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The ship was assigned to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Fleet 's 1st Battle Squadron after her 1911 commissioning . In 1912 , Zrínyi and her two sister ships conducted two training cruises into the eastern Mediterranean Sea . On the second cruise into the Aegean Sea , conducted from November to December , Zrínyi and her sister ships were accompanied by the cruiser SMS Admiral Spaun and a pair of destroyers . After returning to Pola , the entire fleet mobilized for possible hostilities , as tensions flared in the Balkans .

The ship was assigned to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Fleet <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'s</mark></a>1st Battle Squadron after her 1911 commissioning . In 1912 , Zrínyi and her two sister ships conducted two training cruises into the eastern Mediterranean Sea . On the second cruise into the Aegean Sea , conducted from November to December , Zrínyi and her sister ships <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> accompanied by the cruiser SMS Admiral Spaun and a pair of destroyers . After returning to Pola , the entire fleet mobilized for possible hostilities , as tensions flared in the Balkans .

The ship was assigned to da Austro @-@ Hungarian Fleet 1st Battle Squadron after her 1911 commissioning . In 1912 , Zrínyi and her two sister ships conducted two training cruises into tdaeastern Mediterranean Sea . On the second cruise into thdaegean Sea , conducted from November to December , Zrínyi and her sister ships was accompanied by thedauiser SMS Admiral Spaun and a pair of destroyers . After returning to Pola , the entire fleet mobilized for possible hostilities , as tensions flared in the dakans .

In 1913 , Zrínyi participated in an international naval demonstration in the Ionian Sea to protest the Balkan Wars . Ships from other navies included in the demonstration were the British pre @-@ dreadnought HMS King Edward VII , the Italian pre @-@ dreadnought Ammiraglio di Saint Bon , the French armored cruiser Edgar Quinet , and the German light cruiser SMS Breslau . The most important action of the combined flotilla , which was under the command of British Admiral Cecil Burney , was to blockade the Montenegrin coast . The goal of the blockade was to prevent Serbian reinforcements from supporting the siege at Scutari , where Montenegro had besieged a combined force of Albanians and Ottomans . Pressured by the international blockade , Serbia withdrew its army from Scutari , which was subsequently occupied by a joint Allied ground force .

In 1913 , Zrínyi participated in an international naval demonstration in the Ionian Sea to protest the Balkan Wars . Ships from other navies included in the demonstration <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> the British pre @-@ dreadnought HMS King Edward VII , the Italian <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>pre</mark></a> @-@ dreadnought Ammiraglio di Saint Bon , the French armored cruiser Edgar Quinet , and the German light cruiser SMS Breslau . The most important action of the combined flotilla , which was under the command of British Admiral Cecil Burney , was to blockade the Montenegrin coast . The goal of the blockade was to prevent Serbian reinforcements from supporting the siege at Scutari , where Montenegro <a href='been_done' title='3'><mark>had</mark></a> besieged a combined force of Albanians and Ottomans . Pressured by the international blockade , Serbia withdrew its army from Scutari , which was subsequently occupied by a joint Allied ground force .

In 1913 , Zrínyi participated in an international naval demonstration in da Ionian Sea to protest tdaBalkan Wars . Ships from other navies included in the demonstration was the British pre @-@ dreadnought HMS King Edward VII , the Italian pred @-@ dreadnought Ammiraglio di Saint Bon , the French armored cruiser Edgar Quinet , and thdaerman light cruiser SMS Breslau . Thedast important action of the combined flotilla , which was under the damand of British Admiral Cecil Burney , was to blockade the Mdaenegrin coast . The goal of the blockade was to prevent Serbian reinforcements from supporting the siege at Scutari , where Montenegro done besieged a combined force of Albanians and Ottomans . Pressured by the indanational blockade , Serbia withdrew its army from Scutari , which was subsequently occupied by a joint Allied ground force .

During that year , the first of four new dreadnoughts , SMS Viribus Unitis , that made up the Tegetthoff class — the only dreadnoughts built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy — came into active service . With the commissioning of these dreadnoughts , Zrínyi and her sisters were moved from the 1st Division to the 2nd Division of the 1st Battle Squadron .

During that year , the first of four new dreadnoughts , SMS Viribus Unitis , <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>that</mark></a>made up the Tegetthoff class — the only dreadnoughts built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy — came into active service . With the commissioning of these dreadnoughts , Zrínyi and her sisters <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> moved from the 1st Division to the 2nd Division of the 1st Battle Squadron .

Durin that year , da first of 4 new dreadnoughts , SMS Viribus Unitis , made up the Tegetthoff class — the only dreadnoughts built for tdaAustro @-@ Hungarian Navy — came into active service . wit the commissioning of dese dreadnoughts , Zrínyi and her sisters was moved from the 1st Division to the 2nd Division of the 1st Battle Squadron .

= = = World War I = = =

= = = World War I = = =

= = = World War I = = =

At that time of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June 1914 , the battleships in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy consisted of the Radetzky class , the Tegetthoff class ( which still had one ship , SMS Szent István , under construction ) , the Erzherzog Karl class and finally , the older Habsburg class . Along with the remainder of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , Zrínyi was mobilized in late July 1914 to support the flight of SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . The two German ships broke out of Messina , which was surrounded by the British navy and reached Turkey . The flotilla had advanced as far south as Brindisi in southeastern Italy when news of the successful breakout reached Vienna . The Austro @-@ Hungarian ships were then recalled before seeing action .

At that time of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June 1914 , the battleships in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy consisted of the Radetzky class , the Tegetthoff class ( which still had one ship , SMS Szent István , under construction ) , the Erzherzog Karl class and finally , the older Habsburg class . Along with the remainder of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , Zrínyi was mobilized in late July 1914 to support the flight of SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . The two German ships broke out of Messina , which was surrounded by the British navy and reached Turkey . The flotilla <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>had</mark></a> advanced as far south as Brindisi in southeastern Italy when news of the successful breakout reached Vienna . The Austro @-@ Hungarian ships <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> then recalled before seeing action .

At dat time of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June 1914 , da battleships in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy consisted of the Radetzky class , tdaTegetthoff class ( which still had one ship , SMS Szent István , under construction ) , thdarzherzog Karl class and finally , thedader Habsburg class . Along w the daainder of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , Zrínyi was mobilized in late July 1914 to support the flight of SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . The 2 German ships broke out of Messina , which was surrounded by the British navy and reached Turkey . The fdailla done advanced as far south as Brindisi in southeastern Italy when news of the sudassful breakout reached Vienna . The Austro @-@ Hungarian ships was then recalled before seeing action .

On 23 May 1915 , between two and four hours after news of the Italian declaration of war reached the main Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Pola , Zrínyi and the rest of the fleet departed to bombard the Italian and Montenegrin coast . Their focus was on the important naval base at Ancona , and later the coast of Montenegro . The bombardment of Montenegro was part of the larger Austro @-@ Hungarian campaign against the Kingdoms of Montenegro and Serbia , who were members of the Entente , during the first half of 1915 . The attack on Ancona was an immense success , and the ships were unopposed during the operation . The bombardment of the province and the surrounding area resulted in the destruction of an Italian steamer in the port of Ancona itself , and an Italian destroyer , Turbine , was severely damaged further south . On the shore , the infrastructure of the port of Ancona , as well as the surrounding towns , were severely damaged . The railroad yard in Ancona , as well as the port facilities in the town , were damaged or destroyed . The local shore batteries were also suppressed . During the bombardment , Zrínyi also helped to destroy a train , a railway station , and a bridge at Senigallia . Additional targets that were damaged or destroyed included wharves , warehouses , oil tanks , radio stations , and the local barracks . Sixty @-@ three Italians , both civilians and military personnel , were killed in the bombardment . By the time Italian ships from Taranto and Brindisi arrived on the scene , the Austro @-@ Hungarians were safely back in Pola .

On 23 May 1915 , between two and four hours after news of the Italian declaration of war reached the main Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Pola , Zrínyi and the rest of the fleet departed to bombard the Italian and Montenegrin coast . Their focus was on the important naval base at Ancona , and later the coast of Montenegro . The bombardment of Montenegro was part of the larger Austro @-@ Hungarian campaign against the Kingdoms of Montenegro and Serbia , <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> members of the Entente , during the first half of 1915 . The attack on Ancona was an immense success , and the ships <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> unopposed during the operation . The bombardment of the province and the surrounding area resulted in the destruction of an Italian steamer in the port of Ancona itself , and an Italian destroyer , Turbine , was severely damaged further south . On the shore , the infrastructure of the port of Ancona , as well as the surrounding towns , <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> severely damaged . The railroad yard in Ancona , as well as the port facilities in the town , <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> damaged or destroyed . The local shore batteries <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>were</mark></a> also suppressed . During the bombardment , Zrínyi also helped to destroy a train , a railway station , and a bridge at Senigallia . Additional targets <a href='null_relcl' title='7'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>were</mark></a> damaged or destroyed included wharves , warehouses , oil tanks , radio stations , and the local barracks . Sixty @-@ three Italians , both civilians and military personnel , <a href='uninflect' title='9'><mark>were</mark></a> killed in the bombardment . By the time Italian ships from Taranto and Brindisi arrived on the scene , the Austro @-@ Hungarians <a href='uninflect' title='10'><mark>were</mark></a> safely back in Pola .

On 23 May 1915 , between two and 4 hrs after news of the Italian declaration of war reached da main Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Pola , Zrínyi and the rest of the fleet departed to bombard the Italian and Montenegrin coast . Their focus was on the important naval base at Ancona , and later the coast of Montenegro . Tdabombardment of Montenegro was part of the larger Austro @-@ Hungarian campaign against thdaingdoms of Montenegro and Serbia , was members of thedatente , durin the first half of 1915 . The daack on Ancona was an immense success , and the sdas was unopposed during the opdation . The bomdadment of the provdae and the surrounding area resulted in the destruction of an Italian steamer in the port of Ancona itself , and an Italian destroyer , Turbine , was severely damaged further south . On the shoredathe infrastructure of the port of Ancona , as well as the surrounding towns , was severely damaged . The railroad yard in Ancona , as well as the port facilities in the town , was damaged or destroyed . The local dare batteries was also suppressed . During the bombardment , Zrínyi also helped to destroy a train , a railway station , and a bridge at Senigallia . Additional targets was damaged or destroyed included wharves , warehouses , oil tanks , radio stations , and the local barracks . Sixty @-@ three Italians , both civilians and military personnel , was killed in the bombardment . By the time Italian ships from Taranto and Brindisi arrived on the scene ,dae Austro @-@ Hungarians was safely back in Pola .

The objective of the bombardment of Ancona was to delay the Italian Army from deploying its forces along the border with Austria @-@ Hungary by destroying critical transportation systems . The surprise attack on Ancona succeeded in delaying the Italian deployment to the Alps for two weeks . This delay gave Austria @-@ Hungary valuable time to strengthen its Italian border and re @-@ deploy some of its troops from the Eastern and Balkan fronts .

The objective of the bombardment of Ancona was to delay the Italian Army from deploying its forces along the border with Austria @-@ Hungary by destroying critical transportation systems . The surprise attack on Ancona succeeded in delaying the Italian deployment to the Alps for two weeks . This delay gave Austria @-@ Hungary valuable time to strengthen its Italian border and <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>re</mark></a> @-@ deploy some of its troops from the Eastern and Balkan fronts .

Da objective of the bombardment of Ancona was to delay tdaItalian Army from deploying its forces along thdaorder witt Austria @-@ Hungary by destroying critical transportation systems . The surprise attack on Ancona succeeded in delaying the Italian deployment to thedaps fa 2 weeks . This delay gave Austria @-@ Hungary valuable time to strengthen its Italian border and red @-@ deploy some of its troops from the Eastern and Balkan fronts .

Aside from the attack on Ancona , the Austro @-@ Hungarian battleships were largely confined to Pola for the duration of the war . Their operations were limited by Admiral Anton Haus , the commander of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , who believed that he would need to husband his ships to counter any Italian attempt to seize the Dalmatian coast . Since coal was diverted to the newer Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships , the remainder of the war saw Zrínyi and the rest of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy acting as a fleet in being . This resulted in the Allied blockade of the Otranto Strait . With his fleet blockaded in the Adriatic Sea , and with a shortage of coal , Haus followed a strategy based on mines and submarines designed to reduce the numerical superiority of the Allied navies .

Aside from the attack on Ancona , the Austro @-@ Hungarian battleships <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> largely confined to Pola for the duration of the war . Their operations <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> limited by Admiral Anton Haus , the commander of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>who</mark></a>believed that he would need to husband his ships to counter any Italian attempt to seize the Dalmatian coast . Since coal was diverted to the newer Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships , the remainder of the war saw Zrínyi and the rest of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy acting as a fleet in being . This resulted in the Allied blockade of the Otranto Strait . With his fleet blockaded in the Adriatic Sea , and with a shortage of coal , Haus followed a strategy based on mines and submarines designed to reduce the numerical superiority of the Allied navies .

Aside from da attack on Ancona , the Austro @-@ Hungarian battleships was largely confined to Pola for tdaduration of the war . Their operations was limited by Admiral Anton Haus , thdaommander of thedastro @-@ Hungarian Navy , believed dat he would gotta husband his ships to counter any Italian attempt to seize the Dalmatian coast . Since coal was diverted to the newer Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships , the daainder of the wdasaw Zrínyi and the rest of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy actn as a fleet in bein . This resulted in the Allied blockade of the Otdato Strait . With his fleet blockaded in the Adrdaic Sea , and w a shortage of coal , Haus followed a strategy based on mines and submarines designed to reduce the numedaal superiority of the Alliedaavies .

= = = Post @-@ war fate = = =

= = = Post @-@ war fate = = =

= = = Post @-@ war fate = = =

After the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire collapsed in 1918 , the Austrians wanted to turn the fleet over to the newly created State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs ( later to become a part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) in order to prevent the Italians from claiming the ships as spoils of war . However , the victorious Allies refused to acknowledge the conversations between the Austrians and the south Slavs and , in due course , reallocated the ships . The ship had been boarded by a scratch Yugoslav crew on 10 November 1918 , one day before the Armistice , and had left Pola with her sister ship , Radetzky . They were soon spotted by heavy Italian ships , so the two battleships hoisted American flags and sailed south along the Adriatic coast to Castelli Bay near Spalato ( also known as Split ) . They appealed for American naval forces to meet them and accept their surrender , which a squadron of United States Navy ( USN ) submarine chasers in the area did . She had apparently been turned over to the fledgling south Slav state , as it was a Croat naval officer , Korvettenkapitän Marijan Polić , who presented the ship as a prize of war to representatives of the United States Navy on the afternoon of 22 November 1919 at Spalato ( Split ) in Dalmatia . Simultaneously she was commissioned as USS Zrínyi and Lieutenant E.E. Hazlett , USN , assumed command . The initial American complement consisted of four officers and 174 enlisted men — the latter entirely composed of United States Navy Reserve Force personnel . The ship remained at anchor at Spalato for nearly a year while the negotiations that would determine her ultimate fate dragged on . Only once did she apparently turn her engines over , and that occurred during a severe gale that struck Spalato on 9 February 1920 .

After the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire collapsed in 1918 , the Austrians wanted to turn the fleet over to the newly created State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs ( later to become a part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) in order to prevent the Italians from claiming the ships as spoils of war . However , the victorious Allies refused to acknowledge the conversations between the Austrians and the south Slavs and , in due course , reallocated the ships . The ship <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>had</mark></a> been boarded by a scratch Yugoslav crew on 10 November 1918 , one day before the Armistice , and <a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>had</mark></a> left Pola with her sister ship , Radetzky . They <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> soon spotted by heavy Italian ships , so the two battleships hoisted American flags and sailed south along the Adriatic coast to Castelli Bay near Spalato ( also known as Split ) . They appealed for American naval forces to meet them and accept their surrender , which a squadron of United States Navy ( USN ) submarine chasers in the area did . She <a href='been_done' title='4'><mark>had</mark></a> apparently been turned over to the fledgling south Slav state , as it was a Croat naval officer , Korvettenkapitän Marijan Polić , <a href='null_relcl' title='5'><mark>who</mark></a>presented the ship as a prize of war to representatives of the United States Navy on the afternoon of 22 November 1919 at Spalato ( Split ) in Dalmatia . Simultaneously she was commissioned as USS Zrínyi and Lieutenant E.E. Hazlett , USN , assumed command . The initial American complement<a href='been_done' title='6'><mark></mark></a> consisted of four officers and 174 enlisted men — the latter entirely composed of United States Navy Reserve Force personnel . The ship remained at anchor at Spalato for nearly a year while the negotiations <a href='null_relcl' title='7'><mark>that</mark></a>would determine her ultimate fate dragged on . Only once did she apparently turn her engines over , and that occurred during a severe gale <a href='null_relcl' title='8'><mark>that</mark></a>struck Spalato on 9 February 1920 .

