would make an accusation against someone to the court. However, if the suspect was judged innocent, the accusers faced legal penalties for bringing false charges. This provided a disincentive to make any accusation unless the accusers were sure it would stand. Later, a threshold requirement was the establishment of the accused's publica fama, i.e., the fact that the person was widely believed to be guilty of the offense charged. By the twelfth and early thirteenth centuries, there was a shift away from the accusatorial model toward the legal procedure used in the Roman Empire. Instead of an individual making accusations based on first-hand knowledge, judges now took on the prosecutorial role based on information collected. Under inquisitorial procedures, guilt or innocence was proved by the inquiry (inquisitio) of the judge into the details of a case. Episcopal inquisitions The common people tended to view heretics "...as an antisocial menace. ...Heresy involved not only religious division, but social upset and political strife." In 1076 Pope Gregory VII excommunicated the residents of Cambrai because a mob had seized and burned a Cathar determined by the bishop to have been a heretic. A similar occurrence happened in 1114 during the bishops absence in Strassburg. In 1145 clergy at Leige managed to rescue victims from the crowd. The first medieval inquisition, the episcopal inquisition, was established in the year 1184 by a papal bull of Pope Lucius III entitled Ad abolendam, "For the purpose of doing away with." It was a response to the growing Catharist movement in southern France. It was called "episcopal" because it was administered by local bishops, which in Latin is episcopus, and obliged bishops to visit their diocese twice a year in search of heretics. The mechanism for dealing with heresy developed gradually. Practices and procedures of episcopal inquisitions could vary from one diocese to another, depending on the resources available to individual bishops and their relative interest or disinterest. Convinced that Church teaching contained revealed truth, the first recourse of bishops was that of persuasio. Through discourse, debates, and preaching, they sought to present a better explanation of Church teaching. This approach often proved very successful. Legatine inquisitions The spread of other movements from the 12th century can be seen at least in part as a reaction to the increasing moral corruption of the clergy, which included illegal marriages and the possession of extreme wealth. In the Middle Ages, the Inquisition's main focus was to eradicate these new sects. Thus, its range of action was predominantly in Italy and France, where the Cathars and the Waldensians, the two main heretic movements of the period, were. Bishops had always the authority to look into alleged heretical activity, but as it wasn't always clear what constituted heresy they conferred with their colleagues and sought advice from Rome. Legates were sent out, at first as advisors, later taking a greater role in the administration. During the pontificate of Innocent III, papal legates were sent out to stop the spread of the Cathar and Waldensian heresies to Provence and up the Rhine into Germany. Procedures began to be formalized by time of Pope Gregory IX. Cathars The Cathars were a group of dissidents mostly in the South of France, in cities like Toulouse. The sect developed in the 12th century, apparently founded by soldiers from the Second Crusade, who, on their way back, were converted by a Bulgarian sect, the Bogomils. The Cathars' main heresy was their belief in dualism: the evil God created the materialistic world and the good God created the spiritual world. Therefore, Cathars preached poverty, chastity, modesty and all those values which in their view helped people to detach themselves from materialism. The Cathars presented a problem to feudal government by their attitude towards oaths, which they declared under no circumstances allowable. Therefore, considering the religious homogeneity of that age, heresy was an attack against social and political order, besides orthodoxy. The Albigensian Crusade resulted in the defeat of the Cathars militarily. After this, the Inquisition played an important role in finally destroying Catharism during the 13th and much of the 14th centuries. Punishments for Cathars varied greatly. Most frequently, they were made to wear yellow crosses atop their garments as a sign of outward penance. Others undertook obligatory pilgrimages, many for the purpose of fighting against Muslims. Another common punishment, including for returned pilgrims, was visiting a local church naked once each month to be scourged. Cathars who were slow to repent suffered imprisonment and, often, the loss of property. Others who altogether refused to repent were burned. Waldensians The Waldensians were mostly in Germany and North Italy. The Waldensians were a group of orthodox laymen concerned about the increasing wealth of the Church. As time passed, however, they found their beliefs at odds with Catholic teaching. In contrast with the Cathars and in line with the Church, they believed in only one God, but they did not recognize a special class of priesthood, believing in the priesthood of all believers. They also objected to the veneration of saints and martyrs, which were part of the Church's orthodoxy. They rejected the sacramental authority of the Church and its clerics and encouraged apostolic poverty. These movements became particularly popular in Southern France as well as Northern Italy and parts of Holy Roman Empire. Papal inquisition One reason for Pope Gregory IX's creation of the Inquisition was to bring order and legality to the process of dealing with heresy, since there had been tendencies by mobs of townspeople to burn alleged heretics without much of a trial. According to historian Thomas Madden: "The Inquisition was not born out of desire to crush diversity or oppress people; it was rather an attempt to stop unjust executions. ...Heresy was a crime against the state. Roman law in the Code of Justinian made heresy a capital offense" (emphasis in original). In the early Middle Ages, people accused of heresy were judged by the local lord, many of whom lacked theological training. Madden claims that "The simple fact is that the medieval Inquisition saved uncounted thousands of innocent (and even not-so-innocent) people who would otherwise have been roasted by secular lords or mob rule" (emphasis in original). Madden argues that while medieval secular leaders were trying to safeguard their kingdoms, the Church was trying to save souls. The Inquisition provided a means for heretics to escape death and return to the community. The complaints of the two main preaching orders of the period, the Dominicans and the Franciscans, against the moral corruption of the Church, to some extent echoed those of the heretical movements, but they were doctrinally conventional, and were enlisted by Pope Innocent III in the fight against heresy. In 1231 Pope Gregory IX appointed a number of Papal Inquisitors (Inquisitores haereticae pravitatis), mostly Dominicans and Franciscans, for the various regions of Europe. As mendicants, they were accustomed to travel. Unlike the haphazard episcopal methods, the papal inquisition was thorough and systematic, keeping detailed records. Some of the few documents from the Middle Ages involving first-person speech by medieval peasants come from papal inquisition records. This tribunal or court functioned in France, Italy and parts of Germany and had virtually ceased operation by the early fourteenth century. Pope Gregory's original intent for the Inquisition was a court of exception to inquire into and glean the beliefs of those differing from Catholic teaching, and to instruct them in the orthodox doctrine. It was hoped that heretics would see the falsity of their opinion and would return to the Roman Catholic Church. If they persisted in their heresy, however, Pope Gregory, finding it necessary to protect the Catholic community from infection, would have suspects handed over to civil authorities, since public heresy was a crime under civil law as well as Church law. The secular authorities would apply their own brands of punishment for civil disobedience which, at the time, included burning at the stake. Over centuries the tribunals took different forms, investigating and stamping out various forms of heresy, including witchcraft. Throughout the Inquisition's history, it was rivaled by local ecclesiastical and secular jurisdictions. No matter how determined, no pope succeeded in establishing complete control over the prosecution of heresy. Medieval kings, princes, bishops, and civil authorities all had a role in prosecuting heresy. The practice reached its apex in the second half of the 13th century. During this period, the tribunals were almost entirely free from any authority, including that of the pope. Therefore, it was almost impossible to eradicate abuse. For example, Robert le Bougre, the "Hammer of Heretics" (Malleus Haereticorum), was a Dominican friar who became an inquisitor known for his cruelty and violence. Another example was the case of the province of Venice, which was handed to the Franciscan inquisitors, who quickly became notorious for their frauds against the Church, by enriching themselves with confiscated property from the heretics and by the selling of absolutions. Because of their corruption, they were eventually forced by the Pope to suspend their activities in 1302. In southern Europe, Church-run courts existed in the kingdom of Aragon during the medieval period, but not elsewhere in the Iberian peninsula or some other kingdoms, including England. In Scandinavian kingdoms it had hardly any impact. At the beginning of the fourteenth century, two other movements attracted the attention of the Inquisition, the Knights Templar and the Beguines. It is not clear if the process against the Templars was initiated by the Inquisition on the basis of suspected heresy or if the Inquisition itself was exploited by the king of France, Philip the Fair, who owed them money and wanted the knights' wealth. In England the Crown was also deeply in debt to the Templars and, probably on that basis, the Templars were also persecuted in England, their lands forfeited and taken by others, (the last private owner being the favorite of Edward II, Hugh le Despenser). Many Templars in England were killed; some fled to Scotland and other places. The Beguines were mainly a women's movement, recognized by the Church since their foundation in the thirteenth century. Marguerite Porete wrote a mystical book known as The Mirror of Simple Souls. The book provoked some controversy, because of statements which some took to mean that a soul can become one with God and that when in this state it can ignore moral law, as it had no need for the Church and its sacraments, or its code of virtues. The book's teachings were easily misconstrued. Porete was eventually tried by the Dominican inquisitor of France and burned at the stake as a relapsed heretic in 1310. The Council of Vienne of 1311 proclaimed them heretics and the movement went into decline. The medieval Inquisition paid little attention to sorcery until Pope John XXII was the victim of an assassination attempt via poisoning and sorcery. In a letter written in 1320 to the Inquisitors of Carcassonne and Toulouse, Cardinal William of Santa Sabina states that Pope John declared witchcraft to be heresy, and thus it could be tried under the Inquisition. Joan of Arc In the spring of 1429 during the Hundred Years' War, in obedience to what she said was the command of God, Joan of Arc inspired the Dauphin's armies in a series of stunning military victories which lifted the siege of Orleans and destroyed a large percentage of the remaining English forces at the battle of Patay. A series of military setbacks eventually led to her capture in the Spring of 1430 by the Burgundians, who were allied with the English. They delivered her to them for 10,000 livres. In December of that same year she was transferred to Rouen, the military headquarters and administrative capital in France of King Henry VI of England, and placed on trial for heresy before a Church court headed by Bishop Pierre Cauchon, a supporter of the English. The trial was politically motivated. Cauchon, although a native of France, had served in the English government since 1418, and he was therefore hostile to a woman who had worked for the opposing side. The same was true of the other tribunal members. Ascribing a diabolic origin to her victories would be an effective way to ruin her reputation and bolster the morale of English troops. Thus the decision to involve the Inquisition, which did not initiate the trial and in fact showed a reluctance throughout its duration. Seventy charges were brought against her, including accusations of heresy and dressing as a male (i.e., wearing soldiers' clothing and armor). Eyewitnesses later said that Joan had told them she was wearing this clothing and keeping it "firmly laced and tied together" because the tunic could be tied to the long boots to keep her guards from pulling her clothing off during their occasional attempts to rape her. Joan was first condemned to life imprisonment and the deputy-inquisitor, Jean Le Maitre (whom the eyewitness said only attended because of threats from the English), obtained from her assurances of relinquishing her male clothes. However, after four days, during which she was said to have been subjected to attempted rape by English soldiers, she put her soldier's clothing back on because (according to the eyewitnesses) she needed protection against rape. Cauchon declared her a relapsed heretic, and she was burned at the stake two days later on 30 May 1431. In 1455, a petition by Joan of Arc's mother Isabelle led to a re-trial designed to investigate the dubious circumstances which led to Joan's execution. The Inquisitor-General of France was put in charge of the new trial, which opened in Notre Dame de Paris on 7 November 1455. After analyzing all the proceedings, including Joan's answers to the allegations and the testimony of 115 witnesses who were called to testify during the appellate process, the inquisitor overturned her condemnation on 7 July 1456. Joan of Arc was eventually canonized in 1920. Historian Edward Peters identifies a number of illegalities in Joan's first trial in which she had been convicted. Inquisition procedure The papal inquisition developed a number of procedures to discover and prosecute heretics. These codes and procedures detailed how an inquisitorial court was to function. If the accused renounced their heresy and returned to the Church, forgiveness was granted and a penance was imposed. If the accused upheld their heresy, they were excommunicated and turned over to secular authorities. The penalties for heresy, though not as severe as the secular courts of Europe at the time, were codified within the ecclesiastic courts as well (e.g. confiscation of property, turning heretics over to the secular courts for punishment). Additionally, the various "key terms" of the inquisitorial courts were defined at this time, including, for example, "heretics," “believers," “those suspect of heresy," “those simply suspected," “those vehemently suspected," and "those most vehemently suspected". Investigation The townspeople would be gathered in a public place. The inquisitors would provide an opportunity for anyone to step forward and denounce themselves in exchange for leniency. Legally, there had to be at least two witnesses, although conscientious judges rarely contented themselves with that number. Trial At the beginning of the trial, defendants were invited to name those who had "mortal hatred" against them. If the accusers were among those named, the defendant was set free and the charges dismissed; the accusers would face life imprisonment. This option was meant to keep the inquisition from becoming involved in local grudges. Early legal consultations on conducting inquisition stress that it is better that the guilty go free than that the innocent be punished. Gregory IX urged Conrad of Marburg: "ut puniatur sic temeritas perversorum quod innocentiae puritas non laedatur" – i.e., "not to punish the wicked so as to hurt the innocent". There was no personal confrontation of witnesses, neither was there any cross-examination. Witnesses for the defense hardly ever appeared, as they would almost infallibly be suspected of being heretics or favorable to heresy. At any stage of the trial the accused could appeal to Rome. Torture Like the inquisitorial process itself, torture was an ancient Roman legal practice commonly used in secular courts. On May 15, 1252, Pope Innocent IV issued a papal bull entitled Ad extirpanda, which authorized the limited use of torture by inquisitors. Much of the brutality commonly associated with the Inquisition was actually previously common in secular courts, but prohibited under the Inquisition, including torture methods that resulted in bloodshed, miscarriages, mutilation or death. Also, torture could be performed only once, and for a limited duration. In preparation for the Jubilee in 2000, the Vatican opened the archives of the Holy Office (the modern successor to the Inquisition) to a team of 30 scholars from around the world. According to the governor general of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre, recent studies "seem to indicate" that "torture and the death penalty were not applied with the pitiless rigor" often ascribed to the Inquisition. Other methods such as threats and imprisonment seem to have proven more effective. Punishment A council in Tours in 1164, presided over by Pope Alexander III, ordered the confiscation of a heretic's goods. Of 5,400 people interrogated in Toulouse between 1245–1246, 184 received penitential yellow crosses (used to mark repentant Cathars), 23 were imprisoned for life, and none were sent to the stake. The most extreme penalty available in antiheretical proceedings was reserved for relapsed or stubborn heretics. The unrepentant and apostates could be "relaxed" to secular authority, however, opening the convicted to the possibility of various corporal punishments, up to and including being burned at the stake. Execution was neither performed by the Church, nor was it a sentence available to the officials involved in the inquisition, who, as clerics, were forbidden to kill. The accused also faced the possibility that his or her property might be confiscated. In some cases, accusers may have been motivated by a desire to take the property of the accused, though this is a difficult assertion to prove in the majority of areas where the inquisition was active, as the inquisition had several layers of oversight built into its framework in a specific attempt to limit prosecutorial misconduct. The inquisitors generally preferred not to hand over heretics to the secular arm for execution if they could persuade the heretic to repent: Ecclesia non novit sanguinem (The Church knows not Blood). For example, of the 900 guilty verdicts levied against 636 individuals by the Dominican friar and inquisitor Bernard Gui, no more than 45 resulted in execution. Legacy See also Spanish Inquisition Portuguese Inquisition Roman Inquisition Goa Inquisition Nicolau Aymerich Peruvian Inquisition Mexican Inquisition References Bibliography Secondary sources Primary sources Further reading Dizionario storico dell’Inquisizione, diretto da Adriano Prosperi, Pisa 2015, 4 vols. (supersedes nearly all earlier publications) External links Goldberg, Jonah. "Nobody Expects a Defense of the Inquisition", National Review, January 5, 2014 Inquisition 12th-century Christianity 13th-century Christianity Catharism

20377

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microorganism

Microorganism

A microorganism, or microbe, is an organism of microscopic size, which may exist in its single-celled form or as a colony of cells. The possible existence of unseen microbial life was suspected from ancient times, such as in Jain scriptures from sixth century BC India. The scientific study of microorganisms began with their observation under the microscope in the 1670s by Anton van Leeuwenhoek. In the 1850s, Louis Pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage, debunking the theory of spontaneous generation. In the 1880s, Robert Koch discovered that microorganisms caused the diseases tuberculosis, cholera, diphtheria, and anthrax. Because microorganisms include most unicellular organisms from all three domains of life they can be extremely diverse. Two of the three domains Archaea and Bacteria, only contain microorganisms. The third domain Eukaryota includes all multicellular organisms as well as many unicellular protists and protozoans that are microbes. Some protists are related to animals and some to green plants. There are also many multicellular organisms that are microscopic, namely micro-animals, some fungi, and some algae, but these are generally not considered microorganisms. Microorganisms can have very different habitats, and live everywhere from the poles to the equator, deserts, geysers, rocks, and the deep sea. Some are adapted to extremes such as very hot or very cold conditions, others to high pressure, and a few, such as Deinococcus radiodurans, to high radiation environments. Microorganisms also make up the microbiota found in and on all multicellular organisms. There is evidence that 3.45-billion-year-old Australian rocks once contained microorganisms, the earliest direct evidence of life on Earth. Microbes are important in human culture and health in many ways, serving to ferment foods and treat sewage, and to produce fuel, enzymes, and other bioactive compounds. Microbes are essential tools in biology as model organisms and have been put to use in biological warfare and bioterrorism. Microbes are a vital component of fertile soil. In the human body, microorganisms make up the human microbiota, including the essential gut flora. The pathogens responsible for many infectious diseases are microbes and, as such, are the target of hygiene measures. Discovery Ancient precursors The possible existence of microscopic organisms was discussed for many centuries before their discovery in the seventeenth century. By the fifth century BC, the Jains of present-day India postulated the existence of tiny organisms called nigodas. These nigodas are said to be born in clusters; they live everywhere, including the bodies of plants, animals, and people; and their life lasts only for a fraction of a second. According to the Jain leader Mahavira, the humans destroy these nigodas on a massive scale, when they eat, breathe, sit, and move. Many modern Jains assert that Mahavira's teachings presage the existence of microorganisms as discovered by modern science. The earliest known idea to indicate the possibility of diseases spreading by yet unseen organisms was that of the Roman scholar Marcus Terentius Varro in a first-century BC book entitled On Agriculture in which he called the unseen creatures animalcules, and warns against locating a homestead near a swamp: In The Canon of Medicine (1020), Avicenna suggested that tuberculosis and other diseases might be contagious. Early modern Akshamsaddin (Turkish scientist) mentioned the microbe in his work Maddat ul-Hayat (The Material of Life) about two centuries prior to Antonie van Leeuwenhoek's discovery through experimentation: In 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro proposed that epidemic diseases were caused by transferable seedlike entities that could transmit infection by direct or indirect contact, or even without contact over long distances. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek is considered to be one of the fathers of microbiology. He was the first in 1673 to discover and conduct scientific experiments with microorganisms, using simple single-lensed microscopes of his own design. Robert Hooke, a contemporary of Leeuwenhoek, also used microscopy to observe microbial life in the form of the fruiting bodies of moulds. In his 1665 book Micrographia, he made drawings of studies, and he coined the term cell. 19th century Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) exposed boiled broths to the air, in vessels that contained a filter to prevent particles from passing through to the growth medium, and also in vessels without a filter, but with air allowed in via a curved tube so dust particles would settle and not come in contact with the broth. By boiling the broth beforehand, Pasteur ensured that no microorganisms survived within the broths at the beginning of his experiment. Nothing grew in the broths in the course of Pasteur's experiment. This meant that the living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, as spores on dust, rather than spontaneously generated within the broth. Thus, Pasteur refuted the theory of spontaneous generation and supported the germ theory of disease. In 1876, Robert Koch (1843–1910) established that microorganisms can cause disease. He found that the blood of cattle that were infected with anthrax always had large numbers of Bacillus anthracis. Koch found that he could transmit anthrax from one animal to another by taking a small sample of blood from the infected animal and injecting it into a healthy one, and this caused the healthy animal to become sick. He also found that he could grow the bacteria in a nutrient broth, then inject it into a healthy animal, and cause illness. Based on these experiments, he devised criteria for establishing a causal link between a microorganism and a disease and these are now known as Koch's postulates. Although these postulates cannot be applied in all cases, they do retain historical importance to the development of scientific thought and are still being used today. The discovery of microorganisms such as Euglena that did not fit into either the animal or plant kingdoms, since they were photosynthetic like plants, but motile like animals, led to the naming of a third kingdom in the 1860s. In 1860 John Hogg called this the Protoctista, and in 1866 Ernst Haeckel named it the Protista. The work of Pasteur and Koch did not accurately reflect the true diversity of the microbial world because of their exclusive focus on microorganisms having direct medical relevance. It was not until the work of Martinus Beijerinck and Sergei Winogradsky late in the nineteenth century that the true breadth of microbiology was revealed. Beijerinck made two major contributions to microbiology: the discovery of viruses and the development of enrichment culture techniques. While his work on the tobacco mosaic virus established the basic principles of virology, it was his development of enrichment culturing that had the most immediate impact on microbiology by allowing for the cultivation of a wide range of microbes with wildly different physiologies. Winogradsky was the first to develop the concept of chemolithotrophy and to thereby reveal the essential role played by microorganisms in geochemical processes. He was responsible for the first isolation and description of both nitrifying and nitrogen-fixing bacteria. French-Canadian microbiologist Felix d'Herelle co-discovered bacteriophages and was one of the earliest applied microbiologists. Classification and structure Microorganisms can be found almost anywhere on Earth. Bacteria and archaea are almost always microscopic, while a number of eukaryotes are also microscopic, including most protists, some fungi, as well as some micro-animals and plants. Viruses are generally regarded as not living and therefore not considered as microorganisms, although a subfield of microbiology is virology, the study of viruses. Evolution Single-celled microorganisms were the first forms of life to develop on Earth, approximately 3.5 billion years ago. Further evolution was slow, and for about 3 billion years in the Precambrian eon, (much of the history of life on Earth), all organisms were microorganisms. Bacteria, algae and fungi have been identified in amber that is 220 million years old, which shows that the morphology of microorganisms has changed little since at least the Triassic period. The newly discovered biological role played by nickel, however – especially that brought about by volcanic eruptions from the Siberian Traps – may have accelerated the evolution of methanogens towards the end of the Permian–Triassic extinction event. Microorganisms tend to have a relatively fast rate of evolution. Most microorganisms can reproduce rapidly, and bacteria are also able to freely exchange genes through conjugation, transformation and transduction, even between widely divergent species. This horizontal gene transfer, coupled with a high mutation rate and other means of transformation, allows microorganisms to swiftly evolve (via natural selection) to survive in new environments and respond to environmental stresses. This rapid evolution is important in medicine, as it has led to the development of multidrug resistant pathogenic bacteria, superbugs, that are resistant to antibiotics. A possible transitional form of microorganism between a prokaryote and a eukaryote was discovered in 2012 by Japanese scientists. Parakaryon myojinensis is a unique microorganism larger than a typical prokaryote, but with nuclear material enclosed in a membrane as in a eukaryote, and the presence of endosymbionts. This is seen to be the first plausible evolutionary form of microorganism, showing a stage of development from the prokaryote to the eukaryote. Archaea Archaea are prokaryotic unicellular organisms, and form the first domain of life, in Carl Woese's three-domain system. A prokaryote is defined as having no cell nucleus or other membrane bound-organelle. Archaea share this defining feature with the bacteria with which they were once grouped. In 1990 the microbiologist Woese proposed the three-domain system that divided living things into bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes, and thereby split the prokaryote domain. Archaea differ from bacteria in both their genetics and biochemistry. For example, while bacterial cell membranes are made from phosphoglycerides with ester bonds, archaean membranes are made of ether lipids. Archaea were originally described as extremophiles living in extreme environments, such as hot springs, but have since been found in all types of habitats. Only now are scientists beginning to realize how common archaea are in the environment, with Crenarchaeota being the most common form of life in the ocean, dominating ecosystems below 150 m in depth. These organisms are also common in soil and play a vital role in ammonia oxidation. The combined domains of archaea and bacteria make up the most diverse and abundant group of organisms on Earth and inhabit practically all environments where the temperature is below +140 °C. They are found in water, soil, air, as the microbiome of an organism, hot springs and even deep beneath the Earth's crust in rocks. The number of prokaryotes is estimated to be around five nonillion, or 5 × 1030, accounting for at least half the biomass on Earth. The biodiversity of the prokaryotes is unknown, but may be very large. A May 2016 estimate, based on laws of scaling from known numbers of species against the size of organism, gives an estimate of perhaps 1 trillion species on the planet, of which most would be microorganisms. Currently, only one-thousandth of one percent of that total have been described. Archael cells of some species aggregate and transfer DNA from one cell to another through direct contact, particularly under stressful environmental conditions that cause DNA damage. Bacteria Bacteria like archaea are prokaryotic – unicellular, and having no cell nucleus or other membrane-bound organelle. Bacteria are microscopic, with a few extremely rare exceptions, such as Thiomargarita namibiensis. Bacteria function and reproduce as individual cells, but they can often aggregate in multicellular colonies. Some species such as myxobacteria can aggregate into complex swarming structures, operating as multicellular groups as part of their life cycle, or form clusters in bacterial colonies such as E.coli. Their genome is usually a circular bacterial chromosome – a single loop of DNA, although they can also harbor small pieces of DNA called plasmids. These plasmids can be transferred between cells through bacterial conjugation. Bacteria have an enclosing cell wall, which provides strength and rigidity to their cells. They reproduce by binary fission or sometimes by budding, but do not undergo meiotic sexual reproduction. However, many bacterial species can transfer DNA between individual cells by a horizontal gene transfer process referred to as natural transformation. Some species form extraordinarily resilient spores, but for bacteria this is a mechanism for survival, not reproduction. Under optimal conditions bacteria can grow extremely rapidly and their numbers can double as quickly as every 20 minutes. Eukaryotes Most living things that are visible to the naked eye in their adult form are eukaryotes, including humans. However, many eukaryotes are also microorganisms. Unlike bacteria and archaea, eukaryotes contain organelles such as the cell nucleus, the Golgi apparatus and mitochondria in their cells. The nucleus is an organelle that houses the DNA that makes up a cell's genome. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) itself is arranged in complex chromosomes. Mitochondria are organelles vital in metabolism as they are the site of the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. They evolved from symbiotic bacteria and retain a remnant genome. Like bacteria, plant cells have cell walls, and contain organelles such as chloroplasts in addition to the organelles in other eukaryotes. Chloroplasts produce energy from light by photosynthesis, and were also originally symbiotic bacteria. Unicellular eukaryotes consist of a single cell throughout their life cycle. This qualification is significant since most multicellular eukaryotes consist of a single cell called a zygote only at the beginning of their life cycles. Microbial eukaryotes can be either haploid or diploid, and some organisms have multiple cell nuclei. Unicellular eukaryotes usually reproduce asexually by mitosis under favorable conditions. However, under stressful conditions such as nutrient limitations and other conditions associated with DNA damage, they tend to reproduce sexually by meiosis and syngamy. Protists Of eukaryotic groups, the protists are most commonly unicellular and microscopic. This is a highly diverse group of organisms that are not easy to classify. Several algae species are multicellular protists, and slime molds have unique life cycles that involve switching between unicellular, colonial, and multicellular forms. The number of species of protists is unknown since only a small proportion has been identified. Protist diversity is high in oceans, deep sea-vents, river sediment and an acidic river, suggesting that many eukaryotic microbial communities may yet be discovered. Fungi The fungi have several unicellular species, such as baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe). Some fungi, such as the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans, can undergo phenotypic switching and grow as single cells in some environments, and filamentous hyphae in others. Plants The green algae are a large group of photosynthetic eukaryotes that include many microscopic organisms. Although some green algae are classified as protists, others such as charophyta are classified with embryophyte plants, which are the most familiar group of land plants. Algae can grow as single cells, or in long chains of cells. The green algae include unicellular and colonial flagellates, usually but not always with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid, and filamentous forms. In the Charales, which are the algae most closely related to higher plants, cells differentiate into several distinct tissues within the organism. There are about 6000 species of green algae. Ecology Microorganisms are found in almost every habitat present in nature, including hostile environments such as the North and South poles, deserts, geysers, and rocks. They also include all the marine microorganisms of the oceans and deep sea. Some types of microorganisms have adapted to extreme environments and sustained colonies; these organisms are known as extremophiles. Extremophiles have been isolated from rocks as much as 7 kilometres below the Earth's surface, and it has been suggested that the amount of organisms living below the Earth's surface is comparable with the amount of life on or above the surface. Extremophiles have been known to survive for a prolonged time in a vacuum, and can be highly resistant to radiation, which may even allow them to survive in space. Many types of microorganisms have intimate symbiotic relationships with other larger organisms; some of which are mutually beneficial (mutualism), while others can be damaging to the host organism (parasitism). If microorganisms can cause disease in a host they are known as pathogens and then they are sometimes referred to as microbes. Microorganisms play critical roles in Earth's biogeochemical cycles as they are responsible for decomposition and nitrogen fixation. Bacteria use regulatory networks that allow them to adapt to almost every environmental niche on earth. A network of interactions among diverse types of molecules including DNA, RNA, proteins and metabolites, is utilised by the bacteria to achieve regulation of gene expression. In bacteria, the principal function of regulatory networks is to control the response to environmental changes, for example nutritional status and environmental stress. A complex organization of networks permits the microorganism to coordinate and integrate multiple environmental signals. Extremophiles Extremophiles are microorganisms that have adapted so that they can survive and even thrive in extreme environments that are normally fatal to most life-forms. Thermophiles and hyperthermophiles thrive in high temperatures. Psychrophiles thrive in extremely low temperatures. – Temperatures as high as , as low as Halophiles such as Halobacterium salinarum (an archaean) thrive in high salt conditions, up to saturation. Alkaliphiles thrive in an alkaline pH of about 8.5–11. Acidophiles can thrive in a pH of 2.0 or less. Piezophiles thrive at very high pressures: up to 1,000–2,000 atm, down to 0 atm as in a vacuum of space. A few extremophiles such as Deinococcus radiodurans are radioresistant, resisting radiation exposure of up to 5k Gy. Extremophiles are significant in different ways. They extend terrestrial life into much of the Earth's hydrosphere, crust and atmosphere, their specific evolutionary adaptation mechanisms to their extreme environment can be exploited in biotechnology, and their very existence under such extreme conditions increases the potential for extraterrestrial life. Plants and Soil The nitrogen cycle in soils depends on the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. This is achieved by a number of diazotrophs. One way this can occur is in the root nodules of legumes that contain symbiotic bacteria of the genera Rhizobium, Mesorhizobium, Sinorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, and Azorhizobium. The roots of plants create a narrow region known as the rhizosphere that supports many microorganisms known as the root microbiome. These microorganisms in the root microbiome are able to interact with each other and surrounding plants through signals and cues. For example, mycorrhizal fungi are able to communicate with the root systems of many plants through chemical signals between both the plant and fungi. This results in a mutualistic symbiosis between the two. However, these signals can be eavesdropped by other microorganisms, such as the soil bacteria, Myxococcus xanthus, which preys on other bacteria. Eavesdropping, or the interception of signals from unintended receivers, such as plants and microorganisms, can lead to large-scale, evolutionary consequences. For example, signaler-receiver pairs, like plant-microorganism pairs, may lose the ability to communicate with neighboring populations because of variability in eavesdroppers. In adapting to avoid local eavesdroppers, signal divergence could occur and thus, lead to the isolation of plants and microorganisms from the inability to communicate with other populations. Symbiosis A lichen is a symbiosis of a macroscopic fungus with photosynthetic microbial algae or cyanobacteria. Applications Microorganisms are useful in producing foods, treating waste water, creating biofuels and a wide range of chemicals and enzymes. They are invaluable in research as model organisms. They have been weaponised and sometimes used in warfare and bioterrorism. They are vital to agriculture through their roles in maintaining soil fertility and in decomposing organic matter. Food production Microorganisms are used in a fermentation process to make yoghurt, cheese, curd, kefir, ayran, xynogala, and other types of food. Fermentation cultures provide flavour and aroma, and inhibit undesirable organisms. They are used to leaven bread, and to convert sugars to alcohol in wine and beer. Microorganisms are used in brewing, wine making, baking, pickling and other food-making processes. Some industrial uses of Microorganisms: Water treatment These depend for their ability to clean up water contaminated with organic material on microorganisms that can respire dissolved substances. Respiration may be aerobic, with a well-oxygenated filter bed such as a slow sand filter. Anaerobic digestion by methanogens generate useful methane gas as a by-product. Energy Microorganisms are used in fermentation to produce ethanol, and in biogas reactors to produce methane. Scientists are researching the use of algae to produce liquid fuels, and bacteria to convert various forms of agricultural and urban waste into usable fuels. Chemicals, enzymes Microorganisms are used to produce many commercial and industrial chemicals, enzymes and other bioactive molecules. Organic acids produced on a large industrial scale by microbial fermentation include acetic acid produced by acetic acid bacteria such as Acetobacter aceti, butyric acid made by the bacterium Clostridium butyricum, lactic acid made by Lactobacillus and other lactic acid bacteria, and citric acid produced by the mould fungus Aspergillus niger. Microorganisms are used to prepare bioactive molecules such as Streptokinase from the bacterium Streptococcus, Cyclosporin A from the ascomycete fungus Tolypocladium inflatum, and statins produced by the yeast Monascus purpureus. Science Microorganisms are essential tools in biotechnology, biochemistry, genetics, and molecular biology. The yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe are important model organisms in science, since they are simple eukaryotes that can be grown rapidly in large numbers and are easily manipulated. They are particularly valuable in genetics, genomics and proteomics. Microorganisms can be harnessed for uses such as creating steroids and treating skin diseases. Scientists are also considering using microorganisms for living fuel cells, and as a solution for pollution. Warfare In the Middle Ages, as an early example of biological warfare, diseased corpses were thrown into castles during sieges using catapults or other siege engines. Individuals near the corpses were exposed to the pathogen and were likely to spread that pathogen to others. In modern times, bioterrorism has included the 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack and the 1993 release of anthrax by Aum Shinrikyo in Tokyo. Soil Microbes can make nutrients and minerals in the soil available to plants, produce hormones that spur growth, stimulate the plant immune system and trigger or dampen stress responses. In general a more diverse set of soil microbes results in fewer plant diseases and higher yield. Human health Human gut flora Microorganisms can form an endosymbiotic relationship with other, larger organisms. For example, microbial symbiosis plays a crucial role in the immune system. The microorganisms that make up the gut flora in the gastrointestinal tract contribute to gut immunity, synthesize vitamins such as folic acid and biotin, and ferment complex indigestible carbohydrates. Some microorganisms that are seen to be beneficial to health are termed probiotics and are available as dietary supplements, or food additives. Disease Microorganisms are the causative agents (pathogens) in many infectious diseases. The organisms involved include pathogenic bacteria, causing diseases such as plague, tuberculosis and anthrax; protozoan parasites, causing diseases such as malaria, sleeping sickness, dysentery and toxoplasmosis; and also fungi causing diseases such as ringworm, candidiasis or histoplasmosis. However, other diseases such as influenza, yellow fever or AIDS are caused by pathogenic viruses, which are not usually classified as living organisms and are not, therefore, microorganisms by the strict definition. No clear examples of archaean pathogens are known, although a relationship has been proposed between the presence of some archaean methanogens and human periodontal disease. Numerous microbial pathogens are capable of sexual processes that appear to facilitate their survival in their infected host. Hygiene Hygiene is a set of practices to avoid infection or food spoilage by eliminating microorganisms from the surroundings. As microorganisms, in particular bacteria, are found virtually everywhere, harmful microorganisms may be reduced to acceptable levels rather than actually eliminated. In food preparation, microorganisms are reduced by preservation methods such as cooking, cleanliness of utensils, short storage periods, or by low temperatures. If complete sterility is needed, as with surgical equipment, an autoclave is used to kill microorganisms with heat and pressure. In fiction Osmosis Jones, a 2001 film, and its show Ozzy & Drix, set in a stylized version of the human body, featured anthropomorphic microorganisms. See also Catalogue of Life Impedance microbiology Microbial biogeography Microbial intelligence Microbiological culture Microbivory, an eating behavior of some animals feeding on living microbes Nanobacterium Nylon-eating bacteria Petri dish Staining Notes References External links Microbes.info is a microbiology information portal containing a vast collection of resources including articles, news, frequently asked questions, and links pertaining to the field of microbiology. Our Microbial Planet A free poster from the National Academy of Sciences about the positive roles of micro-organisms. "Uncharted Microbial World: Microbes and Their Activities in the Environment" Report from the American Academy of Microbiology Understanding Our Microbial Planet: The New Science of Metagenomics A 20-page educational booklet providing a basic overview of metagenomics and our microbial planet. Tree of Life Eukaryotes Microbe News from Genome News Network Medical Microbiology On-line textbook Through the microscope: A look at all things small On-line microbiology textbook by Timothy Paustian and Gary Roberts, University of Wisconsin–Madison Methane-spewing microbe blamed in worst mass extinction. CBCNews

20378

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulus

Modulus

Modulus is the diminutive from the Latin word modus meaning measure or manner. It, or its plural moduli, may refer to the following: Physics, engineering and computing Moduli (physics), scalar fields for which the potential energy function has continuous families of global minima The measurement of standard pitch in the teeth of a rotating gear Bulk modulus, a measure of compression resistance Elastic modulus, a measure of stiffness Shear modulus, a measure of elastic stiffness Young's modulus, a specific elastic modulus Modulo operation (a % b, mod(a, b), etc.), in both math and programming languages; results in remainder of a division Casting modulus used in Chvorinov's rule. Mathematics Modulus (modular arithmetic), base of modular arithmetic Modulus, the absolute value of a real or complex number ( ) Moduli space, in mathematics a geometric space whose points represent algebro-geometric objects Conformal modulus, a measure of the size of a curve family Modulus of continuity, a function gauging the uniform continuity of a function Similarly, the modulus of a Dirichlet character Modulus (algebraic number theory), a formal product of places of a number field The modular function in the theory of Haar measure, often called simply the modulus Other uses Modulus (gastropod) a genus of small sea snails Modulus Guitars, musical instrument manufacturer Modulus robot, a household robot See also Module (disambiguation) Modulo (disambiguation)

20379

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micronation

Micronation

A micronation is an entity whose members claim that they belong to an independent nation or sovereign state, but which lacks legal recognition by world governments or major international organizations. Most are geographically very small, but range in size from a single square foot to half a million square miles (Westarctica). They are usually the outgrowth of a single individual. A micronation expresses a formal and persistent if unrecognized claim of sovereignty over some physical territory. Micronations are distinct from true secessionist movements; micronations' activities are almost always trivial enough to be ignored rather than challenged by the established nations whose territory they claim. Several micronations have issued coins, flags, postage stamps, passports, medals and other state-related items, often as a source of revenue. The term "micronation" to describe those entities dates at least to the 1970s. The term micropatrology is sometimes used to describe the study of both micronations and microstates by micronationalists, some of whom refer to sovereign nation-states as "macronations" Micronations contrast with microstates, which are small but recognized sovereign states such as Andorra, Bahrain, Liechtenstein, Monaco, San Marino, Singapore, and Vatican City. They are also distinct from imaginary countries and from other kinds of social groups (such as eco-villages, campuses, tribes, clans, sects, and residential community associations). Definition Micronations generally have a number of common features, although these may vary widely. They may have a structure similar to established sovereign states, including territorial claims, government institutions, official symbols and citizens, albeit on a much smaller scale. Micronations are often quite small, in both their claimed territory and claimed populations—although there are some exceptions to this rule, with different micronations having different methods of citizenship. Micronations may also issue formal instruments such as postage stamps, coins, banknotes and passports, and bestow honours and titles of nobility. The Montevideo Convention was one attempt to create a legal definition distinguishing between states and non-states. Some micronations meet this definition, while some do not, and others reject the convention. Some micronations like Sealand reject the term micronation and consider themselves as sovereign states; other micronations like Flandrensis or Molossia have no intention to be recognized as real states. List of micronations There are many different types of micronations that have been claimed over the years. A list of the notable micronations is located at List of micronations. Notable micronations Operation Atlantis, an early 1970s New York–based libertarian group, built a concrete-hulled ship called Freedom, which they sailed to the Caribbean, intending to permanently anchor it as their "territory". The ship sank in a hurricane and the project was then abandoned. Republic of Minerva, another libertarian project that succeeded in building a small man-made island on the Minerva Reefs south of Fiji in 1972 before being invaded by troops from Tonga, who annexed it before destroying the island. Principality of Freedonia, a libertarian project that supported the Awdal Road Company's attempts to lease land from the Sultan of Awdal in Somaliland in 2001. If the Awdal Road Company is able to build a road, then the Sultan of Awdal will give land to allow the ARC to create an economic free zone, and some of that territory will then be handed over to the Principality of Freedonia. After the men from Awdal Roads Company were deported following false allegations about the lease, resulting public dissatisfaction led to rioting, and the reported death of a Somali. Republic of Rose Island, an artificial island constructed in 1968 by Italian architect Giorgio Rosa in the Adriatic Sea. The structure was built as a tourist attraction, but soon after it was finished, Rosa declared sovereignty. The Italian navy dynamited the structure the following year. Global Country of World Peace, "a country without borders for peace-loving people everywhere", was declared by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in 2000. It made several attempts to buy or lease land for a sovereign territory. It is now governed by Maharaja Tony Nader. Its currency is the Raam and its capitals include Maharishi Vedic City, Iowa and Vlodrop. Asgardia, founded on October 12, 2016, by Igor Ashurbeyli, is a proposed nation based in outer space. Plans are for the country to be pacifist, have no official language, to hold a competition to design its flag, insignia and national anthem, and to become part of the United Nations. over 169,327 people have signed up and become officially recognised members of the country. The Free Republic of Liberland, founded in 2015, claims a small parcel of land between Croatia and Serbia called Siga. It shares a land border with Croatia and has its eastern border on the Danube. Because of the Croatia-Serbia border dispute some land is claimed by both countries and other parcels are claimed by neither. It has established formal relations with Somaliland. Micronations based on historical claims A small number of micronations are founded based on historical anomalies or on legal anomalies (deriving from disputed interpretations of law). These types of micronations are usually located on small (usually disputed) territorial enclaves, generate limited economic activity founded on tourism and philatelic and numismatic sales, and are tolerated or ignored by the nations from which they claim to have seceded. This category includes: Principality of Seborga, a town in the region of Liguria, Italy (near the southern end of the border with France and encompassing the town of Seborga), which traces its history back to the Middle Ages. The Principality of Hutt River (formerly "Hutt River Province"), a farm in Western Australia, claimed to have seceded from Australia to become an independent principality, with a worldwide population numbered in the tens of thousands. Hutt River kept going until 2020, when tourism dropped to zero due to COVID-19, and farming income wasn't sufficient to keep it going. The Principality of Sealand, a World War II-era anti-aircraft platform built in the North Sea beyond Britain's then territorial limit, seized by a pirate radio group in 1967 as a base for their operations, and now used as the site of a secure web-hosting facility. Sealand has continued to promote its independence by issuing stamps and money, and appointing an official national athlete. It has been described as the "world's most notorious micronation" as well as the "world's smallest and weirdest country". The Crown Dependency of Forvik is an island in Shetland, currently recognized as part of the UK. Stuart Hill claims that independence comes from an arrangement struck in 1468 between King Christian I of Denmark/Norway and Scotland's James III, whereby Christian pawned the Shetland Islands to James in order to raise money for his daughter's dowry. Hill claims that the dowry was never paid and therefore Forvik is not part of the UK and should be a crown dependency like the Isle of Man. Hill encouraged the rest of Shetland to declare independence. The Imperial Throne, formerly the Russian Empire, is a micronation created in 2011 by Russian businessman and politician Prince Anton Bakov, chairman of the Monarchist Party of the Russian Federation. In 2014, the Imperial Throne proclaimed that Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen, one of several claimants to the royal Romanov line, was now Nicholas III, Emperor of All Russia. The Imperial Throne claims to be in contact with the governments of Montenegro and North Macedonia about a grant of territory and state recognition. History Early history and evolution Martin Coles Harman purchased of the British island of Lundy in 1925, declared himself King and issued private coinage and postage stamps for local use. Although the island was ruled as a virtual fiefdom, its owner never claimed to be independent of the United Kingdom, so Lundy can at best be described as a precursor to later territorial micronations. Another example is the Kingdom of Elleore declared August 27, 1944 when a group of schoolteachers purchased the Danish island and still exists today. A third example is the Principality of Outer Baldonia, a rocky island off the coast of Nova Scotia, founded by Russell Arundel, chairman of the Pepsi Cola Company (later: PepsiCo), in 1945 and comprising a population of 69 fishermen. History during 1960 to 1980 The 1960s and 1970s witnessed the foundation of a number of territorial micronations. The first of these, Sealand, was established in 1967 on an abandoned World War II gun platform in the North Sea just off the East Anglian coast of England, and still survives. Others were founded on libertarian principles and involved schemes to construct artificial islands, but only three are known to have had even limited success in realizing that goal. The Republic of Rose Island was a platform built in 1968 in Italian national waters in the Adriatic Sea, off the Italian town of Rimini. It is known to have issued stamps, and to have declared Esperanto to be its official language. Shortly after completion, however, it was seized and destroyed by the Italian Navy for failing to pay state taxes. In the late 1960s, Leicester Hemingway, brother of author Ernest, was involved in another such project—a small timber platform in international waters off the west coast of Jamaica. This territory, consisting of an by barge, he called "New Atlantis". Hemingway was an honorary citizen and President; however, the structure was damaged by storms and finally pillaged by Mexican fishermen. In 1973, Hemingway was reported to have moved on from New Atlantis to promoting a platform near the Bahamas. The new country was called "Tierra del Mar" (Land of the Sea). (Ernest Hemingway's adopted hometown of Key West was later itself part of another micronation; see Conch Republic.) The Republic of Minerva was set up in 1972 as a libertarian new-country project by Nevada businessman Michael Oliver. Oliver's group conducted dredging operations at the Minerva Reefs, a shoal located in the Pacific Ocean south of Fiji. They succeeded in creating a small artificial island, but their efforts at securing international recognition met with little success, and near-neighbour Tonga sent a military force to the area and annexed it. On April 1, 1977, bibliophile Richard Booth declared the Welsh town of Hay-on-Wye an independent kingdom with himself as its monarch. The publicity may have assisted the town's tourism industry based on literary interests, and "King Richard" (whose sceptre was a recycled toilet plunger) awarded Hay-on-Wye peerages and honours to anyone prepared to pay for them. Japanese micronations in the 1980s In 1981, drawing on a news report about Leicester Hemingway's "New Atlantis", novelist Hisashi Inoue wrote a 700-page work of magic realism, Kirikirijin, about a village that secedes from Japan and proclaims its bumpkinish, marginalized dialect its national language, and its subsequent war of independence. This single-handedly inspired a large number of Japanese villages, mostly in the northern regions, to "declare independence", generally as a move to raise awareness of their unique culture and crafts for urban Japanese who saw village life as backwards and uncultured. These micronations even held "international summits" from 1983 to 1985, and some of them formed confederations. Throughout the 1980s there was a "micronation boom" in Japan that brought many urban tourists to these wayward villages. But the harsh economic impact of the Japanese asset price bubble in 1991 ended the boom. Many of the villages were forced to merge with larger cities, and the micronations and confederations were generally dissolved. Australian and New Zealand developments Micronational developments that occurred in New Zealand and Australia in the final three decades of the 20th century included: The Principality of Hutt River was founded in 1970, when Leonard Casley declared his property independent after a dispute over wheat quotas. In 1976 the Province of Bumbunga was created on a rural property near Snowtown, South Australia, by an eccentric British monarchist. The Sovereign State of Aeterna Lucina was created in a hamlet on the New South Wales north coast in 1978. In Victoria, a long-running dispute over flood damage to farm properties led to the creation of the Independent State of Rainbow Creek in 1979. John Charlton Rudge founded the Grand Duchy of Avram in western Tasmania in the 1980s; "His Grace the Duke of Avram" was later elected to the Tasmanian Parliament. The Independent State of Aramoana was established in New Zealand in 1980. The Empire of Atlantium was established in Sydney, in 1981 as a non-territorial global government. The Republic of Whangamomona was established in 1989. A mortgage foreclosure dispute led George and Stephanie Muirhead of Rockhampton, Queensland, to briefly and abortively secede as the Principality of Marlborough in 1993. The micronations established in Australia have no legal standing. Effects of the Internet Micronationalism shed much of its traditionally eccentric anti-establishment mantle and took on a distinct hobbyist perspective in the mid-1990s when the emerging popularity of the Internet made it possible to create and promote statelike entities in an entirely electronic medium with relative ease. An early example is the Kingdom of Talossa, a micronation created in 1979 by then-14-year-old Robert Ben Madison, which went online in November 1995, and was reported in The New York Times and other print media in 2000. As a result, the number of exclusively online, fantasy or simulation-based micronations expanded dramatically. The micronation Ladonia coexists as both a physical territory and as a large and active online community that resembles a third place, distinguishing itself from other micronations, which are either active online communities or claim small physical territories. A number of traditional territorial micronations, including the Hutt River Province, Seborga, and Sealand, maintain websites that serve largely to promote their claims and sell merchandise. Seriousness Micronations may choose to be or not to be serious in getting recognised as an independent state. For example, Sealand, Liberland and Hutt River consider themselves sovereign states. Other micronations, such as Molossia, Flandrensis or Aigues-Mortes have no intention to be recognized, but they have humorous, artistic, ecological or economic goals. Some micronations are non-profit organisations or have a business model based on tourism, others are just hobby-projects. Academic, literary, and media attention There has been a small but growing amount of attention paid to the micronation phenomenon in recent years. Most interest in academic circles has been concerned with studying the apparently anomalous legal situations affecting such entities as Sealand and the Hutt River Province, in exploring how some micronations represent grassroots political ideas, and in the creation of role-playing entities for instructional purposes. The 1949 British comedy film Passport to Pimlico shows how the inhabitants of the London neighbourhood of Pimlico proclaim themselves independent to avoid the restrictions of post-war Britain. The film was an inspiration for Frestonia. In 2000, Professor Fabrice O'Driscoll, of the Aix-Marseille University, published a book about micronations: Ils ne siègent pas à l'ONU (They are not in the United Nations), with more than 300 pages dedicated to the subject. In May 2000, an article in The New York Times titled "Utopian Rulers, and Spoofs, Stake Out Territory Online" brought the phenomenon to a wider audience. Similar articles were published by newspapers such as the Italian La Repubblica, O Estado de S. Paulo in Brazil, and Portugal's Visão at around the same time. E. Peterbus Unum, the 18th episode of the animated sitcom Family Guy involves protagonist Peter Griffin establishing his home and yard as the micronation of Petoria. Several recent publications have dealt with the subject of particular historical micronations, including Republic of Indian Stream (University Press), by Dartmouth College geographer Daniel Doan, The Land that Never Was, about Gregor MacGregor and the Principality of Poyais, by David Sinclair (Review, 2003, ) and An Australian Monarch about the Principality of Hutt River by William Pitt (CopyRight Publishing, ). In August 2003, a summit of micronations took place in Helsinki at Finlandia Hall, the site of the Conference for Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE). The summit was attended by delegations of the Principality of Sealand, the Kingdoms of Elgaland-Vargaland, NSK-State in Time, Ladonia, the Transnational Republic, the State of Sabotage and by scholars from various academic institutions. From 7 November through 17 December 2004, the Reg Vardy Gallery at the University of Sunderland (UK) hosted an exhibition on the subject of micronational group identity and symbolism. The exhibition focused on numismatic, philatelic and vexillological artifacts, as well as other symbols and instruments created and used by a number of micronations from the 1950s through to the present day. A summit of micronations conducted as part of this exhibition was attended by representatives of Sealand, Elgaland-Vargaland, New Utopia, Atlantium, Frestonia and Fusa. The exhibition was reprised at the Andrew Kreps Gallery in New York City from 24 June – 29 July of the following year and organized by R. Blackson and Peter Coffin. Peter Coffin organized a more extensive exhibition about micronations at Paris' Palais de Tokyo in early 2007 called ÉTATS (faites-le vous-même)/States (Do it yourself). The Sunderland summit was later featured in the 5-part BBC light entertainment television series How to Start Your Own Country presented by Danny Wallace. The series told the story of Wallace's experience of founding a micronation, Lovely, located in his London flat. It screened in the UK in 2005. Similar programs have also aired on television networks in other parts of Europe. In France, several Canal+ programs have centered on the satirical Principality of Groland, while in Belgium a series by Rob Vanoudenhoven and broadcast on the Flemish commercial network VTM in April 2006 was reminiscent of Wallace's series, and centred on the producer's creation of Robland. Among other things Vanoudenhoven minted his own coins denominated in "Robbies". In 2006 the travel guide company Lonely Planet published a light-hearted guide micronations named Micronations: The Lonely Planet Guide to Home-Made Nations. The Democratic Empire of Sunda, which claims to be the Government of the Kingdom of Sunda (an ancient kingdom, in present-day Indonesia) in exile in Switzerland, made media headlines when two so-called princesses, Lamia Roro Wiranatadikusumah Siliwangi Al Misri, 21, and Fathia Reza Wiranatadikusumah Siliwangi Al Misiri, 23, were detained by Malaysian authorities at the border with Brunei, on 13 July 2007, and are charged for entering the country without a valid passport. The hearing continues. In 2010, a documentary film by Jody Shapiro entitled How to Start Your Own Country was screened as part of the Toronto International Film Festival. The documentary explored various micronations around the world, and included an analysis of the concept of statehood and citizenship. Erwin Strauss, author of the eponymous book, was interviewed as part of the film. In 2010, a conference of micronations was held on Dangar Island in Sydney, Australia. Micronations with representatives in attendance included the Empire of Atlantium, the Principality of Hutt River, the Principality of Wy and the Gay and Lesbian Kingdom of the Coral Sea Islands. The manga and anime series Hetalia: Axis Powers, in which the main characters are the stereotyped personifications of the nations of the world, features several micronations as characters. micronations represented include Sealand, Seborga, Wy, Kugelmugel, Molossia, Hutt River, Ladonia, and the former micronation of Nikko Nikko. In 2012, a conference of micronations (PoliNation 2012) was held in London. Micronations with representatives in attendance included the Empire of Atlantium, the Republic of Molossia, the Grand Duchy of Flandrensis, Ladonia, Neue Slowenische Kunst and Austenasia. A second conference was organized in 2015 in the Free Republic of Alcatraz in Perugia and conventions and conferences were also organized in Aigues-Mortes (2016), Atlanta (2017) and Vincennes (2018). MicroCon, a convention of micronationalists created by the government of Molossia, has been held biannually in odd years since 2015, although its 2021 convention was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. MicroCon 2015 was held in Anaheim, California, 2017 was in Tucker, Georgia, and MicroCon 2019, which was the largest convention with 113 attendees, was held in Hamilton, Ontario. In 2015 Prof. Sandra Petermann of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz attended Polination Conference and wrote articles about micronations. Since 2016, her students have been required to interview micronationalists and write papers on various topics related to micronationalism. The Australian television comedy series Micro Nation is set on the fictional island micronation of Pullamawang, which remained independent from Australia because they "forgot to mail in their paperwork" at the Federation of Australia in 1901. In 2020 Netflix released the film Rose Island based on the story of engineer Giorgio Rosa and the Republic of Rose Island. Currency Banknotes Coins Notable micronationalists Some noteworthy individuals involved with micronationalism include: Danny Wallace, presenter of the television show How to Start Your Own Country in which he founded Lovely. Erwin Strauss, author of the 1985 book How to Start Your Own Country Igor Ashurbeyli, founder of Asgardia Kevin Baugh, founder of Molossia Lars Vilks, founder of Ladonia Leonard Casley, founder of Hutt River Niels Vermeersch, founder of Flandrensis Paddy Roy Bates, founder and former Prince of Sealand Richard Booth, self-proclaimed King of Hay-on-Wye Stuart Hill, founder of Sovereign State of Forvik Travis McHenry, founder of Westarctica Vít Jedlička, founder of Liberland See also Flags of micronations League of Small and Subject Nationalities List of micronations List of unrecognized countries Aspirant state References Further reading Adam Clanton, "The Men Who Would Be King: Forgotten Challenges to U.S. Sovereignty", UCLA Pacific Basin Law Journal, Vol. 26, No. 1, Fall 2008, pp. 1–50. Kochta & Kalleinen, editors. Amorph! 03 Summit of Micronations–Documents/Asiakirjoja, 2003, Menefee, Samuel Pyeatt. Republics of the Reefs': Nation-Building on the Continental Shelf and in the World's Oceans", California Western International Law Journal, vol. 25, no. 1, Fall 1994, pp. 81–111 External links Micropatriology on MicroWiki, the micronational encyclopaedia Political neologisms Hobbies

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining

Mining

Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the Earth, usually from an ore body, lode, vein, seam, reef, or placer deposit. Exploitation of these deposits for raw material is based on the economic viability of investing in the equipment, labor, and energy required to extract, refine and transport the materials found at the mine to manufacturers who can use the material. Ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale, gemstones, limestone, chalk, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, gravel, and clay. Mining is required to obtain most materials that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, or feasibly created artificially in a laboratory or factory. Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewable resource such as petroleum, natural gas, or even water. Modern mining processes involve prospecting for ore bodies, analysis of the profit potential of a proposed mine, extraction of the desired materials, and final reclamation of the land after the mine is closed. Mining operations usually create a negative environmental impact, both during the mining activity and after the mine has closed. Hence, most of the world's nations have passed regulations to decrease the impact; however, the outsized role of mining in generating business for often rural, remote or economically depressed communities means that governments sometimes fail to fully enforce regulation. Work safety has long been a concern as well, and where enforced modern practices have significantly improved safety in mines. Moreover, unregulated or poorly regulated mining, especially in developing economies, frequently contributes to local human rights violations and resource conflicts. History Prehistory Since the beginning of civilization, people have used stone, ceramics and, later, metals found close to the Earth's surface. These were used to make early tools and weapons; for example, high quality flint found in northern France, southern England and Poland was used to create flint tools. Flint mines have been found in chalk areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts and galleries. The mines at Grimes Graves and Krzemionki are especially famous, and like most other flint mines, are Neolithic in origin (c. 4000–3000 BC). Other hard rocks mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the Langdale axe industry based in the English Lake District. The oldest-known mine on archaeological record is the Ngwenya Mine in Eswatini (Swaziland), which radiocarbon dating shows to be about 43,000 years old. At this site Paleolithic humans mined hematite to make the red pigment ochre. Mines of a similar age in Hungary are believed to be sites where Neanderthals may have mined flint for weapons and tools. Ancient Egypt Ancient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi. At first, Egyptians used the bright green malachite stones for ornamentations and pottery. Later, between 2613 and 2494 BC, large building projects required expeditions abroad to the area of Wadi Maghareh in order to secure minerals and other resources not available in Egypt itself. Quarries for turquoise and copper were also found at Wadi Hammamat, Tura, Aswan and various other Nubian sites on the Sinai Peninsula and at Timna. Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties. The gold mines of Nubia were among the largest and most extensive of any in Ancient Egypt. These mines are described by the Greek author Diodorus Siculus, who mentions fire-setting as one method used to break down the hard rock holding the gold. One of the complexes is shown in one of the earliest known maps. The miners crushed the ore and ground it to a fine powder before washing the powder for the gold dust. Ancient Greece and Rome Mining in Europe has a very long history. Examples include the silver mines of Laurium, which helped support the Greek city state of Athens. Although they had over 20,000 slaves working them, their technology was essentially identical to their Bronze Age predecessors. At other mines, such as on the island of Thassos, marble was quarried by the Parians after they arrived in the 7th century BC. The marble was shipped away and was later found by archaeologists to have been used in buildings including the tomb of Amphipolis. Philip II of Macedon, the father of Alexander the Great, captured the gold mines of Mount Pangeo in 357 BC to fund his military campaigns. He also captured gold mines in Thrace for minting coinage, eventually producing 26 tons per year. However, it was the Romans who developed large-scale mining methods, especially the use of large volumes of water brought to the minehead by numerous aqueducts. The water was used for a variety of purposes, including removing overburden and rock debris, called hydraulic mining, as well as washing comminuted, or crushed, ores and driving simple machinery. The Romans used hydraulic mining methods on a large scale to prospect for the veins of ore, especially using a now-obsolete form of mining known as hushing. They built numerous aqueducts to supply water to the minehead, where the water was stored in large reservoirs and tanks. When a full tank was opened, the flood of water sluiced away the overburden to expose the bedrock underneath and any gold-bearing veins. The rock was then worked by fire-setting to heat the rock, which would be quenched with a stream of water. The resulting thermal shock cracked the rock, enabling it to be removed by further streams of water from the overhead tanks. The Roman miners used similar methods to work cassiterite deposits in Cornwall and lead ore in the Pennines. Sluicing methods were developed by the Romans in Spain in 25 AD to exploit large alluvial gold deposits, the largest site being at Las Medulas, where seven long aqueducts tapped local rivers and sluiced the deposits. The Romans also exploited the silver present in the argentiferous galena in the mines of Cartagena (Cartago Nova), Linares (Castulo), Plasenzuela and Azuaga, among many others. Spain was one of the most important mining regions, but all regions of the Roman Empire were exploited. In Great Britain the natives had mined minerals for millennia, but after the Roman conquest, the scale of the operations increased dramatically, as the Romans needed Britannia's resources, especially gold, silver, tin, and lead. Roman techniques were not limited to surface mining. They followed the ore veins underground once opencast mining was no longer feasible. At Dolaucothi they stoped out the veins and drove adits through bare rock to drain the stopes. The same adits were also used to ventilate the workings, especially important when fire-setting was used. At other parts of the site, they penetrated the water table and dewatered the mines using several kinds of machines, especially reverse overshot water-wheels. These were used extensively in the copper mines at Rio Tinto in Spain, where one sequence comprised 16 such wheels arranged in pairs, and lifting water about . They were worked as treadmills with miners standing on the top slats. Many examples of such devices have been found in old Roman mines and some examples are now preserved in the British Museum and the National Museum of Wales. Medieval Europe Mining as an industry underwent dramatic changes in medieval Europe. The mining industry in the early Middle Ages was mainly focused on the extraction of copper and iron. Other precious metals were also used, mainly for gilding or coinage. Initially, many metals were obtained through open-pit mining, and ore was primarily extracted from shallow depths, rather than through deep mine shafts. Around the 14th century, the growing use of weapons, armour, stirrups, and horseshoes greatly increased the demand for iron. Medieval knights, for example, were often laden with up to of plate or chain link armour in addition to swords, lances and other weapons. The overwhelming dependency on iron for military purposes spurred iron production and extraction processes. The silver crisis of 1465 occurred when all mines had reached depths at which the shafts could no longer be pumped dry with the available technology. Although an increased use of banknotes, credit and copper coins during this period did decrease the value of, and dependence on, precious metals, gold and silver still remained vital to the story of medieval mining. Due to differences in the social structure of society, the increasing extraction of mineral deposits spread from central Europe to England in the mid-sixteenth century. On the continent, mineral deposits belonged to the crown, and this regalian right was stoutly maintained. But in England, royal mining rights were restricted to gold and silver (of which England had virtually no deposits) by a judicial decision of 1568 and a law in 1688. England had iron, zinc, copper, lead, and tin ores. Landlords who owned the base metals and coal under their estates then had a strong inducement to extract these metals or to lease the deposits and collect royalties from mine operators. English, German, and Dutch capital combined to finance extraction and refining. Hundreds of German technicians and skilled workers were brought over; in 1642 a colony of 4,000 foreigners was mining and smelting copper at Keswick in the northwestern mountains. Use of water power in the form of water mills was extensive. The water mills were employed in crushing ore, raising ore from shafts, and ventilating galleries by powering giant bellows. Black powder was first used in mining in Selmecbánya, Kingdom of Hungary (now Banská Štiavnica, Slovakia) in 1627. Black powder allowed blasting of rock and earth to loosen and reveal ore veins. Blasting was much faster than fire-setting and allowed the mining of previously impenetrable metals and ores. In 1762, the world's first mining academy was established in the same town there. The widespread adoption of agricultural innovations such as the iron plowshare, as well as the growing use of metal as a building material, was also a driving force in the tremendous growth of the iron industry during this period. Inventions like the arrastra were often used by the Spanish to pulverize ore after being mined. This device was powered by animals and used the same principles used for grain threshing. Much of the knowledge of medieval mining techniques comes from books such as Biringuccio’s De la pirotechnia and probably most importantly from Georg Agricola's De re metallica (1556). These books detail many different mining methods used in German and Saxon mines. A prime issue in medieval mines, which Agricola explains in detail, was the removal of water from mining shafts. As miners dug deeper to access new veins, flooding became a very real obstacle. The mining industry became dramatically more efficient and prosperous with the invention of mechanically- and animal-driven pumps. Africa Iron metallurgy in Africa dates back over four thousand years. From the 19th century, gold and diamond mining in southern Africa has had major political and social consequences. Oceania Gold and coal mining started in Australia and New Zealand in the 19th century. Nickel has become important in the economy of New Caledonia. In Fiji, in 1934, the Emperor Gold Mining Company Ltd. established operations at Vatukoula, followed in 1935 by the Loloma Gold Mines, N.L., and then by Fiji Mines Development Ltd. (aka Dolphin Mines Ltd.). These developments ushered in a “mining boom”, with gold production rising more than a hundred-fold, from 931.4 oz in 1934 to 107,788.5 oz in 1939, an order of magnitude then comparable to the combined output of New Zealand and Australia's eastern states. Americas During prehistoric times, early Americans mined large amounts of copper along Lake Superior's Keweenaw Peninsula and in nearby Isle Royale; metallic copper was still present near the surface in colonial times. Indigenous peoples used Lake Superior copper from at least 5,000 years ago; copper tools, arrowheads, and other artifacts that were part of an extensive native trade-network have been discovered. In addition, obsidian, flint, and other minerals were mined, worked, and traded. Early French explorers who encountered the sites made no use of the metals due to the difficulties of transporting them, but the copper was eventually traded throughout the continent along major river routes. In the early colonial history of the Americas, "native gold and silver was quickly expropriated and sent back to Spain in fleets of gold- and silver-laden galleons", the gold and silver originating mostly from mines in Central and South America. Turquoise dated at 700 AD was mined in pre-Columbian America; in the Cerillos Mining District in New Mexico, an estimate of "about 15,000 tons of rock had been removed from Mt. Chalchihuitl using stone tools before 1700." In 1727 Louis Denys (Denis) (1675–1741), sieur de La Ronde – brother of Simon-Pierre Denys de Bonaventure and the son-in-law of René Chartier – took command of Fort La Pointe at Chequamegon Bay; where natives informed him of an island of copper. La Ronde obtained permission from the French crown to operate mines in 1733, becoming "the first practical miner on Lake Superior"; seven years later, mining was halted by an outbreak between Sioux and Chippewa tribes. Mining in the United States became widespread in the 19th century, and the United States Congress passed the General Mining Act of 1872 to encourage mining of federal lands. As with the California Gold Rush in the mid-19th century, mining for minerals and precious metals, along with ranching, became a driving factor in the U.S. Westward Expansion to the Pacific coast. With the exploration of the West, mining camps sprang up and "expressed a distinctive spirit, an enduring legacy to the new nation"; Gold Rushers would experience the same problems as the Land Rushers of the transient West that preceded them. Aided by railroads, many people traveled West for work opportunities in mining. Western cities such as Denver and Sacramento originated as mining towns. When new areas were explored, it was usually the gold (placer and then lode) and then silver that were taken into possession and extracted first. Other metals would often wait for railroads or canals, as coarse gold dust and nuggets do not require smelting and are easy to identify and transport. Modernity In the early 20th century, the gold and silver rush to the western United States also stimulated mining for coal as well as base metals such as copper, lead, and iron. Areas in modern Montana, Utah, Arizona, and later Alaska became predominate suppliers of copper to the world, which was increasingly demanding copper for electrical and households goods. Canada's mining industry grew more slowly than did the United States' due to limitations in transportation, capital, and U.S. competition; Ontario was the major producer of the early 20th century with nickel, copper, and gold. Meanwhile, Australia experienced the Australian gold rushes and by the 1850s was producing 40% of the world's gold, followed by the establishment of large mines such as the Mount Morgan Mine, which ran for nearly a hundred years, Broken Hill ore deposit (one of the largest zinc-lead ore deposits), and the iron ore mines at Iron Knob. After declines in production, another boom in mining occurred in the 1960s. Now, in the early 21st century, Australia remains a major world mineral producer. As the 21st century begins, a globalized mining industry of large multinational corporations has arisen. Peak minerals and environmental impacts have also become a concern. Different elements, particularly rare earth minerals, have begun to increase in demand as a result of new technologies. Mine development and life cycle The process of mining from discovery of an ore body through extraction of minerals and finally to returning the land to its natural state consists of several distinct steps. The first is discovery of the ore body, which is carried out through prospecting or exploration to find and then define the extent, location and value of the ore body. This leads to a mathematical resource estimation to estimate the size and grade of the deposit. This estimation is used to conduct a pre-feasibility study to determine the theoretical economics of the ore deposit. This identifies, early on, whether further investment in estimation and engineering studies is warranted and identifies key risks and areas for further work. The next step is to conduct a feasibility study to evaluate the financial viability, the technical and financial risks, and the robustness of the project. This is when the mining company makes the decision whether to develop the mine or to walk away from the project. This includes mine planning to evaluate the economically recoverable portion of the deposit, the metallurgy and ore recoverability, marketability and payability of the ore concentrates, engineering concerns, milling and infrastructure costs, finance and equity requirements, and an analysis of the proposed mine from the initial excavation all the way through to reclamation. The proportion of a deposit that is economically recoverable is dependent on the enrichment factor of the ore in the area. To gain access to the mineral deposit within an area it is often necessary to mine through or remove waste material which is not of immediate interest to the miner. The total movement of ore and waste constitutes the mining process. Often more waste than ore is mined during the life of a mine, depending on the nature and location of the ore body. Waste removal and placement is a major cost to the mining operator, so a detailed characterization of the waste material forms an essential part of the geological exploration program for a mining operation. Once the analysis determines a given ore body is worth recovering, development begins to create access to the ore body. The mine buildings and processing plants are built, and any necessary equipment is obtained. The operation of the mine to recover the ore begins and continues as long as the company operating the mine finds it economical to do so. Once all the ore that the mine can produce profitably is recovered, reclamation begins to make the land used by the mine suitable for future use. Technical and economic challenges notwithstanding, successful mine development must also address human factors. Working conditions are paramount to success, especially with regard to exposures to dusts, radiation, noise, explosives hazards, and vibration, as well as illumination standards. Mining today increasingly must address environmental and community impacts, including psychological and sociological dimensions. Thus, mining educator Frank T. M. White (1909–1971), broadened the focus to the “total environment of mining”, including reference to community development around mining, and how mining is portrayed to an urban society, which depends on the industry, although seemingly unaware of this dependency. He stated, “[I]n the past, mining engineers have not been called upon to study the psychological, sociological and personal problems of their own industry – aspects that nowadays are assuming tremendous importance. The mining engineer must rapidly expand his knowledge and his influence into these newer fields.” Techniques Mining techniques can be divided into two common excavation types: surface mining and sub-surface (underground) mining. Today, surface mining is much more common, and produces, for example, 85% of minerals (excluding petroleum and natural gas) in the United States, including 98% of metallic ores. Targets are divided into two general categories of materials: placer deposits, consisting of valuable minerals contained within river gravels, beach sands, and other unconsolidated materials; and lode deposits, where valuable minerals are found in veins, in layers, or in mineral grains generally distributed throughout a mass of actual rock. Both types of ore deposit, placer or lode, are mined by both surface and underground methods. Some mining, including much of the rare earth elements and uranium mining, is done by less-common methods, such as in-situ leaching: this technique involves digging neither at the surface nor underground. The extraction of target minerals by this technique requires that they be soluble, e.g., potash, potassium chloride, sodium chloride, sodium sulfate, which dissolve in water. Some minerals, such as copper minerals and uranium oxide, require acid or carbonate solutions to dissolve. Artisanal Surface Surface mining is done by removing surface vegetation, dirt, and bedrock to reach buried ore deposits. Techniques of surface mining include: open-pit mining, which is the recovery of materials from an open pit in the ground; quarrying, identical to open-pit mining except that it refers to sand, stone and clay; strip mining, which consists of stripping surface layers off to reveal ore underneath; and mountaintop removal, commonly associated with coal mining, which involves taking the top of a mountain off to reach ore deposits at depth. Most placer deposits, because they are shallowly buried, are mined by surface methods. Finally, landfill mining involves sites where landfills are excavated and processed. Landfill mining has been thought of as a long-term solution to methane emissions and local pollution. High wall High wall mining, which evolved from auger mining, is another form of surface mining. In high wall mining, the remaining part of a coal seam previously exploited by other surface-mining techniques has too much overburden to be removed but can still be profitably exploited from the side of the artificial cliff made by previous mining. A typical cycle alternates sumping, which undercuts the seam, and shearing, which raises and lowers the cutter-head boom to cut the entire height of the coal seam. As the coal recovery cycle continues, the cutter-head is progressively launched further into the coal seam. High wall mining can produce thousands of tons of coal in contour-strip operations with narrow benches, previously mined areas, trench mine applications and steep-dip seams. Underground mining Sub-surface mining consists of digging tunnels or shafts into the earth to reach buried ore deposits. Ore, for processing, and waste rock, for disposal, are brought to the surface through the tunnels and shafts. Sub-surface mining can be classified by the type of access shafts used, and the extraction method or the technique used to reach the mineral deposit. Drift mining utilizes horizontal access tunnels, slope mining uses diagonally sloping access shafts, and shaft mining utilizes vertical access shafts. Mining in hard and soft rock formations requires different techniques. Other methods include shrinkage stope mining, which is mining upward, creating a sloping underground room, long wall mining, which is grinding a long ore surface underground, and room and pillar mining, which is removing ore from rooms while leaving pillars in place to support the roof of the room. Room and pillar mining often leads to retreat mining, in which supporting pillars are removed as miners retreat, allowing the room to cave in, thereby loosening more ore. Additional sub-surface mining methods include hard rock mining, bore hole mining, drift and fill mining, long hole slope mining, sub level caving, and block caving. Machines Heavy machinery is used in mining to explore and develop sites, to remove and stockpile overburden, to break and remove rocks of various hardness and toughness, to process the ore, and to carry out reclamation projects after the mine is closed. Bulldozers, drills, explosives and trucks are all necessary for excavating the land. In the case of placer mining, unconsolidated gravel, or alluvium, is fed into machinery consisting of a hopper and a shaking screen or trommel which frees the desired minerals from the waste gravel. The minerals are then concentrated using sluices or jigs. Large drills are used to sink shafts, excavate stopes, and obtain samples for analysis. Trams are used to transport miners, minerals and waste. Lifts carry miners into and out of mines, and move rock and ore out, and machinery in and out, of underground mines. Huge trucks, shovels and cranes are employed in surface mining to move large quantities of overburden and ore. Processing plants utilize large crushers, mills, reactors, roasters and other equipment to consolidate the mineral-rich material and extract the desired compounds and metals from the ore. Processing Once the mineral is extracted, it is often then processed. The science of extractive metallurgy is a specialized area in the science of metallurgy that studies the extraction of valuable metals from their ores, especially through chemical or mechanical means. Mineral processing (or mineral dressing) is a specialized area in the science of metallurgy that studies the mechanical means of crushing, grinding, and washing that enable the separation (extractive metallurgy) of valuable metals or minerals from their gangue (waste material). Processing of placer ore material consists of gravity-dependent methods of separation, such as sluice boxes. Only minor shaking or washing may be necessary to disaggregate (unclump) the sands or gravels before processing. Processing of ore from a lode mine, whether it is a surface or subsurface mine, requires that the rock ore be crushed and pulverized before extraction of the valuable minerals begins. After lode ore is crushed, recovery of the valuable minerals is done by one, or a combination of several, mechanical and chemical techniques. Since most metals are present in ores as oxides or sulfides, the metal needs to be reduced to its metallic form. This can be accomplished through chemical means such as smelting or through electrolytic reduction, as in the case of aluminium. Geometallurgy combines the geologic sciences with extractive metallurgy and mining. In 2018, led by Chemistry and Biochemistry professor Bradley D. Smith, University of Notre Dame researchers "invented a new class of molecules whose shape and size enable them to capture and contain precious metal ions," reported in a study published by the Journal of the American Chemical Society. The new method "converts gold-containing ore into chloroauric acid and extracts it using an industrial solvent. The container molecules are able to selectively separate the gold from the solvent without the use of water stripping." The newly developed molecules can eliminate water stripping, whereas mining traditionally "relies on a 125-year-old method that treats gold-containing ore with large quantities of poisonous sodium cyanide... this new process has a milder environmental impact and that, besides gold, it can be used for capturing other metals such as platinum and palladium," and could also be used in urban mining processes that remove precious metals from wastewater streams. Environmental effects Environmental regulation Mine operators frequently have to follow some regulatory practices to minimize environmental impact and avoid impacting human health. In better regulated economies, regulations require the common steps of environmental impact assessment, development of environmental management plans, mine closure planning (which must be done before the start of mining operations), and environmental monitoring during operation and after closure. However, in some areas, particularly in the developing world, government regulations may not be well enforced. For major mining companies and any company seeking international financing, there are a number of other mechanisms to enforce environmental standards. These generally relate to financing standards such as the Equator Principles, IFC environmental standards, and criteria for Socially responsible investing. Mining companies have used this oversight from the financial sector to argue for some level of industry self-regulation. In 1992, a Draft Code of Conduct for Transnational Corporations was proposed at the Rio Earth Summit by the UN Centre for Transnational Corporations (UNCTC), but the Business Council for Sustainable Development (BCSD) together with the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) argued successfully for self-regulation instead. This was followed by the Global Mining Initiative which was begun by nine of the largest metals and mining companies and which led to the formation of the International Council on Mining and Metals, whose purpose was to "act as a catalyst" in an effort to improve social and environmental performance in the mining and metals industry internationally. The mining industry has provided funding to various conservation groups, some of which have been working with conservation agendas that are at odds with an emerging acceptance of the rights of indigenous people – particularly the right to make land-use decisions. Certification of mines with good practices occurs through the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). For example, ISO 9000 and ISO 14001, which certify an "auditable environmental management system", involve short inspections, although they have been accused of lacking rigor. Certification is also available through Ceres' Global Reporting Initiative, but these reports are voluntary and unverified. Miscellaneous other certification programs exist for various projects, typically through nonprofit groups. The purpose of a 2012 EPS PEAKS paper was to provide evidence on policies managing ecological costs and maximise socio-economic benefits of mining using host country regulatory initiatives. It found existing literature suggesting donors encourage developing countries to: Make the environment-poverty link and introduce cutting-edge wealth measures and natural capital accounts. Reform old taxes in line with more recent financial innovation, engage directly with the companies, enacting land use and impact assessments, and incorporate specialised support and standards agencies. Set in play transparency and community participation initiatives using the wealth accrued. Waste Ore mills generate large amounts of waste, called tailings. For example, 99 tons of waste is generated per ton of copper, with even higher ratios in gold mining – because only 5.3 g of gold is extracted per ton of ore, a ton of gold produces 200,000 tons of tailings. (As time goes on and richer deposits are exhausted – and technology improves – this number is going down to .5 g and less.) These tailings can be toxic. Tailings, which are usually produced as a slurry, are most commonly dumped into ponds made from naturally existing valleys. These ponds are secured by impoundments (dams or embankment dams). In 2000 it was estimated that 3,500 tailings impoundments existed, and that every year, 2 to 5 major failures and 35 minor failures occurred. For example, in the Marcopper mining disaster at least 2 million tons of tailings were released into a local river. In 2015, Barrick Gold Corporation spilled over 1 million liters of cyanide into a total of five rivers in Argentina near their Veladero mine. Since 2007 in central Finland, the Talvivaara Terrafame polymetal mine's waste effluent and leaks of saline mine water have resulted in ecological collapse of a nearby lake. Subaqueous tailings disposal is another option. The mining industry has argued that submarine tailings disposal (STD), which disposes of tailings in the sea, is ideal because it avoids the risks of tailings ponds. The practice is illegal in the United States and Canada, but it is used in the developing world. The waste is classified as either sterile or mineralised, with acid generating potential, and the movement and storage of this material form a major part of the mine planning process. When the mineralised package is determined by an economic cut-off, the near-grade mineralised waste is usually dumped separately with view to later treatment should market conditions change and it becomes economically viable. Civil engineering design parameters are used in the design of the waste dumps, and special conditions apply to high-rainfall areas and to seismically active areas. Waste dump designs must meet all regulatory requirements of the country in whose jurisdiction the mine is located. It is also common practice to rehabilitate dumps to an internationally acceptable standard, which in some cases means that higher standards than the local regulatory standard are applied. Industry Mining exists in many countries. London is the headquarters for large miners such as Anglo American, BHP and Rio Tinto. The US mining industry is also large, but it is dominated by extraction of coal and other nonmetal minerals (e.g., rock and sand), and various regulations have worked to reduce the significance of mining in the United States. In 2007 the total market capitalization of mining companies was reported at US$962 billion, which compares to a total global market cap of publicly traded companies of about US$50 trillion in 2007. In 2002, Chile and Peru were reportedly the major mining countries of South America. The mineral industry of Africa includes the mining of various minerals; it produces relatively little of the industrial metals copper, lead, and zinc, but according to one estimate has as a percent of world reserves 40% of gold, 60% of cobalt, and 90% of the world's platinum group metals. Mining in India is a significant part of that country's economy. In the developed world, mining in Australia, with BHP founded and headquartered in the country, and mining in Canada are particularly significant. For rare earth minerals mining, China reportedly controlled 95% of production in 2013. While exploration and mining can be conducted by individual entrepreneurs or small businesses, most modern-day mines are large enterprises requiring large amounts of capital to establish. Consequently, the mining sector of the industry is dominated by large, often multinational, companies, most of them publicly listed. It can be argued that what is referred to as the 'mining industry' is actually two sectors, one specializing in exploration for new resources and the other in mining those resources. The exploration sector is typically made up of individuals and small mineral resource companies, called "juniors", which are dependent on venture capital. The mining sector is made up of large multinational companies that are sustained by production from their mining operations. Various other industries such as equipment manufacture, environmental testing, and metallurgy analysis rely on, and support, the mining industry throughout the world. Canadian stock exchanges have a particular focus on mining companies, particularly junior exploration companies through Toronto's TSX Venture Exchange; Canadian companies raise capital on these exchanges and then invest the money in exploration globally. Some have argued that below juniors there exists a substantial sector of illegitimate companies primarily focused on manipulating stock prices. Mining operations can be grouped into five major categories in terms of their respective resources. These are oil and gas extraction, coal mining, metal ore mining, nonmetallic mineral mining and quarrying, and mining support activities. Of all of these categories, oil and gas extraction remains one of the largest in terms of its global economic importance. Prospecting potential mining sites, a vital area of concern for the mining industry, is now done using sophisticated new technologies such as seismic prospecting and remote-sensing satellites. Mining is heavily affected by the prices of the commodity minerals, which are often volatile. The 2000s commodities boom ("commodities supercycle") increased the prices of commodities, driving aggressive mining. In addition, the price of gold increased dramatically in the 2000s, which increased gold mining; for example, one study found that conversion of forest in the Amazon increased six-fold from the period 2003–2006 (292 ha/yr) to the period 2006–2009 (1,915 ha/yr), largely due to artisanal mining. Corporate classifications Mining companies can be classified based on their size and financial capabilities: Major companies are considered to have an adjusted annual mining-related revenue of more than US$500 million, with the financial capability to develop a major mine on its own. Intermediate companies have at least $50 million in annual revenue but less than $500 million. Junior companies rely on equity financing as their principal means of funding exploration. Juniors are mainly pure exploration companies, but may also produce minimally, and do not have a revenue exceeding US$50 million. Re their valuation, and stock market characteristics, see . Regulation and governance New regulations and a process of legislative reforms aim to improve the harmonization and stability of the mining sector in mineral-rich countries. New legislation for mining industry in African countries still appears to be an issue, but has the potential to be solved, when a consensus is reached on the best approach. By the beginning of the 21st century the booming and increasingly complex mining sector in mineral-rich countries was providing only slight benefits to local communities, especially in given the sustainability issues. Increasing debate and influence by NGOs and local communities called for new approaches which would also include disadvantaged communities, and work towards sustainable development even after mine closure (including transparency and revenue management). By the early 2000s, community development issues and resettlements became mainstream concerns in World Bank mining projects. Mining-industry expansion after mineral prices increased in 2003 and also potential fiscal revenues in those countries created an omission in the other economic sectors in terms of finances and development. Furthermore, this highlighted regional and local demand for mining revenues and an inability of sub-national governments to effectively use the revenues. The Fraser Institute (a Canadian think tank) has highlighted the environmental protection laws in developing countries, as well as voluntary efforts by mining companies to improve their environmental impact. In 2007 the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) was mainstreamed in all countries cooperating with the World Bank in mining industry reform. The EITI operates and was implemented with the support of the EITI multi-donor trust fund, managed by the World Bank. The EITI aims to increase transparency in transactions between governments and companies in extractive industries by monitoring the revenues and benefits between industries and recipient governments. The entrance process is voluntary for each country and is monitored by multiple stakeholders including governments, private companies and civil society representatives, responsible for disclosure and dissemination of the reconciliation report; however, the competitive disadvantage of company-by-company public report is for some of the businesses in Ghana at least, the main constraint. Therefore, the outcome assessment in terms of failure or success of the new EITI regulation does not only "rest on the government's shoulders" but also on civil society and companies. On the other hand, implementation has issues; inclusion or exclusion of artisanal mining and small-scale mining (ASM) from the EITI and how to deal with "non-cash" payments made by companies to subnational governments. Furthermore, the disproportionate revenues the mining industry can bring to the comparatively small number of people that it employs, causes other problems, like a lack of investment in other less lucrative sectors, leading to swings in government revenue because of volatility in the oil markets. Artisanal mining is clearly an issue in EITI Countries such as the Central African Republic, D.R. Congo, Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone – i.e. almost half of the mining countries implementing the EITI. Among other things, limited scope of the EITI involving disparity in terms of knowledge of the industry and negotiation skills, thus far flexibility of the policy (e.g. liberty of the countries to expand beyond the minimum requirements and adapt it to their needs), creates another risk of unsuccessful implementation. Public awareness increase, where government should act as a bridge between public and initiative for a successful outcome of the policy is an important element to be considered. World Bank The World Bank has been involved in mining since 1955, mainly through grants from its International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, with the Bank's Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency offering political risk insurance. Between 1955 and 1990 it provided about $2 billion to fifty mining projects, broadly categorized as reform and rehabilitation, greenfield mine construction, mineral processing, technical assistance, and engineering. These projects have been criticized, particularly the Ferro Carajas project of Brazil, begun in 1981. The World Bank established mining codes intended to increase foreign investment; in 1988 it solicited feedback from 45 mining companies on how to increase their involvement. In 1992 the World Bank began to push for privatization of government-owned mining companies with a new set of codes, beginning with its report The Strategy for African Mining. In 1997, Latin America's largest miner Companhia Vale do Rio Doce (CVRD) was privatized. These and other developments such as the Philippines 1995 Mining Act led the bank to publish a third report (Assistance for Minerals Sector Development and Reform in Member Countries) which endorsed mandatory environment impact assessments and attention to the concerns of the local population. The codes based on this report are influential in the legislation of developing nations. The new codes are intended to encourage development through tax holidays, zero custom duties, reduced income taxes, and related measures. The results of these codes were analyzed by a group from the University of Quebec, which concluded that the codes promote foreign investment but "fall very short of permitting sustainable development". The observed negative correlation between natural resources and economic development is known as the resource curse. Safety Safety has long been a concern in the mining business, especially in sub-surface mining. The Courrières mine disaster, Europe's worst mining accident, involved the death of 1,099 miners in Northern France on March 10, 1906. This disaster was surpassed only by the Benxihu Colliery accident in China on April 26, 1942, which killed 1,549 miners. While mining today is substantially safer than it was in previous decades, mining accidents still occur. Government figures indicate that 5,000 Chinese miners die in accidents each year, while other reports have suggested a figure as high as 20,000. Mining accidents continue worldwide, including accidents causing dozens of fatalities at a time such as the 2007 Ulyanovskaya Mine disaster in Russia, the 2009 Heilongjiang mine explosion in China, and the 2010 Upper Big Branch Mine disaster in the United States. Mining has been identified by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as a priority industry sector in the National Occupational Research Agenda (NORA) to identify and provide intervention strategies regarding occupational health and safety issues. The Mining Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) was established in 1978 to "work to prevent death, illness, and injury from mining and promote safe and healthful workplaces for US miners." Since its implementation in 1978, the number of miner fatalities has decreased from 242 miners in 1978 to 24 miners in 2019. There are numerous occupational hazards associated with mining, including exposure to rockdust which can lead to diseases such as silicosis, asbestosis, and pneumoconiosis. Gases in the mine can lead to asphyxiation and could also be ignited. Mining equipment can generate considerable noise, putting workers at risk for hearing loss. Cave-ins, rock falls, and exposure to excess heat are also known hazards. The current NIOSH Recommended Exposure Limit (REL) of noise is 85 dBA with a 3 dBA exchange rate and the MSHA Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) is 90 dBA with a 5 dBA exchange rate as an 8-hour time-weighted average. NIOSH has found that 25% of noise-exposed workers in Mining, Quarrying, and Oil and Gas Extraction have hearing impairment. The prevalence of hearing loss increased by 1% from 1991 to 2001 within these workers. Noise studies have been conducted in several mining environments. Stageloaders (84-102 dBA), shearers (85-99 dBA), auxiliary fans (84–120 dBA), continuous mining machines (78–109 dBA), and roof bolters (92–103 dBA) represent some of the noisiest equipment in underground coal mines. Dragline oilers, dozer operators, and welders using air arcing were occupations with the highest noise exposures among surface coal miners. Coal mines had the highest hearing loss injury likelihood. Proper ventilation, hearing protection, and spraying equipment with water are important safety practices in mines. Human Rights In addition to the environmental impacts of mining processes, a prominent criticism pertaining to this form of extractive practice and of mining companies are the human rights abuses occurring within mining sites and communities in close proximity of them. Frequently, despite being protected by International Labor rights, miners are not given appropriate equipment to provide them with protection from possible mine collapse or from harmful pollutants and chemicals expelled during the mining process, work in inhumane conditions spending numerous hours working in extreme heat, darkness and 14 hour workdays with no allocated time for breaks. Child labor Included within the human rights abuses that occur during mining processes are instances of child labor. These instances are a cause for widespread criticism of mines harvesting cobalt, a mineral essential for powering modern technologies such as laptops, smartphones and electric vehicles. Many of these cases of child laborers are found in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Reports have risen of children carrying sacks of cobalt weighing 25 kg from small mines to local traders being paid for their work only in food and accommodation. A number of companies such as Apple, Google, Microsoft and Tesla have been implicated in lawsuits brought forth by families whose children were severely injured or killed during mining activities in Congo. In December 2019, 14 Congolese families filed a lawsuit against Glencore, a mining company which supplies the essential cobalt to these multinational corporations with allegations of negligence that led to the deaths of children or injuries such as broken spines, emotional distress and forced labor. Indigenous peoples There have also been instances of killings and evictions attributed to conflicts with mining companies. Almost a third of 227 murders in 2020 were of Indigenous peoples rights activists on the frontlines of climate change activism linked to logging, mining, large-scale agribusiness, hydroelectric dams, and other infrastructure, according to Global Witness. The relationship between indigenous peoples and mining is defined by struggles over access to land. In Australia, the Aboriginal Bininj said mining posed a threat to their living culture and could damage sacred heritage sites. In the Philippines, an anti-mining movement has raised concerns regarding "the total disregard for [Indigenous communities'] ancestral land rights". Ifugao peoples' opposition to mining led a governor to proclaim a ban on mining operations in Mountain Province, Philippines. In Brazil, more than 170 tribes organized a march to oppose controversial attempts to strip back indigenous land rights and open their territories to mining operations. The United Nations Commission on Human Rights has called on Brazil's Supreme Court to uphold Indigenous land rights to prevent exploitation by mining groups and industrial agriculture. Records As of 2008, the deepest mine in the world is TauTona in Carletonville, South Africa, at , superseding the neighboring Savuka Mine in the North West Province of South Africa at . East Rand Mine in Boksburg, South Africa briefly held the record at , and the first mine declared the deepest in the world was also TauTona when it was at . The Moab Khutsong gold mine in North West Province (South Africa) has the world's longest winding steel wire rope, which is able to lower workers to in one uninterrupted four-minute journey. The deepest mine in Europe is the 16th shaft of the uranium mines in Příbram, Czech Republic, at . Second is Bergwerk Saar in Saarland, Germany, at . The deepest open-pit mine in the world is Bingham Canyon Mine in Bingham Canyon, Utah, United States, at over . The largest and second deepest open-pit copper mine in the world is Chuquicamata in northern Chile at , which annually produces 443,000 tons of copper and 20,000 tons of molybdenum. The deepest open-pit mine with respect to sea level is Tagebau Hambach in Germany, where the base of the pit is below sea level. The largest underground mine is Kiirunavaara Mine in Kiruna, Sweden. With of roads, 40 million tonnes of annually produced ore, and a depth of , it is also one of the most modern underground mines. The deepest borehole in the world is Kola Superdeep Borehole at , but this is connected to scientific drilling, not mining. Metal reserves and recycling During the 20th century, the variety of metals used in society grew rapidly. Today, the development of major nations such as China and India and advances in technologies are fueling an ever-greater demand. The result is that metal mining activities are expanding and more and more of the world's metal stocks are above ground in use rather than below ground as unused reserves. An example is the in-use stock of copper. Between 1932 and 1999, copper in use in the US rose from to per person. 95% of the energy used to make aluminium from bauxite ore is saved by using recycled material. However, levels of metals recycling are generally low. In 2010, the International Resource Panel, hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), published reports on metal stocks that exist within society and their recycling rates. The report's authors observed that the metal stocks in society can serve as huge mines above ground. However, they warned that the recycling rates of some rare metals used in applications such as mobile phones, battery packs for hybrid cars, and fuel cells are so low that unless future end-of-life recycling rates are dramatically stepped up these critical metals will become unavailable for use in modern technology. As recycling rates are low and so much metal has already been extracted, some landfills now contain higher concentrations of metal than mines themselves. This is especially true of aluminium, used in cans, and precious metals, found in discarded electronics. Furthermore, waste after 15 years has still not broken down, so less processing would be required when compared to mining ores. A study undertaken by Cranfield University has found £360 million of metals could be mined from just four landfill sites. There is also up to 20 MJ/kg of energy in waste, potentially making the re-extraction more profitable. However, although the first landfill mine opened in Tel Aviv, Israel in 1953, little work has followed due to the abundance of accessible ores. See also References Further reading Woytinsky, W.S., and E.S. Woytinsky. World Population and Production Trends and Outlooks (1953) pp. 749–881; with many tables and maps on the worldwide mining industry in 1950, including coal, metals and minerals Ali, Saleem H. (2003). Mining, the Environment and Indigenous Development Conflicts. Tucson AZ: University of Arizona Press. Ali, Saleem H. (2009). Treasures of the Earth: need, greed and a sustainable future. New Haven and London: Yale University Press Geobacter Project: Gold mines may owe their origins to bacteria (in PDF format) Garrett, Dennis. Alaska Placer Mining Morrison, Tom (1992). Hardrock Gold: a miner's tale. John Milne. The Miner's Handbook: A Handy Reference on the subjects of Mineral Deposits (1894) Mining operations in the 19th century. The Miner's Handbook: A Handy Book of Reference on the Subjects of Mineral Deposits, Mining Operations, Ore Dressing, Etc. For the Use of Students and Others Interested in Mining Matters Aryee, B., Ntibery, B., Atorkui, E. (2003). "Trends in the small-scale mining of precious minerals in Ghana: a perspective on its environmental impact", Journal of Cleaner Production 11: 131–40 The Oil, gas and Mining Sustainable Community Development Fund (2009) Social Mine Closure Strategy, Mali (in CommDev: Projects: Social Mine Closure Strategy, Mali) White F. (2020). Miner with a Heart of Gold: biography of a mineral science and engineering educator. Friesen Press, Victoria. ISBN 978-1-5255-7765-9 (Hardcover) 978-1-5255-7766-6 (Paperback) 978-1-5255-7767-3 (eBook) External links First chapter of Introductory Mining Engineering An introduction to geology and hard rock mining (archive) Occupational safety and health Articles containing video clips

