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Introduction. Current cognitive approaches highlight the importance of metacognition. "Learning how to learn" facilitates awareness of one's own learning processes, how they work, how to optimize their functioning, control of reading process, and so on. Acquisition of these skills is one of the new educational requirements for students, as is recorded in many educational reform plans in Europe, North America and Latin America. Method. The test includes 56 items that represent "reading situations"; each situation offers three alternatives from which the reader must make a choice. The option selected reveals how readers "perceive themselves" and "how they believe they would act" if faced with these dilemmas. Each option expresses a different degree of reading awareness. The test has been validated with Spanish and Argentine samples, making up a total sample of 684 students from ages 8 to 13 (375 Spaniards and 309 Argentines). Results. Results indicate that the ESCOLA instrument can quickly and accurately gather information about a student's level of reading awareness. Younger students have a lower level of reading awareness than the older students. Conclusions. In addition to identifying students with low reading awareness, results obtained from ESCOLA make it possible to design specific intervention programs for metacognitive strategies in the area of reading. Currently there is no existing product with these features. Modern psychologists and educators consider that metacognitive training is a crucial aspect of developing reflection, autonomous learning and construction of knowledge on the part of teachers and students.

Courtship in ospreys centers on food and nest sites. In migratory osprey populations, males and females arrive at the nest site separately, the male often arriving several days earlier than the female. Male ospreys sometimes perform a conspicuous aerial display near the nest site. This display usually occurs during early courtship, and may serve to attract potential mates or to threaten an intruder. Both sexes collect materials for the nest, but the female does most of the arranging of materials at the nest. Canon 50D, EF70-300mm f/4-5.6 IS USM

Internally displaced persons (IDPs) are people forced to flee their homes but who, unlike refugees, remain within their country's borders. At the end of 2006 estimates of the world IDP population rose to 24.5 million in some 52 countries. The region with the largest IDP population is Africa with some 11.8 million in 21 countries. There is no legal definition as there is for a refugee . However, a United Nations report, Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement uses the definition: internally displaced persons are persons or groups of persons who have been forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or places of habitual residence, in particular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations of human rights or natural or human-made disasters, and who have not crossed an internationally recognized State border. While the above stresses two important elements of internal displacement (coercion and the domestic/internal movement) it is important to note that rather than a strict definition, the Guiding Principles offer “a descriptive identification of the category of persons whose needs are the concern of the Guiding Principles”. In this way, the document “intentionally steers toward flexibility rather than legal precision” as the words “in particular” indicate that the list of reasons for displacement is not exhaustive. However, as Erin Mooney has pointed out, “global statistics on internal displacement generally count only IDPs uprooted by conflict and human rights violations. Moreover, a recent study has recommended that the IDP concept should be defined even more narrowly, to be limited to persons displaced by violence.” Thus, despite the non-exhaustive reasons of internal displacement, many consider IDPs as those who would be defined as refugees if they were to cross an international border hence the term refugees in all but name is often applied to IDPs. It is very difficult to get accurate figures for IDPs because populations are constantly fluctuating: some IDPs may be returning home while others are fleeing, others may periodically return to IDP camps to take advantage of humanitarian aid. While the case of IDPs in large camps such as those in Darfur, western Sudan, are relatively well-reported, it is very difficult to assess those IDPs who flee to larger towns and cities. It is necessary in many instances to supplement official figures with additional information obtained from operational humanitarian organizations on the ground. Thus, the 24.5 million figure must be treated as an estimate. Additionally, most official figures only include those displaced by conflict or natural disasters. Development-induced IDPs often are not included in assessments. The largest IDP populations can be found in Colombia , the DRC , and Uganda , each with IDP populations of over one million. An updated country by country breakdown can be found at: IDMC Global Statistics It has been estimated that between 70 and 80% of all IDPs are women and children. Countries with significant IDP populations - Azerbaijan has 800,000 Internally displaced people due to the occupation of Nagorno-Karabagh, Agdam and surrounding territories by Armenian forces since the early 1990s. - Burundi due to fighting between government and Hutu rebel groups. - Burma (Myanmar) due to decades of a long civil war and government repression of ethnic minorities as well as the May cyclone. - Chad due to proximity to Darfur and civil war in eastern Chad. - Colombia due to the war between the government, FARC, the AUC and other armed groups. According to the UNHCR, the number of IDPs is near the million people (2002). - Cyprus due to the intercommunal troubles of 1964 and the 1974 Turkish invasion and aftermath. - The Democratic Republic of Congo due to the Second Congo War. - Ethiopia due to poverty, natural disasters and conflict in the Somali Region - Georgia due to the ethnic Georgian population who fled Abkhazia following the civil war of 1991-93. - Iraq due to forced displacement during Saddam Hussein's regime, and fighting between the Multi-National Force and Iraqi insurgent groups. - Indian-occupied Kashmir due to insurgency - India - 50 million people were internally displaced since 1950 due to haphazard industrial projects. - Kenya - Due to violence that rocked the the country in 2008 after the elections of 2007 - Israel-150,000-420,000 Internally Displaced Palestinians and Bedouins, most of whom are Arab citizens of Israel - Serbia due to various conflicts across the Former Yugoslavia - Somalia due to the Somali Civil War. - Sri Lanka due to the civil war between the Government of Sri Lanka and the LTTE. - Sudan due to civil conflicts in the South and Darfur in the west - Uganda due to the insurgency of the Lord's Resistance Army - West Bank and Gaza due to the Arab-Israeli conflicts starting in 1948. Protection and Assistance The problem of protecting and assisting IDPs is not a new issue. In international law it is the responsibility of the government concerned to provide assistance and protection for the IDPs in their country. However, as many of the displaced are a result of civil conflict and violence or where the authority of the central state is in doubt, there is no local authority willing to provide assistance and protection. It has been estimated that some 5 million IDPs in 11 countries are "without any significant humanitarian assistance from their governments. Unlike the case of refugees, there is no international humanitarian institution which has the overall responsibility of protecting and assisting the refugees as well as the internally