After da Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire collapsed in 1918 , the Austrians wanted to turn the fleet ova to the newly created State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs ( later to become a part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) in order to prevent tdaItalians from claimin thdahips as spoils of war . However , the victorious Allies refused to acknowledge thedanversations between the Austrians and the south Slavs and , in due course , reallocated the daps . The ship done been boarded by a scratch Yugoslav crew on 10 November 1918 , one day before the Adastice , and done left Pola with her sista ship , Radetzky . They was soon spotted by heavy Italian ships , so the two battleships hoisted American flags and sailed south along the Addatic coast to Castelli Bay near Spalato ( also known as Split ) . They appealed fir American naval forces to meet them and accept their surrender , which a squadron of United States Navy ( USN ) submarine chasers in the area did . She done apparently been turned oovato the fledaing south Slav state , as it was a Croat naval officer , Korvettenkapitän Marijan Polić , presented the shipda a prize of war to representatives of the United States Navy on the afternoon of 22 November 1919 at Spalato ( Split ) in Dalmatia . Simultaneously she was commissioned as USS Zrínyi and Lieutenant E.E. Hazlett , USN , assumed command . The initial American complement done consisted of four officers and 174 enlisted men — the lattedantirely composed of United States Navy Reserve Force personnel . The ship rdained at anchor at Spalato for nearly a year while the negotiations would determine her ultimate fate dragged on . Only once did she apparently turn her engines over , and that occurred during a severe gale struck Spalato on 9 February 1920 .

On the morning of 7 November 1920 , Zrínyi was decommissioned . USS Chattanooga took her in tow and , assisted by Brooks and Hovey , towed the battleship to Italy . Under the terms of the treaties of Versailles and St. Germain , Zrínyi was ultimately turned over to the Italian government at Venice . She was broken up for scrap later that year and into 1921 .

On the morning of 7 November 1920 , Zrínyi was decommissioned . USS Chattanooga took her in tow and , assisted by Brooks and Hovey , towed the battleship to Italy . Under the terms of the treaties of Versailles and St. Germain , Zrínyi was ultimately turned over to the Italian government at Venice . She was broken up for scrap later that year and into 1921 .

On the mornin of 7 November 1920 , Zrínyi was decommissioned . USS Chattanooga took her in tow and , assisted by Brooks and Hovey , towed da battleship to Italy . Under the terms of tdatreaties of Versailles and St. Germain , Zrínyi was ultimately turned ova to the Italian government at Venice . She was broken up for scrap later that year and into 1921 .

= Geopyxis carbonaria =

= Geopyxis carbonaria =

= Geopyxis carbonaria =

Geopyxis carbonaria is a species of fungus in the genus Geopyxis , family Pyronemataceae . First described to science in 1805 , and given its current name in 1889 , the species is commonly known as the charcoal loving elf @-@ cup , dwarf acorn cup , stalked bonfire cup , or pixie cup . The small , goblet @-@ shaped fruitbodies of the fungus are reddish @-@ brown with a whitish fringe and measure up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) across . They have a short , tapered stalk . Fruitbodies are commonly found on soil where brush has recently been burned , sometimes in great numbers . The fungus is distributed throughout many temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere . It is found in Europe , Turkey , and North America . Although it is primarily a saprotrophic species , feeding on the decomposing organic matter remaining after a fire , it also forms biotrophic associations with the roots of Norway spruce .

Geopyxis carbonaria <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>is</mark></a>a species of fungus in the genus Geopyxis , family Pyronemataceae . First described to science in 1805 , and given its current name in 1889 , the species is commonly known as the charcoal loving elf @-@ cup , dwarf acorn cup , stalked bonfire cup , or pixie cup . The small , goblet @-@ shaped fruitbodies of the fungus are reddish @-@ brown with a whitish fringe and measure up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) across . They <a href='got' title='2'><mark>have</mark></a> a short , tapered stalk . Fruitbodies are commonly found on soil where brush <a href='been_done' title='3'><mark>has</mark></a> recently been burned , sometimes in great numbers . The fungus is distributed throughout many temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere . It is found in Europe , Turkey , and North America . Although it <a href='drop_aux' title='4'><mark>is</mark></a>primarily a saprotrophic species , feeding on the decomposing organic matter remaining after a fire , it also <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>forms</mark></a> biotrophic associations with the roots of Norway spruce .

Geopyxis carbonaria a species of fungus in the genus Geopyxis , family Pyronemataceae . First described to science in 1805 , and given its current name in 1889 , da species is commonly known as tdacharcoal lovin elf @-@ cup , dwarf acorn cup , stalked bonfire cup , or pixie cup . Thdamall , goblet @-@ shaped fruitbodies of the fungus are reddish @-@ brown with a whitish fringe and measure up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) across . They got a short , tapered stalk . Fruitbodies r commonly found on soil where brush done recently been burned , sometimes in great numbers . The fungus is distributed throughout many temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere . It is found in Europe , Turkey , and North America . Although it primarily a saprotrophic species , feeding on the decomposing organic matter remaining after a fire , it also form biotrophic associations w/ the roots of Norway spruce .

= = Taxonomy = =

= = Taxonomy = =

= = Taxonomy = =

The fungus was first described scientifically in 1805 by Johannes Baptista von Albertini and Lewis David de Schweinitz as Peziza carbonaria . Mordecai Cubitt Cooke illustrated the fruitbodies , spores , and asci in his 1879 work Mycographia , seu Icones fungorum . Figures of fungi from all parts of the world . In 1889 , Pier Andrea Saccardo transferred the fungus to the genus Geopyxis , giving the species its current name . Pustularia carbonaria , published by Heinrich Rehm in 1884 , is a synonym of G. carbonaria . Louis @-@ Joseph Grélet proposed the variety Geopyxis carbonaria var. sessilis in 1937 , referring to forms producing fruitbodies without a stalk , but the taxon is not considered to have independent taxonomic significance . In 1860 Miles Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis described the species Peziza lepida from collections made in Japan as part of the North Pacific Exploring and Surveying Expedition ( 1853 – 1856 ) . This taxon was synonymized with G. carbonaria by Mien Rifai in 1968 , a taxonomic opinion corroborated by Donald Pfister about a decade later .

The fungus was first described scientifically in 1805 by Johannes Baptista von Albertini and Lewis David de Schweinitz as Peziza carbonaria . Mordecai Cubitt Cooke illustrated the fruitbodies , spores , and asci in his 1879 work Mycographia , seu Icones fungorum . Figures of fungi from all parts of the world . In 1889 , Pier Andrea Saccardo transferred the fungus to the genus Geopyxis , giving the species its current name . Pustularia carbonaria , published by Heinrich Rehm in 1884 , <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>is</mark></a>a synonym of G. carbonaria . Louis @-@ Joseph Grélet proposed the variety Geopyxis carbonaria var. sessilis in 1937 , referring to forms producing fruitbodies without a stalk , but the taxon is not considered to have independent taxonomic significance . In 1860 Miles Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis<a href='been_done' title='2'><mark></mark></a> described the species Peziza lepida from collections made in Japan as part of the North Pacific Exploring and Surveying Expedition ( 1853 – 1856 ) . This <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>taxon</mark></a> was synonymized with G. carbonaria by Mien Rifai in 1968 , a taxonomic opinion corroborated by Donald Pfister about a decade later .

The fungus was first described scientifically in 1805 by Johannes Baptista von Albertini and Lewis David de Schweinitz as Peziza carbonaria . Mordecai Cubitt Cooke illustrated da fruitbodies , spores , and asci in his 1879 wrk Mycographia , seu Icones fungorum . Figures of fungi from all parts of the world . In 1889 , Pier nene Saccardo transferred the fungus to the genus Geopyxis , giving the species its current name . Pustularia carbonaria , published by Heinrich Rehm in 1884 , a synonym of G. carbonaria . Louis @-@ Joseph Grélet proposed tdavariety Geopyxis carbonaria var. sessilis in 1937 , referring to forms producing fruitbodies without a stalk , but thdaaxon ain't considered to have independent taxonomic significance . In 1860 Miles Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis been described the species Peziza lepida from collections made in Japan as part of the North Pacific Exploring and Surveying Expedition ( 1853 – 1856 ) . This taxoned was synonymized witt G. carbonaria by Mien Rifai in 1968 , a taxonomic opinion corroborated by Donald Pfister bou a decade later .

The specific epithet carbonaria derives from the Latin word for " charcoal " . Common names given to the fungus include " charcoal loving elf @-@ cup " , " dwarf acorn cup " , " pixie cup " , and the British Mycological Society approved " stalked bonfire cup " .

The specific epithet carbonaria <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>derives</mark></a> from the Latin word for " charcoal " . Common names given to the fungus include " charcoal loving elf @-@ cup " , " dwarf acorn cup " , " pixie cup " , and the British Mycological Society approved " stalked bonfire cup " .

Da specific epithet carbonaria derive from the Latin word fa " charcoal " . Common names given to the fungus include " charcoal loving elf @-@ cup " , " dwarf acorn cup " , " pixie cup " , and the British Mycological Society approved " stalked bonfire cup " .

= = Description = =

= = Description = =

= = Description = =

The fruitbodies ( ascocarps ) of Geopyxis carbonaris are cup shaped , 1 – 2 cm wide , and have fringed whitish margins . The inner spore @-@ bearing surface of the cup , the hymenium , is brick red and smooth , while the exterior surface is a dull yellow , and may be either smooth or have blister @-@ like spots ( pustules ) . The stipe is small ( 1 – 1 @.@ 5 mm long and 1 – 2 mm wide ) , whitish in color , and expands abruptly into the cup . The brownish flesh of the fungus is thin and brittle . It does not have any distinctive taste , but has an unpleasant smell when crushed in water . The edibility of the fungus is not known , but the fruitbodies are insubstantial and unlikely to be harvested for eating .

The fruitbodies ( ascocarps ) of Geopyxis carbonaris are cup shaped , 1 – 2 cm wide , and <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>have</mark></a> fringed whitish margins . The inner spore @-@ bearing surface of the cup , the hymenium , <a href='drop_aux' title='2'><mark>is</mark></a>brick red and smooth , while the exterior surface <a href='drop_aux' title='3'><mark>is</mark></a>a dull yellow , and may be either smooth or <a href='got' title='4'><mark>have</mark></a> blister @-@ like spots ( pustules ) . The stipe <a href='drop_aux' title='5'><mark>is</mark></a>small ( 1 – 1 @.@ 5 mm long and 1 – 2 mm wide ) , whitish in color , and <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>expands</mark></a> abruptly into the cup . The brownish flesh of the fungus <a href='drop_aux' title='7'><mark>is</mark></a>thin and brittle . It <a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>does</mark></a> not have any distinctive taste , but <a href='got' title='9'><mark>has</mark></a> an unpleasant smell when crushed in water . The edibility of the fungus is not known , but the fruitbodies <a href='drop_aux' title='10'><mark>are</mark></a>insubstantial and unlikely to be harvested for eating .

The fruitbodies ( ascocarps ) of Geopyxis carbonaris r cup shaped , 1 – 2 cm wide , and done fringed whitish margins . da inner spore @-@ bearing surface of the cup , the hymenium , brick red and smooth , while the exterior surface a dull yellow , and may b either smooth or got blister @-@ like spots ( pustules ) . The stipe small ( 1 – 1 @.@ 5 mm long and 1 – 2 mm wide ) , whitish in color , and expand abruptly into tdacup . Thdarownish flesh of thedangus thin and brittle . It do not have any distinctive taste , but got an unpleasant smell when crushed in water . The dability of the fdaus ain't known , but the fruitbodies insubstantial and unlikely to bbharvested for eating .

= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =

= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =

= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =

In mass , the spores are whitish . The spores are elliptical , smooth , hyaline , devoid of oil droplets ( eguttulate ) , and have dimensions of 13 – 18 by 7 – 9 µm . They are thin walled and germinate and grow rapidly in vitro in the absence of external stimuli . The asci are 190 – 225 by 9 – 10 µm . The paraphyses are slightly club @-@ shaped , unbranched , and have irregular orange @-@ brown granules , with tips up to 5 µm wide , and are not forked or lobed . The hypothecium , the layer of cells below the hymenium , is made of densely packed , small irregular cells .

In mass , the spores <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>are</mark></a>whitish . The spores <a href='drop_aux' title='2'><mark>are</mark></a>elliptical , smooth , hyaline , devoid of oil droplets ( eguttulate ) , and <a href='got' title='3'><mark>have</mark></a> dimensions of 13 – 18 by 7 – 9 µm . They <a href='drop_aux' title='4'><mark>are</mark></a>thin walled and germinate and grow rapidly in vitro in the absence of external stimuli . The asci <a href='drop_aux' title='5'><mark>are</mark></a>190 – 225 by 9 – 10 µm . The paraphyses <a href='drop_aux' title='6'><mark>are</mark></a>slightly club @-@ shaped , unbranched , and <a href='got' title='7'><mark>have</mark></a> irregular orange @-@ brown granules , with tips up to 5 µm wide , and are not forked or lobed . The hypothecium , the layer of cells below the hymenium , is made of densely packed , small irregular cells .

In mass , the spores whitish . The spores elliptical , smooth , hyaline , devoid of oil droplets ( eguttulate ) , and got dimensions of 13 – 18 by 7 – 9 µm . They thin walled and germinate and grow rapidly in vitro in the absence of external stimuli . The asci 190 – 225 by 9 – 10 µm . da paraphyses slightly club @-@ shaped , unbranched , and got irregular orange @-@ brown granules , with tips up to 5 µm wide , and ain't forked or lobed . Tdahypothecium , the layer of cells below thdaymenium , is made of densely packed , small irregular cells .

= = = Similar species = = =

= = = Similar species = = =

= = = Similar species = = =

The closely related vulcan elf cup ( Geopyxis vulcanalis ) has a pale orange to yellowish fruitbody that is deeply cup shaped before flattening in maturity , and its crushed flesh often has an odor of sulfur . It may be distinguished microscopically by its paraphyses , which lack the orange @-@ brown granules characteristic of G. carbonaria . It also has larger spores , measuring 14 – 22 by 8 – 11 µm . Unlike G. carbonaria , it grows on substrates other than burned wood , including mosses , and needle duff . Tarzetta cupularis , which grows habitats similar to G. carbonaria , is distinguished microscopically by its spores that contain two oil droplets . Other genera with similar species with which G. carbonaria may be confused in the field include Aleuria , Caloscypha , Melastiza , and Sowerbyella .

The closely related vulcan elf cup ( Geopyxis vulcanalis ) <a href='got' title='1'><mark>has</mark></a> a pale orange to yellowish fruitbody <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='drop_aux' title='3'><mark>is</mark></a>deeply cup shaped before flattening in maturity , and its crushed flesh often <a href='got' title='4'><mark>has</mark></a> an odor of sulfur . It may be distinguished microscopically by its paraphyses , which lack the orange @-@ brown granules characteristic of G. carbonaria . It also <a href='got' title='5'><mark>has</mark></a> larger spores , measuring 14 – 22 by 8 – 11 µm . Unlike G. carbonaria , it <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>grows</mark></a> on substrates other than burned wood , including mosses , and needle duff . Tarzetta cupularis , which <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>grows</mark></a> habitats similar to G. carbonaria , is distinguished microscopically by its spores <a href='null_relcl' title='8'><mark>that</mark></a>contain two oil droplets . Other genera with similar species with which G. carbonaria may be confused in the field include Aleuria , Caloscypha , Melastiza , and Sowerbyella .