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography%20of%20Myanmar

Geography of Myanmar

Myanmar (also known as Burma) is the northwesternmost country of mainland Southeast Asia. It lies along the Indian and Eurasian Plates, to the southeast of the Himalayas. To its west is the Bay of Bengal and to its south is the Andaman Sea. It is strategically located near major Indian Ocean shipping lanes. The neighboring countries are China, India, Bangladesh, Thailand and Laos. Boundaries Boundaries Total Land Border Length: Total Land Area: Border Countries: Bangladesh: , India:, China: , Laos: , Thailand: Coastline Total coastline length: Total water area: Climate Tropical monsoon in the lowlands below ; cloudy, rainy, hot, humid summers (southwest monsoon, June to September); less cloudy, scant rainfall, mild temperatures, lower humidity during winter (northeast monsoon, December to April). Climate varies in the highlands depending on elevation; subtropical temperate climate at around , temperate at , cool, alpine at and above the alpine zone, cold, harsh tundra and Arctic climate. The higher elevations are subject to heavy snowfall, especially in the north. Mountains Myanmar is characterised by its central lowlands with the Sittaung Valley and Chindwin Valley and the small mountain ranges of Zeebyu Taungdan, Min-wun Taungdan, Hman-kin Taungdan and Gangaw Taungdan as well as the Bago Yoma (Pegu Range), a relatively low mountain chain between the Irrawaddy and the Sittaung River in central Myanmar. The Central Valley Region is limited by steep, rugged highlands in the North, where ranges at the southern end of the Hengduan System form the border between Myanmar and China. Hkakabo Razi, the country's highest point at , is located at the northern end of the country. This mountain is part of a series of parallel ranges that run from the foothills of the Himalaya through the border areas with Assam, Nagaland and Mizoram. The Arakan Mountains in the west run from Manipur into western Myanmar southwards through Rakhine State almost to Cape Negrais in the shores of the Bay of Bengal. The Arakan Range includes the Naga Hills, the Chin Hills, and the Patkai range which includes the Lushai Hills. In eastern Myanmar the highest point of the Shan Hills is 2,563 m high Loi Pangnao, one of the ultra prominent peaks of Southeast Asia. The Shan Hills form, together with the Karen Hills, Dawna Range and Tenasserim Hills, a natural border with Thailand as well as the Kayah-Karen/Tenasserim moist forests ecoregion which is included in the Global 200 list of ecoregions identified by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) as priorities for conservation. Southern Myanmar consists largely of the western slopes of the Bilauktaung, the highest part of the Tenasserim Range, which extends southwards forming the central range of the Malay Peninsula. Main peaks Hkakabo Razi, 5,881 m Gamlang Razi, 5,870 m Madwe Razi, 4,623 m Saramati, 3,826 m Hkaru Bum, 3,677 m Bumhpa Bum, 3,411 m Hkangri Bum, 3,388 m Shan-ngaw Bum (Shan-ngaw Range), 3,328 m Langhtam Razi, 3,221 m Nin-gun Bum, 3,162 m Mol Len, 3,088 m Abawm Bum, 3,082 m Sahton Bum, 3,069 m Nat Ma Taung (Mount Victoria), 3,053 m Kahtaung Bam, 2,890 m Hkawk Bam, 2,822 m Wapawnaung Bum, 2,769 m Kanikana Bum, 2,742 m Kennedy Peak (Myanmar), 2,703 m Sapa Bum, 2,702 m Sangpang Bum, 2,692 m Longadang Bum, 2,680 m Tamihkat Razi, 2,678 m Loi Leng, 2,673 m Mong Ling Shan, 2,641 m Nattaung, 2,623 m Hkamon Bum, 2,566 m Loi Pangnao, 2,563 m Shingrup Bum, 2,555 m Senam Bum, 2,543 m Point 2519, 2,519 m Zungon Razi, 2,510 m Kayunghang Bum, 2,495 m Nakthar Razi, 2,353 m Noi Hkam, 2,244 m Kakma Bum, 2,225 m Tanghku Bum, 2,150 m Loi Lan, 2,131 m Chikachi Bum, 2,128 m Mela Taung, 2,080 m Myinmoletkat Taung, 2,072 m Mulayit Taung, 2,005 m Loi Hkilek, 1,973 m Nawnghoi, 1,936 m Mawhpung Bum, 1,874 m Loi Un-awm, 1,816 m Naupau Pum, 1,767 m Sharong Bum, 1,703 m Mount Popa, 1,518 m Mount Kyaiktiyo, 1,075 m Saka Haphong, 1,052 m Zwekabin Taung (Zwegabin Hill), 343 m Kwooprai Taung (Kwooprai Hill), 198 m Rivers The Irrawaddy, the main river of Burma, flows from north to south through the Central Burma Basin and ends in a wide delta. The Mekong river runs from the Tibetan Plateau through China's Yunnan province and northeastern Burma into Laos. In the east the Salween and the Sittaung River run along the western side of the Shan Hills and the northern end of the Dawna Range. In the narrow southeastern part of Burma, the Ye, Heinze, Dawei (Tavoy), Great Tenasserim (Tanintharyi) and the Lenya rivers are relatively short and flow into the Andaman Sea. Further south the Kraburi River forms the southern border between Thailand and Burma. Maritime claims Myanmar has the 50th largest exclusive economic zone of . It includes more than 16 islands and the Mergui Archipelago. Contiguous zone: Continental shelf: or to the edge of the continental margin Exclusive economic zone: , Islands Apaw-ye Kyun Calventuras Islands Cheduba Island Coco Islands Kaingthaung Island Kalegauk Island Kokunye Kyun Kyungyi Island Moscos Islands Myingun Island Nantha Kyun Preparis Ramree Island Unguan Wa Kyun Zalat Taung Mergui Archipelago Auriol Island Bentinck Kyun Christie Island, the southernmost island of the archipelago Kadan Kyun, the largest island of the archipelago Lanbi Kyun Letsok-aw Kyun Mali Kyun, the northernmost island of the archipelago Saganthit Kyun Than Kyun Thayawthadangyi Zadetkyi Land use and natural resources Natural resources in Myanmar are petroleum, timber, tin, antimony, zinc, copper, tungsten, lead, coal, marble, limestone, precious stones, natural gas, and hydropower. Natural hazards Natural hazards include destructive earthquakes and cyclones. Flooding and landslides are common during the rainy season from June to September. Periodic droughts also occur. The most damaging cyclone that hit Myanmar was the Cyclone Nargis in 2008; with ongoing climate change, oceans will become warmer, which may lead to cyclones becoming more intense and devastating for Myanmar. Environment Environmental issues include deforestation; industrial pollution of air, soil, and water; inadequate sanitation and water treatment that contributes to disease. An IUCN Red List of Ecosystems Assessment was conducted for Myanmar in 2020 that assessed 64 terrestrial ecosystem types across 10 biomes. Of these 64 ecosystem types, 1 was confirmed as collapsed, 8 were considered Critically Endangered, 9 were considered Endangered, 12 were considered Vulnerable, 3 were considered Near Threatened, 14 were considered of Least Concern, and 17 were deemed Data Deficient. The 64 terrestrial ecosystem types included five brackish tidal systems, one dry subterranean system, one lake, five palustrine wetlands, four polar/alpine systems, twelve savannas and grasslands, two shoreline systems, two supralittoral coastal systems, seven temperate-boreal forests and woodlands, and twenty five tropical and subtropical forests. A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 3,316km² of tidal flats in Myanmar, making it the 8th ranked country in terms of tidal flat area. Environment - international agreements party to: Biodiversity, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94 See also List of rivers of Myanmar Geology of Myanmar List of volcanoes in Myanmar List of ecoregions in Myanmar Zomia (geography) References External links Myanmar Marine Biodiversity Atlas Online Ramsar - Burma Burma - Geography The Geology of Burma (Myanmar)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics%20of%20Myanmar

Demographics of Myanmar

The following is an overview of the demographics of Myanmar (also known as Burma), including statistics such as population, ethnicity, language, education level and religious affiliation. Population 1983 census At the time of the 1983 census in Burma, as of 31 March 1983, the population was 35,442,972. , this was estimated by the CIA World Factbook to have increased to 60,584,650. Other estimates put place the total population at around 60 million. China's People's Daily reported that Burma had a census in 2007, and at the end of 2009 has 59.2 million people, and growing at 2% annually. with exception for Cyclone Nargis in 2008. Most of these estimates have indeed overlooked the demographic changes that were at work since the 1970s in the country. Britain-based human rights agencies place the population as high as 70 million. Estimates for the country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS. This can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected. No trustworthy census has occurred since the 1930s. In the 1940s, the detailed census results were destroyed during the Japanese invasion of 1942. Census results after that time have been flawed by civil wars and a series of military governments. The census in 1983 occurred at a time when parts of the country were controlled by insurgent groups and inaccessible to the government. 2014 census The Provisional results of the 2014 census show that the total population of Myanmar is 51,419,420—a population well below the official estimates of more than 60 million. This total population includes 50,213,067 persons counted during the census and an estimated 1,206,353 persons in parts of northern Rakhine State, Kachin State and Kayin State who were not counted. More females (51.8%) were counted than males (48.2%). People who were out of the country at the time of the census are not included in these figures. The provisional census results indicated that there were 10,889,348 households in Myanmar. On average, 4.4 people lived in each household in the country. The average household size was highest in Kachin State and Chin State at 5.1. The lowest household sizes were observed in Ayeyawady Region, Bago Region, Magway Region and Naypyidaw Union Territory, each at 4.1. Vital statistics Burma has a low fertility rate (2.23 in 2011), slightly above replacement level, especially as compared to other Southeast Asian countries of similar economic standing, like Cambodia (3.18) and Laos (4.41), representing a significant decline from 4.7 in 1983 to 2.4 in 2001, despite the absence of any national population policy. The fertility rate is much pronouncedly lower in urban areas. This is attributed to extreme delays in marriage (almost unparalleled in the region, with the exception of developed countries), the prevalence of illegal abortions, and the high proportion of single, unmarried women of reproductive age (with 25.9% of women aged 30–34 and 33.1% of men and women aged 25–34 single). These patterns stem from several cultural and economic dynamics. The first is economic hardship, which results in the delay of marriage and family-building (the average age of marriage in Burma is 27.5 for men, 26.4 for women). The second is the social acceptability of celibacy among the Burmese, who are predominantly Buddhist and value celibacy as a means of spiritual development. Births and deaths Births and deaths Fertility and births Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Crude Birth Rate (CBR), Total Fertility Rate (TFR), and Total Marital Fertility Rate (TMFR) by region (2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Census): Structure of the population Structure of the population (01.10.2012) (Estimates) : Structure of the population (2014) (Census) Population - 51 486 253, enumerated - 50 279 900 : Life expectancy Source: UN World Population Prospects Ethnic groups Government classifications The Burmese government identifies eight major national ethnic races (which comprise 135 "distinct" ethnic groups), which include the Burman (58%), Shan (10%), Karen (7%), Rakhine (4%), Mon (3%), Kayah(1.5%), and Kachin(1.3%). However, the government classification system is flawed, because it groups ethnic groups by geography, rather than by linguistic or genetic similarity (e.g. the Kokang are under the Shan ethnicity, although they are a Han-Chinese sub-group). Unrecognised ethnic groups include Burmese Han-Chinese and Burmese Indians, who form 3% and 2% of the population respectively. The remaining 5% of the population belong to small ethnic groups such as the remnants of the Anglo-Burmese and Anglo-Indian communities, as well as the Lisu, Rawang, Naga, Padaung, Burmese Gorkha,Moken, and many minorities across Shan State. Language The official language and primary medium of instruction of Burma is Burmese (65%). Multiple languages are spoken in Burma, and include Shan (7.4%), Karen (6.2%),Hindi or Urdu(4.3%), Kachin (2.1%),Chinese(2%) Chin (1.6%), Bengali(1.3%),Mon (1.8%), and Rakhine (2%),Nepali(1%),and English is also spoken as a second language, particularly by the educated urban elite, and is the secondary language learnt in government schools. Recent years, the education of Chinese language has been recovered, after long-term limitation from the government of Myanmar. Religious affiliation Buddhist Sangha Below are statistics regarding the Buddhist monastic community in Myanmar, compiled by the State Sangha Maha Nayaka Committee. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Age structure 0–14 years: 26.85% (male 7,567,976/female 7,233,577) 15-24 years: 17.75% (male 4,917,290/female 4,865,264) 25-54 years: 42.36% (male 11,426,913/female 11,922,728) 55-64 years: 7.52% (male 1,930,253/female 2,213,263) 65 years and over: 5.53% (male 1,327,811/female 1,718,739) (2017 est.) Median age total: 28.2 years (2017 est.) Population growth rate 0.91% (2017 est.) Urbanisation urban population: 29.6% of total population (2014 census) rate of urbanisation: 2.9% of annual rate of change (2010–15 est.) Human sex ratios at birth: 1.06 males/female under 15 years: 1.03 males/female 15–64 years: 0.98 male/female 65 years and over: 0.75 male/female (2009 est.) total population: 0.93 male/female (2014 census) Life expectancy total population: 68.2 years male: 66.6 years female: 69.9 years (2017 est.) Obesity - adult prevalence rate 5.8% (2016) Children under the age of 5 years underweight 18.9% (2016) Literacy (age 15 and over can read and write, official statistics) Total: 89.5% Male: 92.6% Female: 86.9% Education expenditures 0.8% of GDP (2011) Notes References Population Projections for Myanmar, 1983-2013 Asia Pacific Population Journal, Vol. 6, No. 2 (PDF document)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics%20of%20Myanmar

Politics of Myanmar

Myanmar (also known as Burma) operates de jure as a unitary assembly-independent republic under its 2008 constitution. On 1 February 2021, Myanmar's military took over the government in a coup. Anti-coup protests are ongoing as of 24 February 2021. Political conditions The history of Myanmar, formerly called Burma, began with the Pagan Kingdom in 849. Although each kingdom has constantly been at war with their neighbors, it was the largest South East Asian Empire during the 16th century under the Taungoo Dynasty. The thousand year line of Burmese monarchy concluded with the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885. It was administered as a province that was part of the British India until 1937. The British Burma began with its official recognition on the colonial map that marks its new borders containing over 100 ethnicities. It was named Burma, after the dominant ethnic group Bamar who makes up 68 percent of the population. During World War II, a coalition that were mostly members of the Bamar ethnic group volunteered themselves to fight alongside the Japanese in hopes of overthrowing the occupying British forces. Meanwhile, many other ethnic groups supported the Allied forces against the Bama backed Japanese forces. This conflict would come to be very significant in the aftermath of World War II when Burma was granted its independence from Great Britain in 1948. Prior to the end of their colonization, the British government had created a novel map of the country with new borders that included some previously sovereign ethnicities. Many groups of racially and culturally diverse people suddenly found themselves as part of a country that was named after the Bamar, a group they did not identify with. The division created within the World War II only exacerbated the growing resentment towards the Bamar. By granting independence to Burma, the British government handed the control of all the containing ethnicities over to the Bamar. Aung San, who led the fight for independence, was able to convince the leaders of the other ethnic groups that fought alongside the Burmese to remain as one country. The formation of the new Burmese constitution in 1948 was cemented by the Pin-Lone agreement, which was signed by every ethnic leader in support of the newfound union. Aung San's unprecedented assassination prior to the absolute fulfillment of the Pin-Lone agreement undid the unification he led. His death marked the short lived period of peace within the new nation, unleashing a power vacuum that has not been filled properly since. A period of instability with leaders that failed to represent every ethnicity's best interest followed. Democracy was suspended in the country following a coup in 1962. The uncertainty and chaos paved the way for a Burmese nationalist government to take over. From 1962 to 1988, the country was ruled by the Burma Socialist Programme Party as a one-party state guided by the Burmese Way to Socialism. The new Burmese leaders turned Burma into a Socialist Republic with isolationism, and a Burmese superiority. The newfound Burmese nationalism put the Bamar majority at the forefront, undoing the unification initiated through the Pin-Lone agreement. Additionally, the growing disdain was enhanced through the forced coexistence between members of different religions. Bamar kingdoms were almost exclusively Buddhist in the past. Most ethnic groups within the Shan, Kayin, Kayar, and Chin state practiced their own versions of Animism, while people of the Islamic faith lived alongside the Buddhists in the Arakan (now Rakhine) state. The annexation of all the diverse groups into the British India deepened the religious polarization. The movement of people across the border caused by the colonization added a large group of Hindu followers to the mix. The strenuous conversion campaigns by the Catholic Christians and their competition with the Methodist colonialists additionally divided minority groups such as the Karen and Kachin within themselves. The colonial departure unleashed the animosity that has been building towards one other. The death of Aung San, and the following leaderships ensured the lasting conflicts between every cultural and religious group. But the 1988 Uprising cemented the social, political, and civil unrests that have plagued the country since. The SPDC junta which took power in 1988 had been responsible for the displacement of several hundred thousand citizens, both inside and outside of Burma. The Karen, Karenni, and Mon ethnic groups have been forced to seek asylum in neighbouring Thailand, where they are also abused by an unfriendly and unsympathetic government. These groups are perhaps more fortunate than the Wa and Shan ethnic groups, who have become Internally Displaced Peoples in their own state since being removed from lands by the military junta in 2000. There are reportedly 600,000 of these Internally Displaced Peoples living in Burma today. Many are trying to escape forced labour in the military or for one of the many state-sponsored drug cartels. This displacement of peoples has led to both human rights violations as well as the exploitation of minority ethnic groups at the hands of the dominant Bamar group. The primary actors in these ethnic struggles include, but are not limited to, the military, the Karen National Union and the Mong Tai Army. The military gave up some of its power in 2011, leading to the creation of a semi-democratic system, although problems remained, including outsized influence by the military under the 2008 constitution, as well as economic and ethnic issues. On 31 January 2021, it was reported by multiple media and news outlets that the military had staged a coup and arrested members of the governing party, National League for Democracy, had been arrested and detained by the military. Spokesman for the NLD, Myo Nyunt said "The military seems to take control of the capital now."[Citation needed] These conflicts arose after the NLD had claimed victory after a successful election in November 2020. While the military contested the results of the election claiming fraudulent without any proof or investigation [Citation needed]. This situation was followed by the military performing coup d'état on 1 February 2021, taking the presidential powers from the NLD government by brute force [Citation needed]. Several broadcasters around the world believe Myanmar democracy have reached another dead end [Citation needed]. History Independence era On 4 January 1948, Burma achieved independence from Britain, and became a democracy based on the parliamentary system. In late 1946 Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Burma, a transitional government. But on 19 July 1947, political rivals assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members. On 4 January 1948, the nation became an independent republic, named the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first president and U Nu as its first prime minister. Unlike almost all other former British colonies, it did not become a member of the Commonwealth. A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities. The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British. AFPFL/Union government In 1961, U Thant, Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations; he was the first non-Westerner to head any international organisation and would serve as UN Secretary-General for ten years. Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was a young Aung San Suu Kyi. Military socialist era In 1962, General Ne Win led a coup d'état and established a nominally socialist military government that sought to follow the "Burmese Way to Socialism". The military expropriated private businesses and followed an economic policy of autarky, or economic isolation. There were sporadic protests against military rule during the Ne Win years and these were almost always violently suppressed. On 7 July 1962, the government broke up demonstrations at Rangoon University, killing 15 students. In 1974, the military violently suppressed anti-government protests at the funeral of U Thant. Student protests in 1975, 1976 and 1977 were quickly suppressed by overwhelming force. The government was deposed following the 1988 Uprising, but was replaced by a military junta. SPDC era The former head of state was Senior General Than Shwe who held the title of "Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council". His appointed prime minister was Khin Nyunt until 19 October 2004, when he was forcibly deposed in favour of Gen. Soe Win. Almost all cabinet offices are held by military officers. US and European government sanctions against the military government, combined with consumer boycotts and shareholder pressure organised by Free Burma activists, have succeeded in forcing most western corporations to withdraw from Burma. However, some western oil companies remain due to loopholes in the sanctions. For example, the French oil company Total S.A. and the American oil company Chevron continue to operate the Yadana natural gas pipeline from Burma to Thailand. Total (formerly TotalFinaElf) is the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for alleged complicity in human rights abuses along the gas pipeline. Before it was acquired by Chevron, Unocal settled a similar lawsuit for a reported multimillion-dollar amount. Asian businesses, such as Daewoo, continue to invest in Burma, particularly in natural resource extraction. The United States and European clothing and shoe industry became the target of Free Burma activists for buying from factories in Burma that were wholly or partly owned by the government or the military. Many stopped sourcing from Burma after protests, starting with Levi Strauss in 1992. From 1992 to 2003, Free Burma activists successfully forced dozens of clothing and shoe companies to stop sourcing from Burma. These companies included Eddie Bauer, Liz Claiborne, Macy's, J. Crew, JoS. A. Banks, Children's Place, Burlington Coat Factory, Wal-Mart, and Target. The US government banned all imports from Burma as part of the "Burmese Freedom and Democracy Act" of 2003. Sanctions have been criticised for their adverse effects on the civilian population. However, Burmese democracy movement leader Aung San Suu Kyi has repeatedly credited sanctions for putting pressure on the ruling military regime. Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have documented egregious human rights abuses by the military government. Civil liberties are severely restricted. Human Rights Defenders and Promoters, formed in 2002 to raise awareness among the people of Burma about their human rights, claims that on 18 April 2007, several of its members were met by approximately a hundred people led by a local USDA Secretary U Nyunt Oo and beaten up. The HRDP believes that this attack was condoned by the authorities. There is no independent judiciary in Burma and the military government suppresses political activity. The government uses software-based filtering from US company Fortinet to limit the materials citizens can access on-line, including free email services, free web hosting and most political opposition and pro-democracy pages. In 2001, the government permitted NLD office branches to re-open throughout Burma. However, they were shut down or heavily restricted beginning 2004, as part of a government campaign to prohibit such activities. In 2006, many members resigned from NLD, citing harassment and pressure from the Tatmadaw (Armed Forces) and the Union Solidarity and Development Association. The military government placed Aung San Suu Kyi under house arrest again on 31 May 2003, following an attack on her convoy in northern Burma by a mob reported to be in league with the military. The regime extended her house arrest for yet another year in late November 2005. Despite a direct appeal by Kofi Annan to Than Shwe and pressure from ASEAN, the Burmese government extended Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest another year on 27 May 2006. She was released in 2010. The United Nations urged the country to move towards inclusive national reconciliation, the restoration of democracy, and full respect for human rights. In December 2008, the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution condemning the human rights situation in Burma and calling for Aug San Suu Kyi's release—80 countries voting for the resolution, 25 against and 45 abstentions. Other nations, such as China and Russia, have been less critical of the regime and prefer to co-operate on economic matters. Facing increasing international isolation, Burma's military government agreed to embark upon a programme of reform, including permitting multiple political parties to contest elections in 2010 and 2012 and the release of political prisoners. However, organizations such as Human Rights Watch allege continued human rights abuses in ongoing conflicts in border regions such as Kachin State and Rakhine State. New constitution Myanmar's army-drafted constitution was overwhelmingly approved (by 92.4% of the 22 million voters with alleged voter turnout of 99%) on 10 May 2008 in the first phase of a two-stage referendum and Cyclone Nargis. It was the first national vote since the 1990 election. Multi-party elections in 2010 would end 5 decades of military rule, as the new charter gives the military an automatic 25% of seats in parliament. NLD spokesman Nyan Win, inter alia, criticised the referendum: "This referendum was full of cheating and fraud across the country. In some villages, authorities and polling station officials ticked the ballots themselves and did not let the voters do anything". 2010 election An election was held in 2010, with 40 parties approved to contest the elections by the Electoral Commission. some of which are linked to ethnic minorities. The National League for Democracy, which overwhelmingly won the previous 1990 elections but were never allowed to take power, decided not to participate. The military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party declared victory, winning 259 of the 330 contested seats. The United Nations and many Western countries have condemned the elections as fraudulent, although the decision to hold elections was praised by China and Russia. 2012 by-elections In by-elections held in 2012, the main opposition party National League for Democracy, which was only re-registered for the by-elections on 13 December 2011 won in 43 of the 44 seats they contested (out of 46). Significantly, international observers were invited to monitor the elections, although the government was criticised for placing too many restrictions on election monitors, some of whom were denied visas. The Union Solidarity and Development Party said it would lodge official complaints to the Union Election Commission on poll irregularities, voter intimidation, and purported campaign incidents that involved National League for Democracy members and supporters, while the National League for Democracy also sent an official complaint to the commission, regarding ballots that had been tampered with. However, President Thein Sein remarked that the by-elections were conducted "in a very successful manner", and many foreign countries have indicated willingness to lift or loosen sanctions on Burma and its military leaders. 2015 election Myanmar general elections were held on 8 November 2015. These were the first openly contested elections held in Myanmar since 1990. The results gave the National League for Democracy an absolute majority of seats in both chambers of the national parliament, enough to ensure that its candidate would become president, while NLD leader Aung San Suu Kyi is constitutionally barred from the presidency. The resounding victory of Aung San Suu Kyi's National League for Democracy in 2015 general elections raised hopes for a successful political transition from a closely held military rule to a free democratic system. This transition was widely believed to be determining the future of Myanmar. According to the results announced by the Union Election Commission on 13 November 2015, the NLD won 238 seats in the lower house and 348 seats in the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw, exceeding the required number to form a government and elect a president. 2021 military coup and subsequent junta The Tatmadaw, under the leadership of Min Aung Hlaing, seized power from the civilian government after detaining Aung San Suu Kyi and other democratically elected leaders in Naypyidaw. A military junta, officially the State Administration Council was subsequently established. Heads and deputy heads Temporary members Executive branch |State Counsellor |Aung San Su Kyi |National League for Democracy | 5 February 2021 |- |President |Win Myint |National League for Democracy | 30 March 2018 |- |Vice-President |Myint Swe |Union Solidarity and Development Party | 30 March 2016 |} The president is the head of state and de jure head of government, and oversees the Cabinet of Myanmar. Currently the Chairman of the State Administration Council is the de facto head of government. The Commander-in-Chief of the Myanmar Defense Forces (Tatmadaw) has the right to appoint 25% of the members in all legislative assembly which means that legislations cannot obtain super-majority without support from Tatmadaw, thus preventing democratically elected members from amending the 2008 Constitution of Myanmar. He can also directly appoint ministers in Ministry of Defence (Myanmar) which in turn controls Myanmar Armed Forces, Ministry of Border Affairs (Myanmar) which controls border affairs of the country, Ministry of Home Affairs (Myanmar) which controls Myanmar police forces and the administration of the country and Myanmar Economic Corporation which is the largest economic corporation in Myanmar. Legislative branch Under the 2008 Constitution the legislative power of the Union is shared among the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw, State and Region Hluttaws. The Pyidaungsu Hluttaw consists of the People's Assembly (Pyithu Hluttaw) elected on the basis of township as well as population, and the House of Nationalities (Amyotha Hluttaw) with on an equal number of representatives elected from Regions and States. The People's Assembly consists of 440 representatives, with 110 being military personnel nominated by the Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Services. The House of Nationalities consists of 224 representatives with 56 being military personnel nominated by the Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Services. Judicial system Burma's judicial system is limited. British-era laws and legal systems remain much intact, but there is no guarantee of a fair public trial. The judiciary is not independent of the executive branch. Burma does not accept compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction. The highest court in the land is the Supreme Court. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is Htun Htun Oo, and the Attorney General is also named Thida Oo. Wareru dhammathat Wareru dhammathat or the Manu dhammathat () was the earliest law-book in Burma. It consists of laws ascribed to the ancient Indian sage, Manu, and brought to Burma by Hindu colonists. The collection was made at Wareru’s command, by monks from the writings of earlier Mon scholars preserved in the monasteries of his kingdom. (Wareru seized Martaban in 1281 and obtained the recognition of China as the ruler of Lower Burma and founded a kingdom which lasted until 1539. Martaban was its first capital, and remained so until 1369. It stretched southwards as far as Tenasserim.) Dhammazedi pyatton Mon King Dhammazedi (1472–92) was the greatest of the Mon rulers of Wareru's line. He was famous for his wisdom and the collection of his rulings were recorded in the Kalyani stone inscriptions and known as the Dammazedi pyatton. Administrative divisions Burma is divided into seven regions (previously called divisions-taing) and seven states (pyi-nè), classified by ethnic composition. The seven regions are Ayeyarwady Region, Bago Division, Magway Division, Mandalay Division, Sagaing Division, Tanintharyi Division and Yangon Division; the seven states are Chin State, Kachin State, Kayin State, Kayah State, Mon State, Rakhine State and Shan State. There are also five Self-administrated zones and a Self-administrated Division "for National races with suitable population" Within the Sagain Region Naga (Leshi, Lahe and Namyun townships) Within the Shan State Palaung (Namshan and Manton townships) Kokang (Konkyan and Laukkai townships) Pao (Hopong, Hshihseng and Pinlaung townships), Danu (Ywangan and Pindaya townships), Wa Selfadministrated division (Hopang, Mongmao, Panwai, Pangsang, Naphan and Metman townships) International organisation participation Asian Development Bank Association of South East Asian Nations Chittagong City Corporation (CCC) Central Provinces (CP) ESCAP FAO G-77 IAEA IBRD ICAO International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (ICRM) International Development Association (IDA) IFAD Irrawaddy Flotilla Company (IFC) IFRCS International Monetary Fund International Monetary Fund Organization (IMO) -see IMF Intelsat (nonsignatory user) Interpol International Olympic Committee ITU NAM OPCW United Nations UNCTAD UNDP UNESCO UNIDO UPU World Health Organization WMO WToO World Trade Organization Global Justice Center (GJC) References Further reading Kipgen, Nehginpao. "Democracy Movement in Myanmar: Problems and Challenges". New Delhi: Ruby Press & Co., 2014. Print. CIA World Factbook Burma

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy%20of%20Myanmar

Economy of Myanmar

The economy of Myanmar has a nominal GDP of USD $76.09 billion in 2019 and an estimated purchasing power adjusted GDP of USD $327.629 billion in 2017 according to the World Bank. For the 2020 estimate, GDP per capita in Myanmar would be USD $5142.20 in PPP per capita and USD $1,608.50 in nominal per capita. This would make Myanmar one of the poorest countries in Southeast Asia. History Classical era Historically, Burma was the main trade route between India and China since 100 BC. The Mon Kingdom of lower Burma served as important trading centre in the Bay of Bengal. The majority of the population involved in rice production and other forms of agriculture. Burma used a system based on siliver as a medium of exchange. All land was technically owned by the Burmese monarch. Exports, along with oil wells, gem mining and teak production were controlled by the monarch. Burma was vitally involved in the Indian Ocean trade. Logged teak was a prized export that was used in European shipbuilding, because of its durability, and became the focal point of the Burmese export trade from the 1700s to the 1800s. Under the monarchy, the economy of Myanmar had been one of redistribution, a concept embedded in local society, religion, and politics (Dāna). The state set the prices of the most important commodities. Agrarian self-sufficiency was vital, while trade was only of secondary importance. British Burma (1885–1948) Under the British administration, the people of Burma were at the bottom of social hierarchy, with Europeans at the top, Indians, Chinese, and Christianized minorities in the middle, and Buddhist Burmese at the bottom. Forcefully integrated into the world economy, Burma's economy grew in extractive industries and cash crops agriculture, and had the second-highest GDP per capita in Southeast Asia; much of the wealth was concentrated in the hands of Europeans, however. The country became the world's largest exporter of rice, mainly to European markets, while other colonies like India suffered mass starvation. The British followed the ideologies of Social Darwinism and free market, and opened up the country to a large-scale immigration with Rangoon exceeding New York City as the greatest immigration port in the world in the 1920s. Historian Thant Myint-U states, "This was out of a total population of only 13 million; it was equivalent to the United Kingdom today taking 2 million people a year." By then, in most of the largest cities in Burma, Rangoon, Akyab, Bassein and Moulmein, the Indian immigrants formed a majority of the population. The Burmese under British rule felt helpless, and reacted with a "racism that combined feelings of superiority and fear". Crude oil production, an indigenous industry of Yenangyaung, was taken over by the British and put under Burmah Oil monopoly. British Burma began exporting crude oil in 1853. It produced 75% of the world's teak. The wealth was however, mainly concentrated in the hands of Europeans. In the 1930s, agricultural production fell dramatically as international rice prices declined and did not recover for several decades. During the Japanese invasion of Burma in World War II, the British followed a scorched earth policy. They destroyed the major government buildings, oil wells and mines for tungsten, tin, lead and silver to keep them from the Japanese. Myanmar was bombed extensively by the Allies. After independence, the country was in ruins with its major infrastructure completely destroyed. With the loss of India, Burma lost relevance and obtained independence from the British. After a parliamentary government was formed in 1948, Prime Minister U Nu embarked upon a policy of nationalisation and the state was declared the owner of all land. The government tried to implement an eight-year plan partly financed by injecting money into the economy which caused some inflation. Post-independence and under Ne Win (1948–1988) After a parliamentary government was formed in 1948, Prime Minister U Nu embarked upon a policy of nationalisation. He attempted to make Burma a welfare state by adopting central planning measures. By the 1950s, rice exports had decreased by two-thirds and mineral exports by over 96%. Plans were implemented in setting up light consumer industries by private sector. The 1962 Burmese coup d'état, was followed by an economic scheme called the Burmese Way to Socialism, a plan to nationalise all industries, with the exception of agriculture. The catastrophic program turned Burma into one of the world's most impoverished countries. Burma's admittance to least developed country status by the United Nations in 1987 highlighted its economic bankruptcy. Rule of the generals (1988–2011) After 1988, the regime retreated from a command economy. It permitted modest expansion of the private sector, allowed some foreign investment, and received much needed foreign exchange. The economy was rated in 2009 as the least free in Asia (tied with North Korea). All fundamental market institutions are suppressed. Private enterprises are often co-owned or indirectly owned by state. The corruption watchdog organisation Transparency International in its 2007 Corruption Perceptions Index released on 26 September 2007 ranked Burma the most corrupt country in the world, tied with Somalia. The national currency is the kyat. Burma currently has a dual exchange rate system similar to Cuba. The market rate was around two hundred times below the government-set rate in 2006. In 2011, the Burmese government enlisted the aid of International Monetary Fund to evaluate options to reform the current exchange rate system, to stabilise the domestic foreign exchange trading market and creates economic distortions. The dual exchange rate system allows for the government and state-owned enterprises to divert funds and revenues, but also gives the government more control over the local economy and temporarily subdue inflation. Inflation averaged 30.1% between 2005 and 2007. In April 2007, the National League for Democracy organised a two-day workshop on the economy. The workshop concluded that skyrocketing inflation was impeding economic growth. "Basic commodity prices have increased from 30% to 60% since the military regime promoted a salary increase for government workers in April 2006," said Soe Win, the moderator of the workshop. "Inflation is also correlated with corruption." Myint Thein, an NLD spokesperson, added: "Inflation is the critical source of the current economic crisis." In recent years, China and India attempted to strengthen ties with Myanmar for mutual benefit. The European Union and some nations including the United States and Canada imposed investment and trade sanctions on Burma. The United States banned all imports from Burma, though this restriction was since lifted. Foreign investment comes primarily from People's Republic of China, Singapore, South Korea, India, and Thailand. Economic liberalisation (2011–present) In 2011, when new President Thein Sein's government came to power, Burma embarked on a major policy of reforms including anti-corruption, currency exchange rate regulation, foreign investment laws and taxation. Foreign investments increased from US$300 million in 2009–10 to a US$20 billion in 2010–11 by about 6567%. Large inflow of capital results in stronger Burmese currency, kyat by about 25%. In response, the government relaxed import restrictions and abolished export taxes. Despite current currency problems, Burmese economy is expected to grow by about 8.8% in 2011. After the completion of 58-billion dollar Dawei deep seaport, Burma is expected be at the hub of trade connecting Southeast Asia and the South China Sea, via the Andaman Sea, to the Indian Ocean receiving goods from countries in the Middle East, Europe and Africa, and spurring growth in the ASEAN region. In 2012, the Asian Development Bank formally began re-engaging with the country, to finance infrastructure and development projects in the country. The $512 million loan is the first issued by the ADB to Myanmar in 30 years and will target banking services, ultimately leading to other major investments in road, energy, irrigation and education projects. In March 2012, a draft foreign investment law emerged, the first in more than 2 decades. This law oversees the unprecedented liberalisation of the economy. It for example stipulates that foreigners no longer require a local partner to start a business in the country and can legally lease land. The draft law also stipulates that Burmese citizens must constitute at least 25% of the firm's skilled workforce, and with subsequent training, up to 50–75%. On 28 January 2013, the government of Myanmar announced deals with international lenders to cancel or refinance nearly $6 billion of its debt, almost 60 per cent of what it owes to foreign lenders. Japan wrote off US$3 Billion, nations in the group of Paris Club wrote off US$2.2 Billion and Norway wrote off US$534 Million. Myanmar's inward foreign direct investment has steadily increased since its reform. The country approved US$4.4 billion worth of investment projects between January and November 2014. According to one report released on 30 May 2013, by the McKinsey Global Institute, Burma's future looks bright, with its economy expected to quadruple by 2030 if it invests in more high-tech industries. This however does assume that other factors (such as drug trade, the continuing war of the government with specific ethnic groups, etc.) do not interfere. As of October 2017, less than 10% of Myanmar's population has a bank account. As of 2016–17 approximately 98 percent of the population has smartphones and mobile money schemes are being implemented without the use of banks similar to African countries. For 2018 estimate, Myanmar's GDP per capita will be $6,509 in PPP per capita and $1,490 in nominal per capita. On April 30, 2021, the United Nations Development Programme published a report indicating that the COVID-19 virus and the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état in February 2021 could reverse economic gains made over the last sixteen years. Still unresolved internal problems In a first ever countrywide study in 2013, the Myanmar government found that 37 per cent of the nation's population were unemployed and an average of 26 per cent lived in poverty. The current state of the Burmese economy has also had a significant impact on the people of Burma, as economic hardship results in extreme delays of marriage and family building. The average age of marriage in Burma is 27.5 for men, 26.4 for women, almost unparalleled in the region, with the exception of developed countries like Singapore. Burma also has a low fertility rate, of 2.07 children per woman (2010), especially as compared to other Southeast Asian countries of similar economic standing, like Cambodia (3.18) and Laos (4.41), representing a significant decline from 4.7 in 1983, despite the absence of a national population policy. This is at least partly attributed to the economic strain that additional children place on the family income, and has resulted in the prevalence of illegal abortions in the country, as well as use of other forms of birth control. The 2012 foreign investment law draft, included a proposal to transform the Myanmar Investment Commission from a government-appointed body into an independent board. This could bring greater transparency to the process of issuing investment licenses, according to the proposed reforms drafted by experts and senior officials. However, even with this draft, it will still remain a question on whether corruption in the government can be addressed (links have been shown between certain key individuals inside the government and the drug trade, as well as many industries that use forced labour -for example the mining industry-). Many regions (such as the Golden Triangle) remain off-limits for foreigners, and in some of these regions, the government is still at war with certain ethnic groups. Industries The major agricultural produce is rice which covers about 60% of the country's total cultivated land area. Rice accounts for 97% of total food grain production by weight. Through collaboration with the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), 52 modern rice varieties were released in the country between 1966 and 1997, helping increase national rice production to 14 million tons in 1987 and to 19 million tons in 1996. By 1988, modern varieties were planted on half of the country's rice fields, including 98% of the irrigated areas. In 2011, Myanmar's total milled rice production accounted for 10.60 million tons, an increase from the 1.8 per cent back in 2010. In northern Burma opium bans have ended a century old tradition of growing poppy. Between 20,000 and 30,000 ex-poppyfarmers left the Kokang region as a result of the ban in 2002. Rubber plantations are being promoted in areas of high elevation like Mong Mao. Sugar plantations are grown in the lowlands such as Mong Pawk District. The lack of an educated workforce skilled in modern technology contributes to the growing problems of the economy. Lately, the country lacks adequate infrastructure. Goods travel primarily across Thai and China borders and through the main port in Yangon. Railroads are old and rudimentary, with few repairs since their construction in the late nineteenth century. Presently China and Japan are providing aid to upgrade rail transport. Highways are normally paved, except in the remote border regions. Energy shortages are common throughout the country including in Yangon. About 30 percent of the country's population is without electricity, with 70 per cent of people living in rural areas. The civilian government has indicated that electricity will be imported from Laos to fulfill demand. Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, gems, metals, oil and natural gas. The private sector dominates in agriculture, light industry, and transport activities, while the government controls energy, heavy industry, and military industries. Garment production The garment industry is a major job creator in the Yangon area, with around 200,000 workers employed in total in mid-2015. The Myanmar Government has introduced minimum wage of MMK 4,800 (US$3.18) per day for the garment workers from March 2018. The Myanmar garments sector has seen significant influx of foreign direct investment, if measured by the number of entries rather than their value. In March 2012, six of Thailand's largest garment manufacturers announced that they would move production to Burma, principally to the Yangon area, citing lower labour costs. In mid-2015, about 55% of officially registered garment firms in Myanmar were known to be fully or partly foreign-owned, with about 25% of the foreign firms from China and 17% from Hong Kong. Foreign-linked firms supply almost all garment exports, and these have risen rapidly in recent years, especially since EU sanctions were lifted in 2012. Myanmar exported $1.6 billion worth of garment and textiles in 2016. Illegal drug trade Burma (Myanmar) is the largest producer of methamphetamines in the world, with the majority of ya ba found in Thailand produced in Burma, particularly in the Golden Triangle and Northeastern Shan State, which borders Thailand, Laos and China. Burmese-produced Ya ba is typically trafficked to Thailand via Laos, before being transported through the northeastern Thai region of Isan. In 2010, Burma trafficked 1 billion tablets to neighbouring Thailand. In 2009, Chinese authorities seized over 40 million tablets that had been illegally trafficked from Burma. Ethnic militias and rebel groups (in particular the United Wa State Army) are responsible for much of this production; however, the Burmese military units are believed to be heavily involved in the trafficking of the drugs. Burma is also the 2nd largest supplier of opium (following Afghanistan) in the world, with 95% of opium grown in Shan State. Illegal narcotics have generated $1 to US$2 billion in exports annually, with estimates of 40% of the country's foreign exchange coming from drugs. Efforts to eradicate opium cultivation have pushed many ethnic rebel groups, including the United Wa State Army and the Kokang to diversify into methamphetamine production. Prior to the 1980s, heroin was typically transported from Burma to Thailand, before being trafficked by sea to Hong Kong, which was and still remains the major transit point at which heroin enters the international market. Now, drug trafficking has circumvented to southern China (from Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Guangdong) because of a growing market for drugs in China, before reaching Hong Kong. The prominence of major drug traffickers have allowed them to penetrate other sectors of the Burmese economy, including the banking, airline, hotel and infrastructure industries. Their investment in infrastructure have allowed them to make more profits, facilitate drug trafficking and money laundering. The share of informal economy in Myanmar is one of the largest in the world that feeds into trade in illegal drugs. Oil and gas Myanma Oil and Gas Enterprise (MOGE) is a national oil and gas company of Burma. The company is a sole operator of oil and gas exploration and production, as well as domestic gas transmission through a onshore pipeline grid. The Yadana Project is a project to exploit the Yadana gas field in the Andaman Sea and to carry natural gas to Thailand through Myanmar. Sino-Burma pipelines refers to planned oil and natural gas pipelines linking the Burma's deep-water port of Kyaukphyu (Sittwe) in the Bay of Bengal with Kunming in Yunnan province, China. The Norwegian company Seadrill owned by John Fredriksen is involved in offshore oildrilling, expected to give the Burmese government oil and oil export revenues. Myanmar exported $3.5 billion worth of gas, mostly to Thailand in the fiscal year up to March 2012. Initiation to bid on oil exploration licenses for 18 of Myanmar's onshore oil blocks has been released on 18 January 2013. Renewable energy Myanmar has rich solar power and hydropower potential. Country's technical solar power potential is the highest among the nations of the Greater Mekong Subregion. Wind energy, biogas and biomass have limited potential and weakly developed. Gemstones The Union of Myanmar's economy depends heavily on sales of precious stones such as sapphires, pearls and jade. Rubies are the biggest earner; 90% of the world's rubies come from the country, whose red stones are prized for their purity and hue. Thailand buys the majority of the country's gems. Burma's "Valley of Rubies", the mountainous Mogok area, north of Mandalay, is noted for its rare pigeon's blood rubies and blue sapphires. Myanmar is famed for its production of Golden South Sea Pearls. In recent years, the countries has auctioned its production in Hong Kong, first organized by Belpearl company in 2013 to critical acclaim and premium prices due to strong Chinese demand. Notable pearls include the New Dawn of Myanmar, a 19mm round golden pearl which sold to an anonymous buyer for undisclosed price. In 2007, following the crackdown on pro-democracy protests in Myanmar, human rights organisations, gem dealers, and US First Lady Laura Bush called for a boycott of a Myanmar gem auction held twice yearly, arguing that the sale of the stones profited the dictatorial regime in that country. Debbie Stothard of the Alternative ASEAN Network on Burma stated that mining operators used drugs on employees to improve productivity, with needles shared, raising the risk of HIV infection: "These rubies are red with the blood of young people." Brian Leber (41-year-old jeweller who founded The Jewellers' Burma Relief Project) stated that: "For the time being, Burmese gems should not be something to be proud of. They should be an object of revulsion. It's the only country where one obtains really top quality rubies, but I stopped dealing in them. I don't want to be part of a nation's misery. If someone asks for a ruby now I show them a nice pink sapphire." Richard W. Hughes, author of Ruby and Sapphire, a Bangkok-based gemologist who has made many trips to Burma makes the point that for every ruby sold through the junta, another gem that supports subsistence mining is smuggled over the Thai border. Burma's gemstone industry is a cornerstone of the Burmese economy with exports topping $1 billion. The permits for new gem mines in Mogoke, Mineshu and Nanyar state will be issued by the ministry according to a statement issued by the ministry on 11 February. While many sanctions placed on the former regime were eased or lifted in 2012, the US has left restrictions on importing rubies and jade from Myanmar intact. According to recent amendments to the new Myanmar foreign investment law, there is no longer a minimum capital requirement for investments, except in mining ventures, which require substantial proof of capital and must be documented through a domestic bank. Another important clarification in the investment law is the dropping of foreign ownership restrictions in joint ventures, except in restricted sectors, such as mining, where FDI will be capped at 80 per cent. Tourism Since 1992, the government has encouraged tourism. Until 2008, fewer than 750,000 tourists entered the country annually, but there has been substantial growth over the past years. In 2012, 1.06 million tourists visited the country, and 1.8 million are expected to visit by the end of 2013. Tourism is a growing sector of the economy of Burma. Burma has diverse and varied tourist attractions and is served internationally by numerous airlines via direct flights. Domestic and foreign airlines also operate flights within the country. Cruise ships also dock at Yangon. Overland entry with a border pass is permitted at several border checkpoints. The government requires a valid passport with an entry visa for all tourists and business people. As of May 2010, foreign business visitors from any country can apply for a visa on arrival when passing through Yangon and Mandalay international airports without having to make any prior arrangements with travel agencies. Both the tourist visa and business visa are valid for 28 days, renewable for an additional 14 days for tourism and three months for business. Seeing Burma through a personal tour guide is popular. Travellers can hire guides through travel agencies. Aung San Suu Kyi has requested that international tourists not visit Burma. Moreoever, the junta's forced labour programmes were focused on tourist destinations; these designations have been heavily criticised for their human rights records. Even disregarding the obviously governmental fees, Burma's Minister of Hotels and Tourism Major-General Saw Lwin admitted that the government receives a significant percentage of the income of private sector tourism services. In addition, only a very small minority of impoverished people in Burma receive any money with any relation to tourism. Before 2012, much of the country was completely off-limits to tourists, and the military tightly controlled interactions between foreigners and the people of Burma. Locals were not allowed to discuss politics with foreigners, under penalty of imprisonment, and in 2001, the Myanmar Tourism Promotion Board issued an order for local officials to protect tourists and limit "unnecessary contact" between foreigners and ordinary Burmese people. Since 2012, Burma has opened up to more tourism and foreign capital, synonymous with the country's transition to democracy. Infrastructure The Myanmar Infrastructure Summit 2018 noted that Myanmar has an urgent need to "close its infrastructure gap", with an anticipated expenditure of US$120 billion funding its infrastructural projects between now and 2030. More specifically, infrastructural development in Myanmar should address three major challenges over the upcoming years: 1) Road modernization and integration with neighboring roads and transportation networks; 2) Development of regional airports and expansion of existing airport capacity, and 3) Maintenance and consolidation of urban transport infrastructure, through instalments of innovative transportation tools including but not limited to water-taxis and air-conditioned buses. Myanmar needs to scale up its enabling infrastructure like transport, power supply and public utilities. China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) infrastructure projects may affect 24 million people in Myanmar living in the BRI corridors, thus transforming the allocation of economic benefits and losses among economic actors in the country. External trade Macro-economic trends This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Burma at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund and EconStats with figures in millions of Myanmar kyats. The following table shows the main economic indicators in 2004–2017. Foreign investment Though foreign investment has been encouraged, it has so far met with only moderate success. This is because foreign investors have been adversely affected by the junta government policies and because of international pressure to boycott the junta government. The United States has placed trade sanctions on Burma. The European Union has placed embargoes on arms, non-humanitarian aid, visa bans on military regime leaders, and limited investment bans. Both the European Union and the US have placed sanctions on grounds of human rights violations in the country. Many nations in Asia, particularly India, Thailand and China have actively traded with Burma. However, on April 22, 2013, the EU suspended economic and political sanctions against Burma. The public sector enterprises remain highly inefficient and also privatisation efforts have stalled. The estimates of Burmese foreign trade are highly ambiguous because of the great volume of black market trading. A major ongoing problem is the failure to achieve monetary and fiscal stability. Due to this, Burma remains a poor country with no improvement of living standards for the majority of the population over the past decade. The main causes for continued sluggish growth are poor government planning, internal unrest, minimal foreign investment and the large trade deficit. One government initiative was to utilise Burma's large natural gas deposits. Currently, Burma has attracted investment from Thai, Malaysian, Filipino, Russian, Australian, Indian, and Singaporean companies. Trade with the US amounted to $243.56 million as of February 2013, accounting for 15 projects and just 0.58 per cent of the total, according to government statistics. The Economists special report on Burma points to increased economic activity resulting from Burma's political transformation and influx of foreign direct investment from Asian neighbours. Near the Mingaladon Industrial Park, for example, Japanese-owned factories have risen from the "debris" caused by "decades of sanctions and economic mismanagement." Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe has identified Burma as an economically attractive market that will help stimulate the Japanese economy. Among its various enterprises, Japan is helping build the Thilawa Port, which is part of the Thilawa Special Economic Zone, and helping fix the electricity supply in Yangon. Japan is not the largest investor in Myanmar. "Thailand, for instance, the second biggest investor in Myanmar after China, is forging ahead with a bigger version of Thilawa at Dawei, on Myanmar's Tenasserim Coast ... Thai rulers have for centuries been toying with the idea of building a canal across the Kra Isthmus, linking the Gulf of Thailand directly to the Andaman Sea and the Indian Ocean to avoid the journey round peninsular Malaysia through the Strait of Malacca." Dawei would give Thailand that connection. China, by far the biggest investor in Burma, has focused on constructing oil and gas pipelines that "crisscross the country, starting from a new terminus at Kyaukphyu, just below Sittwe, up to Mandalay and on to the Chinese border town of Ruili and then Kunming, the capital of Yunnan province". This would prevent China from "having to funnel oil from Africa and the Middle East through the bottleneck around Singapore". According to the CIA World Factbook, The economy saw continuous real GDP growth of at least 5% since 2009. Financing geothermal projects in Myanmar use an estimated break even power cost of 5.3–8.6 U.S cents/kWh or in Myanmar Kyat 53–86K per kWh. This pegs a non-fluctuating $1=1000K, which is a main concern for power project funding. The main drawback with depreciation pressures, in the current FX market. Between June 2012 and October 2015, the Myanmar Kyat depreciated by approximately 35%, from 850 down to 1300 against the US Dollar. Local businesses with foreign denominated loans from abroad suddenly found themselves rushing for a strategy to mitigate currency risks. Myanmar's current lack of available currency hedging solutions presents a real challenge for Geothermal project financing. Foreign aid The level of international aid to Burma ranks amongst the lowest in the world (and the lowest in the Southeast Asian region)—Burma receives $4 per capita in development assistance, as compared to the average of $42.30 per capita. In April 2007, the US Government Accountability Office (GAO) identified the financial and other restrictions that the military government places on international humanitarian assistance in the Southeast Asian country. The GAO report, entitled "Assistance Programs Constrained in Burma," outlines the specific efforts of the Burmese government to hinder the humanitarian work of international organisations, including by restricting the free movement of international staff within the country. The report notes that the regime has tightened its control over assistance work since former Prime Minister Khin Nyunt was purged in October 2004. Furthermore, the reports states that the military government passed guidelines in February 2006, which formalised Burma's restrictive policies. According to the report, the guidelines require that programs run by humanitarian groups "enhance and safeguard the national interest" and that international organisations co-ordinate with state agents and select their Burmese staff from government-prepared lists of individuals. United Nations officials have declared these restrictions unacceptable. US Representative Ileana Ros-Lehtinen (R-FL) said that the report "underscores the need for democratic change in Burma, whose military regime arbitrarily arrests, tortures, rapes and executes its own people, ruthlessly persecutes ethnic minorities, and bizarrely builds itself a new capital city while failing to address the increasingly urgent challenges of refugee flows, illicit narcotics and human trafficking, and the spread of HIV/AIDS and other communicable diseases." Other statistics Electricity – production: 17,866.99 GWh (2016 est.) Electricity – consumption: 2,384.89 GWh (2016 est.) Electricity – exports: 2,381.34 kWh (2016) Electricity – imports: 0 kWh (2006) Agriculture – products: rice, pulses, beans, sesame, groundnuts, watermelon, avocado sugarcane; hardwood; fish and fish products Currency: 1 kyat (K) = 100 pyas Exchange rates: kyats per US dollar – 1,205 (2008 est.), 1,296 (2007), 1,280 (2006), 5.82 (2005), 5.7459 (2004), 6.0764 (2003) note: unofficial exchange rates ranged in 2004 from 815 kyat/US dollar to nearly 970 kyat/US dollar, and by year end 2005, the unofficial exchange rate was 1,075 kyat/US dollar; data shown for 2003–05 are official exchange rates Foreign Direct Investment In the first eight months, Myanmar has received investment of US$5.7 billion. Singapore has remained as the top source of foreign direct investments into Myanmar in the financial year of 2019-2020 with 20 Singapore-listed enterprises bringing in US$1.85 billion into Myanmar in the financial year 2019-2020. Hong Kong stood as the second-largest investors with an estimated capital of US$1.42 billion from 46 enterprises, followed by Japan investing $760 million in Myanmar. Foreign Trade Total foreign trade reached over US$24.5 billion in the first eight months of the fiscal year (FY) 2019-2020 . References Further reading Myanmar Business Today; Print Edition, 5 November 2015. Geothermal Energy in Myanmar, Securing Electricity for Eastern Border Development, by David DuByne & Hishamuddin Koh Myanmar Business Today; Print Edition, 19 June 2014. Myanmar’s Institutional Infrastructure Constraints and How to Fill the Gaps, by David DuByne & Hishamuddin Koh Myanmar Business Today; Print Edition, 27 February 2014. A Roadmap to Building Myanmar into the Food Basket of Asia, by David DuByne & Hishamuddin Koh Taipei American Chamber of Commerce; Topics Magazine, Analysis, November 2012. Myanmar: Southeast Asia's Last Frontier for Investment, by David DuByne Taiwan ASEAN Studies Center; ASEAN Outlook Magazine, May 2013. Myanmar’s Overlooked Industry Opportunities and Investment Climate, by David DuByne External links Google Earth Map of oil and gas infrastructure in Myanmar Myanmar Ministry of Commerce (MMC) News, information, journals, magazines related to Burmese business and commerce Myanmar-US Chamber of Commerce Union of Myanmar Federation of Chambers of Commerce and Industry (UMFCCI) World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Myanmar World Trade Organization member economies

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications%20in%20Myanmar

Telecommunications in Myanmar

Myanmar has begun the liberalization of its Telecommunication market in 2013. Telecommunication networks Previously, Myanma Post and Telecommunication (MPT) had a monopoly in the country. In 2013, the government started taking steps to open up the telecommunications market, issuing licenses to new service providers. Consulting firm Roland Berger supported the government in the liberalization and tendering process. In 2014, Qatar-based Ooredoo and Norwegian Telenor throughout their local subsidiaries - respectively Ooredoo Myanmar and Telenor Myanmar - entered the market, resulting in the reduction of consumer prices and rapid growth in the number of subscribers, as well as the expansion of the country's infrastructure. In November 2015, Ericsson named Myanmar the world's fourth fastest-growing mobile market. As of June 2015, Myanmar has a mobile phone penetration rate of 54.6%, up from less than 10% in 2012. On 12 January 2017, Mytel (Telecom International Myanmar Co., Ltd.) received License for the provision of telecommunication services, officially became the 4th operator in Myanmar. Telephone system General assessment: meets minimum requirements for local and intercity service for business and government Domestic: system barely capable of providing basic service; cellular phone system is grossly underdeveloped with a subscribership base of less than 1 per 100 persons International: country code - 95; landing point for the SEA-ME-WE 3 optical telecommunications submarine cable that provides links to Asia, the Middle East, and Europe; satellite earth stations - 2, Intelsat (Indian Ocean) and ShinSat (2007) Bids have been offered for two fresh telecom licenses by the Myanmar government. The deadline was set to be 8 February 2013. The licenses were expected to be issued in June and carry a contract duration of up to 20 years. Two more licenses were expected to be offered following this round of bidding. According to government statistics, 5.4 million of Myanmar's 60 million population had a mobile phone subscription at the end of 2012, giving the country a mobile penetration of 9 per cent. According to official figures released in mid-2012, Myanmar had 857 base transceiver stations (BTS) for 1,654,667 local GSM mobile users, 188 BTSs for 225,617 local WCDMA mobile users, 366 BTSs for 633,569 local CDMA-450 mobile users, and 193 BTSs for 341,687 CDMA-800 mobile users. Huawei who has built 40 percent of the towers and ZTE has built 60 percent in Myanmar, which amounts to 1500 across the country, said it has built the towers mostly in Yangon, Mandalay, and Naypyidaw. The Myanmar Telecommunications Operator Tender Evaluation and Selection Committee selected Norwegian Telenor Group and Ooredoo of Qatar as winners of the bidding, for the two telecom licenses issued by the government of Myanmar. The licenses allow the operators to build and operate a nationwide wireless network for 15 years. Ooredoo began selling low-price SIM cards at a price of US$1.5 in Yangon, Mandalay, and Naypyidaw in August 2014. Prior to 2012, during military rule, SIM cards cost USD 1,500. Mytel is the fourth telecom firm in Myanmar. It is a joint venture between Myanmar Army-backed Star High Public Co Ltd, which holds 48 percent, Vietnam's Ministry of Defence owned Viettel Group, which holds 28 percent, and Myanmar National Telecom Holding Public Ltd, a group of 11 local companies with a combined 23-percent stake. Commander-in-chief Senior General Min Aung Hlaing stated at the opening ceremony of Mytel on 11 February 2018 that it will cover 93 percent of the 2G networks and 60 percent of the 4G networks of Myanmar after installing towers and stations across the country. Media Radio broadcast stations AM 2, FM 9, shortwave 3 (2015)Television broadcast stations:6 (2015)Press Kyehmon (Burmese: ) - state-run daily The New Light of Myanmar () - English and Burmese language organ of SPDC The Myanmar Times () - private-run English-language weekly Myanmar Business Today - the country's first and the only private-run business weeklyTelevision MRTV state-run, operated by Myanmar Government - Broadcasts With DVB-T2 System. Including 14 TV Channels Burmese, Arakanese, Shan, Karen, Kachin, Kayah, Chin, Mon and English MITV - Showing about Myanmar to around the World. Myawady TV army-run network Broadcasts 7 Free Digital Channel available in Naypyidaw, Yangon & Mandalay. SKYNET Largest Pay TV Service In Myanmar. Providing 110 TV Channels (Local & International) Including 10 High Definition Channel. Broadcasts With DTH system on Apstar 7 Satellite. SKYNET Have Official Broadcaster To England Premier League, Spain LaLiga, Italy Serie-A, France League 1 In 2015/16 Season. 4TV - Second Largest Pay TV Service In Myanmar. operated by Forever Group. Providing Free to air Channels, Local & International Pay TV Channels, and High Definition Channels. 4TV Has Only Broadcasts 2 Way With DTH and DVB-T2 In Myanmar. Democratic Voice of Burma - Activists from the 88 Generation launched it. Based in Norway, it makes both TV and Radio broadcastsRadio Radio Myanmar - state-run, operated by Myanmar TV and Radio Department Thazin Radio - Military operated station City FM - entertainment-based, operated by Yangon City Development Committee Bagan FM Cherry FM - Commercial station broadcasting music based programs to main cities Mandalay FM Padamyar FM Pyinsawaddy FM Shwe FM Democratic Voice of Burma - opposition station based in Norway, broadcasts via shortwaveNews agency''' Myanmar News Agency (MNA) - state-run Internet The government now allows unrestricted access to the Internet. Many people are using the internet freely, often with widely available smart phones. Myanmar Teleport (formerly Bagan Cybertech), Information Technology Central Services (ITCS), and the state-owned Myanmar Post and Telecommunication (MPT) are two of the Internet service providers in Myanmar. Internet cafés are common in the larger cities of the country. Satellite (VSAT) internet connection is also available from Skynet, a satellite television provider, and another (VSAT) Operator Com & Com. According to MPT's official statistics as of July 2010, the country had over 400,000 Internet users (0.8% of the population) with the vast majority of the users located in the two largest cities, Yangon and Mandalay. More recent figures are hard to find, but the widespread use of smart phones and tablets with cellular modems on the 3G and 4G networks means that internet usage is likely to be far higher than the figures from 2010 indicate. Although the internet remains unrestricted, Myanmar experience internet shut downs during politically sensitive times. In 2007, the military government shutdown the internet during the Saffron Revolution for a few days to restrict information from within the country to be disseminated to international media. In 2019 June to February 2020, a few townships from Rakkhine and Chin State are facing internet shut downs as ordered by the Ministry of Transport and Communications. On 3 February 2021, 3G and 4G data network was restored in Rakhine and Chin States. Starting from dawn of 1 February 2021, there're re-restrictions and outage to access to the internet by the Military Government because of 2021 Myanmar coup d'état. The government banned and blocked social media, including Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and WhatsApp, western news agency websites and also Wikipedia. Starting from 16 February 2021, the internet was shut down from 1 a.m. to 9 a.m. in nationwide. On 22 February 2021, the internet was shut down only in Yangon from 12 a.m. to 12 p.m. while other states and regions were only from 1 a.m. to 9 a.m. See also Censorship in Burma References External links Myanmar Post and Telecoms - the government ISP

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport%20in%20Myanmar

Transport in Myanmar

The government of Myanmar (earlier known as Burma) has two ministries controlling transportation, the Ministry of Transport and the Ministry of Rail Transport. Road total: paved: unpaved: (2006) The main highways are as follows: 1 – Runs from Yangon to Mandalay, passing through Bago, Taungoo, Pyinmana and Meiktila. 2 – Runs from Yangon to Mandalay, passing through Pyay, Magwe, Kyaukpadaung and Myingyan. 3 – Runs from Mandalay to Muse, on the border with China, passing through Lashio. 4 – Runs from Meiktila to Tachileik, on the border with Thailand, passing through Taunggyi and Kengtung. 5 – Runs from Taungoo to Hopong, passing through Loikaw. 6 – Runs from Yangon to Pathein. 7 – Runs from Mandalay to Moreh, on the border with India, passing through Shwebo and Kale. 8 – Runs from Hpagyargyi to Myeik, passing through Moulmein, Ye and Dawei. 31 – Runs from Mandalay to Myitkyina, passing through Mogok and Bhamo. There is one expressway in the country, which features double carriageway and four lanes on its entire length: Yangon-Mandalay Expressway – Runs from Yangon to Mandalay, by-passing Bago, Taungoo, Naypyidaw and Meiktila. Length:365 miles (587 km). The other highways are as follows: Wonnral Road – Runs from Naungte to Retphaw, by- passing Hlagazaing, Myohaung, Duk Daw Nain, Kale, Kayin State, Tagondaing, Tamoowoug, Taungdi, Kyongawon, Phabya, Paya and Ta Nyin. Length: 35 miles (55 km). In 2017, Yangon launched a bus network system that would reduce traffic and commute time of some two million commuters in the city. Rail , Myanmar had of railways, all gauge. There are currently no rail links to adjacent countries. Water ; navigable by large commercial vessels. (2008) Belmond Ltd operates its business in Ayeyarwady River by the name Road to Mandalay River Cruise. Irrawaddy Flotilla Company was also in service along the Ayeyarwady River in the 20th century, until 1942, when the fleet was destroyed to prevent invading Japanese forces from making use of it. The IFC has since been revived as Pandaw, named for a salvaged original IFC ship, and is now one of the leading river cruise companies in the country. Merchant marine total: 24 ships (with a volume of or over) totalling / Ships by type: bulk carrier 1, cargo ship 17, passenger ship 2, passenger/cargo 3, specialised tanker 1 (2008) note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 3 countries: Cyprus 1, Germany 1, Japan 1 Ports and harbours Sea Yangon Sittwe (Akyab) Dawei – railhead – new deepwater port under construction 2005 River Myitkyina Bhamo Mandalay Pakokku Pathein Air Airports In July 2010, the country had 69 airports. Only 11 of them had runways over 2 miles (3250 meters). Of the 11, only Yangon International and Mandalay International had adequate facilities to handle larger jets. total: 69 over 3,047 metres (3333 yards): 11 1524 to 3,047 metres (1666 yards to 3333 yards): 27 Under 1524 metres (1666 yards): 31 Heliports 4 Pipelines Crude oil ; natural gas . Proposed pipe from Kyaukphyu through Mandalay to Kunming See also Road Transport Authority (Myanmar) Myanmar Railways External links References

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatmadaw

Tatmadaw

The Tatmadaw (, , ) is the official name of the armed forces of Myanmar (formerly Burma). It is administered by the Ministry of Defence and composed of the Myanmar Army, the Myanmar Navy and the Myanmar Air Force. Auxiliary services include the Myanmar Police Force, the Border Guard Forces, the Myanmar Coast Guard, and the People's Militia Units. Since independence, the Tatmadaw has faced significant ethnic insurgencies, especially in Kachin, Kayin, Kayah, and Shan states. General Ne Win took control of the country in a 1962 coup d'état, attempting to build an autarkic society called the Burmese Way to Socialism. Following the violent repression of nationwide protests in 1988, the military agreed to free elections in 1990, but ignored the resulting victory of the National League for Democracy and imprisoned its leader Aung San Suu Kyi. The 1990s also saw the escalation of the conflict between Buddhists and Rohingya Muslims in Rakhine State due to RSO attacks on Tatmadaw forces. In 2008, the Tatmadaw again rewrote Myanmar's constitution, installing the pro-junta Union Solidarity and Development Party(USDP) in 2010 elections boycotted by most opposition groups. Political reforms over the next half-decade culminated in a sweeping NLD victory in the 2015 election; after the USDP lost another election in 2020, the Tatmadaw annulled the election and deposed the civilian government. The Tatmadaw has been widely accused by international organizations of human rights offenses including ethnic cleansing, torture, sexual assault and massacre of civilians. According to the Constitution of Myanmar, the Tatmadaw directly reports to the National Defence and Security Council (NDSC) led by the President of Myanmar. The NDSC is an eleven-member national security council responsible for security and defence affairs in Myanmar. The NDSC serves as the highest authority in the Government of Myanmar. History Burmese Monarchy The Royal Armed Forces was the armed forces of the Burmese monarchy from the 9th to 19th centuries. It refers to the military forces of the Pagan Dynasty, the Ava Kingdom, the Toungoo Dynasty and the Konbaung Dynasty in chronological order. The army was one of the major armed forces of Southeast Asia until it was defeated by the British over a six-decade span in the 19th century. The army was organised into a small standing army of a few thousand, which defended the capital and the palace, and a much larger conscription-based wartime army. Conscription was based on the ahmudan system, which required local chiefs to supply their predetermined quota of men from their jurisdiction on the basis of population in times of war. The wartime army also consisted of elephantry, cavalry, artillery and naval units. Firearms, first introduced from China in the late 14th century, became integrated into strategy only gradually over many centuries. The first special musket and artillery units, equipped with Portuguese matchlocks and cannon, were formed in the 16th century. Outside the special firearm units, there was no formal training program for the regular conscripts, who were expected to have a basic knowledge of self-defence, and how to operate the musket on their own. As the technological gap between European powers widened in the 18th century, the army was dependent on Europeans' willingness to sell more sophisticated weaponry. While the army had held its own against the armies of the kingdom's neighbours, its performance against more technologically advanced European armies deteriorated over time. While it defeated the Portuguese and French intrusions in the 17th and 18th centuries respectively, the army proved unable to match the military strength of the British Empire in the 19th century, losing the First, Second and Third Anglo-Burmese Wars. On 1 January 1886, the Royal Burmese Army was formally disbanded by the British government. British Burma (1885–1948) Under British rule, the colonial government in Burma abstained from recruiting Burmese soldiers into the East India Company forces (and later the British Indian Army), instead relying on pre-existing Indian sepoys and Nepalese Gurkhas to garrison the nascent colony. Due to mistrust of the Burmese population, the colonial government maintained this ban for decades, instead looking to the indigenous Karens, Kachins and Chins to form new military units in the colony. In 1937, the colonial government overturned the ban, and Burmese troops started to enlist in small numbers in the British Indian Army. At the beginning of the First World War, the only Burmese military regiment in the British Indian Army, the 70th Burma Rifles, consisted of three battalions, made up of Karens, Kachins and Chins. During the conflict, the demands of war led to the colonial government relaxing the ban, raising a Burmese battalion in the 70th Burma Rifles, a Burmese company in the 85th Burma Rifles, and seven Burmese Mechanical Transport companies. In addition, three companies (combat units) of Burma Sappers and Miners, made up of mostly Burmese, and a company of Labour Corps, made up of Chins and Burmese, were also raised. All these units began their overseas assignment in 1917. The 70th Burma Rifles served in Egypt for garrison duties while the Burmese Labour Corps served in France. One company of Burma Sappers and Miners distinguished themselves in Mesopotamia at the crossing the Tigris. After the First World War, the colonial government stopped recruiting Burmese soldiers, and discharged all but one Burmese companies, which had been abolished by 1925. The last Burmese company of Burma Sappers and Miners too was disbanded in 1929. Instead, Indian soldiers and other ethnic minorities were used as the primary colonial force in Burma, which was used to suppress ethnic Burmese rebellions such as the one led by Saya San from 1930 to 1931. On 1 April 1937, Burma was made a separate colony, and Burmese were now eligible to join the army. But few Burmese bothered to join. Before World War II began, the British Burma Army consisted of Karen (27.8%), Chin (22.6%), Kachin (22.9%), and Burmese 12.3%, without counting their British officer corps. In December 1941, a group of Burmese independence activists founded the Burma Independence Army (BIA) with Japanese help. The Burma Independence Army led by Aung San (the father of Aung San Su Kyi) fought in the Burma Campaign on the side of the Imperial Japanese Army. Thousands of young men joined its ranks—reliable estimates range from 15,000 to 23,000. The great majority of the recruits were Burmese, with little ethnic minority representation. Many of the fresh recruits lacked discipline. At Myaungmya in the Irrawaddy delta, an ethnic war broke out between Burmese BIA men and Karens, with both sides responsible for massacres. The BIA was soon replaced with the Burma Defence Army, founded on 26 August 1942 with three thousand BIA veterans. The army became Burma National Army with Ne Win as its commander on 1 August 1943 when Burma achieved nominal independence. In late 1944, it had a strength of approximately 15,000. Disillusioned by the Japanese occupation, the BNA switched sides, and joined the allied forces on 27 March 1945. Post-independence At the time of Myanmar's independence in 1948, the Tatmadaw was weak, small and disunited. Cracks appeared along the lines of ethnic background, political affiliation, organisational origin and different services. The most serious problem was the tension between Karen Officers, coming from the British Burma Army and Burmese officers, coming from the Patriotic Burmese Force (PBF). In accordance with the agreement reached at the Kandy Conference in September 1945, the Tatmadaw was reorganised by incorporating the British Burma Army and the Patriotic Burmese Force. The officer corps shared by ex-PBF officers and officers from the British Burma Army and Army of Burma Reserve Organisation (ABRO). The colonial government also decided to form what were known as "Class Battalions" based on ethnicity. There were a total of 15 rifle battalions at the time of independence and four of them were made up of former members of PBF. None of the influential positions within the War Office and commands were manned with former PBF Officers. All services including military engineers, supply and transport, ordnance and medical services, Navy and Air Force were commanded by former Officers from ABRO and British Burma Army. The War Office was officially opened on 8 May 1948 under the Ministry of Defence and managed by a War Office Council chaired by the Minister of Defence. At the head of War Office was Chief of Staff, Vice Chief of Staff, Chief of Naval Staff, Chief of Air Staff, Adjutant General and Quartermaster General. Vice Chief of Staff, who was also Chief of Army Staff and the head of General Staff Office. VCS oversee General Staff matters and there were three branch offices: GS-1 Operation and Training, GS-2 Staff Duty and Planning; GS-3 Intelligence. Signal Corps and Field Engineering Corps are also under the command of General Staff Office. According to the war establishment adopted on 14 April 1948, Chief of Staff was under the War Office with the rank of major general. It was subsequently upgraded to a lieutenant general. Vice Chief of Staff was a brigadier general. The Chief of Staff was staffed with GSO-I with the rank of lieutenant colonel, three GSO-II with the rank of major, four GSO-III with the rank of captain for operation, training, planning and intelligence, and one Intelligence Officer (IO). The Chief of Staff office also had one GSO-II and one GSO-III for field engineering, and the Chief Signal Officer and a GSO-II for signal. Directorate of Signal and Directorate Field Engineering are also under General Staff Office. Under Adjutant General Office were Judge Advocate General, Military Secretary, and Vice Adjutant General. The Adjutant General (AG) was a brigadier general whereas the Judge Advocate General (JAG), Military Secretary (MS) and Vice Adjutant General (VAG) were colonels. VAG handles adjutant staff matters and there were also three branch offices; AG-1 planning, recruitment and transfer; AG-2 discipline, moral, welfare, and education; AG-3 salary, pension, and other financial matters. The Medical Corps and the Provost Marshal Office were under the Adjutant General Office. The Quarter Master General office also had three branch offices: QG-1 planning, procurement, and budget; QG-2 maintenance, construction, and cantonment; and QG-3 transportation. Under the QMG office were Garrison Engineering Corps, Electrical and Mechanical Engineering Corps, Military Ordnance Corps, and the Supply and Transport Corps. Both AG and QMG office similar structure to the General Staff Office, but they only had three ASO-III and three QSO-III respectively. The Navy and Air Force were separate services under the War office but under the chief of staff. Reorganisation in 1956 As per War Office order No. (9) 1955 on 28 September 1955, the Chief of Staff became the Commander in Chief, the Chief of Army Staff became the Vice Chief of Staff (Army), the Chief of Naval Staff become Vice Chief of Staff (Navy) and the Chief of Air Staff became the Vice Chief of Staff (Air). On 1 January 1956, the War Office was officially renamed as the Ministry of Defence. General Ne Win became the first Chief of Staff of the Tatmadaw (Myanmar Armed Forces) to command all three services – Army, Navy and Air Force – under a single unified command for the first time. Brigadier General Aung Gyi was given the post of Vice Chief of Staff (Army). Brigadier General D. A Blake became commander of South Burma Subdistrict Command (SBSD) and Brigadier General Kyaw Zaw, a member of the Thirty Comrades, became Commander of North Burma Subdistrict Command (NBSD). Caretaker government Due to deteroriating political situations in 1957, the then prime minister of Burma, U Nu invited General Ne Win to form a "Caretaker Government" and handed over power on 28 October 1958. Under the stewardship of the Military Caretaker Government, parliamentary elections were held in February 1960. Several high-ranking and senior officers were dismissed due to their involvement and supporting various political parties. 1962 Coup d'état The elections of 1960 had put U Nu back as the Prime Minister and Pyidaungsu Party (Union Party) led civilian government resume control of the country. On 2 March 1962, the then Chief of Staff of Armed Forces, General Ne Win staged a coup d'état and formed the "Union Revolutionary Council". Around midnight the troops began to move into Yangon to take up strategic position. Prime Minister U Nu and his cabinet ministers were taken into protective custody. At 8:50 am, General Ne Win announced the coup over the radio. He said "I have to inform you, citizens of the Union that Armed Forces have taken over the responsibility and the task of keeping the country's safety, owing to the greatly deteriorating conditions of the Union." The country would be ruled by the military for the next 12 years. The Burma Socialist Programme Party became the sole political party and it the majority of its full members were military. Government servants underwent military training and the Military Intelligence Service functioned as the secret police of the state. 1988 Coup d'état At the height of the Four Eights Uprising against the socialist government, Former General Ne Win, who at the time was chairman of the ruling Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP), issued a warning against potential protestors during a televised speech. He stated that if the "disturbances" continued the "Army would have to be called and I would like to make it clear that if the Army shoots, it has no tradition of shooting into the Air, it would shoot straight to hit". Subsequently, the 22 Light Infantry Division, 33 Light Infantry Division and the 44 Light Infantry Division were redeployed to Yangon from front line fighting against ethnic insurgents in the Karen states. Battalions from three Light Infantry Divisions, augmented by infantry battalions under Yangon Regional Military Command and supporting units from Directorate of Artillery and Armour Corps were deployed during the suppression of protests in and around the then capital city of Yangon. Initially, these troops were deployed in support of the then People's Police Force (now known as Myanmar Police Force) security battalions and to patrol the streets of the capital and to guard government offices and building. However, at midnight of 8 August 1988 troops from 22 Light Infantry Division guarding Yangon City Hall opened fire on unarmed protesters as the crack down against the protests began. The armed forces under General Saw Maung formed a State Law and Order Restoration Council, repealed the constitution and declared martial law on 18 September 1988. By late September the military had complete control of the country. Political reforms (2011–2020) Following Myanmar's political reforms, Myanmar has made substantial shifts in its relations with major powers China, Russia and the United States. In 2014, Lieutenant-General Anthony Crutchfield, the deputy commander of the United States Pacific Command (USPACOM), was invited to address his counterparts at the Myanmar National Defence College in Naypyidaw, which trains colonels and other high-ranking military officers. In May 2016, Myanmar's Union Parliament approved a military cooperation agreement with Russia following a proposal by Deputy Minister of Defence. In June 2016, Myanmar and Russia signed a defence cooperation agreement. The agreement will envisage exchanging information on international security issues, including fight against terrorism, cooperation in the sphere of culture and vacation of servicemen and their families, along with exchanging experience in peacekeeping activities. Moreover, in response to Naypyidaw's post-2011 political and economic reforms, Australia re-established a ‘normal’ bilateral relationship with Myanmar to support democratisation and reform. In June 2016, the Australian Federal Police signed a new Memorandum of Understanding with its Myanmar counterparts aimed at enhancing transnational crime cooperation and intelligence sharing. In December 2017, the US imposed sanctions on General Maung Maung Soe, a general of Western Myanmar Command who oversaw the military's crackdown in Rakhine State. The Tatmadaw had sentenced seven soldiers to 10-year prison terms for killing 10 Rohingya men in Rakhine in September 2017. A 2019 UN report revealed the degree to which the country's military uses its own businesses, foreign companies and arms deals to support, away from the public eye, a “brutal operations” against ethnic groups that constitute “serious crimes under international law”, bypassing civilian oversight and evading accountability. In June 2020, the Tatmadaw accused China for arming rebel groups in the country's frontier areas. 2021 coup d'état In February 2021, the Tatmadaw detained Aung San Suu Kyi and other high-ranking politicians after a contested election with disputed results. A state of emergency had been declared for one year. Budget According to an analysis of budgetary data between FY 2011–12 and 2018–19, approximately 13% to 14% of the national budget is devoted to the Burmese military. However, the military budget remains opaque and subject to limited civilian scrutiny, and a 2011 Special Funds Law has enabled the Burmese military to circumvent parliamentary oversight to access supplemental funding. Defence budgets were publicly shared for the first time in 2015, and in recent years, parliamentary lawmakers have demanded greater transparency in military spending. The military also generates substantial revenue through 2 conglomerates, the Myanma Economic Holdings Limited (MEHL) and the Myanmar Economic Corporation (MEC). Revenues generated from these business interests have strengthened the Burmese military's autonomy from civilian oversight, and has contributed to the military's financial operations in "a wide array of international human rights and humanitarian law violations." Revenues from MEHL and MEC are kept "off-book," enabling the military to autonomously finance military affairs with limited civilian oversight. Amnesty International says its investigations into Myanmar Economic Holdings Limited (MEHL) show Myanmar's military has received dividends of as much as $18bn from the Yangon-based company over the years. Its entire board is made up of senior military officials, it added. In the FY 2019-20 national budget, the military was allocated 3,385 billion kyats (approximately US$2.4 billion). In May 2020, the Burmese parliament reduced the military's supplementary budgetary request by $7.55 million. On 28 October 2014, the Minister for Defence Wai Lwin revealed at a Parliament section that 46.2% of the budget is spent on personnel cost, 32.89% on operation and procurement, 14.49% on construction related projects and 2.76% on health and education. Doctrine Post-independence/civil war era (1948–1958) The initial development of Burmese military doctrine post-independence was developed in the early 1950s to cope with external threats from more powerful enemies with a strategy of Strategic Denial under conventional warfare. The perception of threats to state security was more external than internal threats. The internal threat to state security was managed through the use of a mixture of force and political persuasion. Lieutenant Colonel Maung Maung drew up defence doctrine based on conventional warfare concepts, with large infantry divisions, armoured brigades, tanks and motorised war with mass mobilisation for the war effort being the important element of the doctrine. The objective was to contain the offensive of the invading forces at the border for at least three months, while waiting for the arrival of international forces, similar to the police action by international intervention forces under the directive of United Nations during the war on Korean peninsula. However, the conventional strategy under the concept of total war was undermined by the lack of appropriate command and control system, proper logistical support structure, sound economic bases and efficient civil defence organisations. Kuomintang invasion/Burma Socialist Programme Party era (1958–1988) At the beginning of the 1950s, while the Tatmadaw was able to reassert its control over most part of the country, Kuomintang (KMT) troops under General Li Mi, with support from the United States, invaded Burma and used the country's frontier as a springboard for attack against the People's Republic of China, which in turn became the external threat to state security and sovereignty of Burma. The first phase of the doctrine was tested for the first time in Operation "Naga Naing" in February 1953 against invading KMT forces. The doctrine did not take into account logistic and political support for KMT from the United States and as a result it failed to deliver its objectives and ended in a humiliating defeat for the Tatmadaw. The then Tatmadaw leadership argued that the excessive media coverage was partly to blame for the failure of Operation "Naga Naing". For example, Brigadier General Maung Maung pointed out that newspapers, such as the "Nation", carried reports detailing the training and troops positioning, even went as far to the name and social background of the commanders who are leading the operation thus losing the element of surprise. Colonel Saw Myint, who was second in command for the operation, also complained about the long lines of communications and the excessive pressure imposed upon the units for public relations activities to prove that the support of the people was behind the operation. Despite failure, the Tatmadaw continued to rely on this doctrine until the mid-1960s. The doctrine was under constant review and modifications throughout KMT invasion and gained success in anti-KMT operations in the mid and late 1950s. However, this strategy became increasingly irrelevant and unsuitable in the late 1950s as the insurgents and KMT changed their positional warfare strategy to hit and run guerrilla warfare. At the 1958 Tatmadaw's annual Commanding Officers (COs) conference, Colonel Kyi Win submitted a report outlining the requirement for new military doctrine and strategy. He stated that 'Tatmadaw did not have a clear strategy to cope with insurgents', even though most of Tatmadaw's commanders were guerrilla fighters during the anti-British and anti-Japanese campaigns during the Second World War, they had very little knowledge of anti-guerrilla or counterinsurgency warfare. Based upon Colonel Kyi Win's report, the Tatmadaw began developing an appropriate military doctrine and strategy to meet the requirements of counterinsurgency warfare. This second phase of the doctrine was to suppress insurgency with people's war and the perception of threats to state security was more of internal threats. During this phase, external linkage of internal problems and direct external threats were minimised by the foreign policy based on isolation. It was common view of the commanders that unless insurgency was suppressed, foreign interference would be highly probable, therefore counterinsurgency became the core of the new military doctrine and strategy. Beginning in 1961, the Directorate of Military Training took charge the research for national defence planning, military doctrine and strategy for both internal and external threats. This included reviews of international and domestic political situations, studies of the potential sources of conflicts, collection of information for strategic planning and defining the possible routes of foreign invasion. In 1962, as part of new military doctrine planning, principles of anti-guerrilla warfare were outlined and counterinsurgency-training courses were delivered at the training schools. The new doctrine laid out three potential enemies and they are internal insurgents, historical enemies with roughly an equal strength (i.e. Thailand), and enemies with greater strength. It states that in suppressing insurgencies, Tatmadaw must be trained to conduct long-range penetration with a tactic of continuous search and destroy. Reconnaissance, Ambush and all weather day and night offensive and attack capabilities along with winning the hearts and minds of people are important parts of anti-guerrilla warfare. For countering an historical enemy with equal strength, Tatmadaw should fight a conventional warfare under total war strategy, without giving up an inch of its territory to the enemy. For powerful enemy and foreign invaders, Tatmadaw should engage in total people's war, with a special focus on guerrilla strategy. To prepare for the transition to the new doctrine, Brigadier General San Yu, the then Vice Chief of Staff (Army), sent a delegation led by Lieutenant Colonel Thura Tun Tin was sent to Switzerland, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and East Germany in July 1964 to study organisation structure, armaments, training, territorial organisation and strategy of people's militias. A research team was also formed at General Staff Office within the War Office to study defence capabilities and militia formations of neighbouring countries. The new doctrine of total people's war, and the strategy of anti-guerrilla warfare for counterinsurgency and guerrilla warfare for foreign invasion, were designed to be appropriate for Burma. The doctrine flowed from the country's independent and active foreign policy, total people's defence policy, the nature of perceived threats, its geography and the regional environment, the size of its population in comparison with those of its neighbours, the relatively underdeveloped nature of its economy and its historical and political experiences. The doctrine was based upon 'three totalities': population, time and space () and 'four strengths': manpower, material, time and morale (). The doctrine did not develop concepts of strategic denial or counter-offensive capabilities. It relied almost totally on irregular low-intensity warfare, such as its guerrilla strategy to counter any form of foreign invasion. The overall counterinsurgency strategy included not only elimination of insurgents and their support bases with the 'four cut' strategy, but also the building and designation of 'white area' and 'black area' as well. In April 1968, the Tatmadaw introduced special warfare training programmes at "Command Training Centres" at various regional commands. Anti-Guerrilla warfare tactics were taught at combat forces schools and other training establishments with special emphasis on ambush and counter-ambush, counterinsurgency weapons and tactics, individual battle initiative for tactical independence, commando tactics, and reconnaissance. Battalion size operations were also practised in the South West Regional Military Command area. The new military doctrine was formally endorsed and adopted at the first party congress of the BSPP in 1971. BSPP laid down directives for "complete annihilation of the insurgents as one of the tasks for national defence and state security" and called for "liquidation of insurgents through the strength of the working people as the immediate objective". This doctrine ensures the role of Tatmadaw at the heart of national policy making. Throughout the BSPP era, the total people's war doctrine was solely applied in counterinsurgency operations, since Burma did not face any direct foreign invasion throughout the period. In 1985, the then Lieutenant General Saw Maung, Vice-Chief of Staff of Tatmadaw reminded his commanders during his speech at the Command and General Staff College: In Myanmar, out of nearly 35 million people, the combined armed forces (army, navy and air force) are about two hundred thousand. In terms of percentage, that is about 0.01%. It is simply impossible to defend a country the size of ours with only this handful of troops... therefore, what we have to do in the case of foreign invasion is to mobilise people in accordance with the "total people's war" doctrine. To defend our country from aggressors, the entire population must be involved in the war effort as the support of people dictate the outcome of the war. SLORC/SPDC era (1988–2010) The third phase of doctrinal development of the Myanmar Armed Forces came after the military take over and formation of the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) in September 1988 as part of the armed forces modernisation programme. The development was the reflection of sensitivity towards direct foreign invasion or invasion by proxy state during the turbulent years of the late 1980s and early 1990s, for example: the unauthorised presence of a US aircraft carrier Battle Group in Myanmar's territorial waters during the 1988 political uprising as evidence of an infringement of Myanmar's sovereignty. Also, the leadership was concerned that foreign powers might arm the insurgents on the border to exploit the political situation and tensions in the country. This new threat perception, previously insignificant under the nation's isolationist foreign policy, led leaders to review the defence capability and doctrine of the . The third phase was to face the lower level external threats with a strategy of strategic denial under total people's defence concept. Current military leadership has successfully dealt with 17 major insurgent groups, whose 'return to legal fold' in the past decade has remarkably decreased the internal threats to state security, at least for the short and medium terms, even though threat perception of the possibility of external linkage to internal problems, perceived as being motivated by the continuing human rights violations, religious suppression and ethnic cleansing, remains high. Within the policy, the role of the Tatmadaw was defined as a `modern, strong and highly capable fighting force'. Since the day of independence, the Tatmadaw has been involved in restoring and maintaining internal security and suppressing insurgency. It was with this background that Tatmadaw's "multifaceted" defence policy was formulated and its military doctrine and strategy could be interpreted as defence-in-depth. It was influenced by a number of factors such as history, geography, culture, economy and sense of threats. The Tatmadaw has developed an 'active defence' strategy based on guerrilla warfare with limited conventional military capabilities, designed to cope with low intensity conflicts from external and internal foes, which threatens the security of the state. This strategy, revealed in joint services exercises, is built on a system of total people's defence, where the armed forces provide the first line of defence and the training and leadership of the nation in the matter of national defence. It is designed to deter potential aggressors by the knowledge that defeat of the Tatmadaw's regular forces in conventional warfare would be followed by persistent guerrilla warfare in the occupied areas by people militias and dispersed regular troops which would eventually wear down the invading forces, both physically and psychologically, and leave it vulnerable to a counter-offensive. If the conventional strategy of strategic denial fails, then the Tatmadaw and its auxiliary forces will follow Mao's strategic concepts of 'strategic defensive', 'strategic stalemate' and 'strategic offensive'. Over the past decade, through a series of modernisation programs, the Tatmadaw has developed and invested in better Command, Control, Communication and Intelligence system; real-time intelligence; formidable air defence system; and early warning systems for its 'strategic denial' and 'total people's defence' doctrine. Organisational, command and control structure Before 1988 Overall command of Tatmadaw (armed forces) rested with the country's highest-ranking military officer, a general, who acted concurrently as defence minister and Chief of Staff of Defence Services. He thus exercised supreme operational control over all three services, under the direction of the President, State Council and Council of Ministers. There was also a National Security Council which acted in advisory capacity. The Defence Minister cum Chief-of-Staff of Defence Services exercised day-to-day control of the armed forces and assisted by three Vice-Chiefs of Staff, one each for the army, navy and air force. These officers also acted as Deputy Ministers of Defence and commanders of their respective Services. They were all based at Ministry of Defence () in Rangoon/Yangon. It served as a government ministry as well as joint military operations headquarters. The Joint Staff within the Ministry of Defence consisted of three major branches, one each for Army, Navy and Air Force, along with a number of independent departments. The Army Office had three major departments; the General (G) Staff to oversee operations, the Adjutant General's (A) Staff administration and the Quartermaster General's (Q) Staff to handle logistics. The General Staff consisted two Bureaus of Special Operations (BSO), which were created in April 1978 and June 1979 respectively. These BSO are similar to "Army Groups" in Western armies, high level staff units formed to manage different theatres of military operations. They were responsible for the overall direction and co-ordination of the Regional Military Commands (RMC) with BSO-1 covering Northern Command (NC), North Eastern Command (NEC), North Western Command (NWC), Western Command (WC) and Eastern Command (EC). BSO-2 responsible for South Eastern Command (SEC), South Western Command (SWC), Western Command (WC) and Central Command (CC). The Army's elite mobile Light Infantry Divisions (LID) were managed separately under a staff colonel. Under G Staff, there were also a number of directorates which corresponded to the Army's functional corps, such as Intelligence, Signals, Training, Armour and Artillery. The A Staff was responsible for the Adjutant General, Directorate of Medical Services and the Provost Marshal's Office. The Q Staff included the Directorates of Supply and Transport, Ordnance Services, Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, and Military Engineers. The Navy and Air Force Offices within the Ministry were headed by the Vice Chiefs of Staff for those Services. Each was supported by a staff officer at full colonel level. All these officers were responsible for the overall management of the various naval and air bases around the country, and the broader administrative functions such as recruitment and training. Operational Command in the field was exercised through a framework of Regional Military Commands (RMC), the boundaries of which corresponded with the country's Seven States and Seven Divisions. The Regional Military Commanders, all senior army officers, usually of Brigadier General rank, were responsible for the conduct of military operations in their respective RMC areas. Depending on the size of RMC and its operational requirements, Regional Military Commanders have at their disposal 10 or more infantry battalions (). 1988 to 2005 The Tatmadaw's organisational and command structure dramatically changed after the military coup in 1988. In 1990, the country's most senior army officer become a senior general (equivalent to field marshal rank in Western armies) and held the positions of chairman of State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC), prime minister and defence minister, as well as being appointed Commander in Chief of the Defence Services. He thus exercised both political and operational control over the entire country and armed forces. From 1989, each service has had its own commander in chief and chief of staff. The Army Commander in Chief is now elevated to full general () rank and also acted as deputy commander in Chief of the Defence Services. The C-in-C of the Air Force and Navy hold the equivalent of lieutenant general rank, while all three Service Chiefs of Staff were raised to major general level. Chiefs of Bureau of Special Operations (BSO), the heads of Q and A Staffs and the Director of Defence Services Intelligence (DDSI) were also elevated to lieutenant general rank. The reorganisation of the armed forces after 1988 resulted in the upgrading by two ranks of most of the senior positions. A new command structure was introduced at the Ministry of Defence level in 2002. The most important position created is the Joint Chief of Staff (Army, Navy, Air Force) that commands commanders-in-chief of the Navy and the Air Force. The Office of Strategic Studies (OSS, or ) was formed around 1994 and charged with formulating defence policies, and planning and doctrine of the Tatmadaw. The OSS was commanded by Lieutenant General Khin Nyunt, who is also the Director of Defence Service Intelligence (DDSI). Regional Military Commands (RMC) and Light Infantry Divisions (LID) were also reorganised, and LIDs are now directly answerable to Commander in Chief of the Army. A number of new subordinate command headquarters were formed in response to the growth and reorganisation of the Army. These include Regional Operation Commands (ROC, or Da Ka Sa), which are subordinate to RMCs, and Military Operations Commands (MOC, or Sa Ka Kha), which are equivalent to Western infantry divisions. The Chief of Staff (Army) retained control of the Directorates of Signals, Directorate of Armour Corps, Directorate of Artillery Corps, Defence Industries, Security Printing, Public Relations and Psychological Warfare, and Military Engineering (field section), People's Militias and Border Troops, Directorate of Defence Services Computers (DDSC), the Defence Services Museum and Historical Research Institute. Under the Adjutant General Office, there are three directorates: Medical Services, Resettlement, and Provost Martial. Under the Quartermaster General Office are the directorates of Military Engineering (garrison section), Supply and Transport, Ordnance Services, and Electricaland Mechanical Engineering. Other independent department within the Ministry of Defence are Judge Advocate General, Inspector General, Military Appointment General, Directorate of Procurement, Record Office, Central Military Accounting, and Camp Commandant. All RMC Commander positions were raised to the level of major general and also serve as appointed chairmen of the state- and division-level Law and Order Restoration Committees. They were formally responsible for both military and civil administrative functions for their command areas. Also, three additional regional military commands were created. In early 1990, a new RMC was formed in Burma's north west, facing India. In 1996, the Eastern Command in Shan State was split into two RMCs, and South Eastern Command was divided to create a new RMC in country's far south coastal regions. In 1997, the SLORC was abolished and the military government created the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC). The council includes all senior military officers and commanders of the RMCs. A new Ministry of Military Affairs was established and headed by a lieutenant general. This new ministry was abolished after its minister Lt. Gen. Tin Hla was sacked in 2001. 2005 to 2010 On 18 October 2004, the OSS and DDSI were abolished during the purge of General Khin Nyunt and military intelligence units. OSS ordered 4 regiment to raid in DDSI Headquarter in Yangon. At the same time, all of the MIU in the whole country were raided and arrested by OSS corps. Nearly two thirds of MIU officers were detained for years. A new military intelligence unit called Military Affairs Security (MAS) was formed to take over the functions of the DDSI, but MAS units were much fewer than DDSI's and MAS was under control by local Division commander. In early 2006, a new Regional Military Command (RMC) was created at the newly formed administrative capital, Naypyidaw. Service branches Myanmar Army () The Myanmar Army has always been by far the largest service and has always received the lion's share of Burma's defence budget. It has played the most prominent part in Burma's struggle against the 40 or more insurgent groups since 1948 and acquired a reputation as a tough and resourceful military force. In 1981, it was described as "probably the best [army] in Southeast Asia, apart from Vietnam's". This judgment was echoed in 1983, when another observer noted that "Myanmar's infantry is generally rated as one of the toughest, most combat seasoned in Southeast Asia". Myanmar Air Force () Personnel: 23,000 The Myanmar Air Force was formed on 16 January 1947, while Myanmar (also known as Burma) was under British colonial rule. By 1948, the new air force fleet included 40 Airspeed Oxfords, 16 de Havilland Tiger Moths, 4 Austers and 3 Supermarine Spitfires transferred from Royal Air Force with a few hundred personnel. The primary mission of Myanmar Air Force since its inception has been to provide transport, logistical, and close air support to Myanmar Army in counter-insurgency operations. Myanmar Navy () The Myanmar Navy is the naval branch of the armed forces of Burma with estimated 19,000 men and women. The Myanmar Navy was formed in 1940 and, although very small, played an active part in Allied operations against the Japanese during the Second World War. The Myanmar Navy currently operates more than 122 vessels. Before 1988, the Myanmar Navy was small and its role in the many counterinsurgency operations was much less conspicuous than those of the army and air force. Yet the navy has always been, and remains, an important factor in Burma's security and it was dramatically expanded in recent years to a provide blue water capability and external threat defence role in Burma's territorial waters. Its personnel number 19,000 (including two naval infantry battalions). Myanmar Police Force () The Myanmar Police Force, formally known as The People's Police Force (), was established in 1964 as independent department under the Ministry of Home Affairs. It was reorganised on 1 October 1995 and informally become part of Tatmadaw. Current director general of Myanmar Police Force is Brigadier General Kyaw Kyaw Tun with its headquarters at Naypyidaw. Its command structure is based on established civil jurisdictions. Each of Burma's seven states and seven divisions has their own Police Forces with headquarters in the respective capital cities. Israel and Australia often provide specialists to enhance the training of Burma's police. Personnel: 72,000 (including 4,500 Combat/SWAT Police) Rank structure Air Defence The Office of the chief of Air Defence () is one of the major branches of Tatmadaw. It was established as the Air Defence Command in 1997 but was not fully operational until late 1999. It was renamed the Bureau of Air Defence in the early 2000s. In early 2000s, Tatmadaw established the Myanmar Integrated Air Defence System (MIADS) () with help from Russia, Ukraine and China. It is a tri-service bureau with units from all three branches of the armed forces. All air defence assets except anti-aircraft artillery are integrated into MIADS. Military intelligence Office of Chief of Military Security Affairs commonly referred to by its Burmese acronym (), is a branch of the Myanmar armed forces tasked with intelligence gathering. It was created to replace the Directorate of Defence Services Intelligence (DDSI), which was disbanded in 2004. Defence industries The Myanmar Directorate of Defence Industries (DI) consists of 13 major factories throughout the country that produce approximately 70 major products for Army, Navy and Air Force. The main products include automatic rifles, machine guns, sub-machine guns, anti-aircraft guns, complete range of mortar and artillery ammunition, aircraft and anti aircraft ammunition, tank and anti-tank ammunition, bombs, grenades, anti-tank mines, anti-personnel mines such as the M14 pyrotechnics, commercial explosives and commercial products, and rockets and so forth. DI have produced new assault rifles and light machine-guns for the infantry. The MA series of weapons were designed to replace the old German-designed but locally manufactured Heckler & Koch G3s and G4s that equipped Burma's army since the 1960s. Political representation in Burma's parliament 25% of the seats in both houses of the Burmese parliament are reserved for military appointees. House of Nationalities () House of Representatives () See also Military intelligence of Myanmar Aung San Royal Burmese armed forces Military history of Myanmar Ma Chit Po References Citations Sources External links Burma Library Archives it:Esercito della Birmania