displaced.. A number of organizations have stepped into the breach in specific circumstances. was mandated by General Assembly Resolution 428 (V) of 14 December 1950 to "lead and coordinate international action for the worldwide protection of refugees and the resolution of refugee problems....guided by the 1951 United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol." The UNHCR has traditionally argued that it does not have a "general competence for IDPs" even though at least since 1972 it had relief and rehabillatation programs for those displaced within a country. However, in cases where there is a specific request by the UN Secretary General and with the consent of the State concerned it has been willing to respond by assisting IDPs in a given instance. In 2005 it was helping some 5.6 million IDPs (out of over 25 million), but only about 1.1 million in Africa. In 2005, the UNHCR signed an agreement with other humanitarian agencies. "Under this agreement, UNHCR will assume the lead responsibility for protection, emergency shelter and camp management for internally displaced people." has a mandate of ensuring the application of International Humanitarian Law as it affects civilians in the midst of armed conflict. They have traditionally not distinguished between civilians who are internally displaced and those who remain in their homes. In a 2006 policy statement, the ICRC stated: The ICRC's overall objective is to alleviate the suffering of people who are caught up in armed conflict and other situations of violence. To that end, the organization strives to provide effective and efficient assistance and protection for such persons, be they displaced or not, while taking into consideration the action of other humanitarian organizations. On the basis of its long experience in different parts of the world, the ICRC has defined an operational approach towards the civilian population as a whole that is designed to meet the most urgent humanitarian needs of both displaced persons and local and host communities. However, its Director of Operations has earlier recognized that IDPs "deprived of shelter and their habitual sources of food, water, medicine and money, they have different, and often more urgent, material needs. The current system which is often referred to as the collaborative approach, shares the responsibility for protecting and assisting IDPs among the UN agencies, i.e. UNHCR, Unicef , Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights , the inter-governmental organization IOM , the ICRC and International NGOs . Coordination is the responsibility of the UN Emergency Relief Coordinator and the Humanitarian Coordinator in the country concerned. They are assisted by the Inter-Agency Displacement Division which was created in 2004 and is housed in the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs(OCHA The original collaborative approach has come under increasing criticism. Roberta Cohen reports: Nearly every UN and independent evaluation has found the collaborative approach deficient when it comes to IDPs. To begin with, there is no real locus of responsibility in the field for assisting and protecting...There is also no predictability of action, as the different agencies are free to pick and choose the situations in which they wish to become involved on the basis of their respective mandates, resources, and interests. In every new emergency, no one knows for sure which agency or combination thereof will become involved. In 2005 an attempt to fix the problem by giving sectoral responsibilities to different humanitarian agencies, most notably with the UNHCR taking on the responsibility for protection and the management of camps and emergency shelters. The Cluster Approach As some have pointed out, one of the most flagrant problems of the collaborative response was that “abnegation of responsibility is possible because there is no formal responsibility apportioned to agencies under the Collaborative Response, and thus no accountability when agencies renege on their promises.” The cluster approach – the successor to the collaborative approach - tried to do away with this problem by designating individual agencies as ‘sector leaders’ to coordinate operations in specific areas to try to plug those newly identified gaps. The cluster approach was conceived amid concerns about coordination and capacity that arose from the weak operational response to the crisis in Darfur in 2004 and 2005, and the critical findings of the Humanitarian Response Review (HRR) commissioned by the then ERC, Jan Egeland. Egeland called for strengthening leadership of the sectors, and introduced the concept of "clusters” at different levels (headquarters, regional, country and operational)’. The cluster approach operates on two levels: the global and local. At the global level, the approach is meant to build up capacity in eleven key ‘gap’ areas by developing better surge capacity, ensuring consistent access to appropriately trained technical expertise and enhanced material stockpiles, and securing the increased engagement of all relevant humanitarian partners. At the field level, the cluster approach strengthens the coordination and response capacity by mobilizing clusters of humanitarian agencies (UN/Red Cross-Red Crescent/IOs/NGOs) to respond in particular sectors or areas of activity, each cluster having a clearly designated and accountable lead, as agreed by the HC and the Country Team. Designated lead agencies at the global level both participate directly in operations, but also coordinate with and oversee other organizations within their specific spheres, reporting the results up through a designated chain of command to the ERC at the summit. However, lead agencies are responsible as ‘providers of last resort’, which represents the commitment of cluster leads to do their utmost to ensure an adequate and appropriate response in their respective areas of responsibility. The cluster approach was part of a package of reforms accepted by the IASC in December 2005 and subsequently applied in eight chronic humanitarian crises and six sudden-onset emergencies. However, the reform was originally rolled out and evaluated in four countries: DRC, Liberia, Somalia and Uganda. The clusters were originally concentrated on nine areas: 1) Logistics (WFP) 2)emergency telecommunications (OCHA-Process owner, UNICEF Common Data Services, WFP – Common Security Telecommunications Services) 3)camp coordination and management (UNHCR for conflict-generated IDPs and IOM for natural disaster-generated IDPs) 4) emergency shelter (IFRC) 6) nutrition (UNICEF) 7) water, sanitation, and hygiene (UNICEF) 8) early recovery (UNDP); and 9) protection (UNHCR for conflict-generated IDPs, UNHCR, UNICEF, and OHCHR for natural disaster generated IDPs. IASC Principles deemed it unnecessary to apply the cluster approach to four sectors where no significant gaps were detected: a) food, led by WFP; b) refugees, led by UNHCR; c) education, led by UNICEF; and d) agriculture, led by FAO. The original nine clusters were later expanded to include agriculture and education. Unlike the case of refugees, there is no international treaty which applies specfically to IDPs. Recognizing the gap, the UN Secretary-General, Boutros-Ghali appointed Francis Deng in 1992 as his representative for internally displaced persons. Besides acting as an advocate for IDPs, Deng set out in 1994, at the request of the UN General Assembly to examine and bring together existing international laws which relating to the protection of IDPs. The result of this work was the document, Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement The Guiding Principles lay out the responsibilities of states before displacement – that is, to prevent displacement – during and after displacement. They have been endorsed by the UN General Assembly, the African