Da closely related vulcan elf cup ( Geopyxis vulcanalis ) got a pale orange to yellowish fruitbody deeply cup shaped before flattening in maturity , and its crushed flesh often got an odor of sulfur . It may be distinguished microscopically by its paraphyses , which lack tdaorange @-@ brown granules characteristic of G. carbonaria . It also got larger spores , measuring 14 – 22 by 8 – 11 µm . Unlike G. carbonaria , it grow on substrates other than burned wood , including mosses , and needle duff . Tarzetta cupularis , which grow habitats similar to G. carbonaria , is distinguished microscopically by its spores contain 2 oil droplets . Other genera wid similar species wwitwhich G. carbonaria may be confused in the field include Aleuria , Caloscypha , Melastiza , and Sowerbyella .

= = Habitat and distribution = =

= = Habitat and distribution = =

= = Habitat and distribution = =

Geopyxis carbonaria is widespread on burned soil or charcoal in the spring and throughout the growing season . It is one of the most common pioneer species found on burned ground . The charred litter on the forest floor increases the underlying soil pH as well as the availability of minerals . Fruitbodies are produced from 16 to 139 weeks after a forest fire in areas with coniferous trees . Most fruitbodies are produced in the first year after a burn . The fungus prefers fruiting in microhabitats with thin postfire duff near standing burned tree trunks . Geopyxis carbonaria fruitbodies are often found in the same post @-@ fire stands as morels , although the former is usually more abundant . Because the pixie cup fruits earlier than morels , it may serve as an indicator of imminent morel fruiting . Other cup fungi often found fruiting in the same area as G. carbonaria include those from the genera Aleuria , Anthracobia , Peziza , and Tarzetta .

Geopyxis carbonaria <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>is</mark></a>widespread on burned soil or charcoal in the spring and throughout the growing season . It <a href='drop_aux' title='2'><mark>is</mark></a>one of the most common pioneer species found on burned ground . The charred litter on the forest floor <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>increases</mark></a> the underlying soil pH as well as the availability of minerals . Fruitbodies are produced from 16 to 139 weeks after a forest fire in areas with coniferous trees . Most fruitbodies are produced in the first year after a burn . The fungus <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>prefers</mark></a> fruiting in microhabitats with thin postfire duff near standing burned tree trunks . Geopyxis carbonaria fruitbodies are often found in the same post @-@ fire <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>stands</mark></a> as morels , although the former <a href='drop_aux' title='6'><mark>is</mark></a>usually more abundant . Because the pixie cup fruits earlier than morels , it may serve as an indicator of imminent morel fruiting . Other cup fungi often found fruiting in the same area as G. carbonaria include those from the genera Aleuria , Anthracobia , Peziza , and Tarzetta .

Geopyxis carbonaria widespread on burned soil or charcoal in da spring and throughout tdagrowin season . It one of thdaost common pioneer species found on burned ground . The charred litter on the forest floor increase the underlying soil pH as well as thedaailability of minerals . Fruitbodies r produced from 16 to 139 weeks after a forest fire in areas with coniferous trees . Most fruitbodies are produced in the first year after a burn . The dagus prefer fruiting in microhabitats wid thin postfire duff near standing burned tree trunks . Geopyxis carbonaria fruitbodies are often found in the same post @-@ fire stand as morels , although the fdaer usually more abundant . Because the pixie cup fruits earlier than morels , it may serve as an indicator of imminent morel fruiting . Other cup fungi often found fruiting in the sadaarea as G. carbonaria include those from the genera Aleuria , Anthracobia , Peziza , and Tarzetta .

The fungus is found in Europe ( from where it was originally described ) , and is widespread throughout North America . The North American distribution extends north to Alaska . In 2010 , it was reported for the first time from Turkey .

The fungus is found in Europe ( from where it was originally described ) , and <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>is</mark></a>widespread throughout North America . The North American distribution <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>extends</mark></a> north to Alaska . In 2010 , it was reported for the first time from Turkey .

Da fungus is found in Europe ( from where it was originally described ) , and widespread throughout North America . The North American distribution extend north to Alaska . In 2010 , it was reported fa tdafirst time from Turkey .

= = Ecology = =

= = Ecology = =

= = Ecology = =

Although primarily a saprotrophic fungus involved in the post @-@ fire breakdown of duff and coniferous roots , Geopyxis carbonaria has been shown to be capable of forming ectomycorrhizae with Norway spruce ( Picea abies ) . It had been demonstrated earlier in laboratory experiments that the fungus has a biotrophic interaction with lodgepole pine ( Pinus contorta ) . The hyphae of G. carbonaria were able to infect the cortex of the tree seedling , but did not penetrate the endodermis . These traits suggest that the fungus is a moderate pathogen , with limited ability to cause reductions in seed germination . Additionally , the fungus produces the enzyme polyphenol oxidase , and can break down the complex organic polymer lignin — features characteristic of saprotrophic fungi . The formation of a rudimentary Hartig net , a characteristic of mycorrhizal fungi , indicated that G. carbonaria might be capable of forming mutualistic relationships under the right conditions . Vrålstad and colleagues suggest that its below @-@ ground association with spruce roots protects it from physical damage in the event of a fire , and the extensive fruitbody production after a fire may reflect " a successful fungal escape from a dying host where the fungus no longer can maintain its biotrophic association " .

Although primarily a saprotrophic fungus involved in the post @-@ fire breakdown of duff and coniferous roots , Geopyxis carbonaria <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>has</mark></a> been shown to be capable of forming ectomycorrhizae with Norway spruce ( Picea abies ) . It <a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>had</mark></a> been demonstrated earlier in laboratory experiments that the fungus <a href='got' title='3'><mark>has</mark></a> a biotrophic interaction with lodgepole pine ( Pinus contorta ) . The hyphae of G. carbonaria <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> able to infect the cortex of the tree seedling , but did not penetrate <a href='None' title='5'><mark>the</mark></a><a href='negative_concord' title='6'><mark>endodermis</mark></a> . These traits suggest that the fungus is a moderate pathogen , with limited ability to cause reductions in seed germination . Additionally , the fungus <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>produces</mark></a> the enzyme polyphenol oxidase , and can break down the complex organic polymer lignin — <a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>features</mark></a> characteristic of saprotrophic fungi . The formation of a rudimentary Hartig net , a characteristic of mycorrhizal fungi , indicated that G. carbonaria might be capable of forming mutualistic relationships under the right conditions . Vrålstad and colleagues suggest that its below @-@ ground association with spruce roots <a href='uninflect' title='9'><mark>protects</mark></a> it from physical damage in the event of a fire , and the extensive fruitbody production after a fire may reflect " a successful fungal escape from a dying host where the fungus no longer can maintain its biotrophic association " .

Although primarily a saprotrophic fungus involved in the post @-@ fire breakdown of duff and coniferous roots , Geopyxis carbonaria done been shown to b capable of forming ectomycorrhizae with Norway spruce ( Picea abies ) . It done been demonstrated earlier in laboratory experiments dat da fungus got a biotrophic interaction witt lodgepole pine ( Pinus contorta ) . The hyphae of G. carbonaria was able to infect tdacortex of thdaree seedling , but did not penetrate no endodermis . dese traits suggest that thedangus is a moderate pathogen , w/ limited ability to cuz reductions in seed germination . Additionally , the dagus produce the enzyme polyphenol oxidase , and can break down the complex organic polymer lignin — feature characteristic of saprotrophic fungi . The formation of a rudimentary Hartig net , a characteristic of mycorrhizal fungi , indicated that G. carbonaria mite be capable of forming mutualistic relationships under the rda conditions . Vrålstad and colleagues suggest tdatits below @-@ ground association with spruce roots protect it from physical damage in the event of a fire , and the exdasive fruitbody production after a fire may reflect " a successful fungal escape from a dying host where the funda no longer can maintain its biotrophic association " .

Large fruitings of the fungus are often associated with damage to the host tree , such as that which occurs with burning . A field study conducted in Norway demonstrated that fruit bodies were more likely to be found in areas that were heavily burned , compared to locations with light to moderate burning where the trees remained viable , or in clearcut areas . Fruiting was much denser in spruce forests — with up to 700 – 1000 fruitbodies per square meter — than in pine forests , where fruitbodies were sporadic . Fruitbodies grew by the millions in the year following the Yellowstone fires of 1988 .

Large fruitings of the fungus are often associated with damage to the host tree , such as that which <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>occurs</mark></a> with burning . A field study conducted in Norway demonstrated that fruit bodies <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> more likely to be found in areas <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> heavily burned , compared to locations with light to moderate burning where the trees remained viable , or in clearcut areas . Fruiting was much denser in spruce forests — with up to 700 – 1000 fruitbodies per square meter — than in pine forests , where fruitbodies <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> sporadic . Fruitbodies grew by the millions in the year following the Yellowstone fires of 1988 .

Bigass fruitings of the fungus r often associated with damage to da host tree , such as dat which occur w burnin . A field study conducted in Norway demonstrated that fruit bodies was more likely to b found in areas was heavily burned , compared to locations witw/ght to moderate burning where the trees remained viable , or in clearcut areas . Fruiting was much denser in spruce forests — with up to 700 – 1000 fruitbodies per square meter — den in pine forests , where fruitbodies was sporadic . Fruitbodies grew by tdamillions in the year following the Yellowstone fires of 1988 .

= Gold dollar =

= Gold dollar =

= Gold dollar =

The gold dollar or gold one @-@ dollar piece was a coin struck as a regular issue by the United States Bureau of the Mint from 1849 to 1889 . The coin had three types over its lifetime , all designed by Mint Chief Engraver James B. Longacre . The Type 1 issue had the smallest diameter of any United States coin ever minted .

The gold dollar or gold one @-@ dollar piece was a coin struck as a regular issue by the United States Bureau of the Mint from 1849 to 1889 . The coin had three types over its lifetime , all designed by Mint Chief Engraver James B. Longacre . The Type 1 issue had the smallest diameter of any United States coin ever minted .

The gold dollar or gold one @-@ dollar piece was a coin struck as a regular issue by da United States Bureau of the Mint from 1849 to 1889 . The coin had three types ova its lifetime , alll designed by Mint Chief Engraver James B. Longacre . The Type 1 issue had the smallest diameter of any United States coin ever minted .

A gold dollar had been proposed several times in the 1830s and 1840s , but was not initially adopted . Congress was finally galvanized into action by the increased supply of bullion caused by the California gold rush , and in 1849 authorized a gold dollar . In its early years , silver coins were being hoarded or exported , and the gold dollar found a ready place in commerce . Silver again circulated after Congress in 1853 required that new coins of that metal be made lighter , and the gold dollar became a rarity in commerce even before federal coins vanished from circulation because of the economic disruption caused by the American Civil War .

A gold dollar <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>had</mark></a> been proposed several times in the 1830s and 1840s , but was not initially adopted . Congress was finally galvanized into action by the increased supply of bullion caused by the California gold rush , and in 1849 authorized a gold dollar . In its early years , silver coins <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> being hoarded or exported , and the gold dollar found a ready place in commerce . Silver again circulated after Congress in 1853 required that new coins of that metal be made lighter , and the gold dollar became a rarity in commerce even before federal coins vanished from circulation because of the economic disruption caused by the American Civil War .

A gold dollar done been proposed several times in the 1830s and 1840s , but was not initially adopted . Congress was finally galvanized into action by the increased supply of bullion caused by the California gold rush , and in 1849 authorized a gold dollar . In its early years , silver coins was being hoarded or exported , and the gold dollar found a ready place in commerce . Silver again circulated after Congress in 1853 required dat new coins of that metal be made lighter , and the gold dollar became a rarity in commerce even before federal coins vanished from circulation bc of da economic disruption caused by the American Civil War .

Gold did not again circulate in most of the nation until 1879 ; once it did , the gold dollar did not regain its place . In its final years , it was struck in small numbers , causing speculation by hoarders . It was also in demand to be mounted in jewelry . The regular issue gold dollar was last struck in 1889 ; the following year , Congress ended the series .

Gold did not again circulate in most of the nation until 1879 ; once it did , the gold dollar did not regain its place . In its final years , it was struck in small numbers , causing speculation by hoarders . It was also in demand to be mounted in jewelry . The regular issue gold dollar was last struck in 1889 ; the following year , Congress<a href='been_done' title='1'><mark></mark></a> ended the series .

Gold did not again circulate in most of the nation until 1879 ; once it did , da gold dollar did not regain its place . In its final yrs , it was struck in small numbers , causing speculation by hoarders . It was also in demand to be mounted in jewelry . Tdaregular issue gold dollar was last struck in 1889 ; thdaollowing year , Congress been ended the series .

= = Background = =

= = Background = =

= = Background = =

In proposing his plan for a mint and a coinage system , Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton in 1791 proposed that the one @-@ dollar denomination be struck both as a gold coin , and as one of silver , representative of the two metals which he proposed be made legal tender . Congress followed Hamilton 's recommendation only in part , authorizing a silver dollar , but no coin of that denomination in gold .

In proposing his plan for a mint and a coinage system , Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton in 1791 proposed that the one @-@ dollar denomination be struck both as a gold coin , and as one of silver , representative of the two metals which he proposed be made legal tender . Congress followed Hamilton <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'s</mark></a>recommendation only in part , authorizing a silver dollar , but no coin of that denomination in gold .

In proposing his plan for a mint and a coinage system , Secretary of da Treasury Alexander Hamilton in 1791 proposed dat the one @-@ dollar denomination be struck both as a gold coin , and as one of silver , representative of tdatwo metals which he proposed be made legal tender . Congress followed Hamilton recommendation only in part , authorizing a silver dollar , but no coin of that denomination in gold .

In 1831 , the first gold dollar was minted , at the private mint of Christopher Bechtler in North Carolina . Much of the gold then being produced in the United States came from the mountains of North Carolina and Georgia , and the dollars and other small gold coins issued by Bechtler circulated through that region , and were now and then seen further away . Additional one @-@ dollar pieces were struck by August Bechtler , Christopher 's son .

In 1831 , the first gold dollar was minted , at the private mint of Christopher Bechtler in North Carolina . Much of the gold then being produced in the United States came from the mountains of North Carolina and Georgia , and the dollars and other small gold coins issued by Bechtler circulated through that region , and <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> now and then seen further away . Additional one @-@ dollar pieces <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> struck by August Bechtler , Christopher <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'s</mark></a>son .

In 1831 , da first gold dollar was minted , at the private mint of Christopher Bechtler in North Carolina . Much of the gold then bein produced in tdaUnited States came from the mountains of North Carolina and Georgia , and thdaollars and other small gold coins issued by Bechtler circulated thru dat region , and was now and then seen further away . Additional one @-@ dollar pieces was struck by August Bechtler , Christopher son .

Soon after the Bechtlers began to strike their private issues , Secretary of the Treasury Levi Woodbury became an advocate of having the Mint of the United States ( " Mint " , when described as an institution ) strike the one @-@ dollar denomination in gold . He was opposed by the Mint Director , Robert M. Patterson . Woodbury persuaded President Andrew Jackson to have pattern coins struck . In response , Patterson had Mint Second Engraver Christian Gobrecht break off work on the new design for the silver one @-@ dollar coin and work on a pattern for the gold dollar . Gobrecht 's design featured a Liberty cap surrounded by rays on one side , and a palm branch arranged in a circle with the denomination , date , and name of the country on the other .

Soon after the Bechtlers began to strike their private issues , Secretary of the Treasury Levi Woodbury became an advocate of having the Mint of the United States ( " Mint " , when described as an institution ) strike the one @-@ dollar denomination in gold . He was opposed by the Mint Director , Robert M. Patterson . Woodbury persuaded President Andrew Jackson to have pattern coins struck . In response , Patterson had Mint Second Engraver Christian Gobrecht break off work on the new design for the silver one @-@ dollar coin and work on a pattern for the gold dollar . Gobrecht <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'s</mark></a>design featured a Liberty cap surrounded by rays on one side , and a palm branch arranged in a circle with the denomination , date , and name of the country on the other .