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign%20relations%20of%20Myanmar

Foreign relations of Myanmar

Historically strained, Myanmar's foreign relations, particularly with Western nations, have improved since 2012. Relations became strained once more in 2017 with the Rohingya crisis. Myanmar (also known as Burma) has generally maintained warmer relations with near states and is a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Europe and America The United States has placed broad sanctions on Myanmar because of the military crackdown in 1988 and the military regime's refusal to honour the election results of the 1990 People's Assembly election. Similarly, the European Union has placed embargoes on Myanmar, including an arms embargo, cessation of trade preferences, and suspension of all aid with the exception of humanitarian aid. US and European government sanctions against the military government, alongside boycotts and other types of direct pressure on corporations by western supporters of the Burmese democracy movement, have resulted in the withdrawal from Myanmar of most US and many European companies. However, several Western companies remain due to loopholes in the sanctions. Asian corporations have generally remained willing to continue investing in Myanmar and to initiate new investments, particularly in natural resource extraction. The French oil company Total S.A. is able to operate the Yadana natural gas pipeline from Myanmar to Thailand despite the European Union's sanctions on Myanmar. Total is currently the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for the condoning and use of Burman civilian slavery to construct the named pipeline. Experts say that the human rights abuses along the gas pipeline are the direct responsibility of Total S.A. and its American partner Chevron Corporation with aid and implementation by the Tatmadaw. Prior to its acquisition by Chevron, Unocal settled a similar human rights lawsuit for a reported multimillion-dollar amount. There remains active debate as to the extent to which the American-led sanctions have had adverse effects on the civilian population or on the military rulers. Armenia Both countries established diplomatic relations on 31 January 2013. Belarus Belarus and Myanmar established diplomatic relations on 22 September 1999. In December 2011, prime minister of Belarus Mikhail Myasnikovich made on official visit to Myanmar. In 2021, Belarus was the only country to vote against UN General Assembly resolution calling Myanmar military to stop violence, release arrested protesters and restore democracy. It was assumed that Belarusian support for Myanmar military junta was caused by long history of arms trade with Myanmar Army. Denmark Myanmar is represented in Denmark through its embassy in the United Kingdom, and Denmark is represented in Myanmar through its embassy in Thailand. Diplomatic relations were established in 1955. Relations between the two countries are friendly, but economically, Denmark has the "worst" trade with Myanmar in the European Union. Denmark also supports the Norwegian based radio station, Democratic Voice of Burma. Assistance to Myanmar Development assistance to Myanmar is a top priority of the Danish International Development Agency's engagement in Southeast Asia. 93 million DKK was given to education and healthcare projects. Danish development assistance has focused on promoting democracy and human rights. Denmark was one of the first countries to respond to cyclone Nargis by providing humanitarian assistance to Myanmar. Three Diseases Fund was founded in 2006, and Denmark joined in 2009. Three Diseases Fund helps Myanmar fight HIV and AIDS, and has assisted with 73 million dollars. Burmese Consul incident In 1996, the consul in Myanmar for Denmark, James Leander Nichols, was sentenced to three years in jail. The sentence was for illegal possession of two facsimile machines and a telephone switchboard. Two months later, he died in prison. Despite Danish insistence, Burmese authorities refused to allow an independent autopsy. Soon after, the European Union, with Canada, called for a United Nations gathering on the democratisation process. Day's Work Day On 3 November 2010, students from 140 different gymnasiums in Denmark and DanChurchAid, participated in the annual Day's Work Day. The money earned by the students goes to improve education for young people in Myanmar. Hungary In June 2019, Aung San Suu Kyi visited Hungary and meet with the Prime Mister Viktor Orbán. "The two leaders highlighted that one of the greatest challenges at present for both countries and their respective regions – south-east Asia and Europe – is migration", read a statement released after their meeting. it also said "They noted that both regions have seen the emergence of the issue of co-existence with continuously growing Muslim populations". Ireland The Government of Ireland established diplomatic relations with Myanmar on a non-resident basis on 10 February 2004. The Irish Government was still concerned about the arbitrary detention of the opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi. Burma Action Ireland is a pro-democracy group that freely operates in the Republic of Ireland. Ireland supported a UN commission of inquiry and international level monitoring of Myanmar after 2008, as part of their efforts to support democracy and human rights movements in Myanmar. This became public knowledge after official papers were leaked in September 2010. France Franco-Burmese relations go back to the early 18th century, as the French East India Company attempted to extend its influence into Southeast Asia. French involvement started in 1729 when it built a shipyard in the city of Syriam. The 1740 revolt of the Mon against Burmese rule, however, forced the French to depart in 1742. They were able to return to Siam in 1751 when the Mon requested French assistance against the Burmese. A French envoy, Sieur de Bruno was sent to evaluate the situation and help in the defence against the Burmese. French warships were sent to support the Mon rebellion, but in vain. In 1756, the Burmese under Alaungpaya vanquished the Mon. Many French were captured and incorporated into the Burmese Army as an elite gunner corps, under Chevalier Milard. In 1769, official contacts resumed when a trade treaty was signed between King Hsinbyushin and the French East India Company. Soon after, however, France was convulsed by the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars, thus allowing overwhelming British influence in Burma. French contacts with Myanmar, effectively a British colony, became almost non-existent. Instead, from the second half of the 19th century, France concentrated on the establishment of French Indochina and the conflicts with China leading to the Sino-French War. Following the end of World War II, ambassador-level diplomatic relationships between France and Burma were established in 1948, soon after the Burmese nation became an independent republic on 4 January 1948, as Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu as its first Prime Minister. Serbia Both countries have established diplomatic relations in 1950. A number of bilateral agreements in various fields have been concluded and are in force between both countries. United States The political relations between the United States of America and Myanmar began to face major problems following the 1988 military coup and the junta's outbursts of repression against pro-democracy activists. Subsequent repression, including that of protestors in September 2007, further strained the relationship. However, following signs of democratisation and economic liberalisation, Hillary Clinton, as Secretary of State, and others called for the mending of America's relations with Myanmar in 2011. As a result of the refurbishment of ties, the American authorities in 2012 planned for the re-establishment of ambassador-level relations with Myanmar for the first time since 1990. Historic relations and diplomacy Massachusetts, as a US state, attempted to place sanctions against Burma on its own in 1996 but the concept proved to be contradictory to the US Constitution. Later, the United States federal government imposed broad sanctions against Burma under several different legislative and policy vehicles. The Burma Freedom and Democracy Act (BFDA), passed by both the US Senate and their House of Representatives and signed by then President George W. Bush in 2003, imposed a ban on all imports from Myanmar, a ban on the export of financial services to Myanmar, a freeze on the assets of certain Burmese financial institutions, alongside further visa restrictions against Burmese officials. American legislators then renewed the BFDA on an almost annual basis, most recently in July 2010. Since 27 September 2007, the US Department of Treasury froze assets of 25 high-ranking officials Burmese government officials as it was authorised to do so by Executive Order 13310. On 19 October 2007, President George W. Bush imposed a new Executive Order (E.O. 13448) authorising the freezing of assets against individuals who stand accused by the Government of the United States of being party to human rights violations and acts of public corruption, as well as against those who provide material and financial support to the military junta. In addition, since May 1997, the US Government prohibited new investment by American people and other entities. A number of American companies exited the Myanmar market prior to the imposition of sanctions due to a worsening business climate and mounting criticism from human rights groups, consumers, and shareholders. The United States has also imposed countermeasures on Myanmar due to its inadequate measures to eliminate money laundering. Due to its particularly severe violations of religious freedom, the United States has designated Myanmar a Country of Particular Concern (CPC) under the International Religious Freedom Act. Myanmar is also designated a Tier 3 Country in the Trafficking in Persons Report for utilising forced labour, and is subject to additional sanctions as a result. The political relationship between the United States and Burma worsened after the 1988 military coup and violent suppression of pro-democracy demonstrations. Subsequent repression, including the brutal crackdown on peaceful protestors in September 2007, further strained relations. The United States lowered its level of representation in Burma from Ambassador to Chargé d'Affaires after the government's major outbreaks against opposition groups and protesters in 1988 and its alleged failure to honour the results of the 1990 parliamentary election, although it upgraded back on 13 January 2012, appointing Derek Mitchel as Ambassador and head of mission Recent moves US Secretary of State, Hillary Clinton, visited Myanmar in November–December 2011. In this visit, the first by a Secretary of State since 1955, Hillary met with the President of Myanmar, Thein Sein, in the official capital Naypyidaw, and later met with democracy activist Aung San Suu Kyi in Yangon. The US announced a reduction of laws against providing aid to Myanmar and raised the possibility of an exchange of ambassadors. On 13 January 2012, the US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton announced the US will exchange ambassadors with Myanmar, after a landmark Burmese political prisoner amnesty. On Thursday, 17 May 2012, the White House Press Office announced that President Barack Obama of the US Democratic Party had nominated Derek Mitchell to the US Senate for confirmation to serve as US Ambassador to Myanmar. After being approved by the US Senate in late June, Derek Mitchell, the first U.S ambassador to Myanmar in 22 years formally assumed his job on 11 July 2012 by presenting his credentials to President Thein Sein at the presidential mansion in the capital Naypyitaw. In July 2012 the United States formally reduced sanctions against Myanmar. Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton announced plans in the spring of 2012 for a "targeted easing" of sanctions to allow minor US investment in the country, but companies could not move ahead until the sanctions were formally suspended. In July 2012, President Obama ordered the US State Department to issue two special licences, one providing special authorisation to invest in Myanmar and the other authorising to provide financial services in Myanmar. Although plans to lift investment restrictions were announced in May 2012, the change awaited what administration officials labelled 'detailed reporting requirements' on US companies doing business in Burma, alongside the creation of mechanisms to prevent US economic ties to the powerful Burmese military and individuals and companies involved in human rights abuses. President Obama also issued an executive order expanding existing sanctions against individuals who violate human rights to include those who threaten Myanmar's political restructuring process. President Obama created a new power for the US government to impose "blocking sanctions" on any individual threatening peace in Myanmar. Also, businesses with more than US$500,000 worth of investment in the country will need to file an annual report with the State Department, in which they will be required to provide details on workers' rights, land acquisitions and any payments of more than US$10,000 to government entities, including Myanmar's state-owned enterprises. Although the policy was criticised by human rights groups, American companies and people will be allowed to invest in the state-owned Myanmar Oil and Gas Enterprise—all investors need to notify the State Department within a 60-day period. Human Rights Watch (HRW) expressed its objection in an official statement: "The new United States government policy allowing business activity in Myanmar's controversial oil sector with reporting requirements will not adequately prevent new investments from fueling abuses and undermining reform". HRW's Business and Human Rights Director Arvind Ganesan stated: "By allowing deals with Myanmar's state-owned oil company, the U.S. looks like it caved to industry pressure and undercut Aung San Suu Kyi and others in Myanmar who are promoting government accountability". In May 2013, Thein Sein became the first Myanmar president to visit the US White House in 47 years and President Barack Obama praised the former general for political and economic reforms, and the cessation of tensions between Myanmar and the US Political activists objected to the visit due to concerns over human rights abuses in Myanmar but Obama assured Thein Sein that Myanmar will receive the support from the US. Prior to President Thein Sein, the last Myanmar leader to visit the White House was Ne Win in September 1966. The two leaders discussed Thein Sein's intention to release more political prisoners, the institutionalisation of political reform and rule of law, and ending ethnic conflict in Myanmar—the two governments agreed to sign a bilateral trade and investment framework agreement on 21 May 2013. US activities in Myanmar On 10 September 2007, the Burmese Government accused the CIA of assassinating a rebel Karen commander from the Karen National Union who wanted to negotiate with the military government. For background on the conflict, see 2007 Burmese anti-government protests Timeline of the 2007 Burmese anti-government protests In 2011, The Guardian newspaper published WikiLeaks cable information regarding Myanmar. The cables revealed that the US funded some of the civil society groups in Myanmar that forced the government to suspend the controversial Chinese Myitsone Dam on the Irrawaddy river. According to media reports citing documents published by Germany's Der Spiegel in 2010, the Embassy of the United States in Yangon is the site of an electronic surveillance facility used to monitor telephones and communications networks. The facility is run jointly by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the National Security Agency (NSA) through a group known as Special Collection Service. Diplomatic missions The US Embassy in Myanmar is located in Yangon, whilst the Burmese diplomatic representation to America is based in Washington, D.C. Major officials of the US Embassy in Yangon Ambassador Thomas L. Vajda Deputy Chief of Mission Deborah C. Lynn Political & Affairs Chief Douglas Sonnek Public Affairs Officer Adrienne Nutzman Consular Chief Andrew Webster-Main Management Officer Luther Lindberg Defence Attaché Colonel William Dickey Information Officer Bob Lynn Russia Bilateral relations with the Russian Federation are among the strongest enjoyed by largely isolated Burma. Russia had established diplomatic relations with Myanmar at independence and these continued after the fall of the Soviet Union. China and Russia once vetoed a U.N. Security Council resolution designed to punish Myanmar. Today Russia, along with China, still opposes the imposition of sanctions on Myanmar and supports a policy of dialogue. Russia, along with China, remains part of the UN Security Council which occasionally shields or weakens Myanmar from global pressure and criticism. Russia maintains an embassy in Yangon whilst Myanmar maintains one in Moscow. Nuclear centre deal In 2007 Russia and Myanmar engaged in a deal regarding Myanmar's nuclear programme. According to the press release, Russia and Myanmar shall construct a nuclear research centre that 'will comprise a 10 MW light-water reactor working on 20%-enriched uranium-235, an activation analysis laboratory, a medical isotope production laboratory, silicon doping system, nuclear waste treatment and burial facilities'. Diplomatic missions Embassy of Russia in Yangon Association of Southeast Asian Nations Myanmar is a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and part of ASEAN+3 and the East Asia Summit. Myanmar agreed to relinquish its turn to hold the rotating ASEAN presidency in 2006 due to others member states' concern of its previous democratic situation. ASEAN has announced that it shall not provide defence for Myanmar at any international forum regarding the authoritarian junta's refusal to restore democracy. In April 2007, the Malaysian Foreign Ministry parliamentary secretary Ahmad Shabery Cheek said that Malaysia and other ASEAN members had decided not to defend Myanmar if the country was raised for discussion at any international conference. "Now Myanmar has to defend itself if it was bombarded at any international forum," he said when winding up a debate at committee stage for the Foreign Ministry. He was replying to queries from Opposition Leader Lim Kit Siang on the next course of action to be taken by Malaysia and Asean with the Burmese military junta. Lim had said Malaysia must play a proactive role in pursuing regional initiatives to bring about a change in Myanmar and support efforts to bring the situation in Myanmar to the UN Security Council's attention. Recently, ASEAN did take a stronger tone with Burma, particularly regards to the detention of now-released Aung San Suu Kyi. Brunei Brunei has an embassy in Yangon, and Myanmar has an embassy in Gadong. The relations have been established since 21 September 1993. Malaysia The relations between the two countries were established on 1 March 1957 and the first Myanmar mission at the legation level was set up in Kuala Lumpur in June 1959 and later raised to the embassy level. Thailand Relations between Myanmar and Thailand focus mainly on economic issues and trade. There is sporadic conflict with Thailand over the alignment of the border. Recently, Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva made it clear that dialogue encouraging political change is a priority for Thailand, but not through economic sanctions. He also publicised intentions to help reconstruct temples damaged in the aftermath of Cyclone Nargis. However, there were tensions over detained opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi, with Thailand calling for her release. She was released in 2010. In the Thaksin Shinawatra administration, relations have been characterised by conflicts and confrontations. Border disputes are now coming more prominent and Thailand as disturbed by the imprisonment of Myanmar's dissident Aung San Suu Kyi. Myanmar has diplomatic offices in Bangkok whilst Thailand maintains an embassy in Yangon. Philippines Philippines established relations with Myanmar in 1956 and recognised its political name Myanmar. In 2012, Myanmar ranked 3rd to the lowest among the Philippines' trading partners in ASEAN. It only fared better than Cambodia and Laos. The Philippines and Myanmar traded only $47.07 million in 2012. The Philippines grant Burmese citizens visa-free access for 30 days. Myanmar on the other hand signed the visa exemption for Filipinos on 5 December 2013 effective 4 January 2014. The agreement allows Filipinos to stay in Myanmar up to 14 days visa-free. Cambodia Burma accorded de jure recognition to the newly sovereign state of Cambodia on August 16, 1954. On January 10, 1955, Burma and Cambodia agreed to establish diplomatic relations, which were maintained with the Lon Nol government after the deposition of Norodom Sihanouk in March 1970. Diplomatic recognition was later transferred to Democratic Kampuchea when Lon Nol's Khmer Republic was overthrown in April 1975. Indonesia Burma recognized the Republic of Indonesia as de jure sovereign power of the archipelago on December 27, 1949. A five-year treaty of friendship was signed in Rangoon on March 31, 1951. Indonesian President Sukarno paid his first visit to Rangoon on his way home from a journey to India and Pakistan in 1950. Singapore Singapore established diplomatic relations with the Union of Burma in 1966. However, it was only in May 1984 that the Embassy was opened in Yangon. China The People's Republic of China had poor relations with Myanmar until the late 1980s. Between 1967 and 1970, Burma broke relations with Beijing because of the latter's support for the Communist Party of Burma (CPB). Deng Xiaoping visited Yangon in 1978 and withdrew support for the long running insurgency of the Communist Party of Burma. However, in the early 1950s Burma enjoyed a hot-and-cold relationship with China. Burma's Ba U and U Nu lobbied for China's entry as a permanent member into the UN Security Council, but denounced the invasion of Tibet. China and Burma have had many border disputes, dating long before the British annexation of Burma. The last border dispute culminated in 1956, when the People's Liberation Army invaded northern Burma, but were repulsed. A border agreement was reached in 1960. In the late 1960s, due to Ne Win's propaganda that the PRC was to blame for crop failures, and the increasing number of ethnic Chinese students supporting Chairman Mao Zedong, by carrying the Quotatians from his books, anti-Chinese riots broke out in June 1967. At the same time, many Sino-Burmese were influenced by the Cultural Revolution in China and began to wear Mao badges. Shops and homes were ransacked and burned. The Chinese government heavily berated the Burmese government and started a war of words, but no other actions were taken. The anti-Chinese riots continued till the early 1970s. However, after 1986, China withdrew support for the CPB and began supplying the military junta with the majority of its arms in exchange for increased access to Burmese markets and a rumoured naval base on Coco Islands in the Andaman Sea. China is supposed to have an intelligence gathering station on the Great Coco Island to monitor Indian naval activity and ISRO & DRDO missile and space launch activities. The influx of Chinese arms turned the tide in Myanmar against the ethnic insurgencies, many of which had relied indirectly on Chinese complicity. As a result, the military junta of Myanmar is highly reliant on the Chinese for their currently high level of power. Myanmar maintains diplomatic offices in Beijing and consular offices in Kunming and Hong Kong, whilst the PRC has a diplomatic mission in Yangon and a consulate in Mandalay. After 2015, China increased considerably its scope of engagement with Myanmar by playing a more active role in the peace process, developing large infrastructure projects and promoting the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in the country. In July 2019, UN ambassadors from 50 countries, including Myanmar, have signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China's treatment of Uyghurs and other Muslim minority groups in the Xinjiang region. India Bilateral relations between Myanmar and the Republic of India have improved considerably since 1993, overcoming disagreements related to drug trafficking, the suppression of democracy and the rule of the military junta in Myanmar. Myanmar is situated to the south of the states of Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh in Northeast India. The proximity of the People's Republic of China give strategic importance to Indo-Burmese relations. The Indo-Burmese border stretches over 1,600 kilometers. India is generally friendly with Myanmar, but is concerned by the flow of tribal refugees and the arrest of Aung San Suu Kyi. As a result of increased Chinese influence in Myanmar as well as the safe haven and arms trafficking occurring along the Indo-Burmese border, India has sought in recent years to refurbish ties with the Union of Burma. Numerous economic arrangements have been established including a roadway connecting the isolated provinces of Northeastern India with Mandalay which opens up trade with China, Myanmar, and gives access to the Burmese ports. Relations between India and Myanmar have been strained in the past however due to India's continuing support for the pro-democracy movement in Myanmar. In an interview on the BBC, George Fernandes, former Indian Defence Minister and prominent Myanmar critic, said that Coco Island was part of India until it was donated to Myanmar by former Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru. Coco Island is located at 18 km from the Indian Nicobar Islands. Myanmar has a fully operating embassy based in New Delhi and India has one in Yangon, the former capital of Myanmar. Like the PRC, the Republic of India maintains a Consulate-General in Mandalay. Economic relations India is the largest market for Burmese exports, buying about US$220 million worth of goods in 2000; India's exports to Myanmar stood at US$75.36 million. India is Myanmar's 4th largest trading partner after Thailand, the PRC and Singapore, and second largest export market after Thailand, absorbing 25 percent of its total exports. India is also the seventh most important source of Myanmar's imports. The governments of India and Myanmar had set a target of achieving $1 billion and bilateral trade reached US$650 million by 2006. The Indian government has worked to extend air, land and sea routes to strengthen trade links with Myanmar and establish a gas pipeline. While the involvement of India's private sector has been low and growing at a slow pace, both governments are proceeding to enhance co-operation in agriculture, telecommunications, information technology, steel, oil, natural gas, hydrocarbons and food processing. The bilateral border trade agreement of 1994 provides for border trade to be carried out from three designated border points, one each in Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland. On 13 February 2001 India and Myanmar inaugurated a major 160 kilometre highway, called the Indo-Myanmar Friendship Road, built mainly by the Indian Army's Border Roads Organisation and aimed to provide a major strategic and commercial transport route connecting North-East India, and South Asia as a whole, to Southeast Asia. India and Myanmar have agreed to a four-lane, 3200 km triangular highway connecting India, Myanmar and Thailand. The route, which is expected to be completed by sometime during 2018, will run from India's northeastern states into Myanmar, where over 1,600 km of roads will be built or improved. The first phase connecting Guwahati to Mandalay is set to complete by 2016. This will eventually be extended to Cambodia and Vietnam. This is aimed at creating a new economic zone ranging from Kolkata on the Bay of Bengal to Ho Chi Minh City on the South China Sea. Operation Leech Operation Leech is the name given to an armed operation on the Indo-Burmese border in 1998. India has sought to install friendly governments in the south east Asia region. To these ends, India's external intelligence agency, R&AW, cultivated Burmese rebel groups and pro-democracy coalitions, especially the Kachin Independence Army (KIA). India allowed the KIA to carry a limited trade in jade and precious stones using Indian territory and even supplied them with weapons. However, with increasing bonhomie between the Indian government and the Burmese junta, KIA becomes the main source of training and weapons for all northeastern rebel groups in India. R&AW initiated Operation Leech, with the help of Indian Army and paramilitary forces, to assassinate the leaders of the Burmese rebels as an example to other groups. Bangladesh Historical relations between Myanmar and Bangladesh include centuries of trade, cultural interactions and migration between the kingdoms and empires of Bengal and the kingdoms of Burma, particularly Arakan. Most prominently this is visible in the Indic Buddhist culture of Burma that was transmitted often through Bengal resulting in the imprint of Indian (inclusive of Bengali) culture and civilization currently found in Myanmar. The two nations also share a heritage of colonial commerce during the British Empire. The Bengali community in Myanmar is present in Yangon and the Rakhine. In Bangladesh, a large population of Burmese ancestry resides in Chittagong and southeastern hill districts, including Rakhines and Bohmong, as well as Burmese-Bengalis. After the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, Burma became one of the first countries to recognise the independence of Bangladesh. The presence of 270,000 Burmese Muslim refugees (Rohingya people) in southern Bangladesh have often caused irritants in bilateral relations, which are generally cordial. A 40-year maritime boundary dispute in the Bay of Bengal was resolved by the two countries at a UN tribunal in March 2012. Bangladesh has sought transit rights through Myanmar, to establish connectivity with China and ASEAN through projects such as the proposed Chittagong-Mandalay-Kunming highway. The governments of both countries are also in discussions on the possible export of Burmese gas to Bangladesh, as well as setting up a joint hydroelectric power plant in Rakhine State. The political class and civil society of Bangladesh often voiced support for Myanmar's pro-democracy struggle. In 2006 a petition by 500 Bangladeshi politicians and intellectuals, including Sheikh Hasina and Kamal Hossain, expressed support for Aung San Suu Kyi and called for the release of all political prisoners in Myanmar. After winning elections in 2008, Sheikh Hasina reiterated her position on Burma's pro-democracy struggle, calling for an end to the detention of Suu Kyi and Burmese political prisoners. The Democratic Voice of Burma radio station operates bureaus in Dhaka and Chittagong. Despite border (both territorial and nautical) tensions and the forced migration of 270,000 Rohingya Muslims from Buddhist Burma in 1978, relations with Bangladesh have generally been cordial, albeit somewhat tense at times. Many Rohingya refugees, not recognised as a sanctioned ethnic group and allegedly suffering abuse from the Burmese authorities, remain in Bangladesh, and have been threatened with forced repatriation to Myanmar. There are about 28,000 documented refugees remaining in camps in southern Bangladesh. At the 2008 ASEAN Regional forum summit in Singapore, Bangladesh and Myanmar have pledged to solve their maritime boundary disputes as quickly as possible especially that a UN deadline in claiming maritime territories will expire in three years time. However, in late 2008, Myanmar sent in ships into disputed waters in the Bay of Bengal for the exploration of oil and natural gas. Bangladesh responded by sending in three warships to the area and diplomatically pursued efforts to pressure the Burmese junta to withdraw their own ships. During the crisis Myanmar deployed thousands of troops on its border with Bangladesh. However, following the Bangladeshi deployment, within a week the ships withdrew and the crisis ended. Myanmar has an embassy in Dhaka, whilst Bangladesh has an embassy in Yangon and a consular office in Sittwe. Bangladesh is also one of the first countries to begin constructing a diplomatic mission in Nay Pyi Taw. Sri Lanka History Theravada Buddhism was the link between Sri Lanka and Burma from the earliest times. There were frequent exchanges of pilgrims and scriptural knowledge with Ramanna (ancient name of the Burmese Kingdom). The resuscitation of the Sinhalese Sangha after the destructive effects of the Chola conquest owned a great deal to Bhikkus from upper Burma sent over for this purpose by the Burmese King at the request of Vijayabahu I. By the 11th century these early religious times matured into diplomatic ties. Vijayabahu I (1055–1110 A.D.) who was engaged in a grim struggle against the Cholas received economic aid from King Anawarta of Burma. The alliance with the Burmese appears according to the chronicles to have continued after the expulsion of the Cholas and it was to Burma that Vijayabahu I turned for assistance in re-organizing the Sangha in Sri Lanka, thus underlining the connection between political ties and a common commitment to Buddhism. The influence of Burmes architecture on Sri Lanka's religious building in Polonnaruwa is also evident. The Satmahalprasada, a setup with an unusual pyramid like form in several levels or storeys in Polonnnaruwa is the best example. In 1865 the establishment of the Ramanna Nikaya is another major link. The Ramanna Nikaya lays greater stress on poverty and humility. This Nikaya aimed at returning to a purer form of Buddhism. Bilateral visits Sri Lankan officials visiting Myanmar •Official visit of Hon. Sirimavo Bandaranaike, Prime Minister in January (1976) •Visit of Hon. A.C.S. Hameed, Foreign Minister (1987) •Visit of Hon. Lakshman Kadirgamar, Foreign Minister (1999) •Visit of Hon. W.J.M. Loku Bandara, Minister of Buddha Sasana (2003) •Visit of Hon. Loku Bandara, Speaker of the Parliament (2005) •Visit of Hon Mahinda Rajapakse, Prime Minister (2004) •Visit of Hon. Loku Bandara, Speaker (2005) •Visit of Hon. Prime Minister (2006) •Visit of the Hon. Minister of Foreign Affairs for First Joint Commission (2007) Burmese officials visiting Sri Lanka •State Visit of H.E. Gen U Ne Win, President of Myanmar (1966) •Visit of H.E. U Win Aung, Foreign Minister of Myanmar in (1999) •Visit of H.E. Professor Kyaw Myint, Minister of Health (2005) •Visit of Acting Prime Minister, Lt. Gen. Thein Sein (2007) •Visit of the Foreign Minister of Myanmar (to participate at ECOSOC) (2009) Other Asian countries North Korea and North Korea has an embassy in Yangon. History Since they both achieved independence in 1948, Burma and North Korea have enjoyed a chequered relationship. Burma expressed diplomatic support for the UN forces during the Korean War, but after the signing of the 1953 armistice it established good working relations with the two Koreas. Consular links with both states were established in 1961 and full diplomatic relations followed in 1975. During the 1960s and 1970s, General Ne Win's government made efforts to balance the competing demands of North Korea and South Korea for recognition, diplomatic support and trade. However, during the late 1970s the relationship with Pyongyang became slightly stronger than that with Seoul, as Ne Win and the Burma Socialist Programme Party forged fraternal ties with Kim Il-sung and the Workers' Party of Korea. The assassination attempt in 1983 The bilateral relationship with North Korea dramatically collapsed in 1983, after Pyongyang allegedly sent three agents to Yangon to assassinate South Korean President Chun Doo Hwan, who was making a state visit to Burma. Due to a last minute, unannounced change to his schedule Chun survived the massive bomb attack at the Martyrs' Mausoleum, but 17 South Korean and four Burmese officials, including four Korean Cabinet ministers, were killed. Forty-six others were injured. There was probably at least one bilateral agreement as early as 2000, but the relationship seemed to reach a major turning point around 2003. In July that year, it was reported that between 15 and 20 North Korean technicians were working at the Monkey Point naval base in Yangon. A UN report released on 1 February 2018 cited North Korean ballistic missile transfers to the Myanmar army. Maldives In September 2017, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Maldives announced that it was ceasing all trade ties with Myanmar in response to the government's treatment of the Rohingya people in Rakhine State. Taiwan Although Myanmar officially recognises the PRC and not the Republic of China, there is much other interaction between the two countries. Many Taiwanese nationals own businesses in Myanmar. There are direct air flights to Taipei, as there are to some major cities in the People's Republic of China, including Kunming, Guangzhou and Hong Kong. Pakistan Pakistan and Myanmar have cordial relations with each other, with embassies in each other's capitals. Pakistan International Airlines has flown to Yangon in the past and still operates Hajj charter flights on behalf of the Burmese government. Pakistan has a diplomatic mission in Yangon, whilst Myanmar maintains a diplomatic office in Islamabad. South Korea The Republic of Korea and Burma generally enjoy good relations. Burma has an embassy in Seoul and South Korea has an embassy in Yangon. Oceania New Zealand In February 2021, New Zealand suspended high-level bilateral relations with Myanmar following the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état and joined other Western governments in rejecting the new military-led government and has called for the restoration of civilian-led rule. In addition, aid projects were diverted away from the Tatmadaw and a travel ban was imposed on Myanmar's military leaders. Timeline of diplomatic representation By the end of the Union Solidarity and Development Party tenure in January 2016, Myanmar had 36 ambassadors, 3 consul generals and a permanent representative at the UN in New York. The country had established official relations with 114 independent states. United Nations In 1961, U Thant, then Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations; he was the first non-Westerner to head any international organisation and would serve as UN Secretary-General for ten years. Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was the young Aung San Suu Kyi. Until 2005, the United Nations General Assembly annually adopted a detailed resolution about the situation in Myanmar by consensus. But in 2006 a divided United Nations General Assembly voted through a resolution that strongly called upon the government of Myanmar to end its systematic violations of human rights. In January 2007, Russia and China vetoed a draft resolution before the United Nations Security Council calling on the government of Myanmar to respect human rights and begin a democratic transition. South Africa also voted against the resolution, arguing that since there were no peace and security concerns raised by its neighbours, the question did not belong in the Security Council when there were other more appropriate bodies to represent it, adding, "Ironically, should the Security Council adopt [this resolution] ... the Human Rights Council would not be able to address the situation in Myanmar while the Council remains seized with the matter." The issue had been forced onto the agenda against the votes of Russia and the China by the United States (veto power applies only to resolutions) claiming that the outflow from Myanmar of refugees, drugs, HIV-AIDS, and other diseases threatened international peace and security. The following September after the uprisings began and the human rights situation deteriorated, the Secretary-General dispatched his special envoy for the region, Ibrahim Gambari, to meet with the government. After seeing most parties involved, he returned to New York and briefed the Security Council about his visit. During this meeting, the ambassador said that the country "indeed [has experienced] a daunting challenge. However, we have been able to restore stability. The situation has now returned to normalcy. Currently, people all over the country are holding peaceful rallies within the bounds of the law to welcome the successful conclusion of the national convention, which has laid down the fundamental principles for a new constitution, and to demonstrate their aversion to recent provocative demonstrations. On 11 October the Security Council met and issued a statement and reaffirmed its "strong and unwavering support for the Secretary-General's good offices mission", especially the work by Ibrahim Gambari (During a briefing to the Security Council in November, Gambari admitted that no timeframe had been set by the Government for any of the moves that he had been negotiating for.) Throughout this period the World Food Program has continued to organise shipments from the Mandalay Division to the famine-struck areas to the north. In December 2008, the United Nations General Assembly voted for a resolution condemning Myanmar's human rights record; it was supported by 80 countries, with 25 voting against and 45 abstaining. See also Outposts of tyranny List of diplomatic missions in Myanmar List of diplomatic missions of Myanmar United Nations Security Council Resolution 45 Indo-Burma barrier Visa policy of Myanmar Notes References Bibliography Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar. (1974). Anglo-Assamese relations, 1771–1826: a history of the relations of Assam with the East India Company from 1771 to 1826, based on original English and Assamese sources. Lawyer's Book Stall. Bingham, June. (1966). U Thant; the Search for Peace. Gollancz. Byman, Daniel L., and Roger Clift. (1999) China's Arms Sales Motivations and Implications (RAND, 1999) online. Kipgen, Nehginpao. (2014). Democracy Movement in Myanmar: Problems and Challenges. Ruby Press & Co.. Laqueur, Walter. (1974). A dictionary of politics. Free Press. Liang, Chi Shad. (1990). Burma's foreign relations: neutralism in theory and practice. Praeger. Lintner, Bertil. (1990). The rise and fall of the Communist Party of Burma (CPB). SEAP Publications. Nanda, Prakesh. (2003). Rediscovering Asia: evolution of India's look-east policy. Lancer Publishers & Distributors. Narayanan, Raviprasad. "China and Myanmar: Alternating between ‘Brothers’ and ‘Cousins’." China Report 46.3 (2010): 253-265 online. Seekins, Donald M. (2006). Historical dictionary of Burma (Myanmar). Scarecrow Press. Singh, N. K. (2003). Encyclopaedia of Bangladesh. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. Silverstein, Josef. (1980). Burmese politics: the dilemma of national unity. Rutgers University Press. South, Ashley. (2003). Mon Nationalism and Civil War in Burma: The Golden Sheldrake. Routledge. Swanström, Niklas. Sino-Myanmar relations: Security and beyond (Institute for Security and Development Policy, 2012) online External links Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Myanmar Reorienting strategies towards Burma/Myanmar, Opinion by Bernt Berger, May 2008, European Union Institute for Security Studies History of Burma – U.S. relations Thai-Myanmar relations returning to normal, Thaksin says Documents on the Myanmar–Russia relationship at the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Information sensitivity

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Schumacher

Michael Schumacher

Michael Schumacher (; ; born 3 January 1969) is a German former racing driver who competed in Formula One for Jordan, Benetton, Ferrari, and Mercedes. Schumacher has a joint-record seven World Drivers' Championship titles (tied with Lewis Hamilton) and, at the time of his retirement from the sport in 2012, he held the records for the most wins (91), pole positions (68), and podium finishes (155)—which have since been broken by Hamilton—while he maintains the record for the most fastest laps (77), among others. After beginning his racing career in karting, Schumacher enjoyed success in several junior single-seater series. After a one-off Formula One appearance with Jordan at the 1991 Belgian Grand Prix, Schumacher was signed by Benetton for the rest of the season. He won his first and second drivers' titles consecutively in and . Schumacher moved to the struggling Ferrari team in . During his first years at the team, Schumacher lost out on the title in the final race of the season in and and suffered a broken leg from a brake failure in . He and Ferrari won five consecutive titles from to , including unprecedented sixth and seventh titles, breaking several records. After finishing third in and second in , Schumacher retired from the sport, although he later made a brief return with Mercedes from to . Schumacher was noted for pushing his car to the very limit for sustained periods during races, a pioneering fitness regimen and ability to galvanise teams around him. He and his younger brother Ralf are the only siblings to win races in Formula One and the first siblings to finish first and second in the same race, a feat they repeated in four subsequent races. Over his career, Schumacher was involved in several controversial racing incidents. Twice, he was involved in collisions in the final race of a season that decided the title, first with Damon Hill at the and later with Jacques Villeneuve at the . An ambassador for UNESCO, Schumacher has been involved in humanitarian projects and has donated tens of millions of dollars to charity. In December 2013, Schumacher suffered a severe brain injury in a skiing accident. He was placed in a medically induced coma until June 2014. He left hospital in Grenoble for further rehabilitation at the Lausanne University Hospital, before being relocated to his home to receive medical treatment and rehabilitation privately in September 2014. Early years Michael Schumacher was born in the West German town of Hürth, North Rhine-Westphalia on 3 January 1969, to working-class parents Rolf—a bricklayer who later ran the local kart track—and Elisabeth Schumacher, who operated the track's canteen. When Schumacher was four, his father modified his pedal kart by adding a small motorcycle engine. After Michael crashed it into a lamp post in Kerpen, his parents took him to the karting track at Kerpen-Horrem, where he became the youngest member of the karting club. His father built him a kart from discarded parts and, at the age of six, Schumacher won his first club championship. To support his son's racing, Rolf took on a second job renting and repairing karts, while his wife worked at the track's canteen. Nevertheless, when Michael needed a new engine costing 800 DM, his parents were unable to afford it; he was able to continue racing with support from local businessmen. Regulations in Germany require a driver to be at least 14 years old to obtain a kart license. To get around this, Schumacher obtained a license in Luxembourg at the age of 12. In 1983, he obtained his German license, a year after he won the German Junior Kart Championship. Schumacher joined Eurokart dealer Adolf Neubert in 1985 and by 1987, he was the German and European kart champion, then he quit school and began working as a mechanic. In 1988, he made his first step into single-seat car racing by participating in the German Formula Ford and Formula König series, winning the latter. In 1989, Schumacher signed with Willi Weber's WTS Formula Three team. Funded by Weber, he competed in the German Formula Three series, winning the title in 1990. He also won the 1990 Macau Grand Prix under controversial circumstances. He placed second behind Mika Häkkinen in the first heat, three seconds behind. At the start of the second heat, he overtook Häkkinen, who only had to finish within three seconds of Schumacher to clinch the overall win. In the closing laps, Schumacher made a mistake, allowing Häkkinen to attempt to overtake. Michael changed his line immediately before Häkkinen did the same as the latter moved to overtake, and Häkkinen crashed into the back of Schumacher's car. While Häkkinen's race was ended, Schumacher cruised to victory without a rear wing. During 1990, along with his Formula Three rivals Heinz-Harald Frentzen and Karl Wendlinger, he joined the Mercedes junior racing programme in the World Sportscar Championship. This was unusual for a young driver: most of Schumacher's contemporaries competed in Formula 3000 on the way to Formula One. However, Weber advised Schumacher that being exposed to professional press conferences and driving powerful cars in long-distance races would help his career. In the 1990 World Sportscar Championship season, Schumacher won the season finale at the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez in a Sauber–Mercedes C11, and finished fifth in the Drivers' Championship despite only driving in three of the nine races. He continued with the team in the 1991 World Sportscar Championship season, winning again at the final race of the season at Autopolis in Japan with a Sauber–Mercedes-Benz C291, leading to a ninth-place finish in the Drivers' Championship. He also competed at Le Mans during that season, finishing fifth in a car shared with Wendlinger and Fritz Kreutzpointner. In 1991, he competed in one race in the Japanese Formula 3000 Championship, finishing second. During the 1991 430 km of Nürburgring, Schumacher was involved in a serious incident with Derek Warwick. While trying to set his flying lap in qualifying, Schumacher encountered Warwick's Jaguar on a slow lap resulting in lost time for Schumacher. As retaliation for being in his way, Schumacher swerved his Sauber into Warwick's car, hitting the Jaguar's nose and front wheel. Enraged by Schumacher's attitude, Warwick drove to the pits and chased Schumacher on foot. He eventually caught up with Schumacher, and it took intervention from several mechanics and Schumacher's teammate Jochen Mass to prevent Warwick physically assaulting Schumacher. Formula One career Schumacher was noted throughout his career for his ability to produce fast laps at crucial moments in a race and to push his car to the very limit for sustained periods. He was also noted for his pioneering fitness regime and ability to galvanise teams around him. In 2003, Motor Sport author Christopher Hilton observed that a "measure of a driver's capabilities is his performance in wet races, because the most delicate car control and sensitivity are needed", and noted that like other great drivers, Schumacher's record in wet conditions shows very few mistakes: up to the end of 2003, Schumacher won 17 of the 30 races in wet conditions he contested. Some of Schumacher's best performances occurred in such conditions, earning him the nicknames "Regenkönig" (rain king) or "Regenmeister" (rain master), even in the non-German-language media. He is also known as "the Red Baron", because of his red Ferrari and in reference to the German Manfred von Richthofen, the famous flying ace of the First World War. Schumacher's nicknames also include "Schumi", "Schuey" and "Schu". Schumacher is often credited with popularising Formula One in Germany, where it was formerly considered a fringe sport. When Schumacher retired in 2006, three of the top ten drivers in that year's Drivers' standings were German, more than any other nationality. Younger German drivers, such as Sebastian Vettel, felt Schumacher was key in their becoming Formula One drivers. In 2020, Vettel named Schumacher the greatest Formula One driver of all time. During a large part of his Formula One career, Schumacher was the president of the Grand Prix Drivers' Association. In a 2006 FIA survey, he was voted the most popular driver of the season among Formula One fans. During the same year, Formula One figures such as Niki Lauda and David Coulthard hailed Schumacher as the greatest all-round racing driver in the history of the sport. In 2020, Schumacher was voted the most influential person in Formula One history. Jordan (1991) Schumacher made his Formula One debut with the Irish Jordan-Ford team at the 1991 Belgian Grand Prix, driving car number 32 as a replacement for the imprisoned Bertrand Gachot. Schumacher, still a contracted Mercedes driver, was signed by Eddie Jordan after Mercedes paid Jordan $150,000 for his debut. The week before the race, Schumacher impressed Jordan designer Gary Anderson and team manager Trevor Foster during a test drive at Silverstone. Schumacher's manager Weber assured Jordan that Schumacher knew the challenging Spa-Francorchamps circuit well, although in fact he had only seen it as a spectator. During the race weekend, teammate Andrea de Cesaris was meant to show Schumacher the circuit, but was held up with contract negotiations. Schumacher then learned the track on his own, by cycling around the track on a fold-up bike he had brought with him. He impressed the paddock by qualifying seventh. This matched the team's season-best grid position, and Schumacher out-qualified veteran de Cesaris. Motor Sport journalist Joe Saward reported that after qualifying "clumps of German journalists were talking about 'the best talent since Stefan Bellof. Schumacher retired on the first lap of the race with clutch problems. Benetton (1991–1995) Following his Belgian Grand Prix debut, and despite an agreement in principle between Jordan and Schumacher's Mercedes management that would see the German race for the Irish team for the remainder of the season, Schumacher was engaged by Benetton-Ford for the next race. Jordan applied for an injunction in the British courts to prevent Schumacher driving for Benetton, but lost the case as they had not yet signed a final contract. 1991–1993 Schumacher finished the season with four points out of six races. His best finish was fifth in his second race, the , in which he finished ahead of his teammate and three-time World Champion Nelson Piquet. At the start of the season the Sauber team, planning their Formula One debut with Mercedes backing for the following year, invoked a clause in Schumacher's contract that stated that if Mercedes entered Formula One, Schumacher would drive for them. It was eventually agreed that Schumacher would stay with Benetton; Peter Sauber stated that "[Schumacher] didn't want to drive for us. Why would I have forced him?". The year was dominated by the Williams cars of Nigel Mansell and Riccardo Patrese, featuring powerful Renault engines, semi-automatic gearboxes and active suspension to control the car's ride height. In the "conventional" Benetton B192, Schumacher took his place on the podium for the first time, finishing third in the . He went on to take his first victory at the , in a wet race at the Spa-Francorchamps circuit, which by 2003 he would call "far and away my favourite track". He finished third in the Drivers' Championship in 1992 with 53 points, three points behind runner-up Patrese and three in front of Ayrton Senna. The Williams of Damon Hill and Alain Prost also dominated the season. Benetton introduced their own active suspension and traction control early in the season, last of the frontrunning teams to do so. Schumacher won one race, the where he beat Prost, and had nine podium finishes, but retired in seven of the other 16 races. He finished the season in fourth, with 52 points. 1994–1995: World Championship years Schumacher won his first Drivers' Championship in . The season, however, was marred by the death of Senna—witnessed by Schumacher, who was directly behind Senna—and the passing of Roland Ratzenberger during the , and by allegations that several teams, but most particularly Schumacher's Benetton team, broke the sport's technical regulations. Schumacher won six of the first seven races and was leading the , before a gearbox failure left him stuck in fifth gear for most of the race. Schumacher still finished the race in second place. Following the San Marino Grand Prix, the Benetton, Ferrari and McLaren teams were investigated on suspicion of breaking the FIA-imposed ban on electronic aids. Benetton and McLaren initially refused to hand over their source code for investigation. When they did so, the FIA discovered hidden functionality in both teams' software, but no evidence that it had been used in a race. Both teams were fined $100,000 for their initial refusal to cooperate. However, the McLaren software, which was a gearbox program that allowed automatic shifts, was deemed legal. By contrast, the Benetton software was deemed to be a form of "launch control" that would have allowed Schumacher to make perfect starts, which was explicitly outlawed by the regulations. However, there was no evidence to suggest that this software was actually used. At the , Schumacher was penalised for overtaking Hill on the formation lap. He and Benetton then ignored the penalty and the subsequent black flag, which indicates that the driver must immediately return to the pits, for which he was disqualified and later given a two-race ban. Benetton blamed the incident on a communication error between the stewards and the team. Schumacher was also disqualified after winning the after his car was found to have illegal wear on its skidblock, a measure used after the accidents at Imola to limit downforce and hence cornering speed. Benetton protested that the skidblock had been damaged when Schumacher spun over a kerb, but the FIA rejected their appeal because of the pattern of wear and damage visible on the block. These incidents helped Damon Hill close the points gap, and Schumacher led by a single point going into the final race in Australia. On lap 36, Schumacher hit the guardrail on the outside of the track while leading. Hill attempted to pass, but as Schumacher's car returned to the track there was a collision on the corner causing them both to retire. As a result, Schumacher won the Drivers' Championship, the first German to do so—Jochen Rindt was German but raced under the Austrian flag. The race stewards judged it as a racing accident and took no action against either driver but public opinion was divided over the incident and Schumacher was vilified in the British media. At the FIA conference after the race, Schumacher dedicated his title to Senna. In , Schumacher successfully defended his title with Benetton, which now had the same Renault engine as Williams; according to Motor Sport author Marcus Simmons, Benetton had the better team, while Williams had the superior car. Schumacher accumulated 33 more points than second-placed Hill. With teammate Johnny Herbert, he took Benetton to its first Constructors' Championship, breaking the dominance of McLaren and Williams, and became the youngest two-time World Champion in Formula One history. The season was marred by several collisions with Hill, in particular an overtaking manoeuvre by Hill took them both out of the on lap 45, and again on lap 23 of the Italian Grand Prix. Schumacher won 9 of the 17 races, and finished on the podium 11 times. Only once did he qualify worse than fourth; at the , he qualified 16th, but nevertheless went on to win the race. Ferrari (1996–2006) In , Schumacher joined Ferrari, a team that had last won the Drivers' Championship in and the Constructors' Championship in , for a salary of $60 million over two years. He left Benetton a year before his contract with them expired; he later cited the team's damaging actions in 1994 as his reason for opting out of his deal. A year later, Schumacher lured Benetton employees Rory Byrne (designer) and Ross Brawn (technical director) to Ferrari. Ferrari had previously come close to the championship in and . The team had suffered a disastrous downturn in the early 1990s, partially as its famous V12 engine was no longer competitive against the smaller, lighter and more fuel-efficient V10s of its competitors. Various drivers, notably Alain Prost, had given the vehicles labels such as "truck", "pig", and "accident waiting to happen". Furthermore, the poor performance of the Ferrari pit crews was considered a running joke. At the end of 1995, although the team had improved into a solid competitor, it was still considered inferior to front-running teams such as Benetton and Williams. However, Schumacher declared the Ferrari F310 good enough to win a championship, although afterwards, his teammate Eddie Irvine labelled the F310 "an awful car", a "piece of junk", and "almost undriveable", while designer John Barnard admitted that the car "wasn't very good". During winter testing, Schumacher first drove a Ferrari, their 1995 Ferrari 412 T2, and was two seconds faster than former regulars Jean Alesi and Gerhard Berger had been. Schumacher, Brawn, Byrne, and Jean Todt, have been credited as turning the struggling team into the most successful team in Formula One history. Three-time World Champion Jackie Stewart believed the transformation of the Ferrari team was Schumacher's greatest feat. 1996–1999 Schumacher finished third in the Drivers' Championship in 1996 and helped Ferrari to second place in the Constructors' Championship ahead of his old team Benetton. During the season, the car had reliability problems; Schumacher did not finish in 7 of the 16 races. At the , Schumacher took pole position, but suffered engine failure on the formation lap. He won three races, however, more than the team's total tally for the period from 1991 to 1995. He took his first win for Ferrari at the Spanish Grand Prix, where he lapped the entire field up to third place in the wet. Having taken the lead on lap 19, he consistently lapped five seconds faster than the rest of the field in the difficult conditions. At the Belgian Grand Prix, Schumacher used well-timed pit-stops to fend off Williams' Jacques Villeneuve. Schumacher also took first place at Monza to win in front of the tifosi (Ferrari fans). Michael Schumacher and Villeneuve competed for the title in . Villeneuve, driving the superior Williams FW19, led the championship in the early part of the season. By mid-season, however, Schumacher had taken the championship lead, winning five races, and entered the season's final Grand Prix at Jerez with a one-point advantage. Towards the end of the race, Schumacher's Ferrari developed a coolant leak and loss of performance indicating he may not finish the race. As Villeneuve approached to pass his rival on lap 48, Schumacher turned in on him but retired from the race. Villeneuve went on and scored four points to take the championship. The race stewards did not initially award any penalty, but two weeks after the race Schumacher was disqualified from the entire 1997 Drivers' Championship after an FIA disciplinary hearing found that his "manoeuvre was an instinctive reaction and although deliberate not made with malice or premeditation, it was a serious error." Schumacher accepted the decision and admitted having made a mistake. His actions were widely condemned in British, German, and Italian newspapers. In , Finnish driver Mika Häkkinen became Schumacher's main title rival. Häkkinen won the first two races of the season, gaining a 16-point advantage over Schumacher. Schumacher then won in Argentina and, with the Ferrari improving significantly in the second half of the season, Schumacher took six victories and had five other podium finishes. Ferrari took a 1–2 finish at the , the first Ferrari 1–2 finish since 1990, and the , which tied Schumacher with Häkkinen for the lead of the Drivers' Championship with 80 points. Häkkinen won the Championship, however, by winning the final two races. There were two controversies during the season; at the , Schumacher was leading on the last lap when he turned into the pit lane, crossed the start-finish line and stopped to serve his ten-second stop-go penalty (received for overtaking a lapped car (of Alexander Wurz) during a safety car period). There was some doubt whether this counted as serving the penalty, but, because he had crossed the finish line when he came into the pit lane, the win was valid. At the Belgian Grand Prix, Schumacher was leading the race by 40 seconds in heavy spray, but collided with David Coulthard's McLaren when the Scot, a lap down, slowed on the racing line in very poor visibility to let Schumacher past. His Ferrari lost a wheel but could return to the pits, although he was forced to retire. Schumacher leaped out of his car and headed to McLaren's garage in an infuriated manner and accused Coulthard of "trying to kill him". Coulthard admitted five years later that the accident had been his mistake. In , Schumacher's efforts helped Ferrari win the Constructors' title. He lost his chance to win the Drivers' Championship at the at the high-speed Stowe Corner; his car's rear brake failed, sending him off the track into the barriers and resulting in a broken leg. During his 98-day absence, he was replaced by Finnish driver Mika Salo. After missing six races, he made his return at the inaugural , qualifying in pole position by almost a second. He then assumed the role of second driver, assisting teammate Irvine's bid to win the Drivers' Championship for Ferrari. In the last race of the season, the , Häkkinen won his second consecutive title. Schumacher would later say that Häkkinen was the opponent he respected the most. 2000–2004: World Championship years Schumacher won his third World Drivers' Championship in , and his first with Ferrari, after a year-long battle with Häkkinen. Schumacher won the first three races of the season and five of the first eight. Midway through the year, Schumacher's chances suffered with three consecutive non-finishes, allowing Häkkinen to close the gap in the standings. Häkkinen then took another two victories, before Schumacher won at the . At the post-race press conference, after equalling the number of wins (41) won by his idol Senna, Schumacher broke into tears. The championship fight would come down to the penultimate race of the season, the . Starting from pole position, Schumacher lost the lead to Häkkinen at the start. After his second pit-stop, however, Schumacher came out ahead of Häkkinen and went on to win the race and the Drivers' Championship. Although Schumacher won more than twice as many Grands Prix as Häkkinen, BBC Sport journalist Andrew Benson stated that "the challenge from Mika Hakkinen and McLaren-Mercedes was far stronger than the raw statistics suggest" and that the Adrian Newey-designed McLaren was "the fastest car in F1 for the third straight year". Benson also hailed Schumacher as "unquestionably the greatest driver of his era". In , Schumacher took his fourth Drivers' title. Four other drivers won races, but none sustained a season-long challenge for the championship. Schumacher scored a record-tying nine wins and clinched the World Championship with four races yet to run. He finished the championship with 123 points, 58 ahead of runner-up Coulthard. Season highlights included the , where Schumacher finished second to his brother Ralf, thus scoring the first-ever 1–2 finish by brothers in Formula One; and the Belgian Grand Prix, in which Schumacher scored his 52nd career win, breaking Alain Prost's record for most career wins. In , Schumacher retained his Drivers' Championship. There was some controversy, however, at the . His teammate, Rubens Barrichello, was leading, but in the final metres of the race, under team orders, slowed down to allow Schumacher to win the race. Although the switching of positions did not break any actual sporting or technical regulation, it angered fans and it was claimed that the team's actions showed a lack of sportsmanship and respect to the spectators. Many argued that Schumacher did not need to be "given" wins in only the sixth race of the season, particularly given that he had already won four of the previous five Grands Prix, and that Barrichello had dominated the race weekend up to that point. At the podium ceremony, Schumacher pushed Barrichello onto the top step, and for this disturbance, the Ferrari team incurred a US$1 million fine. At the later that year, Schumacher returned the favour by giving Barrichello the win by the second-closest margin in Formula One history of 0.011 seconds on the finishing line. Schumacher's explanation varied between it being him "returning the favour" for Austria, or trying to engineer a formation finish—a feat derided as near-impossible in a sport where timings are taken to within a thousandth of a second. After the end of the season, the FIA banned "team orders which interfere with the race result", but the ban was lifted for the 2011 season because the ruling was difficult to enforce. In winning the Drivers' Championship he equalled the record set by Juan Manuel Fangio of five World Championships. Ferrari won 15 out of 17 races, and Schumacher won the title with six races remaining in the season, which is still the earliest point in the season for a driver to be crowned World Champion. Schumacher broke his own record, shared with Nigel Mansell, of nine race wins in a season, by winning 11 times and finishing every race on the podium. He finished with 144 points, a record-breaking 67 points ahead of the runner-up, his teammate Barrichello. This pair finished nine of the 17 races in the first two places. Schumacher broke Fangio's record of five World Drivers' Championships by winning the drivers' title for the sixth time in , after a closely contested battle with his main rivals. Before the season started, the FIA introduced new regulations and a new points system to make the championship more open. The biggest competition came from the McLaren-Mercedes and Williams-BMW teams. In the first race, Schumacher ran off track, and in the following two, was involved in collisions. He fell 16 points behind McLaren's Kimi Räikkönen. Schumacher won the —despite the death of his mother Elisabeth just hours before the race—and the next two races, and closed within two points of Räikkönen. Aside from Schumacher's victory in Canada and Barrichello's victory in Britain, the mid-season was dominated by Williams drivers Ralf Schumacher and Juan Pablo Montoya, who each claimed two victories. After the , Michael Schumacher led Montoya and Räikkönen by only one and two points, respectively. Ahead of the next race, the FIA announced changes to the way tyre widths were to be measured: this forced Michelin, supplier to Williams and McLaren among others, to rapidly redesign their tyres before the . Schumacher, running on Bridgestone tyres, won the next two races. After Montoya was penalised in the , only Schumacher and Räikkönen remained in contention for the title. At the final round, the , Schumacher needed only one point whilst Räikkönen needed to win. By finishing the race in eighth place, Schumacher took one point and assured his sixth World Drivers' title, ending the season two points ahead of Räikkönen. In , Schumacher won a record 12 of the first 13 races of the season, only failing to finish in Monaco after an accident with Montoya during a safety car period. Schumacher clinched a record seventh Drivers' title at the . He finished the season with a record 148 points, 34 points ahead of the runner-up Barrichello, and set a new record of 13 race wins out of a possible 18, surpassing his previous best of 11 wins from the 2002 season. 2005–2006: decline, resurgence and retirement Rule changes for the season required tyres to last an entire race, tipping the overall advantage to teams using Michelins over teams such as Ferrari that relied on Bridgestone tyres. The rule changes were partly in an effort to dent Ferrari's dominance and make the series more interesting. The most notable moment of the early season for Schumacher was his battle with Renault's Fernando Alonso in San Marino, where he started 13th and finished only 0.2 seconds behind Alonso. Less than halfway through the season, Schumacher stated: "I don't think I can count myself in this battle any more. It was like trying to fight with a blunted weapon. If your weapons are weak you don't have a chance." Schumacher's sole win in 2005 came at the . Before that race, the Michelin tyres were found to have significant safety issues. When no compromise between the teams and the FIA could be reached, all but the three teams using Bridgestone tyres dropped out of the race after the formation lap, leaving only six drivers on the grid. Schumacher retired in 6 of the 19 races, and finished the season in third with 62 points, fewer than half the points of World Champion Alonso. became the last season of Schumacher's Ferrari career. After three races, Schumacher had just 11 points and was already 17 points behind Alonso. He won the following two races; his pole position at San Marino was his 66th, breaking Ayrton Senna's 12-year-old record. Schumacher was stripped of pole position at the and started the race at the back of the grid, as he stopped his car and blocked part of the circuit while Alonso was on his qualifying lap; he still managed to work his way up to fifth place on the notoriously cramped Monaco circuit. By the , the ninth race of the season, Schumacher was 25 points behind Alonso, but he then won the following three races to reduce his disadvantage to 11. After further victories in Italy and China, Schumacher led in the championship standings for the first time during the season. After his win in Italy, Ferrari issued a press release stating that Schumacher would retire from racing at the end of the 2006 season, but would continue working for the team. The tifosi and the Italian press, who did not always take to Schumacher's relatively cold public persona, displayed an affectionate response after he announced his retirement. Schumacher led the Japanese Grand Prix; with only 16 laps to go, his car suffered an engine failure for the first time since the 2000 French Grand Prix, handing Alonso the victory. During the pre-race ceremonies of the season's last race, the , former football player Pelé presented a trophy to Schumacher for his achievements in Formula One. A fuel pressure problem prevented Schumacher from completing a single lap during the third qualifying session, forcing him to start the race in tenth position. Early in the race, Schumacher moved up to sixth place but suffered a puncture caused by the front wing of Giancarlo Fisichella's Renault. Schumacher fell to 19th place, 70 seconds behind teammate and race leader Felipe Massa. Schumacher recovered and overtook both Fisichella and Räikkönen to secure fourth place. His performance was classified in the press as "heroic", an "utterly breath-taking drive", and a "performance that ... sums up his career". 2007–2009: new roles at Ferrari During the season, Schumacher acted as Ferrari's adviser and Jean Todt's 'super assistant'. Schumacher also helped Ferrari with their development programme at the Jerez circuit. He focused on testing electronics and tyres for the 2008 Formula One season. During 2008, Schumacher also competed in motorcycle racing in the IDM Superbike-series, but stated that he had no intention of a second competitive career in this sport. At the 2009 Hungarian Grand Prix, Ferrari's Felipe Massa was seriously injured after being struck by a suspension spring during qualifying. Ferrari announced that they planned to draft in Schumacher for the and subsequent Grands Prix until Massa was able to race again. Schumacher tested a modified Ferrari F2007 to prepare himself as he had been unable to test the 2009 car due to testing restrictions. Ferrari appealed for special permission for Schumacher to test in a 2009 spec car, but Williams, Red Bull and Toro Rosso were against this test. In the end, Schumacher was forced to call off his return due to the severity of the neck injury he had received in a motorcycle accident earlier in the year. Massa's place was instead filled by Luca Badoer and, later, Giancarlo Fisichella. Mercedes (2010–2012) In December 2009, Schumacher announced his return to Formula One for the season alongside fellow German driver Nico Rosberg in the new Mercedes GP team. Mercedes returned to the sport as a constructor for the first time since 1955. Schumacher stated that his preparations to replace the injured Massa had initiated a renewed interest in Formula One, which, combined with the opportunity to fulfil a long-held ambition to drive for Mercedes and to be working again with team principal Ross Brawn, led Schumacher to accept the offer once he was passed fit. Schumacher signed a three-year contract, reportedly worth £20 million. He turned 41 in 2010 and his prospects with Mercedes were compared with Juan Manuel Fangio, Formula One's oldest champion who was 46 when he won his fifth title. 2010: return from retirement Schumacher finished sixth in the first race of the season at the . He finished behind teammate Rosberg in each of the first four qualifying sessions and races; former driver Stirling Moss suggested that Schumacher might be "past it". Several other former Formula One drivers thought otherwise, including former rival Damon Hill, who warned "you should never write Schumacher off". GrandPrix.com identified the inherent understeer of the Mercedes car, exacerbated by the narrower front tyres introduced for the 2010 season, as contributing to Schumacher's difficulties. Jenson Button would later claim that Mercedes's car was designed for him, as he would initially drive for the team, and that their differing driving styles may have contributed to Schumacher's difficulties. Mercedes upgraded their car for the where Schumacher finished fourth. At the , Schumacher finished sixth after passing Ferrari's Fernando Alonso on the final corner before the finish line when the safety car returned to the pits. Mercedes held that "the combination of the race control messages 'Safety Car in this lap' and 'Track Clear' and the green flags and lights shown by the marshals after safety car line one indicated that the race was not finishing under the safety car and all drivers were free to race." However, an FIA investigation found Schumacher guilty of breaching safety car regulations and awarded him a 20-seconds penalty, dropping him to 12th. In Turkey, Schumacher qualified fifth, and finished fourth in the race, both his best results since his return. At the in Valencia, Schumacher finished 15th, the lowest recorded finish in his career. In Hungary, Barrichello attempted to pass Schumacher down the inside on the main straight. Schumacher closed the inside line to force Barrichello onto the outside, but Barrichello persisted on the inside at despite the close proximity of a concrete wall and Schumacher leaving him only inches to spare. Schumacher was found guilty of dangerous driving and was demoted ten places on the grid for the following race, the Belgian Grand Prix, where he finished 7th despite starting 21st after his grid penalty. At the season finale in Abu Dhabi, Schumacher was involved in a major accident on the first lap, after Vitantonio Liuzzi's car collided with Schumacher's, barely missing his head. Schumacher finished the season in ninth place with 72 points. For the first time since 1991, Schumacher finished a year without a win, pole position, podium or fastest lap. 2011–2012 Schumacher's first points of 2011 were scored in Malaysia where he finished ninth; he later came sixth in Spain and took fourth place at the , after running as high as second in a wet race. Despite starting last in Belgium, Schumacher finished fifth. The saw Schumacher lead three laps during the race, marking the first time he had led a race since 2006. In doing so, he became the oldest driver to lead a race since Jack Brabham in . Schumacher finished the season in eighth place in the Drivers' Championship, with 76 points. He was again partnered by Rosberg at Mercedes for the 2012 season. Schumacher retired from the season's inaugural , and scored a point in the second round in Malaysia. In China, Schumacher started on the front row, but retired due to a loose wheel after a mechanic's error during a pit stop. After causing a collision with Bruno Senna in Spain, Schumacher received a five-place grid penalty for the Monaco Grand Prix. Schumacher was fastest in qualifying in Monaco but started sixth owing to his penalty. He later retired from seventh place in the race. At the , Schumacher finished third, his only podium finish since his return to Formula One. At 43 years and 173 days, he became the oldest driver to achieve a podium since Jack Brabham's second-place finish at the 1970 British Grand Prix. In Germany, Schumacher set the fastest lap for the 77th time in his career, and in Belgium he became the second driver in history to race in 300 Grands Prix. Schumacher's indecision over his future plans led to him being replaced by Lewis Hamilton at Mercedes for the 2013 season. In October 2012, Schumacher announced he would retire for a second time, stating: "There were times in the past few months in which I didn't want to deal with Formula One or prepare for the next Grand Prix." He concluded the season with a seventh-place finish at the Brazilian Grand Prix; Schumacher placed 13th in the 2012 Drivers' Championship. Helmet Schumacher, in conjunction with Schuberth, helped develop the first lightweight carbon helmet. In 2004, a prototype was publicly tested by being driven over by a tank; it survived intact. The helmet kept the driver cool by funneling directed airflow through fifty holes. Schumacher's original helmet sported the colours of the German flag and his sponsor's decals. On the top was a blue circle with white astroids. From the 2000 Monaco Grand Prix, in order to differentiate his colours from his new teammate Rubens Barrichello—whose helmet was predominantly white with a blue circle on top and a red ellipsis surrounding the visor—Schumacher changed the upper blue colour and some of the white areas to red. For the 2006 Brazilian Grand Prix, he wore an all-red helmet that included the names of his ninety-one Grand Prix victories. At the 2011 Belgian Grand Prix, Schumacher's 20th anniversary in Formula One, he wore a commemorative gold-leafed helmet, which included the year of his debut and the seasons of his seven World Driver's titles. During his 300th Grand Prix appearance, at the 2012 Belgian Grand Prix, Schumacher wore a platinum-leafed helmet with a message of his achievement. Honours Schumacher has been honoured many times. In 1992, the German Motor Sport Federation awarded him the ONS Cup, the highest accolade in German motorsport; he also won the trophy in 1994, 1995 and 2002. In 1993, he won a Bambi Sports Award and was the first racing driver to receive the Golden Steering Wheel. In 1994 and from 2001 to 2003, Schumacher was voted European Sportsperson of the Year by the International Sports Press Association. He was voted Polish Press Agency (PAP) European Sportsperson of the Year from 2001 to 2003. In 1995 and from 2000 to 2002, he was named Autosport International Racing Driver of the Year. Schumacher was voted German Sportspersonality of the Year in 1995 and 2004. During the latter year, he was voted Germany's greatest sportsperson of the 20th century, beating Birgit Fischer and Steffi Graf to the accolade. For his sports achievements and his commitment to road safety, Schumacher was awarded Germany's highest sporting accolade, the Silbernes Lorbeerblatt, in 1997. In 2002, for his contributions to sport and his contributions in raising awareness of child education, Schumacher was named as one of the UNESCO Champions for Sport. Schumacher won the Laureus World Sportsman of the Year in 2002 and 2004, received the Marca Leylenda award in 2001, was named L'Équipe Champion of Champions three times (from 2001 to 2003), won the Gazzetta World Sports Award twice (2001 and 2002), and won the 2003 Lorenzo Bandini Trophy. In honour of Schumacher's racing career and his efforts to improve road safety and the sport, he was awarded an FIA Gold Medal for Motor Sport in 2006. A year later, in 2007, he received the Prince of Asturias Award for Sport for his sporting prowess and his humanitarian record. Together with Sebastian Vettel, Schumacher won the Race of Champions Nations' Cup six times in a row for Germany, from 2007 to 2012. In 2017, Schumacher was inducted into the FIA Hall of Fame and Germany's Sports Hall of Fame. In 2020, Jean Todt honoured Schumacher with the FIA President Award, in recognition of Schumacher's seven World Championships and the "inspiration his sporting and personal commitments brought to the world". He has been granted honorary citizenship of Maranello, Modena, Spa and Sarajevo, has been appointed Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur, has been honoured with the Commander of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic, and has been appointed as an ambassador of San Marino. In 2008, the Swiss Football Association appointed Schumacher as the country's ambassador for UEFA Euro 2008, hosted by Switzerland and Austria. In recognition of his contribution to Formula One, the Nürburgring circuit renamed turns 9 and 10 as the "Schumacher S", in 2007. In 2014, the first corner of the Bahrain International Circuit was renamed in honour of Schumacher. Personal life and philanthropy In August 1995, Michael married Corinna Betsch. They have two children, a daughter Gina-Marie (born 20 February 1997) and a son, Mick (born 22 March 1999). Schumacher has always been very protective of his private life and is known to dislike the celebrity spotlight. The family moved to a newly built mansion near Gland, Switzerland in 2007, covering an area of with a private beach on Lake Geneva and featuring an underground garage and petrol station, with a vintage Shell fuel pump. Schumacher and his wife own horse ranches in Texas and Switzerland. Schumacher's younger brother Ralf, his son Mick, his nephew David and step-brother Sebastian Stahl have also been racing drivers. Ralf Schumacher competed in Formula One for ten years, starting from 1997 until the end of 2007. Mick became the third Schumacher to race in Formula One, having made his debut with Haas F1 Team in the 2021 season. Before his skiing accident, his main hobbies included horse riding, motorcycle racing, sky diving, and he played football for his local team FC Echichens. Schumacher appeared in several charity football games, and organised games between Formula One drivers. He is a supporter of 1. FC Köln, his local football club when he grew up, citing Pierre Littbarski and Harald Schumacher as his idols. He is a Roman Catholic. In 2006, Schumacher had a voice role in the Disney/Pixar film Cars. His character is himself as a Ferrari F430 who visits the town of Radiator Springs to get new tires from Luigi and Guido at the recommendation of Lightning McQueen. During arrival, Luigi and Guido both faint in excitement when they see him. The French film Asterix and Obelix at the Olympic Games features Schumacher in a cameo role as a chariot driver called Schumix. In 2009, Schumacher appeared on the BBC's motoring programme Top Gear as the Stig. Presenter Jeremy Clarkson hinted later in the programme that Schumacher was not the regular Stig, which the BBC subsequently confirmed. Schumacher was there because Ferrari would not allow anyone else to drive the unique black Ferrari FXX that was featured in the show. In July 2021, Netflix announced the first officially approved documentary film about Schumacher—called Schumacher—which was released on 15 September 2021. Schumacher was a special ambassador to UNESCO and has donated 1.5 million euros to the organisation. Additionally, he paid for the construction of a school for poor children and for area improvements in Dakar, Senegal. He supported a hospital for child victims of the siege in Sarajevo, which specialises in caring for amputees. In Lima, Peru, he funded the "Palace for the Poor", a centre for helping homeless street children obtain an education, clothing, food, medical attention, and shelter. Schumacher told F1 Magazine: "It's great if you can use your fame and the power your fame gives you to draw attention to things that really matter". For the 2002 and 2013 European flood disasters, Schumacher donated 1 million and 500,000 euros, respectively. He donated $10 million for aid after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, which surpassed that of any other sports person, most sports leagues, many worldwide corporations and even some countries. From 2002 to 2006, he donated at least $50 million to various charities. In 2008, he donated between $5M and $10M to the Clinton Foundation. Since his participation in an FIA European road safety campaign, as part of his punishment after the collision at the 1997 European Grand Prix, Schumacher continued to support other campaigns, such as Make Roads Safe, which is led by the FIA Foundation and calls on G8 countries and the United Nations to recognise global road deaths as a major global health issue. In 2008, Schumacher was the figurehead of an advertising campaign by Bacardi to raise awareness about responsible drinking. He featured in an advertising campaign for television, cinema and online media, supported by consumer engagements, public relations and digital media across the world. Finance and sponsorship In 1999 and 2000, Forbes magazine listed him as the highest paid athlete in the world. In 2005, Eurobusiness magazine identified Schumacher as the world's first billionaire athlete. In 2005, Forbes ranked him 17th in its "The World's Most Powerful Celebrities" list. A significant share of his income came from advertising; Deutsche Vermögensberatung paid him $8 million over three years from 1999 for wearing a 10 by 8 centimetre advertisement on his post-race cap. In 2010, his personal fortune was estimated at £515 million. In 2017, Forbes designated Schumacher as the athlete with the fifth highest career earnings of all-time. 2013 skiing accident On 29 December 2013, Schumacher was skiing with his then-14-year-old son Mick, descending the Combe de Saulire below the Dent de Burgin above Méribel in the French Alps. While crossing an unsecured off-piste area between Piste Chamois and Piste Mauduit, he fell and hit his head on a rock, sustaining a serious head injury despite wearing a ski helmet. According to his physicians, he would most likely have died if he had not been wearing a helmet. He was airlifted to Grenoble Hospital where he underwent two surgical interventions. Schumacher was put into a medically induced coma because of traumatic brain injury. By March 2014, there were small encouraging signs, and in early April he was showing moments of consciousness as he was gradually withdrawn from the medically induced coma. In June 2014, Schumacher left Grenoble Hospital for further rehabilitation at the Lausanne University Hospital, Switzerland. In September 2014, Schumacher left the hospital and was brought back to his home for further rehabilitation. Two months later, it was reported that Schumacher was "paralysed and in a wheelchair"; he "cannot speak and has memory problems". In May 2015, Schumacher's manager Sabine Kehm stated that his condition was slowly improving "considering the severeness of the injury he had". In September 2016, Felix Damm, lawyer for Schumacher, told a German court that his client "cannot walk", in response to reports from December 2015 in German publication Die Bunte that he could walk again. In July 2019, former Ferrari manager Jean Todt stated that Schumacher was making "good progress" but also "struggles to communicate". Todt also said that Schumacher was able to watch Formula One races on television at his home. In September of that year, Le Parisien reported that Schumacher had been admitted to the Hôpital Européen Georges-Pompidou in Paris for treatment by cardiovascular surgeon Philippe Menasché, described as a "pioneer in cell surgery". Following the treatment, which involved him receiving an anti-inflammatory stem cell perfusion, medical staff stated that Schumacher was "conscious". Racing record Career summary Complete German Formula Three results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap) Complete World Sportscar Championship results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) Complete Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft results 24 Hours of Le Mans results Complete Japanese Formula 3000 Championship results (key) Complete Formula One results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) Schumacher was disqualified from the 1997 World Drivers' Championship due to dangerous driving in the European Grand Prix, where he caused an avoidable accident with Jacques Villeneuve. His points tally would have placed him in second place in that year's standings. Driver did not finish the Grand Prix, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance. Formula One records Schumacher holds the following records in Formula One: Footnotes See also List of Formula One Grand Prix wins by Michael Schumacher References Specific General External links Kartcenter and Museum Kartteam Kaiser-Schumacher-Muchow Formula1.com Profile 1969 births Living people 24 Hours of Le Mans drivers Ambassadors of San Marino Benetton Formula One drivers Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur Ferrari Formula One drivers Formula Ford drivers Formula One race winners Formula One World Drivers' Champions German expatriates in Monaco German expatriates in Switzerland German Formula One drivers German Formula Three Championship drivers German humanitarians German philanthropists German racing drivers German Roman Catholics Japanese Formula 3000 Championship drivers Jordan Formula One drivers Karting World Championship drivers Laureus World Sports Awards winners Mercedes-Benz Formula One drivers People from Hürth People with disorders of consciousness People with traumatic brain injuries Racing drivers from North Rhine-Westphalia Recipients of the Silver Laurel Leaf Michael World Sportscar Championship drivers