Commission on Human and People's Rights (ACHPR) and by the signatories to the 2006 Pact on Security, Stability and Development in the Great Lakes Region, which include Sudan, DRC and Uganda. The Guiding Principles, however, are non-binding. As Bahame Tom Nyanduga, Special Rapporteur on Refugees, IDPs and Asylum Seekers in Africa for the ACHPR has stated, “the absence of a binding international legal regime on internal displacement is a grave lacuna in international law." In September 2004 the Secretary-General of the UN showed the continuing concern of his office by appointing Walter Kälin as his Representative on the Human Rights of Internally Displaced Persons. Part of his mandate includes the promoting of the Guiding Principles. - The Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Refugees by Numbers. - Ilaria Bottigliero, "Displaced Persons Caught between War and Peace in Asia", 2 ISIL Yearbook of International Humanitarian and Refugee Law (2002), pp. 117-133. - War and displacement, ICRC - Refugees and internally displaced persons and international humanitarian law, ICRC - Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC), Norwegian Refugee Council - The Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement - Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, Inter-Agency Internal DisplacementDivision - IDP Action - Website of the UN Representative of the Secretary-General on internally displaced persons - Brookings-Bern Project on Internal Displacement - Forced Migration Online provides access to information resources, including a searchable digital library consisting of full-text documents - IDP Voices IDPs tell their life stories – in their own words - Forced Migration Review magazine with regular IDP news - World 'forgets' internal refugees, BBC News Online, 5 November 2005 - Photojournalist's Account - Images of displacement in Sudan - Refugee Law Project, Ugandan organisation working with IDPs - Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children - "New Rights, Old Wrongs: Colombia has eased some abortion restrictions—but displaced women still suffer" Winter 2007 article in Ms. magazine about how the conflict in Colombia is affecting the health and rights of IDP women - "Visiting the IDP camps in Northern Uganda" : Malcolm Trevena's account of visiting the IDP camps in Kitgum, Northern Uganda

In use, the supply reel or feed reel containing the tape is mounted on a spindle; the end of the tape is manually pulled out of the reel, threaded through mechanical guides and a tape head assembly, and attached by friction to the hub of a second, initially empty takeup reel. The arrangement is similar to that used for motion picture film. The reel-to-reel format was used in the very earliest tape recorders, including the pioneering German Magnetophons of the 1930s. Originally, this format had no name, since all forms of magnetic tape recorders used it. The name arose only with the need to distinguish it from the several kinds of tape cartridges or cassettes which were introduced in the early 1960s. Thus, the term "reel-to-reel" is an example of a retronym. Reel-to-reel tape was also used in early tape drives for data storage on mainframe computers, video tape machines, and later for high quality analog and digital audio recorders in the 1980s and 1990s, before hard disk recording effectively eliminated the need for reel-to-reel technology. The format was commercially developed in the late 1940s by American audio engineer Jack Mullin with assistance from Bing Crosby. Mullin had been a member of the U.S. Army Signal Corps during World War II. His unit was assigned to investigate German radio and electronics activities and in the course of his duties he acquired two Magnetophon recorders and fifty reels of I.G. Farben recording tape from a German radio station at Bad Nauheim, near Frankfurt. He had these shipped home and over the next two years he worked to develop the machines for commercial use, hoping to interest the Hollywood film studios in using magnetic tape for movie soundtrack recording. Mullin gave a demonstration of his recorders at MGM Studios in Hollywood in 1947, which led to a meeting with Bing Crosby. Crosby immediately saw the potential of Mullin's recorders to pre-record his radio shows; he invested $50,000 in a local electronics company, Ampex, to enable Mullin to develop a commercial production model of the tape recorder. Using Mullin's tape recorders and with Mullin as his chief engineer, Crosby became the first American performer to master commercial recordings on tape and the first to regularly pre-record his radio programs on tape. Ampex and Mullin subsequently developed commercial stereo and multitrack audio recorders, based on the system invented by musician Les Paul, who had been given one of the first Ampex Model 200 tape decks by Crosby in 1948. Ampex went on to develop the first practical videotape recorders in the early 1950s to pre-record Crosby's TV shows. Inexpensive reel-to-reel tape recorders were widely used for voice recording in the home and in schools before the Philips "compact cassette", introduced in 1963, took over. Cassettes quickly displaced reel-to-reel recorders for consumer use. However, the narrow tracks and slow recording speeds used in cassettes compromised fidelity. Following the example set by Bing Crosby, high-speed reel-to-reel tape recorders rapidly became the main recording format used by audiophiles and professional recording studios until the late 1980s when digital audio recording techniques began to allow the use of other types of media (such as DAT cassettes and hard disks). Even today, many artists of all genres prefer analog tape's "musical", "natural" and especially "warm" sound. Due to harmonic distortion, bass can thicken up, creating the illusion of a fuller-sounding mix. In addition, high end can be slightly compressed, which is more natural to the human ear. It is common for artists to record to digital and re-record the tracks to analog reels for this effect of "natural" sound. In addition to all of these attributes of tape, tape saturation is a unique form of distortion that many rock and blues artists find very pleasing. Euphonic distortion and noise levels aside, high-quality analog tape currently outstrips the transparency of all but the best digital recording/playback systems: digital systems can suffer from (among other problems) clock jitter, inferior analog circuitry, inferior digital filter design, improper wordlength conversion, and/or lack of correct dithering. Dramatic improvements in the average quality of digital hardware design are narrowing the gap, though, and might soon eliminate the quality distinction altogether. The great advantage of tape for studios was twofold – it allowed a performance to be recorded without the 30 minute time limitation of a phonograph disc, and it permitted a recorded performance to be edited. For the first time, audio could be manipulated as a physical entity. Tape editing is performed simply by cutting the tape at the required point, and rejoining it to another section of tape using adhesive tape, or sometimes glue. This is called a splice. The splicing tape has to be very thin to avoid impeding the tape's motion, and the adhesive is carefully formulated to avoid leaving a sticky residue on the tape or deck. Usually, the cut is made at an angle across the tape so that any "click" or other noise introduced by the cut is spread across a few milliseconds of the recording. The use of reels to supply and collect the tape also made it very easy for editors to manually move the tape back and forth across the heads to find the exact point they wished to edit. Tape to be spliced was clamped in a special splicing block attached to the deck near the heads to hold the tape accurately while the edit was made. A skilled editor could make