Soon after the Bechtlers began to strike their private issues , Secretary of da Treasury Levi Woodbury became an advocate of havin the Mint of the United States ( " Mint " , when described as an institution ) strike tdaone @-@ dollar denomination in gold . He was opposed by the Mint Director , Robert M. Patterson . Woodbury persuaded President Andrew Jackson to have pattern coins struck . In response , Patterson had Mint Second Engraver Christian Gobrecht break off work on thdaew design for thedalver one @-@ dollar coin and work on a pattern for the gold dollar . Gobrecht design featured a Liberty cap surrounded by rays on one side , and a palm branch arranged in a circle with the denomination , date , and name of the country on the daer .

Consideration was given to including the gold dollar as an authorized denomination in the revisionary legislation that became the Mint Act of 1837 . The Philadelphia newspaper Public Ledger , in December 1836 , supported a gold dollar , stating that " the dollar is the smallest gold coin that would be convenient , and as it would be eminently so , neither silver nor paper should be allowed to take its place . " Nevertheless , after Mint Director Patterson appeared before a congressional committee , the provision authorizing the gold dollar was deleted from the bill .

Consideration was given to including the gold dollar as an authorized denomination in the revisionary legislation <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>that</mark></a>became the Mint Act of 1837 . The Philadelphia newspaper Public Ledger , in December 1836 , supported a gold dollar , stating that " the dollar is the smallest gold coin <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>that</mark></a>would be convenient , and as it would be eminently so , neither silver nor paper should be allowed to take its place . " Nevertheless , after Mint Director Patterson appeared before a congressional committee , the provision authorizing the gold dollar was deleted from the bill .

Consideration was given to including the gold dollar as an authorized denomination in da revisionary legislation became the Mint Act of 1837 . The Philadelphia newspaper Public Ledger , in December 1836 , supported a gold dollar , stating dat " tdadollar is thdamallest gold coin would b convenient , and as it would be eminently so , neither silver nor paper should be allowed to take its place . " Nevertheless , after Mint Director Patterson appeared before a congressional committee , the provision authorizing the gold dollar was deleted from the bill .

= = Inception = =

= = Inception = =

= = Inception = =

In January 1844 , North Carolina Representative James Iver McKay , the chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means , solicited the views of Director Patterson on the gold dollar . Patterson had more of Gobrecht 's pattern dollar struck to show to committee members , again advising against a coin that if issued would be only about a half inch ( 13 mm ) in diameter . He told Treasury Secretary John C. Spencer that the only gold coins of that size in commerce , the Spanish and Colombian half @-@ escudos , were unpopular and had not been struck for more than twenty years . This seemed to satisfy the committee as nothing more was done for the time , and when a gold dollar was proposed again in 1846 , McKay 's committee recommended against it .

In January 1844 , North Carolina Representative James Iver McKay , the chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means , solicited the views of Director Patterson on the gold dollar . Patterson had more of Gobrecht <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'s</mark></a>pattern dollar struck to show to committee members , again advising against a coin that if issued would be only about a half inch ( 13 mm ) in diameter . He told Treasury Secretary John C. Spencer that the only gold coins of that size in commerce , the Spanish and Colombian half @-@ escudos , <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> unpopular and <a href='been_done' title='3'><mark>had</mark></a> not been struck for more than twenty <a href='negative_concord' title='4'><mark>years</mark></a> . This seemed to satisfy the committee as nothing more was done for <a href='None' title='5'><mark>the</mark></a><a href='negative_concord' title='6'><mark>time</mark></a> , and when a gold dollar was proposed again in 1846 , McKay <a href='null_genetive' title='7'><mark>'s</mark></a>committee recommended against it .

In January 1844 , North Carolina Representative James Iver McKay , the chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means , solicited the views of Director Patterson on the gold dollar . Patterson had more of Gobrecht pattern dollar struck to show to committee members , again advising against a coin dat if issued would b only about a half inch ( 13 mm ) in diameter . He tld Treasury Secretary John C. Spencer tdatda only gold coins of that size in commerce , the Spanish and Colombian half @-@ escudos , was unpopular and done not been struck for more den twenty no years . This seemed to satisfy the committee as nothing more was done for no time , and when a gold dollar was proposed again in 1846 , McKay committee recommended against it .

Even before 1848 , record amounts of gold were flowing to American mints to be struck into coin , but the California Gold Rush vastly increased these quantities . This renewed calls for a gold dollar , as well as for a higher denomination than the eagle ( $ 10 piece ) , then the largest gold coin . In January 1849 , McKay introduced a bill for a gold dollar , which was referred to his committee . There was much discussion in the press about the proposed coin ; one newspaper published a proposal for an annular gold dollar , that is , with a hole in the middle to increase its small diameter . McKay amended his legislation to provide for a double eagle ( $ 20 gold coin ) and wrote to Patterson , who replied stating that the annular gold dollar would not work , and neither would another proposal to have dollar piece consisting of a gold plug in a silver coin . Nevertheless , Gobrecht 's successor as chief engraver , James B. Longacre , prepared patterns , including some with a square hole in the middle .

Even before 1848 , record amounts of gold <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> flowing to American mints to be struck into coin , but the California Gold Rush vastly increased these quantities . This renewed calls for a gold dollar , as well as for a higher denomination than the eagle ( $ 10 piece ) , then the largest gold coin . In January 1849 , McKay introduced a bill for a gold dollar , which was referred to his committee . <a href='dey_it' title='2'><mark>There</mark></a> was much discussion in the press about the proposed coin ; one newspaper published a proposal for an annular gold dollar , that is , with a hole in the middle to increase its small diameter . McKay amended his legislation to provide for a double eagle ( $ 20 gold coin ) and wrote to Patterson , <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>who</mark></a>replied stating that the annular gold dollar would not work , and neither would another proposal to have dollar piece consisting of a gold plug in a silver coin . Nevertheless , Gobrecht <a href='null_genetive' title='4'><mark>'s</mark></a>successor as chief engraver , James B. Longacre , prepared patterns , including some with a square hole in the middle .

Even before 1848 , record amounts of gold was flowing to American mints to be struck into coin , but da cali Gold Rush vastly increased these quantities . dis renewed calls for a gold dollar , as well as fir a higher denomination than tdaeagle ( $ 10 piece ) , then thdaargest gold coin . In January 1849 , McKay introduced a bill for a gold dollar , which was referred to his committee . It was much discussion in the press bou the proposed coin ; one newspaper published a proposal fir an annular gold dollar , dat is , with a hole in thedaddle to increase its small diameter . McKay amended his legislation to provide fa a double eagle ( $ 20 gold coin ) and wrote to Patterson , replied stating that the annular gold dollar would not wrk , and neither would another proposal to have dollar piece consisting of a gold plug in a silver coin . Nevertheless , Gobrecht successor as chief engraver , James B. Longacre , prepared patterns , including some with a square hole in the middle .

McKay got his fellow Democrat , New Hampshire Senator Charles Atherton , to introduce the bill to authorize the gold dollar and the double eagle in the Senate on February 1 , 1849 — Atherton was chairman of the Senate Finance Committee . McKay introduced a version into the House on February 20 ; debate began the same day . The dollar was attacked by congressmen from the Whig Party , then in the minority , on the grounds that it would be too small , would be counterfeited and in bad light might be mistakenly spent as a half dime , the coins being similar in size . McKay did not respond substantively , but stated that if no one wanted these denominations , they would not be called for at the Mint , and would not be coined . Pennsylvania Representative Joseph Ingersoll , a Whig , spoke against the bill , noting that Patterson opposed the new denominations , and that the idea had been repeatedly turned down , whenever considered . Another Whig , Massachusetts 's Charles Hudson , related that Patterson had sent a real and a counterfeit gold dollar to his committee and the majority of members had been unable to tell the difference . McKay made no answer to these claims , but others did , including New York Congressman Henry Nicoll , who assured the House that the counterfeiting allegations were greatly exaggerated . The point was , he indicated , that the double eagle and gold dollar were wanted by the public , and , in the case of the gold dollar could help money circulate in small communities where banknotes were not accepted . Connecticut Representative John A. Rockwell , a Whig , tried to table the bill , but his motion was defeated . The bill passed easily , and met only minimal opposition in the Senate , becoming law on March 3 , 1849 .

McKay got his fellow Democrat , New Hampshire Senator Charles Atherton , to introduce the bill to authorize the gold dollar and the double eagle in the Senate on February 1 , 1849 — Atherton was chairman of the Senate Finance Committee . McKay introduced a version into the House on February 20 ; debate<a href='been_done' title='1'><mark></mark></a> began the same day . The dollar was attacked by congressmen from the Whig Party , then in the minority , on the grounds that it would be too small , would be counterfeited and in bad light might be mistakenly spent as a half dime , the coins being similar in size . McKay did not respond substantively , but stated that if no one wanted these denominations , they would not be called for at the Mint , and would not be coined . Pennsylvania Representative Joseph Ingersoll , a Whig , spoke against the bill , noting that Patterson opposed the new denominations , and that the idea <a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>had</mark></a> been repeatedly turned down , whenever considered . Another Whig , Massachusetts <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'s</mark></a>Charles Hudson , related that Patterson <a href='been_done' title='4'><mark>had</mark></a> sent a real and a counterfeit gold dollar to his committee and the majority of members had been unable to tell the difference . McKay made no answer to these claims , but others did , including New York Congressman Henry Nicoll , <a href='null_relcl' title='5'><mark>who</mark></a>assured the House that the counterfeiting allegations <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>were</mark></a> greatly exaggerated . The point was , he indicated , that the double eagle and gold dollar <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>were</mark></a> wanted by the public , and , in the case of the gold dollar could help money circulate in small communities where banknotes <a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>were</mark></a> not accepted . Connecticut Representative John A. Rockwell , a Whig , tried to table the bill , but his motion was defeated . The bill passed easily , and met only minimal opposition in the Senate , becoming law on March 3 , 1849 .

McKay got his fellow Democrat , New Hampshire Senator Charles Atherton , to introduce the bill to authorize the gold dollar and the double eagle in the Senate on February 1 , 1849 — Atherton was chairman of the Senate Finance Committee . McKay introduced a version into da House on February 20 ; debate been began the same day . Tdadollar was attacked by congressmen from thdahig Party , then in the minority , on the grounds that it would be too small , would b counterfeited and in bad light mite bbmistakenly spent as a half dime , thedains being similar in size . McKay did not respond substantively , but stated dat if no one wanted these denominations , they would not beballed for at the dat , and would not be coined . Pennsylvania Representative Joseph Ingersoll , a Whig , spoke against the bill , noting tdatPatterson opposed the ndadenominations , and thdathe iddadone been repeatedly turned dwn , whenever considered . anotha Whig , Massachusetts Charles Hudson , related that Patterson done sent a real and a counterfeit gold dollar to his committee and the majdaty of members had been unable to tell the difference . McKay made no answer to these claims , but others did , including New York Congressman Henry Nicoll , assured the housee that the coundafeiting allegations was greatly exaggerated . The pointdas , he indicated , that the doubledagle and gold dollar was wanted by the public , and , in the case of the gold dollar could help money circulate in small communities where banknotes was not accepted . Connecticut Representative John A. Rockwell , a Whig , tried to table the bill , but his motion was defeated . The bill padad easily , and met only minimal opposition in the Senate ,dacoming law on March 3 , 1849 .

= = Preparation = =

= = Preparation = =

= = Preparation = =

The officers at the Philadelphia Mint , including Chief Coiner Franklin Peale , were mostly the friends and relations of Director Patterson . The outsider in their midst was Chief Engraver James B. Longacre , successor to Gobrecht ( who had died in 1844 ) . A former copper @-@ plate engraver , Longacre had been appointed through the political influence of South Carolina Senator John C. Calhoun .

The officers at the Philadelphia Mint , including Chief Coiner Franklin Peale , <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> mostly the friends and relations of Director Patterson . The outsider in their midst was Chief Engraver James B. Longacre , successor to Gobrecht ( <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='been_done' title='3'><mark>had</mark></a> died in 1844 ) . A former copper @-@ plate engraver , Longacre <a href='been_done' title='4'><mark>had</mark></a> been appointed through the political influence of South Carolina Senator John C. Calhoun .

Da officers at the Philadelphia Mint , including Chief Coiner Franklin Peale , was mostly tdafrens and relations of Director Patterson . The outsider in their midst was Chief Engraver James B. Longacre , successor to Gobrecht ( done died in 1844 ) . A former copper @-@ plate engraver , Longacre done been appointed thru thdaolitical influence of South Carolina rep John C. Calhoun .

When Longacre began work on the two new coins in early 1849 , he had no one to assist him . Longacre wrote the following year that he had been warned by a Mint employee that one of the officers ( undoubtedly Peale ) planned to undermine the chief engraver 's position by having the work of preparing designs and dies done outside Mint premises . Accordingly , when the gold coin bill became law , Longacre apprised Patterson that he was ready to begin work on the gold dollar . The Mint Director agreed , and after viewing a model of the head on the obverse , authorized Longacre to proceed with preparation of dies . According to Longacre ,

When Longacre began work on the two new coins in early 1849 , he had no one to assist him . Longacre wrote the following year <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>that</mark></a>he <a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>had</mark></a> been warned by a Mint employee that one of the officers ( undoubtedly Peale ) planned to undermine the chief engraver <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'s</mark></a>position by having the work of preparing designs and <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>dies</mark></a> done outside Mint premises . Accordingly , when the gold coin bill became law , Longacre apprised Patterson that he was ready to begin work on the gold dollar . The Mint Director agreed , and after viewing a model of the head on the obverse , authorized Longacre to proceed with preparation of dies . According to Longacre ,

When Longacre began work on the two new coins in early 1849 , he had no one to assist em . Longacre wrote the following year he done been warned by a Mint employee dat one of the officers ( undoubtedly Peale ) planned to undermine the chief engraver position by having the work of preparing designs and die done outside Mint premises . Accordingly , when the gold coin bill became law , Longacre apprised Patterson that he was ready to begin work on the gold dollar . da Mint Director agreed , and after viewing a model of tdahead on the obverse , authorized Longacre to proceed with preparation of dies . According to Longacre ,

The engraving was unusually minute and required very close and incessant labor for several weeks . I made the original dies and hubs for making the working dies twice over , to secure their perfect adaptation to the coining machinery . I had a wish to execute this work single handed , that I might thus silently reply to those who had questioned my ability for the work . The result , I believe , was satisfactory .

The engraving was unusually minute and required very close and incessant labor for several weeks . I made the original dies and hubs for making the working <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>dies</mark></a> twice over , to secure their perfect adaptation to the coining machinery . I had a wish to execute this work single handed , that I might thus silently reply to those <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='been_done' title='3'><mark>had</mark></a> questioned my ability for the work . The result , I believe , was satisfactory .

The engraving was unusually minute and required very close and incessant labor for several weeks . I made da original dies and hubs for making tdaworking die twice over , to secure their perfect adaptation to the coining machinery . I had a wish to execute dis wrk single handed , that I mite thus silently reply to those done questioned mah ability fir thdaork . Thedasult , I believe , was satisfactory .

= = Original design = =

= = Original design = =

= = Original design = =

The Type 1 gold dollar depicts a head of Liberty , facing left , with a coronet or tiara on her head bearing her name . Her hair is gathered in a bun ; she is surrounded by 13 stars representing the original states . The reverse features the date and denomination within a wreath , with the name of the nation near the rim .

The Type 1 gold dollar <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>depicts</mark></a> a head of Liberty , facing left , with a coronet or tiara on her head bearing her name . Her hair is gathered in a bun ; she is surrounded by 13 stars representing the original states . The reverse <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>features</mark></a> the date and denomination within a wreath , with the name of the nation near the rim .

Da Type 1 gold dollar depict a head of Liberty , facing left , with a coronet or tiara on her head bearing her name . Her hair is gathered in a bun ; she is surrounded by 13 stars reppin tdaoriginal states . The reverse feature the date and denomination within a wreath , wid the name of thdaation near the rim .

Contemporary reviews of the Type 1 design were generally favorable . The New York Weekly Tribune on May 19 , 1849 described the new dollar as " undoubtedly the neatest , tiniest , lightest , coin in this country ... it is too delicate and beautiful to pay out for potatoes , and sauerkraut , and salt pork . Oberon might have paid Puck with it for bringing the blossom which bewitched Titania . " Willis ' Bank Note List stated that " there is no probability of them ever getting into general circulation ; they are altogether too small . " The North Carolina Standard hoped that they would be struck at the Charlotte Mint and circulated locally to eliminate the problem of small @-@ denomination bank notes from out of state . Coin dealer and numismatic author Q. David Bowers notes that the head of Liberty on the Type 1 dollar is a scaled @-@ down version of that on the double eagle , and " a nicely preserved gold dollar is beautiful to behold " .