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muonium

Muonium

Muonium is an exotic atom made up of an antimuon and an electron, which was discovered in 1960 by Vernon W. Hughes and is given the chemical symbol Mu. During the muon's lifetime, muonium can undergo chemical reactions. Due to the mass difference between the antimuon and the electron, muonium () is more similar to atomic hydrogen () than positronium (). Its Bohr radius and ionization energy are within 0.5% of hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium, and thus it can usefully be considered as an exotic light isotope of hydrogen. Although muonium is short-lived, physical chemists study it using muon spin spectroscopy (μSR), a magnetic resonance technique analogous to nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) or electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy. Like ESR, μSR is useful for the analysis of chemical transformations and the structure of compounds with novel or potentially valuable electronic properties. Muonium is usually studied by muon spin rotation, in which the Mu atom's spin precesses in a magnetic field applied transverse to the muon spin direction (since muons are typically produced in a spin-polarized state from the decay of pions), and by avoided level crossing (ALC), which is also called level crossing resonance (LCR). The latter employs a magnetic field applied longitudinally to the polarization direction, and monitors the relaxation of muon spins caused by "flip/flop" transitions with other magnetic nuclei. Because the muon is a lepton, the atomic energy levels of muonium can be calculated with great precision from quantum electrodynamics (QED), unlike in the case of hydrogen, where the precision is limited by uncertainties related to the internal structure of the proton. For this reason, muonium is an ideal system for studying bound-state QED and also for searching for physics beyond the standard model. Nomenclature Normally in the nomenclature of particle physics, an atom composed of a positively charged particle bound to an electron is named after the positive particle with "-ium" appended, in this case "muium". The suffix "-onium" is mostly used for bound states of a particle with its own antiparticle. The exotic atom consisting of a muon and an antimuon (which is yet to be observed) is known as true muonium. See also Muonic hydrogen Muon-catalyzed fusion References Exotic atoms

20401

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine%20man

Medicine man

A medicine man or medicine woman is a traditional healer and spiritual leader who serves a community of Indigenous people of the Americas. Individual cultures have their own names, in their respective Indigenous languages, for the spiritual healers and ceremonial leaders in their particular cultures. Cultural context In the ceremonial context of Indigenous North American communities, "medicine" usually refers to spiritual healing. Medicine men/women should not be confused with those who employ Native American ethnobotany, a practice that is very common in a large number of Native American and First Nations households. The terms medicine people or ceremonial people are sometimes used in Native American and First Nations communities, for example, when Arwen Nuttall (Cherokee) of the National Museum of the American Indian writes, "The knowledge possessed by medicine people is privileged, and it often remains in particular families." Native Americans tend to be quite reluctant to discuss issues about medicine or medicine people with non-Indians. In some cultures, the people will not even discuss these matters with Indians from other tribes. In most tribes, medicine elders are prohibited from advertising or introducing themselves as such. As Nuttall writes, "An inquiry to a Native person about religious beliefs or ceremonies is often viewed with suspicion." One example of this is the Apache medicine cord or whose purpose and use by Apache medicine elders was a mystery to nineteenth century ethnologists because "the Apache look upon these cords as so sacred that strangers are not allowed to see them, much less handle them or talk about them." The 1954 version of Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language reflects the poorly-grounded perceptions of the people whose use of the term effectively defined it for the people of that time: "a man supposed to have supernatural powers of curing disease and controlling spirits." In effect, such definitions were not explanations of what these "medicine people" are to their own communities but instead reported on the consensus of socially and psychologically remote observers when they tried to categorize the individuals. The term medicine man/woman, like the term shaman, has been criticized by Native Americans, as well as other specialists in the fields of religion and anthropology. While non-Native anthropologists sometimes use the term shaman for indigenous healers worldwide, including the Americas, shaman is the specific name for a spiritual mediator from the Tungusic peoples of Siberia and is not used in Native American or First Nations communities. Frauds and scams There are many fraudulent healers and scam artists who pose as Cherokee "shamans", and the Cherokee Nation has had to speak out against these people, even forming a task force to handle the issue. In order to seek help from a Cherokee medicine person a person needs to know someone in the community who can vouch for them and provide a referral. Usually one makes contact through a relative who knows the healer. See also Bomoh or Dukun in South-East Asia Cultural appropriation Curandero Folk healer Herbalism Holism Keewaydinoquay Peschel Kallawaya Kennekuk Medicine bag Native American ethnobotany Native American religion Plastic shaman Prehistoric medicine Quesalid Trance Notes External links Religious occupations of the indigenous peoples of North America Traditional healthcare occupations

20403

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malay%20Peninsula

Malay Peninsula

The Malay Peninsula (Malay: Semenanjung Tanah Melayu) is a peninsula in Mainland Southeast Asia. The landmass runs approximately north–south (N-S) and, at its terminus, is the southernmost point of the Asian continental mainland. The area contains Peninsular Malaysia, Southern Thailand, and the southernmost tip of Myanmar (Kawthaung). The island country of Singapore also has historical and cultural ties with the region. The indigenous people of the peninsula are the Malays, an Austronesian people. The Titiwangsa Mountains are part of the Tenasserim Hills system, and form the backbone of the peninsula. They form the southernmost section of the central cordillera which runs from Tibet through the Kra Isthmus (the peninsula's narrowest point) into the Malay Peninsula. The Strait of Malacca separates the Malay Peninsula from the Indonesian island of Sumatra while the south coast is separated from the island of Singapore by the Straits of Johor. Etymology The Malay term Tanah Melayu is derived from the word Tanah (land) and Melayu (Malays), thus it means "the Malay land". The term can be found in various Malay texts, of which the oldest dating back to the early 17th century. It is frequently mentioned in the Hikayat Hang Tuah, a well-known classic tale associated with the legendary heroes of Malacca Sultanate. Tanah Melayu in the text is consistently employed to refer to the area under Malaccan dominance. In the early 16th century, Tomé Pires, a Portuguese apothecary who stayed in Malaca from 1512 to 1515, uses an almost identical term, Terra de Tana Malaio, with which he referred to the southeastern part of Sumatra, where the deposed Sultan of Malacca, Mahmud Shah, established his exiled government. The 17th century's account of Portuguese historian, Emanuel Godinho de Erédia, noted on the region of Malaios surrounded by the Andaman Sea in the north, the entire Strait of Malacca in the centre, a part of Sunda Strait in the south, and the western part of South China Sea in the east. Prior to the foundation of Malacca, ancient and medieval references to a Malay peninsula exist in various foreign sources. According to several Indian scholars, the word Malayadvipa ("mountain-insular continent"), mentioned in the ancient Indian text, Vayu Purana, may possibly refer to the Malay Peninsula. Another Indian source, an inscription on the south wall of the Brihadeeswarar Temple, recorded the word Malaiur, referring to a kingdom in the Malay Peninsula that had "a strong mountain for its rampart". Ptolemy's Geographia named a geographical region of the Golden Chersonese as Maleu-kolon, a term thought to derive from Sanskrit malayakolam or malaikurram. While the Chinese chronicle of the Yuan dynasty mentioned the word Ma-li-yu-er, referring to a nation of the Malay Peninsula that was threatened by the southward expansion of the Sukhothai Kingdom under King Ram Khamhaeng. During the same era, Marco Polo made a reference to Malauir in his travelogue, as a kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula, possibly similar to the one mentioned in the Yuan chronicle. The Malay Peninsula was conflated with Persia in old Japan, and was known by the same name. In the early 20th century, the term Tanah Melayu was generally used by the Malays of the peninsula during the rise of Malay nationalism to describe uniting all Malay states on the peninsula under one Malay nation, and this ambition was largely realised with the formation of Persekutuan Tanah Melayu (Malay for "Federation of Malaya") in 1948. Ecology The Malay Peninsula is covered with tropical moist forests. Lowland forests are dominated by dipterocarp trees, while montane forests are home to evergreen trees in the beech family (Fagaceae), Myrtle family (Myrtaceae), laurel family (Lauraceae), tropical conifers, and other plant families. The peninsula's forests are home to thousands of species of animals and plants. Several large endangered mammals inhabit the peninsula – Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), gaur (Bos gaurus), tiger (Panthera tigris), sun bear (Helarctos malayanus), Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus), clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), and siamang (Symphalangus syndactylus). The Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) once inhabited the forests, but Malaysia's last rhinoceroses died in 2019, and the species' few remaining members survive only in Sumatra. The peninsula is home to several distinct ecoregions. The Tenasserim-South Thailand semi-evergreen rain forests cover the northern peninsula, including the Tenasserim Hills and the Isthmus of Kra, and extend to the coast on both sides of the isthmus. The Kangar-Pattani floristic boundary crosses the peninsula in southern Thailand and northernmost Malaysia, marking the boundary between the large biogeographic regions of Indochina to the north and Sundaland and Malesia to the south. The forests north of the boundary are characterized by seasonally-deciduous trees, while the Sundaland forests have more year-round rainfall and the trees are mostly evergreen. Peninsular Malaysia is home to three terrestrial ecoregions. The Peninsular Malaysian montane rain forests ecoregion covers the mountains above 1000 meters elevation. The lowlands and hills are in the Peninsular Malaysian rain forests ecoregion. The Peninsular Malaysian peat swamp forests include distinctive waterlogged forests in the lowlands on both sides of the peninsula. Extensive mangroves line both coasts. The Myanmar Coast mangroves are on the western shore of the peninsula, and the Indochina mangroves on the eastern shore. See also Malay Archipelago Malaya (disambiguation) Tenasserim Hills Malaysia–Thailand border References External links Andaman Sea .02 Gulf of Thailand Landforms of Malaysia Landforms of Myanmar Landforms of the South China Sea Landforms of Thailand . Malesia Peninsulas of Asia Regions of Asia . Strait of Malacca Articles containing video clips

20405

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miles%20Davis

Miles Davis

Miles Dewey Davis III (May 26, 1926September 28, 1991) was an American trumpeter, composer and bandleader. He is among the most acclaimed and influential figures in the history of jazz and 20th-century music. Davis pursued a variety of musical directions over a five-decade career that kept him at the forefront of many major stylistic developments in jazz. Born in Alton, Illinois, and raised in East St. Louis, Davis left St. Louis to study at Juilliard in New York City, but quickly dropped out and made his professional debut as a member of alto saxophonist Charlie “Bird” Parker's bebop quintet from 1944 to 1948. In 1949, he recorded the Birth of the Cool sessions for Capitol Records, which were crucial to the development of ”cool” jazz. In the early 1950s, Davis recorded some of the earliest hard bop music on Prestige Records, but did so haphazardly due to a serious heroin addiction. After a widely acclaimed comeback performance at the Newport Jazz Festival, he signed a long-term contract with Columbia Records and recorded the album 'Round About Midnight in 1955. It was his first work with tenor saxophonist John Coltrane and bassist Paul Chambers, key members of the sextet he led into the early 1960s. During this period, he alternated between orchestral jazz collaborations with arranger Gil Evans, such as the Spanish music-influenced Sketches of Spain (1960), and band recordings, such as Milestones (1958) and Kind of Blue (1959). The latter recording remains one of the most popular jazz albums of all time, having sold over five million copies in the U.S. Davis made several line-up changes while recording Someday My Prince Will Come (1961), his 1961 Blackhawk concerts, and Seven Steps to Heaven (1963), another mainstream success that introduced bassist Ron Carter, pianist Herbie Hancock and young drummer Tony Williams. After adding tenor saxophonist and composer Wayne Shorter to his new quintet in 1964, Davis led them on a series of more abstract recordings often composed by the band members, helping pioneer the post-bop genre with albums such as E.S.P (1965) and Miles Smiles (1967), before transitioning into his electric period. During the 1970s, he experimented with rock, funk, African rhythms, emerging electronic music technology, and an ever-changing line-up of musicians, including keyboardist Joe Zawinul, drummer Al Foster, and guitarist John McLaughlin. This period, beginning with Davis's 1969 studio album In a Silent Way and concluding with the 1975 concert recording Agharta, was the most controversial in his career, alienating and challenging many in jazz. His million-selling 1970 record Bitches Brew helped spark a resurgence in the genre's commercial popularity with jazz fusion as the decade progressed. After a six-year retirement due to poor health, Davis resumed his career in 1981, employing younger musicians and pop sounds on albums such as The Man with the Horn (1981) and Tutu (1986). Critics were often unreceptive, but the decade still garnered Davis his highest level of mainstream commercial recognition. He performed sold-out concerts worldwide, while branching out into painting, film and television work, before his death in 1991 from the combined effects of a stroke, pneumonia and respiratory failure. In 2006, Davis was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, which recognized him as "one of the key figures in the history of jazz". Rolling Stone described him as "the most revered jazz trumpeter of all time, not to mention one of the most important musicians of the 20th century," while Gerald Early called him inarguably one of the most influential and innovative musicians of that period. Early life Miles Dewey Davis III was born on May 26, 1926, to an affluent African-American family in Alton, Illinois, north of St. Louis. He had an older sister, Dorothy Mae (1925-1996), and a younger brother, Vernon (1929-1999). His mother, Cleota Mae Henry of Arkansas, was a music teacher and violinist, and his father, Miles Dewey Davis Jr., also of Arkansas, was a dentist. They owned a estate near Pine Bluff, Arkansas with a profitable pig farm. In Pine Bluff, he and his siblings fished, hunted, and rode horses. Davis's grandparents were the owners of an Arkansas farm where he would spend many summers. In 1927, the family moved to East St. Louis, Illinois. They lived on the second floor of a commercial building behind a dental office in a predominantly white neighbourhood. Davis's father would soon become distant to his children as the Great Depression caused him to become increasingly consumed by his job; typically working six days a week. From 1932 to 1934, Davis attended John Robinson Elementary School, an all-black school, then Crispus Attucks, where he performed well in mathematics, music, and sports. Davis had previously attended Catholic school. At an early age he liked music, especially blues, big bands, and gospel. In 1935, Davis received his first trumpet as a gift from John Eubanks, a friend of his father. He took lessons from "the biggest influence on my life," Elwood Buchanan, a teacher and musician who was a patient of his father. His mother wanted him to play the violin instead. Against the fashion of the time, Buchanan stressed the importance of playing without vibrato and encouraged him to use a clear, mid-range tone. Davis said that whenever he started playing with heavy vibrato, Buchanan slapped his knuckles. In later years Davis said, "I prefer a round sound with no attitude in it, like a round voice with not too much tremolo and not too much bass. Just right in the middle. If I can't get that sound I can't play anything." The family soon moved to 1701 Kansas Avenue in East St. Louis. According to Davis "By the age of 12, music had become the most important thing in my life." On his thirteenth birthday his father bought him a new trumpet, and Davis began to play in local bands. He took additional trumpet lessons from Joseph Gustat, principal trumpeter of the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra. Davis would also play the trumpet in talent shows he and his siblings would put on. In 1941, the 15-year-old attended East St. Louis Lincoln High School, where he joined the marching band directed by Buchanan and entered music competitions. Years later, Davis said that he was discriminated against in these competitions due to his race, but he added that these experiences made him a better musician. When a drummer asked him to play a certain passage of music, and he couldn't do it, he began to learn music theory. "I went and got everything, every book I could get to learn about theory." At Lincoln, Davis met his first girlfriend, Irene Birth (later Cawthon). He had a band that performed at the Elks Club. Part of his earnings paid for his sister's education at Fisk University. Davis befriended trumpeter Clark Terry, who suggested he play without vibrato, and performed with him for several years. With encouragement from his teacher and girlfriend, Davis filled a vacant spot in the Rhumboogie Orchestra, also known as the Blue Devils, led by Eddie Randle. He became the band's musical director, which involved hiring musicians and scheduling rehearsal. Years later, Davis considered this job one of the most important of his career. Sonny Stitt tried to persuade him to join the Tiny Bradshaw band, which was passing through town, but his mother insisted he finish high school before going on tour. He said later, "I didn't talk to her for two weeks. And I didn't go with the band either." In January 1944, Davis finished high school and graduated in absentia in June. During the next month, his girlfriend gave birth to a daughter, Cheryl. In July 1944, Billy Eckstine visited St. Louis with a band that included Art Blakey, Dizzy Gillespie, and Charlie Parker. Trumpeter Buddy Anderson was too sick to perform, so Davis was invited to join. He played with the band for two weeks at Club Riviera. After playing with these musicians, he was certain he should move to New York City, "where the action was". His mother wanted him to go to Fisk University, like his sister, and study piano or violin. Davis had other interests. Career 1944–1948: New York City and the bebop years In September 1944, Davis accepted his father's idea of studying at the Institute of Musical Arts, later known as the Juilliard School, in New York City. After passing the audition, he attended classes in music theory, piano and dictation. Davis often skipped his classes. Much of Davis's time was spent in clubs seeking his idol, Charlie Parker. According to Davis, Coleman Hawkins told him "finish your studies at Juilliard and forget Bird [Parker]". After finding Parker, he joined a cadre of regulars at Minton's and Monroe's in Harlem who held jam sessions every night. The other regulars included J. J. Johnson, Kenny Clarke, Thelonious Monk, Fats Navarro, and Freddie Webster. Davis reunited with Cawthon and their daughter when they moved to New York City. Parker became a roommate. Around this time Davis was paid an allowance of $40 ($582 by 2020). In mid-1945, Davis failed to register for the year's autumn term at Juilliard and dropped out after three semesters because he wanted to perform full-time. Years later he criticized Juilliard for concentrating too much on classical European and "white" repertoire, but he praised the school for teaching him music theory and improving his trumpet technique. He began performing at clubs on 52nd Street with Coleman Hawkins and Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis. He recorded for the first time on April 24, 1945, when he entered the studio as a sideman for Herbie Fields's band. During the next year, he recorded as a leader for the first time with the Miles Davis Sextet plus Earl Coleman and Ann Hathaway, one of the few times he accompanied a singer. In 1945, he replaced Dizzy Gillespie in Charlie Parker's quintet. On November 26, Davis participated in several recording sessions as part of Parker's group Reboppers that also involved Gillespie and Max Roach, displaying hints of the style he would become known for. On Parker's tune "Now's the Time", Davis played a solo that anticipated cool jazz. He next joined a big band led by Benny Carter, performing in St. Louis and remaining with the band in California. He again played with Parker and Gillespie. In Los Angeles, Parker had a nervous breakdown that put him in the hospital for several months. In March 1946, Davis played in studio sessions with Parker and began a collaboration with bassist Charles Mingus that summer. Cawthon gave birth to Davis's second child, Gregory, in East St. Louis before reuniting with Davis in New York City the following year. Davis noted that by this time, "I was still so much into the music that I was even ignoring Irene." He had also turned to alcohol and cocaine. He was a member of Billy Eckstine's big band in 1946 and Gillespie's in 1947. He joined a quintet led by Parker that also included Max Roach. Together they performed live with Duke Jordan and Tommy Potter for much of the year, including several studio sessions. In one session that May, Davis wrote the tune "Cheryl", for his daughter. Davis's first session as a leader followed in August 1947, playing as the Miles Davis All Stars that included Parker, pianist John Lewis, and bassist Nelson Boyd; they recorded "Milestones", "Half Nelson", and "Sippin' at Bells". After touring Chicago and Detroit with Parker's quintet, Davis returned to New York City in March 1948 and joined the Jazz at the Philharmonic tour, which included a stop in St. Louis on April 30. 1948–1950: Miles Davis Nonet and Birth of the Cool In August 1948, Davis declined an offer to join Duke Ellington's orchestra as he had entered rehearsals with a nine-piece band featuring baritone saxophonist Gerry Mulligan and arrangements by Gil Evans, taking an active role on what soon became his own project. Evans' Manhattan apartment had become the meeting place for several young musicians and composers such as Davis, Roach, Lewis, and Mulligan who were unhappy with the increasingly virtuoso instrumental techniques that dominated bebop. These gatherings led to the formation of the Miles Davis Nonet, which included atypical modern jazz instruments such as French horn and tuba, leading to a thickly textured, almost orchestral sound. The intent was to imitate the human voice through carefully arranged compositions and a relaxed, melodic approach to improvisation. In September, the band completed their sole engagement as the opening band for Count Basie at the Royal Roost for two weeks. Davis had to persuade the venue's manager to write the sign "Miles Davis Nonet. Arrangements by Gil Evans, John Lewis and Gerry Mulligan". Davis returned to Parker's quintet, but relationships within the quintet were growing tense mainly due to Parker's erratic behavior caused by his drug addiction. Early in his time with Parker, Davis abstained from drugs, chose a vegetarian diet, and spoke of the benefits of water and juice. In December 1948 Davis quit, saying he was not being paid. His departure began a period when he worked mainly as a freelancer and sideman. His nonet remained active until the end of 1949. After signing a contract with Capitol Records, they recorded sessions in January and April 1949, which sold little but influenced the "cool" or "west coast" style of jazz. The line-up changed throughout the year and included tuba player Bill Barber, alto saxophonist Lee Konitz, pianist Al Haig, trombone players Mike Zwerin with Kai Winding, French horn players Junior Collins with Sandy Siegelstein and Gunther Schuller, and bassists Al McKibbon and Joe Shulman. One track featured singer Kenny Hagood. The presence of white musicians in the group angered some black players, many of whom were unemployed at the time, yet Davis rebuffed their criticisms. Recording sessions with the nonet for Capitol continued until April 1950. The Nonet recorded a dozen tracks which were released as singles and subsequently compiled on the 1957 album Birth of the Cool. In May 1949, Davis performed with the Tadd Dameron Quintet with Kenny Clarke and James Moody at the Paris International Jazz Festival. On his first trip abroad Davis took a strong liking to Paris and its cultural environment, where he felt black jazz musicians and people of color in general were better respected than in the U.S. The trip, he said, "changed the way I looked at things forever". He began an affair with singer and actress Juliette Gréco. 1949–1955: Signing with Prestige, heroin addiction, and hard bop After returning from Paris in mid-1949, he became depressed and found little work except a short engagement with Powell in October and guest spots in New York City, Chicago, and Detroit until January 1950. He was falling behind in hotel rent and attempts were made to repossess his car. His heroin use became an expensive addiction, and Davis, not yet 24 years old, "lost my sense of discipline, lost my sense of control over my life, and started to drift". In August 1950, Cawthon gave birth to Davis's second son, Miles IV. Davis befriended boxer Johnny Bratton which began his interest in the sport. Davis left Cawthon and his three children in New York City in the hands of his friend, jazz singer Betty Carter. He toured with Eckstine and Billie Holiday and was arrested for heroin possession in Los Angeles. The story was reported in DownBeat magazine, which led to a further reduction in work, though he was acquitted weeks later. By the 1950s, Davis had become more skilled and was experimenting with the middle register of the trumpet alongside harmonies and rhythms. In January 1951, Davis's fortunes improved when he signed a one-year contract with Prestige after owner Bob Weinstock became a fan of the nonet. Davis chose Lewis, trombonist Bennie Green, bassist Percy Heath, saxophonist Sonny Rollins, and drummer Roy Haynes; they recorded what became part of Miles Davis and Horns (1956). Davis was hired for other studio dates in 1951 and began to transcribe scores for record labels to fund his heroin addiction. His second session for Prestige was released on The New Sounds (1951), Dig (1956), and Conception (1956). Davis supported his heroin habit by playing music and by living the life of a hustler, exploiting prostitutes, and receiving money from friends. By 1953, his addiction began to impair his playing. His drug habit became public in a DownBeat interview with Cab Calloway, whom he never forgave as it brought him "all pain and suffering". He returned to St. Louis and stayed with his father for several months. After a brief period with Roach and Mingus in September 1953, he returned to his father's home, where he concentrated on addressing his addiction. Davis lived in Detroit for about six months, avoiding New York City, where it was easy to get drugs. Though he used heroin, he was still able to perform locally with Elvin Jones and Tommy Flanagan as part of Billy Mitchell's house band at the Blue Bird club. He was also "pimping a little". However, he was able to end his addiction, and, in February 1954, Davis returned to New York City, feeling good "for the first time in a long time", mentally and physically stronger, and joined a gym. He informed Weinstock and Blue Note that he was ready to record with a quintet, which he was granted. He considered the albums that resulted from these and earlier sessions – Miles Davis Quartet and Miles Davis Volume 2 – "very important" because he felt his performances were particularly strong. He was paid roughly $750 (US$ in dollars) for each album and refused to give away his publishing rights. Davis abandoned the bebop style and turned to the music of pianist Ahmad Jamal, whose approach and use of space influenced him. When he returned to the studio in June 1955 to record The Musings of Miles, he wanted a pianist like Jamal and chose Red Garland. Blue Haze (1956), Bags' Groove (1957), Walkin' (1957), and Miles Davis and the Modern Jazz Giants (1959) documented the evolution of his sound with the Harmon mute placed close to the microphone, and the use of more spacious and relaxed phrasing. He assumed a central role in hard bop, less radical in harmony and melody, and used popular songs and American standards as starting points for improvisation. Hard bop distanced itself from cool jazz with a harder beat and music inspired by the blues. A few critics consider Walkin' (April 1954) the album that created the hard bop genre. Davis gained a reputation for being cold, distant—and easily angered. He wrote that in 1954 Sugar Ray Robinson "was the most important thing in my life besides music", and he adopted Robinson's "arrogant attitude". He showed contempt for critics and the press. Davis had an operation to remove polyps from his larynx in October 1955. The doctors told him to remain silent after the operation, but he got into an argument that permanently damaged his vocal cords and gave him a raspy voice for the rest of his life. He was called the "prince of darkness", adding a patina of mystery to his public persona. 1955–1959: Signing with Columbia, first quintet, and modal jazz In July 1955, Davis's fortunes improved considerably when he played at the Newport Jazz Festival, with a line-up of Monk, Heath, drummer Connie Kay, and horn players Zoot Sims and Gerry Mulligan. The performance was praised by critics and audiences alike, who considered it to be a highlight of the festival as well as helping Davis, the least well known musician in the group, to increase his popularity among affluent white audiences. He tied with Dizzy Gillespie for best trumpeter in the 1955 DownBeat magazine Readers' Poll. George Avakian of Columbia Records heard Davis perform at Newport and wanted to sign him to the label. Davis had one year left on his contract with Prestige, which required him to release four more albums. He signed a contract with Columbia that included a $4,000 advance (US$ in dollars) and required that his recordings for Columbia remain unreleased until his agreement with Prestige expired. At the request of Avakian, he formed the Miles Davis Quintet for a performance at Café Bohemia. The quintet contained Sonny Rollins on tenor saxophone, Red Garland on piano, Paul Chambers on double bass, and Philly Joe Jones on drums. Rollins was replaced by John Coltrane, completing the membership of the first quintet. This group appeared on his final albums for Prestige, which were recorded in two one-day sessions in 1956. Each album helped establish Davis's quintet as one of the best. The style of the group was an extension of their experience playing with Davis. He played long, legato, melodic lines, while Coltrane contrasted with energetic solos. Their live repertoire was a mix of bebop, standards from the Great American Songbook and pre-bop eras, and traditional tunes. They appeared on 'Round About Midnight, Davis's first album for Columbia. In 1956, he left his quintet temporarily to tour Europe as part of the Birdland All-Stars, which included the Modern Jazz Quartet and French and German musicians. In Paris, he reunited with Gréco and they "remained lovers for many years". He then returned home, reunited his quintet and toured the US for two months. Conflict arose on tour when he grew impatient with the drug habits of Jones and Coltrane. Davis was trying to live a healthier life by exercising and reducing his alcohol. But he continued to use cocaine. At the end of the tour, he fired Jones and Coltrane and replaced them with Sonny Rollins and Art Taylor. In November 1957, Davis went to Paris and recorded the soundtrack to Ascenseur pour l'échafaud(Lift to the Scaffold) directed by Louis Malle. Consisting of French jazz musicians Barney Wilen, Pierre Michelot, and René Urtreger, and American drummer Kenny Clarke, the group avoided a written score and instead improvised while they watched the film in a recording studio. After returning to New York, Davis revived his quintet with Adderley and Coltrane, who was clean from his drug habit. Now a sextet, the group recorded material in early 1958 that was released on Milestones, an album that demonstrated Davis's interest in modal jazz. A performance by Les Ballets Africains drew him to slower, deliberate music that allowed the creation of solos from harmony rather than chords. By May 1958, he had replaced Jones with drummer Jimmy Cobb, and Garland left the group, leaving Davis to play piano on "Sid's Ahead" for Milestones. He wanted someone who could play modal jazz, so he hired Bill Evans, a young pianist with a background in classical music. Evans had an impressionistic approach to piano. His ideas greatly influenced Davis. But after eight months of touring, a tired Evans left. Wynton Kelly, his replacement, brought to the group a swinging style that contrasted with Evans's delicacy. The sextet made their recording debut on Jazz Track (1958). 1957–1963: Collaborations with Gil Evans and Kind of Blue By early 1957, Davis was exhausted from recording and touring and wished to pursue new projects. In March, the 30-year-old Davis told journalists of his intention to retire soon and revealed offers he had received to teach at Harvard University and be a musical director at a record label. Avakian agreed that it was time for Davis to explore something different, but Davis rejected his suggestion of returning to his nonet as he considered that a step backward. Avakian then suggested that he work with a bigger ensemble, similar to Music for Brass (1957), an album of orchestral and brass-arranged music led by Gunther Schuller featuring Davis as a guest soloist. Davis accepted and worked with Gil Evans in what became a five-album collaboration from 1957 to 1962. Miles Ahead (1957) showcased Davis on flugelhorn and a rendition of "The Maids of Cadiz" by Léo Delibes, the first piece of classical music that Davis recorded. Evans devised orchestral passages as transitions, thus turning the album into one long piece of music. Porgy and Bess (1959) includes arrangements of pieces from George Gershwin's opera. Sketches of Spain (1960) contained music by Joaquín Rodrigo and Manuel de Falla and originals by Evans. The classical musicians had trouble improvising, while the jazz musicians couldn't handle the difficult arrangements, but the album was a critical success, selling over 120,000 copies in the US. Davis performed with an orchestra conducted by Evans at Carnegie Hall in May 1961 to raise money for charity. The pair's final album was Quiet Nights (1962), a collection of bossa nova songs released against their wishes. Evans stated it was only half an album and blamed the record company; Davis blamed producer Teo Macero and refused to speak to him for more than two years. The boxed set Miles Davis & Gil Evans: The Complete Columbia Studio Recordings (1996) won the Grammy Award for Best Historical Album and Best Album Notes in 1997. In March and April 1959, Davis recorded what is considered his greatest album, Kind of Blue. He named the album for its mood. He called back Bill Evans, as the music had been planned around Evans's piano style. Both Davis and Evans were familiar with George Russell's ideas about modal jazz. But Davis neglected to tell pianist Wynton Kelly that Evans was returning, so Kelly appeared on only one song, "Freddie Freeloader". The sextet had played "So What" and "All Blues" at performances, but the remaining three compositions they saw for the first time in the studio. Released in August 1959, Kind of Blue was an instant success, with widespread radio airplay and rave reviews from critics. It has remained a strong seller over the years. By November 2019, the album reached 5× platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments of over five million copies in the US, making it one of the most successful jazz albums in history. In 2009, the US House of Representatives passed a resolution that honored it as a national treasure. In August 1959, during a break in a recording session at the Birdland nightclub in New York City, Davis was escorting a blonde-haired woman to a taxi outside the club when policeman Gerald Kilduff told him to "move on". Davis said that he was working at the club, and he refused to move. Kilduff arrested and grabbed Davis as he tried to protect himself. Witnesses said the policeman hit Davis in the stomach with a nightstick without provocation. Two detectives held the crowd back, while a third approached Davis from behind and beat him over the head. Davis was taken to jail, charged with assaulting an officer, then taken to the hospital where he received five stitches. By January 1960, he was acquitted of disorderly conduct and third-degree assault. He later stated the incident "changed my whole life and whole attitude again, made me feel bitter and cynical again when I was starting to feel good about the things that had changed in this country". Davis and his sextet toured to support Kind of Blue. He persuaded Coltrane to play with the group on one final European tour in the spring of 1960. Coltrane then departed to form his quartet, though he returned for some tracks on Davis's album Someday My Prince Will Come (1961). Its front cover shows a photograph of his wife, Frances Taylor, after Davis demanded that Columbia depict black women on his album covers. In 1957, Davis began a relationship with Taylor, a dancer he had met in 1953 at Ciro's in Los Angeles. They married in December 1959 in Toledo, Ohio. The relationship was marred by numerous incidents of domestic violence against Taylor. He later wrote, "Every time I hit her, I felt bad because a lot of it really wasn't her fault but had to do with me being temperamental and jealous." One theory for his behavior was that in 1963 he had increased his use of alcohol and cocaine to alleviate joint pain caused by sickle cell anemia. He hallucinated, "looking for this imaginary person" in his house while wielding a kitchen knife. Soon after the photograph for the album E.S.P. (1965) was taken, Taylor left him for the final time. She filed for divorce in 1966; it was finalized in February 1968. 1963–1968: Second quintet In December 1962, Davis, Kelly, Chambers, Cobb, and Rollins played together for the last time as the first three wanted to leave and play as a trio. Rollins left them soon after, leaving Davis to pay over $25,000 (US$ in dollars) to cancel upcoming gigs and quickly assemble a new group. Following auditions, he found his new band in tenor saxophonist George Coleman, bassist Ron Carter, pianist Victor Feldman, and drummer Frank Butler. By May 1963, Feldman and Butler were replaced by 23-year-old pianist Herbie Hancock and 17-year-old drummer Tony Williams who made Davis "excited all over again". With this group, Davis completed the rest of what became Seven Steps to Heaven (1963) and recorded the live albums Miles Davis in Europe (1964), My Funny Valentine (1965), and Four & More (1966). The quintet played essentially the same bebop tunes and standards that Davis's previous bands had played, but they approached them with structural and rhythmic freedom and occasionally breakneck speed. In 1964, Coleman was briefly replaced by saxophonist Sam Rivers (who recorded with Davis on Miles in Tokyo) until Wayne Shorter was persuaded to leave Art Blakey. The quintet with Shorter lasted through 1968, with the saxophonist becoming the group's principal composer. The album E.S.P. (1965) was named after his composition. While touring Europe, the group made its first album, Miles in Berlin (1965). Davis needed medical attention for hip pain, which had worsened since his Japanese tour during the previous year. He underwent hip replacement surgery in April 1965, with bone taken from his shin, but it failed. After his third month in the hospital, he discharged himself due to boredom and went home. He returned to the hospital in August after a fall required the insertion of a plastic hip joint. In November 1965, he had recovered enough to return to performing with his quintet, which included gigs at the Plugged Nickel in Chicago. Teo Macero returned as his record producer after their rift over Quiet Nights had healed. In January 1966, Davis spent three months in the hospital with a liver infection. When he resumed touring, he performed more at colleges because he had grown tired of the typical jazz venues. Columbia president Clive Davis reported in 1966 his sales had declined to around 40,000–50,000 per album, compared to as many as 100,000 per release a few years before. Matters were not helped by the press reporting his apparent financial troubles and imminent demise. After his appearance at the 1966 Newport Jazz Festival, he returned to the studio with his quintet for a series of sessions. He started a relationship with actress Cicely Tyson, who helped him reduce his alcohol consumption. Material from the 1966–1968 sessions was released on Miles Smiles (1966), Sorcerer (1967), Nefertiti (1967), Miles in the Sky (1968), and Filles de Kilimanjaro (1968). The quintet's approach to the new music became known as "time no changes"—which referred to Davis's decision to depart from chordal sequences and adopt a more open approach, with the rhythm section responding to the soloists' melodies. Through Nefertiti the studio recordings consisted primarily of originals composed by Shorter, with occasional compositions by the other sidemen. In 1967, the group began to play their concerts in continuous sets, each tune flowing into the next, with only the melody indicating any sort of change. His bands performed this way until his hiatus in 1975. Miles in the Sky and Filles de Kilimanjaro—which tentatively introduced electric bass, electric piano, and electric guitar on some tracks—pointed the way to the fusion phase of Davis's career. He also began experimenting with more rock-oriented rhythms on these records. By the time the second half of Filles de Kilimanjaro was recorded, bassist Dave Holland and pianist Chick Corea had replaced Carter and Hancock. Davis soon took over the compositional duties of his sidemen. 1968–1975: The electric period In September 1968, Davis married 23-year-old model and songwriter Betty Mabry. In his autobiography, Davis described her as a "high-class groupie, who was very talented but who didn't believe in her own talent". Mabry, a familiar face in the New York City counterculture, introduced Davis to popular rock, soul, and funk musicians. Jazz critic Leonard Feather visited Davis's apartment and was shocked to find him listening to albums by The Byrds, Aretha Franklin, and Dionne Warwick. He also liked James Brown, Sly and the Family Stone, and Jimi Hendrix, whose group Band of Gypsys particularly impressed Davis. Davis filed for divorce from Mabry in 1969, after accusing her of having an affair with Hendrix. In a Silent Way was recorded in a single studio session in February 1969, with Shorter, Hancock, Holland, and Williams alongside keyboardists Chick Corea and Josef Zawinul and guitarist John McLaughlin. The album contains two side-long tracks that Macero pieced together from different takes recorded at the session. When the album was released later that year, some critics accused him of "selling out" to the rock and roll audience. Nevertheless, it reached number 134 on the US Billboard Top LPs chart, his first album since My Funny Valentine to reach the chart. In a Silent Way was his entry into jazz fusion. The touring band of 1969–1970—with Shorter, Corea, Holland, and DeJohnette—never completed a studio recording together, and became known as Davis's "lost quintet", though radio broadcasts from the band's European tour have been extensively bootlegged. In October 1969, Davis was shot at five times while in his car with one of his two lovers, Marguerite Eskridge. The incident left him with a graze and Eskridge unharmed. In 1970, Marguerite gave birth to their son Erin. For the double album Bitches Brew (1970), he hired Jack DeJohnette, Airto Moreira, and Bennie Maupin. The album contained long compositions, some over twenty minutes, that were never played in the studio but were constructed from several takes by Macero and Davis via splicing and tape loops amid epochal advances in multitrack recording technologies. Bitches Brew peaked at No. 35 on the Billboard Album chart. In 1976, it was certified gold for selling over 500,000 records. By 2003, it had sold one million copies. In March 1970, Davis began to perform as the opening act for rock bands, allowing Columbia to market Bitches Brew to a larger audience. He shared a Fillmore East bill with the Steve Miller Band and Neil Young with Crazy Horse on March 6 and 7. Biographer Paul Tingen wrote, "Miles' newcomer status in this environment" led to "mixed audience reactions, often having to play for dramatically reduced fees, and enduring the 'sell-out' accusations from the jazz world", as well as being "attacked by sections of the black press for supposedly genuflecting to white culture". The 1970 tours included the 1970 Isle of Wight Festival on August 29 when he performed to an estimated 600,000 people, the largest of his career. Plans to record with Hendrix ended after the guitarist's death; his funeral was the last one that Davis attended. Several live albums with a transitional sextet/septet including Corea, DeJohnette, Holland, Moreira, saxophonist Steve Grossman, and keyboardist Keith Jarrett were recorded during this period, including Miles Davis at Fillmore (1970) and Black Beauty: Miles Davis at Fillmore West (1973). By 1971, Davis had signed a contract with Columbia that paid him $100,000 a year (US$ in dollars) for three years in addition to royalties. He recorded a soundtrack album (Jack Johnson) for the 1970 documentary film about heavyweight boxer Jack Johnson, containing two long pieces of 25 and 26 minutes in length with Hancock, McLaughlin, Sonny Sharrock, and Billy Cobham. He was committed to making music for African-Americans who liked more commercial, pop, groove-oriented music. By November 1971, DeJohnette and Moreira had been replaced in the touring ensemble by drummer Leon "Ndugu" Chancler and percussionists James Mtume and Don Alias. Live-Evil was released in the same month. Showcasing bassist Michael Henderson, who had replaced Holland in 1970, the album demonstrated that Davis's ensemble had transformed into a funk-oriented group while retaining the exploratory imperative of Bitches Brew. In 1972, composer-arranger Paul Buckmaster introduced Davis to the music of avant-garde composer Karlheinz Stockhausen, leading to a period of creative exploration. Biographer J. K. Chambers wrote, "The effect of Davis' study of Stockhausen could not be repressed for long ... Davis' own 'space music' shows Stockhausen's influence compositionally." His recordings and performances during this period were described as "space music" by fans, Feather, and Buckmaster, who described it as "a lot of mood changes—heavy, dark, intense—definitely space music". The studio album On the Corner (1972) blended the influence of Stockhausen and Buckmaster with funk elements. Davis invited Buckmaster to New York City to oversee the writing and recording of the album with Macero. The album reached No. 1 on the Billboard jazz chart but peaked at No. 156 on the more heterogeneous Top 200 Albums chart. Davis felt that Columbia marketed it to the wrong audience. "The music was meant to be heard by young black people, but they just treated it like any other jazz album and advertised it that way, pushed it on the jazz radio stations. Young black kids don't listen to those stations; they listen to R&B stations and some rock stations." In October 1972, he broke his ankles in a car crash. He took painkillers and cocaine to cope with the pain. Looking back at his career after the incident, he wrote, "Everything started to blur." After recording On the Corner, he assembled a group with Henderson, Mtume, Carlos Garnett, guitarist Reggie Lucas, organist Lonnie Liston Smith, tabla player Badal Roy, sitarist Khalil Balakrishna, and drummer Al Foster. Only Smith was a jazz instrumentalist; consequently, the music emphasized rhythmic density and shifting textures instead of solos. This group was recorded live in 1972 for In Concert, but Davis found it unsatisfactory, leading him to drop the tabla and sitar and play keyboards. He also added guitarist Pete Cosey. The compilation studio album Big Fun contains four long improvisations recorded between 1969 and 1972. Studio sessions throughout 1973 and 1974 led to Get Up with It, an album which included four long pieces alongside four shorter recordings from 1970 and 1972. The track "He Loved Him Madly", a thirty-minute tribute to the recently deceased Duke Ellington, presaged later developments in ambient music. In the United States, it performed comparably to On the Corner, reaching number 8 on the jazz chart and number 141 on the pop chart. He then concentrated on live performance with a series of concerts that Columbia released on the double live albums Agharta (1975), Pangaea (1976), and Dark Magus (1977). The first two are recordings of two sets from February 1, 1975, in Osaka, by which time Davis was troubled by several physical ailments; he relied on alcohol, codeine, and morphine to get through the engagements. His shows were routinely panned by critics who mentioned his habit of performing with his back to the audience. Cosey later asserted that "the band really advanced after the Japanese tour", but Davis was again hospitalized, for his ulcers and a hernia, during a tour of the US while opening for Herbie Hancock. After appearances at the 1975 Newport Jazz Festival in July and the Schaefer Music Festival in New York in September, Davis dropped out of music. 1975–1980: Hiatus In his autobiography, Davis wrote frankly about his life during his hiatus from music. He called his Upper West Side brownstone a wreck and chronicled his heavy use of alcohol and cocaine, in addition to sexual encounters with many women. He also stated that "Sex and drugs took the place music had occupied in my life." Drummer Tony Williams recalled that by noon (on average) Davis would be sick from the previous night's intake. In December 1975, he had regained enough strength to undergo a much needed hip replacement operation. In December 1976, Columbia was reluctant to renew his contract and pay his usual large advances. But after his lawyer started negotiating with United Artists, Columbia matched their offer, establishing the Miles Davis Fund to pay him regularly. Pianist Vladimir Horowitz was the only other musician with Columbia who had a similar status. In 1978, Davis asked fusion guitarist Larry Coryell to participate in sessions with keyboardists Masabumi Kikuchi and George Pavlis, bassist T. M. Stevens, and drummer Al Foster. Davis played the arranged piece uptempo, abandoned his trumpet for the organ, and had Macero record the session without the band's knowledge. After Coryell declined a spot in a band that Davis was beginning to put together, Davis returned to his reclusive lifestyle in New York City. Soon after, Marguerite Eskridge had Davis jailed for failing to pay child support for their son Erin, which cost him $10,000 (US$ in dollars) for release on bail. A recording session that involved Buckmaster and Gil Evans was halted, with Evans leaving after failing to receive the payment he was promised. In August 1978, Davis hired a new manager, Mark Rothbaum, who had worked with him since 1972. By 1979, Davis rekindled his relationship with actress Cicely Tyson, who helped overcome his cocaine addiction and regain his enthusiasm for music. The two married in November 1981, but their tumultuous marriage ended with Tyson filing for divorce in 1988, which was finalized in 1989. 1980–1985: Comeback Having played the trumpet little throughout the previous three years, Davis found it difficult to reclaim his embouchure. His first post-hiatus studio appearance took place in May 1980. A day later, Davis was hospitalized due to a leg infection. He recorded The Man with the Horn from June 1980 to May 1981 with Macero producing. A large band was abandoned in favor of a combo with saxophonist Bill Evans and bassist Marcus Miller. Both would collaborate with him during the next decade. The Man with the Horn received a poor critical reception despite selling well. In June 1981, Davis returned to the stage for the first time since 1975 in a ten-minute guest solo as part of Mel Lewis's band at the Village Vanguard. This was followed by appearances with a new band. Recordings from a mixture of dates from 1981, including from the Kix in Boston and Avery Fisher Hall, were released on We Want Miles, which earned him a Grammy Award for Best Jazz Instrumental Performance by a Soloist. In January 1982, while Tyson was working in Africa, Davis "went a little wild" with alcohol, and suffered a stroke that temporarily paralyzed his right hand. Tyson returned home and cared for him. After three months of treatment with a Chinese acupuncturist, he was able to play the trumpet again. He listened to his doctor's warnings and gave up alcohol and drugs. He credited Tyson with helping his recovery, which involved exercise, piano playing, and visits to spas. She encouraged him to draw, which he pursued for the rest of his life. Davis resumed touring in May 1982 with a line-up that included percussionist Mino Cinelu and guitarist John Scofield, with whom he worked closely on the album Star People (1983). In mid-1983, he worked on the tracks for Decoy, an album mixing soul music and electronica that was released in 1984. He brought in producer, composer, and keyboardist Robert Irving III, who had collaborated with him on The Man with the Horn. With a seven-piece band that included Scofield, Evans, Irving, Foster, and Darryl Jones, he played a series of European performances that were positively received. In December 1984, while in Denmark, he was awarded the Léonie Sonning Music Prize. Trumpeter Palle Mikkelborg had written "Aura", a contemporary classical piece, for the event which impressed Davis to the point of returning to Denmark in early 1985 to record his next studio album, Aura. Columbia was dissatisfied with the recording and delayed its release. Also in 1984, Davis met 34-year-old sculptor Jo Gelbard. Gelbard would teach Davis how to paint; the two were frequent collaborators and were soon romantically engaged. By 1985, Davis was diabetic and required daily injections of insulin. In May 1985, one month into a tour, Davis signed a contract with Warner Bros. that required him to give up his publishing rights. You're Under Arrest, his final album for Columbia, was released in September. It included cover versions of two pop songs: "Time After Time" by Cyndi Lauper and Michael Jackson's "Human Nature". He considered releasing an album of pop songs, and he recorded dozens of them, but the idea was rejected. He said that many of today's jazz standards had been pop songs in Broadway theater and that he was simply updating the standards repertoire. Davis collaborated with a number of figures from the British post-punk and new wave movements during this period, including Scritti Politti. This period also saw Davis move from his funk inspired sound of the early 70s to a more melodic style. 1986–1991: Final years After taking part in the recording of the 1985 protest song "Sun City" as a member of Artists United Against Apartheid, Davis appeared on the instrumental "Don't Stop Me Now" by Toto for their album Fahrenheit (1986). Davis collaborated with Prince on a song titled "Can I Play With U," which went unreleased until 2020. Davis also collaborated with Zane Giles and Randy Hall on the Rubberband sessions in 1985 but those would remain unreleased until 2019. Instead, he worked with Marcus Miller, and Tutu (1986) became the first time he used modern studio tools such as programmed synthesizers, sampling, and drum loops. Released in September 1986, its front cover is a photographic portrait of Davis by Irving Penn. In 1987, he won a Grammy Award for Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Soloist. Also in 1987, Davis contacted American journalist Quincy Troupe to work with him on his autobiography. The two men had met the previous year when Troupe conducted a two-day-long interview, which was published by Spin as a 45-page article. In 1988, Davis had a small part as a street musician in the Christmas comedy film Scrooged starring Bill Murray. He also collaborated with Zucchero Fornaciari in a version of Dune Mosse (Blue's), published in 2004 in Zu & Co. of the Italian bluesman. In November 1988 he was inducted into the Sovereign Military Order of Malta at a ceremony at the Alhambra Palace in Spain (this was part of the reasoning for his daughter's decision to include the honorific "Sir" on his headstone). Later that month, Davis cut his European tour short after he collapsed and fainted after a two-hour show in Madrid and flew home. There were rumors of more poor health reported by the American magazine Star in its February 21, 1989, edition, which published a claim that Davis had contracted AIDS, prompting his manager Peter Shukat to issue a statement the following day. Shukat said Davis had been in the hospital for a mild case of pneumonia and the removal of a benign polyp on his vocal cords and was resting comfortably in preparation for his 1989 tours. Davis later blamed one of his former wives or girlfriends for starting the rumor and decided against taking legal action. He was interviewed on 60 Minutes by Harry Reasoner. In October 1989, he received a Grande Medaille de Vermeil from Paris mayor Jacques Chirac. In 1990, he received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. In early 1991, he appeared in the Rolf de Heer film Dingo as a jazz musician. Davis followed Tutu with Amandla (1989) and soundtracks to four films: Street Smart, Siesta, The Hot Spot, and Dingo. His last albums were released posthumously: the hip hop-influenced Doo-Bop (1992) and Miles & Quincy Live at Montreux (1993), a collaboration with Quincy Jones from the 1991 Montreux Jazz Festival where, for the first time in three decades, he performed songs from Miles Ahead, Porgy and Bess, and Sketches of Spain. On July 8, 1991, Davis returned to performing material from his past at the 1991 Montreux Jazz Festival with a band and orchestra conducted by Quincy Jones. The set consisted of arrangements from his albums recorded with Gil Evans. The show was followed by a concert billed as "Miles and Friends" at the Grande halle de la Villette in Paris two days later, with guest performances by musicians from throughout his career, including John McLaughlin, Herbie Hancock, and Joe Zawinul. In Paris he was awarded a knighthood, the Chevalier of the Legion of Honour by French Culture Minister, Jack Lang who called him "the Picasso of Jazz". After returning to America, he stopped in New York City to record material for Doo-Bop, then returned to California to play at the Hollywood Bowl on August 25, his final live performance. Davis became increasingly aggressive in his final year due in part to the medication he was taking. His aggression manifested as violence towards his partner Jo Gelbard. Death In early September 1991, Davis checked into St. John's Hospital near his home in Santa Monica, California, for routine tests. Doctors suggested he have a tracheal tube implanted to relieve his breathing after repeated bouts of bronchial pneumonia. The suggestion provoked an outburst from Davis that led to an intracerebral hemorrhage followed by a coma. According to Jo Gelbard, on September 26, Davis painted his final painting, composed of dark, ghostly figures, dripping blood and "his imminent demise." After several days on life support, his machine was turned off and he died on September 28, 1991, in the arms of Gelbard. He was 65 years old. His death was attributed to the combined effects of a stroke, pneumonia, and respiratory failure. According to Troupe, Davis was taking azidothymidine (AZT), a type of antiretroviral drug used for the treatment of HIV and AIDS, during his treatments in hospital. A funeral service was held on October 5, 1991, at St. Peter's Lutheran Church on Lexington Avenue in New York City that was attended by around 500 friends, family members, and musical acquaintances, with many fans standing in the rain. He was buried in Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx, New York City, with one of his trumpets, near the site of Duke Ellington's grave. At the time of his death, Davis's estate was valued at more than $1 million. In his will, Davis left 20 percent to his daughter Cheryl Davis; 40 percent to his son Erin Davis; 10 percent to his nephew Vincent Wilburn Jr. and 15 percent each to his brother Vernon Davis and his sister Dorothy Wilburn. He excluded his two sons Gregory and Miles IV. Views on his earlier work Late in his life, from the "electric period" onwards, Davis repeatedly explained his reasons for not wishing to perform his earlier works, such as Birth of the Cool or Kind of Blue. In his view, remaining stylistically static was the wrong option. He commented: So What' or Kind of Blue, they were done in that era, the right hour, the right day, and it happened. It's over ... What I used to play with Bill Evans, all those different modes, and substitute chords, we had the energy then and we liked it. But I have no feel for it anymore, it's more like warmed-over turkey." When Shirley Horn insisted in 1990 that Miles reconsider playing the ballads and modal tunes of his Kind of Blue period, he said: "Nah, it hurts my lip." Bill Evans, who played piano on Kind of Blue, said: "I would like to hear more of the consummate melodic master, but I feel that big business and his record company have had a corrupting influence on his material. The rock and pop thing certainly draws a wider audience." Throughout his later career, Davis declined offers to reinstate his '60s quintet. Many books and documentaries focus on his work before 1975. According to an article by The Independent, from 1975 onwards a decline in critical praise for Davis's output began to form, with many viewing the era as "worthless": "There is a surprisingly widespread view that, in terms of the merits of his musical output, Davis might as well have died in 1975." In a 1982 interview in DownBeat, Wynton Marsalis said: "They call Miles's stuff jazz. That stuff is not jazz, man. Just because somebody played jazz at one time, that doesn't mean they're still playing it." Despite his contempt for Davis' later work, Marsalis' work is "laden with ironic references to Davis' music of the '60s". Davis did not necessarily disagree; lambasting what he saw as Marsalis's stylistic conservatism, Davis said "Jazz is dead ... it's finito! It's over and there's no point apeing the shit." Writer Stanley Crouch criticised Davis's work from "In a Silent Way" onwards. Legacy and influence Miles Davis is considered one of the most innovative, influential, and respected figures in the history of music. Based on professional rankings of his albums and songs, the aggregate website Acclaimed Music lists him as the 16th most acclaimed recording artist in history. The Guardian described him as "a pioneer of 20th-century music, leading many of the key developments in the world of jazz." He has been called "one of the great innovators in jazz", and had the titles Prince of Darkness and the Picasso of Jazz bestowed upon him. The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll said, "Miles Davis played a crucial and inevitably controversial role in every major development in jazz since the mid-'40s, and no other jazz musician has had so profound an effect on rock. Miles Davis was the most widely recognized jazz musician of his era, an outspoken social critic and an arbiter of style—in attitude and fashion—as well as music." William Ruhlmann of AllMusic wrote, "To examine his career is to examine the history of jazz from the mid-1940s to the early 1990s, since he was in the thick of almost every important innovation and stylistic development in the music during that period ... It can even be argued that jazz stopped evolving when Davis wasn't there to push it forward." Francis Davis of The Atlantic notes that Davis's career can be seen as a critique of the jazz music played time, specifically bebop. Music writer Christopher Smith wrote: Miles Davis' artistic interest was in the creation and manipulation of ritual space, in which gestures could be endowed with symbolic power sufficient to form a functional communicative, and hence musical, vocabulary. ... Miles' performance tradition emphasized orality and the transmission of information and artistic insight from individual to individual. His position in that tradition, and his personality, talents, and artistic interests, impelled him to pursue a uniquely individual solution to the problems and the experiential possibilities of improvised performance. His approach, owing largely to the African-American performance tradition that focused on individual expression, emphatic interaction, and creative response to shifting contents, had a profound impact on generations of jazz musicians. Musicians and admirers of Davis's work include Carlos Santana, Herbie Hancock, Flea, The Roots, and Wayne Shorter. In 2016, digital publication The Pudding, in an article examining Davis's legacy, found that 2,452 Wikipedia pages mention Davis, with over 286 citing him as an influence. On November 5, 2009, U.S. Representative John Conyers of Michigan sponsored a measure in the United States House of Representatives to commemorate Kind of Blue on its 50th anniversary. The measure also affirms jazz as a national treasure and "encourages the United States government to preserve and advance the art form of jazz music". It passed with a vote of 409–0 on December 15, 2009. The trumpet Davis used on the recording is displayed on the campus of the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. It was donated to the school by Arthur "Buddy" Gist, who met Davis in 1949 and became a close friend. The gift was the reason why the jazz program at UNCG is named the Miles Davis Jazz Studies Program. In 1986, the New England Conservatory awarded Davis an honorary doctorate for his contributions to music. Since 1960 the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences (NARAS) honored him with eight Grammy Awards, a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award, and three Grammy Hall of Fame Awards. In 2001, The Miles Davis Story, a two-hour documentary film by Mike Dibb, won an International Emmy Award for arts documentary of the year. Since 2005, the Miles Davis Jazz Committee has held an annual Miles Davis Jazz Festival. Also in 2005, a London exhibition was held of his paintings, The Last Miles: The Music of Miles Davis, 1980-1991' was released detailing his final years and eight of his albums from the 1960s and 70s were reissued in celebration of the 50th anniversary of his signing to Columbia Records. In 2006, Davis was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In 2012, the U.S. Postal Service issued commemorative stamps featuring Davis. Miles Ahead was a 2015 American music film directed by Don Cheadle, co-written by Cheadle with Steven Baigelman, Stephen J. Rivele, and Christopher Wilkinson, which interprets the life and compositions of Davis. It premiered at the New York Film Festival in October 2015. The film stars Cheadle, Emayatzy Corinealdi as Frances Taylor, Ewan McGregor, Michael Stuhlbarg, and Lakeith Stanfield. That same year a statue of him was erected in his home city, Alton, Illinois and listeners of BBC Radio and Jazz FM voted Davis the greatest jazz musician. Publications such as The Guardian have also ranked Davis amongst the best of all jazz musicians. On May 27, 2016, American pianist and record producer Robert Glasper released a tribute album entitled Everything's Beautiful which features 11 reinterpretations of Davis songs. In 2018, American rapper Q-Tip played Miles Davis in a theatre production, My Funny Valentine. Q-Tip had previously played Davis in 2010. In 2019, the documentary Miles Davis: Birth of the Cool, directed by Stanley Nelson, premiered at the Sundance Film Festival. Birth of the cool was later released on PBS' American Masters series. Davis has, however, been subject to criticism. In 1990, writer Stanley Crouch, labelled Davis "the most brilliant sellout in the history of jazz," A 1993 essay by Robert Walser in The Musical Quarterly claims that "Davis has long been infamous for missing more notes than any other major trumpet player." Also in the essay is a quote by music critic James Lincoln Collier who states that "if his influence was profound, the ultimate value of his work is another matter," and calls Davis an "adequate instrumentalist" but "not a great one." In 2013, The A.V. Club published an article titled "Miles Davis beat his wives and made beautiful music". In the article, writer Sonia Saraiya praises Davis as a musician, but criticizes him as a person, in particular, his abuse of his wives. Others, such as Francis Davis, have criticized his treatment of women, describing it as "contemptible". Awards and honors Grammy Awards Miles Davis won eight Grammy Awards and received thirty-two nominations. Other awards Discography The following list intends to outline Davis' major works, particularly studio albums. A more comprehensive discography can be found at the main article. The New Sounds (1951) Young Man with a Horn (1952) Blue Period (1953) The Compositions of Al Cohn (1953) Miles Davis Volume 2 (1954) Miles Davis Volume 3 (1954) Miles Davis Quintet (1954) With Sonny Rollins (1954) Miles Davis Quartet (1954) All-Stars, Volume 1 (1955) All-Stars, Volume 2 (1955) All Star Sextet (1955) The Musings of Miles (1955) Blue Moods (1955) Dig (1956) Miles: The New Miles Davis Quintet (1956) Quintet/Sextet (1956) Collectors' Items (1956) Birth of the Cool (1957) 'Round About Midnight (1957) Walkin' (1957) Cookin' (1957) Miles Ahead (1957) Relaxin' (1958) Milestones (1958) Miles Davis and the Modern Jazz Giants (1959) Porgy and Bess (1959) Kind of Blue (1959) Workin' (1959) Sketches of Spain (1960) Steamin' (1961) Someday My Prince Will Come (1961) Seven Steps to Heaven (1963) Quiet Nights (1963) E.S.P. (1965) Miles Smiles (1967) Sorcerer (1967) Nefertiti (1968) Miles in the Sky (1968) Filles de Kilimanjaro (1968) In a Silent Way (1969) Bitches Brew (1970) Jack Johnson (1971) Live-Evil (1971) On the Corner (1972) Big Fun (1974) Get Up with It (1974) Agharta (1975) Dark Magus (1976) The Man with the Horn (1981) Star People (1983) Decoy (1984) You're Under Arrest (1985) Tutu (1986) Amandla (1989) Aura (1989) Doo-Bop (1992) Filmography Notes References Citations Sources External links Official Sony Music website at Miles-Davis.com 1926 births 1991 deaths 20th-century American composers 20th-century American male musicians 20th-century jazz composers 20th-century trumpeters ACT Music artists African-American agnostics African-American composers African-American jazz composers African-American jazz musicians African-American male actors African-American male composers African-American songwriters American agnostics American Book Award winners American jazz bandleaders American jazz composers American jazz flugelhornists American jazz songwriters American jazz trumpeters American male jazz composers American male jazz musicians American male songwriters American male trumpeters American shooting survivors Bebop trumpeters Burials at Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx, New York) Capitol Records artists Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur Columbia Records artists Cool jazz trumpeters Deaths from cerebrovascular disease Deaths from pneumonia in California Deaths from respiratory failure Grammy Award winners Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners Hard bop trumpeters Jazz musicians from Illinois Jazz musicians from New York (state) Jazz fusion trumpeters Juilliard School alumni Knights of Malta Miles Davis Quintet members Modal jazz trumpeters Music of St. Louis Musicians from Illinois Musicians from New York City Neurological disease deaths in California People from Alton, Illinois People from East St. Louis, Illinois People from the Upper West Side Performing arts pages with videographic documentation Prestige Records artists Recipients of the Léonie Sonning Music Prize Savoy Records artists Songwriters from Illinois Songwriters from New York (state) Third stream trumpeters Warner Records artists

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-theory

M-theory

M-theory is a theory in physics that unifies all consistent versions of superstring theory. Edward Witten first conjectured the existence of such a theory at a string-theory conference at the University of Southern California in the spring of 1995. Witten's announcement initiated a flurry of research activity known as the second superstring revolution. Prior to Witten's announcement, string theorists had identified five versions of superstring theory. Although these theories appeared, at first, to be very different, work by many physicists showed that the theories were related in intricate and nontrivial ways. Physicists found that apparently distinct theories could be unified by mathematical transformations called S-duality and T-duality. Witten's conjecture was based in part on the existence of these dualities and in part on the relationship of the string theories to a field theory called eleven-dimensional supergravity. Although a complete formulation of M-theory is not known, such a formulation should describe two- and five-dimensional objects called branes and should be approximated by eleven-dimensional supergravity at low energies. Modern attempts to formulate M-theory are typically based on matrix theory or the AdS/CFT correspondence. According to Witten, M should stand for "magic", "mystery" or "membrane" according to taste, and the true meaning of the title should be decided when a more fundamental formulation of the theory is known. Investigations of the mathematical structure of M-theory have spawned important theoretical results in physics and mathematics. More speculatively, M-theory may provide a framework for developing a unified theory of all of the fundamental forces of nature. Attempts to connect M-theory to experiment typically focus on compactifying its extra dimensions to construct candidate models of the four-dimensional world, although so far none has been verified to give rise to physics as observed in high-energy physics experiments. Background Quantum gravity and strings One of the deepest problems in modern physics is the problem of quantum gravity. The current understanding of gravity is based on Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity, which is formulated within the framework of classical physics. However, nongravitational forces are described within the framework of quantum mechanics, a radically different formalism for describing physical phenomena based on probability. A quantum theory of gravity is needed in order to reconcile general relativity with the principles of quantum mechanics, but difficulties arise when one attempts to apply the usual prescriptions of quantum theory to the force of gravity. String theory is a theoretical framework that attempts to reconcile gravity and quantum mechanics. In string theory, the point-like particles of particle physics are replaced by one-dimensional objects called strings. String theory describes how strings propagate through space and interact with each other. In a given version of string theory, there is only one kind of string, which may look like a small loop or segment of ordinary string, and it can vibrate in different ways. On distance scales larger than the string scale, a string will look just like an ordinary particle, with its mass, charge, and other properties determined by the vibrational state of the string. In this way, all of the different elementary particles may be viewed as vibrating strings. One of the vibrational states of a string gives rise to the graviton, a quantum mechanical particle that carries gravitational force. There are several versions of string theory: type I, type IIA, type IIB, and two flavors of heterotic string theory ( and ). The different theories allow different types of strings, and the particles that arise at low energies exhibit different symmetries. For example, the type I theory includes both open strings (which are segments with endpoints) and closed strings (which form closed loops), while types IIA and IIB include only closed strings. Each of these five string theories arises as a special limiting case of M-theory. This theory, like its string theory predecessors, is an example of a quantum theory of gravity. It describes a force just like the familiar gravitational force subject to the rules of quantum mechanics. Number of dimensions In everyday life, there are three familiar dimensions of space: height, width and depth. Einstein's general theory of relativity treats time as a dimension on par with the three spatial dimensions; in general relativity, space and time are not modeled as separate entities but are instead unified to a four-dimensional spacetime, three spatial dimensions and one time dimension. In this framework, the phenomenon of gravity is viewed as a consequence of the geometry of spacetime. In spite of the fact that the universe is well described by four-dimensional spacetime, there are several reasons why physicists consider theories in other dimensions. In some cases, by modeling spacetime in a different number of dimensions, a theory becomes more mathematically tractable, and one can perform calculations and gain general insights more easily. There are also situations where theories in two or three spacetime dimensions are useful for describing phenomena in condensed matter physics. Finally, there exist scenarios in which there could actually be more than four dimensions of spacetime which have nonetheless managed to escape detection. One notable feature of string theory and M-theory is that these theories require extra dimensions of spacetime for their mathematical consistency. In string theory, spacetime is ten-dimensional (nine spatial dimensions, and one time dimension), while in M-theory it is eleven-dimensional (ten spatial dimensions, and one time dimension). In order to describe real physical phenomena using these theories, one must therefore imagine scenarios in which these extra dimensions would not be observed in experiments. Compactification is one way of modifying the number of dimensions in a physical theory. In compactification, some of the extra dimensions are assumed to "close up" on themselves to form circles. In the limit where these curled-up dimensions become very small, one obtains a theory in which spacetime has effectively a lower number of dimensions. A standard analogy for this is to consider a multidimensional object such as a garden hose. If the hose is viewed from a sufficient distance, it appears to have only one dimension, its length. However, as one approaches the hose, one discovers that it contains a second dimension, its circumference. Thus, an ant crawling on the surface of the hose would move in two dimensions. Dualities Theories that arise as different limits of M-theory turn out to be related in highly nontrivial ways. One of the relationships that can exist between these different physical theories is called S-duality. This is a relationship which says that a collection of strongly interacting particles in one theory can, in some cases, be viewed as a collection of weakly interacting particles in a completely different theory. Roughly speaking, a collection of particles is said to be strongly interacting if they combine and decay often and weakly interacting if they do so infrequently. Type I string theory turns out to be equivalent by S-duality to the heterotic string theory. Similarly, type IIB string theory is related to itself in a nontrivial way by S-duality. Another relationship between different string theories is T-duality. Here one considers strings propagating around a circular extra dimension. T-duality states that a string propagating around a circle of radius is equivalent to a string propagating around a circle of radius in the sense that all observable quantities in one description are identified with quantities in the dual description. For example, a string has momentum as it propagates around a circle, and it can also wind around the circle one or more times. The number of times the string winds around a circle is called the winding number. If a string has momentum and winding number in one description, it will have momentum and winding number in the dual description. For example, type IIA string theory is equivalent to type IIB string theory via T-duality, and the two versions of heterotic string theory are also related by T-duality. In general, the term duality refers to a situation where two seemingly different physical systems turn out to be equivalent in a nontrivial way. If two theories are related by a duality, it means that one theory can be transformed in some way so that it ends up looking just like the other theory. The two theories are then said to be dual to one another under the transformation. Put differently, the two theories are mathematically different descriptions of the same phenomena. Supersymmetry Another important theoretical idea that plays a role in M-theory is supersymmetry. This is a mathematical relation that exists in certain physical theories between a class of particles called bosons and a class of particles called fermions. Roughly speaking, fermions are the constituents of matter, while bosons mediate interactions between particles. In theories with supersymmetry, each boson has a counterpart which is a fermion, and vice versa. When supersymmetry is imposed as a local symmetry, one automatically obtains a quantum mechanical theory that includes gravity. Such a theory is called a supergravity theory. A theory of strings that incorporates the idea of supersymmetry is called a superstring theory. There are several different versions of superstring theory which are all subsumed within the M-theory framework. At low energies, the superstring theories are approximated by supergravity in ten spacetime dimensions. Similarly, M-theory is approximated at low energies by supergravity in eleven dimensions. Branes In string theory and related theories such as supergravity theories, a brane is a physical object that generalizes the notion of a point particle to higher dimensions. For example, a point particle can be viewed as a brane of dimension zero, while a string can be viewed as a brane of dimension one. It is also possible to consider higher-dimensional branes. In dimension , these are called -branes. Branes are dynamical objects which can propagate through spacetime according to the rules of quantum mechanics. They can have mass and other attributes such as charge. A -brane sweeps out a -dimensional volume in spacetime called its worldvolume. Physicists often study fields analogous to the electromagnetic field which live on the worldvolume of a brane. The word brane comes from the word "membrane" which refers to a two-dimensional brane. In string theory, the fundamental objects that give rise to elementary particles are the one-dimensional strings. Although the physical phenomena described by M-theory are still poorly understood, physicists know that the theory describes two- and five-dimensional branes. Much of the current research in M-theory attempts to better understand the properties of these branes. History and development Kaluza–Klein theory In the early 20th century, physicists and mathematicians including Albert Einstein and Hermann Minkowski pioneered the use of four-dimensional geometry for describing the physical world. These efforts culminated in the formulation of Einstein's general theory of relativity, which relates gravity to the geometry of four-dimensional spacetime. The success of general relativity led to efforts to apply higher dimensional geometry to explain other forces. In 1919, work by Theodor Kaluza showed that by passing to five-dimensional spacetime, one can unify gravity and electromagnetism into a single force. This idea was improved by physicist Oskar Klein, who suggested that the additional dimension proposed by Kaluza could take the form of a circle with radius around cm. The Kaluza–Klein theory and subsequent attempts by Einstein to develop unified field theory were never completely successful. In part this was because Kaluza–Klein theory predicted a particle (the radion), that has never been shown to exist, and in part because it was unable to correctly predict the ratio of an electron's mass to its charge. In addition, these theories were being developed just as other physicists were beginning to discover quantum mechanics, which would ultimately prove successful in describing known forces such as electromagnetism, as well as new nuclear forces that were being discovered throughout the middle part of the century. Thus it would take almost fifty years for the idea of new dimensions to be taken seriously again. Early work on supergravity New concepts and mathematical tools provided fresh insights into general relativity, giving rise to a period in the 1960s–70s now known as the golden age of general relativity. In the mid-1970s, physicists began studying higher-dimensional theories combining general relativity with supersymmetry, the so-called supergravity theories. General relativity does not place any limits on the possible dimensions of spacetime. Although the theory is typically formulated in four dimensions, one can write down the same equations for the gravitational field in any number of dimensions. Supergravity is more restrictive because it places an upper limit on the number of dimensions. In 1978, work by Werner Nahm showed that the maximum spacetime dimension in which one can formulate a consistent supersymmetric theory is eleven. In the same year, Eugene Cremmer, Bernard Julia, and Joël Scherk of the École Normale Supérieure showed that supergravity not only permits up to eleven dimensions but is in fact most elegant in this maximal number of dimensions. Initially, many physicists hoped that by compactifying eleven-dimensional supergravity, it might be possible to construct realistic models of our four-dimensional world. The hope was that such models would provide a unified description of the four fundamental forces of nature: electromagnetism, the strong and weak nuclear forces, and gravity. Interest in eleven-dimensional supergravity soon waned as various flaws in this scheme were discovered. One of the problems was that the laws of physics appear to distinguish between clockwise and counterclockwise, a phenomenon known as chirality. Edward Witten and others observed this chirality property cannot be readily derived by compactifying from eleven dimensions. In the first superstring revolution in 1984, many physicists turned to string theory as a unified theory of particle physics and quantum gravity. Unlike supergravity theory, string theory was able to accommodate the chirality of the standard model, and it provided a theory of gravity consistent with quantum effects. Another feature of string theory that many physicists were drawn to in the 1980s and 1990s was its high degree of uniqueness. In ordinary particle theories, one can consider any collection of elementary particles whose classical behavior is described by an arbitrary Lagrangian. In string theory, the possibilities are much more constrained: by the 1990s, physicists had argued that there were only five consistent supersymmetric versions of the theory. Relationships between string theories Although there were only a handful of consistent superstring theories, it remained a mystery why there was not just one consistent formulation. However, as physicists began to examine string theory more closely, they realized that these theories are related in intricate and nontrivial ways. In the late 1970s, Claus Montonen and David Olive had conjectured a special property of certain physical theories. A sharpened version of their conjecture concerns a theory called supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory, which describes theoretical particles formally similar to the quarks and gluons that make up atomic nuclei. The strength with which the particles of this theory interact is measured by a number called the coupling constant. The result of Montonen and Olive, now known as Montonen–Olive duality, states that supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory with coupling constant is equivalent to the same theory with coupling constant . In other words, a system of strongly interacting particles (large coupling constant) has an equivalent description as a system of weakly interacting particles (small coupling constant) and vice versa by spin-moment. In the 1990s, several theorists generalized Montonen–Olive duality to the S-duality relationship, which connects different string theories. Ashoke Sen studied S-duality in the context of heterotic strings in four dimensions. Chris Hull and Paul Townsend showed that type IIB string theory with a large coupling constant is equivalent via S-duality to the same theory with small coupling constant. Theorists also found that different string theories may be related by T-duality. This duality implies that strings propagating on completely different spacetime geometries may be physically equivalent. Membranes and fivebranes String theory extends ordinary particle physics by replacing zero-dimensional point particles by one-dimensional objects called strings. In the late 1980s, it was natural for theorists to attempt to formulate other extensions in which particles are replaced by two-dimensional supermembranes or by higher-dimensional objects called branes. Such objects had been considered as early as 1962 by Paul Dirac, and they were reconsidered by a small but enthusiastic group of physicists in the 1980s. Supersymmetry severely restricts the possible number of dimensions of a brane. In 1987, Eric Bergshoeff, Ergin Sezgin, and Paul Townsend showed that eleven-dimensional supergravity includes two-dimensional branes. Intuitively, these objects look like sheets or membranes propagating through the eleven-dimensional spacetime. Shortly after this discovery, Michael Duff, Paul Howe, Takeo Inami, and Kellogg Stelle considered a particular compactification of eleven-dimensional supergravity with one of the dimensions curled up into a circle. In this setting, one can imagine the membrane wrapping around the circular dimension. If the radius of the circle is sufficiently small, then this membrane looks just like a string in ten-dimensional spacetime. In fact, Duff and his collaborators showed that this construction reproduces exactly the strings appearing in type IIA superstring theory. In 1990, Andrew Strominger published a similar result which suggested that strongly interacting strings in ten dimensions might have an equivalent description in terms of weakly interacting five-dimensional branes. Initially, physicists were unable to prove this relationship for two important reasons. On the one hand, the Montonen–Olive duality was still unproven, and so Strominger's conjecture was even more tenuous. On the other hand, there were many technical issues related to the quantum properties of five-dimensional branes. The first of these problems was solved in 1993 when Ashoke Sen established that certain physical theories require the existence of objects with both electric and magnetic charge which were predicted by the work of Montonen and Olive. In spite of this progress, the relationship between strings and five-dimensional branes remained conjectural because theorists were unable to quantize the branes. Starting in 1991, a team of researchers including Michael Duff, Ramzi Khuri, Jianxin Lu, and Ruben Minasian considered a special compactification of string theory in which four of the ten dimensions curl up. If one considers a five-dimensional brane wrapped around these extra dimensions, then the brane looks just like a one-dimensional string. In this way, the conjectured relationship between strings and branes was reduced to a relationship between strings and strings, and the latter could be tested using already established theoretical techniques. Second superstring revolution Speaking at the string theory conference at the University of Southern California in 1995, Edward Witten of the Institute for Advanced Study made the surprising suggestion that all five superstring theories were in fact just different limiting cases of a single theory in eleven spacetime dimensions. Witten's announcement drew together all of the previous results on S- and T-duality and the appearance of two- and five-dimensional branes in string theory. In the months following Witten's announcement, hundreds of new papers appeared on the Internet confirming that the new theory involved membranes in an important way. Today this flurry of work is known as the second superstring revolution. One of the important developments following Witten's announcement was Witten's work in 1996 with string theorist Petr Hořava. Witten and Hořava studied M-theory on a special spacetime geometry with two ten-dimensional boundary components. Their work shed light on the mathematical structure of M-theory and suggested possible ways of connecting M-theory to real world physics. Origin of the term Initially, some physicists suggested that the new theory was a fundamental theory of membranes, but Witten was skeptical of the role of membranes in the theory. In a paper from 1996, Hořava and Witten wrote In the absence of an understanding of the true meaning and structure of M-theory, Witten has suggested that the M should stand for "magic", "mystery", or "membrane" according to taste, and the true meaning of the title should be decided when a more fundamental formulation of the theory is known. Years later, he would state, "I thought my colleagues would understand that it really stood for membrane. Unfortunately, it got people confused." Matrix theory BFSS matrix model In mathematics, a matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or other data. In physics, a matrix model is a particular kind of physical theory whose mathematical formulation involves the notion of a matrix in an important way. A matrix model describes the behavior of a set of matrices within the framework of quantum mechanics. One important example of a matrix model is the BFSS matrix model proposed by Tom Banks, Willy Fischler, Stephen Shenker, and Leonard Susskind in 1997. This theory describes the behavior of a set of nine large matrices. In their original paper, these authors showed, among other things, that the low energy limit of this matrix model is described by eleven-dimensional supergravity. These calculations led them to propose that the BFSS matrix model is exactly equivalent to M-theory. The BFSS matrix model can therefore be used as a prototype for a correct formulation of M-theory and a tool for investigating the properties of M-theory in a relatively simple setting. Noncommutative geometry In geometry, it is often useful to introduce coordinates. For example, in order to study the geometry of the Euclidean plane, one defines the coordinates and as the distances between any point in the plane and a pair of axes. In ordinary geometry, the coordinates of a point are numbers, so they can be multiplied, and the product of two coordinates does not depend on the order of multiplication. That is, . This property of multiplication is known as the commutative law, and this relationship between geometry and the commutative algebra of coordinates is the starting point for much of modern geometry. Noncommutative geometry is a branch of mathematics that attempts to generalize this situation. Rather than working with ordinary numbers, one considers some similar objects, such as matrices, whose multiplication does not satisfy the commutative law (that is, objects for which is not necessarily equal to ). One imagines that these noncommuting objects are coordinates on some more general notion of "space" and proves theorems about these generalized spaces by exploiting the analogy with ordinary geometry. In a paper from 1998, Alain Connes, Michael R. Douglas, and Albert Schwarz showed that some aspects of matrix models and M-theory are described by a noncommutative quantum field theory, a special kind of physical theory in which the coordinates on spacetime do not satisfy the commutativity property. This established a link between matrix models and M-theory on the one hand, and noncommutative geometry on the other hand. It quickly led to the discovery of other important links between noncommutative geometry and various physical theories. AdS/CFT correspondence Overview The application of quantum mechanics to physical objects such as the electromagnetic field, which are extended in space and time, is known as quantum field theory. In particle physics, quantum field theories form the basis for our understanding of elementary particles, which are modeled as excitations in the fundamental fields. Quantum field theories are also used throughout condensed matter physics to model particle-like objects called quasiparticles. One approach to formulating M-theory and studying its properties is provided by the anti-de Sitter/conformal field theory (AdS/CFT) correspondence. Proposed by Juan Maldacena in late 1997, the AdS/CFT correspondence is a theoretical result which implies that M-theory is in some cases equivalent to a quantum field theory. In addition to providing insights into the mathematical structure of string and M-theory, the AdS/CFT correspondence has shed light on many aspects of quantum field theory in regimes where traditional calculational techniques are ineffective. In the AdS/CFT correspondence, the geometry of spacetime is described in terms of a certain vacuum solution of Einstein's equation called anti-de Sitter space. In very elementary terms, anti-de Sitter space is a mathematical model of spacetime in which the notion of distance between points (the metric) is different from the notion of distance in ordinary Euclidean geometry. It is closely related to hyperbolic space, which can be viewed as a disk as illustrated on the left. This image shows a tessellation of a disk by triangles and squares. One can define the distance between points of this disk in such a way that all the triangles and squares are the same size and the circular outer boundary is infinitely far from any point in the interior. Now imagine a stack of hyperbolic disks where each disk represents the state of the universe at a given time. The resulting geometric object is three-dimensional anti-de Sitter space. It looks like a solid cylinder in which any cross section is a copy of the hyperbolic disk. Time runs along the vertical direction in this picture. The surface of this cylinder plays an important role in the AdS/CFT correspondence. As with the hyperbolic plane, anti-de Sitter space is curved in such a way that any point in the interior is actually infinitely far from this boundary surface. This construction describes a hypothetical universe with only two space dimensions and one time dimension, but it can be generalized to any number of dimensions. Indeed, hyperbolic space can have more than two dimensions and one can "stack up" copies of hyperbolic space to get higher-dimensional models of anti-de Sitter space. An important feature of anti-de Sitter space is its boundary (which looks like a cylinder in the case of three-dimensional anti-de Sitter space). One property of this boundary is that, within a small region on the surface around any given point, it looks just like Minkowski space, the model of spacetime used in nongravitational physics. One can therefore consider an auxiliary theory in which "spacetime" is given by the boundary of anti-de Sitter space. This observation is the starting point for AdS/CFT correspondence, which states that the boundary of anti-de Sitter space can be regarded as the "spacetime" for a quantum field theory. The claim is that this quantum field theory is equivalent to the gravitational theory on the bulk anti-de Sitter space in the sense that there is a "dictionary" for translating entities and calculations in one theory into their counterparts in the other theory. For example, a single particle in the gravitational theory might correspond to some collection of particles in the boundary theory. In addition, the predictions in the two theories are quantitatively identical so that if two particles have a 40 percent chance of colliding in the gravitational theory, then the corresponding collections in the boundary theory would also have a 40 percent chance of colliding. 6D (2,0) superconformal field theory One particular realization of the AdS/CFT correspondence states that M-theory on the product space is equivalent to the so-called (2,0)-theory on the six-dimensional boundary. Here "(2,0)" refers to the particular type of supersymmetry that appears in the theory. In this example, the spacetime of the gravitational theory is effectively seven-dimensional (hence the notation ), and there are four additional "compact" dimensions (encoded by the factor). In the real world, spacetime is four-dimensional, at least macroscopically, so this version of the correspondence does not provide a realistic model of gravity. Likewise, the dual theory is not a viable model of any real-world system since it describes a world with six spacetime dimensions. Nevertheless, the (2,0)-theory has proven to be important for studying the general properties of quantum field theories. Indeed, this theory subsumes many mathematically interesting effective quantum field theories and points to new dualities relating these theories. For example, Luis Alday, Davide Gaiotto, and Yuji Tachikawa showed that by compactifying this theory on a surface, one obtains a four-dimensional quantum field theory, and there is a duality known as the AGT correspondence which relates the physics of this theory to certain physical concepts associated with the surface itself. More recently, theorists have extended these ideas to study the theories obtained by compactifying down to three dimensions. In addition to its applications in quantum field theory, the (2,0)-theory has spawned important results in pure mathematics. For example, the existence of the (2,0)-theory was used by Witten to give a "physical" explanation for a conjectural relationship in mathematics called the geometric Langlands correspondence. In subsequent work, Witten showed that the (2,0)-theory could be used to understand a concept in mathematics called Khovanov homology. Developed by Mikhail Khovanov around 2000, Khovanov homology provides a tool in knot theory, the branch of mathematics that studies and classifies the different shapes of knots. Another application of the (2,0)-theory in mathematics is the work of Davide Gaiotto, Greg Moore, and Andrew Neitzke, which used physical ideas to derive new results in hyperkähler geometry. ABJM superconformal field theory Another realization of the AdS/CFT correspondence states that M-theory on is equivalent to a quantum field theory called the ABJM theory in three dimensions. In this version of the correspondence, seven of the dimensions of M-theory are curled up, leaving four non-compact dimensions. Since the spacetime of our universe is four-dimensional, this version of the correspondence provides a somewhat more realistic description of gravity. The ABJM theory appearing in this version of the correspondence is also interesting for a variety of reasons. Introduced by Aharony, Bergman, Jafferis, and Maldacena, it is closely related to another quantum field theory called Chern–Simons theory. The latter theory was popularized by Witten in the late 1980s because of its applications to knot theory. In addition, the ABJM theory serves as a semi-realistic simplified model for solving problems that arise in condensed matter physics. Phenomenology Overview In addition to being an idea of considerable theoretical interest, M-theory provides a framework for constructing models of real world physics that combine general relativity with the standard model of particle physics. Phenomenology is the branch of theoretical physics in which physicists construct realistic models of nature from more abstract theoretical ideas. String phenomenology is the part of string theory that attempts to construct realistic models of particle physics based on string and M-theory. Typically, such models are based on the idea of compactification. Starting with the ten- or eleven-dimensional spacetime of string or M-theory, physicists postulate a shape for the extra dimensions. By choosing this shape appropriately, they can construct models roughly similar to the standard model of particle physics, together with additional undiscovered particles, usually supersymmetric partners to analogues of known particles. One popular way of deriving realistic physics from string theory is to start with the heterotic theory in ten dimensions and assume that the six extra dimensions of spacetime are shaped like a six-dimensional Calabi–Yau manifold. This is a special kind of geometric object named after mathematicians Eugenio Calabi and Shing-Tung Yau. Calabi–Yau manifolds offer many ways of extracting realistic physics from string theory. Other similar methods can be used to construct models with physics resembling to some extent that of our four-dimensional world based on M-theory. Partly because of theoretical and mathematical difficulties and partly because of the extremely high energies (beyond what is technologically possible for the foreseeable future) needed to test these theories experimentally, there is so far no experimental evidence that would unambiguously point to any of these models being a correct fundamental description of nature. This has led some in the community to criticize these approaches to unification and question the value of continued research on these problems. Compactification on manifolds In one approach to M-theory phenomenology, theorists assume that the seven extra dimensions of M-theory are shaped like a manifold. This is a special kind of seven-dimensional shape constructed by mathematician Dominic Joyce of the University of Oxford. These manifolds are still poorly understood mathematically, and this fact has made it difficult for physicists to fully develop this approach to phenomenology. For example, physicists and mathematicians often assume that space has a mathematical property called smoothness, but this property cannot be assumed in the case of a manifold if one wishes to recover the physics of our four-dimensional world. Another problem is that manifolds are not complex manifolds, so theorists are unable to use tools from the branch of mathematics known as complex analysis. Finally, there are many open questions about the existence, uniqueness, and other mathematical properties of manifolds, and mathematicians lack a systematic way of searching for these manifolds. Heterotic M-theory Because of the difficulties with manifolds, most attempts to construct realistic theories of physics based on M-theory have taken a more indirect approach to compactifying eleven-dimensional spacetime. One approach, pioneered by Witten, Hořava, Burt Ovrut, and others, is known as heterotic M-theory. In this approach, one imagines that one of the eleven dimensions of M-theory is shaped like a circle. If this circle is very small, then the spacetime becomes effectively ten-dimensional. One then assumes that six of the ten dimensions form a Calabi–Yau manifold. If this Calabi–Yau manifold is also taken to be small, one is left with a theory in four-dimensions. Heterotic M-theory has been used to construct models of brane cosmology in which the observable universe is thought to exist on a brane in a higher dimensional ambient space. It has also spawned alternative theories of the early universe that do not rely on the theory of cosmic inflation. References Notes Citations Bibliography Popularization bbc-horizon: parallel-uni – 2002 feature documentary by BBC Horizon, episode Parallel Universes focus on history and emergence of M-theory, and scientists involved. pbs.org-nova: elegant-uni – 2003 Emmy Award-winning, three-hour miniseries by Nova with Brian Greene, adapted from his The Elegant Universe (original PBS broadcast dates: October 28, 8–10 p.m. and November 4, 8–9 p.m., 2003). See also F-theory Multiverse External links Superstringtheory.com – The "Official String Theory Web Site", created by Patricia Schwarz. References on string theory and M-theory for the layperson and expert. Not Even Wrong – Peter Woit's blog on physics in general, and string theory in particular. String theory 1995 introductions