these edits very rapidly and accurately. A side effect of cutting the tape at an angle is that on stereo tapes the edit occurs on one channel a split-second before the other. The performance of tape recording is greatly affected by the width of the tracks used to record a signal, and the speed of the tape. The wider and faster the better, but of course this uses more tape. These factors lead directly to improved frequency response, signal-to-noise ratio, and high-frequency distortion figures. Tape can accommodate multiple parallel tracks, allowing not just stereo recordings, but multi-track recordings too. This gives the producer of the final edit much greater flexibility, allowing a performance to be remixed long after the performance was originally recorded. This innovation was a great driving force behind the explosion of popular music in the late 1950s and 1960s. The first multi-tracking recorders had four tracks, then eight, then sixteen, twenty-four, and so on. It was also discovered that new effects were possible using multi-tracking recorders, such as phasing and flanging, delays and echo, so these innovations appeared on pop recordings shortly after multi-tracking recorders were introduced. For home use, simpler reel-to-reel recorders were available, and a number of track formats and tape speeds were standardised to permit interoperability and prerecorded music. [The first prerecorded Reel To Reel Tapes were introduced by RCA Victor Record Co. in 1954.] Reel to reel was still popular through to the end of the 1970s, despite the ubiquitous cassette, mostly because of the superior quality of open reel recordings. Audiophiles are willing to accept the relative fiddliness of open reel tape to gain better quality reproduction. Reel-to-reel tape editing also gained cult-status when many used this technique on hit-singles in the 1980s. When Ampex broke apart in the 1990s, Quantegy Inc. was formed, later becoming Quantegy Recording Solutions in 2004. Quantegy (and formerly Ampex) led the field in reel-to-reel technology, and Quantegy was the only company left making reel-to-reel tape in the world for a period of two years. In 2006 Recorded Media Group International RMGI in the Netherlands, began manufacturing EMTEC specification tape in Oosterhout and is now the largest open reel tape manufacturer in the world. ATR Magnetics of York, PA, longtime service and modification shop for multitrack and master recorders, began manufacturing analog multitrack tape, and in November 2006 began beta testing a new formula.

The Bronze Age settlers left evidence of several small oval houses with thick stone walls and various artefacts including a decorated bone object. The Iron Age ruins include several different types of structure including a broch and a defensive wall around the site. The Pictish period provides various works of art including a painted pebble and a symbol stone. The Viking-age ruins make up the largest such site visible anywhere in Britain and include a longhouse; excavations provided numerous tools and a detailed insight into life in Shetland at this time. The most visible structures on the site are the walls of the Scottish period fortified manor house, which inspired the name "Jarlshof" that first appears in an 1821 novel by Walter Scott. The name Jarlshof meaning "Earl's Mansion" is a coinage of Walter Scott, who visited the site in 1814 and based it on the Scottish period name of "the laird's house". It was more than a century later before excavations proved that there had actually been Viking Age settlement on the site, although there is no evidence that a Norse jarl ever lived there. The remains at Jarlshof represent thousands of years of human occupation, and can be seen as a microcosm of Shetland history. Other than the Old House of Sumburgh (see below) the site remained largely hidden until a storm in the late 1800s washed away part of the shore, and revealed evidence of these ancient buildings. Formal archaeological excavation started in 1925 and Jarlshof was one of two broch sites which were the first to be excavated using modern scientific techniques between 1949–52. Although the deposits within the broch had been badly disturbed by earlier attempts, this work revealed a complex sequence of construction from different periods. Buildings on the site include the remains of a Bronze Age smithy, an Iron Age broch and roundhouses, a complex of Pictish wheelhouses, a Viking longhouse, and a mediaeval farmhouse. No further excavations have been undertaken since the early 1950s and no radiocarbon dating has been attempted. There is also evidence of a cattle stall with a waste channel leading to a tank in a courtyard and a whale vertebra set into a wall that may have been used as a tethering post. Broken moulds from the smithy indicate that axes, knives, swords and pins were produced there and a bronze dagger was found at the site. The objects indicate the smith was trained in the Irish style of working. Bone pins and awls also survive and an extraordinary bone "plaque". This latter object is long, has three holes bored into the ends and is decorated with various linear patterns. Its function is unknown. The Bronze Age structures are overlain with sterile sand, suggesting a break in occupation prior to the next phase of building. The inhabitants of the Iron Age built part of their settlement on top of the Bronze Age one. The structures include a complex roundhouse, replaced at a later stage by an "aisled roundhouse". Neither have been dated although artefacts found at this level include querns that suggest the latter may have been constructed prior to 200 BC. It is in this period that the broch was built. Part of the structure has been lost to coastal erosion, and modern sea defences have been erected. The tower was probably originally 13 metres (40 feet) or more high and as with many broch sites the position would have commanded fine views of the surrounding seas. During this period archaeological sites in Shetland usually exhibit defensive fortifications of some kind, and Jarlshof is no exception. An outer defensive wall associated with the broch contained a substantial (although rather poorly constructed) house and byre at one time. This wall was utilised at a later stage to build a large roundhouse in the lee of the broch. The wheelhouse complex came later, and post-dates the 1st century BC–2nd century AD profusion of these structures in the Western Isles by several centuries. Its construction used the stones of the broch itself and two of the four main structures are amongst the best examples of their type. Three successive periods of construction were undertaken, and the best preserved retains a significant proportion of the stone part of its roof and displays a series of corbelled bays. One structure was built as a circular building and the radial piers were inserted afterwards. This may have been an earlier, less stable design. In one case the piers are alternately rectangular and V-shaped, in another all are to the latter design, again suggesting a developing style. Unlike many wheelhouses elsewhere in Scotland that are built into the earth, the Jarlshof structures seem to have been built from ground level upwards. Amongst the artefacts dated to the later Pictish period is a bone pin with a rounded head probably used as a hair or dress pin. It has been dated to AD 500–800. "Painted pebbles" are associated with more than two dozen Pictish sites and one such stone was unearthed at Jarlshof. This rectangular slate fragment had a cross painted onto it and two small "S" shaped scrolls suggesting an association with Christian beliefs. One of only two Pictish symbol stones found in Shetland was found here, exhibiting a double disc shape and a Z-rod. Pottery finds include buff ware from the period after AD 10, including bowls with flat rims. The quality of