Contemporary reviews of the Type 1 design <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> generally favorable . The New York Weekly Tribune on May 19 , 1849 described the new dollar as " undoubtedly the neatest , tiniest , lightest , coin in this country ... it <a href='drop_aux' title='2'><mark>is</mark></a>too delicate and beautiful to pay out for potatoes , and sauerkraut , and salt pork . Oberon might <a href='been_done' title='3'><mark>have</mark></a> paid Puck with it for bringing the blossom which bewitched Titania . " Willis ' Bank Note List stated that " <a href='dey_it' title='4'><mark>there</mark></a> is no probability of them ever getting into general circulation ; they are altogether too small . " The North Carolina Standard hoped that they would be struck at the Charlotte Mint and circulated locally to eliminate the problem of small @-@ denomination bank notes from out of state . Coin dealer and numismatic author Q. David Bowers <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>notes</mark></a> that the head of Liberty on the Type 1 dollar is a scaled @-@ down version of that on the double eagle , and " a nicely preserved gold dollar <a href='drop_aux' title='6'><mark>is</mark></a>beautiful to behold " .

Contemporary reviews of da Type 1 design was generally favorable . The New York Weekly Tribune on May 19 , 1849 described the new dollar as " undoubtedly the neatest , tiniest , lightest , coin in dis country ... it too delicate and beautiful to pay out for potatoes , and sauerkraut , and salt pork . Oberon might done paid Puck with it for bringing tdablossom which bewitched Titania . " Willis ' Bank Note List stated dat " it ain't no probability of em eva getting into general circulation ; they r altogether too small . " The North Carolina Standard hoped that they would b struck at the Charlotte Mint and circulated locally to eliminate the problem of small @-@ denomination bank notes from outt of state . Coin dealer and numismatic author Q. David Bowers note that the head of Liberty on the Type 1 dollar is a scaled @-@ down version of that on thdaouble eagle , and " a nicely preserved gold dollar beautiful to behold " .

= = Modifications = =

= = Modifications = =

= = Modifications = =

Mint records indicate the first gold dollars were produced on May 7 , 1849 ; Longacre 's diary notes state instead that the first were struck on May 8 . A few coins in proof condition were struck on the first day , along with about 1 @,@ 000 for circulation . There are five major varieties of the 1849 gold dollar from Philadelphia , made as Longacre continued to fine @-@ tune the design . Mintmarked dies were sent by Longacre 's Engraving Department at the Philadelphia Mint to the branch mints at Charlotte , Dahlonega ( in Georgia ) , and New Orleans ; coins struck at the branches resemble some of the types issued from Philadelphia , depending on when the dies were produced . Of the coins struck at the branch mints in 1849 , only pieces struck at Charlotte ( 1849 @-@ C ) exist in multiple varieties ; most are of what is dubbed the " Closed Wreath " variety . Approximately five of the 1849 @-@ C Open Wreath are known ; one , believed the finest surviving specimen , sold at auction for $ 690 @,@ 000 in 2004 , remaining a record for the gold dollar series as of 2013 . One of the changes made during production was the inclusion of Longacre 's initial " L " on the truncation of Liberty 's neck , the first time a U.S. coin intended for full @-@ scale production had borne the initial of its designer . All issues beginning in 1850 bear the Closed Wreath . Beginning in 1854 , the gold dollar was also struck at the new San Francisco Mint .

Mint records indicate the first gold dollars <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> produced on May 7 , 1849 ; Longacre <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'s</mark></a>diary notes state instead that the first <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> struck on May 8 . A few coins in proof condition <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> struck on the first day , along with about 1 @,@ 000 for circulation . <a href='dey_it' title='5'><mark>There</mark></a> are five major varieties of the 1849 gold dollar from Philadelphia , made as Longacre continued to fine @-@ tune the design . Mintmarked dies <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>were</mark></a> sent by Longacre <a href='null_genetive' title='7'><mark>'s</mark></a>Engraving Department at the Philadelphia Mint to the branch mints at Charlotte , Dahlonega ( in Georgia ) , and New Orleans ; coins struck at the branches resemble some of the types issued from Philadelphia , depending on when the dies <a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>were</mark></a> produced . Of the coins struck at the branch mints in 1849 , only pieces struck at Charlotte ( 1849 @-@ C ) exist in multiple varieties ; most are of what is dubbed the " Closed Wreath " variety . Approximately five of the 1849 @-@ C Open Wreath are known ; one , believed the finest surviving specimen , sold at auction for $ 690 @,@ 000 in 2004 , remaining a record for the gold dollar series as of 2013 . One of the changes made during production<a href='been_done' title='9'><mark></mark></a> was the inclusion of Longacre <a href='null_genetive' title='10'><mark>'s</mark></a>initial " L " on the truncation of Liberty <a href='null_genetive' title='11'><mark>'s</mark></a>neck , the first time a U.S. coin intended for full @-@ scale production <a href='been_done' title='12'><mark>had</mark></a> borne the initial of its designer . All issues beginning in 1850 bear the Closed Wreath . Beginning in 1854 , the gold dollar was also struck at the new San Francisco Mint .

Mint records indicate da first gold dollars was produced on May 7 , 1849 ; Longacre diary notes state instead that the first was struck on May 8 . A few coins in proof condition was struck on the first day , along with about 1 @,@ 000 for circulation . It is five major varieties of tda1849 gold dollar from Philadelphia , made as Longacre continued to fine @-@ tune thdaesign . Mintmarked dies was sent by Longacre Engraving Department at the Philadelphia Mint to the branch mints at Charlotte , Dahlonega ( in Georgia ) , and New Orleans ; coins struck at the branches resemble sum of the types issued from Philadelphia , depending on when the dies was produced . Of thedains struck at the branch mints in 1849 , only pieces struck at Charlotte ( 1849 @-@ C ) exist in multiple varieties ; most are of what is dubbed the dalosed Wreath " variety . Approximately five of the 1849 @-@ C Open Wreath are known ; one , believed the fdast surviving specimen , sold at auction for $ 690 @,@ 000 in 2004 , remaining a record for the gold dollar series as of 2013 . One of the chdaes made durin production done was the inclusion of Longacre initial " L " on the trudation of Liberty neck , the first time a U.S. coin intended for full @-@ scale production done borne the initda of its designer . alll issues beginning in 1850 bear the Closed Wreath . Beginning in 1854 , the gold dollar was also struck at the new SdaFrancisco Mint .

The continued flow of gold from California made silver expensive in terms of gold , and U.S. silver coins began to flow out of the country for melting in 1849 , a flow that accelerated over the next several years as the price of the metal continued to rise . By 1853 , a thousand dollars in silver coin contained $ 1 @,@ 042 worth of bullion . As silver coins vanished , the gold dollar became the only federal coin in circulation between the cent and the quarter eagle ( $ 2 @.@ 50 piece ) . As such , it was struck in large numbers and widely circulated . According to Bowers in his book on the denomination , " the years 1850 to 1853 were the high @-@ water mark of the gold dollar , the glory years of the denomination when the little gold coins took the place of half dollars and silver dollars in everyday transactions . " This time came to an end in 1853 when Congress passed an act reducing the weight of most silver coins , allowing new issues of them to circulate .

The continued flow of gold from California made silver expensive in terms of gold , and U.S. silver coins began to flow out of the country for melting in 1849 , a flow <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>that</mark></a>accelerated over the next several years as the price of the metal continued to rise . By 1853 , a thousand dollars in silver coin contained $ 1 @,@ 042 worth of bullion . As silver coins vanished , the gold dollar became the only federal coin in circulation between the cent and the quarter eagle ( $ 2 @.@ 50 piece ) . As such , it was struck in large numbers and widely circulated . According to Bowers in his book on the denomination , " the years 1850 to 1853 <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> the high @-@ water mark of the gold dollar , the glory years of the denomination when the little gold coins took the place of half dollars and silver dollars in everyday transactions . " This time came to an end in 1853 when Congress passed an act reducing the weight of most silver coins , allowing new issues of them to circulate .

The continued flow of gold from California made silver expensive in terms of gold , and U.S. silver coins began to flow out of the country fir melting in 1849 , a flow accelerated ova da nxt several years as the price of tdametal continued to rise . By 1853 , a thousand dollars in silver coin contained $ 1 @,@ 042 worth of bullion . As silver coins vanished , thdaold dollar became thedaly federal coin in circulation between the dat and the quarter eagle ( $ 2 @.@ 50 piece ) . As such , it was struck in large numbers and widely circulated . According to Bowers in his book on the denomination , " the years 1850 to 1853 was the high @-@ water mark of the gold dollar , the gday years of the denomination when the lidae gold coins took the place of half dollars and silver dollars in everyday transactions . " This time came to an end in 1853 when Congress passed an act reducing the weight of most silver coins , allowing new issues of em to circulate .

As early as 1851 , New York Congressman William Duer alleged that that Patterson had made the gold dollar too small in diameter on purpose to provoke criticism . Patterson retired that year after 16 years in his position , and under his successor , George N. Eckert , annular gold dollar and half dollar patterns were struck . Public Ledger reported that although gold dollars would not be struck in annular form , gold half dollars would be , to help fill the need for change . With the new Pierce administration , Thomas M. Pettit took office as Mint Director on March 31 , 1853 . In April , Treasury Secretary James Guthrie wrote to Pettit that there were complaints that the gold dollar was too small , often lost or mistaken for a small silver coin , and enquiring about reports the Mint had experimented with annular dollars . Pettit replied , stating that none had been preserved , but enclosed a silver piece of equivalent size . He noted that while there would be technical difficulties in the production of the annular dollar , these could be overcome . In a letter dated May 10 , Pettit proposed an oval @-@ shaped holed piece , or an angular @-@ shaped coin , which would lessen the production problems . Pettit died suddenly on May 31 ; Guthrie did not let the issue fall , but queried Pettit 's replacement , James Ross Snowden , concerning the issue on June 7 . As U.S. coins were required to bear some device emblematic of liberty , the secretary hoped that artists could be found who could find some such design for an annular coin .

As early as 1851 , New York Congressman William Duer alleged that that Patterson <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>had</mark></a> made the gold dollar too small in diameter on purpose to provoke criticism . Patterson<a href='been_done' title='2'><mark></mark></a> retired that year after 16 years in his position , and under his successor , George N. Eckert , annular gold dollar and half dollar patterns <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> struck . Public Ledger reported that although gold dollars would not be struck in annular form , gold half dollars would be , to help fill the need for change . With the new Pierce administration , Thomas M. Pettit took office as Mint Director on March 31 , 1853 . In April , Treasury Secretary James Guthrie wrote to Pettit that <a href='dey_it' title='4'><mark>there</mark></a> <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> complaints that the gold dollar was too small , often lost or mistaken for a small silver coin , and enquiring about reports the Mint <a href='been_done' title='6'><mark>had</mark></a> experimented with annular dollars . Pettit replied , stating that none <a href='been_done' title='7'><mark>had</mark></a> been preserved , but enclosed a silver piece of equivalent size . He noted that while <a href='dey_it' title='8'><mark>there</mark></a> would be technical difficulties in the production of the annular dollar , these could be overcome . In a letter dated May 10 , Pettit proposed an oval @-@ shaped holed piece , or an angular @-@ shaped coin , which would lessen the production problems . Pettit died suddenly on May 31 ; Guthrie did not let the issue fall , but queried Pettit <a href='null_genetive' title='9'><mark>'s</mark></a>replacement , James Ross Snowden , concerning the issue on June 7 . As U.S. coins <a href='uninflect' title='10'><mark>were</mark></a> required to bear some device emblematic of liberty , the secretary hoped that artists could be found who could find some such design for an annular coin .

As early as 1851 , New York Congressman William Duer alleged that that Patterson done made da gold dollar too small in diameter on purpose to provoke criticism . Patterson been retired that year after 16 years in his position , and under his successor , George N. Eckert , annular gold dollar and half dollar patterns was struck . Public Ledger reported that although gold dollas would not be struck in annular form , gold half dollars would b , to help fill the need fir change . w/ the new Pierce administration , Thomas M. Pettit took office as Mint Director on March 31 , 1853 . In April , Treasury Secretary James Guthrie wrote to Pettit dat it was complaints tdattdagold dollar was too small , often lost or mistaken for a small silver coin , and enquiring about reports the Mint done experimented wiwitnnular dollars . Pettit replied , stating that none done been preserved , but enclosed a silver piece of equivalent size . He noted that while it would be technical difficulties in the production of thdannular dollar , dese could be overcome . In a letter dated May 10 , Pettit proposed an oval @-@ shaped holed piece , or an angular @-@ shaped coin , which would lessen thedaoduction problems . Pettit died suddenly on May 31 ; Guthrie did not let the issue fall , but queried Pettit replacement , James Ross Snowden , concerning the daue on June 7 . As U.S. coins was required to bear some device emblematic of liberty , the sdaetary hoped thdatrtists could be found who could find sum such design for an annular coin .

The Act of February 21 , 1853 , that had lightened the silver coins also authorized a gold three @-@ dollar piece , which began to be produced in 1854 . To ensure that the three @-@ dollar piece was not mistaken for other gold coins , it had been made thinner and wider than it would normally be , and Longacre put a distinctive design with an Indian princess on it . Longacre adapted both the technique and the design for the gold dollar , which was made thinner , and thus wider . An adaptation of Longacre 's princess for the larger gold coin was placed on the dollar , and a similar agricultural wreath on the reverse . The idea of making the gold dollar larger in this way had been suggested in Congress as early as 1852 , and had been advocated by Pettit , but Guthrie 's desire for an annular coin stalled the matter . In May 1854 , Snowden sent Guthrie a letter stating that the difficulties with an annular coin , especially in getting the coins to eject properly from the press , were more than trivial .

The Act of February 21 , 1853 , <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>had</mark></a> lightened the silver coins also authorized a gold three @-@ dollar piece , which began to be produced in 1854 . To ensure that the three @-@ dollar piece was not mistaken for other gold coins , it <a href='been_done' title='3'><mark>had</mark></a> been made thinner and wider than it would normally be , and Longacre put a distinctive design with an Indian princess on it . Longacre adapted both the technique and the design for the gold dollar , which was made thinner , and thus wider . An adaptation of Longacre <a href='null_genetive' title='4'><mark>'s</mark></a>princess for the larger gold coin was placed on the dollar , and a similar agricultural wreath on the reverse . The idea of making the gold dollar larger in this way <a href='been_done' title='5'><mark>had</mark></a> been suggested in Congress as early as 1852 , and <a href='been_done' title='6'><mark>had</mark></a> been advocated by Pettit , but Guthrie <a href='null_genetive' title='7'><mark>'s</mark></a>desire for an annular coin stalled the matter . In May 1854 , Snowden sent Guthrie a letter stating that the difficulties with an annular coin , especially in getting the coins to eject properly from the press , <a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>were</mark></a> more than trivial .

The Act of February 21 , 1853 , done lightened da silver coins also authorized a gold three @-@ dollar piece , which began to be produced in 1854 . To ensure dat the three @-@ dollar piece was not mistaken fir other gold coins , it done been made thinner and wider than it would normally b , and Longacre put a distinctive design with an Indian princess on it . Longacre adapted both the technique and the design for the gold dollar , which was made thinner , and thus wider . An adaptation of Longacre princess for the larger gold coin was placed on the dollar , and a similar agricultural wreath on the reverse . The idea of making tdagold dollar larger in dis way done been suggested in Congress as early as 1852 , and done been advocated by Pettit , but Guthrie desire fa an annular coin stalled thdaatter . In May 1854 , Snowden sent Guthrie a letter stating that the difficulties with an annular coin , especially in getting the coins to eject properly from thedaess , was more than trivial .