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multicast

Multicast

In computer networking, multicast is group communication where data transmission is addressed to a group of destination computers simultaneously. Multicast can be one-to-many or many-to-many distribution. Multicast should not be confused with physical layer point-to-multipoint communication. Group communication may either be application layer multicast or network-assisted multicast, where the latter makes it possible for the source to efficiently send to the group in a single transmission. Copies are automatically created in other network elements, such as routers, switches and cellular network base stations, but only to network segments that currently contain members of the group. Network assisted multicast may be implemented at the data link layer using one-to-many addressing and switching such as Ethernet multicast addressing, Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), point-to-multipoint virtual circuits (P2MP) or InfiniBand multicast. Network-assisted multicast may also be implemented at the Internet layer using IP multicast. In IP multicast the implementation of the multicast concept occurs at the IP routing level, where routers create optimal distribution paths for datagrams sent to a multicast destination address. Multicast is often employed in Internet Protocol (IP) applications of streaming media, such as IPTV and multipoint videoconferencing. Ethernet Ethernet frames with a value of 1 in the least-significant bit of the first octet of the destination address are treated as multicast frames and are flooded to all points on the network. This mechanism constitutes multicast at the data link layer. This mechanism is used by IP multicast to achieve one-to-many transmission for IP on Ethernet networks. Modern Ethernet controllers filter received packets to reduce CPU load, by looking up the hash of a multicast destination address in a table, initialized by software, which controls whether a multicast packet is dropped or fully received. Ethernet multicast is available on all Ethernet networks. Multicasts span the broadcast domain of the network. Multiple Registration Protocol can be used to control Ethernet multicast delivery. IP IP multicast is a technique for one-to-many communication over an IP network. The destination nodes send Internet Group Management Protocol join and leave messages, for example in the case of IPTV when the user changes from one TV channel to another. IP multicast scales to a larger receiver population by not requiring prior knowledge of who or how many receivers there are. Multicast uses network infrastructure efficiently by requiring the source to send a packet only once, even if it needs to be delivered to a large number of receivers. The nodes in the network take care of replicating the packet to reach multiple receivers only when necessary. The most common transport layer protocol to use multicast addressing is User Datagram Protocol (UDP). By its nature, UDP is not reliable—messages may be lost or delivered out of order. By adding loss detection and retransmission mechanisms, reliable multicast has been implemented on top of UDP or IP by various middleware products, e.g. those that implement the Real-Time Publish-Subscribe (RTPS) Protocol of the Object Management Group (OMG) Data Distribution Service (DDS) standard, as well as by special transport protocols such as Pragmatic General Multicast (PGM). IP multicast is always available within the local subnet. Achieving IP multicast service over a wider area requires multicast routing. Many networks, including the Internet, do not support multicast routing. Multicast routing functionality is available in enterprise-grade network equipment but is typically not available until configured by a network administrator. The Internet Group Management Protocol is used to control IP multicast delivery. Application layer Application layer multicast overlay services are not based on IP multicast or data link layer multicast. Instead they use multiple unicast transmissions to simulate a multicast. These services are designed for application-level group communication. Internet Relay Chat (IRC) implements a single spanning tree across its overlay network for all conference groups. The lesser-known PSYC technology uses custom multicast strategies per conference. Some peer-to-peer technologies employ the multicast concept known as peercasting when distributing content to multiple recipients. Explicit multi-unicast (Xcast) is another multicast strategy that includes addresses of all intended destinations within each packet. As such, given maximum transmission unit limitations, Xcast cannot be used for multicast groups with many destinations. The Xcast model generally assumes that stations participating in the communication are known ahead of time, so that distribution trees can be generated and resources allocated by network elements in advance of actual data traffic. Wireless networks Wireless communications (with exception to point-to-point radio links using directional antennas) are inherently broadcasting media. However, the communication service provided may be unicast, multicast as well as broadcast, depending on if the data is addressed to one, to a group or to all receivers in the covered network, respectively. Television In digital television, the concept of multicast service sometimes is used to refer to content protection by broadcast encryption, i.e. encrypted pay television content over a simplex broadcast channel only addressed to paying viewers. In this case, data is broadcast to all receivers but only addressed to a specific group. The concept of interactive multicast, for example using IP multicast, may be used over TV broadcast networks to improve efficiency, offer more TV programs, or reduce the required spectrum. Interactive multicast implies that TV programs are sent only over transmitters where there are viewers and that only the most popular programs are transmitted. It relies on an additional interaction channel (a back-channel or return channel), where user equipment may send join and leave messages when the user changes TV channel. Interactive multicast has been suggested as an efficient transmission scheme in DVB-H and DVB-T2 terrestrial digital television systems, A similar concept is switched broadcast over cable-TV networks, where only the currently most popular content is delivered in the cable-TV network. Scalable video multicast in an application of interactive multicast, where a subset of the viewers receive additional data for high-resolution video. TV gateways converts satellite (DVB-S, DVB-S2), cable (DVB-C, DVB-C2) and terrestrial television (DVB-T, DVB-T2) to IP for distribution using unicast and multicast in home, hospitality and enterprise applications Another similar concept is Cell-TV, and implies TV distribution over 3G cellular networks using the network-assisted multicasting offered by the Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Service (MBMS) service, or over 4G/LTE cellular networks with the eMBMS (enhanced MBMS) service. See also Anycast Any-source multicast Content delivery network Flooding algorithm Mbone, experimental multicast backbone network Multicast lightpaths Narada multicast protocol Non-broadcast multiple-access network Push technology Source-specific multicast Broadcast, unknown-unicast and multicast traffic References Internet architecture Internet broadcasting Television terminology

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie%20Curie

Marie Curie

Marie Salomea Skłodowska Curie ( , ; born Maria Salomea Skłodowska, ; 7 November 1867 – 4 July 1934) was a Polish and naturalized-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person and the only woman to win the Nobel Prize twice, and the only person to win the Nobel Prize in two scientific fields. Her husband, Pierre Curie, was a co-winner on her first Nobel Prize, making them the first ever married couple to win the Nobel Prize and launching the Curie family legacy of five Nobel Prizes. She was, in 1906, the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris. She was born in Warsaw, in what was then the Kingdom of Poland, part of the Russian Empire. She studied at Warsaw's clandestine Flying University and began her practical scientific training in Warsaw. In 1891, aged 24, she followed her elder sister Bronisława to study in Paris, where she earned her higher degrees and conducted her subsequent scientific work. In 1895 she married the French physicist Pierre Curie, and she shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with him and with the physicist Henri Becquerel for their pioneering work developing the theory of "radioactivity"—a term she coined. In 1906 Pierre Curie died in a Paris street accident. Marie won the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for her discovery of the elements polonium and radium, using techniques she invented for isolating radioactive isotopes. Under her direction, the world's first studies were conducted into the treatment of neoplasms by the use of radioactive isotopes. In 1920 she founded the Curie Institute in Paris, and in 1932 the Curie Institute in Warsaw; both remain major centres of medical research. During World War I she developed mobile radiography units to provide X-ray services to field hospitals. While a French citizen, Marie Skłodowska Curie, who used both surnames, never lost her sense of Polish identity. She taught her daughters the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland. She named the first chemical element she discovered polonium, after her native country. Marie Curie died in 1934, aged 66, at the Sancellemoz sanatorium in Passy (Haute-Savoie), France, of aplastic anemia from exposure to radiation in the course of her scientific research and in the course of her radiological work at field hospitals during World War I. In addition to her Nobel Prizes, she has received numerous other honours and tributes; in 1995 she became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in Paris' Panthéon, and Poland declared 2011 the Year of Marie Curie during the International Year of Chemistry. She is the subject of numerous biographical works, where she is also known as Madame Curie. Life Early years Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, in Congress Poland in the Russian Empire, on 7 November 1867, the fifth and youngest child of well-known teachers Bronisława, née Boguska, and Władysław Skłodowski. The elder siblings of Maria (nicknamed Mania) were Zofia (born 1862, nicknamed Zosia), (born 1863, nicknamed Józio), Bronisława (born 1865, nicknamed Bronia) and Helena (born 1866, nicknamed Hela). On both the paternal and maternal sides, the family had lost their property and fortunes through patriotic involvements in Polish national uprisings aimed at restoring Poland's independence (the most recent had been the January Uprising of 1863–65). This condemned the subsequent generation, including Maria and her elder siblings, to a difficult struggle to get ahead in life. Maria's paternal grandfather, Józef Skłodowski, had been principal of the Lublin primary school attended by Bolesław Prus, who became a leading figure in Polish literature. Władysław Skłodowski taught mathematics and physics, subjects that Maria was to pursue, and was also director of two Warsaw gymnasia (secondary schools) for boys. After Russian authorities eliminated laboratory instruction from the Polish schools, he brought much of the laboratory equipment home and instructed his children in its use. He was eventually fired by his Russian supervisors for pro-Polish sentiments and forced to take lower-paying posts; the family also lost money on a bad investment and eventually chose to supplement their income by lodging boys in the house. Maria's mother Bronisława operated a prestigious Warsaw boarding school for girls; she resigned from the position after Maria was born. She died of tuberculosis in May 1878, when Maria was ten years old. Less than three years earlier, Maria's oldest sibling, Zofia, had died of typhus contracted from a boarder. Maria's father was an atheist; her mother a devout Catholic. The deaths of Maria's mother and sister caused her to give up Catholicism and become agnostic. When she was ten years old, Maria began attending the boarding school of J. Sikorska; next, she attended a gymnasium for girls, from which she graduated on 12 June 1883 with a gold medal. After a collapse, possibly due to depression, she spent the following year in the countryside with relatives of her father, and the next year with her father in Warsaw, where she did some tutoring. Unable to enroll in a regular institution of higher education because she was a woman, she and her sister Bronisława became involved with the clandestine Flying University (sometimes translated as Floating University), a Polish patriotic institution of higher learning that admitted women students. Maria made an agreement with her sister, Bronisława, that she would give her financial assistance during Bronisława's medical studies in Paris, in exchange for similar assistance two years later. In connection with this, Maria took a position as governess: first as a home tutor in Warsaw; then for two years as a governess in Szczuki with a landed family, the Żorawskis, who were relatives of her father. While working for the latter family, she fell in love with their son, Kazimierz Żorawski, a future eminent mathematician. His parents rejected the idea of his marrying the penniless relative, and Kazimierz was unable to oppose them. Maria's loss of the relationship with Żorawski was tragic for both. He soon earned a doctorate and pursued an academic career as a mathematician, becoming a professor and rector of Kraków University. Still, as an old man and a mathematics professor at the Warsaw Polytechnic, he would sit contemplatively before the statue of Maria Skłodowska that had been erected in 1935 before the Radium Institute, which she had founded in 1932. At the beginning of 1890, Bronisława—who a few months earlier had married Kazimierz Dłuski, a Polish physician and social and political activist—invited Maria to join them in Paris. Maria declined because she could not afford the university tuition; it would take her a year and a half longer to gather the necessary funds. She was helped by her father, who was able to secure a more lucrative position again. All that time she continued to educate herself, reading books, exchanging letters, and being tutored herself. In early 1889 she returned home to her father in Warsaw. She continued working as a governess and remained there till late 1891. She tutored, studied at the Flying University, and began her practical scientific training (1890–91) in a chemical laboratory at the Museum of Industry and Agriculture at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66, near Warsaw's Old Town. The laboratory was run by her cousin Józef Boguski, who had been an assistant in Saint Petersburg to the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev. Life in Paris In late 1891, she left Poland for France. In Paris, Maria (or Marie, as she would be known in France) briefly found shelter with her sister and brother-in-law before renting a garret closer to the university, in the Latin Quarter, and proceeding with her studies of physics, chemistry, and mathematics at the University of Paris, where she enrolled in late 1891. She subsisted on her meagre resources, keeping herself warm during cold winters by wearing all the clothes she had. She focused so hard on her studies that she sometimes forgot to eat. Skłodowska studied during the day and tutored evenings, barely earning her keep. In 1893, she was awarded a degree in physics and began work in an industrial laboratory of Gabriel Lippmann. Meanwhile, she continued studying at the University of Paris and with the aid of a fellowship she was able to earn a second degree in 1894. Skłodowska had begun her scientific career in Paris with an investigation of the magnetic properties of various steels, commissioned by the Society for the Encouragement of National Industry. That same year, Pierre Curie entered her life: it was their mutual interest in natural sciences that drew them together. Pierre Curie was an instructor at The City of Paris Industrial Physics and Chemistry Higher Educational Institution (ESPCI Paris). They were introduced by Polish physicist Józef Wierusz-Kowalski, who had learned that she was looking for a larger laboratory space, something that Wierusz-Kowalski thought Pierre could access. Though Curie did not have a large laboratory, he was able to find some space for Skłodowska where she was able to begin work. Their mutual passion for science brought them increasingly closer, and they began to develop feelings for one another. Eventually, Pierre proposed marriage, but at first Skłodowska did not accept as she was still planning to go back to her native country. Curie, however, declared that he was ready to move with her to Poland, even if it meant being reduced to teaching French. Meanwhile, for the 1894 summer break, Skłodowska returned to Warsaw, where she visited her family. She was still labouring under the illusion that she would be able to work in her chosen field in Poland, but she was denied a place at Kraków University because of sexism in academia. A letter from Pierre convinced her to return to Paris to pursue a Ph.D. At Skłodowska's insistence, Curie had written up his research on magnetism and received his own doctorate in March 1895; he was also promoted to professor at the School. A contemporary quip would call Skłodowska "Pierre's biggest discovery". On 26 July 1895, they were married in Sceaux; neither wanted a religious service. Curie's dark blue outfit, worn instead of a bridal gown, would serve her for many years as a laboratory outfit. They shared two pastimes: long bicycle trips and journeys abroad, which brought them even closer. In Pierre, Marie had found a new love, a partner, and a scientific collaborator on whom she could depend. New elements In 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen discovered the existence of X-rays, though the mechanism behind their production was not yet understood. In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their penetrating power. He demonstrated that this radiation, unlike phosphorescence, did not depend on an external source of energy but seemed to arise spontaneously from uranium itself. Influenced by these two important discoveries, Curie decided to look into uranium rays as a possible field of research for a thesis. She used an innovative technique to investigate samples. Fifteen years earlier, her husband and his brother had developed a version of the electrometer, a sensitive device for measuring electric charge. Using her husband's electrometer, she discovered that uranium rays caused the air around a sample to conduct electricity. Using this technique, her first result was the finding that the activity of the uranium compounds depended only on the quantity of uranium present. She hypothesized that the radiation was not the outcome of some interaction of molecules but must come from the atom itself. This hypothesis was an important step in disproving the assumption that atoms were indivisible. In 1897, her daughter Irène was born. To support her family, Curie began teaching at the École Normale Supérieure. The Curies did not have a dedicated laboratory; most of their research was carried out in a converted shed next to ESPCI. The shed, formerly a medical school dissecting room, was poorly ventilated and not even waterproof. They were unaware of the deleterious effects of radiation exposure attendant on their continued unprotected work with radioactive substances. ESPCI did not sponsor her research, but she would receive subsidies from metallurgical and mining companies and from various organizations and governments. Curie's systematic studies included two uranium minerals, pitchblende and torbernite (also known as chalcolite). Her electrometer showed that pitchblende was four times as active as uranium itself, and chalcolite twice as active. She concluded that, if her earlier results relating the quantity of uranium to its activity were correct, then these two minerals must contain small quantities of another substance that was far more active than uranium. She began a systematic search for additional substances that emit radiation, and by 1898 she discovered that the element thorium was also radioactive. Pierre Curie was increasingly intrigued by her work. By mid-1898 he was so invested in it that he decided to drop his work on crystals and to join her. She was acutely aware of the importance of promptly publishing her discoveries and thus establishing her priority. Had not Becquerel, two years earlier, presented his discovery to the Académie des Sciences the day after he made it, credit for the discovery of radioactivity (and even a Nobel Prize), would instead have gone to Silvanus Thompson. Curie chose the same rapid means of publication. Her paper, giving a brief and simple account of her work, was presented for her to the Académie on 12 April 1898 by her former professor, Gabriel Lippmann. Even so, just as Thompson had been beaten by Becquerel, so Curie was beaten in the race to tell of her discovery that thorium gives off rays in the same way as uranium; two months earlier, Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published his own finding in Berlin. At that time, no one else in the world of physics had noticed what Curie recorded in a sentence of her paper, describing how much greater were the activities of pitchblende and chalcolite than uranium itself: "The fact is very remarkable, and leads to the belief that these minerals may contain an element which is much more active than uranium." She later would recall how she felt "a passionate desire to verify this hypothesis as rapidly as possible." On 14 April 1898, the Curies optimistically weighed out a 100-gram sample of pitchblende and ground it with a pestle and mortar. They did not realize at the time that what they were searching for was present in such minute quantities that they would eventually have to process tonnes of the ore. In July 1898, Curie and her husband published a joint paper announcing the existence of an element they named "polonium", in honour of her native Poland, which would for another twenty years remain partitioned among three empires (Russian, Austrian, and Prussian). On 26 December 1898, the Curies announced the existence of a second element, which they named "radium", from the Latin word for "ray". In the course of their research, they also coined the word "radioactivity". To prove their discoveries beyond any doubt, the Curies sought to isolate polonium and radium in pure form. Pitchblende is a complex mineral; the chemical separation of its constituents was an arduous task. The discovery of polonium had been relatively easy; chemically it resembles the element bismuth, and polonium was the only bismuth-like substance in the ore. Radium, however, was more elusive; it is closely related chemically to barium, and pitchblende contains both elements. By 1898 the Curies had obtained traces of radium, but appreciable quantities, uncontaminated with barium, were still beyond reach. The Curies undertook the arduous task of separating out radium salt by differential crystallization. From a tonne of pitchblende, one-tenth of a gram of radium chloride was separated in 1902. In 1910, she isolated pure radium metal. She never succeeded in isolating polonium, which has a half-life of only 138 days. Between 1898 and 1902, the Curies published, jointly or separately, a total of 32 scientific papers, including one that announced that, when exposed to radium, diseased, tumour-forming cells were destroyed faster than healthy cells. In 1900, Curie became the first woman faculty member at the École Normale Supérieure and her husband joined the faculty of the University of Paris. In 1902 she visited Poland on the occasion of her father's death. In June 1903, supervised by Gabriel Lippmann, Curie was awarded her doctorate from the University of Paris. That month the couple were invited to the Royal Institution in London to give a speech on radioactivity; being a woman, she was prevented from speaking, and Pierre Curie alone was allowed to. Meanwhile, a new industry began developing, based on radium. The Curies did not patent their discovery and benefited little from this increasingly profitable business. Nobel Prizes In December 1903 the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Curie, and Henri Becquerel the Nobel Prize in Physics, "in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel." At first the committee had intended to honour only Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel, but a committee member and advocate for women scientists, Swedish mathematician Magnus Gösta Mittag-Leffler, alerted Pierre to the situation, and after his complaint, Marie's name was added to the nomination. Marie Curie was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize. Curie and her husband declined to go to Stockholm to receive the prize in person; they were too busy with their work, and Pierre Curie, who disliked public ceremonies, was feeling increasingly ill. As Nobel laureates were required to deliver a lecture, the Curies finally undertook the trip in 1905. The award money allowed the Curies to hire their first laboratory assistant. Following the award of the Nobel Prize, and galvanized by an offer from the University of Geneva, which offered Pierre Curie a position, the University of Paris gave him a professorship and the chair of physics, although the Curies still did not have a proper laboratory. Upon Pierre Curie's complaint, the University of Paris relented and agreed to furnish a new laboratory, but it would not be ready until 1906. In December 1904, Curie gave birth to their second daughter, Ève. She hired Polish governesses to teach her daughters her native language, and sent or took them on visits to Poland. On 19 April 1906, Pierre Curie was killed in a road accident. Walking across the Rue Dauphine in heavy rain, he was struck by a horse-drawn vehicle and fell under its wheels, fracturing his skull and killing him instantly. Curie was devastated by her husband's death. On 13 May 1906 the physics department of the University of Paris decided to retain the chair that had been created for her late husband and offer it to Marie. She accepted it, hoping to create a world-class laboratory as a tribute to her husband Pierre. She was the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris. Curie's quest to create a new laboratory did not end with the University of Paris, however. In her later years, she headed the Radium Institute (Institut du radium, now Curie Institute, Institut Curie), a radioactivity laboratory created for her by the Pasteur Institute and the University of Paris. The initiative for creating the Radium Institute had come in 1909 from Pierre Paul Émile Roux, director of the Pasteur Institute, who had been disappointed that the University of Paris was not giving Curie a proper laboratory and had suggested that she move to the Pasteur Institute. Only then, with the threat of Curie leaving, did the University of Paris relent, and eventually the Curie Pavilion became a joint initiative of the University of Paris and the Pasteur Institute. In 1910 Curie succeeded in isolating radium; she also defined an international standard for radioactive emissions that was eventually named for her and Pierre: the curie. Nevertheless, in 1911 the French Academy of Sciences failed, by one or two votes, to elect her to membership in the Academy. Elected instead was Édouard Branly, an inventor who had helped Guglielmo Marconi develop the wireless telegraph. It was only over half a century later, in 1962, that a doctoral student of Curie's, Marguerite Perey, became the first woman elected to membership in the Academy. Despite Curie's fame as a scientist working for France, the public's attitude tended toward xenophobia—the same that had led to the Dreyfus affair—which also fuelled false speculation that Curie was Jewish. During the French Academy of Sciences elections, she was vilified by the right-wing press as a foreigner and atheist. Her daughter later remarked on the French press's hypocrisy in portraying Curie as an unworthy foreigner when she was nominated for a French honour, but portraying her as a French heroine when she received foreign honours such as her Nobel Prizes. In 1911 it was revealed that Curie was involved in a year-long affair with physicist Paul Langevin, a former student of Pierre Curie's, a married man who was estranged from his wife. This resulted in a press scandal that was exploited by her academic opponents. Curie (then in her mid-40s) was five years older than Langevin and was misrepresented in the tabloids as a foreign Jewish home-wrecker. When the scandal broke, she was away at a conference in Belgium; on her return, she found an angry mob in front of her house and had to seek refuge, with her daughters, in the home of her friend, Camille Marbo. International recognition for her work had been growing to new heights, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, overcoming opposition prompted by the Langevin scandal, honoured her a second time, with the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. This award was "in recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element." Because of the negative publicity due to her affair with Langevin, the chair of the Nobel committee, Svante Arrhenius, attempted to prevent her attendance at the official ceremony for her Nobel Prize in Chemistry, citing her questionable moral standing. Curie replied that she would be present at the ceremony, because “the prize has been given to her for her discovery of polonium and radium” and that “there is no relation between her scientific work and the facts of her private life”. She was the first person to win or share two Nobel Prizes, and remains alone with Linus Pauling as Nobel laureates in two fields each. A delegation of celebrated Polish men of learning, headed by novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, encouraged her to return to Poland and continue her research in her native country. Curie's second Nobel Prize enabled her to persuade the French government to support the Radium Institute, built in 1914, where research was conducted in chemistry, physics, and medicine. A month after accepting her 1911 Nobel Prize, she was hospitalised with depression and a kidney ailment. For most of 1912, she avoided public life but did spend time in England with her friend and fellow physicist, Hertha Ayrton. She returned to her laboratory only in December, after a break of about 14 months. In 1912 the Warsaw Scientific Society offered her the directorship of a new laboratory in Warsaw but she declined, focusing on the developing Radium Institute to be completed in August 1914, and on a new street named Rue Pierre-Curie. She was appointed Director of the Curie Laboratory in the Radium Institute of the University of Paris, founded in 1914. She visited Poland in 1913 and was welcomed in Warsaw but the visit was mostly ignored by the Russian authorities. The institute's development was interrupted by the coming war, as most researchers were drafted into the French Army, and it fully resumed its activities in 1919. World War I During World War I, Curie recognised that wounded soldiers were best served if operated upon as soon as possible. She saw a need for field radiological centres near the front lines to assist battlefield surgeons, including to obviate amputations when in fact limbs could be saved. After a quick study of radiology, anatomy, and automotive mechanics she procured X-ray equipment, vehicles, auxiliary generators, and developed mobile radiography units, which came to be popularly known as petites Curies ("Little Curies"). She became the director of the Red Cross Radiology Service and set up France's first military radiology centre, operational by late 1914. Assisted at first by a military doctor and her 17-year-old daughter Irène, Curie directed the installation of 20 mobile radiological vehicles and another 200 radiological units at field hospitals in the first year of the war. Later, she began training other women as aides. In 1915, Curie produced hollow needles containing "radium emanation", a colourless, radioactive gas given off by radium, later identified as radon, to be used for sterilizing infected tissue. She provided the radium from her own one-gram supply. It is estimated that over a million wounded soldiers were treated with her X-ray units. Busy with this work, she carried out very little scientific research during that period. In spite of all her humanitarian contributions to the French war effort, Curie never received any formal recognition of it from the French government. Also, promptly after the war started, she attempted to donate her gold Nobel Prize medals to the war effort but the French National Bank refused to accept them. She did buy war bonds, using her Nobel Prize money. She said:I am going to give up the little gold I possess. I shall add to this the scientific medals, which are quite useless to me. There is something else: by sheer laziness I had allowed the money for my second Nobel Prize to remain in Stockholm in Swedish crowns. This is the chief part of what we possess. I should like to bring it back here and invest it in war loans. The state needs it. Only, I have no illusions: this money will probably be lost. She was also an active member in committees of Polonia in France dedicated to the Polish cause. After the war, she summarized her wartime experiences in a book, Radiology in War (1919). Postwar years In 1920, for the 25th anniversary of the discovery of radium, the French government established a stipend for her; its previous recipient was Louis Pasteur (1822–95). In 1921, she was welcomed triumphantly when she toured the United States to raise funds for research on radium. Mrs. William Brown Meloney, after interviewing Curie, created a Marie Curie Radium Fund and raised money to buy radium, publicising her trip. In 1921, U.S. President Warren G. Harding received her at the White House to present her with the 1 gram of radium collected in the United States, and the First Lady praised her as an example of a professional achiever who was also a supportive wife. Before the meeting, recognising her growing fame abroad, and embarrassed by the fact that she had no French official distinctions to wear in public, the French government offered her a Legion of Honour award, but she refused. In 1922 she became a fellow of the French Academy of Medicine. She also travelled to other countries, appearing publicly and giving lectures in Belgium, Brazil, Spain, and Czechoslovakia. Led by Curie, the Institute produced four more Nobel Prize winners, including her daughter Irène Joliot-Curie and her son-in-law, Frédéric Joliot-Curie. Eventually it became one of the world's four major radioactivity-research laboratories, the others being the Cavendish Laboratory, with Ernest Rutherford; the Institute for Radium Research, Vienna, with Stefan Meyer; and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry, with Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner. In August 1922 Marie Curie became a member of the League of Nations' newly created International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation. She sat on the committee until 1934 and contributed to League of Nations' scientific coordination with other prominent researchers such as Albert Einstein, Hendrik Lorentz, and Henri Bergson. In 1923 she wrote a biography of her late husband, titled Pierre Curie. In 1925 she visited Poland to participate in a ceremony laying the foundations for Warsaw's Radium Institute. Her second American tour, in 1929, succeeded in equipping the Warsaw Radium Institute with radium; the Institute opened in 1932, with her sister Bronisława its director. These distractions from her scientific labours, and the attendant publicity, caused her much discomfort but provided resources for her work. In 1930 she was elected to the International Atomic Weights Committee, on which she served until her death. In 1931, Curie was awarded the Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh. Death Curie visited Poland for the last time in early 1934. A few months later, on 4 July 1934, she died aged 66 at the Sancellemoz sanatorium in Passy, Haute-Savoie, from aplastic anemia believed to have been contracted from her long-term exposure to radiation, causing damage to her bone marrow. The damaging effects of ionising radiation were not known at the time of her work, which had been carried out without the safety measures later developed. She had carried test tubes containing radioactive isotopes in her pocket, and she stored them in her desk drawer, remarking on the faint light that the substances gave off in the dark. Curie was also exposed to X-rays from unshielded equipment while serving as a radiologist in field hospitals during the war. In fact, when Curie's body was exhumed in 1995, the French Office de Protection contre les Rayonnements Ionisants (ORPI) "concluded that she could not have been exposed to lethal levels of radium while she was alive". They pointed out that radium poses a risk only if it is ingested, and speculated that her illness was more likely to have been due to her use of radiography during the First World War. She was interred at the cemetery in Sceaux, alongside her husband Pierre. Sixty years later, in 1995, in honour of their achievements, the remains of both were transferred to the Paris Panthéon. Their remains were sealed in a lead lining because of the radioactivity. She became the second woman to be interred at the Panthéon (after Sophie Berthelot) and the first woman to be honoured with interment in the Panthéon on her own merits. Because of their levels of radioactive contamination, her papers from the 1890s are considered too dangerous to handle. Even her cookbooks are highly radioactive. Her papers are kept in lead-lined boxes, and those who wish to consult them must wear protective clothing. In her last year, she worked on a book, Radioactivity, which was published posthumously in 1935. Legacy The physical and societal aspects of the Curies' work contributed to shaping the world of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Cornell University professor Williams observes: If Curie's work helped overturn established ideas in physics and chemistry, it has had an equally profound effect in the societal sphere. To attain her scientific achievements, she had to overcome barriers, in both her native and her adoptive country, that were placed in her way because she was a woman. This aspect of her life and career is highlighted in Françoise Giroud's Marie Curie: A Life, which emphasizes Curie's role as a feminist precursor. She was known for her honesty and moderate lifestyle. Having received a small scholarship in 1893, she returned it in 1897 as soon as she began earning her keep. She gave much of her first Nobel Prize money to friends, family, students, and research associates. In an unusual decision, Curie intentionally refrained from patenting the radium-isolation process so that the scientific community could do research unhindered. She insisted that monetary gifts and awards be given to the scientific institutions she was affiliated with rather than to her. She and her husband often refused awards and medals. Albert Einstein reportedly remarked that she was probably the only person who could not be corrupted by fame. Honours and tributes As one of the most famous scientists, Marie Curie has become an icon in the scientific world and has received tributes from across the globe, even in the realm of pop culture. In 1995, she became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Panthéon, Paris. In a 2009 poll carried out by New Scientist, she was voted the "most inspirational woman in science". Curie received 25.1 percent of all votes cast, nearly twice as many as second-place Rosalind Franklin (14.2 per cent). On the centenary of her second Nobel Prize, Poland declared 2011 the Year of Marie Curie; and the United Nations declared that this would be the International Year of Chemistry. An artistic installation celebrating "Madame Curie" filled the Jacobs Gallery at San Diego's Museum of Contemporary Art. On 7 November, Google celebrated the anniversary of her birth with a special Google Doodle. On 10 December, the New York Academy of Sciences celebrated the centenary of Marie Curie's second Nobel Prize in the presence of Princess Madeleine of Sweden. Marie Curie was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person to win two Nobel Prizes, the only woman to win in two fields, and the only person to win in multiple sciences. Awards that she received include: Nobel Prize in Physics (1903, with her husband Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel) Davy Medal (1903, with Pierre) Matteucci Medal (1904, with Pierre) Actonian Prize (1907) Elliott Cresson Medal (1909) Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1911) Franklin Medal of the American Philosophical Society (1921) She received numerous honorary degrees from universities across the world. In Poland, she received honorary doctorates from the Lwów Polytechnic (1912), Poznań University (1922), Kraków's Jagiellonian University (1924), and the Warsaw Polytechnic (1926). In 1920 she became the first female member of The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters. In 1921, in the U.S., she was awarded membership in the Iota Sigma Pi women scientists' society. In 1924, she became an Honorary Member of the Polish Chemical Society. Marie Curie's 1898 publication with her husband and their collaborator Gustave Bémont of their discovery of radium and polonium was honoured by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society presented to the ESPCI Paris in 2015. Entities that have been named in her honour include: The curie (symbol Ci), a unit of radioactivity, is named in honour of her and Pierre Curie (although the commission which agreed on the name never clearly stated whether the standard was named after Pierre, Marie, or both). The element with atomic number 96 was named curium. Three radioactive minerals are also named after the Curies: curite, sklodowskite, and cuprosklodowskite. The Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions fellowship program of the European Union for young scientists wishing to work in a foreign country is named after her. In 2007, a metro station in Paris was renamed to honour both of the Curies. Polish nuclear research reactor Maria is named after her. The 7000 Curie asteroid is also named after her. A KLM McDonnell Douglas MD-11 (registration PH-KCC) is named in her honour. In 2011, a new Warsaw bridge over the Vistula River was named in her honour. In January 2020, Satellogic, a high-resolution Earth observation imaging and analytics company, launched a ÑuSat type micro-satellite; ÑuSat 8, also known as Marie, was named in her honour. The Marie-Curie station, a planned underground Réseau express métropolitain (REM) station in the borough of Saint-Laurent in Montreal is named in her honour. A nearby road, Avenue Marie Curie, is also named in her honour. Several institutions presently bear her name, including the two Curie institutes which she founded: the Maria Sklodowska-Curie National Research Institute of Oncology in Warsaw, and the Institut Curie in Paris. The Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, in Lublin, was founded in 1944; and the Pierre and Marie Curie University (also known as Paris VI) was France's pre-eminent science university, which would later merge to form the Sorbonne University. In Britain, the Marie Curie charity was organized in 1948 to care for the terminally ill. Two museums are devoted to Marie Curie. In 1967, the Maria Skłodowska-Curie Museum was established in Warsaw's "New Town", at her birthplace on ulica Freta (Freta Street). Her Paris laboratory is preserved as the Musée Curie, open since 1992. Curie's likeness has appeared on banknotes, stamps and coins around the world. She was featured on the Polish late-1980s 20,000-złoty banknote as well as on the last French 500-franc note, before the franc was replaced by the euro. Curie-themed postage stamps from Mali, the Republic of Togo, Zambia, and the Republic of Guinea actually show a picture of Susan Marie Frontczak portraying Curie in a 2001 picture by Paul Schroeder. Her likeness or name has appeared on several artistic works. In 1935, Michalina Mościcka, wife of Polish President Ignacy Mościcki, unveiled a statue of Marie Curie before Warsaw's Radium Institute; during the 1944 Second World War Warsaw Uprising against the Nazi German occupation, the monument was damaged by gunfire; after the war it was decided to leave the bullet marks on the statue and its pedestal. Her name is included on the Monument to the X-ray and Radium Martyrs of All Nations, erected in Hamburg, Germany in 1936. In 1955 Jozef Mazur created a stained glass panel of her, the Maria Skłodowska-Curie Medallion, featured in the University at Buffalo Polish Room. In 2011, on the centenary of Marie Curie's second Nobel Prize, an allegorical mural was painted on the façade of her Warsaw birthplace. It depicted an infant Maria Skłodowska holding a test tube from which emanated the elements that she would discover as an adult: polonium and radium. In popular culture Numerous biographies are devoted to her, including: Ève Curie (Marie Curie's daughter), Madame Curie, 1938. Françoise Giroud, Marie Curie: A Life, 1987. Barbara Goldsmith, Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of Marie Curie, 2005. Lauren Redniss, Radioactive: Marie and Pierre Curie, a Tale of Love and Fallout, 2011, adapted into the 2019 British film. Marie Curie has been the subject of a number of films: 1943: Madame Curie, a U.S. Oscar-nominated film by Mervyn LeRoy starring Greer Garson. 1997: Les Palmes de M. Schutz, a French film adapted from a play of the same title, and directed by Claude Pinoteau. Marie Curie is played by Isabelle Huppert. 2016: Marie Curie: The Courage of Knowledge, a European co-production by Marie Noëlle starring Karolina Gruszka. 2019: Radioactive, a British film by Marjane Satrapi starring Rosamund Pike. Curie is the subject of the 2013 play, False Assumptions, by Lawrence Aronovitch, in which the ghosts of three other women scientists observe events in her life. Curie has also been portrayed by Susan Marie Frontczak in her play, Manya: The Living History of Marie Curie, a one-woman show which by 2014 had been performed in 30 U.S. states and nine countries. See also Charlotte Hoffman Kellogg, who sponsored Marie Curie's visit to the US Eusapia Palladino: Spiritualist medium whose Paris séances were attended by an intrigued Pierre Curie and a skeptical Marie Curie Marie Curie Medal Genius, television series depicting Einstein's life List of female Nobel laureates List of female nominees for the Nobel Prize List of multiple discoveries (1898 discovery of thorium radioactivity) List of Poles (Chemistry) List of Poles (Physics) List of Polish Nobel laureates Maria Skłodowska-Curie Museum, Warsaw, Poland Marie Curie Gargoyle (1988), at University of Oregon Poles Timeline of women in science Treatise on Radioactivity, by Marie Curie Women in chemistry Notes References Further reading Nonfiction translated by Lydia Davis. Fiction A 2004 novel by Per Olov Enquist featuring Maria Skłodowska-Curie, neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot, and his Salpêtrière patient "Blanche" (Marie Wittman). The English translation was published in 2006. External links 1867 births 1934 deaths 19th-century French chemists 19th-century French inventors 19th-century French physicists 19th-century French women scientists 19th-century Polish chemists 19th-century Polish inventors 19th-century Polish physicists 19th-century Polish women scientists 20th-century French chemists 20th-century French inventors 20th-century French physicists 20th-century French women scientists 20th-century Polish chemists 20th-century Polish inventors 20th-century Polish physicists 20th-century Polish women scientists Burials at the Panthéon, Paris Congress Poland emigrants to France Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925) Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences Corresponding Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences Marie Deaths from anemia Discoverers of chemical elements Experimental physicists Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts Former Roman Catholics French agnostics French atheists French Nobel laureates French nuclear physicists French women chemists French women physicists Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences Inventors killed by their own invention Légion d'honneur refusals Members of the Lwów Scientific Society Naturalized citizens of France Nobel laureates in Chemistry Nobel laureates in Physics Nobel laureates with multiple Nobel awards Nuclear chemists People from Warsaw Governorate Polish agnostics Polish atheists Polish governesses Polish Nobel laureates Polish nuclear physicists Radioactivity Recipients of the Matteucci Medal Scientists from Warsaw University of Paris alumni University of Paris faculty Victims of radiological poisoning Women inventors Women Nobel laureates Women nuclear physicists

20412

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MATLAB

MATLAB

MATLAB (an abbreviation of "MATrix LABoratory") is a proprietary multi-paradigm programming language and numeric computing environment developed by MathWorks. MATLAB allows matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data, implementation of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs written in other languages. Although MATLAB is intended primarily for numeric computing, an optional toolbox uses the MuPAD symbolic engine allowing access to symbolic computing abilities. An additional package, Simulink, adds graphical multi-domain simulation and model-based design for dynamic and embedded systems. As of 2020, MATLAB has more than 4 million users worldwide. They come from various backgrounds of engineering, science, and economics. History Origins MATLAB was invented by mathematician and computer programmer Cleve Moler. The idea for MATLAB was based on his 1960s PhD thesis. Moler became a math professor at the University of New Mexico and started developing MATLAB for his students as a hobby. He developed MATLAB's initial linear algebra programming in 1967 with his one-time thesis advisor, George Forsythe. This was followed by Fortran code for linear equations in 1971. In the beginning (before version 1.0) MATLAB "was not a programming language; it was a simple interactive matrix calculator. There were no programs, no toolboxes, no graphics. And no ODEs or FFTs." The first early version of MATLAB was completed in the late 1970s. The software was disclosed to the public for the first time in February 1979 at the Naval Postgraduate School in California. Early versions of MATLAB were simple matrix calculators with 71 pre-built functions. At the time, MATLAB was distributed for free to universities. Moler would leave copies at universities he visited and the software developed a strong following in the math departments of university campuses. In the 1980s, Cleve Moler met John N. Little. They decided to reprogram MATLAB in C and market it for the IBM desktops that were replacing mainframe computers at the time. John Little and programmer Steve Bangert re-programmed MATLAB in C, created the MATLAB programming language, and developed features for toolboxes. Commercial development MATLAB was first released as a commercial product in 1984 at the Automatic Control Conference in Las Vegas. MathWorks, Inc. was founded to develop the software and the MATLAB programming language was released. The first MATLAB sale was the following year, when Nick Trefethen from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology bought ten copies. By the end of the 1980s, several hundred copies of MATLAB had been sold to universities for student use. The software was popularized largely thanks to toolboxes created by experts in various fields for performing specialized mathematical tasks. Many of the toolboxes were developed as a result of Stanford students that used MATLAB in academia, then brought the software with them to the private sector. Over time, MATLAB was re-written for early operating systems created by Digital Equipment Corporation, VAX, Sun Microsystems, and for Unix PCs. Version 3 was released in 1987. The first MATLAB compiler was developed by Stephen C. Johnson in the 1990s. In 2000, MathWorks added a Fortran-based library for linear algebra in MATLAB 6, replacing the software's original LINPACK and EISPACK subroutines that were in C. MATLAB's Parallel Computing Toolbox was released at the 2004 Supercomputing Conference and support for graphics processing units (GPUs) was added to it in 2010. Recent history Some especially large changes to the software were made with version 8 in 2012. The user interface was reworked and Simulink's functionality was expanded. By 2016, MATLAB had introduced several technical and user interface improvements, including the MATLAB Live Editor notebook, and other features. Features MATLAB combines a desktop environment tuned for iterative analysis and design processes with a programming language that expresses matrix and array mathematics directly. It includes the Live Editor for creating scripts that combine code, output, and formatted text in an executable notebook. It allows to extend its functions and developments of all kinds of discipline through a set of characteristics called toolbox. Toolbox 5G Toolbox: Simulate, analyze, and test 5G communications systems Aerospace Toolbox: Analyze and visualize aerospace vehicle motion using reference standards and models Antenna Toolbox: Design, analyze, and visualize antenna elements and antenna arrays Audio Toolbox: Design and analyze speech, acoustic, and audio processing systems Communications Toolbox: Design and simulate the physical layer of communications systems Deep Learning Toolbox: Design, train, and analyze deep learning networks DSP System Toolbox: Design and simulate streaming signal processing systems Financial Toolbox: Analyze financial data and develop financial models LTE Toolbox: Simulate, analyze, and test the physical layer of LTE and LTE-Advanced wireless communications systems GPU Coder: Generate CUDA code for NVIDIA GPUs MATLAB Compiler: Build standalone executables and web apps from MATLAB programs Radar Toolbox: Design, simulate, and test multifunction radar systems RF PCB Toolbox: Perform electromagnetic analysis of printed circuit boards Satellite Communications Toolbox: Simulate, analyze, and test satellite communications systems and links SerDes Toolbox: Design SerDes systems and generate IBIS-AMI models for high-speed digital interconnects Signal Integrity Toolbox: Simulate and analyze high-speed serial and parallel links Signal Processing Toolbox: Perform signal processing and análisis Statistics and Machine Learning Toolbox: Analyze and model data using statistics and machine learning Symbolic Math Toolbox: Perform symbolic math computations Wavelet Toolbox: Analyze and synthesize signals and images using wavelets In addition to these, you can develop applications for all kinds of industries, with more than 100 Toolboxes for Matlab and Simulink. Syntax The MATLAB application is built around the MATLAB programming language. Common usage of the MATLAB application involves using the "Command Window" as an interactive mathematical shell or executing text files containing MATLAB code. Variables Variables are defined using the assignment operator, =. MATLAB is a weakly typed programming language because types are implicitly converted. It is an inferred typed language because variables can be assigned without declaring their type, except if they are to be treated as symbolic objects, and that their type can change. Values can come from constants, from computation involving values of other variables, or from the output of a function. For example: >> x = 17 x = 17 >> x = 'hat' x = hat >> x = [3*4, pi/2] x = 12.0000 1.5708 >> y = 3*sin(x) y = -1.6097 3.0000 Vectors and matrices A simple array is defined using the colon syntax: initial:increment:terminator. For instance: >> array = 1:2:9 array = 1 3 5 7 9 defines a variable named array (or assigns a new value to an existing variable with the name array) which is an array consisting of the values 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9. That is, the array starts at 1 (the initial value), increments with each step from the previous value by 2 (the increment value), and stops once it reaches (or is about to exceed) 9 (the terminator value). The increment value can actually be left out of this syntax (along with one of the colons), to use a default value of 1. >> ari = 1:5 ari = 1 2 3 4 5 assigns to the variable named ari an array with the values 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, since the default value of 1 is used as the increment. Indexing is one-based, which is the usual convention for matrices in mathematics, unlike zero-based indexing commonly used in other programming languages such as C, C++, and Java. Matrices can be defined by separating the elements of a row with blank space or comma and using a semicolon to terminate each row. The list of elements should be surrounded by square brackets []. Parentheses () are used to access elements and subarrays (they are also used to denote a function argument list). >> A = [16 3 2 13; 5 10 11 8; 9 6 7 12; 4 15 14 1] A = 16 3 2 13 5 10 11 8 9 6 7 12 4 15 14 1 >> A(2,3) ans = 11 Sets of indices can be specified by expressions such as 2:4, which evaluates to [2, 3, 4]. For example, a submatrix taken from rows 2 through 4 and columns 3 through 4 can be written as: >> A(2:4,3:4) ans = 11 8 7 12 14 1 A square identity matrix of size n can be generated using the function eye, and matrices of any size with zeros or ones can be generated with the functions zeros and ones, respectively. >> eye(3,3) ans = 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 >> zeros(2,3) ans = 0 0 0 0 0 0 >> ones(2,3) ans = 1 1 1 1 1 1 Transposing a vector or a matrix is done either by the function transpose or by adding dot-prime after the matrix (without the dot, prime will perform conjugate transpose for complex arrays): >> A = [1 ; 2], B = A.', C = transpose(A) A = 1 2 B = 1 2 C = 1 2 >> D = [0 3 ; 1 5], D.' D = 0 3 1 5 ans = 0 1 3 5 Most functions accept arrays as input and operate element-wise on each element. For example, mod(2*J,n) will multiply every element in J by 2, and then reduce each element modulo n. MATLAB does include standard for and while loops, but (as in other similar applications such as R), using the vectorized notation is encouraged and is often faster to execute. The following code, excerpted from the function magic.m, creates a magic square M for odd values of n (MATLAB function meshgrid is used here to generate square matrices I and J containing 1:n): [J,I] = meshgrid(1:n); A = mod(I + J - (n + 3) / 2, n); B = mod(I + 2 * J - 2, n); M = n * A + B + 1; Structures MATLAB supports structure data types. Since all variables in MATLAB are arrays, a more adequate name is "structure array", where each element of the array has the same field names. In addition, MATLAB supports dynamic field names (field look-ups by name, field manipulations, etc.). Functions When creating a MATLAB function, the name of the file should match the name of the first function in the file. Valid function names begin with an alphabetic character, and can contain letters, numbers, or underscores. Variables and functions are case sensitive. gbImage = imread('ecg.png'); grayImage = rgb2gray(rgbImage); % for non-indexed images level = graythresh(grayImage); % threshold for converting image to binary, binaryImage = im2bw(grayImage, level); % Extract the individual red, green, and blue color channels. redChannel = rgbImage(:, :, 1); greenChannel = rgbImage(:, :, 2); blueChannel = rgbImage(:, :, 3); % Make the black parts pure red. redChannel(~binaryImage) = 255; greenChannel(~binaryImage) = 0; blueChannel(~binaryImage) = 0; % Now recombine to form the output image. rgbImageOut = cat(3, redChannel, greenChannel, blueChannel); imshow(rgbImageOut); Function handles MATLAB supports elements of lambda calculus by introducing function handles, or function references, which are implemented either in .m files or anonymous/nested functions. Classes and object-oriented programming MATLAB supports object-oriented programming including classes, inheritance, virtual dispatch, packages, pass-by-value semantics, and pass-by-reference semantics. However, the syntax and calling conventions are significantly different from other languages. MATLAB has value classes and reference classes, depending on whether the class has handle as a super-class (for reference classes) or not (for value classes). Method call behavior is different between value and reference classes. For example, a call to a method: object.method(); can alter any member of object only if object is an instance of a reference class, otherwise value class methods must return a new instance if it needs to modify the object. An example of a simple class is provided below: classdef Hello methods function greet(obj) disp('Hello!') end end end When put into a file named hello.m, this can be executed with the following commands: >> x = Hello(); >> x.greet(); Hello! Graphics and graphical user interface programming MATLAB has tightly integrated graph-plotting features. For example, the function plot can be used to produce a graph from two vectors x and y. The code: x = 0:pi/100:2*pi; y = sin(x); plot(x,y) produces the following figure of the sine function: MATLAB supports three-dimensional graphics as well: MATLAB supports developing graphical user interface (GUI) applications. UIs can be generated either programmatically or using visual design environments such as GUIDE and App Designer. MATLAB and other languages MATLAB can call functions and subroutines written in the programming languages C or Fortran. A wrapper function is created allowing MATLAB data types to be passed and returned. MEX files (MATLAB executables) are the dynamically loadable object files created by compiling such functions. Since 2014 increasing two-way interfacing with Python was being added. Libraries written in Perl, Java, ActiveX or .NET can be directly called from MATLAB, and many MATLAB libraries (for example XML or SQL support) are implemented as wrappers around Java or ActiveX libraries. Calling MATLAB from Java is more complicated, but can be done with a MATLAB toolbox which is sold separately by MathWorks, or using an undocumented mechanism called JMI (Java-to-MATLAB Interface), (which should not be confused with the unrelated Java Metadata Interface that is also called JMI). Official MATLAB API for Java was added in 2016. As alternatives to the MuPAD based Symbolic Math Toolbox available from MathWorks, MATLAB can be connected to Maple or Mathematica. Libraries also exist to import and export MathML. While MATLAB is the most popular commercial numerical computation software package, other alternatives are available, such as the open source computation language GNU Octave, the statistics programming language R, the computing environment Maple and the computational language Julia. Withdrawal from China In 2020, Chinese state media reported that MATLAB had withdrawn services from two Chinese universities as a result of US sanctions, and said this will be responded to by increased use of open-source alternatives and by developing domestic alternatives. Release history MATLAB is updated twice per year. In addition to new features and other improvements, each release has new bug fixes and smaller changes. The number (or release number) is the version reported by Concurrent License Manager program FLEXlm. For a complete list of changes of both MATLAB and official toolboxes, consult the MATLAB release notes. See also Comparison of numerical-analysis software GNU Octave List of numerical-analysis software Notes Further reading External links Array programming languages Articles with example MATLAB/Octave code C (programming language) software Computer algebra system software for Linux Computer algebra system software for MacOS Computer algebra system software for Windows Computer algebra systems Computer vision software Cross-platform software Data mining and machine learning software Data visualization software Data-centric programming languages Dynamically typed programming languages Econometrics software High-level programming languages IRIX software Linear algebra Mathematical optimization software Numerical analysis software for Linux Numerical analysis software for MacOS Numerical analysis software for Windows Numerical linear algebra Numerical programming languages Numerical software Parallel computing Plotting software Proprietary commercial software for Linux Proprietary cross-platform software Regression and curve fitting software Software modeling language Statistical programming languages Time series software Domain-specific programming languages

20414

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meuse

Meuse

The Meuse ( , , , ; ) or Maas ( , ; or ) is a major European river, rising in France and flowing through Belgium and the Netherlands before draining into the North Sea from the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta. It has a total length of . History From 1301 the upper Meuse roughly marked the western border of the Holy Roman Empire with the Kingdom of France, after Count Henry III of Bar had to receive the western part of the County of Bar (Barrois mouvant) as a French fief from the hands of King Philip IV. The border remained stable until the annexation of the Three Bishoprics Metz, Toul and Verdun by King Henry II in 1552 and the occupation of the Duchy of Lorraine by the forces of King Louis XIII in 1633. Its lower Belgian (Walloon) portion, part of the sillon industriel, was the first fully industrialized area in continental Europe. The Afgedamde Maas was created in the late Middle Ages, when a major flood made a connection between the Maas and the Merwede at the town of Woudrichem. From that moment on, the current Afgedamde Maas was the main branch of the lower Meuse. The former main branch eventually silted up and is today called the Oude Maasje. In the late 19th century and early 20th century the connection between the Maas and Rhine was closed off and the Maas was given a new, artificial mouth – the Bergse Maas. The resulting separation of the rivers Rhine and Maas reduced the risk of flooding and is considered to be the greatest achievement in Dutch hydraulic engineering before the completion of the Zuiderzee Works and Delta Works. The former main branch was, after the dam at its southern inlet was completed in 1904, renamed Afgedamde Maas and no longer receives water from the Maas. The Meuse and its crossings were a key objective of the Battle of France in May 1940 (Battle of Sedan (12–15 May 1940)) and of the last but one major German WWII counter-offensive on the Western Front, the Battle of the Bulge (Battle of the Ardennes) in December 1944 and January 1945. The Meuse is represented in the documentary The River People released in 2012 by Xavier Istasse. In July 2021, the Meuse basin was one of the many regions in Europe to experience catastrophic flooding during the 2021 European floods. Etymology The name Meuse is derived from the French name of the river, derived from its Latin name, Mosa, which ultimately derives from the Celtic or Proto-Celtic name *Mosā. This probably derives from the same root as English "maze", referring to the river's twists and turns. The Dutch name Maas descends from Middle Dutch Mase, which comes from the presumed but unattested Old Dutch form *Masa, from Proto-Germanic *Masō. Modern Dutch and German Maas and Limburgish Maos preserve this Germanic form. Despite the similarity, the Germanic name is not derived from the Celtic name, judging from the change from earlier o into a, which is characteristic of the Germanic languages. Geography The Meuse rises in Pouilly-en-Bassigny, commune of Le Châtelet-sur-Meuse on the Langres plateau in France from where it flows northwards past Sedan (the head of navigation) and Charleville-Mézières into Belgium. At Namur it is joined by the Sambre. Beyond Namur the Meuse winds eastwards, skirting the Ardennes, and passes Liège before turning north. The river then forms part of the Belgian-Dutch border, except that at Maastricht the border lies further to the west. In the Netherlands it continues northwards through Venlo closely along the border to Germany, then turns towards the west, where it runs parallel to the Waal and forms part of the extensive Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta, together with the Scheldt in its south and the Rhine in the north. The river has been divided near Heusden into the Afgedamde Maas on the right and the Bergse Maas on the left. The Bergse Maas continues under the name of Amer, which is part of De Biesbosch. The Afgedamde Maas joins the Waal, the main stem of the Rhine at Woudrichem, and then flows under the name of Boven Merwede to Hardinxveld-Giessendam, where it splits into Nieuwe Merwede and Beneden Merwede. Near Lage Zwaluwe, the Nieuwe Merwede joins the Amer, forming the Hollands Diep, which splits into Grevelingen and Haringvliet, before finally flowing into the North Sea. The Meuse is crossed by railway bridges between the following stations (on the left and right banks respectively): Belgium: Hasselt (Belgium) – Maastricht (Netherlands) (currently being put back online) Netherlands: Weert - Roermond Blerick – Venlo Cuijk – Mook-Molenhoek Ravenstein – Wijchen 's-Hertogenbosch – Zaltbommel There are also numerous road bridges and around 32 ferry crossings. The Meuse is navigable over a substantial part of its total length: In the Netherlands and Belgium, the river is part of the major inland navigation infrastructure, connecting the Rotterdam-Amsterdam-Antwerp port areas to the industrial areas upstream: 's-Hertogenbosch, Venlo, Maastricht, Liège, Namur. Between Maastricht and Maasbracht, an unnavigable section of the Meuse is bypassed by the Juliana Canal. South of Namur, further upstream, the river can only carry more modest vessels, although a barge as long as . can still reach the French border town of Givet. From Givet, the river is canalized over a distance of . The canalized Meuse used to be called the "Canal de l'Est — Branche Nord" but was recently rebaptized into "Canal de la Meuse". The waterway can be used by the smallest barges that are still in use commercially almost long and just over wide. Just upstream of the town of Commercy, the Canal de la Meuse connects with the Marne–Rhine Canal by means of a short diversion canal. The Cretaceous sea reptile Mosasaur is named after the river Meuse. The first fossils of it were discovered outside Maastricht in 1780. Basin area An international agreement was signed in 2002 in Ghent, Belgium, about the management of the river amongst France, Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Belgium. Also participating in the agreement were the Belgian regional governments of Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels (which is not in the basin of the Meuse but pumps running water into the Meuse). Most of the basin area (approximately 36,000 km2) is in Wallonia (12,000 km2), followed by France (9,000 km2), the Netherlands (8,000 km2), Germany (2,000 km2), Flanders (2,000 km2) and Luxembourg (a few km2). An International Commission on the Meuse has the responsibility of the implementation of the treaty. The costs of this Commission are met by all these countries, in proportion of their own territory in the basin of the Meuse: Netherlands 30%, Wallonia 30%, France 15%, Germany 14.5%, Flanders 5%, Brussels 4.5%, Kingdom of Belgium 0.5%, and Luxembourg 0.5%. The map of the basin area of Meuse was joined to the text of the treaty. As for culture, as a major communication route the River Meuse is the origin of Mosan art, principally (Wallonia and France). The first landscape painted in the Renaissance was the landscape of Meuse by Joachim Patinir. He was likely the uncle of Henri Blès, who is sometimes defined as a Mosan landscape painter active during the second third of the 16th century (i.e. second generation of landscape painters). Tributaries The main tributaries of the Meuse are listed below in downstream-upstream order, with the town where the tributary meets the river: Dieze (near 's-Hertogenbosch) Aa (in 's-Hertogenbosch) Binnendieze (in 's-Hertogenbosch) Dommel (in 's-Hertogenbosch) Gender (in Eindhoven) Raam (in Grave) Niers (in Gennep) Swalm (in Swalmen) Rur/Roer (in Roermond) Wurm (in Heinsberg, Germany) Merzbach (in Linnich, Germany) Inde (in Jülich, Germany) Geleenbeek (near Maasbracht) Geul (near Meerssen) Geer/Jeker (in Maastricht) Voer/Fouron (in Eijsden) Berwinne/Berwijn (near Moelingen, part of Voeren) Ourthe (in Liège) Weser/Vesdre (near Liège) Amel/Amblève (in Comblain-au-Pont) Salm (in Trois-Ponts) Warche (near Malmedy) Hoyoux (in Huy) Mehaigne (in Wanze) Sambre (in Namur) Houyoux (in Namur) Bocq (in Yvoir) Molignée (in Anhée) Lesse (in Anseremme, part of Dinant) Viroin (in Vireux-Molhain) Faux (in Revin) Semois or Semoy (in Monthermé) Sormonne (in Warcq) Bar (near Dom-le-Mesnil) Chiers (in Bazeilles) Othain (in Montmédy) Vair (in Maxey-sur-Meuse) Mouzon (in Neufchâteau, Vosges) Saônelle (in Coussey) Distributaries The mean annual discharge rate of the Meuse has been relatively stable over the last few thousand years. One recent study estimates that average flow has increased by about 10% since 2000 BC. The hydrological distribution of the Meuse changed during the later Middle Ages, when a major flood forced it to shift its main course northwards towards the river Merwede. From then on several stretches of the original Merwede were renamed "Maas" (i.e. Meuse) and served as the primary outflow of that river. Those branches are currently known as the Nieuwe Maas and Oude Maas. However during another series of severe floods the Meuse found an additional path towards the sea, resulting in the creation of the Biesbosch wetlands and Hollands Diep estuaries. Thereafter the Meuse split near Heusden into two main distributaries, one flowing north to join the Merwede and one flowing direct to the sea. The branch of the Meuse leading direct to the sea eventually silted up (and now forms the Oude Maasje stream), but in 1904 the canalised Bergse Maas was dug to take over the functions of the silted-up branch. At the same time the branch leading to the Merwede was dammed at Heusden (and has since been known as the Afgedamde Maas) so that little water from the Meuse entered the old Maas courses or the Rhine distributaries. The resulting separation of the rivers Rhine and Meuse is considered to be the greatest achievement in Dutch hydraulic engineering before the completion of the Zuiderzee Works and Delta Works. In 1970 the Haringvlietdam has been finished. Since then the reunited Rhine and Meuse waters have reached the North Sea either at this site or, during times of lower discharges of the Rhine, at Hook of Holland. A 2008 study notes that the difference between summer and winter flow volumes has increased significantly in the last 100–200 years. It points out that the frequency of serious floods (i.e. flows > 1000% of normal) has increased markedly. They predict that winter flooding of the Meuse may become a recurring problem in the coming decades. Départements, provinces and towns The Meuse flows through the following departments of France, provinces of Belgium, provinces of the Netherlands and towns: Haute-Marne Vosges: Neufchâteau Meuse: Commercy, Saint-Mihiel, Verdun, Stenay Ardennes: Sedan, Charleville-Mézières, Givet Namur: Dinant, Namur Liège: Huy, Liège, Visé Limburg: Eijsden, Maastricht, Stein, Maasbracht, Roermond, Venlo, Gennep Limburg: Maaseik (between Stein and Maasbracht) North Brabant: Boxmeer, Cuijk, Grave, Ravenstein, Lith, Heusden, Aalburg, Woudrichem Gelderland: Maasdriel South Holland: Dordrecht, Maassluis, Rotterdam Mention in patriotic songs The Meuse (Maas) is mentioned in the first stanza of Germany's old national anthem, the Deutschlandlied. However, since its re-adoption as national anthem in 1952, only the third stanza of the Deutschlandlied has been sung as the German national anthem, the first and second stanzas being omitted. This was confirmed after German reunification in 1991 when only the third stanza was defined as the official anthem. The lyrics written in 1841 describe a then–disunited Germany with the river as its western boundary, where King William I of the Netherlands had joined the German Confederation with his Duchy of Limburg in 1839. Though the duchy's territory officially became an integral part of the Netherlands by the 1867 Treaty of London, the text passage remained unchanged when the Deutschlandlied was declared the national anthem of the Weimar Republic in 1922. The name of the rivers also forms part of the title of "Le Régiment de Sambre et Meuse", written after the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, and a popular patriotic song for the rest of the 19th century and into the 20th. See also 1930 Meuse Valley fog References External links Peace Palace Library's Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law regarding Meuse River Peace Palace Library's Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law regarding Meuse River Belgium–Netherlands border International rivers of Europe Rivers of the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta Rivers of France Rivers of Belgium Rivers of the Netherlands Rivers of Flanders Rivers of Wallonia Rivers of Grand Est Rivers of Ardennes (department) Rivers of Haute-Marne Rivers of Meuse (department) Rivers of Vosges (department) Rivers of Liège (province) Rivers of Namur (province) Rivers of Gelderland Rivers of Limburg (Netherlands) Rivers of North Brabant Rivers of South Limburg (Netherlands) Rivers of the Ardennes (Belgium) Rivers of the Ardennes (France) Transport in 's-Hertogenbosch Transport in Maastricht Transport in Roermond Transport in Sittard-Geleen Transport in Venlo Geography of Liège Geography of Namur (city) Border rivers

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Bentine

Michael Bentine

Michael Bentine, (born Michael James Bentin; 26 January 1922 – 26 November 1996) was a British comedian, comic actor and founding member of the Goons. His father was a Peruvian Briton. Biography Bentine was born in Watford, Hertfordshire, to a Peruvian father, Adam Bentin, and a British mother, Florence Dawkins, and grew up in Folkestone, Kent. He was educated at Eton College. With the help of speech trainer, Harry Burgess, he learned to manage a stammer and subsequently developed an interest in amateur theatricals, along with the Tomlinson family, including the young David Tomlinson. He spoke fluent Spanish and French. His father was an early aeronautical engineer for the Sopwith Aviation Company during and after World War I and invented a tension meter for setting the tension on aircraft rigging wires. In World War II, he volunteered for all services when the war broke out (the RAF was his first choice owing to the influence of his father's experience), but was initially rejected because of his father's nationality. He started his acting career in 1940, in a touring company in Cardiff playing a juvenile lead in Sweet Lavender. He went on to join Robert Atkins' Shakespearean company in Regent's Park, London, until he was called up for service in the RAF. He was appearing in a Shakespearean play in doublet and hose in the open-air theatre in London's Hyde Park when two RAF Police NCO's marched on stage and arrested him for desertion. Unknown to him, an RAF conscription notice had been following him for a month as his company toured. Once in the RAF he went through flying training. He was the penultimate man going through a medical line receiving inoculations for typhoid with the other flight candidates in his class (they were going to Canada to receive new aircraft) when the vaccine ran out. They refilled the bottle to inoculate him and the other man as well. By mistake they loaded a pure culture of typhoid. The other man died immediately, and Bentine was in a coma for six weeks. When he regained consciousness his eyesight was ruined, leaving him myopic for the rest of his life. Since he was no longer physically qualified for flying, he was transferred to RAF Intelligence and seconded to MI9, a unit that was dedicated to supporting resistance movements and helping prisoners escape. His immediate superior was the Colditz escapee Airey Neave. At the end of the war, he took part in the liberation of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. He said about this experience: Millions of words have been written about these horror camps, many of them by inmates of those unbelievable places. I’ve tried, without success, to describe it from my own point of view, but the words won’t come. To me Belsen was the ultimate blasphemy. (The Reluctant Jester, Chapter 17.) Comedy career After the war Bentine decided to become a comedian and worked in the Windmill Theatre where he met Harry Secombe. He specialised in off-the-wall humour, often involving cartoons and other types of animation. His acts included giving lectures in an invented language called Slobodian, "Imaginative Young Man with a Walking Stick" and "The Chairback", with a broken chairback having a number of uses from comb to machine gun and taking on a demoniacal life of its own. Peter Sellers told him this was the inspiration for the prosthetic arm routine in Dr Strangelove. This act led to his engagement by Val Parnell to appear in the Starlight Roof revues starring Vic Oliver, where he met and married his second wife Clementina, with whom he had four children. Also on the bill were Fred Emney and a young Julie Andrews. He co-founded The Goon Show radio show with Spike Milligan, Peter Sellers and Harry Secombe, but appeared in only the first 38 shows on the BBC Light Programme from 1951 to 1953. The first of these shows were actually called Crazy People and subtitled "The Junior Crazy Gang"; the term "Goon" was used as the headline of a review of Bentine's act by Picture Post dated 5 November 1948. Only one of this first series (and very few of the following three in which he did not appear) has survived, the rest of the original disc recordings having apparently been destroyed or discarded as no longer usable, so there is almost no record of his work as a radio "Goon". He also appeared in the Goon Show film Down Among the Z Men. In 1951 Bentine was invited to the United States to appear on The Ed Sullivan Show. On his return he parted amicably from his partners and continued touring in variety, remaining close to Secombe and Sellers for the rest of his life. In 1972, Secombe and Sellers told Michael Parkinson that Bentine was "always calling everyone a genius" and, since he was the only one of the four with a "proper education", they always believed him. His first appearances on television were as presenter on a 13-part children's series featuring remote controlled puppets, The Bumblies, which he also devised, designed and wrote. These were three small creatures from outer space who slept on "Professor Bentine's" ceiling and who had come to Earth to learn the ways of Earthling children. Angelo de Calferta modelled the puppets from Bentine's designs and Richard Dendy moulded them in latex rubber. He sold the series to the BBC for less than they had cost to make. He then spent two years touring in Australia (1954–55). On his return to Britain in 1954, he worked as a scriptwriter for Peter Sellers and then on 39 episodes of his own radio show Round the Bend in 30 Minutes, which has also been wiped from the BBC archive. He then teamed up with Dick Lester to devise a series of six TV programmes Before Midnight for Associated British Corporation (ABC) in Birmingham in 1958. This led to a 13-programme series called After Hours in which he appeared alongside Dick Emery, Clive Dunn, David Lodge, Joe Gibbons and Benny Lee. The show featured the "olde English sport of drats, later known as nurdling". Some of the sketches were adapted into a stage revue, Don't Shoot, We're British. He also appeared in the film comedy Raising a Riot, starring Kenneth More, which featured his five-year-old daughter "Fusty". He joked that she got better billing. From 1960 to 1964, he had a television series, It's a Square World, which won a BAFTA award in 1962 and Grand Prix de la Presse at Montreux in 1963. A prominent feature of the series was the imaginary flea circus where plays were enacted on tiny sets using nothing but special effects to show the movement of things too small to see and sounds with Bentine's commentary. One, titled The Beast of the Black Bog Tarn, was set in a (miniature) haunted house. He was the subject of This Is Your Life in April 1963 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews at the BBC Television Theatre. In 1969–70 he was presenter of The Golden Silents on BBC TV, which attempted authentic showings of silent films, without the commentaries with which they were usually shown on television before then. From 1974 to 1980 he wrote, designed, narrated and presented the children's television programme Michael Bentine's Potty Time and made one-off comedy specials. From January to May 1984 Bentine put out 11 half-hour episodes, in two series, of The Michael Bentine Show on Radio 4. These have subsequently been repeated, several times, on the BBC's archive radio station BBC7 (now BBC Radio 4 Extra). He was the writer of 16 best-selling novels, comedies and non-fiction books. Four of his books, The Long Banana Skin (1975), The Door Marked Summer (1981), Doors to the Mind and The Reluctant Jester (1992) are autobiographical. Other interests In 1968, travelling on the British Hovercraft Corporation (BHC) SR.N6, GH–2012, Bentine took part in the first hovercraft expedition up the River Amazon. In the 1995 New Year Honours, Bentine received a CBE from Queen Elizabeth II "for services to entertainment". In 1971, Bentine received the Order of Merit of Peru following his fund-raising work for the 1970 Great Peruvian earthquake. Bentine was a crack pistol shot and helped to start the idea of a counter-terrorist wing within 22 SAS Regiment. In doing so, he became the first non-SAS person ever to fire a gun inside the close-quarters battle training house at Hereford. His interests included parapsychology. This was as a result of his and his family's extensive research into the paranormal, which resulted in his writing The Door Marked Summer and The Doors of the Mind. He was, for the final years of his life, president of the Association for the Scientific Study of Anomalous Phenomena. On 14 December 1977, he appeared with Arthur C. Clarke on Patrick Moore's BBC The Sky at Night programme. The broadcast was entitled "Suns, Spaceships and Bug-Eyed Monsters" – a light-hearted look at how science fiction had become science fact, as well as how ideas of space travel had become reality through the 20th century. In the opening of the programme, Moore introduces Bentine with Bentine confirming that he was the possessor of a "Readers Digest Degree". This remark was typical of Bentine's comic approach to most things in life that concealed his knowledge of science. Bentine appeared in a subsequent broadcast on a similar theme with Moore in 1980. Following the death of Arthur C. Clarke, BBC Sky at Night magazine released a copy of the 1977 archive programme on the cover of their May 2008 edition. Family and health Bentine was married twice. With his first wife Marie Barradell, married 1941–1947, he had a daughter: Elaine (1942–1983) In 1949, he married his second wife, Clementina Stuart, a Royal Ballet dancer. They had four children: Marylla "Fusty" (1949–1987) Stuart "Gus" (1950–1971) Richard "Peski" (born 1959) Serena "Suki" (born 1961) Of his five children, the two eldest daughters, Elaine and Marylla, died from cancer (breast cancer and lymphoma) in the 1980s. His elder son, Stuart, was killed with a pilot friend when a Piper PA-18 Super Cub crashed into a hillside at Ditcham Park Woods near Petersfield, Hampshire, on 28 August 1971. Their bodies and the aircraft were not found until October 1971. The AAIB after an 11-month investigation found that the aircraft went into clouds when taking action to avoid power cables while flying low in poor visibility, and subsequently, went out of control. Bentine's subsequent investigation into regulations governing private airfields resulted in his writing a report for Special Branch into the use of personal aircraft in smuggling operations. He fictionalised much of the material in his novel Lords of the Levels. From 1975 until his death in 1996, he and his wife spent their winters at a second home in Palm Springs, California, US. Shortly before his death from prostate cancer at the age of 74, he was visited in hospital by Prince Charles. Programmes Some of the programmes Bentine appeared in were: The Goon Show (1951–1952) as Himself Goonreel (1952, TV Movie) The Bumblies (1954) as Prof. Michael Bentine / Voices of the Bumblies Yes, It's the Cathode-Ray Tube Show! (1957) (voice) After Hours (1958–1959) Round the Bend in Thirty Minutes (1959) It's a Square World (1960–1964) All Square (1966) The Golden Silents (1969–1970) Michael Bentine's Potty Time (1972) as Prof. Bentine / Voices of Pottys The Sky at Night (1977-1979, Documentary) as Himself Creek Crawling (aka Creek Crawler Extraordinary) (1980) Terry Teo (1985) as Ray Vegas The Great Bong (1993) Film Cookery Nook (1951, Short) as The Friend London Entertains (1951, Documentary) as Himself Down Among the Z Men (aka The Goon Movie) (1952) as Prof. Osrick Purehart Forces' Sweetheart (1953) as Flt-Lieut. John Robinson R.A.F. Raising a Riot (1955) as The Professor John and Julie (1955) as Paper Tearing Entertainer (uncredited) I Only Arsked! (1958) as Fred The Do-It-Yourself Cartoon Kit (1961, Short) (voice) We Joined the Navy (1962) as Psychologist (uncredited) The Sandwich Man (1966) as The Sandwich Man Bachelor of Arts (1971, Short) as Miklos Durti Rentadick (1972) as Hussein Books Nonfiction Doors of The Mind – Granada – 1984 – The Shy Person's Guide To Life – Grafton – 1984 – Open Your Mind sub-title The quest for creative thinking – Bantam Press – 1990 – Autobiographical The Long Banana Skin – New English Library – 1976 – The Door Marked Summer – Granada – 1981 – The Reluctant Jester – Bantam Press – 1992 – Fiction and humour Square Games (1966) Wolfe SBN 072340080-6 The Potty Treasure Island (1973) The Potty Khyber Pass (1974) The Best of Bentine (1984) Panther The Potty Encyclopedia (1985) Madame's Girls and other stories (1980) Smith & Son Removers – Corgi – 1981 – Lords of The Levels – Grafton – 1986 – The Condor and The Cross sub-title An Adventure Novel of the Conquistadors – Bantam Press – 1987 – Templar – Bantam Press – 1988 – With John Ennis Michael Bentine's Book of Square Holidays M. Bentine & J. Ennis (1968) Wolfe SBN 72340019-9 Fifty Years on the Streets Michael Bentine & John Ennis (1964) New English Library, A Four Square Book References Sources External links Michael Bentine biography and credits at BFI Screenonline The Spike Milligan Appreciation Society Michael Bentine @ FashionState.com The Bumblies Whirligig TV webpage English male comedians English male television actors English male radio actors English television presenters English people of Peruvian descent People educated at Eton College Royal Air Force officers People from Watford People from Folkestone Deaths from prostate cancer 1922 births 1996 deaths British people of Peruvian descent Royal Air Force personnel of World War II Commanders of the Order of the British Empire Deaths from cancer in England Male actors from Hertfordshire 20th-century English male actors 20th-century English comedians British male comedy actors The Goon Show English comedy writers

20419

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mania

Mania

Mania, also known as manic syndrome, is a mental and behavioral disorder defined as a state of abnormally elevated arousal, affect, and energy level, or "a state of heightened overall activation with enhanced affective expression together with lability of affect." During a manic episode, an individual will experience rapidly changing emotions and moods, highly influenced by surrounding stimuli. Although mania is often conceived as a "mirror image" to depression, the heightened mood can be either euphoric or dysphoric. As the mania intensifies, irritability can be more pronounced and result in anxiety or anger. The symptoms of mania include elevated mood (either euphoric or irritable), flight of ideas and pressure of speech, increased energy, decreased need and desire for sleep, and hyperactivity. They are most plainly evident in fully developed hypomanic states. However, in full-blown mania, they undergo progressively severe exacerbations and become more and more obscured by other signs and symptoms, such as delusions and fragmentation of behavior. Causes and diagnosis Mania is a syndrome with multiple causes. Although the vast majority of cases occur in the context of bipolar disorder, it is a key component of other psychiatric disorders (such as schizoaffective disorder, bipolar type) and may also occur secondary to various general medical conditions, such as multiple sclerosis; certain medications may perpetuate a manic state, for example prednisone; or substances prone to abuse, especially stimulants, such as caffeine and cocaine. In the current DSM-5, hypomanic episodes are separated from the more severe full manic episodes, which, in turn, are characterized as either mild, moderate, or severe, with certain diagnostic criteria (e.g. catatonia, psychosis). Mania is divided into three stages: hypomania, or stage I; acute mania, or stage II; and delirious mania (delirium), or stage III. This "staging" of a manic episode is useful from a descriptive and differential diagnostic point of view Mania varies in intensity, from mild mania (hypomania) to delirious mania, marked by such symptoms as disorientation, florid psychosis, incoherence, and catatonia. Standardized tools such as Altman Self-Rating Mania Scale and Young Mania Rating Scale can be used to measure severity of manic episodes. Because mania and hypomania have also long been associated with creativity and artistic talent, it is not always the case that the clearly manic/hypomanic bipolar patient needs or wants medical help; such persons often either retain sufficient self-control to function normally or are unaware that they have "gone manic" severely enough to be committed or to commit themselves. Manic persons often can be mistaken for being under the influence of drugs. Classification Mixed states In a mixed affective state, the individual, though meeting the general criteria for a hypomanic (discussed below) or manic episode, experiences three or more concurrent depressive symptoms. This has caused some speculation, among clinicians, that mania and depression, rather than constituting "true" polar opposites, are, rather, two independent axes in a unipolar—bipolar spectrum. A mixed affective state, especially with prominent manic symptoms, places the patient at a greater risk for suicide. Depression on its own is a risk factor but, when coupled with an increase in energy and goal-directed activity, the patient is far more likely to act with violence on suicidal impulses. Hypomania Hypomania, which means "less than mania", is a lowered state of mania that does little to impair function or decrease quality of life. Although creativity and hypomania have been historically linked, a review and meta-analysis exploring this relationship found that this assumption may be too general and empirical research evidence is lacking. In hypomania, there is less need for sleep and both goal-motivated behaviour and metabolism increase. Some studies exploring brain metabolism in subjects with hypomania, however, did not find any conclusive link; while there are studies that reported abnormalities, some failed to detect differences. Though the elevated mood and energy level typical of hypomania could be seen as a benefit, true mania itself generally has many undesirable consequences including suicidal tendencies, and hypomania can, if the prominent mood is irritable as opposed to euphoric, be a rather unpleasant experience. In addition, the exaggerated case of hypomania can lead to problems. For instance, trait-based positivity for a person could make them more engaging and outgoing, and cause them to have a positive outlook in life. When exaggerated in hypomania, however, such a person can display excessive optimism, grandiosity, and poor decision making, often with little regard to the consequences. Associated disorders A single manic episode, in the absence of secondary causes, (i.e., substance use disorders, pharmacologics, or general medical conditions) is often sufficient to diagnose bipolar I disorder. Hypomania may be indicative of bipolar II disorder. Manic episodes are often complicated by delusions and/or hallucinations; and if the psychotic features persist for a duration significantly longer than the episode of typical mania (two weeks or more), a diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder is more appropriate. Certain obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders as well as impulse control disorders share the suffix "-mania," namely, kleptomania, pyromania, and trichotillomania. Despite the unfortunate association implied by the name, however, no connection exists between mania or bipolar disorder and these disorders. Furthermore, evidence indicates a B12 deficiency can also cause symptoms characteristic of mania and psychosis. Hyperthyroidism can produce similar symptoms to those of mania, such as agitation, elevated mood, increased energy, hyperactivity, sleep disturbances and sometimes, especially in severe cases, psychosis. Signs and symptoms A manic episode is defined in the American Psychiatric Association's diagnostic manual as a "distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and abnormally and persistently increased activity or energy, lasting at least 1 week and present most of the day, nearly every day (or any duration, if hospitalization is necessary)," where the mood is not caused by drugs/medication or a non-mental medical illness (e.g., hyperthyroidism), and: (a) is causing obvious difficulties at work or in social relationships and activities, or (b) requires admission to hospital to protect the person or others, or (c) the person is suffering psychosis. To be classified as a manic episode, while the disturbed mood and an increase in goal-directed activity or energy is present, at least three (or four, if only irritability is present) of the following must have been consistently present: Inflated self-esteem or grandiosity. Decreased need for sleep (e.g., feels rested after 3 hours of sleep). More talkative than usual, or acts pressured to keep talking. Flights of ideas or subjective experience that thoughts are racing. Increase in goal-directed activity, or psychomotor acceleration. Distractibility (too easily drawn to unimportant or irrelevant external stimuli). Excessive involvement in activities with a high likelihood of painful consequences.(e.g., extravagant shopping, improbable commercial schemes, hypersexuality). Though the activities one participates in while in a manic state are not always negative, those with the potential to have negative outcomes are far more likely. If the person is concurrently depressed, they are said to be having a mixed episode. The World Health Organization's classification system defines a manic episode as one where mood is higher than the person's situation warrants and may vary from relaxed high spirits to barely controllable exuberance, is accompanied by hyperactivity, a compulsion to speak, a reduced sleep requirement, difficulty sustaining attention, and/or often increased distractibility. Frequently, confidence and self-esteem are excessively enlarged, and grand, extravagant ideas are expressed. Behavior that is out-of-character and risky, foolish or inappropriate may result from a loss of normal social restraint. Some people also have physical symptoms, such as sweating, pacing, and weight loss. In full-blown mania, often the manic person will feel as though their goal(s) are of paramount importance, that there are no consequences, or that negative consequences would be minimal, and that they need not exercise restraint in the pursuit of what they are after. Hypomania is different, as it may cause little or no impairment in function. The hypomanic person's connection with the external world, and its standards of interaction, remain intact, although intensity of moods is heightened. But those who suffer from prolonged unresolved hypomania do run the risk of developing full mania, and may cross that "line" without even realizing they have done so. One of the signature symptoms of mania (and to a lesser extent, hypomania) is what many have described as racing thoughts. These are usually instances in which the manic person is excessively distracted by objectively unimportant stimuli. This experience creates an absent-mindedness where the manic individual's thoughts totally preoccupy them, making them unable to keep track of time, or be aware of anything besides the flow of thoughts. Racing thoughts also interfere with the ability to fall asleep. Manic states are always relative to the normal state of intensity of the afflicted individual; thus, already irritable patients may find themselves losing their tempers even more quickly, and an academically gifted person may, during the hypomanic stage, adopt seemingly "genius" characteristics and an ability to perform and articulate at a level far beyond that which they would be capable of during euthymia. A very simple indicator of a manic state would be if a heretofore clinically depressed patient suddenly becomes inordinately energetic, enthusiastic, cheerful, aggressive, or "over-happy". Other, often less obvious, elements of mania include delusions (generally of either grandeur or persecution, according to whether the predominant mood is euphoric or irritable), hypersensitivity, hypervigilance, hypersexuality, hyper-religiosity, hyperactivity and impulsivity, a compulsion to over explain (typically accompanied by pressure of speech), grandiose schemes and ideas, and a decreased need for sleep (for example, feeling rested after only 3 or 4 hours of sleep). In the case of the latter, the eyes of such patients may both look and seem abnormally "wide open", rarely blinking, and may contribute to some clinicians’ erroneous belief that these patients are under the influence of a stimulant drug, when the patient, in fact, is either not on any mind-altering substances or is actually on a depressant drug. Individuals may also engage in out-of-character behavior during the episode, such as questionable business transactions, wasteful expenditures of money (e.g., spending sprees), risky sexual activity, abuse of recreational substances, excessive gambling, reckless behavior (such as extreme speeding or other daredevil activity), abnormal social interaction (e.g. over-familiarity and conversing with strangers), or highly vocal arguments. These behaviours may increase stress in personal relationships, lead to problems at work, and increase the risk of altercations with law enforcement. There is a high risk of impulsively taking part in activities potentially harmful to the self and others. Although "severely elevated mood" sounds somewhat desirable and enjoyable, the experience of mania is ultimately often quite unpleasant and sometimes disturbing, if not frightening, for the person involved and for those close to them, and it may lead to impulsive behaviour that may later be regretted. It can also often be complicated by the sufferer's lack of judgment and insight regarding periods of exacerbation of characteristic states. Manic patients are frequently grandiose, obsessive, impulsive, irritable, belligerent, and frequently deny anything is wrong with them. Because mania frequently encourages high energy and decreased perception of need or ability to sleep, within a few days of a manic cycle, sleep-deprived psychosis may appear, further complicating the ability to think clearly. Racing thoughts and misperceptions lead to frustration and decreased ability to communicate with others. Mania may also, as earlier mentioned, be divided into three “stages”. Stage I corresponds with hypomania and may feature typical hypomanic characteristics, such as gregariousness and euphoria. In stages II and III mania, however, the patient may be extraordinarily irritable, psychotic or even delirious. These latter two stages are referred to as acute and delirious (or Bell's), respectively. Cause Various triggers have been associated with switching from euthymic or depressed states into mania. One common trigger of mania is antidepressant therapy. Studies show that the risk of switching while on an antidepressant is between 6-69 percent. Dopaminergic drugs such as reuptake inhibitors and dopamine agonists may also increase risk of switch. Other medication possibly include glutaminergic agents and drugs that alter the HPA axis. Lifestyle triggers include irregular sleep-wake schedules and sleep deprivation, as well as extremely emotional or stressful stimuli. Various genes that have been implicated in genetic studies of bipolar have been manipulated in preclinical animal models to produce syndromes reflecting different aspects of mania. CLOCK and DBP polymorphisms have been linked to bipolar in population studies, and behavioral changes induced by knockout are reversed by lithium treatment. Metabotropic glutamate receptor 6 has been genetically linked to bipolar, and found to be under-expressed in the cortex. Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide has been associated with bipolar in gene linkage studies, and knockout in mice produces mania like-behavior. Targets of various treatments such as GSK-3, and ERK1 have also demonstrated mania like behavior in preclinical models. Mania may be associated with strokes, especially cerebral lesions in the right hemisphere. Deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in Parkinson's disease has been associated with mania, especially with electrodes placed in the ventromedial STN. A proposed mechanism involves increased excitatory input from the STN to dopaminergic nuclei. Mania can also be caused by physical trauma or illness. When the causes are physical, it is called secondary mania. Mechanism The mechanism underlying mania is unknown, but the neurocognitive profile of mania is highly consistent with dysfunction in the right prefrontal cortex, a common finding in neuroimaging studies. Various lines of evidence from post-mortem studies and the putative mechanisms of anti-manic agents point to abnormalities in GSK-3, dopamine, Protein kinase C and Inositol monophosphatase. Meta analysis of neuroimaging studies demonstrate increased thalamic activity, and bilaterally reduced inferior frontal gyrus activation. Activity in the amygdala and other subcortical structures such as the ventral striatum tend to be increased, although results are inconsistent and likely dependent upon task characteristics such as valence. Reduced functional connectivity between the ventral prefrontal cortex and amygdala along with variable findings supports a hypothesis of general dysregulation of subcortical structures by the prefrontal cortex. A bias towards positively valenced stimuli, and increased responsiveness in reward circuitry may predispose towards mania. Mania tends to be associated with right hemisphere lesions, while depression tends to be associated with left hemisphere lesions. Post-mortem examinations of bipolar disorder demonstrate increased expression of Protein Kinase C (PKC). While limited, some studies demonstrate manipulation of PKC in animals produces behavioral changes mirroring mania, and treatment with PKC inhibitor tamoxifen (also an anti-estrogen drug) demonstrates antimanic effects. Traditional antimanic drugs also demonstrate PKC inhibiting properties, among other effects such as GSK3 inhibition. Manic episodes may be triggered by dopamine receptor agonists, and this combined with tentative reports of increased VMAT2 activity, measured via PET scans of radioligand binding, suggests a role of dopamine in mania. Decreased cerebrospinal fluid levels of the serotonin metabolite 5-HIAA have been found in manic patients too, which may be explained by a failure of serotonergic regulation and dopaminergic hyperactivity. Limited evidence suggests that mania is associated with behavioral reward hypersensitivity, as well as with neural reward hypersensitivity. Electrophysiological evidence supporting this comes from studies associating left frontal EEG activity with mania. As left frontal EEG activity is generally thought to be a reflection of behavioral activation system activity, this is thought to support a role for reward hypersensitivity in mania. Tentative evidence also comes from one study that reported an association between manic traits and feedback negativity during receipt of monetary reward or loss. Neuroimaging evidence during acute mania is sparse, but one study reported elevated orbitofrontal cortex activity to monetary reward, and another study reported elevated striatal activity to reward omission. The latter finding was interpreted in the context of either elevated baseline activity (resulting in a null finding of reward hypersensitivity), or reduced ability to discriminate between reward and punishment, still supporting reward hyperactivity in mania. Punishment hyposensitivity, as reflected in a number of neuroimaging studies as reduced lateral orbitofrontal response to punishment, has been proposed as a mechanism of reward hypersensitivity in mania. Diagnosis In the ICD-10 there are several disorders with the manic syndrome: organic manic disorder (), mania without psychotic symptoms (), mania with psychotic symptoms (), other manic episodes (), unspecified manic episode (), manic type of schizoaffective disorder (), bipolar affective disorder, current episode manic without psychotic symptoms (), bipolar affective disorder, current episode manic with psychotic symptoms (). Treatment Before beginning treatment for mania, careful differential diagnosis must be performed to rule out secondary causes. The acute treatment of a manic episode of bipolar disorder involves the utilization of either a mood stabilizer (Carbamazepine, valproate, lithium, or lamotrigine) or an atypical antipsychotic (olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone, or aripiprazole). The use of antipsychotic agents in the treatment of acute mania was reviewed by Tohen and Vieta in 2009. When the manic behaviours have gone, long-term treatment then focuses on prophylactic treatment to try to stabilize the patient's mood, typically through a combination of pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy. The likelihood of having a relapse is very high for those who have experienced two or more episodes of mania or depression. While medication for bipolar disorder is important to manage symptoms of mania and depression, studies show relying on medications alone is not the most effective method of treatment. Medication is most effective when used in combination with other bipolar disorder treatments, including psychotherapy, self-help coping strategies, and healthy lifestyle choices. Lithium is the classic mood stabilizer to prevent further manic and depressive episodes. A systematic review found that long term lithium treatment substantially reduces the risk of bipolar manic relapse, by 42%. Anticonvulsants such as valproate, oxcarbazepine and carbamazepine are also used for prophylaxis. More recent drug solutions include lamotrigine and topiramate, both anticonvulsants as well. In some cases, long-acting benzodiazepines, particularly clonazepam, are used after other options are exhausted. In more urgent circumstances, such as in emergency rooms, lorazepam, combined with haloperidol, is used to promptly alleviate symptoms of agitation, aggression, and psychosis. Antidepressant monotherapy is not recommended for the treatment of depression in patients with bipolar disorders I or II, and no benefit has been demonstrated by combining antidepressants with mood stabilizers in these patients. Some atypical antidepressants, however, such as mirtazepine and trazodone have been occasionally used after other options have failed. Society and culture In Electroboy: A Memoir of Mania by Andy Behrman, he describes his experience of mania as "the most perfect prescription glasses with which to see the world... life appears in front of you like an oversized movie screen". Behrman indicates early in his memoir that he sees himself not as a person suffering from an uncontrollable disabling illness, but as a director of the movie that is his vivid and emotionally alive life. There is some evidence that people in the creative industries suffer from bipolar disorder more often than those in other occupations. Winston Churchill had periods of manic symptoms that may have been both an asset and a liability. English actor Stephen Fry, who suffers from bipolar disorder, recounts manic behaviour during his adolescence: "When I was about 17 ... going around London on two stolen credit cards, it was a sort of fantastic reinvention of myself, an attempt to. I bought ridiculous suits with stiff collars and silk ties from the 1920s, and would go to the Savoy and Ritz and drink cocktails." While he has experienced suicidal thoughts, he says the manic side of his condition has had positive contributions on his life. Etymology The nosology of the various stages of a manic episode has changed over the decades. The word derives from the Ancient Greek μανία (manía), "madness, frenzy" and the verb μαίνομαι (maínomai), "to be mad, to rage, to be furious". See also Abnormal psychology Adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Bipolar disorder Cyclothymia Hyperthymia Hypomania People with bipolar disorder International Society for Bipolar Disorders Major depressive disorder Young Mania Rating Scale References Further reading Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2001 December;2(12):1963–73. Schizoaffective Disorder. 2007 September Mayo Clinic. Retrieved October 1, 2007. Schizoaffective Disorder. 2004 May. All Psych Online: Virtual Psychology Classroom. Retrieved October 2, 2007. Psychotic Disorders. 2004 May. All Psych Online: Virtual Psychology Classroom. Retrieved October 2, 2007. External links Bipolar Mania Symptoms Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance Bipolar disorder Mood disorders