the pots appears to decline in the period prior to Viking settlement, becoming thinner-walled and generally more crude in design. There are seven Norse-era houses at Jarlshof, although no more than two were in use at one time. There were several outbuildings, including a small square structure with a large hearth that may have been a sauna and which was later replaced by two separate outhouses. The largest house from this period is a by rectangular chamber with opposing doors, timber benches along the long sides, and a hearth in the centre. Unlike the earlier structures that had conical thatched roofs, those of the Norse buildings had ridged timber frames. At a later period this large structure was also used to shelter domesticated animals (at which stage it had a paved centre and animal stalls along the sides) and later still may have become an outbuilding. The door to the byre puzzled archaeologists as it appeared to be too narrow to admit a cow. The mystery was solved when a byre door was excavated at Easting on Unst which had a narrow base similar to Jarlshof's but which widened out to become cow-shaped. Another outbuilding has been interpreted as a corn-drying room. Later houses were built at 90 degrees to the longhouse and these are of a type and size that is similar to croft houses that were common in Shetland until the mid-nineteenth century. One hundred and fifty loom weights were found suggesting wool was an important aspect of Norse-era life. Line weights from the later Norse period and associated evidence from elsewhere in Shetland indicates that deep-water fishing was also a regular undertaking. The Jarlshof site also produced ample evidence of the use of iron tools such as shears, scissors, sickles, and a fish-hook and knife. The ore was locally obtained bog iron. Hazel, birch and willow grew in the area at this time but the pine and oak must have been driftwood or imported timber. Drawings scratched on slate have been found of dragon-prowed ships, portraits of an old man and of a young, bearded man and of a four-legged animal. The drawings were found in the Viking levels but are Pictish in style and may either pre-date the arrival of the Norse or indicate a continuity of art and culture from one period to the next. Similarly, although the rectangular shape of the Norse-era buildings are quite unlike the earlier rounded Pictish style, the basement courses of the two periods are constructed in the same way. The Viking-style loom weights, spindle whorls and other vessels were found with stone discs and other objects of a Pictish design. A bronze-gilt harness mounting made in Ireland in the 8th or 9th centuries has also been found and many items from this period are in the Shetland Museum. Jarlshof contains the most extensive remains of a Viking site visible anywhere in Britain. The castle, now known as Jarlshof House, was built during the Scottish period. Originally a medieval stone farmhouse, it was converted into a fortified house during the 16th century, by Robert Stewart, 1st Earl of Orkney after Scotland annexed Shetland. The building was named "New Hall" at this time. It was further modernised in the early 17th century by his son Patrick Stewart, 2nd Earl of Orkney who re-named it the "Old House of Sumburgh" but it was abandoned in the late 17th century. The structure was also formerly known as "The laird's house" and "Stewart Mansion".

TOKYO -- Japan plans smart meters in every residence and factory by the early 2020s and 5.3 million fuel cells in homes by 2030 to tackle climate change, according to a report to be submitted to the United Nations. The country will also promote renewable energy as much as possible over the next three years, the Japanese government said in the biennial report, which developed countries are asked to submit by Jan. 1. Nuclear reactors will be restarted after safety is confirmed and thermal power generation efficiency will be enhanced, the government said. The submission follows Japan’s setting of a new target for cuts in greenhouse gas emissions in November. The goal was criticized by environmental groups as being weaker than the previous plan. The country is debating its energy policies following the 2011 Fukushima nuclear accident. The Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry submitted a draft of a new set of policies earlier this month and is seeking comments from the public. Panasonic Corp. and Chofu Seisakusho Co. make residential fuel cells. The devices use the chemical energy of hydrogen to cleanly and efficiently produce electricity with water and heat as byproducts, the U.S. Department of Energy said on its website. Fuel cells release no greenhouse gases and air pollutants at the point of operation. Copyright 2013 Bloomberg Lead image: Smart meter via Shutterstock

The grass isn't greener If you've been following permaculture in Calgary, then you've probably been hearing about Permablitz – the transformation of lawns into productive, abundant landscapes. You may be thinking, why food? Why not lawns? Obviously, the bright green, manicured lawn is a human invention - Mother Nature certainly doesn't use a lawnmower. So where did the grass lawn come from? Why do we work so hard to keep it green? And why, after all this time, are we giving it up to plant other stuff? Well, here's a little story about the trouble with lawns, how the lawn came to be, and why the Permablitz movement is outgrowing the out-moded lawn. The History of the Lawn The front lawn is an icon. It is a monoculture, a form that does not exist anywhere in nature. The lawn was developed in Britain in the 1800's, and became a statement of the upper class, indicating one had enough wealth to grow for beauty rather than food production. When wealthy Americans travelled to Europe in the early 1900's they saw these vast, “flawless” green areas and wanted to recreate them back home. Replicating the lawn in North America turned out to be more daunting than expected, as there were no native grasses that would fit the bill. The U.S. Golf Association then set out to find grasses in Africa and Europe that would thrive here. Shortly after they established their desired grass mix, the lawnmover was invented, followed by the invention of the combustion engine. It became a social requirement to grow a monoculture instead of food on one's property for the first time in history when the American Garden Club stepped in and stated: “it is a citizen’s civic duty to grow a green front lawn”. Fast forward to the present, and North Americans currently spend over $30 billion1 a year maintaining a false “civic duty,”2 while much of our food is imported from out-of-country, at our expense. Why Lawns are so Draining... The lawn represents one of the largest misallocations of resources on the planet. In order to maintain the ideal lawn, we fight against nature, attempting to hold a completely alien landscape in stasis through the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and a great deal of work. Natural ecologies do not remain static. In fact, the only thing constant about an ecosystem is that it's constantly changing. This change is known as succession, the process whereby bare landscapes become stable, thriving forests over time. To get an idea of the resources we drain in order to maintain our lawns, consider this: In the United States, there are over 40 million acres of land planted to lawn, a figure approaching the 53 million acres planted last year to wheat. Since mowing one acre uses nearly 4 litres of fuel, the fuel consumption for cutting grass is astronomical. To mow all of this lawn just once uses over 160,000,000 million litres of fuel. This is enough fuel to drive a hummer 884,466,556 km or 22,070 times around the earth. What a complete waste of fossil energy! It is estimated that close to 3 million tons3 of fossil-fuel-based fertilizer