Nevertheless , the Type 2 gold dollar ( as it came to be known ) proved unsatisfactory as the mints had difficulty in striking the new coin so that all details were brought out . This was due to the high relief of the design — the three Southern branch mints especially had trouble with the piece . Many of the Type 2 pieces quickly became illegible , and were sent back to Philadelphia for melting and recoinage . On most surviving specimens , the " 85 " in the date is not fully detailed . The Type 2 gold dollar was struck only at Philadelphia in 1854 and 1855 , at the three Southern branch mints in the latter year , and at San Francisco in 1856 , after the design was designated for replacement . To correct the problems , Longacre enlarged the head of Liberty , making it a scaled @-@ down version of the three @-@ dollar piece , and moved the lettering on the obverse closer to the rim . This improved the metal flow and design sharpness so much that early numismatic scholars assumed the reverse was also altered , though in fact no change was made and the Type 2 and Type 3 reverses are identical .

Nevertheless , the Type 2 gold dollar ( as it came to be known ) proved unsatisfactory as the mints had difficulty in striking the new coin so that all details <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> brought out . This was due to the high relief of the design — the three Southern branch mints especially had trouble with the piece . Many of the Type 2 pieces quickly became illegible , and <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> sent back to Philadelphia for melting and recoinage . On most surviving specimens , the " 85 " in the date <a href='drop_aux' title='3'><mark>is</mark></a>not fully detailed . The Type 2 gold dollar was struck only at Philadelphia in 1854 and 1855 , at the three Southern branch mints in the latter year , and at San Francisco in 1856 , after the design was designated for replacement . To correct the problems , Longacre enlarged the head of Liberty , making it a scaled @-@ down version of the three @-@ dollar piece , and moved the lettering on the obverse closer to the rim . This improved the metal flow and design sharpness so much that early numismatic scholars assumed the reverse was also altered , though in fact no change was made and the Type 2 and Type 3 reverses <a href='drop_aux' title='4'><mark>are</mark></a>identical .

Nevertheless , da Type 2 gold dollar ( as it came to b known ) proved unsatisfactory as the mints had difficulty in striking the new coin so that alll details was brought outt . dis was due to the high relief of the design — the three Southern branch mints especially had trouble with the piece . Many of the Type 2 pieces quickly became illegible , and was sent bak to Philadelphia for melting and recoinage . On most surviving specimens , tda" 85 " in thdaate not fully detailed . Thedape 2 gold dollar was struck only at Philadelphia in 1854 and 1855 , at the three Southern branch mints in the dater year , and at San Francisco in 1856 , after the design was designated fa replacement . To correct the pdalems , Longacre enlarged the hedaof Liberty , making it a scaled @-@ down version of the three @-@ dollar piece , and moved the lettering on the obverse closer to the rim . This improved the metal flow and design sharpness soo much dat early numismatic scholars assumed the reverse was also altered , though in fact no change was made and the Type 2 and Type 3 reverses identical .

= = = Design of Type 2 and 3 dollars = = =

= = = Design of Type 2 and 3 dollars = = =

= = = Design of Type 2 and 3 dollars = = =

The Type 2 and 3 gold dollars depict Liberty as a Native American princess , with a fanciful feathered headdress not resembling any worn by any Indian tribe . This image is an inexact copy of the design Longacre had made for the three @-@ dollar piece , and is one of a number of versions of Liberty Longacre created based on the Venus Accroupie or Crouching Venus , a sculpture then on display in a Philadelphia museum . For the reverse , Longacre adapted the " agricultural wreath " he had created for the reverse of the three @-@ dollar piece , composed of cotton , corn , tobacco , and wheat , blending the produce of North and South . This wreath would appear , later in the 1850s , on the Flying Eagle cent .

The Type 2 and 3 gold dollars depict Liberty as a Native American princess , with a fanciful feathered headdress not resembling any worn by any Indian tribe . This image <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>is</mark></a>an inexact copy of the design Longacre <a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>had</mark></a> made for the three @-@ dollar piece , and <a href='drop_aux' title='3'><mark>is</mark></a>one of a number of versions of Liberty Longacre created based on the Venus Accroupie or Crouching Venus , a sculpture then on display in a Philadelphia museum . For the reverse , Longacre adapted the " agricultural wreath " he <a href='been_done' title='4'><mark>had</mark></a> created for the reverse of the three @-@ dollar piece , composed of cotton , corn , tobacco , and wheat , blending the produce of North and South . This wreath would appear , later in the 1850s , on the Flying Eagle cent .

Da Type 2 and 3 gold dollars depict Liberty as a Native American princess , with a fanciful feathered headdress not resembling any worn by any Indian tribe . dis image an inexact copy of tdadesign Longacre done made for the three @-@ dollar piece , and one of a number of versions of Liberty Longacre created based on the Venus Accroupie or Crouching Venus , a sculpture then on display in a Philadelphia museum . For thdaeverse , Longacre adapted thedaagricultural wreath " he done created for the daerse of the tdae @-@ dollar piece , composed of cotton , corn , tobacco , and wheat , blending the prdace of North and South . Tdiswreath would appear , later in the 185da, on the flyin Eagle cent .

Art historian Cornelius Vermeule deprecated the Indian princess design used by Longacre for the obverses of the Types 2 and 3 gold dollar , and for the three @-@ dollar piece , " the ' princess ' of the gold coins is a banknote engraver 's elegant version of folk art of the 1850s . The plumes or feathers are more like the crest of the Prince of Wales than anything that saw the Western frontiers , save perhaps on a music hall beauty . "

Art historian Cornelius Vermeule deprecated the Indian princess design used by Longacre for the obverses of the Types 2 and 3 gold dollar , and for the three @-@ dollar piece , " the ' princess ' of the gold coins is a banknote engraver <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'s</mark></a>elegant version of folk art of the 1850s . The plumes or feathers are more like the crest of the Prince of Wales than anything <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>that</mark></a>saw the Western frontiers , save perhaps on a music hall beauty . "

Art historian Cornelius Vermeule deprecated the Indian princess design used by Longacre for the obverses of the Types 2 and 3 gold dollar , and for the three @-@ dollar piece , " the ' princess ' of the gold coins is a banknote engraver elegant version of folk art of the 1850s . The plumes or feathers r more like da crest of tdaPrince of Wales than anything saw thdaestern frontiers , save perhaps on a music hall beauty . "

= = War years = =

= = War years = =

= = War years = =

The gold dollar continued to be produced in the late 1850s , though mintages declined from the figures of two million or more each year between 1850 and 1854 . Only about 51 @,@ 000 gold dollars were produced in 1860 , with over two @-@ thirds of that figure at Philadelphia , just under a third at San Francisco , and 1 @,@ 566 at Dahlonega . Roughly a hundred are known of the last , creating one of the great rarities from Dahlonega in the series .

The gold dollar continued to be produced in the late 1850s , though mintages declined from the figures of two million or more each year between 1850 and 1854 . Only about 51 @,@ 000 gold dollars <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> produced in 1860 , with over two @-@ thirds of that figure at Philadelphia , just under a third at San Francisco , and 1 @,@ 566 at Dahlonega . Roughly a hundred are known of the last , creating one of the great rarities from Dahlonega in the series .

The gold dollar continued to b produced in the late 1850s , tho mintages declined from da figures of 2 million or more each year between 1850 and 1854 . Only about 51 @,@ 000 gold dollars was produced in 1860 , w over two @-@ thirds of that figure at Philadelphia , jus under a third at San Francisco , and 1 @,@ 566 at Dahlonega . Roughly a hunnit are known of tdalast , creating one of the great rarities from Dahlonega in the series .

The other candidate for the rarest from that mint is the 1861 @-@ D , with an estimated mintage of 1 @,@ 000 and perhaps 45 to 60 known . Two pairs of dies were shipped from Philadelphia to Dahlonega on December 10 , 1860 ; they arrived on January 7 , 1861 , two weeks before Georgia voted to secede from the Union , as the American Civil War began . Under orders from Governor Joseph E. Brown , state militia secured the mint , and at some point , small quantities of dollars and half eagles were produced . Records of how many coins were struck and when have not survived . Since dies crack in time , and all the mints were supplied with them from Philadelphia , coining could not last , and in May 1861 , coins and supplies remaining at Dahlonega were turned over to the treasury of the Confederate States of America , which Georgia had by then joined . Gold coins with a face value of $ 6 were put aside for assay . Normally , they would have been sent to Philadelphia to await the following year 's meeting of the United States Assay Commission , when they would be available for testing . Instead , these were sent to the initial Confederate capital of Montgomery , Alabama , though what was done with them there , and their ultimate fate , are unknown . The rarity of the 1861 @-@ D dollar , and the association with the Confederacy , make it especially prized .

The other candidate for the rarest from that mint <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>is</mark></a>the 1861 @-@ D , with an estimated mintage of 1 @,@ 000 and perhaps 45 to 60 known . Two pairs of dies <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> shipped from Philadelphia to Dahlonega on December 10 , 1860 ; they arrived on January 7 , 1861 , two weeks before Georgia<a href='been_done' title='3'><mark></mark></a> voted to secede from the Union , as the American Civil War began . Under orders from Governor Joseph E. Brown , state militia secured the mint , and at some point , small quantities of dollars and half eagles <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> produced . Records of how many coins <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> struck and when <a href='been_done' title='6'><mark>have</mark></a> not survived . Since dies crack in time , and all the mints <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>were</mark></a> supplied with them from Philadelphia , coining could not last , and in May 1861 , coins and supplies remaining at Dahlonega <a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>were</mark></a> turned over to the treasury of the Confederate States of America , which Georgia <a href='been_done' title='9'><mark>had</mark></a> by then joined . Gold coins with a face value of $ 6 <a href='uninflect' title='10'><mark>were</mark></a> put aside for assay . Normally , they would <a href='been_done' title='11'><mark>have</mark></a> been sent to Philadelphia to await the following year <a href='null_genetive' title='12'><mark>'s</mark></a>meeting of the United States Assay Commission , when they would be available for testing . Instead , these <a href='uninflect' title='13'><mark>were</mark></a> sent to the initial Confederate capital of Montgomery , Alabama , though what was done with them there , and their ultimate fate , <a href='drop_aux' title='14'><mark>are</mark></a>unknown . The rarity of the 1861 @-@ D dollar , and the association with the Confederacy , make it especially prized .

Da other candidate for tdararest from dat mint thda861 @-@ D , with an estimated mintage of 1 @,@ 000 and perhaps 45 to 60 known . Two pairs of dies was shipped from Philadelphia to Dahlonega on December 10 , 1860 ; they arrived on January 7 , 1861 , 2 weeks before Georgia been voted to secede from the Union , as the American Civil War began . Under orders from Governor Joseph E. Brown , state militia secured the mint , and at some point , small quantities of dollars and half eagles was produced . Records of how many coins was struck and when done not survived . Since dies crack in time , and alll thedants was supplied with them from Philadelphia , coining could not last , and in May 1861 , coins and supplies remaining at Dahlonega was turned over to the treasury of the Confederate States of America , which Georgia done by then joined . Gold coins with a face value of $ 6 was put aside fir assay . Normally , they would done been sent to Philadelphia to await the dalowing year meeting of the United States Assay Commission , when they would be available fa testing . Instead , these was sent to the idaial Confederate capital of Montgomery , Alabama , though wat was done w them there , and their ultimate fate , unknown . The rarity of the 1861 @-@ D dollar , and the association with the Confederacy , make it especially prized .

Dahlonega , like the other two branch mints in the South , closed its doors after the 1861 strikings . It and the Charlotte facility never reopened ; the New Orleans Mint again struck coins from 1879 to 1909 , but did not strike gold dollars again . After 1861 , the only issuance of gold dollars outside Philadelphia was at San Francisco , in 1870 .

Dahlonega , like the other two branch mints in the South , closed its doors after the 1861 strikings . It and the Charlotte facility never reopened ; the New Orleans Mint again struck coins from 1879 to 1909 , but did not strike gold <a href='negative_concord' title='1'><mark>dollars</mark></a> again . After 1861 , the only issuance of gold dollars outside Philadelphia was at San Francisco , in 1870 .

Dahlonega , like da other 2 branch mints in tdaSouth , closed its doors after the 1861 strikings . It and thdaharlotte facility never reopened ; thedaw Orleans Mint again struck coins from 1879 to 1909 , but did not strike gold no dollars again . After 1861 , the day issuance of gold dollars outside Philadelphia was at San Francisco , in 1870 .

The outbreak of the Civil War shook public confidence in the Union , and citizens began hoarding specie , gold and silver coins . In late December 1861 , banks and then the federal Treasury stopped paying out gold at face value . By mid @-@ 1862 , all federal coins , even the base metal cent , had vanished from commerce in much of the country . The exception was the Far West , where for the most part , only gold and silver were acceptable currencies , and paper money traded at a discount . In the rest of the nation , gold and silver coins could be purchased from banks , exchange agents , and from the Treasury for a premium in the new greenbacks the government began to issue to fill the gap in commerce and finance the war .

The outbreak of the Civil War shook public confidence in the Union , and citizens began hoarding specie , gold and silver coins . In late December 1861 , banks and then the federal Treasury stopped paying out gold at face value . By mid @-@ 1862 , all federal coins , even the base metal cent , <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>had</mark></a> vanished from commerce in much of the country . The exception was the Far West , where for the most part , only gold and silver <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> acceptable currencies , and paper money traded at a discount . In the rest of the nation , gold and silver coins could be purchased from banks , exchange agents , and from the Treasury for a premium in the new greenbacks the government began to issue to fill the gap in commerce and finance the war .

The outbreak of da Civil War shook public confidence in tdaUnion , and citizens began hoarding specie , gold and silver coins . In late December 1861 , banks and then thdaederal Treasury stopped paying outt gold at face value . By mid @-@ 1862 , all federal coins , even the base metal cent , done vanished from commerce in much of the country . The exception was the Far West , where for the most part , only gold and silver was acceptable currencies , and paper paper traded at a discount . In thedast of the daion , gold and silver coins could b purchased from banks , exchange agents , and from the Treasury for a premium in the new greenbacks the gdarnment began to issue to fill the gap in commerce and finance the wada

= = Final years , abolition , and collecting = =

= = Final years , abolition , and collecting = =

= = Final years , abolition , and collecting = =

Since gold did not circulate in the United States ( except on the West Coast ) in the postwar period , much of the production of coins of that metal in the United States was double eagles for export . Accordingly , although 1 @,@ 361 @,@ 355 gold dollars were struck in 1862 — the last time production would exceed a million — the mintage fell to 6 @,@ 200 in 1863 and remained low for the rest of the coin 's existence , excepting 1873 and 1874 . The Mint felt it improper to suspend coinage of a coin authorized by Congress , and issued proof coins ( generally a few dozen to the tiny numismatic community ) from specially @-@ polished dies , also producing enough circulation strikes so that the proof coins would not be unduly rare . In 1873 and 1874 , old and worn gold dollars held by the government were melted and recoined , generating large mintages of that denomination . This was done in anticipation of the resumption of specie payments , which did not occur until the end of 1878 . Once specie again circulated at face value , the gold dollar found no place in commerce amid large quantities of silver coinage , either released from hoarding or newly struck by the Mint . The government expected that the resumption of specie payments would cause the dollar and other small gold coins to circulate again , but the public , allowed to redeem paper currency , continued to use it as more convenient than coins .

Since gold did not circulate in the United States ( except on the West Coast ) in the postwar period , much of the production of coins of that metal in the United States was double eagles for export . Accordingly , although 1 @,@ 361 @,@ 355 gold dollars <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> struck in 1862 — the last time production would exceed a million — the mintage<a href='been_done' title='2'><mark></mark></a> fell to 6 @,@ 200 in 1863 and remained low for the rest of the coin <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'s</mark></a>existence , excepting 1873 and 1874 . The Mint felt it improper to suspend coinage of a coin authorized by Congress , and issued proof coins ( generally a few dozen to the tiny numismatic community ) from specially @-@ polished dies , also producing enough circulation strikes so that the proof coins would <a href='negative_concord' title='4'><mark>not</mark></a><a href='negative_concord' title='5'><mark>be</mark></a> unduly rare . In 1873 and 1874 , old and worn gold dollars held by the government <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>were</mark></a> melted and recoined , generating large mintages of that denomination . This was done in anticipation of the resumption of specie payments , which did not occur until <a href='None' title='7'><mark>the</mark></a><a href='negative_concord' title='8'><mark>end</mark></a> of 1878 . Once specie again circulated at face value , the gold dollar found no place in commerce amid large quantities of silver coinage , either released from hoarding or newly struck by the Mint . The government expected that the resumption of specie payments would cause the dollar and other small gold coins to circulate again , but the public , allowed to redeem paper currency , continued to use it as more convenient than coins .