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimedia

Multimedia

Multimedia is a form of communication that combines different content forms such as text, audio, images, animations, or video into a single interactive presentation, in contrast to traditional mass media which featured little to no interaction from users, such as printed material or audio recordings. Popular examples of multimedia include video podcasts, audio slideshows and Animated videos. Multimedia can be recorded for playback on computers, laptops, smartphones, and other electronic devices, either on demand or in real time (streaming). In the early years of multimedia, the term "rich media" was synonymous with interactive multimedia. Over time, hypermedia extensions brought multimedia to the World Wide Web. Terminology The term multimedia was coined by singer and artist Bob Goldstein (later 'Bobb Goldsteinn') to promote the July 1966 opening of his "Lightworks at L'Oursin" show in Southampton, Long Island. Goldstein was perhaps aware of an American artist named Dick Higgins, who had two years previously discussed a new approach to art-making he called "intermedia". While the term didn't exist yet, the idea of multimedia could be taken back to when the 19th century composer Richard Wagner believed in the concept of Gesamtkunstwerk, meaning 'total artwork'. Wagner strived to combine multiple art forms- opera, drama, music - to create a perfect synthesis on stage. He looked down on the Grand Opera at the time, which emphasized individual talent, rather than the complete work as a whole. By combining these art forms, Wagner believed the most profound art could be made. On August 10, 1966, Richard Albarino of Variety borrowed the terminology, reporting: "Brainchild of song scribe-comic Bob ('Washington Square') Goldstein, the 'Lightworks' is the latest multi-media music-cum-visuals to debut as discothèque fare." Two years later, in 1968, the term "multimedia" was re-appropriated to describe the work of a political consultant, David Sawyer, the husband of Iris Sawyer—one of Goldstein's producers at L'Oursin. In the intervening forty years, the word has taken on different meanings. In the late 1970s, the term referred to presentations consisting of multi-projector slide shows timed to an audio track. However, by the 1990s 'multimedia' took on its current meaning. In the 1993 first edition of Multimedia: Making It Work, Tay Vaughan declared "Multimedia is any combination of text, graphic art, sound, animation, and video that is delivered by computer. When you allow the user – the viewer of the project – to control what and when these elements are delivered, it is interactive multimedia. When you provide a structure of linked elements through which the user can navigate, interactive multimedia becomes hypermedia." The German language society Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache recognized the word's significance and ubiquitousness in the 1990s by awarding it the title of German 'Word of the Year' in 1995. The institute summed up its rationale by stating "[Multimedia] has become a central word in the wonderful new media world". In common usage, multimedia refers to an electronically delivered combination of media including video, still images, audio, and text in such a way that can be accessed interactively. Much of the content on the web today falls within this definition as understood by millions. Some computers which were marketed in the 1990s were called "multimedia" computers because they incorporated a CD-ROM drive, which allowed for the delivery of several hundred megabytes of video, picture, and audio data. That era saw also a boost in the production of educational multimedia CD-ROMs. A standard CD-ROM can hold on average 700 megabytes of data, while the maximum size a 3.5 inch floppy disk can hold is 2.8 megabytes, with an average of 1.44 megabytes. The term "video", if not used exclusively to describe motion photography, is ambiguous in multimedia terminology. Video is often used to describe the file format, delivery format, or presentation format instead of "footage" which is used to distinguish motion photography from "animation" of rendered motion imagery. Multiple forms of information content are often not considered modern forms of presentation such as audio or video. Likewise, single forms of information content with single methods of information processing (e.g. non-interactive audio) are often called multimedia, perhaps to distinguish static media from active media. In the fine arts, for example, Leda Luss Luyken's ModulArt brings two key elements of musical composition and film into the world of painting: variation of a theme and movement of and within a picture, making ModulArt an interactive multimedia form of art. Performing arts may also be considered multimedia considering that performers and props are multiple forms of both content and media. In modern times, a multimedia device can be referred to an electronic device, such as a smartphone, a videogame system, or a computer, for example. Each and everyone of these devices have a main function, but also have other uses beyond their intended purpose, such as reading, writing, recording video, streaming listening to music, and playing video games. This has lend them to be called "multimedia devices". While previous media was always local, many are now handled through web based solutions, particularly streaming. Major characteristics Multimedia presentations may be viewed by person on stage, projected, transmitted, or played locally with a media player. A broadcast may be a live or recorded multimedia presentation. Broadcasts and recordings can be either analog or digital electronic media technology. Digital online multimedia may be downloaded or streamed. Streaming multimedia may be live or on-demand. Multimedia games and simulations may be used in a physical environment with special effects, with multiple users in an online network, or locally with an offline computer, game system, or simulator. The various formats of technological or digital multimedia may be intended to enhance the users' experience, for example to make it easier and faster to convey information. Or in entertainment or art, combine an array of artistic insights that includes elements from different art forms to engage, inspire, or captivate an audience. Enhanced levels of interactivity are made possible by combining multiple forms of media content. Online multimedia is increasingly becoming object-oriented and data-driven, enabling applications with collaborative end-user innovation and personalization on multiple forms of content over time. Examples of these range from multiple forms of content on Web sites like photo galleries with both images (pictures) and title (text) user-updated, to simulations whose co-efficients, events, illustrations, animations or videos are modifiable, allowing the multimedia "experience" to be altered without reprogramming. In addition to seeing and hearing, haptic technology enables virtual objects to be felt. Emerging technology involving illusions of taste and smell may also enhance the multimedia experience. Categorization Multimedia may be broadly divided into linear and non-linear categories: Linear active content progresses often without any navigational control, only focusing on the user to watch the entire piece by involving higher levels of emotional and sensory stimulation based on what's being shown as a cinema presentation; Non-linear uses interactivity to control progress as with a video game or self-paced computer-based training so that the actions made will be based on how the user interacts within the simulated world. Hypermedia is an example of non-linear content. Multimedia presentations can be live or recorded: A recorded presentation may allow interactivity via a navigation system; A live multimedia presentation may allow interactivity via an interaction with the presenter or performer. Usage/application Multimedia finds its application in various areas including, but not limited to, advertisements, art, education, entertainment, engineering, medicine, mathematics, business, scientific research and spatial temporal applications. Several examples are as follows: Creative industries Creative industries use multimedia for a variety of purposes ranging from fine arts, to entertainment, to commercial art, to journalism, to media and software services provided for any of the industries listed below. An individual multimedia designer may cover the spectrum throughout their career. Request for their skills range from technical, to analytical, to creative. Commercial uses Much of the electronic old and new media used by production companies and graphic designers is multimedia. Advertising companies rely heavily on social interfaces and television to promote products. Using these platforms, they are able to express their message or persuade a targeted audience. Business to business and interoffice communications are often developed by creative services firms for advanced multimedia presentations beyond simple slide shows to sell ideas or liven up training. Commercial multimedia developers may be hired to design for governmental services and nonprofit services applications as well. In addition, the prominence of data mining within multimedia platforms in order to adjust marketing techniques based on the data they mine is a crucial and notable practice of commercial advertisement to efficiently understand the demographic of a target audience. Entertainment and fine arts Multimedia is heavily used in the entertainment industry, especially to develop special effects in movies and animations (VFX, 3D animation, etc.). Multimedia games are a popular pastime and are software programs available either as CD-ROMs or online. Video games class as multimedia, as such games meld animation, audio, and, most importantly, interactivity, to allow the player an immersive experience. While video games can vary in terms of animation style or audio type or even lack thereof, the element of interactivity makes them a striking example of interactive multimedia. Interactive multimedia defines multimedia applications that allow users to actively participate instead of just sitting by as passive recipients of information. In the arts there are multimedia artists, whose minds are able to blend techniques using different media that in some way incorporates interaction with the viewer. Another approach entails the creation of multimedia that can be displayed in a traditional fine arts arena, such as an art gallery. Although multimedia display material may be volatile, the survivability of the content is as strong as any traditional media. Digital recording material may be just as durable and infinitely reproducible with perfect copies every time. Education In education, multimedia is used to produce computer-based training courses (popularly called CBTs) and reference books like encyclopedia and almanacs. A CBT lets the user go through a series of presentations, text about a particular topic, and associated illustrations in various information formats. Learning theory in the past decade has expanded dramatically because of the introduction of multimedia. Several lines of research have evolved, e.g. cognitive load and multimedia learning. From multimedia learning (MML) theory, David Roberts has developed a large group lecture practice using PowerPoint and based on the use of full-slide images in conjunction with a reduction of visible text (all text can be placed in the notes view’ section of PowerPoint). The method has been applied and evaluated in 9 disciplines. In each experiment, students’ engagement and active learning have been approximately 66% greater, than with the same material being delivered using bullet points, text, and speech, corroborating a range of theories presented by multimedia learning scholars like Sweller and Mayer. The idea of media convergence is also becoming a major factor in education, particularly higher education. Defined as separate technologies such as voice (and telephony features), data (and productivity applications), and video that now share resources and interact with each other, media convergence is rapidly changing the curriculum in universities all over the world. Higher education has been implementing the use of social media applications such as Twitter, YouTube, Facebook, etc. to increase student collaboration and develop new processes in how information can be conveyed to students. Educational technology Multimedia provides students with an alternate means of acquiring knowledge designed to enhance teaching and learning through various mediums and platforms. In the 1960s, technology began to expand into the classrooms through devices such as screens and telewriters. This technology allows students to learn at their own pace and gives teachers the ability to observe the individual needs of each student. The capacity for multimedia to be used in multi-disciplinary settings is structured around the idea of creating a hands-on learning environment through the use of technology. Lessons can be tailored to the subject matter as well as be personalized to the students' varying levels of knowledge on the topic. Learning content can be managed through activities that utilize and take advantage of multimedia platforms. This kind of usage of modern multimedia encourages interactive communication between students and teachers and opens feedback channels, introducing an active learning process especially with the prevalence of new media and social media. Technology has impacted multimedia as it is largely associated with the use of computers or other electronic devices and digital media due to its capabilities concerning research, communication, problem-solving through simulations and feedback opportunities. The innovation of technology in education through the use of multimedia allows for diversification among classrooms to enhance the overall learning experience for students. Social work Multimedia is a robust education methodology within the social work context. The five different multimedia which supports the education process are narrative media, interactive media, communicative media, adaptive media, and productive media. Contrary to long-standing belief, multimedia technology in social work education existed before the prevalence of the internet. It takes the form of images, audio, and video into the curriculum. First introduced to social work education by Seabury & Maple in 1993, multimedia technology is utilized to teach social work practice skills including interviewing, crisis intervention, and group work. In comparison with conventional teaching method, including face-to-face courses, multimedia education shortens transportation time, increases knowledge and confidence in a richer and more authentic context for learning, generates interaction between online users, and enhances understanding of conceptual materials for novice students. In an attempt to examine the impact of multimedia technology on students’ study, A. Elizabeth Cauble & Linda P. Thurston conducted a research in which Building Family Foundations (BFF), an interactive multimedia training platform, was utilized to assess social work students’ reactions to multimedia technology on variables of knowledge, attitudes, and self-efficacy. The results states that respondents show a substantial increase in academic knowledge, confidence, and attitude. Multimedia also benefits students because it brings expert to students online, fits students’ schedule, allows students to choose courses that suit them. Mayer's Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning suggests, "people learn more from words and pictures than from words alone." According to Mayer and other scholars, multimedia technology stimulates people's brains by implementing visual and auditory effects, and thereby assists online users to learn efficiently. Researchers suggest that when users establish dual channels while learning, they tend to understand and memorize better. Mixed literature of this theory are still present in the field of multimedia and social work. Language communication With the spread and development of the English language around the world, multimedia has become an important way of communicating between different people and cultures. Multimedia Technology creates a platform where language can be taught. The traditional form of teaching English as a Second Language (ESL) in classrooms have drastically changed with the prevalence of technology, making easier for students to obtain language learning skills. Multimedia motivates students to learn more languages through audio, visual and animation support. It also helps create English contexts since an important aspect of learning a language is developing their grammar, vocabulary and knowledge of pragmatics and genres. In addition, cultural connections in terms of forms, contexts, meanings and ideologies have to be constructed. By improving thought patterns, multimedia develops students’ communicative competence by improving their capacity to understand the language. One of the studies, carried out by Izquierdo, Simard and Pulido, presented the correlation between "Multimedia Instruction (MI) and learners’ second language (L2)" and its effects on learning behavior. Their findings based on Gardner’s theory of the "socio-educational model of learner motivation and attitudes", the study shows that there is easier access to language learning materials as well as increased motivation with MI along with the use of Computer-Assisted Language Learning. Journalism Newspaper companies all over are trying to embrace the new phenomenon by implementing its practices in their work. While some have been slow to come around, other major newspapers like The New York Times, USA Today and The Washington Post are setting the precedent for the positioning of the newspaper industry in a globalized world. To keep up with the changing world of multimedia, journalistic practices are adopting and utilizing different functions of multimedia through the inclusions of visuals such as varying audio, video, text, etc. in their writings. News reporting is not limited to traditional media outlets. Freelance journalists can make use of different new media to produce multimedia pieces for their news stories. It engages global audiences and tells stories with technology, which develops new communication techniques for both media producers and consumers. The Common Language Project, later renamed to The Seattle Globalist, is an example of this type of multimedia journalism production. Multimedia reporters who are mobile (usually driving around a community with cameras, audio and video recorders, and laptop computers) are often referred to as mojos, from mobile journalist. Engineering Software engineers may use multimedia in computer simulations for anything from entertainment to training such as military or industrial training. Multimedia for software interfaces are often done as a collaboration between creative professionals and software engineers. Multimedia helps expand the teaching practices that can be found in engineering to allow for more innovated methods to not only educated future engineers, but to help evolve the scope of understanding of where multimedia can be used in specialized engineer careers like software engineers. Multimedia is also allowing major car manufactures, such as Ford, and General Motors, to expand the design, and safety standards of their cars. By using a game engine and VR glasses, these companies are able to test the safety features, and the design of the car, before a prototype is even made. Building a car virtually reduces the time it takes to produce new vehicles, cutting down on the time needed to test designs, and allowing the designers to make changes in real time. It also reduces expenses, since with a virtual car making real world prototypes is no longer needed. Mathematical and scientific research In mathematical and scientific research, multimedia is mainly used for modeling and simulation. For example, a scientist can look at a molecular model of a particular substance and manipulate it to arrive at a new substance. Representative research can be found in journals such as the Journal of Multimedia. One well known example of this being applied would be in the movie Interstellar where Executive Director Kip Thorne helped create one of the most realistic depictions of a blackhole in film. The visual effects team under Paul Franklin took Kip Thorne's mathematical data and applied it into their own visual effects engine called "Double Negative Gravitational Renderer (DNGR)" a.k.a "Gargantua", to create a "real" blackhole, used in the final cut. Later on the visual effects team went onto publish a blackhole study Medicine Medical professionals and students have a wide variety of ways to learn new techniques and procedures through interactive media and online courses and lectures. The methods of conveying information to students have drastically evolved with the help of multimedia. From the 1800s to today, lessons are commonly taught using chalkboards. Projected aids, such as the epidiascope and slide projectors, were introduced into the classrooms around the 1960s. With the growing use of computers, the medical field has begun to incorporate new devices and procedures to assist in teaching students, performing procedures, and analyzing patient data. As well as providing that data in a meaningful way to the patients. Virtual reality Virtual reality is a platform for multimedia in which it merges all categories of multimedia into one virtual environment. It has gained much more attention over recent years following technological advancements and is becoming much more commonly used nowadays for various uses like virtual showrooms and video games. Virtual reality was first introduced in 1957 by cinematographer Morton Heilig in the form of an arcade-style booth called Sensorama. The first virtual reality headset was created by American computer scientist Ivan Sutherland and Bob Sproull, his student, in 1968. Virtual reality is used for educational and also recreational purposes like watching movies, interactive video games, simulations etc. Ford Motor Company uses this technology to show customers the interior and exterior of their cars via their Immersion Lab. In Pima County, Arizona their police force is trained by using Virtual Reality to create scenarios for police to practice in. Many video game platforms now support VR technology, including Sony's PlayStation, Nintendo's Switch as part of their Labo project, as well as the Oculus VR headsets that can be used for Xbox and PC gaming, with it being more preferable to pair with a PC due to it only being compatible with the original Xbox One and providing limited capabilities. Augmented reality Augmented Reality has only really widely become popular in the 21st century however some of the earlier versions of such were things like the Sega Genesis Activator Controller back in 1992 which allowed users to literally stand in an octagon and control in game movement with physical movement or to stretch back even further the R.O.B. NES Robot back in 1984 which with its array of accessories was able to also provide users with the sensation of holding a firearm. These multimedia input devices are among some of the earliest of the augmented reality devices by allowing users to input commands to facilitate a different user experience. While virtual reality (VR) strives to be a totally immersive multimedia experience, completely replacing reality with a digital simulation, augmented reality (AR) limits itself to overlaying digital output or content onto the real world. AR can be defined as "an enhanced version of reality created by the use of technology to overlay digital information on an image of something being viewed through a device (such as a smartphone camera)". AR systems can be used for tasks such as overlaying speed, altitude and heading information on an aircraft Heads-Up Display (HUD), or projecting images or animations into a real-life scene, such as in the game Pokémon Go. Sony uses AR technology in their PlayStation 5 controllers with their haptic feedback feature to give users a greater sense of immersion while playing video games. For example, while users are playing Call of Duty and want to shoot their gun at the enemy, the triggers on the controller will provide tension to the player that will make it feel like they are actually pulling the trigger on a gun. The game Astro's Playroom that comes with a PlayStation 5 console showcases the different ways a game can make players feel more immersed and the depth and potential that the haptic feedback feature has for the future of gaming. Associations and conferences In Europe, the reference organisation for the multimedia industry is the European Multimedia Associations Convention (EMMAC). Scholarly conferences about multimedia include: ACM Multimedia IEEE International Conference on Multimedia & Expo (ICME) See also Artmedia Multi-image Multimedia Messaging Service Multimedia search New media art Non-linear media Postliterate society Transmedia storytelling Social media Universal multimedia access Video Game Web documentary References External links History of Multimedia from the University of Calgary Multimedia in Answers.com Communication design Design Film and video terminology Film production 1960s neologisms

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max%20Headroom%20%28TV%20series%29

Max Headroom (TV series)

Max Headroom is an American satirical science fiction television series by Chrysalis Visual Programming and Lakeside Productions for Lorimar-Telepictures that aired in the United States on ABC from March 31, 1987, to May 5, 1988. The series is set in a futuristic dystopia ruled by an oligarchy of television networks, and features the character and media personality Max Headroom. The story is based on the Channel 4 British TV film produced by Chrysalis, Max Headroom: 20 Minutes into the Future. Plot In the future, an oligarchy of television networks rules the world. Even the government functions primarily as a puppet of the network executives, serving mainly to pass laws — such as banning "off" switches on televisions — that protect and consolidate the networks' power. Television technology has advanced to the point that viewers' physical movements and thoughts can be monitored through their television sets. Almost all non-television technology has been discontinued or destroyed. The only real check on the power of the networks is Edison Carter, a crusading investigative journalist who regularly exposes the unethical practices of his own employer, and the team of allies both inside and outside the system who assist him in getting his reports to air and protecting him from the forces that wish to silence or kill him. Characters Edison Carter Edison Carter (Matt Frewer) is a hard-hitting reporter for Network 23, who sometimes uncovered things that his superiors in the network would have preferred be kept private. Eventually, one of these instances required him to flee his workspace, upon which he was injured in a motorcycle accident in a parking lot. The series depicted very little of the past described by Edison. He met a female televangelist (whom he had dated in college) when his reporting put him at odds with the Vu Age Church that she now headed. Edison was sent on a near-rampage to avenge a former colleague, who died as a result of a story on dream-harvesting. Edison cares about his co-workers, especially Theora Jones and Bryce Lynch, and he has a deep respect for his producer, Murray (although he rarely shows it). Max Headroom (Frewer) is a computer reconstruction of Carter, created after Bryce Lynch uploaded a copy of his mind. He appears as a computer-rendered bust of Carter superimposed on a wire-frame background. Since Carter's last sight before the motorcycle crash was the sign "Max. headroom" on a parking garage gate, these were the reconstruction's first words and ultimately his name. While Carter is a dedicated professional, Max is a wisecracking observer of human contradictions. Despite being the titular character, Max sparsely appeared on the show. While he occasionally played a significant part in a plot — sometimes by traveling through networks to gain information or by revealing secrets about Carter that Carter himself would not divulge — his most frequent role was as comic relief, delivering brief quips in reaction to certain events or giving a humorous soliloquy at the end of an episode. Theora Jones first appeared in the British-made television pilot film for the series. She was Network 23's star controller ("stolen" from the World One Network by Murray) and, working with Edison, the network's star reporter, she often helped save the day for everyone. She was also a potential love interest for Edison, but that subplot was not explored fully on the show before it was cancelled. Network 23's personnel files list her father as unknown, her mother as deceased, and her brother as Shawn Jones; Shawn is the focus on the second episode broadcast, "Rakers". Theora Jones was played by Amanda Pays, who along with Matt Frewer and W. Morgan Sheppard, was one of only three cast members to also appear in the American-made series that followed. Cheviot (George Coe), was one of the executives on Network 23's board of directors. He later becomes the board's new chairman after Ned Grossberg is fired in the wake of the Blipvert incident. He is mostly ethical and almost invariably backs Edison Carter, occasionally against the wishes of the Network 23 board of directors. However, he has compromised himself on a few occasions when he felt the ratings for the Network would rise using methods that were questionable such as allowing the network to copyright the exclusive news of a terrorist organization, and mixing sex and politics. He once had an affair with board member Julia Fornby, though by the start of the show they had ended it long ago. Cheviot, while usually rolling over for his greatest client, did not do so when they attempted to supplant television networks themselves. Bryce Lynch (Chris Young), a child prodigy and computer hacker, is Network 23's one-man technology research department. In the stereotypical hacker ethos, Bryce has few principles and fewer loyalties. He seems to accept any task, even morally questionable ones, as long as he is allowed to have the freedom to play with technology however he sees fit. This, in turn, makes him a greater asset to the technological needs and demands of the network, and the whims of its executives and stars. However, he also generally does not hurt or infringe on others, making him a rare neutral character in the Max Headroom universe. In the pilot episode of the series, Bryce is enlisted by evil network CEO Ned Grossberg (Charles Rocket) to investigate the mental patterns of unconscious reporter Edison Carter, to determine whether or not Carter has discovered the secrets of the "Blipverts" scandal. Bryce uploads the contents of Carter's memory into the Network 23 computer system, creating Max Headroom. It had been Bryce, following orders from Grossberg, who fought a hacking battle of sorts with Theora Jones that led to Edison hitting his head on a traffic barrier and falling unconscious. After the first episode, Bryce is generally recruited by Carter and his controller, Theora Jones, to provide technical aid to their investigative reporting efforts. Murray (Jeffrey Tambor), Carter's serious and high-strung producer, whose job often becomes a balancing act between supporting Carter's stories and pleasing Network 23's executives. In his younger years he was also a field reporter and may have had some experience with the systems of a controller, though the system in his younger years had changed since and would not be reliable to replace one. When creating the "What I Want To Know Show" it was a toss-up between Eddison Carter and another reporter and Murray "Choose The Best" a decision that would have future repercussions. Murray is divorced and sees his kids on weekends. Reg (W. Morgan Sheppard) is a "blank", a person not indexed in the government's database. He broadcasts the underground Big Time Television Network from his bus. He is a good friend of Edison Carter, and saves him on more than one occasion. With colleague/lover Dominique, he operates and is the onscreen voice of Big Time television, "All day every day, making tomorrow seem like yesterday." He dresses in a punk style and has a Mohawk haircut. He has an energetic personality and a strong nostalgic streak, defending antiquated music videos and printed books in equal measure. Ned Grossberg is a recurring villain on the series, played by former Saturday Night Live cast member Charles Rocket. In the pilot episode, Grossberg is the chairman of Network 23, a major city television station with the highest-rated investigative-news show in town, hosted by Edison Carter. In the Max Headroom world, real-time ratings equal advertising dollars, and advertisements have replaced stocks as the measure of corporate worth. Grossberg, with his secret prodigy Bryce Lynch, develops a high-speed advertising delivery method known as Blipverts, which condenses full advertisements into a few seconds. When Carter discovers that Blipverts are killing people, Grossberg orders Lynch to prevent Carter from getting out of the building. Knocked unconscious, Carter's memories are extracted into a computer by Lynch in order to determine whether Carter uncovered Grossberg's knowledge of the danger of Blipverts. The resulting computer file of the memory-extraction process becomes Max Headroom, making Grossberg directly responsible for the creation of the character. In the end, Grossberg is publicly exposed as responsible for the Blipverts scandal, and is removed as chairman of Network 23. A few episodes later, in "Grossberg's Return", Grossberg reappears as a board member of Network 66. Again, he invents a dubious advertising medium and convinces the chairman of the network to adopt it. When the advertising method is shown to be a complete fraud, the resulting public reaction against the network leads to the chairman being removed, and Grossberg manages to assume the chairmanship. When under stress, Grossberg exhibits a tic of slightly stretching his neck in his suit's collar, first seen in episode 1 when he confronts Lynch in his lab regarding Max retaining Carter's memory about the blipverts. In the UK telefilm Max Headroom: 20 Minutes Into the Future upon which the American series was based, the character was called Grossman and was played by Nickolas Grace. Rocket portrayed Grossberg as an American yuppie with a characteristic facial and neck-stretching twitch. Other characters Dominique (Concetta Tomei), co-proprietor of Big Time TV along with Blank Reg, managing the business aspects of running the station. It is implied that she and Reg are romantically involved, if not husband and wife. Although Dominique may not be a blank like Reg, as she possesses credit tubes, she behaves culturally as one. Breughel (Jere Burns), an intelligent, sociopathic criminal-for-hire who, along with Mahler, makes money disposing of corpses for other criminals by selling them to body banks around the city. However, he is not above selling out his employers if it means a big payoff, a fact which Edison Carter takes advantage of on several occasions while working on stories. Mahler (Rick Ducommun), Breughel's accomplice, who serves primarily as the muscle of the duo's body-harvesting operation. In "Dream Thieves", it is revealed that Breughel killed Mahler and sold off his body during a slow night of business, and replaced him with a new man whom he nicknamed "Mahler" as a mocking tribute. Rik (J.W. Smith), a streetwise pedicab driver whom Edison Carter frequently employs when looking for information about the city's underworld. Blank Bruno (Peter Crook), Bryce's mentor, who is a revolutionary Blank who works to make life better for the city's Blank population by any means short of murder. He has a pet toad, which he calls "Gob". Blank Traker (Brian Brophy, Season 1 / Michael Preston, Season 2), one of Bruno's fellow revolutionaries. Martinez (Ricardo Gutierrez), one of Network 23's helicopter pilots, he often works with Carter when he is out on assignment. Janie Crane (Lisa Niemi), one of Network 23's second-tier reporters, who ends up breaking a few important stories of her own throughout the series. Angie Barry (Rosalind Chao), one of Network 23's second-tier reporters. She often fills-in for Carter when he is indisposed. Joel Dung Po (Rob Narita), one of Network 23's second-tier reporters. Julia Formby (Virginia Kiser), one of Network 23's board members. In "Body Banks", it is revealed that she once had an affair with Cheviot, for which she is blackmailed by a wealthy member of the Plantagenet family into stealing Max Headroom from Network 23 in the hope that Max's program might be used to preserve the mind of his mother. Gene Ashwell (Hank Garrett), one of Network 23's board members, who frequently panics when the network faces a crisis. It is revealed in "Deities" that he is a member of the Vu-Age Church, and is responsible for kidnapping Max on behalf of the church's leader. Ms. Lauren (Sharon Barr), one of Network 23's board members. Replaced Formby on the board after Formby grew weary of "handling things at night". Mr. Edwards (Lee Wilkof), one of Network 23's board members. He has a groveling disposition, and regards ratings as more important than life itself. Once cried at the thought of no one watching the network, and compared the potential end of network television to the end of the world. Simon Peller (Sherman Howard), a corrupt politician who receives financial backing from Network 23. He shares a mutual animosity with Carter, who despises Peller's underhanded political tactics. Mr. Bartlett (Andreas Katsulas), one of the board members of Network 66. An incautious risk-taker, he frequently becomes directly involved in the network's shady projects, going behind even Ned Grossberg's back on occasion. Chubb Shaw (James F. Dean), one of the board members of Network 66. Dragul (John Durbin), a Network censor who hates Blanks. Ped Xing (Arsenio Trinidad, Season 1 / Sab Shimono, Season 2), the head of the Zik-Zak corporation, Network 23's primary sponsor. Stew, Blipvert Victim (Brian Healy), a viewer whose head explodes from watching blipverts, impelling Edison Carter to investigate Network 23. Development The series was based on the Channel 4 British TV film produced by Chrysalis, Max Headroom: 20 Minutes into the Future. Cinemax aired the UK pilot followed by a six-week run of highlights from The Max Headroom Show, a UK music video show where Headroom appears between music videos. ABC took an interest in the pilot and asked Chrysalis/Lakeside to produce the series for American audiences. Max Headroom: 20 Minutes into the Future was re-shot as a pilot program for a new series broadcast by the U.S. ABC television network. The pilot featured plot changes and some minor visual touches, but retained the same basic storyline. The only original cast retained for the series were Matt Frewer (Max Headroom/Edison Carter) and Amanda Pays (Theora Jones); a third original cast member, W. Morgan Sheppard, joined the series as "Blank Reg" in later episodes. Among the non-original cast, Jeffrey Tambor co-starred as "Murray", Edison Carter's neurotic producer. The show went into production in late 1986 and ran for six episodes in the first season and eight in the second. Episode listing Season 1: 1987 Season 2: 1987–88 Notes Although unaired as part of the original U.S run, "Baby Grobags" was shown as part of the Australian series run. At least one unproduced script, "Theora's Tale", has surfaced, as have the titles of two other stories ("The Trial" and "Xmas"). Currently, little is known of "The Trial" aside from its title; George R. R. Martin wrote "Xmas", in pre-production at cancellation time; "Theora's Tale" would have featured the "Video Freedom Alliance" kidnapping Theora, and war in Antarctica, between rival advertisers Zik Zak and Zlin. Reception The series began as a mid-season replacement in spring of 1987, and did well enough to be renewed for the fall television season, but the viewer ratings could not be sustained in direct competition with CBS's Top 20 hit Dallas (also produced by Lorimar) and NBC's Top 30 hit Miami Vice. Max Headroom was canceled part-way into its second season. The entire series, along with two previously unbroadcast episodes, was rerun in spring 1988 during the Writers Guild of America strike. In the late 1990s, U.S. cable TV channels Bravo and the Sci-Fi Channel re-ran the series. Reruns also briefly appeared on TechTV in 2001. A cinema spin-off titled Max Headroom for President was announced with production intended to start in early 1988 in order to capitalize on the 1988 United States presidential election, but it was never made. Max Headroom has been called "the first cyberpunk television series", with "deep roots in the Western philosophical tradition". DVD release Shout! Factory (under license from Warner Bros. Home Entertainment) released Max Headroom: The Complete Series on DVD in the United States and Canada on August 10, 2010. The bonus features includes a round-table discussion with most of the major cast members (other than Matt Frewer), and interviews with the writers and producers. See also The Max Headroom Show Max Headroom signal hijacking References Further reading External links The Max Headroom Chronicles—fan site 1980s American science fiction television series 1987 American television series debuts 1988 American television series endings American Broadcasting Company original programming American science fiction television series Cyberpunk television series English-language television shows Max Headroom Television series about journalism Television series about television Television series by Lorimar Television Television series set in the future Transhumanism in fiction Transhumanism in television series Television shows set in Los Angeles Television series by Lorimar-Telepictures

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria

Malaria

Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other animals. Malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, tiredness, vomiting, and headaches. In severe cases, it can cause jaundice, seizures, coma, or death. Symptoms usually begin ten to fifteen days after being bitten by an infected mosquito. If not properly treated, people may have recurrences of the disease months later. In those who have recently survived an infection, reinfection usually causes milder symptoms. This partial resistance disappears over months to years if the person has no continuing exposure to malaria. Malaria is caused by single-celled microorganisms of the Plasmodium group. It is spread exclusively through bites of infected Anopheles mosquitoes. The mosquito bite introduces the parasites from the mosquito's saliva into a person's blood. The parasites travel to the liver where they mature and reproduce. Five species of Plasmodium can infect and be spread by humans. Most deaths are caused by P. falciparum, whereas P. vivax, P. ovale, and P. malariae generally cause a milder form of malaria. The species P. knowlesi rarely causes disease in humans. Malaria is typically diagnosed by the microscopic examination of blood using blood films, or with antigen-based rapid diagnostic tests. Methods that use the polymerase chain reaction to detect the parasite's DNA have been developed, but are not widely used in areas where malaria is common due to their cost and complexity. The risk of disease can be reduced by preventing mosquito bites through the use of mosquito nets and insect repellents or with mosquito-control measures such as spraying insecticides and draining standing water. Several medications are available to prevent malaria for travellers in areas where the disease is common. Occasional doses of the combination medication sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine are recommended in infants and after the first trimester of pregnancy in areas with high rates of malaria. As of 2020, there is one vaccine which has been shown to reduce the risk of malaria by about 40% in children in Africa. A pre-print study of another vaccine has shown 77% vaccine efficacy, but this study has not yet passed peer review. Efforts to develop more effective vaccines are ongoing. The recommended treatment for malaria is a combination of antimalarial medications that includes artemisinin. The second medication may be either mefloquine, lumefantrine, or sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine. Quinine, along with doxycycline, may be used if artemisinin is not available. It is recommended that in areas where the disease is common, malaria is confirmed if possible before treatment is started due to concerns of increasing drug resistance. Resistance among the parasites has developed to several antimalarial medications; for example, chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum has spread to most malarial areas, and resistance to artemisinin has become a problem in some parts of Southeast Asia. The disease is widespread in the tropical and subtropical regions that exist in a broad band around the equator. This includes much of sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, and Latin America. In 2020 there were 241 million cases of malaria worldwide resulting in an estimated 627,000 deaths. Approximately 95% of the cases and deaths occurred in Sub-Saharan Africa. Rates of disease have decreased from 2010 to 2014 but increased from 2015 to 2020. Malaria is commonly associated with poverty and has a significant negative effect on economic development. In Africa, it is estimated to result in losses of US$12 billion a year due to increased healthcare costs, lost ability to work, and adverse effects on tourism. Signs and symptoms Adults with malaria tend to experience chills and fever – classically in periodic intense bouts lasting around six hours, followed by a period of sweating and fever relief – as well as headache, fatigue, abdominal discomfort, and muscle pain. Children tend to have more general symptoms: fever, cough, vomiting, and diarrhea. Initial manifestations of the disease—common to all malaria species—are similar to flu-like symptoms, and can resemble other conditions such as sepsis, gastroenteritis, and viral diseases. The presentation may include headache, fever, shivering, joint pain, vomiting, hemolytic anemia, jaundice, hemoglobin in the urine, retinal damage, and convulsions. The classic symptom of malaria is paroxysm—a cyclical occurrence of sudden coldness followed by shivering and then fever and sweating, occurring every two days (tertian fever) in P. vivax and P. ovale infections, and every three days (quartan fever) for P. malariae. P. falciparum infection can cause recurrent fever every 36–48 hours, or a less pronounced and almost continuous fever. Symptoms typically begin 10–15 days after the initial mosquito bite, but can occur as late as several months after infection with some P. vivax strains. Travellers taking preventative malaria medications may develop symptoms once they stop taking the drugs. Severe malaria is usually caused by P. falciparum (often referred to as falciparum malaria). Symptoms of falciparum malaria arise 9–30 days after infection. Individuals with cerebral malaria frequently exhibit neurological symptoms, including abnormal posturing, nystagmus, conjugate gaze palsy (failure of the eyes to turn together in the same direction), opisthotonus, seizures, or coma. Complications Malaria has several serious complications. Among these is the development of respiratory distress, which occurs in up to 25% of adults and 40% of children with severe P. falciparum malaria. Possible causes include respiratory compensation of metabolic acidosis, noncardiogenic pulmonary oedema, concomitant pneumonia, and severe anaemia. Although rare in young children with severe malaria, acute respiratory distress syndrome occurs in 5–25% of adults and up to 29% of pregnant women. Coinfection of HIV with malaria increases mortality. Kidney failure is a feature of blackwater fever, where haemoglobin from lysed red blood cells leaks into the urine. Infection with P. falciparum may result in cerebral malaria, a form of severe malaria that involves encephalopathy. It is associated with retinal whitening, which may be a useful clinical sign in distinguishing malaria from other causes of fever. An enlarged spleen, enlarged liver or both of these, severe headache, low blood sugar, and haemoglobin in the urine with kidney failure may occur. Complications may include spontaneous bleeding, coagulopathy, and shock. Malaria in pregnant women is an important cause of stillbirths, infant mortality, miscarriage and low birth weight, particularly in P. falciparum infection, but also with P. vivax. Cause Malaria is caused by infection with parasites in the genus Plasmodium. In humans, malaria is caused by six Plasmodium species: P. falciparum, P. malariae, P. ovale curtisi, P. ovale wallikeri, P. vivax and P. knowlesi. Among those infected, P. falciparum is the most common species identified (~75%) followed by P. vivax (~20%). Although P. falciparum traditionally accounts for the majority of deaths, recent evidence suggests that P. vivax malaria is associated with potentially life-threatening conditions about as often as with a diagnosis of P. falciparum infection. P. vivax proportionally is more common outside Africa. There have been documented human infections with several species of Plasmodium from higher apes; however, except for P. knowlesi—a zoonotic species that causes malaria in macaques—these are mostly of limited public health importance. Parasites are typically introduced by the bite of an infected Anopheles mosquito. These introduced parasites, called "sporozoites", follow the bloodstream to the liver where they invade hepatocytes. They grow and divide in the liver for 2–10 days, with each infected hepatocyte eventually harboring up to 40,000 parasites. The infected hepatocytes break down, releasing this invasive form of Plasmodium cells, called "merozoites" into the blood stream. In the blood, the merozoites rapidly invade individual red blood cells, replicating over 24–72 hours to form 16–32 new merozoites. The infected red blood cell lyses, and the new merozoites infect new red blood cells, resulting in a cycle that continuously amplifies the number of parasites in an infected person. Over rounds of this infection cycle, a small portion of parasites do not replicate, but instead develop into early sexual stage parasites called male and female "gametocytes". These gametocytes develop in the bone marrow for 11 days, then return to the blood circulation to await uptake by the bite of another mosquito. Once inside a mosquito, the gametocytes undergo sexual reproduction, and eventually form daughter sporozoites that migrate to the mosquito's salivary glands to be injected into a new host when the mosquito bites. The liver infection causes no symptoms; all symptoms of malaria result from the infection of red blood cells. Symptoms develop once there are more than around 100,000 parasites per milliliter of blood. Many of the symptoms associated with severe malaria are caused by the tendency of P. falciparum to bind to blood vessel walls, resulting in damage to the affected vessels and surrounding tissue. Parasites sequestered in the blood vessels of the lung contribute to respiratory failure. In the brain, they contribute to coma. In the placenta they contribute to low birthweight and preterm labor, and increase the risk of abortion and stillbirth. The destruction of red blood cells during infection often results in anemia, exacerbated by reduced production of new red blood cells during infection. Only female mosquitoes feed on blood; male mosquitoes feed on plant nectar and do not transmit the disease. Females of the mosquito genus Anopheles prefer to feed at night. They usually start searching for a meal at dusk, and continue through the night until they succeed. Malaria parasites can also be transmitted by blood transfusions, although this is rare. Recurrent malaria Symptoms of malaria can recur after varying symptom-free periods. Depending upon the cause, recurrence can be classified as either recrudescence, relapse, or reinfection. Recrudescence is when symptoms return after a symptom-free period. It is caused by parasites surviving in the blood as a result of inadequate or ineffective treatment. Relapse is when symptoms reappear after the parasites have been eliminated from the blood but persist as dormant hypnozoites in liver cells. Relapse commonly occurs between 8–24 weeks and is often seen in P. vivax and P. ovale infections. However, relapse-like P. vivax recurrences are probably being over-attributed to hypnozoite activation. Some of them might have an extra-vascular merozoite origin, making these recurrences recrudescences, not relapses. One newly recognised, non-hypnozoite, possible contributing source to recurrent peripheral P. vivax parasitemia is erythrocytic forms in bone marrow. P. vivax malaria cases in temperate areas often involve overwintering by hypnozoites, with relapses beginning the year after the mosquito bite. Reinfection means the parasite that caused the past infection was eliminated from the body but a new parasite was introduced. Reinfection cannot readily be distinguished from recrudescence, although recurrence of infection within two weeks of treatment for the initial infection is typically attributed to treatment failure. People may develop some immunity when exposed to frequent infections. Pathophysiology Malaria infection develops via two phases: one that involves the liver (exoerythrocytic phase), and one that involves red blood cells, or erythrocytes (erythrocytic phase). When an infected mosquito pierces a person's skin to take a blood meal, sporozoites in the mosquito's saliva enter the bloodstream and migrate to the liver where they infect hepatocytes, multiplying asexually and asymptomatically for a period of 8–30 days. After a potential dormant period in the liver, these organisms differentiate to yield thousands of merozoites, which, following rupture of their host cells, escape into the blood and infect red blood cells to begin the erythrocytic stage of the life cycle. The parasite escapes from the liver undetected by wrapping itself in the cell membrane of the infected host liver cell. Within the red blood cells, the parasites multiply further, again asexually, periodically breaking out of their host cells to invade fresh red blood cells. Several such amplification cycles occur. Thus, classical descriptions of waves of fever arise from simultaneous waves of merozoites escaping and infecting red blood cells. Some P. vivax sporozoites do not immediately develop into exoerythrocytic-phase merozoites, but instead, produce hypnozoites that remain dormant for periods ranging from several months (7–10 months is typical) to several years. After a period of dormancy, they reactivate and produce merozoites. Hypnozoites are responsible for long incubation and late relapses in P. vivax infections, although their existence in P. ovale is uncertain. The parasite is relatively protected from attack by the body's immune system because for most of its human life cycle it resides within the liver and blood cells and is relatively invisible to immune surveillance. However, circulating infected blood cells are destroyed in the spleen. To avoid this fate, the P. falciparum parasite displays adhesive proteins on the surface of the infected blood cells, causing the blood cells to stick to the walls of small blood vessels, thereby sequestering the parasite from passage through the general circulation and the spleen. The blockage of the microvasculature causes symptoms such as those in placental malaria. Sequestered red blood cells can breach the blood–brain barrier and cause cerebral malaria. Genetic resistance According to a 2005 review, due to the high levels of mortality and morbidity caused by malaria—especially the P. falciparum species—it has placed the greatest selective pressure on the human genome in recent history. Several genetic factors provide some resistance to it including sickle cell trait, thalassaemia traits, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, and the absence of Duffy antigens on red blood cells. The impact of sickle cell trait on malaria immunity illustrates some evolutionary trade-offs that have occurred because of endemic malaria. Sickle cell trait causes a change in the haemoglobin molecule in the blood. Normally, red blood cells have a very flexible, biconcave shape that allows them to move through narrow capillaries; however, when the modified haemoglobin S molecules are exposed to low amounts of oxygen, or crowd together due to dehydration, they can stick together forming strands that cause the cell to distort into a curved sickle shape. In these strands, the molecule is not as effective in taking or releasing oxygen, and the cell is not flexible enough to circulate freely. In the early stages of malaria, the parasite can cause infected red cells to sickle, and so they are removed from circulation sooner. This reduces the frequency with which malaria parasites complete their life cycle in the cell. Individuals who are homozygous (with two copies of the abnormal haemoglobin beta allele) have sickle-cell anaemia, while those who are heterozygous (with one abnormal allele and one normal allele) experience resistance to malaria without severe anaemia. Although the shorter life expectancy for those with the homozygous condition would tend to disfavour the trait's survival, the trait is preserved in malaria-prone regions because of the benefits provided by the heterozygous form. Liver dysfunction Liver dysfunction as a result of malaria is uncommon and usually only occurs in those with another liver condition such as viral hepatitis or chronic liver disease. The syndrome is sometimes called malarial hepatitis. While it has been considered a rare occurrence, malarial hepatopathy has seen an increase, particularly in Southeast Asia and India. Liver compromise in people with malaria correlates with a greater likelihood of complications and death. Diagnosis Due to the non-specific nature of malaria symptoms, diagnosis is typically suspected based on symptoms and travel history, then confirmed with a parasitological test. In areas where malaria is common, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends clinicians suspect malaria in any person who reports having fevers, or who has a current temperature above 37.5 °C without any other obvious cause. Malaria should similarly be suspected in children with signs of anemia: pale palms or a laboratory test showing hemoglobin levels below 8 grams per deciliter of blood. In areas with little to no malaria, the WHO recommends only testing people with possible exposure to malaria (typically travel to a malaria-endemic area) and unexplained fever. Malaria is usually confirmed by the microscopic examination of blood films or by antigen-based rapid diagnostic tests (RDT). Microscopy – i.e. examining Giemsa-stained blood with a light microscope – is the gold standard for malaria diagnosis. Microscopists typically examine both a "thick film" of blood, allowing them to scan many blood cells in a short time, and a "thin film" of blood, allowing them to clearly see individual parasites and identify the infecting Plasmodium species. Under typical field laboratory conditions, a microscopist can detect parasites when there are at least 100 parasites per microliter of blood, which is around the lower range of symptomatic infection. Microscopic diagnosis is relatively resource intensive, requiring trained personnel, specific equipment, electricity, and a consistent supply of microscopy slides and stains. In places where microscopy is unavailable, malaria is diagnosed with RDTs, rapid antigen tests that detect parasite proteins in a fingerstick blood sample. A variety of RDTs are commercially available, targeting the parasite proteins histidine rich protein 2 (HRP2, detects P. falciparum only), lactate dehydrogenase, or aldolase. The HRP2 test is widely used in Africa, where P. falciparum predominates. However, since HRP2 persists in the blood for up to five weeks after an infection is treated, an HRP2 test sometimes cannot distinguish whether someone currently has malaria or previously had it. Additionally, some P. falciparum parasites in the Amazon region lack the HRP2 gene, complicating detection. RDTs are fast and easily deployed to places without full diagnostic laboratories. However they give considerably less information than microscopy, and sometimes vary in quality from producer to producer and lot to lot. Serological tests to detect antibodies against Plasmodium from the blood have been developed, but are not used for malaria diagnosis due to their relatively poor sensitivity and specificity. Highly sensitive nucleic acid amplification tests have been developed, but are not used clinically due to their relatively high cost, and poor specificity for active infections. Classification Malaria is classified into either "severe" or "uncomplicated" by the World Health Organization (WHO). It is deemed severe when any of the following criteria are present, otherwise it is considered uncomplicated. Decreased consciousness Significant weakness such that the person is unable to walk Inability to feed Two or more convulsions Low blood pressure (less than 70 mmHg in adults and 50 mmHg in children) Breathing problems Circulatory shock Kidney failure or haemoglobin in the urine Bleeding problems, or hemoglobin less than 50 g/L (5 g/dL) Pulmonary oedema Blood glucose less than 2.2 mmol/L (40 mg/dL) Acidosis or lactate levels of greater than 5 mmol/L A parasite level in the blood of greater than 100,000 per microlitre (μL) in low-intensity transmission areas, or 250,000 per μL in high-intensity transmission areas Cerebral malaria is defined as a severe P. falciparum-malaria presenting with neurological symptoms, including coma (with a Glasgow coma scale less than 11, or a Blantyre coma scale less than 3), or with a coma that lasts longer than 30 minutes after a seizure. Prevention Methods used to prevent malaria include medications, mosquito elimination and the prevention of bites. As of 2020, there is one vaccine for malaria (known as RTS,S) which is licensed for use. The presence of malaria in an area requires a combination of high human population density, high anopheles mosquito population density and high rates of transmission from humans to mosquitoes and from mosquitoes to humans. If any of these is lowered sufficiently, the parasite eventually disappears from that area, as happened in North America, Europe, and parts of the Middle East. However, unless the parasite is eliminated from the whole world, it could re-establish if conditions revert to a combination that favors the parasite's reproduction. Furthermore, the cost per person of eliminating anopheles mosquitoes rises with decreasing population density, making it economically unfeasible in some areas. Prevention of malaria may be more cost-effective than treatment of the disease in the long run, but the initial costs required are out of reach of many of the world's poorest people. There is a wide difference in the costs of control (i.e. maintenance of low endemicity) and elimination programs between countries. For example, in China—whose government in 2010 announced a strategy to pursue malaria elimination in the Chinese provinces—the required investment is a small proportion of public expenditure on health. In contrast, a similar programme in Tanzania would cost an estimated one-fifth of the public health budget. In areas where malaria is common, children under five years old often have anaemia, which is sometimes due to malaria. Giving children with anaemia in these areas preventive antimalarial medication improves red blood cell levels slightly but does not affect the risk of death or need for hospitalisation. Mosquito control Vector control refers to methods used to decrease malaria by reducing the levels of transmission by mosquitoes. For individual protection, the most effective insect repellents are based on DEET or picaridin. However, there is insufficient evidence that mosquito repellents can prevent malaria infection. Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS) are effective, have been commonly used to prevent malaria, and their use has contributed significantly to the decrease in malaria in the 21st century. ITNs and IRS may not be sufficient to eliminate the disease, as these interventions depend on how many people use nets, how many gaps in insecticide there are (low coverage areas), if people are not protected when outside of the home, and an increase in mosquitoes that are resistant to insecticides. Modifications to people's houses to prevent mosquito exposure may be an important long term prevention measure. Insecticide-treated nets Mosquito nets help keep mosquitoes away from people and reduce infection rates and transmission of malaria. Nets are not a perfect barrier and are often treated with an insecticide designed to kill the mosquito before it has time to find a way past the net. Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) are estimated to be twice as effective as untreated nets and offer greater than 70% protection compared with no net. Between 2000 and 2008, the use of ITNs saved the lives of an estimated 250,000 infants in Sub-Saharan Africa. About 13% of households in Sub-Saharan countries owned ITNs in 2007 and 31% of African households were estimated to own at least one ITN in 2008. In 2000, 1.7 million (1.8%) African children living in areas of the world where malaria is common were protected by an ITN. That number increased to 20.3 million (18.5%) African children using ITNs in 2007, leaving 89.6 million children unprotected and to 68% African children using mosquito nets in 2015. Most nets are impregnated with pyrethroids, a class of insecticides with low toxicity. They are most effective when used from dusk to dawn. It is recommended to hang a large "bed net" above the center of a bed and either tuck the edges under the mattress or make sure it is large enough such that it touches the ground. ITNs are beneficial towards pregnancy outcomes in malaria-endemic regions in Africa but more data is needed in Asia and Latin America. In areas of high malaria resistance, piperonyl butoxide (PBO) combined with pyrethroids in mosquito netting is effective in reducing malaria infection rates. Questions remain concerning the durability of PBO on nets as the impact on mosquito mortality was not sustained after twenty washes in experimental trials. Indoor residual spraying Indoor residual spraying is the spraying of insecticides on the walls inside a home. After feeding, many mosquitoes rest on a nearby surface while digesting the bloodmeal, so if the walls of houses have been coated with insecticides, the resting mosquitoes can be killed before they can bite another person and transfer the malaria parasite. As of 2006, the World Health Organization recommends 12 insecticides in IRS operations, including DDT and the pyrethroids cyfluthrin and deltamethrin. This public health use of small amounts of DDT is permitted under the Stockholm Convention, which prohibits its agricultural use. One problem with all forms of IRS is insecticide resistance. Mosquitoes affected by IRS tend to rest and live indoors, and due to the irritation caused by spraying, their descendants tend to rest and live outdoors, meaning that they are less affected by the IRS. It is uncertain whether the use of IRS together with ITN is effective in reducing malaria cases due to wide geographical variety of malaria distribution, malaria transmission, and insecticide resistance. Housing modifications Housing is a risk factor for malaria and modifying the house as a prevention measure may be a sustainable strategy that does not rely on the effectiveness of insecticides such as pyrethroids. The physical environment inside and outside the home that may improve the density of mosquitoes are considerations. Examples of potential modifications include how close the home is to mosquito breeding sites, drainage and water supply near the home, availability of mosquito resting sites (vegetation around the home), the proximity to live stock and domestic animals, and physical improvements or modifications to the design of the home to prevent mosquitoes from entering. Other mosquito control methods People have tried a number of other methods to reduce mosquito bites and slow the spread of malaria. Efforts to decrease mosquito larvae by decreasing the availability of open water where they develop, or by adding substances to decrease their development, are effective in some locations. Electronic mosquito repellent devices, which make very high-frequency sounds that are supposed to keep female mosquitoes away, have no supporting evidence of effectiveness. There is a low certainty evidence that fogging may have an effect on malaria transmission. Larviciding by hand delivery of chemical or microbial insecticides into water bodies containing low larval distribution may reduce malarial transmission. There is insufficient evidence to determine whether larvivorous fish can decrease mosquito density and transmission in the area. Medications There are a number of medications that can help prevent or interrupt malaria in travellers to places where infection is common. Many of these medications are also used in treatment. In places where Plasmodium is resistant to one or more medications, three medications—mefloquine, doxycycline, or the combination of atovaquone/proguanil (Malarone)—are frequently used for prevention. Doxycycline and the atovaquone/proguanil are better tolerated while mefloquine is taken once a week. Areas of the world with chloroquine-sensitive malaria are uncommon. Antimalarial mass drug administration to an entire population at the same time may reduce the risk of contracting malaria in the population, however the effectiveness of mass drug adminisration may vary depending on the prevalence of malaria in the area. Other factors such as drug administration plus other protective measures such as mosiquito control, the proportion of people treated in the area, and the risk of reinfection with malaria may play a role in the effectiveness of mass drug treatment approaches. The protective effect does not begin immediately, and people visiting areas where malaria exists usually start taking the drugs one to two weeks before they arrive, and continue taking them for four weeks after leaving (except for atovaquone/proguanil, which only needs to be started two days before and continued for seven days afterward). The use of preventive drugs is often not practical for those who live in areas where malaria exists, and their use is usually given only to pregnant women and short-term visitors. This is due to the cost of the drugs, side effects from long-term use, and the difficulty in obtaining antimalarial drugs outside of wealthy nations. During pregnancy, medication to prevent malaria has been found to improve the weight of the baby at birth and decrease the risk of anaemia in the mother. The use of preventive drugs where malaria-bearing mosquitoes are present may encourage the development of partial resistance. Giving antimalarial drugs to infants through intermittent preventive therapy can reduce the risk of having malaria infection, hospital admission, and anaemia. Mefloquine is more effective than sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine in preventing malaria for HIV-negative pregnant women. Cotrimoxazole is effective in preventing malaria infection and reduce the risk of getting anaemia in HIV-positive women. Giving sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine for three or more doses as intermittent preventive therapy is superior than two doses for HIV-positive women living in malaria-endemic areas. Prompt treatment of confirmed cases with artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) may also reduce transmission. Others Community participation and health education strategies promoting awareness of malaria and the importance of control measures have been successfully used to reduce the incidence of malaria in some areas of the developing world. Recognising the disease in the early stages can prevent it from becoming fatal. Education can also inform people to cover over areas of stagnant, still water, such as water tanks that are ideal breeding grounds for the parasite and mosquito, thus cutting down the risk of the transmission between people. This is generally used in urban areas where there are large centers of population in a confined space and transmission would be most likely in these areas. Intermittent preventive therapy is another intervention that has been used successfully to control malaria in pregnant women and infants, and in preschool children where transmission is seasonal. Treatment Malaria is treated with antimalarial medications; the ones used depends on the type and severity of the disease. While medications against fever are commonly used, their effects on outcomes are not clear. Providing free antimalarial drugs to households may reduce childhood deaths when used appropriately. Programmes which presumptively treat all causes of fever with antimalarial drugs may lead to overuse of antimalarials and undertreat other causes of fever. Nevertheless, the use of malaria rapid-diagnostic kits can help to reduce over-usage of antimalarials. Uncomplicated malaria Simple or uncomplicated malaria may be treated with oral medications. Artemisinin drugs are effective and safe in treating uncomplicated malaria. Artemisinin in combination with other antimalarials (known as artemisinin-combination therapy, or ACT) is about 90% effective when used to treat uncomplicated malaria. The most effective treatment for P. falciparum infection is the use of ACT, which decreases resistance to any single drug component. Artemether-lumefantrine (six-dose regimen) is more effective than the artemether-lumefantrine (four-dose regimen) or other regimens not containing artemisinin derivatives in treating falciparum malaria. Another recommended combination is dihydroartemisinin and piperaquine. Artemisinin-naphthoquine combination therapy showed promising results in treating falciparum malaria. However, more research is needed to establish its efficacy as a reliable treatment. Artesunate plus mefloquine performs better than mefloquine alone in treating uncomplicated falciparum malaria in low transmission settings. Atovaquone-proguanil is effective against uncomplicated falciparum with a possible failure rate of 5% to 10%; the addition of artesunate may reduce failure rate. Azithromycin monotherapy or combination therapy has not shown effectiveness in treating plasmodium or vivax malaria. Amodiaquine plus sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine may achieve less treatment failures when compared to sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine alone in uncomplicated falciparum malaria. There is insufficient data on chlorproguanil-dapsone in treating uncomplicated falciparum malaria. The addition of primaquine with artemisinin-based combination therapy for falciparum malaria reduces its transmission at day 3-4 and day 8 of infection. Sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine plus artesunate is better than sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine plus amodiaquine in controlling treatment failure at day 28. However, the latter is better than the former in reducing gametocytes in blood at day 7. Infection with P. vivax, P. ovale or P. malariae usually does not require hospitalisation. Treatment of P. vivax requires both treatment of blood stages (with chloroquine or ACT) and clearance of liver forms with primaquine. Artemisinin-based combination therapy is as effective as chloroquine in treating uncomplicated P. vivax malaria. Treatment with tafenoquine prevents relapses after confirmed P. vivax malaria. However, for those treated with chloroquine for blood stage infection, 14 days of primaquine treatment is required to prevent relapse. Shorter primaquine regimens may lead to higher relapse rates. There is no difference in effectiveness between primaquine given for seven or 14 days for prevention of relapse in vivax malaria. The shorter regimen may be useful for those with treatment compliance problems. To treat malaria during pregnancy, the WHO recommends the use of quinine plus clindamycin early in the pregnancy (1st trimester), and ACT in later stages (2nd and 3rd trimesters). There is limited safety data on the antimalarial drugs in pregnancy. Severe and complicated malaria Cases of severe and complicated malaria are almost always caused by infection with P. falciparum. The other species usually cause only febrile disease. Severe and complicated malaria cases are medical emergencies since mortality rates are high (10% to 50%). Recommended treatment for severe malaria is the intravenous use of antimalarial drugs. For severe malaria, parenteral artesunate was superior to quinine in both children and adults. In another systematic review, artemisinin derivatives (artemether and arteether) were as efficacious as quinine in the treatment of cerebral malaria in children. Treatment of severe malaria involves supportive measures that are best done in a critical care unit. This includes the management of high fevers and the seizures that may result from it. It also includes monitoring for poor breathing effort, low blood sugar, and low blood potassium. Artemisinin derivatives have the same or better efficacy than quinolones in preventing deaths in severe or complicated malaria. Quinine loading dose helps to shorten the duration of fever and increases parasite clearance from the body. There is no difference in effectiveness when using intrarectal quinine compared to intravenous or intramuscular quinine in treating uncomplicated/complicated falciparum malaria. There is insufficient evidence for intramuscular arteether to treat severe malaria. The provision of rectal artesunate before transfer to hospital may reduce the rate of death for children with severe malaria. Cerebral malaria is the form of severe and complicated malaria with the worst neurological symptoms. There is insufficient data on whether osmotic agents such as mannitol or urea are effective in treating cerebral malaria. Routine phenobarbitone in cerebral malaria is associated with fewer convulsions but possibly more deaths. There is no evidence that steroids would bring treatment benefits for cerebral malaria. There is insufficient evidence to show that blood transfusion is useful in either reducing deaths for children with severe anaemia or in improving their haematocrit in one month. There is insufficient evidence that iron chelating agents such as deferoxamine and deferiprone improve outcomes of those with malaria falciparum infection. Resistance Drug resistance poses a growing problem in 21st-century malaria treatment. In the 2000s (decade), malaria with partial resistance to artemisins emerged in Southeast Asia. Resistance is now common against all classes of antimalarial drugs apart from artemisinins. Treatment of resistant strains became increasingly dependent on this class of drugs. The cost of artemisinins limits their use in the developing world. Malaria strains found on the Cambodia–Thailand border are resistant to combination therapies that include artemisinins, and may, therefore, be untreatable. Exposure of the parasite population to artemisinin monotherapies in subtherapeutic doses for over 30 years and the availability of substandard artemisinins likely drove the selection of the resistant phenotype. Resistance to artemisinin has been detected in Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam, and there has been emerging resistance in Laos. Resistance to the combination of artemisinin and piperaquine was first detected in 2013 in Cambodia, and by 2019 had spread across Cambodia and into Laos, Thailand and Vietnam (with up to 80 percent of malaria parasites resistant in some regions). There is insufficient evidence in unit packaged antimalarial drugs in preventing treatment failures of malaria infection. However, if supported by training of healthcare providers and patient information, there is improvement in compliance of those receiving treatment. Prognosis When properly treated, people with malaria can usually expect a complete recovery. However, severe malaria can progress extremely rapidly and cause death within hours or days. In the most severe cases of the disease, fatality rates can reach 20%, even with intensive care and treatment. Over the longer term, developmental impairments have been documented in children who have suffered episodes of severe malaria. Chronic infection without severe disease can occur in an immune-deficiency syndrome associated with a decreased responsiveness to Salmonella bacteria and the Epstein–Barr virus. During childhood, malaria causes anaemia during a period of rapid brain development, and also direct brain damage resulting from cerebral malaria. Some survivors of cerebral malaria have an increased risk of neurological and cognitive deficits, behavioural disorders, and epilepsy. Malaria prophylaxis was shown to improve cognitive function and school performance in clinical trials when compared to placebo groups. Epidemiology The WHO estimates that in 2019 there were 229 million new cases of malaria resulting in 409,000 deaths. Children under 5 years old are the most affected, accounting for 67% of malaria deaths worldwide in 2019. About 125 million pregnant women are at risk of infection each year; in Sub-Saharan Africa, maternal malaria is associated with up to 200,000 estimated infant deaths yearly. There are about 10,000 malaria cases per year in Western Europe, and 1300–1500 in the United States. The United States eradicated malaria as a major public health concern in 1951, though small outbreaks persist. About 900 people died from the disease in Europe between 1993 and 2003. Both the global incidence of disease and resulting mortality have declined in recent years. According to the WHO and UNICEF, deaths attributable to malaria in 2015 were reduced by 60% from a 2000 estimate of 985,000, largely due to the widespread use of insecticide-treated nets and artemisinin-based combination therapies. In 2012, there were 207 million cases of malaria. That year, the disease is estimated to have killed between 473,000 and 789,000 people, many of whom were children in Africa. Efforts at decreasing the disease in Africa since 2000 have been partially effective, with rates of the disease dropping by an estimated forty percent on the continent. Malaria is presently endemic in a broad band around the equator, in areas of the Americas, many parts of Asia, and much of Africa; in Sub-Saharan Africa, 85–90% of malaria fatalities occur. An estimate for 2009 reported that countries with the highest death rate per 100,000 of population were Ivory Coast (86.15), Angola (56.93) and Burkina Faso (50.66). A 2010 estimate indicated the deadliest countries per population were Burkina Faso, Mozambique and Mali. The Malaria Atlas Project aims to map global levels of malaria, providing a way to determine the global spatial limits of the disease and to assess disease burden. This effort led to the publication of a map of P. falciparum endemicity in 2010 and an update in 2019. As of 2010, about 100 countries have endemic malaria. Every year, 125 million international travellers visit these countries, and more than 30,000 contract the disease. The geographic distribution of malaria within large regions is complex, and malaria-afflicted and malaria-free areas are often found close to each other. Malaria is prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions because of rainfall, consistent high temperatures and high humidity, along with stagnant waters where mosquito larvae readily mature, providing them with the environment they need for continuous breeding. In drier areas, outbreaks of malaria have been predicted with reasonable accuracy by mapping rainfall. Malaria is more common in rural areas than in cities. For example, several cities in the Greater Mekong Subregion of Southeast Asia are essentially malaria-free, but the disease is prevalent in many rural regions, including along international borders and forest fringes. In contrast, malaria in Africa is present in both rural and urban areas, though the risk is lower in the larger cities. Climate change Climate change is likely to affect malaria transmission, but the degree of effect and the areas affected is uncertain. Greater rainfall in certain areas of India, and following an El Niño event is associated with increased mosquito numbers. Since 1900 there has been substantial change in temperature and rainfall over Africa. However, factors that contribute to how rainfall results in water for mosquito breeding are complex, incorporating the extent to which it is absorbed into soil and vegetation for example, or rates of runoff and evaporation. Recent research has provided a more in-depth picture of conditions across Africa, combining a malaria climatic suitability model with a continental-scale model representing real-world hydrological processes. History Although the parasite responsible for P. falciparum malaria has been in existence for 50,000–100,000 years, the population size of the parasite did not increase until about 10,000 years ago, concurrently with advances in agriculture and the development of human settlements. Close relatives of the human malaria parasites remain common in chimpanzees. Some evidence suggests that the P. falciparum malaria may have originated in gorillas. References to the unique periodic fevers of malaria are found throughout history. Hippocrates described periodic fevers, labelling them tertian, quartan, subtertian and quotidian. The Roman Columella associated the disease with insects from swamps. Malaria may have contributed to the decline of the Roman Empire, and was so pervasive in Rome that it was known as the "Roman fever". Several regions in ancient Rome were considered at-risk for the disease because of the favourable conditions present for malaria vectors. This included areas such as southern Italy, the island of Sardinia, the Pontine Marshes, the lower regions of coastal Etruria and the city of Rome along the Tiber. The presence of stagnant water in these places was preferred by mosquitoes for breeding grounds. Irrigated gardens, swamp-like grounds, run-off from agriculture, and drainage problems from road construction led to the increase of standing water. The term malaria originates from Mediaeval —"bad air"; the disease was formerly called ague or marsh fever due to its association with swamps and marshland. The term first appeared in the English literature about 1829. Malaria was once common in most of Europe and North America, where it is no longer endemic, though imported cases do occur. Malaria is not referenced in the "medical books" of the Mayans or Aztecs. European settlers and the West Africans they enslaved likely brought malaria to the Americas starting in the 16th century. Scientific studies on malaria made their first significant advance in 1880, when Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran—a French army doctor working in the military hospital of Constantine in Algeria—observed parasites inside the red blood cells of infected people for the first time. He, therefore, proposed that malaria is caused by this organism, the first time a protist was identified as causing disease. For this and later discoveries, he was awarded the 1907 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. A year later, Carlos Finlay, a Cuban doctor treating people with yellow fever in Havana, provided strong evidence that mosquitoes were transmitting disease to and from humans. This work followed earlier suggestions by Josiah C. Nott, and work by Sir Patrick Manson, the "father of tropical medicine", on the transmission of filariasis. In April 1894, a Scottish physician, Sir Ronald Ross, visited Sir Patrick Manson at his house on Queen Anne Street, London. This visit was the start of four years of collaboration and fervent research that culminated in 1897 when Ross, who was working in the Presidency General Hospital in Calcutta, proved the complete life-cycle of the malaria parasite in mosquitoes. He thus proved that the mosquito was the vector for malaria in humans by showing that certain mosquito species transmit malaria to birds. He isolated malaria parasites from the salivary glands of mosquitoes that had fed on infected birds. For this work, Ross received the 1902 Nobel Prize in Medicine. After resigning from the Indian Medical Service, Ross worked at the newly established Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine and directed malaria-control efforts in Egypt, Panama, Greece and Mauritius. The findings of Finlay and Ross were later confirmed by a medical board headed by Walter Reed in 1900. Its recommendations were implemented by William C. Gorgas in the health measures undertaken during construction of the Panama Canal. This public-health work saved the lives of thousands of workers and helped develop the methods used in future public-health campaigns against the disease. In 1896, Amico Bignami discussed the role of mosquitoes in malaria. In 1898, Bignami, Giovanni Battista Grassi and Giuseppe Bastianelli succeeded in showing experimentally the transmission of malaria in humans, using infected mosquitoes to contract malaria themselves which they presented in November 1898 to the Accademia dei Lincei. The first effective treatment for malaria came from the bark of cinchona tree, which contains quinine. This tree grows on the slopes of the Andes, mainly in Peru. The indigenous peoples of Peru made a tincture of cinchona to control fever. Its effectiveness against malaria was found and the Jesuits introduced the treatment to Europe around 1640; by 1677, it was included in the London Pharmacopoeia as an antimalarial treatment. It was not until 1820 that the active ingredient, quinine, was extracted from the bark, isolated and named by the French chemists Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou. Quinine was the predominant malarial medication until the 1920s when other medications began to appear. In the 1940s, chloroquine replaced quinine as the treatment of both uncomplicated and severe malaria until resistance supervened, first in Southeast Asia and South America in the 1950s and then globally in the 1980s. The medicinal value of Artemisia annua has been used by Chinese herbalists in traditional Chinese medicines for 2,000 years. In 1596, Li Shizhen recommended tea made from qinghao specifically to treat malaria symptoms in his "Compendium of Materia Medica". Artemisinins, discovered by Chinese scientist Tu Youyou and colleagues in the 1970s from the plant Artemisia annua, became the recommended treatment for P. falciparum malaria, administered in severe cases in combination with other antimalarials. Tu says she was influenced by a traditional Chinese herbal medicine source, The Handbook of Prescriptions for Emergency Treatments, written in 340 by Ge Hong. For her work on malaria, Tu Youyou received the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Plasmodium vivax was used between 1917 and the 1940s for malariotherapy—deliberate injection of malaria parasites to induce a fever to combat certain diseases such as tertiary syphilis. In 1927, the inventor of this technique, Julius Wagner-Jauregg, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discoveries. The technique was dangerous, killing about 15% of patients, so it is no longer in use. The first pesticide used for indoor residual spraying was DDT. Although it was initially used exclusively to combat malaria, its use quickly spread to agriculture. In time, pest control, rather than disease control, came to dominate DDT use, and this large-scale agricultural use led to the evolution of pesticide-resistant mosquitoes in many regions. The DDT resistance shown by Anopheles mosquitoes can be compared to antibiotic resistance shown by bacteria. During the 1960s, awareness of the negative consequences of its indiscriminate use increased, ultimately leading to bans on agricultural applications of DDT in many countries in the 1970s. Before DDT, malaria was successfully eliminated or controlled in tropical areas like Brazil and Egypt by removing or poisoning the breeding grounds of the mosquitoes or the aquatic habitats of the larval stages, for example by applying the highly toxic arsenic compound Paris Green to places with standing water. Malaria vaccines have been an elusive goal of research. The first promising studies demonstrating the potential for a malaria vaccine were performed in 1967 by immunising mice with live, radiation-attenuated sporozoites, which provided significant protection to the mice upon subsequent injection with normal, viable sporozoites. Since the 1970s, there has been a considerable effort to develop similar vaccination strategies for humans. The first vaccine, called RTS,S, was approved by European regulators in 2015. Names Various types of malaria have been called by the names below: Eradication efforts Malaria has been successfully eliminated or significantly reduced in certain areas, but not globally. Malaria was once common in the United States, but the US eliminated malaria from most parts of the country in the early 20th century using vector control programs, which combined the monitoring and treatment of infected humans, draining of wetland breeding grounds for agriculture and other changes in water management practices, and advances in sanitation, including greater use of glass windows and screens in dwellings. The use of the pesticide DDT and other means eliminated malaria from the remaining pockets in southern states of the US the 1950s, as part of the National Malaria Eradication Program. Most of Europe, North America, Australia, North Africa and the Caribbean, and parts of South America, Asia and Southern Africa have also eliminated malaria. The WHO defines "elimination" (or "malaria-free") as having no domestic transmission (indigenous cases) for the past three years. They also define "pre-elimination" and "elimination" stages when a country has fewer than 5 or 1, respectively, cases per 1000 people at risk per year. In 1955 the WHO launched the Global Malaria Eradication Program (GMEP), which supported substantial reductions in malaria cases in some counties, including India. However, due to vector and parasite resistance and other factors, the feasibility of eradicating malaria with the strategy used at the time and resources available led to waning support for the program. WHO suspended the program in 1969. Target 6C of the Millennium Development Goals included reversal of the global increase in malaria incidence by 2015, with specific targets for children under 5 years old. Since 2000, support for malaria eradication increased, although some actors in the global health community (including voices within the WHO) view malaria eradication as a premature goal and suggest that the establishment of strict deadlines for malaria eradication may be counterproductive as they are likely to be missed. In 2006, the organization Malaria No More set a public goal of eliminating malaria from Africa by 2015, and the organization claimed they planned to dissolve if that goal was accomplished. In 2007, World Malaria Day was established by the 60th session of the World Health Assembly. As of 2018, they are still functioning. , The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria has distributed 230 million insecticide-treated nets intended to stop mosquito-borne transmission of malaria. The U.S.-based Clinton Foundation has worked to manage demand and stabilize prices in the artemisinin market. Other efforts, such as the Malaria Atlas Project, focus on analysing climate and weather information required to accurately predict malaria spread based on the availability of habitat of malaria-carrying parasites. The Malaria Policy Advisory Committee (MPAC) of the World Health Organization (WHO) was formed in 2012, "to provide strategic advice and technical input to WHO on all aspects of malaria control and elimination". In November 2013, WHO and the malaria vaccine funders group set a goal to develop vaccines designed to interrupt malaria transmission with malaria eradication's long-term goal. In 2015 the WHO targeted a 90% reduction in malaria deaths by 2030, and Bill Gates said in 2016 that he thought global eradication would be possible by 2040. According to the WHO's World Malaria Report 2015, the global mortality rate for malaria fell by 60% between 2000 and 2015. The WHO targeted a further 90% reduction between 2015 and 2030, with a 40% reduction and eradication in 10 countries by 2020. However, the 2020 goal was missed with a slight increase in cases compared to 2015. Before 2016, the Global Fund against HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria had provided 659 million ITN (insecticide treated bed nets), organise support and education to prevents malaria. The challenges are high due to the lack of funds, the fragile health structure and the remote indigenous population that could be hard to reach and educate. Most of indigenous population rely on self-diagnosis, self-treatment, healer, and traditional medicine. The WHO applied for fund to the Gates Foundation which favour the action of malaria eradication in 2007. Six countries United Arab Emirates, Morocco, Armenia, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Sri Lanka managed to have no cases of indigenous malaria cases for three consecutive years and certified malaria-free by the WHO despite the stagnation of the funding in 2010. The funding is essential to finance the cost of medication and hospitalisation cannot be supported by the poor countries where the disease is widely spread. The goal of eradication has not been met nevertheless the decrease rate of the disease is considerable. While 31 out of 92 endemic countries were estimated to be on track with the WHO goals for 2020, 15 countries reported an increase of 40% or more between 2015 and 2020. Between 2000 and 30 June 2021, twelve countries were certified by the WHO as being malaria-free. Argentina and Algeria were declared free of malaria in 2019. El Salvador and China were declared malaria-free in the first half of 2021. Regional disparities were evident: Southeast Asia was on track to meet WHO's 2020 goals, while Africa, Americas, Eastern Mediterranean and West Pacific regions were off-track. The six Greater Mekong Subregion countries aim for elimination of P. falciparum transmitted malaria by 2025 and elimination of all malaria by 2030, having achieved a 97% and 90% reduction of cases respectively since 2000. Ahead of World Malaria Day, 25 April 2021, WHO named 25 countries in which it is working to eliminate malaria by 2025 as part of its E-2025 initiative. A major challenge to malaria elimination is the persistence of malaria in border regions, making international cooperation crucial. One of the targets of Goal 3 of the UN's Sustainable Development Goals is to end the malaria epidemic in all countries by 2030. In 2018, WHO announced that Paraguay was free of malaria, after a national malaria eradication effort that began in 1950. As of 2019, the eradication process is ongoing, but it will be difficult to achieve a world free of malaria with the current approaches and tools. Only one malaria vaccine is licensed for use, and it shows relatively low effectiveness, while several other vaccine candidates in clinical trials aim to provide protection for children in endemic areas and reduce the speed of malaria transmission. Approaches may require investing more in research and greater primary health care. Continuing surveillance will also be important to prevent the return of malaria in countries where the disease has been eliminated. Society and culture Economic impact Malaria is not just a disease commonly associated with poverty: some evidence suggests that it is also a cause of poverty and a major hindrance to economic development. Although tropical regions are most affected, malaria's furthest influence reaches into some temperate zones that have extreme seasonal changes. The disease has been associated with major negative economic effects on regions where it is widespread. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it was a major factor in the slow economic development of the American southern states. A comparison of average per capita GDP in 1995, adjusted for parity of purchasing power, between countries with malaria and countries without malaria gives a fivefold difference (US$1,526 versus US$8,268). In the period 1965 to 1990, countries where malaria was common had an average per capita GDP that increased only 0.4% per year, compared to 2.4% per year in other countries. Poverty can increase the risk of malaria since those in poverty do not have the financial capacities to prevent or treat the disease. In its entirety, the economic impact of malaria has been estimated to cost Africa US$12 billion every year. The economic impact includes costs of health care, working days lost due to sickness, days lost in education, decreased productivity due to brain damage from cerebral malaria, and loss of investment and tourism. The disease has a heavy burden in some countries, where it may be responsible for 30–50% of hospital admissions, up to 50% of outpatient visits, and up to 40% of public health spending. Cerebral malaria is one of the leading causes of neurological disabilities in African children. Studies comparing cognitive functions before and after treatment for severe malarial illness continued to show significantly impaired school performance and cognitive abilities even after recovery. Consequently, severe and cerebral malaria have far-reaching socioeconomic consequences that extend beyond the immediate effects of the disease. Counterfeit and substandard drugs Sophisticated counterfeits have been found in several Asian countries such as Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam, and are a major cause of avoidable death in those countries. The WHO said that studies indicate that up to 40% of artesunate-based malaria medications are counterfeit, especially in the Greater Mekong region. They have established a rapid alert system to rapidly report information about counterfeit drugs to relevant authorities in participating countries. There is no reliable way for doctors or lay people to detect counterfeit drugs without help from a laboratory. Companies are attempting to combat the persistence of counterfeit drugs by using new technology to provide security from source to distribution. Another clinical and public health concern is the proliferation of substandard antimalarial medicines resulting from inappropriate concentration of ingredients, contamination with other drugs or toxic impurities, poor quality ingredients, poor stability and inadequate packaging. A 2012 study demonstrated that roughly one-third of antimalarial medications in Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa failed chemical analysis, packaging analysis, or were falsified. War Throughout history, the contraction of malaria has played a prominent role in the fates of government rulers, nation-states, military personnel, and military actions. In 1910, Nobel Prize in Medicine-winner Ronald Ross (himself a malaria survivor), published a book titled The Prevention of Malaria that included a chapter titled "The Prevention of Malaria in War." The chapter's author, Colonel C. H. Melville, Professor of Hygiene at Royal Army Medical College in London, addressed the prominent role that malaria has historically played during wars: "The history of malaria in war might almost be taken to be the history of war itself, certainly the history of war in the Christian era. ... It is probably the case that many of the so-called camp fevers, and probably also a considerable proportion of the camp dysentery, of the wars of the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were malarial in origin." In British-occupied India the cocktail gin and tonic may have come about as a way of taking quinine, known for its antimalarial properties. Malaria was the most significant health hazard encountered by U.S. troops in the South Pacific during World War II, where about 500,000 men were infected. According to Joseph Patrick Byrne, "Sixty thousand American soldiers died of malaria during the African and South Pacific campaigns." Significant financial investments have been made to procure existing and create new antimalarial agents. During World War I and World War II, inconsistent supplies of the natural antimalaria drugs cinchona bark and quinine prompted substantial funding into research and development of other drugs and vaccines. American military organisations conducting such research initiatives include the Navy Medical Research Center, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, and the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases of the US Armed Forces. Additionally, initiatives have been founded such as Malaria Control in War Areas (MCWA), established in 1942, and its successor, the Communicable Disease Center (now known as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, or CDC) established in 1946. According to the CDC, MCWA "was established to control malaria around military training bases in the southern United States and its territories, where malaria was still problematic". Research The Malaria Eradication Research Agenda (malERA) initiative was a consultative process to identify which areas of research and development (R&D) must be addressed for worldwide eradication of malaria. Vaccine A vaccine against malaria called RTS,S/AS01 (RTS,S) was approved by European regulators in 2015. As of 2019 it is undergoing pilot trials in 3 sub-Saharan African countries – Ghana, Kenya and Malawi – as part of the WHO's Malaria Vaccine Implementation Programme (MVIP). Immunity (or, more accurately, tolerance) to P. falciparum malaria does occur naturally, but only in response to years of repeated infection. An individual can be protected from a P. falciparum infection if they receive about a thousand bites from mosquitoes that carry a version of the parasite rendered non-infective by a dose of X-ray irradiation. The highly polymorphic nature of many P. falciparum proteins results in significant challenges to vaccine design. Vaccine candidates that target antigens on gametes, zygotes, or ookinetes in the mosquito midgut aim to block the transmission of malaria. These transmission-blocking vaccines induce antibodies in the human blood; when a mosquito takes a blood meal from a protected individual, these antibodies prevent the parasite from completing its development in the mosquito. Other vaccine candidates, targeting the blood-stage of the parasite's life cycle, have been inadequate on their own. For example, SPf66 was tested extensively in areas where the disease was common in the 1990s, but trials showed it to be insufficiently effective. In 2021, researchers from the University of Oxford reported findings from a Phase IIb trial of a candidate malaria vaccine, R21/Matrix-M, which demonstrated efficacy of 77% over 12-months of follow-up. This vaccine is the first to meet the World Health Organization's Malaria Vaccine Technology Roadmap goal of a vaccine with at least 75% efficacy. Medications Malaria parasites contain apicoplasts, organelles related to the plastids found in plants, complete with their own genomes. These apicoplasts are thought to have originated through the endosymbiosis of algae and play a crucial role in various aspects of parasite metabolism, such as fatty acid biosynthesis. Over 400 proteins have been found to be produced by apicoplasts and these are now being investigated as possible targets for novel antimalarial drugs. With the onset of drug-resistant Plasmodium parasites, new strategies are being developed to combat the widespread disease. One such approach lies in the introduction of synthetic pyridoxal-amino acid adducts, which are taken up by the parasite and ultimately interfere with its ability to create several essential B vitamins. Antimalarial drugs using synthetic metal-based complexes are attracting research interest. (+)-SJ733: Part of a wider class of experimental drugs called spiroindolone. It inhibits the ATP4 protein of infected red blood cells that cause the cells to shrink and become rigid like the aging cells. This triggers the immune system to eliminate the infected cells from the system as demonstrated in a mouse model. As of 2014, a Phase 1 clinical trial to assess the safety profile in human is planned by the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. NITD246 and NITD609: Also belonged to the class of spiroindolone and target the ATP4 protein. On the basis of molecular docking outcomes, compounds 3j, 4b, 4h, 4m were exhibited selectivity towards PfLDH. The post docking analysis displayed stable dynamic behavior of all the selected compounds compared to Chloroquine. The end state thermodynamics analysis stated 3j compound as a selective and potent PfLDH inhibitor. New targets Targeting Plasmodium liver-stage parasites selectively is emerging as an alternative strategy in the face of resistance to the latest frontline combination therapies against blood stages of the parasite. In a research conducted in 2019, using experimental analysis with knockout (KO) mutants of Plasmodium berguei the authors were able to identify genes that are potentially essential in the liver stage. Moreover, they generated a computational model to analyse pre–erytrocytic development and liver–stage metabolism. Combining both methods they identified seven metabolic subsystems that become essential compared to the blood stage. Some of these metabolic pathways are fatty acid synthesis and elongation, tricarboxylic acid, amino acid and heme metabolism among others. Specifically, they studied 3 subsystems: fatty acid synthesis and elongation, and amino sugar biosynthesis. For the first two pathways they demonstrated a clear dependence of the liver stage on its own fatty acid metabolism. They proved for the first time the critical role of amino sugar biosynthesis in the liver stage of P. berghei. The uptake of N–acetyl–glucosamine appears to be limited in the liver stage, being its synthesis needed for the parasite development. These findings and the computational model provide a basis for the design of antimalarial therapies targeting metabolic proteins. Other A non-chemical vector control strategy involves genetic manipulation of malaria mosquitoes. Advances in genetic engineering technologies make it possible to introduce foreign DNA into the mosquito genome and either decrease the lifespan of the mosquito, or make it more resistant to the malaria parasite. Sterile insect technique is a genetic control method whereby large numbers of sterile male mosquitoes are reared and released. Mating with wild females reduces the wild population in the subsequent generation; repeated releases eventually eliminate the target population. Genomics is central to malaria research. With the sequencing of P. falciparum, one of its vectors Anopheles gambiae, and the human genome, the genetics of all three organisms in the malaria life cycle can be studied. Another new application of genetic technology is the ability to produce genetically modified mosquitoes that do not transmit malaria, potentially allowing biological control of malaria transmission. In one study, a genetically modified strain of Anopheles stephensi was created that no longer supported malaria transmission, and this resistance was passed down to mosquito offspring. Gene drive is a technique for changing wild populations, for instance to combat or eliminate insects so they cannot transmit diseases (in particular mosquitoes in the cases of malaria, zika, dengue and yellow fever). In December 2020, a review article found that malaria-endemic regions had lower reported COVID-19 case fatality rates on average than regions where malaria was not known to be endemic. Other animals While there are no animal reservoirs for the strains of malaria that cause human infections, nearly 200 parasitic Plasmodium species have been identified that infect birds, reptiles, and other mammals, and about 30 species naturally infect non-human primates. Some malaria parasites that affect non-human primates (NHP) serve as model organisms for human malarial parasites, such as P. coatneyi (a model for P. falciparum) and P. cynomolgi (P. vivax). Diagnostic techniques used to detect parasites in NHP are similar to those employed for humans. Malaria parasites that infect rodents are widely used as models in research, such as P. berghei. Avian malaria primarily affects species of the order Passeriformes, and poses a substantial threat to birds of Hawaii, the Galapagos, and other archipelagoes. The parasite P. relictum is known to play a role in limiting the distribution and abundance of endemic Hawaiian birds. Global warming is expected to increase the prevalence and global distribution of avian malaria, as elevated temperatures provide optimal conditions for parasite reproduction. References Citations Sources Further reading External links WHO site on malaria CDC site on malaria PAHO site on malaria Malaria Insect-borne diseases Infectious diseases with eradication efforts Protozoal diseases Tropical diseases Vaccine-preventable diseases