is used per year in order to keep our lawns green, and another 30 thousand tons of pesticides and herbicides are used to keep them in a monoculture state. Because these chemicals are water soluble, they end up in our rivers, lakes, streams and eventually our oceans. They end up in the water we use to irrigate farm crops, in the rivers and oceans where we catch fish, and ultimately back on our dinner plates. It is hardly surprising then, that our society's increasing use of toxic chemicals coincides so closely with our increasing rates of disease. Finally, it's estimated that the lawn consumes between 30% and 60%4 of the North American water budget. In a world where water scarcity threatens our future, what are we doing pouring 30-60% of it on the grass just to make it greener? What About Food? The idea of swapping lawns for gardens becomes even more attractive when you look at our current food system. On average, for every calorie of food we consume from the grocery store, 10 equivalent calories were used in the planting, fertilization, pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, harvesting, processing, refrigeration, transport, and retail processes. By replacing the lawn with a productive food system (like a food forest, annual vegetable garden, chicken coup or greenhouse) we immediately solve two problems: (i) eliminating the energy and toxins used to maintain the lawn and (ii) reducing the immense energy used to deliver food from the farms to our mouths. Nevermind the community and social benefits of brining food production back into our neighbourhoods. Since growing a garden in our front yard we have met and connected with our neighbours more then ever before - whether we are hanging out in the front picking strawberries and raspberries, delivering extra produce next-door or answering questions for curious passerbys. This makes urban food production one of the most radical things we can do as citizens to reduce our negative impact on the environment and improve our communities. While I was writing this article, a friend of mine told me about a heated debate he'd had with someone with a master’s degree in urban food sheds. My friend was arguing that a city could supply the majority of the food needed to feed its citizens with the sheer amount of space wasted for lawns, while the master's graduate argued that it wasn't possible. I did the math, and this is what I found: From above, there is a little over 40 million acres of lawn in the U.S. (per capita, Canada is on par), enough space to produce 76,160,000,000 kg of wheat, or 2.597 x 10^4 calories a year. This is enough food to feed 355 million people a 2000 calorie/day diet for one year. In short, on lawns alone, there's enough space to grow food for the entire population of the United States. Of course, if we were using diverse permaculture systems instead of a relatively unproductive monocrop wheat system, we could produce even more efficiently. Lastly, an intensively managed vegetable garden can yield about $1/square foot in the value of its produce and this is equivalent to $43,560/acre. A conventional farm is lucky to make $300/acre, which is 143 times less productive than intensive vegetable gardening. Productivity through patterned design So how do we turn our resource-draining lawns into healthy, food-producing ecosystems? Well, if left up to her own devices, Mother Nature would sooner or later reclaim your lawn on her own. And so, in permaculture design, we look to nature for inspiration - after all, she has 3.8 billion years of experience. When we bring this inspiration into our designs, we get resilience, soil creation, animal habitat, clean water, climate stabilization, economic stability, healthy communities and abundance. Healthy ecologies do not have little garden gnomes running around spraying chemicals, pulling weeds and complaining about pests - they self-regulate. We can design our yards to do the same thing. By observing interactions in nature and facilitating them, we help create systems where different elements work together. Using examples from nature, we can design our houses and gardens back into nature's network of self-regulating, self-regenerating systems. Just by understanding weather patterns and the physical properties of flowing water, we can effectively capture and store water for drinking, food production, and sanitation, without ever draining our vital city watershed. We can plant mutually beneficial plants that control each other's pests, balance each other's soil nutrients, and, of course, feed ourselves. By transforming your lawn using permaculture design, you can eliminate the huge drainage of time, resources and energy it takes to maintain it. You can produce much of your own food for very little work, eliminating the social and environmental implications of its delivery, and save money. What we have is a reinvention of that old phrase: the grass isn't greener on the other side of the fence. For more information about Permablitzes, click here, connect with the Calgary Permablitz Network and stay tuned to our website for upcoming opportunities! What do you think? Leave a comment below. 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Spin Polarisation (QM) Net polarisation with the field (the degree of polarisation is greatly exaggerated). CORRECT. Net spin polarisation can occur in any direction in 3D space, and results in a net magnetisation in the sample. Instead of describing the magnetic direction of individual spins we describe the overall "polarisation" of a sample. This may seem like the same thing, but really we are trying to describe (or depict in a diagram) something which is only properly described by QM mathematics. Remember, in the QM perspective, spins do not occupy specific energy levels, or "point" in particular directions; depiction of such things in a QM diagram has a specific interpretation, which is that partial alignment of spins equates only to a spin polarisation density, not individual spin directions. When spin polarisation occurs with or against the external magnetic field direction (i.e. there is a longitudinal magnetisation Mz), it produces an observable population difference between the two Zeeman energy eigenstates. When spin polarisation occurs perpendicular to the external magentic field direction (i.e. there is a transverse magnetisation Mx and/or My), it is as a result of quantum coherences between the two Zeeman energy eigenstates. The introduction of energy into the system (e.g. an RF excitation pulse) causes a change in the net polarisation of the spins. A change in the Mz component of the net magnetisation vector is a change in the observable population difference between the two Zeeman energy eigenstates. Formation of Mx and My components of the net magnetisation vector are due to quantum coherences between the two Zeeman energy eigenstates. INCORRECT. The spin up and spin down spin states are sometimes compared with the Zeeman energy levels. But this is a poor comparison, and may lead to confusion about which description is classical mechanics (CM) and which is quantum mechanics (QM). Even in the classical description, spins are not restricted to align with (parallel or spin up) or against (antiparallel or spin down) the external magnetic field direction. However, a simplification of the classical description of MRI does describe these spin states, assigning equivalent numbers of spins to the two states to produce the same net magnetisation vector. So this simplification can be helpful. It is probably clearer to consider the Zeeman energy levels only as part of the QM description of MRI. They are named eigenstates for a reason: these energy levels only describe the states which are observable. Spins are not restricted to either state but exist in linear combinations of both states. This is certainly not a CM concept.