Since gold did not circulate in the United States ( except on the West Coast ) in the postwar period , much of da production of coins of that metal in the United States was double eagles for export . Accordingly , although 1 @,@ 361 @,@ 355 gold dollars was struck in 1862 — the last time production would exceed a million — tdamintage done fell to 6 @,@ 200 in 1863 and remained low for thdaest of thedain existence , excepting 1873 and 1874 . The dat felt it improper to suspend coinage of a coin authorized by Congress , and issued proof coins ( generally a few dozen to the tiny numismatic community ) from specially @-@ polished dies , also producing enough circulation strikes so that the pdaf coins would ain't unduly rare . In 1873 and 1874 , old and worn gold dollars held by the godanment was melted and recoined , generating bigass mintages of dat denomination . dis was done in anticipation of the resdation of specie payments , which did not occur until no end of 1878 . Once specie again circulated at face value , the golddallar found no place in commerce amid large quantities of silver coinage , either released from hoarding or newly struck by the Mint dahe governdat expected tdatthe resumption of specie payments would cus the dollar and other small gold coins to circulate again , but the public , allowed to redeem paper currency , continued to use it as more convenient than coins .

In the 1870s and 1880s , public interest grew in the low @-@ mintage gold dollar . Collecting coins was becoming more popular , and a number of numismatists put aside some gold dollars and hoped for increases in value . The Mint most likely channeled its production through some favored Philadelphia dealers , though proof coins could be purchased for $ 1 @.@ 25 at the cashier 's window at the Philadelphia facility . Banks charged a premium for circulation strikes . They were popular in the jewelry trade , mounted into various items . The coins were often exported to China or Japan , where such jewelry was made . The dollars were often damaged in the process ; the Mint refused to sell into this trade and did its best to hinder it . Nevertheless , Mint officials concluded that jewelers were successful at getting the majority of each issue . Proof mintages exceeded 1 @,@ 000 by 1884 , and remained above that mark for the remainder of the series , numbers likely inflated by agents of jewelers , willing to pay the Mint 's premium of $ .25 per coin . Another use for the gold dollar was as a holiday gift ; after its abolition the quarter eagle became a popular present .

In the 1870s and 1880s , public interest grew in the low @-@ mintage gold dollar . Collecting coins was becoming more popular , and a number of numismatists put aside some gold dollars and hoped for increases in value . The Mint most likely channeled its production through some favored Philadelphia dealers , though proof coins could be purchased for $ 1 @.@ 25 at the cashier <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'s</mark></a>window at the Philadelphia facility . Banks charged a premium for circulation strikes . They <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> popular in the jewelry trade , mounted into various items . The coins <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> often exported to China or Japan , where such jewelry was made . The dollars <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> often damaged in the process ; the Mint refused to sell into this trade and did its best to hinder it . Nevertheless , Mint officials concluded that jewelers <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> successful at getting the majority of each issue . Proof mintages<a href='been_done' title='6'><mark></mark></a> exceeded 1 @,@ 000 by 1884 , and remained above that mark for the remainder of the series , numbers likely inflated by agents of jewelers , willing to pay the Mint <a href='null_genetive' title='7'><mark>'s</mark></a>premium of $ .25 per coin . Another use for the gold dollar was as a holiday gift ; after its abolition the quarter eagle became a popular present .

In the 1870s and 1880s , public interest grew in the low @-@ mintage gold dollar . Collecting coins was becoming more popular , and a number of numismatists put aside some gold dollars and hoped for increases in value . da Mint most likely channeled its production thru some favored Philadelphia dealers , doe proof coins could be purchased fir $ 1 @.@ 25 at the cashier window at the Philadelphia facility . Banks charged a premium fir circulation strikes . They was popular in the jewelry trade , mounted into various items . Tdacoins was often exported to China or Japan , where such jewelry was made . Thdaollars was often damaged in thedaocess ; the Mint refused to sell into this trade and did its best to hinder it . Nevertheless , Mint officials concluded dat jewelers was successful at getting the majority of each issue . Proof mintages been exceeded 1 @,@ 000 by 1884 , and remained above that mark for the remainder of the series , numbers likely inflated by agents of jewelers , willing to pay the Mint premium of $ .25 per coin . anotha use for the dad dollar was as a holiday gift ; after its abolition the quarter eagle became a popular present .

James Pollock , in his final report as Mint Director in 1873 , advocated limiting striking of gold dollars to depositors who specifically requested it . " The gold dollar is not a convenient coin , on account of its small size , and it suffers more proportionately from abrasion than larger coins . " His successors called for its abolition , with James P. Kimball , before he left office in 1889 , writing to Congress that except as jewelry , " little practical use has been found for this coin " . Later that year , the new director , Edward O. Leech , issued a report stating that the gold dollar " is too small for circulation , and ... [ is ] used almost exclusively for the purposes of ornament . The last year in which the gold dollar was struck was 1889 . Congress abolished the gold dollar , along with the three @-@ cent nickel and three @-@ dollar piece , by the Act of September 26 , 1890 .

James Pollock , in his final report as Mint Director in 1873 , advocated limiting striking of gold dollars to depositors <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>who</mark></a>specifically requested it . " The gold dollar <a href='negative_concord' title='2'><mark>is</mark></a> <a href='negative_concord' title='3'><mark>not</mark></a>a convenient coin , on <a href='negative_concord' title='4'><mark>account</mark></a> of its small size , and it <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>suffers</mark></a> more proportionately from abrasion than larger coins . " His successors called for its abolition , with James P. Kimball , before he left office in 1889 , writing to Congress that except as jewelry , " little practical use <a href='been_done' title='6'><mark>has</mark></a> been found for this coin " . Later that year , the new director , Edward O. Leech ,<a href='been_done' title='7'><mark></mark></a> issued a report stating that the gold dollar " is too small for circulation , and ... [ is ] used almost exclusively for the purposes of ornament . The last year in which the gold dollar was struck was 1889 . Congress abolished the gold dollar , along with the three @-@ cent nickel and three @-@ dollar piece , by the Act of September 26 , 1890 .

James Pollock , in his final report as Mint Director in 1873 , advocated limiting striking of gold dollars to depositors specifically requested it . " da gold dollar ain't a convenient coin , on no account of its small size , and it suffer more proportionately from abrasion den larger coins . " His successors called for its abolition , witt James P. Kimball , b4 he left office in 1889 , writing to Congress that except as jewelry , " lil practical use done been found for this coin " . Later dat year , tdanew director , Edward O. Leech , been issued a report stating tdatthe gold dollar " is too small fa circulation , and ... [ is ] used almost exclusively for thdaurposes of ornament . The last year in which thedald dollar was struck was 1889 . Congress abolished the dad dollar , along with the tdae @-@ cent nickel and three @-@ dollar piece , by the Act of September 26 , 1890 .

A total of 19 @,@ 499 @,@ 337 gold dollars were coined , of which 18 @,@ 223 @,@ 438 were struck at Philadelphia , 1 @,@ 004 @,@ 000 at New Orleans , 109 @,@ 138 at Charlotte , 90 @,@ 232 at San Francisco and 72 @,@ 529 at Dahlonega . According to an advertisement in the February 1899 issue of The Numismatist , gold dollars brought $ 1 @.@ 80 each , still in demand as a birthday present and for jewelry . That journal in 1905 carried news of a customer depositing 100 gold dollars into a bank ; the teller , aware of the value , credited the account with $ 1 @.@ 60 per coin . In 1908 , a dealer offered $ 2 each for any quantity . As coin collecting became a widespread pastime in the early 20th century , gold dollars became a popular specialty , a status they retain . The 2014 edition of R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins rates the least expensive gold dollar in very fine condition ( VF @-@ 20 ) at $ 300 , a value given for each of the Type 1 Philadelphia issues from 1849 to 1853 . Those seeking one of each type will find the most expensive to be a specimen of the Type 2 , with the 1854 and 1855 estimated at $ 350 in that condition ; the other two types have dates valued at $ 300 in that grade .

A total of 19 @,@ 499 @,@ 337 gold dollars <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> coined , of which 18 @,@ 223 @,@ 438 <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> struck at Philadelphia , 1 @,@ 004 @,@ 000 at New Orleans , 109 @,@ 138 at Charlotte , 90 @,@ 232 at San Francisco and 72 @,@ 529 at Dahlonega . According to an advertisement in the February 1899 issue of The Numismatist , gold dollars brought $ 1 @.@ 80 each , still in demand as a birthday present and for jewelry . That journal in 1905 carried news of a customer depositing 100 gold dollars into a bank ; the teller , aware of the value , credited the account with $ 1 @.@ 60 per coin . In 1908 , a dealer offered $ 2 each for any quantity . As coin collecting became a widespread pastime in the early 20th century , gold dollars became a popular specialty , a status they retain . The 2014 edition of R.S. Yeoman <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'s</mark></a>A Guide Book of United States Coins <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>rates</mark></a> the least expensive gold dollar in very fine condition ( VF @-@ 20 ) at $ 300 , a value given for each of the Type 1 Philadelphia issues from 1849 to 1853 . Those seeking one of each type will find the most expensive to be a specimen of the Type 2 , with the 1854 and 1855 estimated at $ 350 in that condition ; the other two types <a href='got' title='5'><mark>have</mark></a> dates valued at $ 300 in that grade .

A total of 19 @,@ 499 @,@ 337 gold dollars was coined , of which 18 @,@ 223 @,@ 438 was struck at Philadelphia , 1 @,@ 004 @,@ 000 at New Orleans , 109 @,@ 138 at Charlotte , 90 @,@ 232 at San Francisco and 72 @,@ 529 at Dahlonega . According to an advertisement in da February 1899 issue of The Numismatist , gold dollas brought $ 1 @.@ 80 each , still in demand as a birthday present and for jewelry . That journal in 1905 carried news of a customer depositing 100 gold ddollasinto a bank ; the teller , aware of tdavalue , credited the account with $ 1 @.@ 60 per coin . In 1908 , a dealer offered $ 2 each fir any quantity . As coin collecting became a widespread pastime in the early 20th century , gold dollars became a popular specialty , a status they retain . Thda014 edition of R.S. Yeoman A Guide Book of United States Coins rate the least expensive gold dollar in very fine condition ( VF @-@ 20 ) at $ 300 , a value given for each of the Type 1 Philadelphia issues from 1849 to 1853 . Those seeking one of each type will find the most expensive to b a specimen of thedape 2 , witt the 1854 and 1855 estimated at $ 350 in dat condition ; the other two types got dates valued at $ 300 in that grade .

= = Commemorative gold dollars = =

= = Commemorative gold dollars = =

= = Commemorative gold dollars = =

The gold dollar had a brief resurrection during the period of Early United States commemorative coins . Between 1903 and 1922 nine different issues were produced , with a total mintage of 99 @,@ 799 . These were minted for various public events , did not circulate , and none used Longacre 's design .

The gold dollar had a brief resurrection during the period of Early United States commemorative coins . Between 1903 and 1922 nine different issues <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> produced , with a total mintage of 99 @,@ 799 . These <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> minted for various public events , did not circulate , and <a href='None' title='3'><mark>none</mark></a> used Longacre <a href='null_genetive' title='4'><mark>'s</mark></a>design .

Da gold dollar had a brief resurrection durin the period of Early United States commemorative coins . Between 1903 and 1922 nine diffrent issues was produced , with a total mintage of 99 @,@ 799 . These was minted for various public events , did not circulate , and don't none used Longacre design .

= Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction =

= Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction =

= Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction =

The Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction ( sometimes referred to as the Corey – Chaykovsky reaction or CCR ) is a chemical reaction used in organic chemistry for the synthesis of epoxides , aziridines , and cyclopropanes . It was discovered in 1961 by A. William Johnson and developed significantly by E. J. Corey and Michael Chaykovsky . The reaction involves addition of a sulfur ylide to a ketone , aldehyde , imine , or enone to produce the corresponding 3 @-@ membered ring . The reaction is diastereoselective favoring trans substitution in the product regardless of the initial stereochemistry . The synthesis of epoxides via this method serves as an important retrosynthetic alternative to the traditional epoxidation reactions of olefins .

The Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction ( sometimes referred to as the Corey – Chaykovsky reaction or CCR ) <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>is</mark></a>a chemical reaction used in organic chemistry for the synthesis of epoxides , aziridines , and cyclopropanes . It was discovered in 1961 by A. William Johnson and developed significantly by E. J. Corey and Michael Chaykovsky . The reaction <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>involves</mark></a> addition of a sulfur ylide to a ketone , aldehyde , imine , or enone to produce the corresponding 3 @-@ membered ring . The reaction <a href='drop_aux' title='3'><mark>is</mark></a>diastereoselective favoring trans substitution in the product regardless of the initial stereochemistry . The synthesis of epoxides via this method <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>serves</mark></a> as an important retrosynthetic alternative to the traditional epoxidation reactions of olefins .

The Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction ( sometimes referred to as the Corey – Chaykovsky reaction or CCR ) a chemical reaction used in organic chemistry fir da synthesis of epoxides , aziridines , and cyclopropanes . It was discovered in 1961 by A. William Johnson and developed significantly by E. J. Corey and Michael Chaykovsky . The reaction involve addition of a sulfur ylide to a ketone , aldehyde , imine , or enone to produce tdacorresponding 3 @-@ membered ring . The reaction diastereoselective favoring trans substitution in thdaroduct regardless of the initial stereochemistry . Thedanthesis of epoxides via dis method serve as an important retrosynthetic alternative to the daditional epoxidation reactions of olefins .

The reaction is most often employed for epoxidation via methylene transfer , and to this end has been used in several notable total syntheses ( See Synthesis of epoxides below ) . Additionally detailed below are the history , mechanism , scope , and enantioselective variants of the reaction . Several reviews have been published .

The reaction is most often employed for epoxidation via methylene transfer , and to this end <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>has</mark></a> been used in several notable total syntheses ( See Synthesis of epoxides below ) . Additionally detailed below are the history , mechanism , scope , and enantioselective variants of the reaction . Several reviews <a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>have</mark></a> been published .

Da reaction is most often employed for epoxidation via methylene transfer , and to dis end done been used in several notable total syntheses ( See Synthesis of epoxides below ) . Additionally detailed below r tdahistory , mechanism , scope , and enantioselective variants of thdaeaction . Several reviews done been published .

= = History = =

= = History = =

= = History = =

The original publication by Johnson concerned the reaction of 9 @-@ dimethylsulfonium fluorenylide with substituted benzaldehyde derivatives . The attempted Wittig @-@ like reaction failed and a benzalfluorene oxide was obtained instead , noting that " Reaction between the sulfur ylid and benzaldehydes did not afford benzalfluorenes as had the phosphorus and arsenic ylids . "

The original publication by Johnson concerned the reaction of 9 @-@ dimethylsulfonium fluorenylide with substituted benzaldehyde derivatives . The attempted Wittig @-@ like reaction failed and a benzalfluorene oxide was obtained instead , noting that " Reaction between the sulfur ylid and benzaldehydes did not afford <a href='negative_concord' title='1'><mark>benzalfluorenes</mark></a> as had the phosphorus and arsenic ylids . "

The original publication by Johnson thinkn da reaction of 9 @-@ dimethylsulfonium fluorenylide wit substituted benzaldehyde derivatives . The attempted Wittig @-@ like reaction failed and a benzalfluorene oxide was obtained instead , nuffin dat " Reaction between the sulfur ylid and benzaldehydes did not afford no benzalfluorenes as had the phosphorus and arsenic ylids . "

The subsequent development of ( dimethyloxosulfaniumyl ) methanide , ( CH3 ) 2SOCH2 and ( dimethylsulfaniumyl ) methanide , ( CH3 ) 2SCH2 ( known as Corey – Chaykovsky reagents ) by Corey and Chaykovsky as efficient methylene @-@ transfer reagents established the reaction as a part of the organic canon .