20424

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar%20phase

Lunar phase

The lunar phase or Moon phase is the shape of the Moon's directly sunlit portion as viewed from Earth. The lunar phases gradually change over a synodic month (about 29.53 days) as the Moon's orbital positions around Earth and Earth around the Sun shift. The visible side of the moon is variously sunlit, depending on the position of the Moon in its orbit. Thus, this face's sunlit portion can vary from 0% (at new moon) to 100% (at full moon). Each of the four "intermediate" lunar phases (see below) is approximately 7.4 days, with +/- 19 hours in variation (6.58-8.24 days) due to the Moon's orbit's elliptical shape. Phases of the Moon There are four principal lunar phases: the new moon, first quarter, full moon, and last quarter (also known as third or final quarter), when the Moon's ecliptic longitude is at an angle to the Sun (as viewed from the centre of the Earth) of 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°, respectively. Each of these phases appears at slightly different times at different locations on Earth. During the intervals between principal phases are intermediate phases, during which the Moon's apparent shape is either crescent or gibbous. On average, the intermediate phases last one-quarter of a synodic month, or 7.38 days. The descriptor waxing is used for an intermediate phase when the Moon's apparent shape is thickening, from new to a full moon, and waning when the shape is thinning. The longest duration between full moon to new moon (or new moon to full moon) lasts about 15 days and hours, while the shortest duration between full moon to new moon (or new moon to full moon) lasts only about 13 days and hours. A new moon appears highest on the summer solstice and lowest on the winter solstice. A first quarter moon appears highest on the spring equinox and lowest on the autumn equinox. A full moon appears highest on the winter solstice and lowest on the summer solstice. A last quarter moon appears highest on the autumn equinox and lowest on the spring equinox. Non-Western cultures may use a different number of lunar phases; for example, traditional Hawaiian culture has a total of 30 phases (one per day). Waxing and waning When the Sun and Moon are aligned on the same side of the Earth, the Moon is "new", and the side of the Moon facing Earth is not illuminated by the Sun. As the Moon waxes (the amount of illuminated surface as seen from Earth is increasing), the lunar phases progress through new moon, crescent moon, first-quarter moon, gibbous moon, and full moon. The Moon is then said to wane as it passes through the gibbous moon, third-quarter moon, crescent moon, and back to new moon. The terms old moon and new moon are not interchangeable. The "old moon" is a waning sliver (which eventually becomes undetectable to the naked eye) until the moment it aligns with the Sun and begins to wax, at which point it becomes new again. Half moon is often used to mean the first- and third-quarter moons, while the term quarter refers to the extent of the Moon's cycle around the Earth, not its shape. When an illuminated hemisphere is viewed from a certain angle, the portion of the illuminated area that is visible will have a two-dimensional shape as defined by the intersection of an ellipse and circle (in which the ellipse's major axis coincides with the circle's diameter). If the half-ellipse is convex with respect to the half-circle, then the shape will be gibbous (bulging outwards), whereas if the half-ellipse is concave with respect to the half-circle, then the shape will be a crescent. When a crescent moon occurs, the phenomenon of earthshine may be apparent, where the night side of the Moon dimly reflects indirect sunlight reflected from Earth. Orientation by latitude In the Northern Hemisphere, if the left (east) side of the Moon is dark, then the bright part is thickening, and the Moon is described as waxing (shifting toward full moon). If the right (west) side of the Moon is dark, then the bright part is thinning, and the Moon is described as waning (past full and shifting toward new moon). Assuming that the viewer is in the Northern Hemisphere, the right side of the Moon is the part that is always waxing. (That is, if the right side is dark, the Moon is becoming darker; if the right side is lit, the Moon is getting brighter.) In the Southern Hemisphere, the Moon is observed from a perspective inverted, or rotated 180°, to that of the Northern and to all of the images in this article, so that the opposite sides appear to wax or wane. Closer to the Equator, the lunar terminator will appear horizontal during the morning and evening. Since the above descriptions of the lunar phases only apply at middle or high latitudes, observers moving towards the tropics from northern or southern latitudes will see the Moon rotated anti-clockwise or clockwise with respect to the images in this article. The lunar crescent can open upward or downward, with the "horns" of the crescent pointing up or down, respectively. When the Sun appears above the Moon in the sky, the crescent opens downward; when the Moon is above the Sun, the crescent opens upward. The crescent Moon is most clearly and brightly visible when the Sun is below the horizon, which implies that the Moon must be above the Sun, and the crescent must open upward. This is therefore the orientation in which the crescent Moon is most often seen from the tropics. The waxing and waning crescents look very similar. The waxing crescent appears in the western sky in the evening, and the waning crescent in the eastern sky in the morning. Earthshine When the Moon as seen from Earth is a thin crescent, Earth as viewed from the Moon is almost fully lit by the Sun. Often, the dark side of the Moon is dimly illuminated by indirect sunlight reflected from Earth, but is bright enough to be easily visible from Earth. This phenomenon is called earthshine and sometimes picturesquely described as "the old moon in the new moon's arms" or "the new moon in the old moon's arms". Calendar The Gregorian calendar month, which is of a tropical year, is about 30.44 days, while the cycle of lunar phases (the Moon's synodic period) repeats every 29.53 days on average. The shortest cycle was on 20 July 1978 and it only took 29.27 days to complete the cycle. The longest cycle will take place on 19 January 2049 and it will take 29.83 days. Therefore, the timing of the lunar phases shifts by an average of almost one day for each successive month. (A lunar year lasts about 354 or 355 days.) Photographing the Moon's phase every day for a month (starting in the evening after sunset, and repeating roughly 24 hours and 50 minutes later, and ending in the morning before sunrise) and arranging the series of photos on a calendar would create a composite image like the example calendar (May 8 – June 6, 2005) shown on the left. May 20 is blank because a picture would be taken before midnight on May 19 and the next after midnight on May 21. Similarly, on a calendar listing moonrise or moonset times, some days will appear to be skipped. When moonrise precedes midnight one night, the next moonrise will follow midnight on the next night (so too with moonset). The "skipped day" is just a feature of the Moon's eastward movement in relation to the Sun, which at most latitudes, causes the Moon to rise later each day. The Moon follows a predictable orbit every month. Calculating phase Each of the four intermediate phases lasts approximately seven days (7.38 days on average), but varies ±11.25% due to lunar apogee and perigee. The number of days counted from the time of the new moon is the Moon's "age". Each complete cycle of phases is called a "lunation". The approximate age of the Moon, and hence the approximate phase, can be calculated for any date by calculating the number of days since a known new moon (such as January 1, 1900 or August 11, 1999) and reducing this modulo 29.53059 days (the mean length of a synodic month). The difference between two dates can be calculated by subtracting the Julian day number of one from that of the other, or there are simpler formulae giving (for instance) the number of days since December 31, 1899. However, this calculation assumes a perfectly circular orbit and makes no allowance for the time of day at which the new moon occurred and therefore may be incorrect by several hours. (It also becomes less accurate the larger the difference between the required date and the reference date). It is accurate enough to use in a novelty clock application showing lunar phase, but specialist usage taking account of lunar apogee and perigee requires a more elaborate calculation. Effect of parallax The Earth subtends an angle of about two degrees when seen from the Moon. This means that an observer on Earth who sees the Moon when it is close to the eastern horizon sees it from an angle that is about 2 degrees different from the line of sight of an observer who sees the Moon on the western horizon. The Moon moves about 12 degrees around its orbit per day, so, if these observers were stationary, they would see the phases of the Moon at times that differ by about one-sixth of a day, or 4 hours. But in reality, the observers are on the surface of the rotating Earth, so someone who sees the Moon on the eastern horizon at one moment sees it on the western horizon about 12 hours later. This adds an oscillation to the apparent progression of the lunar phases. They appear to occur more slowly when the Moon is high in the sky than when it is below the horizon. The Moon appears to move jerkily, and the phases do the same. The amplitude of this oscillation is never more than about four hours, which is a small fraction of a month. It does not have any obvious effect on the appearance of the Moon. It does however affect accurate calculations of the times of lunar phases. Misconceptions Orbital period It can be confusing that the moon’s orbital period is 27.3 days while the phases complete a cycle once every 29.5 days. This is due to the Earth’s rotation around the Sun. The Moon orbits the Earth 13.4 times a year, but only passes between the Earth and Sun 12.4 times. Eclipses It might be expected that once every month, when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun during a new moon, its shadow would fall on Earth causing a solar eclipse, but this does not happen every month. Nor is it true that during every full moon, the Earth's shadow falls on the Moon, causing a lunar eclipse. Solar and lunar eclipses are not observed every month because the plane of the Moon's orbit around the Earth is tilted by about 5° with respect to the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun (the plane of the ecliptic). Thus, when new and full moons occur, the Moon usually lies to the north or south of a direct line through the Earth and Sun. Although an eclipse can only occur when the Moon is either new (solar) or full (lunar), it must also be positioned very near the intersection of Earth's orbital plane about the Sun and the Moon's orbital plane about the Earth (that is, at one of its nodes). This happens about twice per year, and so there are between four and seven eclipses in a calendar year. Most of these eclipses are partial; total eclipses of the Moon or Sun are less frequent. See also . (Also known as a "lunation".) Footnotes References Bibliography External links Fred Espenak, Six Millennium Catalog of Phases of the Moon: Moon Phases from -1999 to +4000 (2000 BCE to 4000 CE). Observational astronomy Technical factors of astrology Articles containing video clips

20426

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonic%20cycle

Metonic cycle

The Metonic cycle or enneadecaeteris (from , from ἐννεακαίδεκα, "nineteen") is a period of almost exactly 19 years after which the lunar phases recur at the same time of the year. The recurrence is not perfect, and by precise observation the Metonic cycle defined as 235 synodic months is just 1 hour, 27 minutes and 33 seconds longer than 19 tropical years. Meton of Athens, in the 5th century BC, judged the cycle to be a whole number of days, 6,940. Using these whole numbers facilitates the construction of a lunisolar calendar. A tropical year is longer than 12 lunar months and shorter than 13 of them. The arithmetic identity 12×12 + 7×13 = 235 allows it to be seen that a combination of 12 "short" years (12 months) and 7 "long" years (13 months) will be almost exactly equal to 19 solar years. Application in traditional calendars In the Babylonian and Hebrew lunisolar calendars, the years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19 are the long (13-month) years of the Metonic cycle. This cycle forms the basis of the Greek and Hebrew calendars, and is used for the computation of the date of Easter each year. The Babylonians applied the 19-year cycle since the late sixth century BC. According to Livy, the second king of Rome, Numa Pompilius (reigned 715–673 BC), inserted intercalary months in such a way that "in the twentieth year the days should fall in with the same position of the sun from which they had started." As "the twentieth year" takes place nineteen years after "the first year", this seems to indicate that the Metonic cycle was applied to Numa's calendar. Diodorus Siculus reports that Apollo is said to have visited the Hyperboreans once every 19 years. The Metonic cycle has been implemented in the Antikythera mechanism which offers unexpected evidence for the popularity of the calendar based on it. The (19-year) Metonic cycle is a lunisolar cycle, as is the (76-year) Callippic cycle. An important example of an application of the Metonic cycle in the Julian calendar is the 19-year lunar cycle insofar as provided with a Metonic structure. In the following century, Callippus developed the Callippic cycle of four 19-year periods for a 76-year cycle with a mean year of exactly 365.25 days. Around AD 260 the Alexandrian computist Anatolius, who became bishop of Laodicea in AD 268, was the first to devise a method for determining the date of Easter Sunday. However, it was some later, somewhat different, version of the Metonic 19-year lunar cycle which, as the basic structure of Dionysius Exiguus’ and also of Bede’s Easter table, would ultimately prevail throughout Christendom, at least until in the year 1582, when the Gregorian calendar was introduced. The Celts knew the Metonic cycle thousands of years ago, as evidenced by artifacts such as the Knowth Calendar Stone. It was almost certainly the basis for the 19-year so-called Celtic Great Year. The Runic calendar is a perpetual calendar based on the 19-year-long Metonic cycle. It is also known as a Rune staff or Runic Almanac. This calendar does not rely on knowledge of the duration of the tropical year or of the occurrence of leap years. It is set at the beginning of each year by observing the first full moon after the winter solstice. The oldest one known, and the only one from the Middle Ages, is the Nyköping staff, which is believed to date from the 13th century. The Bahá'í calendar, established during the middle of the 19th century, is also based on cycles of 19 solar years. In China, the traditional Chinese calendar used the Metonic cycle ever since the first known ancient China calendar. The cycle was continually used until the 5th century when it was replaced by more accurate determinations. Hebrew calendar A Small Mahzor (Hebrew מחזור, , meaning "cycle") is a 19-year cycle in the lunisolar calendar system used by the Jewish people. It is similar to, but slightly different in usage with, the Greek Metonic cycle, and likely derived from or alongside the much earlier Babylonian calendar. Three ancient civilizations (Babylonia, China and Israel) used lunisolar calendars and knew of the rule of the intercalation from as early as 2000 BC. Whether or not the correlation indicates cause-and-effect relationship is an open question. Polynesia It is possible that the polynesian kilo-hoku (astronomers) discovered the 'Metonic cycle' in the same way Meton had, by trying to make the month fit the year. Mathematical basis The Metonic Cycle is the shortest cycle of time over which the synodic month and tropical year roughly synchronize, calculated by finding the least common multiple of the number of days in each. Tropical year = 365.24219879 days. 365.24219879 x 19 = 6,939.602 days (every 19 years) Synodic month = 29.53058868 days. 29.53058868 x 235 = 6,939.688 days (every 235 months) The difference between 19 solar years and 235 lunar months is only about two hours, or 0.086 days per cycle, resulting in a full day of delay every 219 years (12.4 parts per million), roughly twelve cycles. This error is far smaller than that of previously calendrical schedules, though still imperfect. 19 years * 12 months = 228 months per cycle following the traditional 12 month schema, 7 months short of the 235 months that results in synchronization. To solve this, seven intercalary months are added each nineteen year cycle to amount to the 235 months required. The lunar year is ~354 days, approximately 11 days short of the solar year. Thus, every 2-3 years there is a discrepancy of an approximate full lunar month. In order to 'catch up' to this discrepancy, the seven intercalary months are added at an interval of every 2-3 years in order to maintain seasonal consistency and prevent dramatic shifts over time. Further details The Metonic cycle is related to two less accurate subcycles: 8 years = 99 lunations (an Octaeteris) minus approximately 1.591 days, i.e. a negative error of one day in 5 years; and 11 years = 136 lunations plus approximately 1.504 days, i.e. an error of one day in 7.3 years. By combining appropriate numbers of 11-year and 19-year periods, it is possible to generate ever more accurate cycles. For example, combining 17 Metonic cycles with one 11-year cycle gives: 334 tropical years ≈ 121990.89 days 4131 lunations ≈ 121990.86 days This gives an error of only about half an hour in 334 years, although this is subject to secular variation in the length of the tropical year and the lunation. At the time of Meton, axial precession had not yet been discovered, and he could not distinguish between sidereal years (currently: 365.256363 days) and tropical years (currently: 365.242190 days). Most calendars, like the commonly used Gregorian calendar, are based on the tropical year and attempt to maintain the seasons at the same calendar times each year. The Metonic cycle also aligns closely with other periods: 254 sidereal months (lunar orbits) = 6,939.702 days 255 draconic months (lunar nodes) = 6,939.1161 days. 20.021 eclipse years (40 eclipse seasons) Being close (to somewhat more than half a day) to 255 draconic months, the Metonic cycle is also an eclipse cycle, which lasts only for about 4 or 5 recurrences of eclipses. The Octon is of a Metonic cycle (47 synodic months, 3.8 years), and it recurs about 20 to 25 cycles. This cycle seems to be a coincidence. The periods of the Moon's orbit around the Earth and the Earth's orbit around the Sun are independent, not to have any known physical resonance, and in fact the length of the month has been increasing over millions of years due to tidal acceleration. (An example of a non-coincidental cycle is the orbit of Mercury, with its 3:2 spin-orbit resonance.) See also Octaeteris (8-year cycle of antiquity) Callippic cycle (76-year cycle from 330 BC) Hipparchic cycle (304-year cycle from 2nd century BC) Saros cycle of eclipses Attic and Byzantine calendar Julian day Computus Notes References Mathematical Astronomy Morsels, Jean Meeus, Willmann-Bell, Inc., 1997 (Chapter 9, p. 51, Table 9. A Some eclipse Periodicities) C. Philipp E. Nothaft (2012) Dating the Passion (The Life of Jesus and the Emergence of Scientific Chronology (200-1600), Leiden ) Daniel P. Mc Carthy & Aidan Breen (2003) The ante-Nicene Christian Pasch De ratione paschali (The Paschal tract of Anatolius, bishop of Laodicea): Dublin () Georges Declercq (2000) Anno Domini (The Origins of the Christian Era): Turnhout () Rubellite Kawena Johnson (2001) ESSAYS IN HAWAIIAN LITERATURE Part I Origin Myths and Migration Traditions (p. 238) External links Eclipses, Cosmic Clockwork of the Ancients Ancient Greek astronomy Time in astronomy Periodic phenomena Calendars

20427

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March%2026

March 26

Events Pre-1600 590 – Emperor Maurice proclaims his son Theodosius as co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire. 1021 – On the feast of Eid al-Adha, the death of the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, kept secret for six weeks, is announced, along with the succession of his son, al-Zahir li-i'zaz Din Allah. On the same day, al-Hakim's designated heir, Abd al-Rahim ibn Ilyas, is arrested in Damascus and brought to Egypt. 1027 – Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor. 1169 – Saladin becomes the emir of Egypt. 1344 – The Siege of Algeciras, one of the first European military engagements where gunpowder was used, comes to an end. 1351 – Combat of the Thirty: Thirty Breton knights call out and defeat thirty English knights. 1484 – William Caxton prints his translation of Aesop's Fables. 1552 – Guru Amar Das becomes the Third Sikh guru. 1601–1900 1636 – Utrecht University is founded in the Netherlands. 1651 – Silver-loaded Spanish ship San José is pushed south by strong winds, subsequently it wrecks in the coast of southern Chile and its surviving crew is killed by indigenous Cuncos. 1697 – Safavid government troops take control of Basra. 1700 – William Dampier is the first European to circumnavigate New Britain, discovering it is an island (which he names Nova Britannia) rather than part of New Guinea. 1812 – An earthquake devastates Caracas, Venezuela. 1812 – A political cartoon in the Boston Gazette coins the term "gerrymander" to describe oddly shaped electoral districts designed to help incumbents win reelection. 1830 – The Book of Mormon is published in Palmyra, New York. 1839 – The first Henley Royal Regatta is held. 1871 – The elections of Commune council of the Paris Commune are held. 1885 – The Métis people of the District of Saskatchewan under Louis Riel begin the North-West Rebellion against Canada. 1896 – An explosion at the Brunner Mine near Greymouth, New Zealand kills 65 coal miners in the country's worst industrial accident. 1901–present 1913 – First Balkan War: Bulgarian forces capture Adrianople. 1915 – The Vancouver Millionaires win the 1915 Stanley Cup Finals, the first championship played between the Pacific Coast Hockey Association and the National Hockey Association. 1917 – World War I: First Battle of Gaza: British troops are halted after 17,000 Turks block their advance. 1922 – The German Social Democratic Party is founded in Poland. 1931 – Swissair is founded as the national airline of Switzerland. 1931 – Ho Chi Minh Communist Youth Union is founded in Vietnam. 1934 – The United Kingdom driving test is introduced. 1939 – Spanish Civil War: Nationalists begin their final offensive of the war. 1942 – World War II: The first female prisoners arrive at Auschwitz concentration camp in German-occupied Poland. 1945 – World War II: The Battle of Iwo Jima ends as the island is officially secured by American forces. 1954 – Nuclear weapons testing: The Romeo shot of Operation Castle is detonated at Bikini Atoll. Yield: 11 megatons. 1958 – The United States Army launches Explorer 3. 1958 – The African Regroupment Party is launched at a meeting in Paris. 1967 – Ten thousand people gather for one of many Central Park be-ins in New York City. 1970 – South Vietnamese President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu implements a land reform program to solve the problem of land tenancy. 1971 – East Pakistan declares its independence from Pakistan to form Bangladesh and the Bangladesh Liberation War begins. 1975 – The Biological Weapons Convention comes into force. 1979 – Anwar al-Sadat, Menachem Begin and Jimmy Carter sign the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty in Washington, D.C. 1981 – Social Democratic Party (UK) is founded as a party. 1982 – A groundbreaking ceremony for the Vietnam Veterans Memorial is held in Washington, D.C. 1991 – Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and Paraguay sign the Treaty of Asunción, establishing Mercosur, the South Common Market. 1997 – Thirty-nine bodies are found in the Heaven's Gate mass suicides. 1998 – During the Algerian Civil War, the Oued Bouaicha massacre sees fifty-two people, mostly infants, killed with axes and knives. 2005 – Around 200,000 to 300,000 Taiwanese demonstrate in Taipei in opposition to the Anti-Secession Law of China. 2010 – The South Korean Navy corvette Cheonan is torpedoed, killing 46 sailors. After an international investigation, the President of the United Nations Security Council blames North Korea. 2017 – Russia-wide anti-corruption protests in 99 cities. The Levada Center survey showed that 38% of surveyed Russians supported protests and that 67 percent held Putin personally responsible for high-level corruption. Births Pre-1600 1516 – Conrad Gessner, Swiss botanist and zoologist (d. 1565) 1554 – Charles of Lorraine, duke of Mayenne (d. 1611) 1584 – John II, duke of Zweibrücken (d. 1635) 1601–1900 1633 – Mary Beale, British artist (d. 1699) 1634 – Domenico Freschi, Italian priest and composer (d. 1710) 1656 – Nicolaas Hartsoeker, Dutch mathematician and physicist (d. 1725) 1687 – Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, queen consort of Prussia (d. 1757) 1698 – Prokop Diviš, Czech priest, scientist and inventor (d. 1765) 1749 – William Blount, American politician (d. 1800) 1753 – Benjamin Thompson, American-French physicist and politician, Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies (d. 1814) 1773 – Nathaniel Bowditch, American mathematician and navigator (d. 1838) 1794 – Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld, German painter (d. 1872) 1804 – David Humphreys Storer, American physician and academic (d. 1891) 1824 – Julie-Victoire Daubié, French journalist (d. 1874) 1829 – Théodore Aubanel, French poet (d. 1886) 1830 – Dewitt Clinton Senter, American politician, 18th Governor of Tennessee (d. 1898) 1842 – Alexandre Saint-Yves d'Alveydre, French occultist (d. 1909) 1850 – Edward Bellamy, American author, socialist, and utopian visionary (d. 1898) 1852 – Élémir Bourges, French author (d. 1925) 1854 – Maurice Lecoq, French target shooter (d. 1925) 1856 – William Massey, Irish-New Zealand farmer and politician, 19th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1925) 1857 – Théodore Tuffier, French surgeon (d. 1929) 1859 – A. E. Housman, English poet and scholar (d. 1936) 1859 – Adolf Hurwitz, Jewish German-Swiss mathematician and academic (d. 1919) 1860 – André Prévost, French tennis player (d. 1919) 1866 – Fred Karno, English producer and manager (d. 1941) 1868 – King Fuad I of Egypt (d. 1936) 1873 – Dorothea Bleek, South African-German anthropologist and philologist (d. 1948) 1874 – Robert Frost, American poet and playwright (d. 1963) 1875 – Max Abraham, Polish-German physicist and academic (d. 1922) 1875 – Syngman Rhee, South Korean journalist and politician, 1st President of South Korea (d. 1965) 1876 – William of Wied, prince of Albania (d. 1945) 1876 – Kate Richards O'Hare, American Socialist Party activist and editor (d. 1948) 1879 – Othmar Ammann, Swiss-American engineer, designed the George Washington Bridge and Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge (d. 1965) 1879 – Waldemar Tietgens, German rower (d. 1917) 1881 – Guccio Gucci, Italian fashion designer, founded Gucci (d. 1953) 1882 – Hermann Obrecht, Swiss politician (d. 1940) 1884 – Wilhelm Backhaus, German pianist and educator (d. 1969) 1884 – Georges Imbert, French chemical engineer and inventor (d. 1950) 1886 – Hugh Mulzac, Vincentian-American soldier and politician (d. 1971) 1888 – Elsa Brändström, Swedish nurse and philanthropist (d. 1948) 1893 – James Bryant Conant, American chemist, academic, and diplomat, 1st United States Ambassador to West Germany (d. 1978) 1893 – Palmiro Togliatti, Italian journalist and politician, Italian Minister of Justice (d. 1964) 1894 – Viorica Ursuleac, Ukrainian-Romanian soprano and actress (d. 1985) 1895 – Vilho Tuulos, Finnish triple jumper (d. 1967) 1898 – Rudolf Dassler, German businessman, founded Puma SE (d. 1974) 1898 – Charles Shadwell, English conductor and bandleader (d. 1979) 1900 – Angela Maria Autsch, German nun, murdered in Auschwitz helping Jewish prisoners (d. 1941) 1901–present 1904 – Joseph Campbell, American mythologist and author (d. 1987) 1904 – Emilio Fernández, Mexican actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1986) 1904 – Attilio Ferraris, Italian footballer (d. 1947) 1905 – Monty Berman, English cinematographer and producer (d. 2006) 1905 – André Cluytens, Belgian-French conductor and director (d. 1967) 1905 – Viktor Frankl, Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist (d. 1997) 1906 – Rafael Méndez, Mexican trumpet player and composer (d. 1981) 1907 – Azellus Denis, Canadian lawyer and politician, Postmaster General of Canada (d. 1991) 1907 – Mahadevi Varma, Indian poet and activist (d. 1987) 1908 – Franz Stangl, Austrian-German SS officer (d. 1971) 1909 – Chips Rafferty, Australian actor (d. 1971) 1910 – K. W. Devanayagam, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, 10th Sri Lankan Minister of Justice (d. 2002) 1911 – Lennart Atterwall, Swedish javelin thrower (d. 2001) 1911 – J. L. Austin, English philosopher and academic (d. 1960) 1911 – Bernard Katz, German-English biophysicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2003) 1911 – Tennessee Williams, American playwright, and poet (d. 1983) 1913 – Jacqueline de Romilly, Jewish Franco-Greek philologist, author, and scholar (d. 2010) 1913 – Paul Erdős, Hungarian-Polish mathematician and academic (d. 1996) 1914 – Toru Kumon, Japanese mathematician and academic (d. 1995) 1914 – William Westmoreland, American general (d. 2005) 1915 – Lennart Strandberg, Swedish sprinter (d. 1989) 1915 – Hwang Sun-won, North Korean author and poet (d. 2000) 1916 – Christian B. Anfinsen, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1995) 1916 – Bill Edrich, English cricketer and footballer (d. 1986) 1916 – Sterling Hayden, American actor and author (d. 1986) 1917 – Rufus Thomas, American R&B singer-songwriter (d. 2001) 1919 – Strother Martin, American actor (d. 1980) 1919 – Roger Leger, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1965) 1920 – Sergio Livingstone, Chilean footballer and journalist (d. 2012) 1922 – William Milliken, American politician, 44th Governor of Michigan (d. 2019) 1922 – Oscar Sala, Italian-Brazilian physicist and academic (d. 2010) 1922 – Guido Stampacchia, Italian mathematician and academic (d. 1978) 1923 – Gert Bastian, German general and politician (d. 1992) 1923 – Bob Elliott, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter (d. 2016) 1925 – Maqsood Ahmed, Pakistani cricketer (d. 1999) 1925 – Pierre Boulez, French pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 2016) 1925 – Vesta Roy, American politician, Governor of New Hampshire (d. 2002) 1925 – Edward Graham, Baron Graham of Edmonton, English soldier and politician (d. 2020) 1925 – Ben Mondor, Canadian-American businessman (d. 2010) 1925 – James Moody, American saxophonist and composer (d. 2010) 1927 – Harold Chapman, English photographer 1929 – Edward Sorel, American illustrator and caricaturist 1929 – Edwin Turney, American businessman, co-founded Advanced Micro Devices (d. 2008) 1930 – Sandra Day O'Connor, American lawyer and jurist 1930 – Gregory Corso, American poet (d. 2001) 1931 – Leonard Nimoy, American actor (d. 2015) 1932 – Leroy Griffith, American businessman 1932 – James Andrew Harris, American chemist and academic (d. 2000) 1933 – Tinto Brass, Italian director and screenwriter 1934 – Alan Arkin, American actor 1934 – Edvaldo Alves de Santa Rosa, Brazilian footballer (d. 2002) 1937 – Wayne Embry, American basketball player and manager 1937 – Barbara Jones, American sprinter 1937 – James Lee, Canadian businessman and politician, 26th Premier of Prince Edward Island 1938 – Norman Ackroyd, English painter and illustrator 1938 – Anthony James Leggett, English-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1940 – James Caan, American actor and singer 1940 – Nancy Pelosi, American lawyer and politician, 60th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives 1941 – Richard Dawkins, Kenyan-English ethologist, biologist, and academic 1941 – Lella Lombardi, Italian racing driver (d. 1992) 1942 – Erica Jong, American novelist and poet 1943 – Mustafa Kalemli, Turkish physician and politician, Turkish Minister of the Interior 1943 – Bob Woodward, American journalist and author 1944 – Diana Ross, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress 1945 – Paul Bérenger, Mauritian politician, Prime Minister of Mauritius 1945 – Mikhail Voronin, Russian gymnast and coach (d. 2004) 1946 – Johnny Crawford, American actor and singer (d. 2021) 1946 – Alain Madelin, French politician, French Minister of Finance 1947 – Subhash Kak, Indian-American professor and author 1947 – John Rowles, New Zealand-Australian singer-songwriter 1948 – Kyung-wha Chung, South Korean violinist and educator 1948 – Richard Tandy, English pianist and keyboard player 1948 – Steven Tyler, American singer-songwriter and actor 1949 – Jon English, English-Australian singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2016) 1949 – Rudi Koertzen, South African cricketer and umpire 1949 – Vicki Lawrence, American actress, comedian, talk show host, and singer 1949 – Fran Sheehan, American bass player 1949 – Patrick Süskind, German author and screenwriter 1949 – Ernest Lee Thomas, American actor 1950 – Teddy Pendergrass, American singer-songwriter (d. 2010) 1950 – Graham Barlow, English cricketer 1950 – Martin Short, Canadian-American actor, screenwriter, and producer 1950 – Alan Silvestri, American composer and conductor 1951 – Željko Pavličević, Croatian professional basketball coach and former professional player 1951 – Carl Wieman, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1952 – Didier Pironi, French racing driver (d. 1987) 1953 – Lincoln Chafee, American academic and politician, 74th Governor of Rhode Island 1953 – Elaine Chao, Taiwanese-American banker and politician, 24th United States Secretary of Labor 1953 – Tatyana Providokhina, Russian runner 1954 – Clive Palmer, Australian businessman and politician 1954 – Curtis Sliwa, American talk show host and activist, founded Guardian Angels 1954 – Dorothy Porter, Australian poet and playwright (d. 2008) 1956 – Charly McClain, American country music singer 1956 – Park Won-soon, South Korean lawyer and politician, 35th Mayor of Seoul 1957 – Fiona Bruce, Scottish lawyer and politician 1957 – Leeza Gibbons, American talk show host and television personality 1957 – Paul Morley, English journalist, producer, and author 1957 – Shirin Neshat, Iranian visual artist 1958 – Elio de Angelis, Italian racing driver (d. 1986) 1960 – Marcus Allen, American football player and sportscaster 1960 – Jennifer Grey, American actress and dancer 1960 – Graeme Rutjes, Australian-Dutch footballer 1961 – William Hague, English historian and politician, First Secretary of State 1962 – Richard Coles, English pianist, saxophonist, and priest 1962 – Kevin Seitzer, American baseball player and coach 1962 – Yuri Gidzenko, Russian pilot and cosmonaut 1962 – John Stockton, American basketball player and coach 1962 – Eric Allan Kramer, American-Canadian actor 1963 – Natsuhiko Kyogoku, Japanese author 1964 – Martin Bella, Australian rugby league player 1964 – Martin Donnelly, Irish racing driver 1964 – Maria Miller, English businessman and politician, Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport 1964 – Ulf Samuelsson, Swedish-American ice hockey player and coach 1965 – Trey Azagthoth, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer 1965 – Violeta Szekely, Romanian runner 1966 – Michael Imperioli, American actor and screenwriter 1967 – Jason Chaffetz, American politician 1968 – Laurent Brochard, French cyclist 1968 – Kenny Chesney, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1968 – James Iha, American guitarist and songwriter 1969 – Alessandro Moscardi, Italian rugby player 1970 – Paul Bosvelt, Dutch footballer 1970 – Jelle Goes, Dutch footballer and coach 1970 – Thomas Kyparissis, Greek footballer 1970 – Martin McDonagh, English-born Irish playwright, screenwriter, and director 1971 – Behzad Ghorbani, Iranian zoologist 1971 – Martyn Day, Scottish politician 1971 – Erick Morillo, Colombian-American DJ and producer (d. 2020) 1971 – Rennae Stubbs, Australian tennis player and sportscaster 1971 – Paul Williams, English footballer and manager 1972 – Leslie Mann, American actress 1972 – Jason Maxwell, American baseball player 1973 – Larry Page, American computer scientist and businessman, co-founder of Google 1973 – T. R. Knight, American actor 1974 – Irina Spîrlea, Romanian tennis player 1974 – Vadimas Petrenko, Lithuanian footballer 1974 – Michael Peca, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1976 – Amy Smart, American actress and former model 1976 – Alex Varas, Chilean footballer 1976 – Eirik Verås Larsen, Norwegian sprint kayaker 1977 – Kevin Davies, English footballer 1977 – Bianca Kajlich, American actress 1977 – Sylvain Grenier, Canadian wrestler 1978 – Anastasia Kostaki, Greek basketball player 1979 – Nacho Novo, Spanish footballer 1979 – Ben Blair, New Zealand rugby union footballer 1979 – Hiromi Uehara, Japanese pianist and composer 1979 – Pierre Womé, Cameroonian footballer 1979 – Juliana Paes, Brazilian actress 1980 – Margaret Brennan, American journalist 1980 – Son Ho-young, South Korean singer 1980 – Richie Wellens, English footballer 1981 – Sébastien Centomo, Canadian ice hockey player 1981 – Baruch Dego, Ethiopian-Israeli footballer 1981 – Massimo Donati, Italian footballer 1981 – Josh Wilson, American baseball player 1982 – Mikel Arteta, Spanish footballer 1982 – Brendan Ryan, American baseball player 1982 – Nate Kaeding, American football player 1983 – Andreas Hinkel, German footballer 1983 – Floriana Lima, American actress 1983 – Roman Bednář, Czech footballer 1983 – Mike Mondo, American wrestler 1984 – Jimmy Howard, American ice hockey player 1984 – Drew Mitchell, Australian rugby player 1984 – Felix Neureuther, German skier 1984 – Marco Stier, German footballer 1984 – Gregory Strydom, Zimbabwean cricketer 1984 – Sara Jean Underwood, American model, television host, and actress 1985 – Keira Knightley, English actress 1985 – Matt Grevers, American swimmer 1985 – Jonathan Groff, American actor and singer 1985 – Prosper Utseya, Zimbabwean cricketer 1986 – Maxime Biset, Belgian footballer 1986 – Rob Kearney, Irish rugby player 1986 – Emma Laine, Finnish tennis player 1987 – Kim Dong-suk, South Korean footballer 1987 – Jermichael Finley, American football player 1987 – Steven Fletcher, Scottish footballer 1989 – Simon Kjær, Danish footballer 1990 – Choi Woo-shik, South Korean actor 1990 – Patrick Ekeng, Cameroonian footballer (d. 2016) 1990 – Yuya Takaki, Japanese idol, singer, dancer, model and actor 1990 – Xiumin, South Korean singer and actor 1991 – Matt Davidson, American baseball player 1992 – Nina Agdal, Danish model 1992 – Stoffel Vandoorne, Belgian racing driver 1994 – Jed Wallace, English footballer 1996 – Zane Musgrove, New Zealand rugby league player 1996 – Kathryn Bernardo, Filipino actress 1998 – Satoko Miyahara, Japanese figure skater 2003 – Bhad Bhabie, American rapper and social media personality Deaths Pre-1600 752 – Pope-elect Stephen 809 – Ludger, Frisian missionary 903 – Sugawara no Michizane, Japanese poet 908 – Ai, emperor of the Tang Dynasty (b. 892) 922 – Mansur Al-Hallaj, Persian mystic and poet (b. 858) 929 – Wang Du, Chinese warlord and governor (jiedushi) 973 – Guntram ("the Rich"), Frankish nobleman 983 – 'Adud al-Dawla, Iranian ruler (b. 936) 1091 – Wallada bint al-Mustakfi, Andalusian poet 1130 – Sigurd the Crusader, Norwegian king (b. 1090) 1132 – Geoffrey of Vendôme, French cardinal and theologian (b. 1065) 1212 – Sancho I of Portugal (b. 1154) 1242 – William de Forz, 3rd Earl of Albemarle 1324 – Marie de Luxembourg, Queen of France (b. 1304) 1326 – Alessandra Giliani, anatomist (b. c. 1307) 1350 – Alfonso XI of Castile (b. 1312) 1402 – David Stewart, Duke of Rothesay, heir to the throne of Scotland (b. 1378) 1437 – Walter Stewart, Earl of Atholl, Scottish nobleman and regicide 1517 – Heinrich Isaac, Flemish composer (b. 1450) 1535 – Georg Tannstetter, Austrian mathematician, astronomer, and cartographer (b. 1482) 1546 – Thomas Elyot, English scholar and diplomat (b. 1490) 1566 – Antonio de Cabezón, Spanish organist and composer (b. 1510) 1601–1900 1625 – Giambattista Marini, Italian poet (b. 1569) 1649 – John Winthrop, English lawyer and politician, 2nd Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony 1679 – Johannes Schefferus, Swedish historian and author (b. 1621) 1697 – Godfrey McCulloch, Scottish politician (b. 1640) 1726 – John Vanbrugh, English playwright and architect, designed Blenheim Palace and Castle Howard (b. 1664) 1772 – Charles Pinot Duclos, French author and politician (b. 1704) 1776 – Samuel Ward, American jurist and politician, 31st Governor of the Colony of Rhode Island (b. 1725) 1780 – Charles I, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (b. 1713) 1793 – John Mudge, English physician and engineer (b. 1721) 1797 – James Hutton, Scottish geologist and physician (b. 1726) 1814 – Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, French physician and politician (b. 1738) 1827 – Ludwig van Beethoven, German pianist and composer (b. 1770) 1858 – John Addison Thomas, American lieutenant, engineer, and politician, 3rd United States Assistant Secretary of State (b. 1811) 1862 – Uriah P. Levy, American commander (b. 1792) 1881 – Roman Sanguszko, Polish general and activist (b. 1800) 1885 – Anson Stager, American general and businessman, co-founded Western Union (b. 1825) 1888 – Barghash bin Said of Zanzibar (b. 1837) 1892 – Walt Whitman, American poet, essayist, and journalist (b. 1819) 1901–present 1902 – Cecil Rhodes, English-South African colonialist, businessman and politician, 6th Prime Minister of the Cape Colony (b. 1853) 1905 – Maurice Barrymore, American actor (b. 1849) 1910 – Auguste Charlois, French astronomer (b. 1864) 1920 – William Chester Minor, American surgeon and lexicographer (b. 1834) 1923 – Sarah Bernhardt, French actress and screenwriter (b. 1844) 1926 – Constantin Fehrenbach, German lawyer and politician, Chancellor of Germany (b. 1852) 1932 – Henry M. Leland, American machinist, inventor, engineer, automotive entrepreneur and founder of Cadillac and Lincoln (b. 1843) 1934 – John Biller, American jumper and discus thrower (b. 1877) 1940 – Wilhelm Anderson, German-Estonian astrophysicist (b. 1880) 1940 – Spyridon Louis, Greek runner (b. 1873) 1942 – Jimmy Burke, American baseball player and manager (b. 1874) 1942 – Carolyn Wells, American novelist and poet (b. 1862) 1945 – David Lloyd George, English-Welsh lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863) 1951 – James F. Hinkle, American banker and politician, 6th Governor of New Mexico (b. 1864) 1954 – Charles Perrin, French rower (b. 1875) 1957 – Édouard Herriot, French politician, Prime Minister of France (b. 1872) 1957 – Max Ophüls, German-American director and screenwriter (b. 1902) 1958 – Phil Mead, English cricketer and footballer (b. 1887) 1959 – Raymond Chandler, American crime novelist and screenwriter (b. 1888) 1966 – Victor Hochepied, French swimmer (b. 1883) 1966 – Cyril Hume, American novelist and screenwriter (b. 1900) 1969 – John Kennedy Toole, American novelist (b. 1937) 1973 – Noël Coward, English playwright, actor, and composer (b. 1899) 1973 – Johnny Drake, American football player (b. 1916) 1979 – Beauford Delaney, American-French painter (b. 1901) 1979 – Jean Stafford, American author and academic (b. 1915) 1980 – Roland Barthes, French linguist and critic (b. 1915) 1983 – Anthony Blunt, English historian and spy (b. 1907) 1984 – Ahmed Sékou Touré, Guinean politician, 1st President of Guinea (b. 1922) 1987 – Eugen Jochum, German conductor (b. 1902) 1987 – Walter Abel, American actor (b. 1898) 1990 – Halston, American fashion designer (b. 1932) 1992 – Barbara Frum, American-Canadian journalist and radio host (b. 1937) 1993 – Louis Falco, American dancer and choreographer (b. 1942) 1995 – Eazy-E, American rapper and producer (b. 1964) 1996 – Edmund Muskie, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician, 58th United States Secretary of State (b. 1914) 1996 – David Packard, American engineer and businessman, co-founded Hewlett-Packard (b. 1912) 1996 – John Snagge, English journalist (b. 1904) 2000 – Alex Comfort, English physician and author (b. 1920) 2002 – Randy Castillo, American drummer and songwriter (b. 1950) 2003 – Daniel Patrick Moynihan, American sociologist and politician, 12th United States Ambassador to the United Nations (b. 1927) 2004 – Jan Sterling, American actress (b. 1921) 2005 – James Callaghan, English lieutenant and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1912) 2005 – Frederick Rotimi Williams, Nigerian lawyer and politician (b. 1920) 2006 – Anil Biswas, Indian journalist and politician (b. 1944) 2006 – Paul Dana, American racing driver (b. 1975) 2006 – Nikki Sudden, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1956) 2008 – Robert Fagles, American poet and academic (b. 1933) 2008 – Manuel Marulanda, Colombian rebel leader (b. 1930) 2009 – Shane McConkey, Canadian skier and BASE jumper (b. 1969) 2009 – Arne Bendiksen, Norwegian singer and composer (b. 1926) 2010 – Charles Ryskamp, American art collector and curator (b. 1928) 2011 – Roger Abbott, English-Canadian actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1946) 2011 – Geraldine Ferraro, American lawyer and politician (b. 1935) 2011 – Diana Wynne Jones, English author (b. 1934) 2012 – Sisto Averno, American football player (b. 1925) 2012 – Michael Begley, Irish carpenter and politician (b. 1932) 2012 – Thomas M. Cover, American theorist and academic (b. 1938) 2012 – David Craighead, American organist and educator (b. 1924) 2012 – Manik Godghate, Indian poet and educator (b. 1937) 2012 – Helmer Ringgren, Swedish theologian and academic (b. 1917) 2013 – Tom Boerwinkle, American basketball player and sportscaster (b. 1945) 2013 – Krzysztof Kozłowski, Polish journalist and politician, Polish Minister of Interior (b. 1931) 2013 – Dave Leggett, American baseball player (b. 1933) 2013 – Don Payne, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1964) 2014 – Roger Birkman, American psychologist and author (b. 1919) 2014 – Dick Guidry, American businessman and politician (b. 1929) 2014 – Marcus Kimball, Baron Kimball, English politician (b. 1928) 2015 – Dinkha IV, Iraqi patriarch (b. 1935) 2015 – Friedrich L. Bauer, German mathematician, computer scientist, and academic (b. 1924) 2015 – Tomas Tranströmer, Swedish poet, translator, and psychologist Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1931) 2016 – Jim Harrison, American novelist, essayist, and poet (b. 1937) 2018 – Fabrizio Frizzi, Italian television presenter (b. 1958) Holidays and observances Christian feast days: Castulus Emmanuel and companions Felicitas Harriet Monsell (Church of England) Larissa Ludger Richard Allen (Episcopal Church (USA)) March 26 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Independence Day and National Day (Bangladesh), celebrates the declaration of independence from Pakistan in 1971. Martyr's Day or Day of Democracy (Mali) Prince Kūhiō Day (Hawaii, United States) Purple Day (Canada and United States) Synaxis of the Archangel Gabriel (Eastern Christianity) References External links BBC: On This Day Historical Events on March 26 Today in Canadian History Days of the year March

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcello%20Malpighi

Marcello Malpighi

Marcello Malpighi (10 March 1628 – 30 November 1694) was an Italian biologist and physician, who is referred to as the "Founder of microscopical anatomy, histology & Father of physiology and embryology". Malpighi's name is borne by several physiological features related to the biological excretory system, such as the Malpighian corpuscles and Malpighian pyramids of the kidneys and the Malpighian tubule system of insects. The splenic lymphoid nodules are often called the "Malpighian bodies of the spleen" or Malpighian corpuscles. The botanical family Malpighiaceae is also named after him. He was the first person to see capillaries in animals, and he discovered the link between arteries and veins that had eluded William Harvey. Malpighi was one of the earliest people to observe red blood cells under a microscope, after Jan Swammerdam. His treatise De polypo cordis (1666) was important for understanding blood composition, as well as how blood clots. In it, Malpighi described how the form of a blood clot differed in the right against the left sides of the heart. The use of the microscope enabled Malpighi to discover that invertebrates do not use lungs to breathe, but small holes in their skin called tracheae. Malpighi also studied the anatomy of the brain and concluded this organ is a gland. In terms of modern endocrinology, this deduction is correct because the hypothalamus of the brain has long been recognized for its hormone-secreting capacity. Because Malpighi had a wide knowledge of both plants and animals, he made contributions to the scientific study of both. The Royal Society of London published two volumes of his botanical and zoological works in 1675 and 1679. Another edition followed in 1687, and a supplementary volume in 1697. In his autobiography, Malpighi speaks of his Anatome Plantarum, decorated with the engravings of Robert White, as "the most elegant format in the whole literate world." His study of plants led him to conclude that plants had tubules similar to those he saw in insects like the silk worm (using his microscope, he probably saw the stomata, through which plants exchange carbon dioxide with oxygen). Malpighi observed that when a ring-like portion of bark was removed on a trunk a swelling occurred in the tissues above the ring, and he correctly interpreted this as growth stimulated by food coming down from the leaves, and being blocked above the ring. Early years Malpighi was born on 10 March 1628 at Crevalcore near Bologna, Italy. The son of well-to-do parents, Malpighi was educated in his native city, entering the University of Bologna at the age of 17. In a posthumous work delivered and dedicated to the Royal Society in London in 1697, Malpighi says he completed his grammatical studies in 1645, at which point he began to apply himself to the study of peripatetic philosophy. He completed these studies about 1649, where at the persuasion of his mother Frances Natalis, he began to study physics. When his parents and grandmother became ill, he returned to his family home near Bologna to care for them. Malpighi studied Aristotelian philosophy at the University of Bologna while he was very young. Despite opposition from the university authorities because he was non-Bolognese by birth, in 1653 he was granted doctorates in both medicine and philosophy. He later graduated as a medical doctor at the age of 25. Subsequently, he was appointed as a teacher, whereupon he immediately dedicated himself to further study in anatomy and medicine. For most of his career, Malpighi combined an intense interest in scientific research with a fond love of teaching. He was invited to correspond with the Royal Society in 1667 by Henry Oldenburg, and became a fellow of the society the next year. In 1656, Ferdinand II of Tuscany invited him to the professorship of theoretical medicine at the University of Pisa. There Malpighi began his lifelong friendship with Giovanni Borelli, mathematician and naturalist, who was a prominent supporter of the Accademia del Cimento, one of the first scientific societies. Malpighi questioned the prevailing medical teachings at Pisa, tried experiments on colour changes in blood, and attempted to recast anatomical, physiological, and medical problems of the day. Family responsibilities and poor health prompted Malpighi's return in 1659 to the University of Bologna, where he continued to teach and do research with his microscopes. In 1661 he identified and described the pulmonary and capillary network connecting small arteries with small veins. Malpighi's views evoked increasing controversy and dissent, mainly from envy and lack of understanding on the part of his colleagues. Career In 1653, his father, mother, and grandmother being dead, Malpighi left his family villa and returned to the University of Bologna to study anatomy. In 1656, he was made a reader at Bologna, and then a professor of physics at Pisa, where he began to abandon the disputative method of learning and apply himself to a more experimental method of research. Based on this research, he wrote some Dialogues against the Peripatetics and Galenists (those who followed the precepts of Galen and were spearheaded at the University Bologna by fellow physician but inveterate foe Giovanni Girolamo Sbaraglia), which were destroyed when his house burned down. Weary of philosophical disputation, in 1660, Malpighi returned to Bologna and dedicated himself to the study of anatomy. He subsequently discovered a new structure of the lungs which led him to several disputes with the learned medical men of the times. In 1662, he was made a professor of Physics at the Academy of Messina. Retiring from university life to his villa in the country near Bologna in 1663, he worked as a physician while continuing to conduct experiments on the plants and insects he found on his estate. There he made discoveries of the structure of plants which he published in his Observations. At the end of 1666, Malpighi was invited to return to the public academy at Messina, which he did in 1667. Although he accepted temporary chairs at the universities of Pisa and Messina, throughout his life he continuously returned to Bologna to practice medicine, a city that repaid him by erecting a monument in his memory after his death. As a physician, Malpighi's medical consultations with his patients, which were mostly those belonging to social elite classes, proved useful in better understanding the links between the human anatomy, disease pathology, and treatments for said diseases. Furthermore, Malpighi conducted his consultations not only by bedside, but also by post, using letters to request and conduct them for various patients. These letters served as social connections for the medical practices he performed, allowing his ideas to reach the public even in the face of criticism. These connections that Malpighi created in his practice became even more widespread due to the fact that he practiced in various countries. However, long distances complicated consults for some of his patients. The manner in which Malpighi practiced medicine also reveals that it was customary in his time for Italian patients to have multiple attending physicians as well as consulting physicians. One of Malpighi's principles of medical practice was that he did not rely on anecdotes or experiences concerning remedies for various illnesses. Rather, he used his knowledge of human anatomy and disease pathology to practice what he denoted as "rational" medicine ("rational" medicine was in contrast to "empirics"). Malpighi did not abandon traditional substances or treatments, but he did not employ their use simply based on past experiences that did not draw from the nature of the underlying anatomy and disease process. Specifically in his treatments, Malpighi's goal was to reset fluid imbalances by coaxing the body to correct them on its own. For example, fluid imbalances should be fixed over time by urination and not by artificial methods such as purgatives and vesicants. In addition to Malpighi's "rational" approaches, he also believed in so-called "miraculous," or "supernatural" healing. For this to occur, though, he argued that the body could not have attempted to expel any malignant matter, such as vomit. Cases in which this did occur, when healing could not be considered miraculous, were known as "crises." In 1668, Malpighi received a letter from Mr. Oldenburg of the Royal Society in London, inviting him to correspond. Malpighi wrote his history of the silkworm in 1668, and sent the manuscript to Mr. Oldenburg. As a result, Malpighi was made a member of the Royal Society in 1669. In 1671, Malpighi's Anatomy of Plants was published in London by the Royal Society, and he simultaneously wrote to Mr. Oldenburg, telling him of his recent discoveries regarding the lungs, fibers of the spleen and testicles, and several other discoveries involving the brain and sensory organs. He also shared more information regarding his research on plants. At that time, he related his disputes with some younger physicians who were strenuous supporters of the Galenic principles and opposed to all new discoveries. Following many other discoveries and publications, in 1691, Malpighi was invited to Rome by Pope Innocent XII to become papal physician and professor of medicine at the Papal Medical School. He remained in Rome until his death. Marcello Malpighi is buried in the church of Santi Gregorio e Siro, in Bologna, where nowadays can be seen a marble monument to the scientist with an inscription in Latin remembering – among other things – his "SUMMUM INGENIUM / INTEGERRIMAM VITAM / FORTEM STRENUAMQUE MENTEM / AUDACEM SALUTARIS ARTIS AMOREM" (great genius, honest life, strong and tough mind, daring love for the medical art). Research Around the age of 38, and with a remarkable academic career behind him, Malpighi decided to dedicate his free time to anatomical studies. Although he conducted some of his studies using vivisection and others through the dissection of corpses, his most illustrative efforts appear to have been based on the use of the microscope. Because of this work, many microscopic anatomical structures are named after Malpighi, including a skin layer (Malpighi layer) and two different Malpighian corpuscles in the kidneys and the spleen, as well as the Malpighian tubules in the excretory system of insects. Although a Dutch spectacle maker created the compound lens and inserted it in a microscope around the turn of the 17th century, and Galileo had applied the principle of the compound lens to the making of his microscope patented in 1609, its possibilities as a microscope had remained unexploited for half a century, until Robert Hooke improved the instrument. Following this, Marcello Malpighi, Hooke, and two other early investigators associated with the Royal Society, Nehemiah Grew and Antoine van Leeuwenhoek were fortunate to have a virtually untried tool in their hands as they began their investigations. In 1661, Malpighi observed capillary structures in frog lungs. Malpighi’s first attempt at examining circulation in the lungs was in September of 1660, with the dissection of sheep and other mammals where he would inject black ink into the pulmonary artery. Tracing the inks distribution through the artery to the veins in the animal’s lungs however, the chosen sheep/mammal’s large size was limiting for his observation of capillaries as they were too small for magnification. Malpighi’s frog dissection in 1661, proved to be a suitable size that could be magnified to display the capillary network not seen in the larger animals. In discovering and observing the capillaries in the frog’s lungs, Malpighi studied the movement of the blood in a contained system. This contrasted the previous view of an open circulatory system in which blood would come from the liver/spleen and pool into open spaces in the body. This discovery of capillaries also contributed to William Harvey’s theory of blood circulation, with capillaries acting as the connection from veins to arteries and confirming a closed system of circulation in animals. Furthering his analysis of the lungs, Malpighi identified the airways branched into thin membraned spherical cavities which he likened to honeycomb holes surrounded by capillary vessels, in his 1661 work “De pulmonibus observationes anatomicae”. These lung structures now known as alveoli he used to describe the air pathway as continuous inhalation and exhalation with the alveoli at the ends of the pathway acting as a “imperfect sponge” for the air to enter the body. Extrapolating to humans, he offered an explanation for how air and blood mix in the lungs. Malpighi also used the microscope for his studies of the skin, kidneys, and liver. For example, after he dissected a black male, Malpighi made some groundbreaking headway into the discovery of the origin of black skin. He found that the black pigment was associated with a layer of mucus just beneath the skin. In the years 1663-1667, at the University of Messina where his research focus was on studying the human nervous system where he identified and described nerve endings in the body, structure of the brain, and optic nerve. All of his work in 1665 surrounding the nervous system he published in 3 separate works published in the same year titled, De Lingua about taste and the tongue, De Cerebro about the brain and De Externo Tactus Organo about feeling/touch sensation. In regards to his work on the tongue he discovered small muscle bumps, taste buds, which he called “papillae” and when examining them he described a linked connection to nerve endings that gave the taste sensation when eating. Furthermore, in 1686 through studying a bovine tongue Malpighi dividing the tongue papillae into separate “patches” on the tongues length. When studying the brain, he was one of the first to try to map the grey and white tissue and hypothesized a connection between the brain and spinal cord through nerves endings. Malpighi’s work on plant anatomy was inspired in Messina when visiting his patron Visconte Ruffo’s garden where a chestnut tree’s split branch had a structure that intrigued him, this structure in modern literature being xylem. He examined the structure in different plans and noted the arrangement of xylem was in either a ring shape or in scattered groupings in the stem. This distinction was later used by biologists to separate the two major families of plants. A talented sketch artist, Malpighi seems to have been the first author to have made detailed drawings of individual organs of flowers. In his Anatome plantarum is a longitudinal section of a flower of Nigella (his Melanthi, literally honey-flower) with details of the nectariferous organs. He adds that it is strange that nature has produced on the leaves of the flower shell-like organs in which honey is produced. Malpighi had success in tracing the ontogeny of plant organs, and the serial development of the shoot owing to his instinct shaped in the sphere of animal embryology. He specialized in seedling development, and in 1679, he published a volume containing a series of exquisitely drawn and engraved images of the stages of development of Leguminosae (beans) and Cucurbitaceae (squash, melons). Later, he published material depicting the development of the date palm. The great Swedish botanist Linnaeus named the genus Malpighia in honor of Malpighi's work with plants; Malpighia is the type genus for the Malpighiaceae, a family of tropical and subtropical flowering plants. Because Malpighi was concerned with teratology (the scientific study of the visible conditions caused by the interruption or alteration of normal development) he expressed grave misgivings about the view of his contemporaries that the galls of trees and herbs gave birth to insects. He conjectured (correctly) that the creatures in question arose from eggs previously laid in the plant tissue. Malpighi's investigations of the lifecycle of plants and animals led him into the topic of reproduction. He created detailed drawings of his studies of chick embryo development, starting from 2–3 days after fertilization with these drawings of embryos having a focus on the developmental timing of the limbs and organs. Additionally, seed development in plants (such as the lemon tree), and the transformation of caterpillars into insects. Malpighi also postulated about the embryotic growth of humans, written in a letter to Girolamo Correr, a patron of scientists, Malphighi suggested that all the components of the circulatory system would have been developed at the same time in embryo. His discoveries helped to illuminate philosophical arguments surrounding the topics of emboîtment, pre-existence, preformation, epigenesis, and metamorphosis. Years in Rome In 1691 Pope Innocent XII invited him to Rome as papal physician. He taught medicine in the Papal Medical School and wrote a long treatise about his studies which he donated to the Royal Society of London. Marcello Malpighi died of apoplexy (an old-fashioned term for a stroke or stroke-like symptoms) in Rome on 30 November 1694, at the age of 66. In accordance with his wishes, an autopsy was performed. The Royal Society published his studies in 1696. Asteroid 11121 Malpighi is named in his honor. Some of Malpighi's important works Anatome Plantarum, two volumes published in 1675 and 1679, an exhaustive study of botany published by the Royal Society De viscerum structura exercitatio De pulmonis epistolae De polypo cordis, 1666 Dissertatio epistolica de formatione pulli in ovo, 1673 References Bibliography Adelmann, Howard (1966) Marcello Malpighi and the Evolution of Embryology 5 vol., Cornell University Press, Ithaca, N.Y. External links Some places and memories related to Marcello Malpighi 1628 births 1694 deaths People from Crevalcore Italian anatomists Italian biologists Italian botanists Italian zoologists 17th-century Italian physicians History of anatomy Italian Roman Catholics Fellows of the Royal Society Papal physicians University of Pisa faculty University of Messina faculty

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentum

Momentum

In Newtonian mechanics, linear momentum, translational momentum, or simply momentum is the product of the mass and velocity of an object. It is a vector quantity, possessing a magnitude and a direction. If is an object's mass and is its velocity (also a vector quantity), then the object's momentum is In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of measurement of momentum is the kilogram metre per second (kg⋅m/s), which is equivalent to the newton-second. Newton's second law of motion states that the rate of change of a body's momentum is equal to the net force acting on it. Momentum depends on the frame of reference, but in any inertial frame it is a conserved quantity, meaning that if a closed system is not affected by external forces, its total linear momentum does not change. Momentum is also conserved in special relativity (with a modified formula) and, in a modified form, in electrodynamics, quantum mechanics, quantum field theory, and general relativity. It is an expression of one of the fundamental symmetries of space and time: translational symmetry. Advanced formulations of classical mechanics, Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics, allow one to choose coordinate systems that incorporate symmetries and constraints. In these systems the conserved quantity is generalized momentum, and in general this is different from the kinetic momentum defined above. The concept of generalized momentum is carried over into quantum mechanics, where it becomes an operator on a wave function. The momentum and position operators are related by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. In continuous systems such as electromagnetic fields, fluid dynamics and deformable bodies, a momentum density can be defined, and a continuum version of the conservation of momentum leads to equations such as the Navier–Stokes equations for fluids or the Cauchy momentum equation for deformable solids or fluids. Newtonian Momentum is a vector quantity: it has both magnitude and direction. Since momentum has a direction, it can be used to predict the resulting direction and speed of motion of objects after they collide. Below, the basic properties of momentum are described in one dimension. The vector equations are almost identical to the scalar equations (see multiple dimensions). Single particle The momentum of a particle is conventionally represented by the letter . It is the product of two quantities, the particle's mass (represented by the letter ) and its velocity (): The unit of momentum is the product of the units of mass and velocity. In SI units, if the mass is in kilograms and the velocity is in meters per second then the momentum is in kilogram meters per second (kg⋅m/s). In cgs units, if the mass is in grams and the velocity in centimeters per second, then the momentum is in gram centimeters per second (g⋅cm/s). Being a vector, momentum has magnitude and direction. For example, a 1 kg model airplane, traveling due north at 1 m/s in straight and level flight, has a momentum of 1 kg⋅m/s due north measured with reference to the ground. Many particles The momentum of a system of particles is the vector sum of their momenta. If two particles have respective masses and , and velocities and , the total momentum is The momenta of more than two particles can be added more generally with the following: A system of particles has a center of mass, a point determined by the weighted sum of their positions: If one or more of the particles is moving, the center of mass of the system will generally be moving as well (unless the system is in pure rotation around it). If the total mass of the particles is , and the center of mass is moving at velocity , the momentum of the system is: This is known as Euler's first law. Relation to force If the net force applied to a particle is constant, and is applied for a time interval , the momentum of the particle changes by an amount In differential form, this is Newton's second law; the rate of change of the momentum of a particle is equal to the instantaneous force acting on it, If the net force experienced by a particle changes as a function of time, , the change in momentum (or impulse ) between times and is Impulse is measured in the derived units of the newton second (1 N⋅s = 1 kg⋅m/s) or dyne second (1 dyne⋅s = 1 g⋅cm/s) Under the assumption of constant mass , it is equivalent to write hence the net force is equal to the mass of the particle times its acceleration. Example: A model airplane of mass 1 kg accelerates from rest to a velocity of 6 m/s due north in 2 s. The net force required to produce this acceleration is 3 newtons due north. The change in momentum is 6 kg⋅m/s due north. The rate of change of momentum is 3 (kg⋅m/s)/s due north which is numerically equivalent to 3 newtons. Conservation In a closed system (one that does not exchange any matter with its surroundings and is not acted on by external forces) the total momentum remains constant. This fact, known as the law of conservation of momentum, is implied by Newton's laws of motion. Suppose, for example, that two particles interact. As explained by the third law, the forces between them are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. If the particles are numbered 1 and 2, the second law states that and . Therefore, with the negative sign indicating that the forces oppose. Equivalently, If the velocities of the particles are and before the interaction, and afterwards they are and , then This law holds no matter how complicated the force is between particles. Similarly, if there are several particles, the momentum exchanged between each pair of particles adds to zero, so the total change in momentum is zero. This conservation law applies to all interactions, including collisions and separations caused by explosive forces. It can also be generalized to situations where Newton's laws do not hold, for example in the theory of relativity and in electrodynamics. Dependence on reference frame Momentum is a measurable quantity, and the measurement depends on the frame of reference. For example: if an aircraft of mass  kg is flying through the air at a speed of 50 m/s its momentum can be calculated to be  kg.m/s. If the aircraft is flying into a headwind of 5 m/s its speed relative to the surface of the Earth is only 45 m/s and its momentum can be calculated to be  kg.m/s. Both calculations are equally correct. In both frames of reference, any change in momentum will be found to be consistent with the relevant laws of physics. Suppose a particle has position in a stationary frame of reference. From the point of view of another frame of reference, moving at a uniform speed , the position (represented by a primed coordinate) changes with time as This is called a Galilean transformation. If the particle is moving at speed in the first frame of reference, in the second, it is moving at speed Since does not change, the accelerations are the same: Thus, momentum is conserved in both reference frames. Moreover, as long as the force has the same form, in both frames, Newton's second law is unchanged. Forces such as Newtonian gravity, which depend only on the scalar distance between objects, satisfy this criterion. This independence of reference frame is called Newtonian relativity or Galilean invariance. A change of reference frame, can, often, simplify calculations of motion. For example, in a collision of two particles, a reference frame can be chosen, where, one particle begins at rest. Another, commonly used reference frame, is the center of mass frame – one that is moving with the center of mass. In this frame, the total momentum is zero. Application to collisions If two particles, each of known momentum, collide and coalesce, the law of conservation of momentum can be used to determine the momentum of the coalesced body. If the outcome of the collision is that the two particles separate, the law is not sufficient to determine the momentum of each particle. If the momentum of one particle after the collision is known, the law can be used to determine the momentum of the other particle. Alternatively if the combined kinetic energy after the collision is known, the law can be used to determine the momentum of each particle after the collision. Kinetic energy is usually not conserved. If it is conserved, the collision is called an elastic collision; if not, it is an inelastic collision. Elastic collisions An elastic collision is one in which no kinetic energy is transformed into heat or some other form of energy. Perfectly elastic collisions can occur when the objects do not touch each other, as for example in atomic or nuclear scattering where electric repulsion keeps the objects apart. A slingshot maneuver of a satellite around a planet can also be viewed as a perfectly elastic collision. A collision between two pool balls is a good example of an almost totally elastic collision, due to their high rigidity, but when bodies come in contact there is always some dissipation. A head-on elastic collision between two bodies can be represented by velocities in one dimension, along a line passing through the bodies. If the velocities are and before the collision and and after, the equations expressing conservation of momentum and kinetic energy are: A change of reference frame can simplify analysis of a collision. For example, suppose there are two bodies of equal mass , one stationary and one approaching the other at a speed (as in the figure). The center of mass is moving at speed and both bodies are moving towards it at speed . Because of the symmetry, after the collision both must be moving away from the center of mass at the same speed. Adding the speed of the center of mass to both, we find that the body that was moving is now stopped and the other is moving away at speed . The bodies have exchanged their velocities. Regardless of the velocities of the bodies, a switch to the center of mass frame leads us to the same conclusion. Therefore, the final velocities are given by In general, when the initial velocities are known, the final velocities are given by If one body has much greater mass than the other, its velocity will be little affected by a collision while the other body will experience a large change. Inelastic collisions In an inelastic collision, some of the kinetic energy of the colliding bodies is converted into other forms of energy (such as heat or sound). Examples include traffic collisions, in which the effect of loss of kinetic energy can be seen in the damage to the vehicles; electrons losing some of their energy to atoms (as in the Franck–Hertz experiment); and particle accelerators in which the kinetic energy is converted into mass in the form of new particles. In a perfectly inelastic collision (such as a bug hitting a windshield), both bodies have the same motion afterwards. A head-on inelastic collision between two bodies can be represented by velocities in one dimension, along a line passing through the bodies. If the velocities are and before the collision then in a perfectly inelastic collision both bodies will be travelling with velocity after the collision. The equation expressing conservation of momentum is: If one body is motionless to begin with (e.g. ), the equation for conservation of momentum is so In a different situation, if the frame of reference is moving at the final velocity such that , the objects would be brought to rest by a perfectly inelastic collision and 100% of the kinetic energy is converted to other forms of energy. In this instance the initial velocities of the bodies would be non-zero, or the bodies would have to be massless. One measure of the inelasticity of the collision is the coefficient of restitution , defined as the ratio of relative velocity of separation to relative velocity of approach. In applying this measure to a ball bouncing from a solid surface, this can be easily measured using the following formula: The momentum and energy equations also apply to the motions of objects that begin together and then move apart. For example, an explosion is the result of a chain reaction that transforms potential energy stored in chemical, mechanical, or nuclear form into kinetic energy, acoustic energy, and electromagnetic radiation. Rockets also make use of conservation of momentum: propellant is thrust outward, gaining momentum, and an equal and opposite momentum is imparted to the rocket. Multiple dimensions Real motion has both direction and velocity and must be represented by a vector. In a coordinate system with axes, velocity has components in the -direction, in the -direction, in the -direction. The vector is represented by a boldface symbol: Similarly, the momentum is a vector quantity and is represented by a boldface symbol: The equations in the previous sections, work in vector form if the scalars and are replaced by vectors and . Each vector equation represents three scalar equations. For example, represents three equations: The kinetic energy equations are exceptions to the above replacement rule. The equations are still one-dimensional, but each scalar represents the magnitude of the vector, for example, Each vector equation represents three scalar equations. Often coordinates can be chosen so that only two components are needed, as in the figure. Each component can be obtained separately and the results combined to produce a vector result. A simple construction involving the center of mass frame can be used to show that if a stationary elastic sphere is struck by a moving sphere, the two will head off at right angles after the collision (as in the figure). Objects of variable mass The concept of momentum plays a fundamental role in explaining the behavior of variable-mass objects such as a rocket ejecting fuel or a star accreting gas. In analyzing such an object, one treats the object's mass as a function that varies with time: . The momentum of the object at time is therefore . One might then try to invoke Newton's second law of motion by saying that the external force on the object is related to its momentum by , but this is incorrect, as is the related expression found by applying the product rule to : (incorrect) This equation does not correctly describe the motion of variable-mass objects. The correct equation is where is the velocity of the ejected/accreted mass as seen in the object's rest frame. This is distinct from , which is the velocity of the object itself as seen in an inertial frame. This equation is derived by keeping track of both the momentum of the object as well as the momentum of the ejected/accreted mass (dm). When considered together, the object and the mass (dm) constitute a closed system in which total momentum is conserved. Relativistic Lorentz invariance Newtonian physics assumes that absolute time and space exist outside of any observer; this gives rise to Galilean invariance. It also results in a prediction that the speed of light can vary from one reference frame to another. This is contrary to observation. In the special theory of relativity, Einstein keeps the postulate that the equations of motion do not depend on the reference frame, but assumes that the speed of light is invariant. As a result, position and time in two reference frames are related by the Lorentz transformation instead of the Galilean transformation. Consider, for example, one reference frame moving relative to another at velocity in the direction. The Galilean transformation gives the coordinates of the moving frame as while the Lorentz transformation gives where is the Lorentz factor: Newton's second law, with mass fixed, is not invariant under a Lorentz transformation. However, it can be made invariant by making the inertial mass of an object a function of velocity: is the object's invariant mass. The modified momentum, obeys Newton's second law: Within the domain of classical mechanics, relativistic momentum closely approximates Newtonian momentum: at low velocity, is approximately equal to , the Newtonian expression for momentum. Four-vector formulation In the theory of special relativity, physical quantities are expressed in terms of four-vectors that include time as a fourth coordinate along with the three space coordinates. These vectors are generally represented by capital letters, for example for position. The expression for the four-momentum depends on how the coordinates are expressed. Time may be given in its normal units or multiplied by the speed of light so that all the components of the four-vector have dimensions of length. If the latter scaling is used, an interval of proper time, , defined by is invariant under Lorentz transformations (in this expression and in what follows the metric signature has been used, different authors use different conventions). Mathematically this invariance can be ensured in one of two ways: by treating the four-vectors as Euclidean vectors and multiplying time by ; or by keeping time a real quantity and embedding the vectors in a Minkowski space. In a Minkowski space, the scalar product of two four-vectors and is defined as In all the coordinate systems, the (contravariant) relativistic four-velocity is defined by and the (contravariant) four-momentum is where is the invariant mass. If (in Minkowski space), then Using Einstein's mass-energy equivalence, , this can be rewritten as Thus, conservation of four-momentum is Lorentz-invariant and implies conservation of both mass and energy. The magnitude of the momentum four-vector is equal to : and is invariant across all reference frames. The relativistic energy–momentum relationship holds even for massless particles such as photons; by setting it follows that In a game of relativistic "billiards", if a stationary particle is hit by a moving particle in an elastic collision, the paths formed by the two afterwards will form an acute angle. This is unlike the non-relativistic case where they travel at right angles. The four-momentum of a planar wave can be related to a wave four-vector For a particle, the relationship between temporal components, , is the Planck–Einstein relation, and the relation between spatial components, , describes a de Broglie matter wave. Generalized Newton's laws can be difficult to apply to many kinds of motion because the motion is limited by constraints. For example, a bead on an abacus is constrained to move along its wire and a pendulum bob is constrained to swing at a fixed distance from the pivot. Many such constraints can be incorporated by changing the normal Cartesian coordinates to a set of generalized coordinates that may be fewer in number. Refined mathematical methods have been developed for solving mechanics problems in generalized coordinates. They introduce a generalized momentum, also known as the canonical or conjugate momentum, that extends the concepts of both linear momentum and angular momentum. To distinguish it from generalized momentum, the product of mass and velocity is also referred to as mechanical, kinetic or kinematic momentum. The two main methods are described below. Lagrangian mechanics In Lagrangian mechanics, a Lagrangian is defined as the difference between the kinetic energy and the potential energy : If the generalized coordinates are represented as a vector and time differentiation is represented by a dot over the variable, then the equations of motion (known as the Lagrange or Euler–Lagrange equations) are a set of equations: If a coordinate is not a Cartesian coordinate, the associated generalized momentum component does not necessarily have the dimensions of linear momentum. Even if is a Cartesian coordinate, will not be the same as the mechanical momentum if the potential depends on velocity. Some sources represent the kinematic momentum by the symbol . In this mathematical framework, a generalized momentum is associated with the generalized coordinates. Its components are defined as Each component is said to be the conjugate momentum for the coordinate . Now if a given coordinate does not appear in the Lagrangian (although its time derivative might appear), then This is the generalization of the conservation of momentum. Even if the generalized coordinates are just the ordinary spatial coordinates, the conjugate momenta are not necessarily the ordinary momentum coordinates. An example is found in the section on electromagnetism. Hamiltonian mechanics In Hamiltonian mechanics, the Lagrangian (a function of generalized coordinates and their derivatives) is replaced by a Hamiltonian that is a function of generalized coordinates and momentum. The Hamiltonian is defined as where the momentum is obtained by differentiating the Lagrangian as above. The Hamiltonian equations of motion are As in Lagrangian mechanics, if a generalized coordinate does not appear in the Hamiltonian, its conjugate momentum component is conserved. Symmetry and conservation Conservation of momentum is a mathematical consequence of the homogeneity (shift symmetry) of space (position in space is the canonical conjugate quantity to momentum). That is, conservation of momentum is a consequence of the fact that the laws of physics do not depend on position; this is a special case of Noether's theorem. For systems that do not have this symmetry, it may not be possible to define conservation of momentum. Examples where conservation of momentum does not apply include curved spacetimes in general relativity or time crystals in condensed matter physics. Electromagnetic Particle in a field In Maxwell's equations, the forces between particles are mediated by electric and magnetic fields. The electromagnetic force (Lorentz force) on a particle with charge due to a combination of electric field and magnetic field is (in SI units). It has an electric potential and magnetic vector potential . In the non-relativistic regime, its generalized momentum is while in relativistic mechanics this becomes The quantity is sometimes called the potential momentum. It is the momentum due to the interaction of the particle with the electromagnetic fields. The name is an analogy with the potential energy , which is the energy due to the interaction of the particle with the electromagnetic fields. These quantities form a four-vector, so the analogy is consistent; besides, the concept of potential momentum is important in explaining the so-called hidden-momentum of the electromagnetic fields Conservation In Newtonian mechanics, the law of conservation of momentum can be derived from the law of action and reaction, which states that every force has a reciprocating equal and opposite force. Under some circumstances, moving charged particles can exert forces on each other in non-opposite directions. Nevertheless, the combined momentum of the particles and the electromagnetic field is conserved. Vacuum The Lorentz force imparts a momentum to the particle, so by Newton's second law the particle must impart a momentum to the electromagnetic fields. In a vacuum, the momentum per unit volume is where is the vacuum permeability and is the speed of light. The momentum density is proportional to the Poynting vector which gives the directional rate of energy transfer per unit area: If momentum is to be conserved over the volume over a region , changes in the momentum of matter through the Lorentz force must be balanced by changes in the momentum of the electromagnetic field and outflow of momentum. If is the momentum of all the particles in , and the particles are treated as a continuum, then Newton's second law gives The electromagnetic momentum is and the equation for conservation of each component of the momentum is The term on the right is an integral over the surface area of the surface representing momentum flow into and out of the volume, and is a component of the surface normal of . The quantity is called the Maxwell stress tensor, defined as Media The above results are for the microscopic Maxwell equations, applicable to electromagnetic forces in a vacuum (or on a very small scale in media). It is more difficult to define momentum density in media because the division into electromagnetic and mechanical is arbitrary. The definition of electromagnetic momentum density is modified to where the H-field is related to the B-field and the magnetization by The electromagnetic stress tensor depends on the properties of the media. Quantum mechanical In quantum mechanics, momentum is defined as a self-adjoint operator on the wave function. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle defines limits on how accurately the momentum and position of a single observable system can be known at once. In quantum mechanics, position and momentum are conjugate variables. For a single particle described in the position basis the momentum operator can be written as where is the gradient operator, is the reduced Planck constant, and is the imaginary unit. This is a commonly encountered form of the momentum operator, though the momentum operator in other bases can take other forms. For example, in momentum space the momentum operator is represented as where the operator acting on a wave function yields that wave function multiplied by the value , in an analogous fashion to the way that the position operator acting on a wave function yields that wave function multiplied by the value x. For both massive and massless objects, relativistic momentum is related to the phase constant by Electromagnetic radiation (including visible light, ultraviolet light, and radio waves) is carried by photons. Even though photons (the particle aspect of light) have no mass, they still carry momentum. This leads to applications such as the solar sail. The calculation of the momentum of light within dielectric media is somewhat controversial (see Abraham–Minkowski controversy). In deformable bodies and fluids Conservation in a continuum In fields such as fluid dynamics and solid mechanics, it is not feasible to follow the motion of individual atoms or molecules. Instead, the materials must be approximated by a continuum in which there is a particle or fluid parcel at each point that is assigned the average of the properties of atoms in a small region nearby. In particular, it has a density and velocity that depend on time and position . The momentum per unit volume is . Consider a column of water in hydrostatic equilibrium. All the forces on the water are in balance and the water is motionless. On any given drop of water, two forces are balanced. The first is gravity, which acts directly on each atom and molecule inside. The gravitational force per unit volume is , where is the gravitational acceleration. The second force is the sum of all the forces exerted on its surface by the surrounding water. The force from below is greater than the force from above by just the amount needed to balance gravity. The normal force per unit area is the pressure . The average force per unit volume inside the droplet is the gradient of the pressure, so the force balance equation is If the forces are not balanced, the droplet accelerates. This acceleration is not simply the partial derivative because the fluid in a given volume changes with time. Instead, the material derivative is needed: Applied to any physical quantity, the material derivative includes the rate of change at a point and the changes due to advection as fluid is carried past the point. Per unit volume, the rate of change in momentum is equal to . This is equal to the net force on the droplet. Forces that can change the momentum of a droplet include the gradient of the pressure and gravity, as above. In addition, surface forces can deform the droplet. In the simplest case, a shear stress , exerted by a force parallel to the surface of the droplet, is proportional to the rate of deformation or strain rate. Such a shear stress occurs if the fluid has a velocity gradient because the fluid is moving faster on one side than another. If the speed in the direction varies with , the tangential force in direction per unit area normal to the direction is where is the viscosity. This is also a flux, or flow per unit area, of x-momentum through the surface. Including the effect of viscosity, the momentum balance equations for the incompressible flow of a Newtonian fluid are These are known as the Navier–Stokes equations. The momentum balance equations can be extended to more general materials, including solids. For each surface with normal in direction and force in direction , there is a stress component . The nine components make up the Cauchy stress tensor , which includes both pressure and shear. The local conservation of momentum is expressed by the Cauchy momentum equation: where is the body force. The Cauchy momentum equation is broadly applicable to deformations of solids and liquids. The relationship between the stresses and the strain rate depends on the properties of the material (see Types of viscosity). Acoustic waves A disturbance in a medium gives rise to oscillations, or waves, that propagate away from their source. In a fluid, small changes in pressure can often be described by the acoustic wave equation: where is the speed of sound. In a solid, similar equations can be obtained for propagation of pressure (P-waves) and shear (S-waves). The flux, or transport per unit area, of a momentum component by a velocity is equal to . In the linear approximation that leads to the above acoustic equation, the time average of this flux is zero. However, nonlinear effects can give rise to a nonzero average. It is possible for momentum flux to occur even though the wave itself does not have a mean momentum. History of the concept In about 530 AD, working in Alexandria, Byzantine philosopher John Philoponus developed a concept of momentum in his commentary to Aristotle's Physics. Aristotle claimed that everything that is moving must be kept moving by something. For example, a thrown ball must be kept moving by motions of the air. Most writers continued to accept Aristotle's theory until the time of Galileo, but a few were skeptical. Philoponus pointed out the absurdity in Aristotle's claim that motion of an object is promoted by the same air that is resisting its passage. He proposed instead that an impetus was imparted to the object in the act of throwing it. Ibn Sīnā (also known by his Latinized name Avicenna) read Philoponus and published his own theory of motion in The Book of Healing in 1020. He agreed that an impetus is imparted to a projectile by the thrower; but unlike Philoponus, who believed that it was a temporary virtue that would decline even in a vacuum, he viewed it as a persistent, requiring external forces such as air resistance to dissipate it. The work of Philoponus, and possibly that of Ibn Sīnā, was read and refined by the European philosophers Peter Olivi and Jean Buridan. Buridan, who in about 1350 was made rector of the University of Paris, referred to impetus being proportional to the weight times the speed. Moreover, Buridan's theory was different from his predecessor's in that he did not consider impetus to be self-dissipating, asserting that a body would be arrested by the forces of air resistance and gravity which might be opposing its impetus. René Descartes believed that the total "quantity of motion" () in the universe is conserved, where the quantity of motion is understood as the product of size and speed. This should not be read as a statement of the modern law of momentum, since he had no concept of mass as distinct from weight and size, and more important, he believed that it is speed rather than velocity that is conserved. So for Descartes if a moving object were to bounce off a surface, changing its direction but not its speed, there would be no change in its quantity of motion. Galileo, in his Two New Sciences, used the Italian word impeto to similarly describe Descartes' quantity of motion. Leibniz, in his "Discourse on Metaphysics", gave an argument against Descartes' construction of the conservation of the "quantity of motion" using an example of dropping blocks of different sizes different distances. He points out that force is conserved but quantity of motion, construed as the product of size and speed of an object, is not conserved. Christiaan Huygens concluded quite early that Descartes's laws for the elastic collision of two bodies must be wrong, and he formulated the correct laws. An important step was his recognition of the Galilean invariance of the problems. His views then took many years to be circulated. He passed them on in person to William Brouncker and Christopher Wren in London, in 1661. What Spinoza wrote to Henry Oldenburg about them, in 1666 which was during the Second Anglo-Dutch War, was guarded. Huygens had actually worked them out in a manuscript De motu corporum ex percussione in the period 1652–6. The war ended in 1667, and Huygens announced his results to the Royal Society in 1668. He published them in the Journal des sçavans in 1669. The first correct statement of the law of conservation of momentum was by English mathematician John Wallis in his 1670 work, Mechanica sive De Motu, Tractatus Geometricus: "the initial state of the body, either of rest or of motion, will persist" and "If the force is greater than the resistance, motion will result". Wallis used momentum for quantity of motion, and vis for force. Newton's Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, when it was first published in 1687, showed a similar casting around for words to use for the mathematical momentum. His Definition II defines quantitas motus, "quantity of motion", as "arising from the velocity and quantity of matter conjointly", which identifies it as momentum. Thus when in Law II he refers to mutatio motus, "change of motion", being proportional to the force impressed, he is generally taken to mean momentum and not motion. It remained only to assign a standard term to the quantity of motion. The first use of "momentum" in its proper mathematical sense is not clear but by the time of Jennings's Miscellanea in 1721, five years before the final edition of Newton's Principia Mathematica, momentum or "quantity of motion" was being defined for students as "a rectangle", the product of and , where is "quantity of material" and is "velocity", . See also Crystal momentum Galilean cannon Momentum compaction Momentum transfer Newton's cradle Planck momentum Position and momentum space References Bibliography External links Conservation of momentum – A chapter from an online textbook Vector physical quantities Mechanics Conservation laws Motion (physics)

20432

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood%20stabilizer

Mood stabilizer

A mood stabilizer is a psychiatric medication used to treat mood disorders characterized by intense and sustained mood shifts, such as bipolar disorder and the bipolar type of schizoaffective disorder. Uses Mood stabilizers are best known for the treatment of bipolar disorder, preventing mood shifts to mania (or hypomania) and depression. Mood stabilizers are also used in schizoaffective disorder when it is the bipolar type. Examples The term "mood stabilizer" does not describe a mechanism, but rather an effect. More precise terminology based on pharmacology is used to further classify these agents. Drugs commonly classed as mood stabilizers include: Mineral Lithium – Lithium is the "classic" mood stabilizer, the first to be approved by the US FDA, and still popular in treatment. Therapeutic drug monitoring is required to ensure lithium levels remain in the therapeutic range: 0.6 or 0.8-1.2 mEq/L (or millimolar). Signs and symptoms of toxicity include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and ataxia. The most common side effects are lethargy and weight gain. The less common side effects of using lithium are blurred vision, a slight tremble in the hands, and a feeling of being mildly ill. In general, these side effects occur in the first few weeks after commencing lithium treatment. These symptoms can often be improved by lowering the dose. Anticonvulsants Many agents described as "mood stabilizers" are also categorized as anticonvulsants. The term "anticonvulsant mood stabilizers" is sometimes used to describe these as a class. Although this group is also defined by effect rather than mechanism, there is at least a preliminary understanding of the mechanism of most of the anticonvulsants used in the treatment of mood disorders. Valproate – Available in extended release form. This drug can be very irritating to the stomach, especially when taken as a free acid. Liver function and CBC should be monitored. Lamotrigine – FDA approved for bipolar disorder maintenance therapy, not for acute mood problems like depression or mania/hypomania. The usual target dose is 100–200 mg daily, titrated to by 25 mg increments every 2 weeks. Lamotrigine can cause Stevens–Johnson syndrome, a very rare but potentially fatal skin condition. Carbamazepine – FDA approved for the treatment of acute manic or mixed (i.e., both depressed and manic mood features) episodes in people with bipolar disorder type I. Carbamazepine can rarely cause a dangerous decrease in neutrophils, a type of white blood cell, called agranulocytosis. It interacts with many medications, including other mood stabilizers (e.g. lamotrigine) and antipsychotics (e.g. quetiapine). There is insufficient evidence to support the use of various other anticonvulsants, such as gabapentin and topiramate, as mood stabilizers. Antipsychotics Some atypical antipsychotics (aripiprazole, asenapine, cariprazine, lurasidone, olanzapine, paliperidone, quetiapine, risperidone, and ziprasidone) also have mood stabilizing effects and are thus commonly prescribed even when psychotic symptoms are absent. Other It is also conjectured that omega-3 fatty acids may have a mood stabilizing effect. Compared with placebo, omega-3 fatty acids appear better able to augment known mood stabilizers in reducing depressive (but perhaps not manic) symptoms of bipolar disorder; additional trials would be needed to establish the effects of omega-3 fatty acids alone. It is known that even subclinical hypothyroidism can blunt a patient's response to both mood stabilizers and antidepressants. Furthermore, preliminary research into the use of thyroid augmentation in patients with refractory and rapid-cycling bipolar disorder has been positive, showing a slowing in cycle frequency and reduction in symptoms. Most studies have been conducted on an open-label basis. One large, controlled study of 300 mcg daily dose of levothyroxine (T4) found it superior to placebo for this purpose. In general, studies have shown T4 to be well tolerated and to show efficacy even in patients without overt hypothyroidism. Combination therapy In routine practice, monotherapy is often not sufficiently effective for acute and/or maintenance therapy and thus most patients are given combination therapies. Combination therapy (atypical antipsychotic with lithium or valproate) shows better efficacy over monotherapy in the manic phase in terms of efficacy and prevention of relapse. However, side effects are more frequent and discontinuation rates due to adverse events are higher with combination therapy than with monotherapy. Relationship to antidepressants Most mood stabilizers are primarily antimanic agents, meaning that they are effective at treating mania and mood cycling and shifting, but are not effective at treating acute depression. The principal exceptions to that rule, because they treat both manic and depressive symptoms, are lamotrigine, lithium carbonate, olanzapine and quetiapine. Nevertheless, antidepressants are still often prescribed in addition to mood stabilizers during depressive phases. This brings some risks, however, as antidepressants can induce mania, psychosis, and other disturbing problems in people with bipolar disorder—in particular, when taken alone. The risk of antidepressant-induced mania when given to patients concomitantly on antimanic agents is not known for certain but may still exist. The majority of antidepressants appear ineffective in treating bipolar depression. Antidepressants cause several risks when given to bipolar patients. They are ineffective in treating acute bipolar depression, preventing relapse, and can cause rapid cycling. Studies have shown that antidepressants have no benefit versus a placebo or other treatment. Antidepressants can also lead to a higher rate of non-lethal suicidal behavior. Relapse can also be related to treatment with antidepressants. This is less likely to occur if a mood stabilizer is combined with an antidepressant, rather than an antidepressant being used alone. Evidence from previous studies shows that rapid cycling is linked to use of antidepressants. Rapid cycling is defined as the presence of four or more mood episodes within a year's time. Evidence suggests that rapid cycling and mixed symptoms have become more common since antidepressant medication has come into widespread use. There is a need for caution when treating bipolar patients with antidepressant medication due to the risks that they pose. Use of mood stabilizers and anticonvulsants such as lamotrigine, carbamazapine, valproate and others may lead to chronic folate deficiency, potentiating depression. Also, "Folate deficiency may increase the risk of depression and reduce the action of antidepressants." L-methylfolate (also formally known as 5-MTHF or levomefolic acid), a centrally acting trimonoamine modulator, boosts the synthesis of three CNS neurotransmitters: dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin. Mood stabilizers and anticonvulsants may interfere with folic acid absorption and L-methylfolate formation. Augmentation with the medical food L-methylfolate may improve antidepressant effects of these medicines, including lithium and antidepressants themselves, by boosting the synthesis of antidepressant neurotransmitters. However, the U.S. National Institutes of Health issued a warning caution about the use of L-methylfolate for patients with bipolar disease. Pharmacodynamics The precise mechanism of action of lithium is still unknown, and it is suspected that it acts at various points of the neuron between the nucleus and the synapse. Lithium is known to inhibit the enzyme GSK-3B. This improves the functioning of the circadian clock—which is thought to be often malfunctioning in people with bipolar disorder—and positively modulates gene transcription of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). The resulting increase in neural plasticity may be central to lithium's therapeutic effects. How lithium works in the human body is not completely understood, but its benefits are most likely related to its effects on electrolytes such as potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium. All of the anticonvulsants routinely used to treat bipolar disorder are blockers of voltage-gated sodium channels, affecting the brain's glutamate system. For valproic acid, carbamazepine and oxcarbazepine, however, their mood-stabilizing effects may be more related to effects on the GABAergic system. Lamotrigine is known to decrease the patient's cortisol response to stress. One possible downstream target of several mood stabilizers such as lithium, valproate, and carbamazepine is the arachidonic acid cascade. See also Treatment of bipolar disorder Categories References External links Drug classes defined by psychological effects