Children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder navigate their world in ways that—from the outside—might appear aloof and uncaring. “That’s the external impression of someone who doesn’t make eye contact or reciprocate emotionally,” says Dr. Laurence Sugarman, director of RIT’s Center for Applied Psychophysiology and Self-Regulation in the Institute for Health Sciences and Technology. “That’s not what is going on inside.” Sugarman has developed a model for treating autism based on the premise that people can change their own psychophysiology and behavior. His treatment method teaches children to consciously self-regulate their autonomic nervous system—the fight or flight mechanism—that, for them, is stuck on red alert. His approach integrates hypnosis and autonomic biofeedback. No one knows for sure what causes autism, says Sugarman, a pediatrician at Easter Seals Diagnostic and Treatment Center who has worked with autistic children for more than 20 years. He thinks traditional therapies that focus mainly on changing symptoms—such as impaired social and communication skills, and restrictive and repetitive interests and behaviors—overlook what the symptoms represent—an instinctive effort to self- regulate inner turmoil. “Teaching kids with autism spectrum disorder skills in turning down their fight or flight response and turning up the opposite may fundamentally allow them to be more socially engaging, decrease some of the need for cognitive rigidity and repetitive behaviors and, more importantly, allow them to feel better,” he says. Sensors measure respiration, perspiration, heart rate and variation, and blood flow circulation. Patients learn to read the signals and visual representations that depict how they feel. The visual translation teaches them to understand their own internal wiring and techniques for controlling their psychophysiology. Hypnosis reinforces the biofeedback techniques and helps the patients incorporate the feedback into their daily lives. “My notion of the mission of the Center for Applied Psychophysiology and Self-Regulation is to drive innovation in health care by helping people help themselves,” Sugarman says. “We want to be able to say that we can help young people with autism spectrum disorder function in the less accommodating world because they feel good about what they can do for themselves.” Sugarman and his team—Brian Garrison, research coordinator; Kelsey Williford, fourth-year biochemistry major at RIT; and Anna Hope, mental health clinician and clinical research coordinator—are collecting data from ongoing projects that use this model of self-regulation through integrated hypnosis and biofeedback. An early program at the center, The Minding Anxiety Project, gives new skills to RIT students struggling with anxiety and autism. Sugarman hopes to grow the program from 24 students to 240. A second project, MindGamers, incorporates autonomous biofeedback into computer-based role-playing and includes Stephen Jacobs, professor and associate director of the MAGIC Center, in the collaboration. The most recent effort, the Parent Effectiveness Program, is training parents of young children diagnosed with autism and measuring results of their training on the behaviors of their affected children. Autism Up, a community service organization, supports the program with funding from the Golisano Foundation.

Back to tests and procedures Roux-en-Y Gastric Bypass Weight-Loss Surgery Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) is a type of weight-loss surgery that reduces the size of your stomach to a small pouch – about the size of an egg. It does this by stapling off a section of it. This reduces the amount of food you can take in at meals. The surgeon then attaches this pouch directly to the small intestine, bypassing most of the rest of the stomach and the upper part of the small intestine. This reduces the amount of fat and calories you absorb from the foods you are able to eat for even more weight loss. Click Image to Enlarge RYGB can be done as an open surgery, with a large cut (incision) on your abdomen to reach your stomach. Or it can be done as a laparoscopic RYGB, using a lighted tube with a tiny camera, called a laparoscope. This tool is pushed into your abdomen through several small cuts. Your doctor may prefer to do a laparoscopic procedure instead of open surgery because it generally means you don't stay in the hospital as long and recover more quickly. You also may have less pain, smaller scars, and less risk of getting a hernia or infection. Many people are able to have this procedure done laparoscopically. Reasons for the procedure Obesity lowers quality of life. This can result in poor overall health, and contribute to a higher risk for depression. Your doctor may suggest a RYGB surgery if you have a body mass index (BMI)of 40 or more or if you have a BMI of 35 and also suffer from serious obesity-related health problems such as diabetes, coronary heart disease, sleep apnea, high blood pressure, or severe arthritis. Doctors generally recommend the weight-loss surgery only if you are severely obese. That means about 100 pounds overweight for men and 80 pounds for women. They also usually don't recommend it unless you haven't been able to lose a large amount of weight and keep it off through diet, exercise, and changes in lifestyle. Calculate your body mass index. Studies on RYGB have found that it can often reverse type 2 diabetes and lower the risk for high blood pressure, sleep apnea, and certain heart problems. Risks of the procedure Like any surgery, the RYGB procedure carries some risks: Long-term complications related to RYGB surgery may include: Malnutrition, especially if you don't take your prescribed vitamins and minerals daily for the rest of your life Iron and calcium deficiencies Left untreated, severe and potentially fatal vitamin and protein deficiencies. These are caused by poor absorption of certain nutrients, which can lead to diseases rarely seen in the developed world. Such diseases include pellagra, a dangerous niacin deficiency that can also cause dementia; beriberi, a thiamine deficiency that can cause irreversible nerve damage and heart failure; and kwashiorkor, a severe, life-threatening form of malnutrition. Gastric "dumping," which can cause nausea, rapid heartbeat, flushing, fainting, and other unpleasant symptoms such as diarrhea after eating Narrowing of the sites where intestines are joined (stricture) Staple-line failure, where the pouch was created Dangerous internal hernias in which the intestine can be trapped and blocked Need for additional operations because of problems such as a stretched pouch or separated stitches Failure to lose enough weight if you snack on high-calorie foods and don't exercise There may be other risks, depending upon your specific medical condition. Be sure to discuss any concerns with your doctor before the procedure. Before the procedure It's important that your weight-loss surgery be arranged at a qualified bariatric center, where you will complete an extensive educational and preparatory program before surgery. Your doctor can obtain a referral from the American Society for Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery (ASMBS). Your doctor will typically test you for nutritional deficiencies and prescribe supplements to correct any problems before the operation. Your surgeon may ask you to have tests and visits with other health care providers before surgery such as a dietitian and a psychologist. Because smoking slows recovery and increases risks of surgery, your doctor will suggest you stop smoking for good several weeks before surgery. Tell your doctor or nurse if you need help quitting. You'll want to check with your health