The subsequent development of ( dimethyloxosulfaniumyl ) methanide , ( CH3 ) 2SOCH2 and ( dimethylsulfaniumyl ) methanide , ( CH3 ) 2SCH2 ( known as Corey – Chaykovsky reagents ) by Corey and Chaykovsky as efficient methylene @-@ transfer reagents established the reaction as a part of the organic canon .

Da subsequent development of ( dimethyloxosulfaniumyl ) methanide , ( CH3 ) 2SOCH2 and ( dimethylsulfaniumyl ) methanide , ( CH3 ) 2SCH2 ( known as Corey – Chaykovsky reagents ) by Corey and Chaykovsky as efficient methylene @-@ transfer reagents established the reaction as a part of the organic canon .

= = Mechanism = =

= = Mechanism = =

= = Mechanism = =

The reaction mechanism for the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction consists of nucleophilic addition of the ylide to the carbonyl or imine group . A negative charge is transferred to the heteroatom and because the sulfonium cation is a good leaving group it gets expelled forming the ring . In the related Wittig reaction , the formation of the much stronger phosphorus @-@ oxygen double bond prevents oxirane formation and instead , olefination takes place through a 4 @-@ membered cyclic intermediate .

The reaction mechanism for the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>consists</mark></a> of nucleophilic addition of the ylide to the carbonyl or imine group . A negative charge is transferred to the heteroatom and because the sulfonium cation <a href='drop_aux' title='2'><mark>is</mark></a>a good leaving group it <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>gets</mark></a> expelled forming the ring . In the related Wittig reaction , the formation of the much stronger phosphorus @-@ oxygen double bond <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>prevents</mark></a> oxirane formation and instead , olefination <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>takes</mark></a> place through a 4 @-@ membered cyclic intermediate .

The reaction mechanism fir da Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction consist of nucleophilic addition of the ylide to tdacarbonyl or imine group . A negative charge is transferred to the heteroatom and because thdaulfonium cation a good leavin group it get expelled forming the ring . In thedalated Wittig reaction , the damation of the mda stronger phosphorus @-@ oxygen double bond prevent oxirane formation and instead , olefination take place through a 4 @-@ membered cyclic intermediate .

The trans diastereoselectivity observed results from the reversibility of the initial addition , allowing equilibration to the favored anti betaine over the syn betaine . Initial addition of the ylide results in a betaine with adjacent charges ; density functional theory calculations have shown that the rate @-@ limiting step is rotation of the central bond into the conformer necessary for backside attack on the sulfonium .

The trans diastereoselectivity observed results from the reversibility of the initial addition , allowing equilibration to the favored anti betaine over the syn betaine . Initial addition of the ylide results in a betaine with adjacent charges ; density functional theory calculations <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>have</mark></a> shown that the rate @-@ limiting step is rotation of the central bond into the conformer necessary for backside attack on the sulfonium .

Da trans diastereoselectivity observed results from tdareversibility of the initial addition , allowing equilibration to the favored anti betaine over the syn betaine . Initial addition of the ylide results in a betaine witt adjacent charges ; density functional theory calculations done shown dat the rate @-@ limiting step is rotation of thdaentral bond into the conformer necessary fir backside attack on the sulfonium .

The degree of reversibility in the initial step ( and therefore the diastereoselectivity ) depends on four factors , with greater reversibility corresponding to higher selectivity :

The degree of reversibility in the initial step ( and therefore the diastereoselectivity ) <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>depends</mark></a> on four factors , with greater reversibility corresponding to higher selectivity :

Da degree of reversibility in tdainitial step ( and therefore the diastereoselectivity ) depend on four factors , with greater reversibility corresponding to higher selectivity :

Stability of the substrate with higher stability leading to greater reversibility by favoring the starting material over the betaine .

Stability of the substrate with higher stability leading to greater reversibility by favoring the starting material over the betaine .

Stability of da substrate with higher stability leading to greater reversibility by retweetin the starting material ova the betaine .

Stability of the ylide with higher stability similarly leading to greater reversibility .

Stability of the ylide with higher stability similarly leading to greater reversibility .

Stability of the ylide with higher stability similarly leading to greater reversibility .

Steric hindrance in the betaine with greater hindrance leading to greater reversibility by disfavoring formation of the intermediate and slowing the rate @-@ limiting rotation of the central bond .

Steric hindrance in the betaine with greater hindrance leading to greater reversibility by disfavoring formation of the intermediate and slowing the rate @-@ limiting rotation of the central bond .

Steric hindrance in the betaine wid greater hindrance leading to greater reversibility by disfavoring formation of the intermediate and slowing the rate @-@ limiting rotation of the central bond .

Solvation of charges in the betaine by counterions such as lithium with greater solvation allowing more facile rotation in the betaine intermediate , lowering the amount of reversibility .

Solvation of charges in the betaine by counterions such as lithium with greater solvation allowing more facile rotation in the betaine intermediate , lowering the amount of reversibility .

Solvation of charges in the betaine by counterions such as lithium with greater solvation allowing more facile rotation in da betaine intermediate , lowering the amount of reversibility .

= = Scope = =

= = Scope = =

= = Scope = =

The application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction in organic synthesis is diverse . The reaction has come to encompass reactions of many types of sulfur ylides with electrophiles well beyond the original publications . It has seen use in a number of high @-@ profile total syntheses , as detailed below , and is generally recognized as a powerful transformative tool in the organic repertoire .

The application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction in organic synthesis <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>is</mark></a>diverse . The reaction <a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>has</mark></a> come to encompass reactions of many types of sulfur ylides with electrophiles well beyond the original publications . It <a href='been_done' title='3'><mark>has</mark></a> seen use in a number of high @-@ profile total syntheses , as detailed below , and is generally recognized as a powerful transformative tool in the organic repertoire .

The application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction in organic synthesis diverse . da reaction done cum to encompass reactions of many types of sulfur ylides wit electrophiles well beyond the original publications . It done seen use in a number of high @-@ profile total syntheses , as detailed below , and is generally recognized as a powerful transformative tool in the organic repertoire .

= = = Types of ylides = = =

= = = Types of ylides = = =

= = = Types of ylides = = =

Many types of ylides can be prepared with various functional groups both on the anionic carbon center and on the sulfur . The substitution pattern can influence the ease of preparation for the reagents ( typically from the sulfonium halide , e.g. trimethylsulfonium iodide ) and overall reaction rate in various ways . The general format for the reagent is shown on the right .

Many types of ylides can be prepared with various functional groups both on the anionic carbon center and on the sulfur . The substitution pattern can influence the ease of preparation for the reagents ( typically from the sulfonium halide , e.g. trimethylsulfonium iodide ) and overall reaction rate in various ways . The general format for the reagent is shown on the right .

Many types of ylides can be prepared with various functional groups both on da anionic carbon center and on the sulfur . The substitution pattern can influence tdaease of preparation fir the reagents ( typically from thdaulfonium halide , e.g. trimethylsulfonium iodide ) and overall reaction rate in various ways . Thedaneral format for the reagent is shown on the rite .

Use of a sulfoxonium allows more facile preparation of the reagent using weaker bases as compared to sulfonium ylides . ( The difference being that a sulfoxonium contains a doubly bonded oxygen whereas the sulfonium does not . ) The former react slower due to their increased stability . In addition , the dialkylsulfoxide by @-@ products of sulfoxonium reagents are greatly preferred to the significantly more toxic , volatile , and odorous dialkylsulfide by @-@ products from sulfonium reagents .

Use of a sulfoxonium <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>allows</mark></a> more facile preparation of the reagent using weaker bases as compared to sulfonium ylides . ( The difference being that a sulfoxonium <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>contains</mark></a> a doubly bonded oxygen whereas the sulfonium <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>does</mark></a> not . ) The former react slower due to their increased stability . In addition , the dialkylsulfoxide by @-@ products of sulfoxonium reagents are greatly preferred to the significantly more toxic , volatile , and odorous dialkylsulfide by @-@ products from sulfonium reagents .

Use of a sulfoxonium allow more facile preparation of the reagent using weaker bases as compared to sulfonium ylides . ( da difference bein dat a sulfoxonium contain a doubly bonded oxygen whereas the sulfonium do not . ) Tdaformer react slower due to their increased stability . In addition , thdaialkylsulfoxide by @-@ products of sulfoxonium reagents are greatly preferred to the significantly more toxic , volatile , and odorous dialkylsulfide by @-@ products from sulfonium reagents .

The vast majority of reagents are monosubstituted at the ylide carbon ( either R1 or R2 as hydrogen ) . Disubstituted reagents are much rarer but have been described :

The vast majority of reagents are monosubstituted at the ylide carbon ( either R1 or R2 as hydrogen ) . Disubstituted reagents <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>are</mark></a>much rarer but <a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>have</mark></a> been described :

The vast majority of reagents r monosubstituted at the ylide carbon ( either R1 or R2 as hydrogen ) . Disubstituted reagents much rarer but done been described :

If the ylide carbon is substituted with an electron @-@ withdrawing group ( EWG ) , the reagent is referred to as a stabilized ylide . These , similarly to sulfoxonium reagents , react much slower and are typically easier to prepare . These are limited in their usefulness as the reaction can become prohibitively sluggish : examples involving amides are widespread , with many fewer involving esters and virtually no examples involving other EWG 's . For these , the related Darzens reaction is typically more appropriate .

If the ylide carbon is substituted with an electron @-@ withdrawing group ( EWG ) , the reagent is referred to as a stabilized ylide . These , similarly to sulfoxonium reagents , react much slower and <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>are</mark></a>typically easier to prepare . These are limited in their usefulness as the reaction can become prohibitively sluggish : examples involving amides are widespread , with many fewer involving esters and virtually no examples involving other EWG <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'s</mark></a>. For these , the related Darzens reaction <a href='drop_aux' title='3'><mark>is</mark></a>typically more appropriate .

If the ylide carbon is substituted wit an electron @-@ withdrawing group ( EWG ) , da reagent is referred to as a stabilized ylide . These , similarly to sulfoxonium reagents , react much slower and typically easier to prepare . These are limited in their usefulness as the reaction can become prohibitively sluggish : examples involving amides r widespread , with many fewer involving esters and virtually no examples involving other EWG . fir dem , tdarelated Darzens reaction typically more appropriate .

If the ylide carbon is substituted with an aryl or allyl group , the reagent is referred to as a semi @-@ stabilized ylide . These have been developed extensively , second only to the classical methylene reagents ( R1 = R2 = H ) . The substitution pattern on aryl reagents can heavily influence the selectivity of the reaction as per the criteria above .

If the ylide carbon is substituted with an aryl or allyl group , the reagent is referred to as a semi @-@ stabilized ylide . These <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>have</mark></a> been developed extensively , second only to the classical methylene reagents ( R1 = R2 = H ) . The substitution pattern on aryl reagents can heavily influence the selectivity of the reaction as per the criteria above .

If da ylide carbon is substituted wit an aryl or allyl group , tdareagent is referred to as a semi @-@ stabilized ylide . dem done been developed extensively , second only to the classical methylene reagents ( R1 = R2 = H ) . Thdaubstitution pattern on aryl reagents can heavily influence thedalectivity of the daction as per the cdaeria above .

If the ylide carbon is substituted with an alkyl group the reagent is referred to as an unstabilized ylide . The size of the alkyl groups are the major factors in selectivity with these reagents .

If the ylide carbon is substituted with an alkyl group the reagent is referred to as an unstabilized ylide . The size of the alkyl groups <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>are</mark></a>the major factors in selectivity with these reagents .

If da ylide carbon is substituted wit an alkyl group the reagent is referred to as an unstabilized ylide . The size of the alkyl groups the major factors in selectivity wwitthese reagents .

The R @-@ groups on the sulfur , though typically methyls , have been used to synthesize reagents that can perform enantioselective variants of the reaction ( See Variations below ) . The size of the groups can also influence diastereoselectivity in alicyclic substrates .

The R @-@ groups on the sulfur , though typically methyls , <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>have</mark></a> been used to synthesize reagents <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>that</mark></a>can perform enantioselective variants of the reaction ( See Variations below ) . The size of the groups can also influence diastereoselectivity in alicyclic substrates .

Da R @-@ groups on tdasulfur , though typically methyls , done been used to synthesize reagents can perform enantioselective variants of the reaction ( See Variations below ) . The size of the groups can also influence diastereoselectivity in alicyclic substrates .

= = = Synthesis of epoxides = = =

= = = Synthesis of epoxides = = =

= = = Synthesis of epoxides = = =

Reactions of sulfur ylides with ketones and aldehydes to form epoxides are by far the most common application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction . Examples involving complex substrates and ' exotic ' ylides have been reported , as shown below .

Reactions of sulfur ylides with ketones and aldehydes to form epoxides are by far the most common application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction . Examples involving complex substrates and ' exotic ' ylides <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>have</mark></a> been reported , as shown below .

Reactions of sulfur ylides with ketones and aldehydes to form epoxides are by far da most common application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction . Examples involving complex substrates and ' exotic ' ylides done been reported , as shown below .

The reaction has been used in a number of notable total syntheses including the Danishefsky Taxol total synthesis , which produces the chemotherapeutic drug taxol , and the Kuehne Strychnine total synthesis which produces the pesticide strychnine .

The reaction <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>has</mark></a> been used in a number of notable total syntheses including the Danishefsky Taxol total synthesis , which <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>produces</mark></a> the chemotherapeutic drug taxol , and the Kuehne Strychnine total synthesis which <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>produces</mark></a> the pesticide strychnine .

Da reaction done been used in a number of notable total syntheses including tdaDanishefsky Taxol total synthesis , which produce the chemotherapeutic drug taxol , and thdauehne Strychnine total synthesis which produce thedasticide strychnine .

= = = Synthesis of aziridines = = =

= = = Synthesis of aziridines = = =

= = = Synthesis of aziridines = = =

The synthesis of aziridines from imines is another important application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction and provides an alternative to amine transfer from oxaziridines . Though less widely applied , the reaction has a similar substrate scope and functional group tolerance to the carbonyl equivalent . The examples shown below are representative ; in the latter , an aziridine forms in situ and is opened via nucleophilic attack to form the corresponding amine .

The synthesis of aziridines from imines <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>is</mark></a>another important application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction and <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>provides</mark></a> an alternative to amine transfer from oxaziridines . Though less widely applied , the reaction <a href='got' title='3'><mark>has</mark></a> a similar substrate scope and functional group tolerance to the carbonyl equivalent . The examples shown below are representative ; in the latter , an aziridine forms in situ and is opened via nucleophilic attack to form the corresponding amine .

The synthesis of aziridines from imines anotha important application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction and provide an alternative to amine transfer from oxaziridines . Though less widely applied , the reaction got a similar substrate scope and functional group tolerance to da carbonyl equivalent . The examples shown below r representative ; in the latter , an aziridine forms in situ and is opened via nucleophilic attack to form the corresponding amine .

= = = Synthesis of cyclopropanes = = =

= = = Synthesis of cyclopropanes = = =

= = = Synthesis of cyclopropanes = = =

For addition of sulfur ylides to enones , higher 1 @,@ 4 @-@ selectivity is typically obtained with sulfoxonium reagents than with sulfonium reagents . Many electron @-@ withdrawing groups have been shown compatible with the reaction including ketones , esters , and amides ( the example below involves a Weinreb amide ) . With further conjugated systems 1 @,@ 6 @-@ addition tends to predominate over 1 @,@ 4 @-@ addition .

For addition of sulfur ylides to enones , higher 1 @,@ 4 @-@ selectivity is typically obtained with sulfoxonium reagents than with sulfonium reagents . Many electron @-@ withdrawing groups <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>have</mark></a> been shown compatible with the reaction including ketones , esters , and amides ( the example below <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>involves</mark></a> a Weinreb amide ) . With further conjugated systems 1 @,@ 6 @-@ addition <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>tends</mark></a> to predominate over 1 @,@ 4 @-@ addition .

For addition of sulfur ylides to enones , higher 1 @,@ 4 @-@ selectivity is typically obtained witt sulfoxonium reagents than with sulfonium reagents . Many electron @-@ withdrawing groups done been shown compatible with da reaction including ketones , esters , and amides ( the example below involve a Weinreb amide ) . With further conjugated systems 1 @,@ 6 @-@ addition tend to predominate ova 1 @,@ 4 @-@ addition .