20433

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere%20Christianity

Mere Christianity

Mere Christianity is a 1952 theological book by C. S. Lewis, adapted from a series of BBC radio talks made between 1941 and 1944, while Lewis was at Oxford during the Second World War. Considered a classic of Christian apologetics, the transcripts of the broadcasts originally appeared in print as three separate pamphlets: The Case for Christianity (Broadcast Talks in the UK) (1942), Christian Behaviour (1943), and Beyond Personality (1944). Lewis was invited to give the talks by James Welch, the BBC Director of Religious Broadcasting, who had read his 1940 book, The Problem of Pain. Background After reading Lewis's The Problem of Pain James Welch, the Director of Religious Broadcasting for the BBC, wrote Lewis the following:I write to ask whether you would be willing to help us in our work of religious broadcasting ... The microphone is a limiting, and rather irritating, instrument, but the quality of thinking and depth of conviction which I find in your book ought sure to be shared with a great many other people. Welch suggested two potential subjects. Lewis responded with thanks and observed that modern literature, the first, did not suit him, choosing instead the Christian faith as Lewis understood it. In the preface to later editions, Lewis described his desire to avoid contested theological doctrine by focusing on core beliefs of the Christian Faith. The succinct and pithy language employed by Lewis enabled him to impact broad audiences, while retaining intellectual substance for more studied readers. Every Wednesday from 7:45 pm to 8 pm during August 1941, Lewis gave live talks entitled "Right or Wrong: A Clue to the Meaning of the Universe” which would become the first book in Mere Christianity. The first set of talks became very popular and flooded Lewis with responses from an adoring and irate public. This feedback led to Lewis going back on air to answer listener’s questions. The following January and February, Lewis gave the next set of talks on what would become “What Christians Believe”. The talks remained popular and because of the success of the newly released The Screwtape Letters, Lewis’ publisher was happy to publish the broadcast talks as books that year. In the Fall of 1942, the third series of talks were, ironically, cut down from 15 to 10 minutes. Due to a miscommunication, Lewis had prepared for 15 minutes, but added the cut material back into the next book and added several more chapters. The fourth set of talks did not take place until 1944. The script drafts had a much wider scope originally, and Lewis prepared for 10-minute talks when the BBC was giving him 15. The timing of these talks was important and strictly adhered to because due to technology and WWII, Germany would broadcast propaganda through the English-spoken "Lord Hawhaw" during any dead air. Due to the timing of the fourth set of talks (10:20 pm), Lewis said he couldn't do them all live and would have to record some. The Case for Christianity (Broadcast Talks in UK) The core of the first section centres on an argument from morality, the basis of which is the "law of human nature", a "rule about right and wrong," which, Lewis maintained, is commonly available and known to all human beings. He cites, as an example, the case of Nazi Germany, writing: "This law was called the Law of nature because people thought that everyone knew it by nature and did not need to be taught it. They did not mean, of course, that you might not find an odd individual here and there who did not know it, just as you find a few people who are colour-blind or have no ear for a tune. But taking the race as a whole, they thought that the human idea of decent behaviour was obvious to everyone. And I believe they were right. If they were not, then all the things we said about the war were nonsense. What was the sense in saying the enemy were in the wrong unless Right is a real thing which the Nazis at bottom knew as well as we did and ought to have practised? If they had had no notion of what we mean by right, then, though we might still have had to fight them, we could no more have blamed them for that than for the colour of their hair. On a mundane level, it is generally accepted that stealing is a violation of this moral law. Lewis argues that the moral law is like scientific laws (e.g. gravity) or mathematics in that it was not contrived by humans. However, it is unlike scientific laws in that it can be broken or ignored, and it is known intuitively, rather than through experimentation. After introducing the moral law, Lewis argues that thirst reflects the fact that people naturally need water, and there is no other substance which satisfies that need. Lewis points out that earthly experience does not satisfy the human craving for "joy" and that only God could fit the bill; humans cannot know to yearn for something if it does not exist. After providing reasons for his conversion to theism, Lewis explicates various conceptions of God. Pantheism, he argues, is incoherent, and atheism too simple. Eventually, he arrives at Jesus Christ, and invokes a well-known argument now known as Lewis's trilemma. Lewis, arguing that Jesus was claiming to be God, uses logic to advance three possibilities: either He really was God, was deliberately lying, or was not God but thought Himself to be (which would make Him delusional and likely insane). The book goes on to say that the latter two possibilities are not consistent with Jesus' character and it was most likely that He was being truthful. Christian Behaviour The next third of the book explores the ethics resulting from Christian belief. He cites the four cardinal virtues: prudence, justice, temperance, and fortitude. After touching on these, he goes into the three theological virtues: hope, faith, and charity. Lewis also explains morality as being composed of three layers: relationships between man and man, the motivations and attitudes of the man himself, and contrasting worldviews. Lewis also covers such topics as social relations and forgiveness, sexual ethics and the tenets of Christian marriage, and the relationship between morality and psychoanalysis. He also writes about the great sin: pride, which he argues to be the root cause of all evil and rebellion. His most important point is that Christianity mandates that one "love your neighbour as yourself." He points out that all persons unconditionally love themselves. Even if one does not like oneself, one would still love oneself. Christians, he writes, must also apply this attitude to others, even if they do not like them. Lewis calls this one of the great secrets: when one acts as if he loves others, he will presently come to love them. Cultural impact Lewis' voice became nearly as recognizable as that of Winston Churchill during World War II, when the talks were given. The book has since become among the most popular evangelical works in existence. In 2006, Mere Christianity was placed third in Christianity Today list of the most influential books amongst evangelicals since 1945. The title has influenced Touchstone Magazine: A Journal of Mere Christianity and William Dembski's book Mere Creation. Charles Colson's conversion to Christianity resulted from his reading this book, as did the conversions of Francis Collins, Jonathan Aitken, Josh Caterer, and the philosopher C. E. M. Joad. A passage in the book also influenced the name of contemporary Christian Texan Grammy-nominated pop/rock group Sixpence None the Richer. The phrase, "the hammering process" was used by the Christian metal band Living Sacrifice for the name of their album The Hammering Process. The metalcore band Norma Jean derived the title of their song "No Passenger: No Parasite" from the section in the book in which Lewis describes a fully Christian society as having "No passengers or parasites". References External links Audio of the last remaining broadcast talk from bbc.co.uk , originally from [CSLewisClassics.com] Origin of the phrase "Mere Christianity" Mere Christianity. Canadian public domain edition (PDF) 1952 non-fiction books 20th-century Christian texts Books about Christianity Books by C. S. Lewis Christian apologetic works Christian ethics Criticism of atheism Religious philosophical literature Geoffrey Bles books

20434

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical%20game

Mathematical game

A mathematical game is a game whose rules, strategies, and outcomes are defined by clear mathematical parameters. Often, such games have simple rules and match procedures, such as Tic-tac-toe and Dots and Boxes. Generally, mathematical games need not be conceptually intricate to involve deeper computational underpinnings. For example, even though the rules of Mancala are relatively basic, the game can be rigorously analyzed through the lens of combinatorial game theory. Mathematical games differ sharply from mathematical puzzles in that mathematical puzzles require specific mathematical expertise to complete, whereas mathematical games do not require a deep knowledge of mathematics to play. Often, the arithmetic core of mathematical games is not readily apparent to players untrained to note the statistical or mathematical aspects. Some mathematical games are of deep interest in the field of recreational mathematics. When studying a game's core mathematics, arithmetic theory is generally of higher utility than actively playing or observing the game itself. To analyze a game numerically, it is particularly useful to study the rules of the game insofar as they can yield equations or relevant formulas. This is frequently done to determine winning strategies or to distinguish if the game has a solution. List of games Sometimes it is not immediately obvious that a particular game involves chance. Often a card game is described as "pure strategy" and such, but a game with any sort of random shuffling or face-down dealing of cards should not be considered to be "no chance". Several abstract strategy games are listed below: Lattice board Angels and Devils Arimaa Checkers (English draughts) Checkers variants Chess Chess variants Chomp Domineering Dots and boxes Go Go variants Gomoku Hex Hexapawn L game Othello Pente Philosopher's football Rhythmomachy Tak Tic-tac-toe Tic-tac-toe variants Non-lattice boards and other games Graph pebbling Hackenbush Chopsticks (Hand game) Mancala Nim Sim Sprouts Four Fours Chance involved or imperfect information 24 Prisoner's dilemma References See also Solved game Games of skill Math Games Online

20435

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%20Gardner

Martin Gardner

Martin Gardner (October 21, 1914May 22, 2010) was an American popular mathematics and popular science writer with interests also encompassing scientific skepticism, micromagic, philosophy, religion, and literature—especially the writings of Lewis Carroll, L. Frank Baum, and G. K. Chesterton. He was also a leading authority on Lewis Carroll. The Annotated Alice, which incorporated the text of Carroll's two Alice books, was his most successful work and sold over a million copies. He had a lifelong interest in magic and illusion and in 1999, MAGIC magazine named him as one of the "100 Most Influential Magicians of the Twentieth Century". He was considered the doyen of American puzzlers. He was a prolific and versatile author, publishing more than 100 books. Gardner was best known for creating and sustaining interest in recreational mathematics—and by extension, mathematics in general—throughout the latter half of the 20th century, principally through his "Mathematical Games" columns. These appeared for twenty-five years in Scientific American, and his subsequent books collecting them. Gardner was one of the foremost anti-pseudoscience polemicists of the 20th century. His 1957 book Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science, originally published in 1952 as In the Name of Science: An Entertaining Survey of the High Priests and Cultists of Science, Past and Present, became a classic and seminal work of the skeptical movement. In 1976, he joined with fellow skeptics to found CSICOP, an organization promoting scientific inquiry and the use of reason in examining extraordinary claims. He was a frequent contributor to The New York Review of Books. Biography Youth and education Martin Gardner was born into a prosperous family in Tulsa, Oklahoma, to James Henry Gardner, a prominent petroleum geologist, and his wife, Willie Wilkerson Spiers, a Montessori-trained teacher. His mother taught Martin to read before he started school, reading him The Wizard of Oz, and this began a lifelong interest in the Oz books of L. Frank Baum. His fascination with mathematics started in his boyhood when his father gave him a copy of Sam Loyd's Cyclopedia of 5000 Puzzles, Tricks and Conundrums. He attended the University of Chicago, where he earned his bachelor's degree in philosophy in 1936. Early jobs included reporter on the Tulsa Tribune, writer at the University of Chicago Office of Press Relations, and case worker in Chicago's Black Belt for the city's Relief Administration. During World War II, he served for four years in the U.S. Navy as a yeoman on board the destroyer escort USS Pope in the Atlantic. His ship was still in the Atlantic when the war came to an end with the surrender of Japan in August 1945. After the war, Gardner returned to the University of Chicago. He attended graduate school for a year there, but he did not earn an advanced degree. In 1950, he wrote an article in the Antioch Review entitled "The Hermit Scientist". It was one of Gardner's earliest articles about junk science, and in 1952 a much-expanded version became his first published book: In the Name of Science: An Entertaining Survey of the High Priests and Cultists of Science, Past and Present. Early career In the late 1940s, Gardner moved to New York City and became a writer and editor at Humpty Dumpty magazine, where for eight years he wrote features and stories for it and several other children's magazines. His paper-folding puzzles at that magazine led to his first work at Scientific American. For many decades, Gardner, his wife Charlotte, and their two sons, Jim and Tom, lived in Hastings-on-Hudson, New York, where he earned his living as a freelance author, publishing books with several different publishers, and also publishing hundreds of magazine and newspaper articles. The year 1960 saw the original edition of the best-selling book of his career, The Annotated Alice. Retirement and death In 1979, Gardner left Scientific American. He and his wife Charlotte moved to Hendersonville, North Carolina. He continued to write math articles, sending them to The Mathematical Intelligencer, Math Horizons, The College Mathematics Journal, and Scientific American. He also revised some of his older books such as Origami, Eleusis, and the Soma Cube. Charlotte died in 2000 and in 2004 Gardner returned to Oklahoma, where his son, James Gardner, was a professor of education at the University of Oklahoma in Norman. He died there on May 22, 2010. An autobiography — Undiluted Hocus-Pocus: The Autobiography of Martin Gardner — was published posthumously. Influence Martin Gardner had a major impact on mathematics in the second half of the 20th century. His column lasted for 25 years and was read avidly by the generation of mathematicians and physicists who grew up in the years 1956 to 1981. His writing inspired, directly or indirectly, many who would go on to careers in mathematics, science, and other related endeavors. Gardner's admirers included such diverse individuals as W. H. Auden, Arthur C. Clarke, Carl Sagan, Isaac Asimov, Richard Dawkins, Stephen Jay Gould, and the entire French literary group known as the Oulipo. Salvador Dalí once sought him out to discuss four-dimensional hypercubes. David Auerbach wrote: "A case can be made, in purely practical terms, for Martin Gardner as one of the most influential writers of the 20th century. His popularizations of science and mathematical games in Scientific American, over the 25 years he wrote for them, might have helped create more young mathematicians and computer scientists than any other single factor prior to the advent of the personal computer." Colm Mulcahy described him as "without doubt the best friend mathematics ever had." Gardner's column has been credited with introducing the public to works and problems that have become mainstays of popular mathematics including the secretary problem, Conway's Game of Life, the Mandelbrot fractal set, Penrose tiles, public-key cryptosystems, and books such as A K Dewdney’s Planiverse and Douglas Hofstadter’s Gödel, Escher, Bach. Gardner was instrumental in spreading the awareness and understanding of M. C. Escher’s work. Gardner wrote to Escher in 1961 to ask permission to use his Horseman tessellation in an upcoming column about H.S.M. Coxeter. Escher replied, saying that he knew Gardner as author of The Annotated Alice, which had been sent to Escher by Coxeter. The correspondence led to Gardner introducing the previously unknown Escher's art to the world. His writing was credited as both broad and deep. Noam Chomsky once wrote, "Martin Gardner's contribution to contemporary intellectual culture is unique—in its range, its insight, and understanding of hard questions that matter." Gardner repeatedly alerted the public (and other mathematicians) to recent discoveries in mathematics–recreational and otherwise. In addition to introducing many first-rate puzzles and topics such as Penrose tiles and Conway's Game of Life, he was equally adept at writing columns about traditional mathematical topics such as knot theory, Fibonacci numbers, Pascal's triangle, the Möbius strip, transfinite numbers, four-dimensional space, Zeno's paradoxes, Fermat's Last Theorem, and the four-color problem. Gardner set a new high standard for writing about mathematics. In a 2004 interview he said, "I go up to calculus, and beyond that I don't understand any of the papers that are being written. I consider that that was an advantage for the type of column I was doing because I had to understand what I was writing about, and that enabled me to write in such a way that an average reader could understand what I was saying. If you are writing popularly about math, I think it's good not to know too much math." John Horton Conway called him "the most learned man I have ever met." Gardner's mathematical grapevine Gardner maintained an extensive network of experts and amateurs with whom he regularly exchanged information and ideas. Doris Schattschneider would later term this circle of collaborators "Gardner's mathematical grapevine" or "MG2". Gardner's role as a hub of this network helped facilitate several introductions that led to further fruitful collaborations. Mathematicians Conway, Berlekamp, and Guy, who met as a result of Gardner's influence, would go on to write Winning Ways for your Mathematical Plays, a foundational book in combinatorial game theory that Gardner championed. Gardner also introduced Conway to Benoit Mandelbrot because he knew of their mutual interest in Penrose tiles. Gardner's network was also responsible for introducing Doris Schattschneider and Marjorie Rice, who worked together to document the newly discovered pentagon tilings. Gardner credited his network with generating further material for his columns: "When I first started the column, I was not in touch with any mathematicians, and gradually mathematicians who were creative in the field found out about the column and began corresponding with me. So my most interesting columns were columns based on the material I got from them, so I owe them a big debt of gratitude." Gardner prepared each of his columns in a painstaking and scholarly fashion and conducted copious correspondence to be sure that everything was fact-checked for mathematical accuracy. Communication was often by postcard or telephone and Gardner kept meticulous notes of everything, typically on index cards. Archives of some of his correspondence stored at Stanford University occupy some 63 linear feet of shelf space. This correspondence led to columns about the rep-tiles and pentominos of Solomon W. Golomb; the space filling curves of Bill Gosper; the aperiodic tiles of Roger Penrose; the Game of Life invented by John H. Conway; the superellipse and the Soma cube of Piet Hein; the trapdoor functions of Diffie, Hellman, and Merkle; the flexagons of Stone, Tuckerman, Feynman, and Tukey; the geometrical delights in a book by H. S. M. Coxeter; the game of Hex invented by Piet Hein and John Nash; Tutte's account of squaring the square; and many other topics. The wide array of mathematicians, physicists, computer scientists, philosophers, magicians, artists, writers, and other influential thinkers who can be counted as part of Gardner's mathematical grapevine includes: Robert Ammann Mitsumasa Anno Elwyn R. Berlekamp Dmitri A. Borgmann Gregory Chaitin Fan Chung John Horton Conway H.S.M. Coxeter Erik Demaine Persi Diaconis M. C. Escher Solomon W. Golomb Bill Gosper Ronald Graham Richard K. Guy Frank Harary Piet Hein Douglas Hofstadter Ray Hyman Scott Kim David A. Klarner Donald Knuth Harry Lindgren Benoit Mandelbrot Robert Nozick Penn & Teller Roger Penrose James Randi Marjorie Rice Ron Rivest Rudy Rucker Lee Sallows Doris Schattschneider Jeffrey Shallit David Singmaster Jerry Slocum Raymond Smullyan Ian Stewart W. T. Tutte Stanislaw Ulam Samuel Yates Nob Yoshigahara Mathematical Games column For over a quarter century Gardner wrote a monthly column on the subject of recreational mathematics for Scientific American. It all began with his free-standing article on hexaflexagons which ran in the December 1956 issue. Flexagons became a bit of a fad and soon people all over New York City were making them. Gerry Piel, the SA publisher at the time, asked Gardner, "Is there enough similar material to this to make a regular feature?" Gardner said he thought so. The January 1957 issue contained his first column, entitled "Mathematical Games". Almost 300 more columns were to follow. The "Mathematical Games" column became the most popular feature of the magazine and was the first thing that many readers turned to. In September 1977 Scientific American acknowledged the prestige and popularity of Gardner's column by moving it from the back to the very front of the magazine. It ran from 1956 to 1981 with sporadic columns afterwards and was the first introduction of many subjects to a wider audience, notably: Flexagons (Dec 1956) The Game of Hex (Jul 1957) The Soma cube (Sep 1958) Squaring the square (Nov 1958) The Three Prisoners problem (Oct 1959) Polyominoes (Nov 1960) The Paradox of the unexpected hanging (Mar 1963) Rep-tiles (May 1963) The Superellipse (Sep 1965) Pentominoes (Oct 1965) The mathematical art of M. C. Escher (Apr 1966) Fractals and the Koch snowflake curve (Mar 1967) Conway's Game of Life (Oct 1970) Intransitive dice (Dec 1970) Newcomb's paradox (Jul 1973) Tangrams (Aug 1974) Penrose tilings (Jan 1977) Public-key cryptography (Aug 1977) Hofstadter's Godel, Escher, Bach (Jul 1979) The Monster group (Jun 1980) Ironically, Gardner had problems learning calculus and never took a mathematics course after high school. While editing Humpty Dumpty's Magazine he constructed many paper folding puzzles. At a magic show in 1956 fellow magician Royal Vale Heath introduced Gardner to the intricately folded paper shapes known as flexagons and steered him to the four Princeton University professors who had invented and investigated their mathematical properties. The subsequent article Gardner wrote on hexaflexagons led directly to the column. Gardner's son Jim once asked him what was his favorite puzzle, and Gardner answered almost immediately: "The monkey and the coconuts". It had been the subject of his April 1958 Games column and in 2001 he chose to make it the first chapter of his "best of" collection, The Colossal Book of Mathematics. In the 1980s "Mathematical Games" began to appear only irregularly. Other authors began to share the column, and the June 1986 issue saw the final installment under that title. In 1981, on Gardner's retirement from Scientific American, the column was replaced by Douglas Hofstadter's "Metamagical Themas", a name that is an anagram of "Mathematical Games". Virtually all of the games columns were collected in book form starting in 1959 with The Scientific American Book of Mathematical Puzzles & Diversions. Over the next four decades fourteen more books followed. Donald Knuth called them the canonical books. Pseudoscience and skepticism Gardner was an uncompromising critic of fringe science. His book Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science (1952, revised 1957) launched the modern skeptical movement. It debunked dubious movements and theories including Fletcherism, Lamarckism, food faddism, Dowsing Rods, Charles Fort, Rudolf Steiner, Dianetics, the Bates method for improving eyesight, Einstein deniers, the Flat Earth theory, the lost continents of Atlantis and Lemuria, Immanuel Velikovsky's Worlds in Collision, the reincarnation of Bridey Murphy, Wilhelm Reich's orgone theory, the spontaneous generation of life, extra-sensory perception and psychokinesis, homeopathy, phrenology, palmistry, graphology, and numerology. This book and his subsequent efforts (Science: Good, Bad and Bogus, 1981; Order and Surprise, 1983, Gardner's Whys & Wherefores, 1989, etc.) provoked a lot of criticism from the advocates of alternative science and New Age philosophy; he kept up running dialogues (both public and private) with many of them for decades. In a review of Science: Good, Bad and Bogus, Stephen Jay Gould called Gardner "The Quack Detector", a writer who "expunge[d] nonsense" and in so doing had "become a priceless national resource." In 1976 Gardner joined with fellow skeptics philosopher Paul Kurtz, psychologist Ray Hyman, sociologist Marcello Truzzi, and stage magician James Randi to found the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (now called the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry). Intellectuals including astronomer Carl Sagan, author and biochemist Isaac Asimov, psychologist B. F. Skinner, and journalist Philip J. Klass became fellows of the program. From 1983 to 2002 he wrote a monthly column called "Notes of a Fringe Watcher" (originally "Notes of a Psi-Watcher") for Skeptical Inquirer, that organization's monthly magazine. These columns have been collected in five books starting with The New Age: Notes of a Fringe Watcher in 1988. Gardner was a relentless critic of self-proclaimed Israeli psychic Uri Geller and wrote two satirical booklets about him in the 1970s using the pen name "Uriah Fuller" in which he explained how such purported psychics do their seemingly impossible feats such as mentally bending spoons and reading minds. Martin Gardner continued to criticize junk science throughout his life–and he was fearless. His targets included not just safe subjects like astrology and UFO sightings, but topics such as chiropractic, vegetarianism, Madame Blavatsky, creationism, Scientology, the Laffer curve, Christian Science, and the Hutchins-Adler Great Books Movement. The last thing he wrote in the spring of 2010 (a month before his death) was an article excoriating the "dubious medical opinions and bogus science" of Oprah Winfrey—particularly her support for the thoroughly discredited theory that vaccinations cause autism; it went on to bemoan the "needless deaths of children" that such notions are likely to cause. Skeptical Inquirer named him one of the Ten Outstanding Skeptics of the Twentieth Century. In 2010 he was posthumously honored with an award for his contributions in the skeptical field from the Independent Investigations Group. In 1982 the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry awarded Gardner its In Praise of Reason Award for his "heroic efforts in defense of reason and the dignity of the skeptical attitude", and in 2011 it added Gardner to its Pantheon of Skeptics. Magic Martin Gardner held a lifelong fascination with magic and illusion that began when his father demonstrated a trick to him that seemed to violate physical laws. He wrote for a magic magazine in high school and worked in a department store demonstrating magic tricks while he was at the University of Chicago. Gardner's first published writing (at the age of fifteen) was a magic trick in The Sphinx, the official magazine of the Society of American Magicians. He focused mainly on micromagic (table or close-up magic) and, from the 1930s on, published a significant number of original contributions to this secretive field. Magician Joe M. Turner said, The Encyclopedia of Impromptu Magic, which Gardner wrote in 1985, "is guaranteed to show up in any poll of magicians' favorite magic books." His first magic book for the general public, Mathematics, Magic and Mystery (Dover, 1956), is still considered a classic in the field. He was well known for his innovative tapping and spelling effects, with and without playing cards, and was most proud of the effect he called the "Wink Change". Many of Gardner's lifelong friends were magicians. These included William Simon who introduced Gardner to Charlotte Greenwald, whom he married in 1952, Dai Vernon, Jerry Andrus, statistician Persi Diaconis, and polymath Raymond Smullyan. Gardner considered fellow magician James Randi his closest friend. Diaconis and Smullyan like Gardner straddled the two worlds of mathematics and magic. Mathematics and magic were frequently intertwined in Gardner's work. One of his earliest books, Mathematics, Magic and Mystery (1956), was about mathematically based magic tricks. Mathematical magic tricks were often featured in his "Mathematical Games" column–for example, his August 1962 column was titled "A variety of diverting tricks collected at a fictitious convention of magicians." From 1998 to 2002 he wrote a monthly column on magic tricks called "Trick of the Month" in The Physics Teacher, a journal published by the American Association of Physics Teachers. In 1999 Magic magazine named Gardner one of the "100 Most Influential Magicians of the Twentieth Century". In 2005 he received a 'Lifetime Achievement Fellowship' from the Academy of Magical Arts. The last work to be published during his lifetime was a magic trick in the May 2010 issue of Word Ways: The Journal of Recreational Linguistics. Theism and religion Gardner was raised as a Methodist (his mother was very religious) but rejected established religion as an adult. He considered himself a philosophical theist and a fideist. He believed in a personal God, in an afterlife, and prayer, but rejected established religion. Nevertheless, he had abiding fascination with religious belief. In his autobiography, he stated: "When many of my fans discovered that I believed in God and even hoped for an afterlife, they were shocked and dismayed ... I do not mean the God of the Bible, especially the God of the Old Testament, or any other book that claims to be divinely inspired. For me God is a "Wholly Other" transcendent intelligence, impossible for us to understand. He or she is somehow responsible for our universe and capable of providing, how I have no inkling, an afterlife." Gardner described his own belief as philosophical theism inspired by the works of philosopher Miguel de Unamuno. While eschewing systematic religious doctrine, he retained a belief in God, asserting that this belief cannot be confirmed or disconfirmed by reason or science. At the same time, he was skeptical of claims that any god has communicated with human beings through spoken or telepathic revelation or through miracles in the natural world. Gardner has been quoted as saying that he regarded parapsychology and other research into the paranormal as tantamount to "tempting God" and seeking "signs and wonders". He stated that while he would expect tests on the efficacy of prayers to be negative, he would not rule out a priori the possibility that as yet unknown paranormal forces may allow prayers to influence the physical world. Gardner wrote repeatedly about what public figures such as Robert Maynard Hutchins, Mortimer Adler, and William F. Buckley, Jr. believed and whether their beliefs were logically consistent. In some cases, he attacked prominent religious figures such as Mary Baker Eddy on the grounds that their claims are unsupportable. His semi-autobiographical novel The Flight of Peter Fromm depicts a traditionally Protestant Christian man struggling with his faith, examining 20th century scholarship and intellectual movements and ultimately rejecting Christianity while remaining a theist. Gardner said that he suspected that the fundamental nature of human consciousness may not be knowable or discoverable, unless perhaps a physics more profound than ("underlying") quantum mechanics is some day developed. In this regard, he said, he was an adherent of the "New Mysterianism". His philosophical views in general are described and defended in his book The Whys of a Philosophical Scrivener (1983, revised 1999). Annotated works Gardner was considered a leading authority on Lewis Carroll. His annotated version of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass, explaining the many mathematical riddles, wordplay, and literary references found in the Alice books, was first published as The Annotated Alice (Clarkson Potter, 1960). Sequels were published with new annotations as More Annotated Alice (Random House, 1990), and finally as The Annotated Alice: The Definitive Edition (Norton, 1999), combining notes from the earlier editions and new material. The original book arose when Gardner found the Alice books "sort of frightening" when he was young, but found them fascinating as an adult. He felt that someone ought to annotate them, and suggested to a publisher that Bertrand Russell be asked; when the publisher was unable to get past Russell's secretary, Gardner was asked to take on the project himself. There had long been annotated books written by scholars for other scholars, but Gardner was the first to write such a work for the general public, and soon many other writers followed his lead. Gardner himself went on to produce annotated editions of G. K. Chesterton's The Innocence Of Father Brown and The Man Who Was Thursday, as well as of celebrated poems including The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, Casey at the Bat, The Night Before Christmas, and The Hunting of the Snark. Novels and short stories Gardner wrote two novels. He was a perennial fan of the Oz books written by L. Frank Baum, and in 1988 he published Visitors from Oz, based on the characters in Baum's various Oz books. Gardner was a founding member of the International Wizard of Oz Club, and winner of its 1971 L. Frank Baum Memorial Award. His other novel was The Flight of Peter Fromm (1973), which reflected his lifelong fascination with religious belief and the problem of faith. His short stories were collected in The No-Sided Professor and Other Tales of Fantasy, Humor, Mystery, and Philosophy (1987). Autobiography At the age of 95 Gardner wrote Undiluted Hocus-Pocus: The Autobiography of Martin Gardner. He was living in a one-room apartment in Norman, Oklahoma and, as was his custom, wrote it on a typewriter and edited it using scissors and rubber cement. He took the title from a poem, a so-called grook, by his good friend Piet Hein, which perfectly expresses Gardner's abiding sense of mystery and wonder about existence. Word play Gardner's interest in wordplay led him to conceive of a magazine on recreational linguistics. In 1967 he pitched the idea to Greenwood Periodicals and nominated Dmitri Borgmann as editor. The resulting journal, Word Ways, carried many of his articles; it was still publishing his submissions posthumously. He also wrote a "Puzzle Tale" column for Asimov's Science Fiction magazine from 1977 to 1986. Gardner was a member of the all-male literary banqueting club, the Trap Door Spiders, which served as the basis of Isaac Asimov's fictional group of mystery solvers, the Black Widowers. Pen names Gardner often used pen names. In 1952, while working for the children's magazine Humpty Dumpty, he contributed stories written by "Humpty Dumpty Jnr". For several years starting in 1953 he was a managing editor of Polly Pigtails, a magazine for young girls, and also wrote under that name. His Annotated Casey at the Bat (1967) included a parody of the poem, attributed to "Nitram Rendrag" (his name spelled backwards). Using the pen name "Uriah Fuller", he wrote two books attacking the alleged psychic Uri Geller. In later years, Gardner often wrote parodies of his favorite poems under the name "Armand T. Ringer", an anagram of his name. In 1983 one George Groth panned Gardner's book The Whys of a Philosophical Scrivener in the New York Review of Books. Only in the last line of the review was it revealed that George Groth was Martin Gardner himself. In his January 1960 "Mathematical Games" column, Gardner introduced the fictitious "Dr. Matrix" and wrote about him often over the next two decades. Dr. Matrix was not exactly a pen name, although Gardner did pretend that everything in these columns came from the fertile mind of the good doctor. Then in 1979 Dr. Matrix himself published an article in the quite respectable Two-Year College Mathematics Journal. It was called Martin Gardner: Defending the Honor of the Human Mind and contained a biography of Gardner and a history of his "Mathematical Games" column. It would be a further decade before Martin published an article in such a mathematics journal under his own name. Philosophy of mathematics Gardner was known for his sometimes controversial philosophy of mathematics. He wrote negative reviews of The Mathematical Experience by Philip J. Davis and Reuben Hersh and What Is Mathematics, Really? by Hersh, both of which were critical of aspects of mathematical Platonism, and the first of which was well received by the mathematical community. While Gardner was often perceived as a hard-core Platonist, his reviews demonstrated some formalist tendencies. Gardner maintained that his views are widespread among mathematicians, but Hersh has countered that in his experience as a professional mathematician and speaker, this is not the case. Mathematics education In the August 1998 edition of Scientific American, Gardner wrote his final piece for Scientific American titled, "A Quarter Century of Recreational Mathematics." In it he said, "For 40 years I have done my best to convince educators that recreational math should be incorporated into the standard curriculum. It should be regularly introduced as a way to interest young students in the wonders of mathematics. So far, though, movement in this direction has been glacial." He recalls how as a young boy a math teacher had scolded him for working on a bit of recreation mathematics and laments at how wrongheaded this attitude is. He notes that the magazine Mathematics Teacher published by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, and specially dedicated to improving mathematics instruction for grades 8–14, often has articles on recreational topics but that most teachers do not use them. Legacy and awards The numerous awards Gardner received include: 1987 - Leroy P. Steele Prize for his many books and articles on mathematics 1971 - L. Frank Baum Memorial Award from the International Wizard of Oz Club 1980 - The main-belt asteroid 2587 Gardner discovered by Edward L. G. Bowell at Anderson Mesa Station is named after Martin Gardner. 1990 - Allendoerfer Award (along with Fan Chung & Ronald Graham) from The Mathematical Association of America (MAA) 1994 - JPBM Communications Award from the Joint Policy Board for Mathematics 1997 - became a Fellow (Class: Humanities and Arts, Section: Literature) of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. 1998 - Trevor Evans Award from the MAA 1999 - listed in the "100 Most Influential Magicians of the Twentieth Century" by Magic magazine. 2011 - Houdini Hall of Honor award (posthumous) from the Independent Investigations Group The Mathematical Association of America has established a Martin Gardner Lecture to be given each year on the last day of MAA MathFest, the summer meeting of the MAA. The first annual lecture, Recreational Mathematics and Computer Science: Martin Gardner's Influence on Research, was given by Erik Demaine of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology on Saturday, August 3, 2019, at MathFest in Cincinnati. The 2021 lecture Surprising discoveries of three amateur mathematicians: M.C. Escher, Marjorie Rice, and Rinus Roelofs was virtual and was given by Doris Schattschneider. There are eight bricks honoring Gardner in the Paul R. Halmos Commemorative Walk, installed by The Mathematical Association of America (MAA) at their Conference Center in Washington, D.C. Gardner has an Erdös number of 1. Gathering 4 Gardner Martin Gardner continued to write up until his death in 2010, and his community of fans grew to span several generations. Moreover, his influence was so broad that many of his fans had little or no contact with each other. This led Atlanta entrepreneur and puzzle collector Tom Rodgers to the idea of hosting a weekend gathering celebrating Gardner's contributions to recreational mathematics, rationality, magic, puzzles, literature, and philosophy. Although Gardner was famously shy, and would usually decline an honor if it required him to make a personal appearance, Rogers persuaded him to attend the first such "Gathering 4 Gardner" (G4G), held in Atlanta in January 1993. A second such get-together was held in 1996, again with Gardner in attendance. A video was made for the CBC Television program The Nature of Things with David Suzuki. It featured Gardner along with many members of his circle and was called "Martin Gardner: Mathemagician" and broadcast on March 14, 1996. At this point Rogers and his friends decided to make the gathering a regular, bi-annual event. Participants over the years have ranged from long-time Gardner friends such as John Horton Conway, Elwyn Berlekamp, Ronald Graham, Donald Coxeter, and Richard K. Guy, to newcomers like mathematician and mathematical artist Erik Demaine, mathematical video maker Vi Hart, and Fields Medalist Manjul Bhargava. The program at the "G4G" meetings presents topics which Gardner had written about. The first gathering in 1993 was G4G1 and the 1996 event was G4G2. Since then it has been in even-numbered years, so far always in Atlanta. The 2018 event was G4G13. Bibliography In a publishing career spanning 80 years (1930-2010), Gardner authored or edited over 100 books and countless articles, columns and reviews. All Gardner's works were non-fiction except for two novels — The Flight of Peter Fromm (1973) and Visitors from Oz (1998) — and two collections of short pieces — The Magic Numbers of Dr. Matrix (1967, 1985) and The No-Sided Professor (1987). See also Boy or Girl paradox Divisibility rule Hexapawn Homicidal chauffeur problem Polyabolo Strong law of small numbers Unexpected hanging paradox References Sources Albers, Don (2008). The Martin Gardner Interview (in five parts) with MAA Editorial Director Don Albers, fifteeneightyfour: the blog of Cambridge University Press AMS Notices (2004). Interview with Martin Gardner Notices of the AMS, Vol. 52, No. 6, June/July 2005, pp. 602–611 AMS Notices (2011). Memories of Martin Gardner Notices of the AMS, Vol. 58, No. 3, March 2011, p. 420 Antonick, Gary (2014). Ignited by Martin Gardner, Ian Stewart Continues to Illuminate The New York Times, October 27, 2014 Auerbach, David (2013). A Delville of a Tolkar: Martin Gardner’s “Undiluted Hocus-Pocus” Los Angeles Review of Books, November 4, 2013 BBC News (2014). Martin Gardner, puzzle master extraordinaire BBC News Magazine, October 21, 2014 Bhargava, Manjul (2018). An Interview with Manjul Bhargava with Colm Mulcahy, G4G13, April 2018 Bellos, Alex (2010). Martin Gardner obituary The Guardian, May 27, 2010 Berlekamp, Elwyn R (2014). The Mathematical Legacy of Martin Gardner Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM), September 2, 2014 Berlekamp, Elwyn R., John H. Conway, and Richard K. Guy (1982). Winning Ways for your Mathematical Plays Academic Press, . Brown, Emma (2010). Martin Gardner, prolific math and science writer, dies at 95 The Washington Post, May 24, 2010 Case, James (2014). Martin Gardner’s Mathematical Grapevine By James Case, SIAM News, April 1, 2014 Costello, Matthew J. (1988). The Greatest Puzzles of All Time New York: Prentice Hall Press, Crease, Robert P (2018). Martin Gardner would have smiled Physics World: Education and Outreach Blog, 16 April 2018 Demaine (2008). Edited by Erik D. Demaine, Martin L. Demaine, Tom Rodgers. A lifetime of puzzles : a collection of puzzles in honor of Martin Gardner's 90th birthday A K Peters: Wellesley, MA, Dirda, Michael (2009). Book review by Michael Dirda: 'When You Were a Tadpole and I Was a Fish' by Martin Gardner The Washington Post, October 22, 2009 The Economist (2010). Martin Gardner obituary Jun 3rd 2010 England, Jason (2014). The puzzling life of Martin Gardner Cosmos Magazine, February 24, 2014 Friedel, Frederic (2018). Remembering Martin Gardner, Jan 16, 2018 Gardner, Martin (1998). A Quarter Century of Recreational Mathematics by Martin Gardner, Scientific American, August 1998 Gardner, Martin (2013). Undiluted Hocus-Pocus: The Autobiography of Martin Gardner Princeton University Press, . Gardner, Martin (2016). The Recreational Mathematics of Piet Hein Piet Hein Website Gathering 4 Gardner (2014). Martin Gardner—Magician Gould, Stephen Jay (1982). The Quack Detector The New York Review of Books, February 4, 1982 Groth, George (1983). [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1983/dec/08/gardners-game-with-god/ Review of Gardner’s Game with God] The New York Review of Books, December 8, 1983 Hofstadter, Douglas (2010). Martin Gardner: A Major Shaping Force in My Life Scientific American, May 24, 2010 Kim, Scott (2014). Martin Gardner, May 18, 2014 - Scott Kim Website* Klarner, David A. (1998). Mathematical Recreations: A Collection in Honor of Martin Gardner, Dover Publications, New York, pp. 140-166 Kindley, Evan (2015). Down the Rabbit Hole: The rise, and rise, of literary annotation By Evan Kindley, The New Republic, September 21, 2015 Kullman, David (1997). The Penrose Tiling at Miami University Presented at the Mathematical Association of America Ohio Section Meeting Shawnee State University, October 24, 1997 Lister, David (1995). Martin Gardner and Paperfolding British Origami Society, February 15, 1995. MAA FOCUS (2010). Remembering Martin Gardner vol 30 (4), August/September 2010 MacTutor (2010). History of Mathematics archive: Martin Gardner Malkevitch, Joseph (2014). Magical Mathematics - A Tribute to Martin Gardner American Mathematical Society, March 2014 Martin, Douglas (2010). Martin Gardner, Puzzler and Polymath, Dies at 95 The New York Times, May 23, 2010 Martin Gardner—Mathematician (official website) Mirsky, Steve (2010). Scholars and Others Pay Tribute to "Mathematical Games" Columnist Martin Gardner Scientific American, May 24, 2010 Mulcahy, Colm (2013). Celebrations of Mind Honor Math’s Best Friend, Martin Gardner Scientific American, October 29, 2013 Mulcahy, Colm (2014). The Top 10 Martin Gardner Scientific American Articles Scientific American, October 21, 2014 Mulcahy, Colm (2017). Martin Gardner — The Best Friend Mathematics Ever Had The Huffington Post, January 23, 2014 Peterson, Ivars (2014). Honoring a Century of Martin Gardner in MAA Focus, the newsmagazine of the Mathematical Association of America, Vol. 34, No. 5, Oct/Nov 2014 Propp, James (2015). Martin Gardner Testimonials Belmont, MA, July 29, 2015 Princeton University Press Reviews of Undiluted Hocus-Pocus: The Autobiography of Martin Gardner Richards, Dana (2014). Math Games of Martin Gardner Still Spur Innovation by Dana S. Richards & Colm Mulcahy, Scientific American, October 1, 2014 Richards, Dana (2018). Martin Gardner, Annotator G4G13, April 2018 - video Shermer, Michael (1997). Martin Gardner 1914–2010: Founder of the Modern Skeptical Movement Michael Shermer interviews Martin Gardner, Skeptic Magazine, Vol 5, No. 2 (1997) Suzuki, David (1996). Mystery and Magic of Mathematics: Martin Gardner and Friends The Nature of Things, March 14, 1996 - video Teller (2014). ‘Undiluted Hocus-Pocus,’ by Martin Gardner The New York Times: Sunday Book Review, January 3, 2014 External links – with Martin Gardner's Awards and Martin Gardner Appreciations Works by and about Martin Gardner at The Center for Inquiry Libraries 1914 births 2010 deaths American literary critics American magicians United States Navy personnel of World War II American science writers 20th-century American mathematicians 21st-century mathematicians Mathematicians from Oklahoma Mathematicians from New York (state) Recreational mathematicians American skeptics Asimov's Science Fiction people Critics of parapsychology Critics of alternative medicine Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Mathematics popularizers People from Hastings-on-Hudson, New York People from Norman, Oklahoma Writers from Tulsa, Oklahoma Philosophical theists Puzzle designers Recreational cryptographers RSA Factoring Challenge Science journalists Scientific American people United States Navy sailors University of Chicago alumni Academy of Magical Arts Lifetime Achievement Fellowship winners Critics of Lamarckism 20th-century pseudonymous writers 21st-century pseudonymous writers

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIDI%20timecode

MIDI timecode

MIDI time code (MTC) embeds the same timing information as standard SMPTE timecode as a series of small 'quarter-frame' MIDI messages. There is no provision for the user bits in the standard MIDI time code messages, and SysEx messages are used to carry this information instead. The quarter-frame messages are transmitted in a sequence of eight messages, thus a complete timecode value is specified every two frames. If the MIDI data stream is running close to capacity, the MTC data may arrive a little behind schedule which has the effect of introducing a small amount of jitter. In order to avoid this it is ideal to use a completely separate MIDI port for MTC data. Larger full-frame messages, which encapsulate a frame worth of timecode in a single message, are used to locate to a time while timecode is not running. Unlike standard SMPTE timecode, MIDI timecode's quarter-frame and full-frame messages carry a two-bit flag value that identifies the rate of the timecode, specifying it as either: 24 frame/s (standard rate for film work) 25 frame/s (standard rate for PAL video) 29.97 frame/s (drop-frame timecode for NTSC video) 30 frame/s (non-drop timecode for NTSC video) MTC distinguishes between film speed and video speed only by the rate at which timecode advances, not by the information contained in the timecode messages; thus, 29.97 frame/s dropframe is represented as 30 frame/s dropframe at 0.1% pulldown. MTC allows the synchronisation of a sequencer or DAW with other devices that can synchronise to MTC or for these devices to 'slave' to a tape machine that is striped with SMPTE. For this to happen a SMPTE to MTC converter needs to be employed. It is possible for a tape machine to synchronise to an MTC signal (if converted to SMPTE), if the tape machine is able to 'slave' to incoming timecode via motor control, which is a rare feature. Time code format The MIDI time code is 32 bits long, of which 24 are used, while 8 bits are unused and always zero. Because the full-time code messages requires that the most significant bits of each byte are zero (valid MIDI data bytes), there are really only 28 available bits and 4 spare bits. Like most audiovisual timecodes such as SMPTE time code, it encodes only time of day, repeating each 24 hours. Time is given in units of hours, minutes, seconds, and frames. There may be 24, 25, or 30 frames per second. Unlike most other timecodes, the components are encoded in straight binary, not binary-coded decimal. Each component is assigned one byte: Byte 0 0rrhhhhh: Rate (0–3) and hour (0–23). rr = 00: 24 frames/s rr = 01: 25 frames/s rr = 10: 29.97 frames/s (SMPTE drop-frame timecode) rr = 11: 30 frames/s Byte 1 00mmmmmm: Minute (0–59) Byte 2 00ssssss: Second (0–59) Byte 3 000fffff: Frame (0–29, or less at lower frame rates) Full time code When there is a jump in the time code, a single full-time code is sent to synchronize attached equipment. This takes the form of a special global system exclusive message: F0 7F 7F 01 01 hh mm ss ff F7 The manufacturer ID of 7F indicates a real-time universal message, the channel of 7F indicates it is a global broadcast. The following ID of 01 identifies this is a time code type message, and the second 01 indicates it is a full-time code message. The 4 bytes of time code follow. Although MIDI is generally little-endian, the 4 time code bytes follow in big-endian order, followed by a F7 "end of exclusive" byte. After a jump, the time clock stops until the first following quarter-frame message is received. Quarter-frame messages When the time is running continuously, the 32-bit time code is broken into 8 4-bit pieces, and one piece is transmitted each quarter frame. I.e. 96—120 times per second, depending on the frame rate. Since it takes eight quarter frames for a complete time code message, the complete SMPTE time is updated every two frames. A quarter-frame messages consists of a status byte of 0xF1, followed by a single 7-bit data value: 3 bits to identify the piece, and 4 bits of partial time code. When time is running forward, the piece numbers increment from 0–7; with the time that piece 0 is transmitted is the coded instant, and the remaining pieces are transmitted later. If the MIDI data stream is being rewound, the piece numbers count backward. Again, piece 0 is transmitted at the coded moment. The time code is divided little-endian as follows: See also AES-EBU embedded timecode Burnt-in timecode CTL timecode DIN sync Linear timecode MIDI beat clock Rewritable consumer timecode Vertical interval timecode External links MIDI Time Code information MIDI time code specification 12 Feb 1987 Guide to the MIDI Software Specification MIDI standards Timecodes MIDI SMPTE standards

20437

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass%20transfer

Mass transfer

Mass transfer is the net movement of mass from one location, usually meaning stream, phase, fraction or component, to another. Mass transfer occurs in many processes, such as absorption, evaporation, drying, precipitation, membrane filtration, and distillation. Mass transfer is used by different scientific disciplines for different processes and mechanisms. The phrase is commonly used in engineering for physical processes that involve diffusive and convective transport of chemical species within physical systems. Some common examples of mass transfer processes are the evaporation of water from a pond to the atmosphere, the purification of blood in the kidneys and liver, and the distillation of alcohol. In industrial processes, mass transfer operations include separation of chemical components in distillation columns, absorbers such as scrubbers or stripping, adsorbers such as activated carbon beds, and liquid-liquid extraction. Mass transfer is often coupled to additional transport processes, for instance in industrial cooling towers. These towers couple heat transfer to mass transfer by allowing hot water to flow in contact with air. The water is cooled by expelling some of its content in the form of water vapour. Astrophysics In astrophysics, mass transfer is the process by which matter gravitationally bound to a body, usually a star, fills its Roche lobe and becomes gravitationally bound to a second body, usually a compact object (white dwarf, neutron star or black hole), and is eventually accreted onto it. It is a common phenomenon in binary systems, and may play an important role in some types of supernovae and pulsars. Chemical engineering Mass transfer finds extensive application in chemical engineering problems. It is used in reaction engineering, separations engineering, heat transfer engineering, and many other sub-disciplines of chemical engineering like electrochemical engineering. The driving force for mass transfer is usually a difference in chemical potential, when it can be defined, though other thermodynamic gradients may couple to the flow of mass and drive it as well. A chemical species moves from areas of high chemical potential to areas of low chemical potential. Thus, the maximum theoretical extent of a given mass transfer is typically determined by the point at which the chemical potential is uniform. For single phase-systems, this usually translates to uniform concentration throughout the phase, while for multiphase systems chemical species will often prefer one phase over the others and reach a uniform chemical potential only when most of the chemical species has been absorbed into the preferred phase, as in liquid-liquid extraction. While thermodynamic equilibrium determines the theoretical extent of a given mass transfer operation, the actual rate of mass transfer will depend on additional factors including the flow patterns within the system and the diffusivities of the species in each phase. This rate can be quantified through the calculation and application of mass transfer coefficients for an overall process. These mass transfer coefficients are typically published in terms of dimensionless numbers, often including Péclet numbers, Reynolds numbers, Sherwood numbers and Schmidt numbers, among others. Analogies between heat, mass, and momentum transfer There are notable similarities in the commonly used approximate differential equations for momentum, heat, and mass transfer. The molecular transfer equations of Newton's law for fluid momentum at low Reynolds number (Stokes flow), Fourier's law for heat, and Fick's law for mass are very similar, since they are all linear approximations to transport of conserved quantities in a flow field. At higher Reynolds number, the analogy between mass and heat transfer and momentum transfer becomes less useful due to the nonlinearity of the Navier-Stokes equation (or more fundamentally, the general momentum conservation equation), but the analogy between heat and mass transfer remains good. A great deal of effort has been devoted to developing analogies among these three transport processes so as to allow prediction of one from any of the others. References See also Crystal growth Heat transfer Fick's laws of diffusion Distillation column McCabe-Thiele method Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Liquid-liquid extraction Separation process Binary star Type Ia supernova Thermodiffusion Accretion (astrophysics) Transport phenomena Mechanical engineering Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning

20448

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum%20of%20Jurassic%20Technology

Museum of Jurassic Technology

The Museum of Jurassic Technology at 9341 Venice Boulevard in the Palms district of Los Angeles, California, was founded by David Hildebrand Wilson and Diana Drake Wilson in 1988. It calls itself "an educational institution dedicated to the advancement of knowledge and the public appreciation of the Lower Jurassic", the relevance of the term "Lower Jurassic" to the museum's collections being left uncertain and unexplained. The museum's collection includes a mixture of artistic, scientific, ethnographic, and historic items, as well as some unclassifiable exhibits; the diversity evokes the cabinets of curiosities that were the 16th-century predecessors of modern natural-history museums. The factual claims of many of the museum's exhibits strain credibility, provoking an array of interpretations. David Hildebrand Wilson received a MacArthur Foundation fellowship in 2001. Overview The museum contains an unusual collection of exhibits and objects with varying and uncertain degrees of authenticity. The New York Times critic Edward Rothstein described it as a "museum about museums", "where the persistent question is: what kind of place is this?" Smithsonian magazine called it "a witty, self-conscious homage to private museums of yore . . . when natural history was only barely charted by science, and museums were closer to Renaissance cabinets of curiosity." In a similar vein, The Economist said the museum "captures a time chronicled in Richard Holmes's recent book The Age of Wonder, when science mingled with poetry in its pursuit of answers to life's mysterious questions." Lawrence Weschler's 1995 book, Mr. Wilson's Cabinet of Wonder: Pronged Ants, Horned Humans, Mice on Toast, And Other Marvels of Jurassic Technology, attempts to explain the mystery of the Museum of Jurassic Technology. Weschler deeply explores the museum through conversations with its founder, David Wilson, and through outside research on several exhibitions. His investigations into the history of certain exhibits led to varying results of authenticity; some exhibits seem to have been created by Wilson's imagination while other exhibits might be suitable for display in a natural history museum. The Museum of Jurassic Technology at its heart, according to Wilson, is "a museum interested in presenting phenomena that other natural history museums are unwilling to present." The museum's introductory slideshow recounts that "In its original sense, the term, 'museum' meant 'a spot dedicated to the Muses, a place where man's mind could attain a mood of aloofness above everyday affairs'". In this spirit, the dimly lit atmosphere, wood and glass vitrines, and labyrinthine floorplan lead visitors through an eclectic range of exhibits on art, natural history, history of science, philosophy, and anthropology, with a special focus on the history of museums and the variety of paths to knowledge. The museum attracts approximately 25,000 visitors per year. Exhibits The museum maintains more than thirty permanent exhibits, including: The Delani/Sonnabend Halls: Recalling the intertwining story of an ill-fated opera singer, Madalena Delani, with a theoretician of memory, Geoffrey Sonnabend, whose three-part work Obliscence: Theories of Forgetting and the Problem of Matter suggests that memory is an elaborate construction that humankind has created "to buffer ourselves against the intolerable knowledge of the irreversible passage of time and the irretrievability of its moments and events." There is only experience and the decay of experience, an idea he illustrates with a complex diagram of a plane intersecting a cone. Tell the Bees: Belief, Knowledge, and Hypersymbolic Cognition: An exhibit of pre-scientific cures and remedies The Garden of Eden on Wheels: Collections from Los Angeles Area Trailer Parks The Unique World of Microminiatures of Hagop Sandaldjian: A collection of micro-miniature sculptures, each carved from a single human hair and placed within the eye of a needle. Currently on display: Goofy, Pope John Paul II, and Napoleon I. Other microminiatures include violins; dancers; a crucifix (made of a single strand of the artist's hair and gold); characters like Donald Duck, Pinocchio, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs; a self-portrait; a golf player; and a baseball player swinging his bat. Micromosaics of Harold "Henry" Dalton: Microscopic mosaics from the 19th century depicting flowers, animals, and other objects, made entirely from individual butterfly wing scales and diatoms The Stereofloral Radiographs of Albert G. Richards: A collection of stereographic radiographs of flowers Rotten Luck: The Decaying Dice of Ricky Jay: A collection of decomposing antique dice once owned by magician Ricky Jay and documented in his book Dice: Deception, Fate, and Rotten Luck No One May Ever Have the Same Knowledge Again: Letters to Mt. Wilson Observatory : A small room dedicated to unusual letters and theories received by the Mount Wilson Observatory circa 1915–1935 The World is Bound with Secret Knots: The Life and Works of Athanasius Kircher: A survey of the fields of study, writings and inventions of the 17th-century Jesuit polymath who was the founder of the Kircherian Museum in Rome The Lives of Perfect Creatures: The Dogs of the Soviet Space Program: An oil portrait gallery of the heroic cosmonaut canines Fairly Safely Venture: String Figures from Many Lands and their Venerable Collectors From 1992 to 2006, the museum's Foundation Collection was on display in its Tochtermuseum at the Karl Ernst Osthaus-Museum in Hagen, Germany. This exhibition was part of the Museum of Museums wing at the KEOM, which came into being under the stewardship of director Michael Fehr. Auxiliary functions In 2005, the museum opened its Tula Tea Room, a Russian-style tea room where Georgian tea is served. This room is a miniature reconstruction of the study of Tsar Nicolas II from the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, Russia. The Borzoi Kabinet Theater screens a series of poetic documentaries produced by the Museum of Jurassic Technology in collaboration with the St. Petersburg–based arts and science collective Kabinet. The series of films, entitled A Chain of Flowers, draws its name from the quotation by Charles Willson Peale: "The Learner must be led always from familiar objects toward the unfamiliar, guided along, as it were, a chain of flowers into the mysteries of life". The titles of the films are Levsha: The Cross-eyed Lefty from Tula and the Steel Flea (2001), Obshee Delo: The Common Task (2005), Bol'shoe Sovietskaia Zatmenie: The Great Soviet Eclipse (2008), The Book of Wisdom and Lies (2011), and Language of the Birds (2012). In popular culture The museum was the subject of a 1995 book by Lawrence Weschler entitled Mr. Wilson's Cabinet of Wonder: Pronged Ants, Horned Humans, Mice on Toast, and Other Marvels of Jurassic Technology, which describes in detail many of its exhibits. The museum is mentioned in the 2008 novel The Museum of Innocence, by Turkish Nobel-laureate Orhan Pamuk. References External links Museum website Roadtrip America: A Separate Reality NPR Archives: Macarthur Genius Grant for Museum of Jurassic Technology (Ed Heil) Jeanne Scheper, Interview with David Wilson, Other Voices, vol. 3, no. 1 Mark Edward's Skeptiblog "A Museum that makes you think" 2010 Art museums and galleries in Los Angeles Contemporary art galleries in the United States Museums in Los Angeles Natural history museums in California Museum of Jurassic Technology Museums established in 1987 Museum of Jurassic Technology

20451

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Men%20at%20Work

Men at Work

Men at Work are an Australian rock band formed in Melbourne in 1978 and best known for breakthrough hits such as "Who Can It Be Now?" and "Down Under". Its founding member and frontman is Colin Hay, who performs on lead vocals and guitar. After playing as an acoustic duo with Ron Strykert during 1978–79, Hay formed the group with Strykert playing bass guitar and Jerry Speiser on drums. They were soon joined by Greg Ham on flute, saxophone, and keyboards and John Rees on bass guitar, with Strykert switching back to lead guitar. The group was managed by Russell Depeller, a friend of Hay, whom he met at La Trobe University. This line-up achieved national and international success during the early to mid 1980s. In January 1983, they were the first Australian artists to have a simultaneous No. 1 album and No. 1 single on the United States Billboard charts: Business as Usual (released on 9 November 1981) and "Down Under" (1981), respectively. With the same works, they achieved the distinction of a simultaneous No. 1 album and No. 1 single on the Australian, New Zealand, and United Kingdom charts. Their second album Cargo (2 May 1983) was also No. 1 in Australia, No. 2 in New Zealand, No. 3 in the US, and No. 8 in the UK. Their third album Two Hearts (3 April 1985) reached the top 20 in Australia and top 50 in the US. They won the Grammy Award for Best New Artist in 1983, they were inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame in 1994, and they have sold over 30 million albums worldwide. In May 2001, "Down Under" was listed at No. 4 on the APRA Top 30 Australian songs and Business as Usual appeared in the book 100 Best Australian Albums (October 2010). In 1984, Speiser and Rees were asked to leave the group, leaving Hay, Ham and Strykert. During the recording of the Two Hearts album, Strykert decided to leave. Soon after the release of Two Hearts, Ham left also, leaving Hay as the sole remaining member. From 1996 until 2002 Hay and Ham toured the world as Men at Work. On 19 April 2012, Ham was found dead at his home from an apparent heart attack. In 2019, Hay revived the Men at Work moniker and began touring with the assistance of a backing band including none of the other original members. History Origins The nucleus of Men at Work formed in Melbourne around June 1979 with Colin Hay on lead vocals and guitar, Ron Strykert on bass guitar, and Jerry Speiser on drums. They were soon joined by Greg Ham on flute, sax and keyboards, and then John Rees on bass guitar, with Strykert switching to lead guitar. Hay had emigrated to Australia in 1967 from Scotland with his family. In 1978, he had formed an acoustic duo with Strykert, which expanded by mid-1979 with the addition of Speiser. Around this time as a side project, keyboardist Greg Sneddon (ex-Alroy Band). a former bandmate of Jerry Speiser, together with Speiser, Hay and Strykert performed and recorded the music to 'Riff Raff", a low budget stage musical, upon which Sneddon had worked. Hay asked Greg Ham to join the group, but Ham hesitated, as he was finishing his music degree. Ultimately, he decided to join the band in October 1979. John Rees, a friend of Jerry, joined soon after. The name Men At Work was thrown into the hat by Colin Hay, and was seconded by Ron Strykert, when a name was required to put on the blackboard outside The Cricketer's Arms Hotel, Richmond. The band built a "grass roots" reputation as a pub rock band. In 1980, the group issued their debut single, "Keypunch Operator" backed by "Down Under", with both tracks co-written by Hay and Strykert. It was "self-financed" and appeared on their own independent, M. A. W. label. Australian musicologist, Ian McFarlane, felt the A-side was "a fast-paced country-styled rocker with a clean sound and quirky rhythm". Despite not appearing in the top 100 on the Australian Kent Music Report Singles Chart, by the end of that year the group had "grown in stature to become the most in-demand and highly paid, unsigned band of the year". International success - Business as Usual and Cargo (1981–1983) Early in 1981 Men at Work signed with CBS Records, the Australian branch of CBS Records International, (which became Sony Music) on the recommendation of Peter Karpin, the label's A&R person. The group's first single with CBS Records in Australia "Who Can It Be Now?", was released in June 1981 which reached No. 2 and remained in the chart for 24 weeks. It had been produced by United States-based Peter McIan, who was also working on their debut album, Business as Usual. McIan, together with the band worked on the arrangements for all the songs that appeared on Business As Usual. Their next single was a re-arranged and "popified" version of "Down Under". It appeared in October that year and reached No. 1 in November, where it remained for six weeks. Business as Usual was also released in October and went to No. 1 on the Australian Kent Music Report Albums Chart, spending a total of nine weeks at the top spot. The Canberra Times Garry Raffaele opined that it "generally stays at a high level, tight and jerky ... There is a delicacy about this music — and that is not a thing you can say about too many rock groups. The flute and reeds of Greg Ham do much to further that". McFarlane noted that "[a]side from the strength of the music, part of the album's appeal was its economy. The production sound was low-key, but clean and uncluttered. Indeed, the songs stood by themselves with little embellishment save for a bright, melodic, singalong quality". By February the following year both "Down Under" and Business as Usual had reached No. 1 on the respective Official New Zealand Music Charts – the latter was the first Australian album to reach that peak in New Zealand. Despite its strong Australian and New Zealand showing, and having an American producer (McIan), Business as Usual was twice rejected by Columbia's US parent company. Thanks to the persistence of Russell Depeller and Karpin, the album was finally released in the US and the United Kingdom in April 1982 – six months after its Australian release. Their next single, "Be Good Johnny", was issued in Australia in April 1982 and reached No. 8 in Australia, and No. 3 in New Zealand. Men at Work initially broke through to North American audiences in the western provinces of Canada with "Who Can It Be Now?" hitting the top 10 on radio stations in Winnipeg by May 1982. It peaked at No. 8 on the Canadian RPM Top Singles Chart in July. In August the group toured Canada and the US to promote the album and related singles, supporting Fleetwood Mac. The band became more popular on Canadian radio in the following months and also started receiving top 40 US airplay by August. In October "Who Can It Be Now?" reached No. 1 on the US Billboard Hot 100, while Canada was one single ahead with "Down Under" topping the Canadian charts that same month. In the following month Business as Usual began a 15-week run at No. 1 on the Billboard 200. While "Who Can It Be Now?" was still in the top ten in the US, "Down Under" was finally released in that market. It entered the US charts at No. 79 and ten weeks later, it was No. 1. By January 1983 Men at Work had the top album and single in both the US and the UK – never previously achieved by an Australian act. "Be Good Johnny" received moderate airplay in the US; it reached the top 20 in Canada. "Down Under" gained international media exposure in September 1983 through television coverage of the Australian challenge for the America's Cup yacht trophy in September 1983 when it was adopted as the theme song by the crew of the successful Australia II. The band released their second album, Cargo, in April 1983, which also peaked at No. 1 – for two weeks – on the Australian charts. In New Zealand it reached No. 2. It had been finished in mid-1982 with McIan producing again, but was held back due to the success of their debut album on the international market, where Business as Usual was still riding high. Cargo appeared at No. 3 on the Billboard 200, and No. 8 in the UK. The lead single, "Overkill", was issued in Australia ahead of the album in October 1982 and reached No. 6, it peaked at No. 3 in the US. "Dr. Heckyll & Mr. Jive" followed in March 1983 made it to No. 5 in Australia, and No. 28 in the US. "It's a Mistake" reached No. 6 in the US. The band toured the world extensively in 1983. Two Hearts and break-up (1984–1986) In 1984, long standing tensions between Hay and Speiser led to a split in the band. Both Rees and Speiser were told they were "not required", as Hay, Ham and Strykert used session musicians to record their third album, Two Hearts (23 April 1985). Studio musicians included Jeremy Alsop on bass guitar (ex-Ram Band, Pyramid, Broderick Smith Band); and Mark Kennedy on drums (Spectrum, Ayers Rock, Marcia Hines Band). Two Hearts was produced by Hay and Ham. It was a critical and commercial failure compared to their previous albums and only peaked at No. 16 in Australia, and No. 50 on the US chart. Strykert had left during its production. Four tracks were released as singles, "Everything I Need" (May 1985), "Man with Two Hearts", "Maria" (August), and "Hard Luck Story" (October); only the lead single charted in Australia (No. 37) and the US (No. 47). The album relied heavily on drum machines and synthesisers, and reduced the presence of Ham's saxophone, giving it a different feel compared to its predecessors. Hay and Ham hired new bandmates, to tour in support of Two Hearts, with Alsop and Kennedy joined by James Black on guitar and keyboards (Mondo Rock, The Black Sorrows). Soon after a third guitarist, Colin Bayley (Mi-Sex), was added and Kennedy was replaced on drums by Chad Wackerman (Frank Zappa). Australian singers Kate Ceberano and Renée Geyer had also worked on the album and performed live as guest vocalists. On 13 July 1985 Men at Work performed three tracks for the Oz for Africa concert (part of the global Live Aid program)—"Maria", "Overkill", and an unreleased one, "The Longest Night". They were broadcast in Australia (on both Seven Network and Nine Network) and on MTV in the US. "Maria" and "Overkill" were also broadcast by American Broadcasting Company (ABC) during their Live Aid telecast. Ham left during the band's time touring behind the album. The final Men at Work performances during 1985 had jazz saxophonist Paul Williamson (The Black Sorrows), replacing Ham. By early 1986 the band was defunct and Hay started recording his first solo album, Looking for Jack (January 1987), which had Alsop and Wackerman as session musicians. Partial reunion and second break-up (1996–2002) By mid-1996, after a ten-year absence, Hay and Ham reformed Men at Work to tour South America. They had enjoyed strong fan support there during their earlier career and demands for a reunion had persisted. The 1996 line up had Stephen Hadley on bass guitar and backing vocals (ex-The Black Sorrows, Paul Kelly Band); Simon Hosford on guitar and backing vocals (Colin Hay backing band); and John Watson on drums (The Black Sorrows). The tour culminated in a performance in São Paulo, which was recorded for the Brazilian release of a live album, Brazil '96, in 1997, which was co-produced by Hay and Ham for Sony Music. It was re-released worldwide in 1998 as Brazil with a bonus track, "The Longest Night", the first new studio track since Two Hearts. In 1997 drummer Tony Floyd replaced Watson but by 1998 the lineup was Hay, Ham, James Ryan (guitar, backing vocals), Rick Grossman (of the Hoodoo Gurus) on bass and Peter Maslen (ex-Boom Crash Opera) on drums. In 1999 Ryan, Grossman and Maslen were out and Hosford and Floyd were back in, along with bassist Stuart Speed. Rodrigo Aravena was brought in on bass in 2000, along with Heta Moses on drums. Moses was replaced by Warren Trout in 2001 as Stephen Hadley returned on bass. The band toured Australia, South America, Europe and the US from 1998 to 2000. Men at Work performed "Down Under" at the closing ceremony of the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, alongside Paul Hogan of "Crocodile" Dundee (1986). One of their European tours for mid-2000 was cancelled and the group had disbanded by 2002, although Hay and Ham periodically reunited Men at Work with guest musicians (including an appearance in February 2009, when they performed "Down Under" as a duo at the Australia Unites Victorian Bushfire Appeal Telethon). Copyright lawsuit and the death of Greg Ham In February 2010 Larrikin Music Publishing won a case against Hay and Strykert, their record label (Sony BMG Music Entertainment) and music publishing company (EMI Songs Australia) arising from the uncredited appropriation of "Kookaburra", originally written in 1932 by Marion Sinclair and for which Larrikin owned the publishing rights, as the flute line in the Men at Work song, "Down Under". Back in early 2009 the Australian music-themed TV quiz, Spicks and Specks, had posed a question which suggested that "Down Under" contained elements of "Kookaburra". Larrikin, then headed by Norman Lurie, filed suit after Larrikin was sold to another company and had demanded between 40% and 60% of the previous six years of earnings from the song. In February 2010 the judge ruled that "Down Under" did contain a flute riff based on "Kookaburra" but stipulated that neither was it necessarily the hook nor a substantial part of the hit song (Hay and Strykert had written the track years before the flute riff was added by Ham). In July 2010 a judge ruled that Larrikin should be paid 5% of past (since 2002) and future profits. Ham took the verdict particularly hard, feeling responsible for having performed the flute riff at the centre of the lawsuit and worried that he would only be remembered for copying someone else's music, resulting in depression and anxiety. Ham's body was found in his Carlton North home on 19 April 2012 after he suffered a fatal heart attack at age 58. Post 2012 In June 2019, Hay toured Europe with a group of Los Angeles-based session musicians under the name Men at Work, despite the band featuring no other original members of the band. In 2021, Australian producer Christian 'Luude' Benson (from the Tasmanian tech house dance duo Choomba) remixed "Down Under" as a drum and bass track, which became popular online. Hay re-recorded the vocal for the track's official release, now credited to Luude featuring Colin Hay, with the record charting at number 32 on the UK Singles chart on 7 January 2022 and at number 48 in Australia (on the ARIA Top 50 Singles for the week of 10 January 2022). Other projects Hay maintained a solo career and played with Ringo Starr & His All-Starr Band. Strykert relocated to Hobart in 2009 from Los Angeles, and continued to play music and released his first solo album, Paradise, in September that year. He expressed resentment towards Hay, mainly over royalties. Ham remained musically active and played sax with the Melbourne-based group The Nudist Funk Orchestra until his death. Rees was a music teacher in Melbourne and also played the violin and bass guitar for the band Beggs 2 Differ. Speiser played drums for the band The Afterburner. Awards and nominations ARIA Music Awards The ARIA Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony that recognises excellence, innovation, and achievement across all genres of Australian music. They commenced in 1987. Men at Work were inducted into the Hall of Fame in 1994. |- | ARIA Music Awards of 1994 | Men at Work | ARIA Hall of Fame | Countdown Australian Music Awards Countdown is an Australian pop music TV series that aired on national broadcaster ABC-TV from 1974 to 1987, it presented music awards from 1979 to 1987, initially in conjunction with magazine TV Week. The TV Week / Countdown Awards were a combination of popular-voted and peer-voted awards. |- | rowspan="5" |1981 | "Down Under" | Best Australian Single | |- | Business as Usual | Best Debut Album | |- | "Who Can It Be Now?" | Best Debut Single | |- | rowspan="2" | Themselves | Best New Talent | |- | Most Popular Group | |- | rowspan="3" | 1982 | Colin Hay (Men At Work) | Best Songwriter | |- | rowspan="2" | Themselves | Most Popular Group | |- | Most Outstanding Achievement | |- | rowspan="3" | 1983 | Cargo | Best Australian Album | |- | rowspan="2" | Themselves | Most Outstanding Achievement | |- | Most Popular Group | |- Grammy Awards |- | 1983 | Men at Work | Best New Artist | Other awards In August 1983 they were given a Crystal Globe Award for $100 million worth of record business by their US label. That same year in Canada they were awarded a Juno Award for "International LP of the Year". Men at Work have sold over 30 million albums worldwide. On 28 May 2001 "Down Under" was listed at No. 4 on the APRA Top 30 Australian songs. In October 2010, Business as Usual was listed in the book, 100 Best Australian Albums. Members Colin Hay has been the only constant member in all configurations. Present Colin Hay – lead vocals, rhythm guitar, bass (1978–1986, 1996–2002; occasional performances until 2012; 2019–present) Current touring members Jimmy Branly – drums (2019–present) San Miguel Perez – guitar, backing vocals (2019–present) Yosmel Montejo – bass, backing vocals (2019–present) Scheila Gonzalez – saxophone, flute, keyboards, backing vocals (2019–present) Cecilia Noel – backing vocals (2019–present) Former Ron Strykert – lead guitar, bass, vocals (1978–1985) Jerry Speiser – drums, percussion, backing vocals (1979–1984) Greg Ham – keyboards, vocals, saxophone, harmonica, flute (1979–1985, 1996–2002; occasional performances until 2012; died 2012) John Rees – bass, backing vocals (1980–1984) Former touring members Jeremy Alsop – bass, backing vocals (1985–1986) James Black – guitar, keyboards, backing vocals (1985–1986) Mark Kennedy – drums (1985) Colin Bayley – guitar, backing vocals (1985–1986) Chad Wackerman – drums, backing vocals (1985–1986) Paul Williamson – saxophone, keyboards, backing vocals (1985–1986) Simon Hosford – guitar, backing vocals (1996–1998, 1999–2001) Stephen Hadley – bass, backing vocals (1996–1998, 2001) John Watson – drums (1996–1997) Tony Floyd – drums (1997–1998, 1999–2000) Rick Grossman – bass, backing vocals (1998–1999) James Ryan — guitar, backing vocals (1998–1999) Peter Maslen – drums (1998–1999) Stuart Speed — bass, backing vocals (1998–1999) Rodrigo Aravena – bass, backing vocals (2000–2001) Heta Moses – drums (2000–2001) Warren Trout – drums (2001) Discography Business as Usual (1981) Cargo (1983) Two Hearts (1985) See also Artists achieving simultaneous US and UK number-one hits References General Note: Archived [on-line] copy has limited functionality. Specific APRA Award winners ARIA Award winners ARIA Hall of Fame inductees Australian new wave musical groups Australian pop rock groups Columbia Records artists Epic Records artists Grammy Award winners Juno Award for International Album of the Year winners Musical groups established in 1978 Musical groups disestablished in 1986 Musical groups reestablished in 1996 Musical groups disestablished in 2002 Musical groups reestablished in 2019 Musical groups from Melbourne Reggae rock groups Victoria (Australia) musical groups Musical quintets 1978 establishments in Australia

20452

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meconium%20aspiration%20syndrome

Meconium aspiration syndrome

Meconium aspiration syndrome (MAS) also known as neonatal aspiration of meconium is a medical condition affecting newborn infants. It describes the spectrum of disorders and pathophysiology of newborns born in meconium-stained amniotic fluid (MSAF) and have meconium within their lungs. Therefore, MAS has a wide range of severity depending on what conditions and complications develop after parturition. Furthermore, the pathophysiology of MAS is multifactorial and extremely complex which is why it is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in term infants. The word meconium is derived from the Greek word mēkōnion meaning juice from the opium poppy as the sedative effects it had on the foetus were observed by Aristotle. Meconium is a sticky dark-green substance which contains gastrointestinal secretions, amniotic fluid, bile acids, bile, blood, mucus, cholesterol, pancreatic secretions, lanugo, vernix caseosa and cellular debris. Meconium accumulates in the foetal gastrointestinal tract throughout the third trimester of pregnancy and it is the first intestinal discharge released within the first 48 hours after birth. Notably, since meconium and the whole content of the gastrointestinal tract is located ‘extracorporeally,’ its constituents are hidden and normally not recognised by the foetal immune system. For the meconium within the amniotic fluid to successfully cause MAS, it has to enter the respiratory system during the period when the fluid-filled lungs transition into an air-filled organ capable of gas exchange. Causes The main theories of meconium passage into amniotic fluid are caused by fetal maturity or from foetal stress as a result of hypoxia or infection. Other factors that promote the passage of meconium in utero include placental insufficiency, maternal hypertension, pre-eclampsia and maternal drug use of tobacco and cocaine. However, the exact mechanism for meconium passage into the amniotic fluid is not completely understood and it may be a combination of several factors. Meconium passage as a result of foetal distress There may be an important association between foetal distress and hypoxia with MSAF. It is believed that foetal distress develops into foetal hypoxia causing the foetus to defecate meconium resulting in MSAF and then perhaps MAS. Other stressors which causes foetal distress, and therefore meconium passage, includes when umbilical vein oxygen saturation is below 30%. Foetal hypoxic stress during parturition can stimulate colonic activity, by enhancing intestinal peristalsis and relaxing the anal sphincter, which results in the passage of meconium. Then, because of intrauterine gasping or from the first few breaths after delivery, MAS may develop. Furthermore, aspiration of thick meconium leads to obstruction of airways resulting in a more severe hypoxia. It is important to note that the association between foetal distress and meconium passage is not a definite cause-effect relationship as over ¾ of infants with MSAF are vigorous at birth and do not have any distress or hypoxia. Additionally, foetal distress occurs frequently without the passage of meconium as well. Meconium passage as a result of foetal maturity Although meconium is present in the gastrointestinal tract early in development, MSAF rarely occurs before 34 weeks gestation. Peristalsis of the foetal intestines is present as early as 8 weeks gestation and the anal sphincter develops at about 20–22 weeks. The early control mechanisms of the anal sphincter are not well understood, however there is evidence that the foetus does defecate routinely into the amniotic cavity even in the absence of distress. The presence of fetal intestinal enzymes have been found in the amniotic fluid of women who are as early as 14–22 weeks pregnant. Thus, suggesting there is free passage of the intestinal contents into the amniotic fluid. Motilin is found in higher concentrations in post-term than pre-term foetal gastrointestinal tracts. Similarly, intestinal parasympathetic innervation and myelination also increases in later gestations. Therefore, the increased incidence of MAS in post-term pregnancies may reflect the maturation and development of the peristalsis within the gastrointestinal tract in the newborn. Pathophysiology As MAS describes a spectrum of disorders of newborns born through MSAF, without any congenital respiratory disorders or other underlying pathology, there are numerous hypothesised mechanisms and causes for the onset of this syndrome. Long-term consequences may arise from these disorders, for example, infants that develop MAS have higher rates of developing neurodevelopmental defects due to poor respiration. Airway obstruction In the first 15 minutes of meconium aspiration, there is obstruction of larger airways which causes increased lung resistance, decreased lung compliance, acute hypoxemia, hypercapnia, atelectasis and respiratory acidosis. After 60 minutes of exposure, the meconium travels further down into the smaller airways. Once within the terminal bronchioles and alveoli, the meconium triggers inflammation, pulmonary edema, vasoconstriction, bronchoconstriction, collapse of airways and inactivation of surfactant. Foetal hypoxia The lung areas which do not or only partially participate in ventilation, because of obstruction and/or destruction, will become hypoxic and an inflammatory response may consequently occur. Partial obstruction will lead to air trapping and hyperinflation of certain lung areas and pneumothorax may follow. Chronic hypoxia will lead to an increase in pulmonary vascular smooth muscle tone and persistent pulmonary hypertension causing respiratory and circulatory failure. Infection Microorganisms, most commonly Gram-negative rods, and endotoxins are found in samples of MSAF at a higher rate than in clear amniotic fluid, for example 46.9% of patients with MSAF also had endotoxins present. A microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity (MIAC) is more common in patients with MSAF and this could ultimately lead to an intra-amniotic inflammatory response. MIAC is associated with high concentrations of cytokines (such as IL-6), chemokines (such as IL-8 and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1), complement, phospholipase A2 and matrix-degrading enzymes. Therefore, these aforementioned mediators within the amniotic fluid during MIAC and intra-amniotic infection could, when aspirated in utero, induce lung inflammation within the foetus. Pulmonary inflammation Meconium has a complex chemical composition, so it is difficult to identify a single agent responsible for the several diseases that arise. As meconium is stored inside the intestines, and is partly unexposed to the immune system, when it becomes aspirated the innate immune system recognises as a foreign and dangerous substance. The immune system, which is present at birth, responds within minutes with a low specificity and no memory in order to try to eliminate microbes. Meconium perhaps leads to chemical pneumonitis as it is a potent activator of inflammatory mediators which include cytokines, complement, prostaglandins and reactive oxygen species. Meconium is a source of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including tumour necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukins (IL-1, IL-6, IL-8), and mediators produced by neutrophils, macrophages and epithelial cells that may injure the lung tissue directly or indirectly. For example, proteolytic enzymes are released from neutrophilic granules and these may damage the lung membrane and surfactant proteins. Additionally, activated leukocytes and cytokines generate reactive nitrogen and oxygen species which have cytotoxic effects. Oxidative stress results in vasoconstriction, bronchoconstriction, platelet aggregation and accelerated cellular apoptosis. Recently, it has been hypothesised that meconium is a potent activator of toll-like receptor (TLRs) and complement, key mediators in inflammation, and may thus contribute to the inflammatory response in MAS. Meconium contains high amounts of phospholipase A2 (PLA2), a potent proinflammatory enzyme, which may directly (or through the stimulation of arachidonic acid) lead to surfactant dysfunction, lung epithelium destruction, tissue necrosis and an increase in apoptosis. Meconium can also activate the coagulation cascade, production of platelet-activating factor (PAF) and other vasoactive substances that may lead to destruction of capillary endothelium and basement membranes. Injury to the alveolocapillary membrane results in leakage of liquid, plasma proteins, and cells into the interstitium and alveolar spaces. Surfactant inactivation Surfactant is synthesised by type II alveolar cells and is made of a complex of phospholipids, proteins and saccharides. It functions to lower surface tension (to allow for lung expansion during inspiration), stabilise alveoli at the end of expiration (to prevent alveolar collapse) and prevents lung oedema. Surfactant also contributes to lung protection and defence as it is also an anti-inflammatory agent. Surfactant enhances the removal of inhaled particles and senescent cells away from the alveolar structure. The extent of surfactant inhibition depends on both the concentration of surfactant and meconium. If the surfactant concentration is low, even very highly diluted meconium can inhibit surfactant function whereas, in high surfactant concentrations, the effects of meconium are limited. Meconium may impact surfactant mechanisms by preventing surfactant from spreading over the alveolar surface, decreasing the concentration of surfactant proteins (SP-A and SP-B), and by changing the viscosity and structure of surfactant. Several morphological changes occur after meconium exposure, the most notable being the detachment of airway epithelium from stroma and the shedding of epithelial cells into the airway. These indicate a direct detrimental effect on lung alveolar cells because of the introduction of meconium into the lungs. Persistent Pulmonary Hypertension Persistent pulmonary hypertension (PPHN) is the failure of the foetal circulation to adapt to extra-uterine conditions after birth. PPHN is associated with various respiratory diseases, including MAS (as 15-20% of infants with MAS develop PPHN), but also pneumonia and sepsis. A combination of hypoxia, pulmonary vasoconstriction and ventilation/perfusion mismatch can trigger PPHN, depending on the concentration of meconium within the respiratory tract. PPHN in newborns is the leading cause of death in MAS. Apoptosis Apoptosis is an important mechanism in the clearance of injured cells and in tissue repair, however too much apoptosis may cause harm, such as acute lung injury. Meconium induces apoptosis and DNA cleavage of lung airway epithelial cells, this is detected by the presence of fragmented DNA within the airways and in alveolar epithelial nuclei. Meconium induces an inflammatory reaction within the lungs as there is an increase of autophagocytic cells and levels of caspase 3 after exposure. After 8 hours of meconium exposure, in rabbit foetuses, the total amount of apoptotic cells is 54%. Therefore, the majority of meconium-induced lung damage may be due to the apoptosis of lung epithelium. Diagnosis Respiratory distress in an infant born through the darkly coloured MSAF as well as meconium obstructing the airways is usually sufficient enough to diagnose MAS. Additionally, newborns with MAS can have other types of respiratory distress such as tachypnea and hypercapnia. Sometimes it is hard to diagnose MAS as it can be confused with other diseases that also cause respiratory distress, such as pneumonia. Additionally, X-rays and lung ultrasounds can be quick, easy and cheap imaging techniques to diagnose lung diseases like MAS. Prevention In general, the incidence of MAS has been significantly reduced over the past two decades as the number of post-term deliveries has minimized. Prevention during pregnancy Prevention during pregnancy may include amnioinfusion and antibiotics but the effectiveness of these treatments are questionable. Prevention during parturition As previously mentioned, oropharyngeal and nasopharyngeal suctioning is not an ideal preventative treatment for both vigorous and depressed (not breathing) infants. Treatment Most infants born through MSAF do not require any treatments (other than routine postnatal care) as they show no signs of respiratory distress, as only approximately 5% of infants born through MSAF develop MAS. However, infants which do develop MAS need to be admitted to a neonatal unit where they will be closely observed and provided any treatments needed. Observations include monitoring heart rate, respiratory rate, oxygen saturation and blood glucose (to detect worsening respiratory acidosis or the development of hypoglycemia). In general, treatment of MAS is more supportive in nature. Assisted ventilation techniques To clear the airways of meconium, tracheal suctioning can be used however, the efficacy of this method is in question and it can cause harm. In cases of MAS, there is a need for supplemental oxygen for at least 12 hours in order to maintain oxygen saturation of haemoglobin at 92% or more. The severity of respiratory distress can vary significantly between newborns with MAS, as some require minimal or no supplemental oxygen requirement and, in severe cases, mechanical ventilation may be needed. The desired oxygen saturation is between 90-95% and PaO2 may be as high as 90mmHg. In cases where there is thick meconium deep within the lungs, mechanical ventilation may be required. In extreme cases, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) may be utilised in infants who fail to respond to ventilation therapy. While on ECMO, the body can have time to absorb the meconium and for all the associated disorders to resolve. There has been an excellent response to this treatment, as the survival rate of MAS while on ECMO is more than 94%. Ventilation of infants with MAS can be challenging and, as MAS can affect each individual differently, ventilation administration may need to be customised. Some newborns with MAS can have homogenous lung changes and others can have inconsistent and patchy changes to their lungs. It is common for sedation and muscle relaxants to be used to optimise ventilation and minimise the risk of pneumothorax associated with dyssynchronous breathing. Inhaled nitric oxide Inhaled nitric oxide (iNO) acts on vascular smooth muscle causing selective pulmonary vasodilation. This is ideal in the treatment of PPHN as it causes vasodilation within ventilated areas of the lung thus, decreasing the ventilation-perfusion mismatch and thereby, improves oxygenation. Treatment utilising iNO decreases the need for ECMO and mortality in newborns with hypoxic respiratory failure and PPHN as a result of MAS. However, approximately 30-50% of infants with PPHN do not respond to iNO therapy. Antiinflammatories As inflammation is such a huge issue in MAS, treatment has consisted of anti-inflammatories. Glucocorticoids Glucocorticoids have a strong anti-inflammatory activity and works to reduce the migration and activation of neutrophils, eosinophils, mononuclear cells, and other cells. They reduce the migration of neutrophils into the lungs ergo, decreasing their adherence to the endothelium. Thus, there is a reduction in the action of mediators released from these cells and therefore, a reduced inflammatory response. Glucocorticoids also possess a genomic mechanism of action in which, once bound to a glucocorticoid receptor, the activated complex moves into the nucleus and inhibits transcription of mRNA. Ultimately, effecting whether various proteins get produced or not. Inhibiting the transcription of nuclear factor (NF-κB) and protein activator (AP-1) attenuates the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, IL-8 and TNF etc.), enzymes (PLA2, COX-2, iNOs etc.) and other biologically active substances. The anti-inflammatory effect of glucocorticoids is also demonstrated by enhancing the activity of lipocortines which inhibit the activity of PLA2 and therefore, decrease the production of arachidonic acid and mediators of lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase pathways. Anti-inflammatories need to be administered as quickly as possible as the effect of these drugs can diminish even just an hour after meconium aspiration. For example, early administration of dexamethasone significantly enhanced gas exchange, reduced ventilatory pressures, decreased the number of neutrophils in the bronchoalveolar area, reduced oedema formation and oxidative lung injury. However, glucocorticoids may increase the risk of infection and this risk increases with the dose and duration of glucocorticoid treatment. Other issues can arise, such as aggravation of diabetes mellitus, osteoporosis, skin atrophy and growth retardation in children. Inhibitors of phosphodiesterase Phosphodiesterases (PDE) degrades cAMP and cGMP and, within the respiratory system of a newborn with MAS, various isoforms of PDE may be involved due to their pro-inflammatory and smooth muscle contractile activity. Therefore, non-selective and selective inhibitors of PDE could potentially be used in MAS therapy. However, the use of PDE inhibitors can cause cardiovascular side effects. Non-selective PDE inhibitors, such as methylxanthines, increase concentrations of cAMP and cGMP in the cells leading to bronchodilation and vasodilation. Additionally, methylxanthines decreases the concentrations of calcium, acetylcholine and monoamines, this controls the release of various mediators of inflammation and bronchoconstriction, including prostaglandins. Selective PDE inhibitors target one subtype of phosphodiesterase and in MAS the activities of PDE-3, PDE-4, PDE-5 and PDE-7 may become enhanced. For example, Milrinone (a selective PDE3 inhibitor) improved oxygenation and survival of neonates with MAS. Inhibitors of cyclooxygenase Arachidonic acid is metabolised, via cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase, to various substances including prostaglandins and leukotrienes, which exhibit potent pro-inflammatory and vasoactive effects. By inhibiting COX, and more specifically COX-2, (either through selective or non-selective drugs) inflammation and oedema can be reduced. However, COX inhibitors may induce peptic ulcers and cause hyperkalemia and hypernatremia. Additionally, COX inhibitors have not shown any great response in the treatment of MAS. Antibiotics Meconium is typically sterile however, it can contain various cultures of bacteria so appropriate antibiotics may need to be prescribed. Surfactant treatment Lung lavage with diluted surfactant is a new treatment with potentially beneficial results depending on how early it is administered in newborns with MAS. This treatment shows promise as it has a significant effect on air leaks, pneumothorax, the need for ECMO and death. Early intervention and using it on newborns with mild MAS is more effective. However, there are risks as a large volume of fluid instillation to the lung of a newborn can be dangerous (particularly in cases of severe MAS with pulmonary hypertension) as it can exacerbate hypoxia and lead to mortality. Previous treatments Originally, it was believed that MAS developed as a result of the meconium being a physical blockage of the airways. Thus, to prevent newborns, who were born through MSAF, from developing MAS, suctioning of the oropharyngeal and nasopharyngeal area before delivery of the shoulders followed by tracheal aspiration was utilised for 20 years. This treatment was believed to be effective as it was reported to significantly decrease the incidence of MAS compared to those newborns born through MSAF who were not treated. This claim was later disproved and future studies concluded that oropharyngeal and nasopharyngeal suctioning, before delivery of the shoulders in infants born through MSAF, does not prevent MAS or its complications. In fact, it can cause more issues and damage (e.g. mucosal damage), thus it is not a recommended preventative treatment. Suctioning may not significantly reduce the incidence of MAS as meconium passage and aspiration may occur in-utero. Thereby making the suctioning redundant and useless as the meconium may already be deep within the lungs at the time of birth. Historically, amnioinfusion has been used when MSAF was present, which involves a transcervical infusion of fluid during labour. The idea was to dilute the thick meconium to reduce its potential pathophysiology and reduce cases of MAS, since MAS is more prevalent in cases of thick meconium. However, there are associated risks, such as umbilical cord prolapse and prolongation of labour. The UK National Institute of Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) Guidelines recommend against the use of amnioinfusion in women with MSAF. Prevalence 1 in every 7 pregnancies have MSAF and, of these cases, approximately 5% of these infants develop MAS. MSAF is observed 23-52% in pregnancies at 42 weeks therefore, the frequency of MAS increases as the length of gestation increases, such that the prevalence is greatest in post-term pregnancies. Conversely, preterm births are not frequently associated with MSAF (only approximately 5% in total contain MSAF). The rate of MAS declines in populations where labour is induced in women that have pregnancies exceeding 41 weeks. There are many suspected pre-disposing factors that are thought to increase the risk of MAS. For example, the risk of MSAF is higher in African American, African and Pacific Islander mothers, compared to mothers from other ethnic groups. Future research Research is being focused on developing both a successful method for preventing MAS as well as an effective treatment. For example, investigations are being made in the efficiency of anti-inflammatory agents, surfactant replacement therapy and antibiotic therapy. More research needs to be conducted on the pharmacological properties of, for example, glucocorticoids, including dosages, administration, timing or any drug interactions. Additionally, there is still research being conducted on whether intubation and suctioning of meconium in newborns with MAS is beneficial, harmful or is simply a redundant and outdated treatment. In general, there is still no generally accepted therapeutic protocol and effective treatment plan for MAS. See also Aspiration pneumonia References External links eMedicine's article about meconium aspiration syndrome Neonatology Syndromes