insurance provider to make sure bariatric surgery is covered in your health insurance plan, as many plans will not pay for it. Let your doctor know about any prescription or over-the-counter drugs, vitamins, and herbs you are taking. In the week before surgery you may be asked to stop taking aspirin, ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin), vitamin E, warfarin (Coumadin), and any other blood-thinning drugs. Ask what drugs you can take on the day of your surgery. Let your doctor know if you have had any trouble with anesthesia in the past. During the procedure With either open or laparoscopic RYGB surgery, you will be given general anesthesia for the procedure. Initially your doctors will start an IV and may deliver medications to help you relax. Your anesthesiologist will use a drug or combination of drugs to control pain and make you unaware of the procedure. When you reach the operating room, your medical team will use routine monitoring equipment throughout the procedure or longer, depending on your health conditions. The surgery to create the stomach pouch and the bypass usually takes several hours. After the procedure You may stay in the hospital for two to four days after the procedure. You will typically only have liquids or puréed foods for at least three to six weeks after surgery. Rarely, you may have a catheter, or tube, from the larger bypassed part of your stomach that will come out of your side to drain excess fluids from your abdomen for four or more weeks. Your doctor may slowly add soft food and then regular food to your diet about a month after surgery. You will be instructed to chew slowly and completely and not to drink 30 minutes before or after you eat food. Talk with your doctor about proper wound care, the type of pain-relieving drugs that are safe to take, and when you can resume physical activities. Your surgeon will tell you how often to change the dressing on your incision. Tell your doctor right away if you develop a fever or if your wound becomes painful or hot to the touch or has a foul-smelling drainage. Also look for any coughing or difficulty breathing, vomiting and diarrhea, pain in the abdomen, chest, shoulder, or legs, or any other unusual symptoms. Your initial weight-loss may occur quickly, so it's important to get all of the nutrition and vitamins you need as you recover. Your doctor will prescribe certain vitamin and mineral supplements that your body may no longer absorb well from food alone. The ASMBS recommends that you take the following supplements to prevent nutritional deficiencies after recovery from RYGB surgery: Daily vitamin D and calcium supplements. Vitamin D deficiency is common in people who have had this kind of gastric bypass. Multivitamins containing 1,200 mg of daily calcium citrate and 400 to 800 IU of vitamin D don't appear to provide enough protection for bone health, studies suggest. Some experts have had success stopping bone loss by increasing vitamin D intake to 1,600 to 2,000 IU daily. Additional calcium supplementation of 1,600 mg daily is also suggested. Multivitamins. You should take a daily multivitamin that contains 200 percent of the daily values. Wait two hours to take a calcium supplement after your multivitamin. Vitamin B12 supplements. Doctors recommend vitamin B12 supplementation for all weight-loss surgery patients to help prevent bone fractures. You may need to give yourself B12 injections for the rest of your life. Oral vitamin D supplementation if a deficiency is detected. Your doctor may prescribe 50,000 IU of vitamin D2 taken orally once a week for eight weeks, some people require lifelong vitamin D supplementation. Iron supplements. Research suggests that after RGBY surgery, the amount of iron contained in a standard multivitamin may not be enough to prevent anemia. Teens and menstruating women may require the amount of iron found in two multivitamins, along with 50 to 100 mg of elemental iron a day. The ASMBS also recommends supplemental vitamin C, among other supplements, to make it easier for the body to absorb iron. You should check with your doctor for the recommended dose for you. You may have body aches, dry skin, mood changes, and temporary hair thinning and loss during this time, as well as feel tired and cold. As your weight stabilizes, these problems should go away. Know that weight loss may slow down after the first year, so prepare yourself mentally for the fact that eventually the weight loss will stop. Along with follow-up appointments with your doctor and surgeon, you will likely see a nutritionist or dietitian who will teach you how and what to eat with your reduced stomach size. You may also need to visit with a psychologist to help you deal with the feelings and concerns over your changed lifestyle. Because nutritional deficiencies are so common after this surgery, experts recommend that your blood be tested every six months for the rest of your life to ensure that you are getting the right amount of vitamins and minerals.

Statement Regarding the Privacy Rights and Confidentiality of Student Records What is FERPA? The Family Educational Right and Privacy Act of 1974, also known as the Buckley Amendment, protects the privacy of student records. The Act provides for the right to inspect and review education records, the right to seek to amend those records, and to limit disclosure of information for the records. The Act applies to all institutions that are the recipients of federal funding. The regulations for FERPA can be found at: http://www.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/fpco/ferpa/index.html. Who is protected under FERPA? Students who are currently enrolled in higher education institutions or formerly enrolled, regardless of their age or status in regard to parental dependency. Students who have applied but have not attended an institution do not have rights under FERPA. What are the rights of a student under the Family Education Rights and Privacy Act? - The right to inspect and review the student’s educational records within 45 days of the day the School receives the request for access. Rolf Institute student should submit to the Director of Education a written request that identifies the record he/she wishes to inspect. The Director of Education will make arrangements for access and notify the student of the time and place where the record may be inspected. If the record to be inspected is not maintained by the Director of Education, the student will be advised of the correct official to whom the request should be addressed. - The right to request amendment of the student’s educational records that the student believes are inaccurate or misleading. A student should write to the Director of Education responsible for the record; clearly identify the part of the record he/she wants amended, and specify why it is inaccurate or misleading. If the Rolf Institute decides not to amend the record as requested by the student, the student will be notified of the decision and advised of his/her right to a hearing regarding the request for amendment. Additional information regarding the hearing procedures will be provided to the student when notified of the right to a hearing - The right to consent to disclosures of personally identifiable information contained in a student’s educational records, except to the extent that FERPA authorizes disclosure without consent. Disclosure without consent is granted to the Rolf Institute officials with legitimate educational interests. A Rolf Institute official is a person employed by the Rolf Institute in an administrative, supervisory, academic, or support staff position or a student assisting another Rolf Institute official in performing his/her tasks, i.e. a teaching assistant. A Rolf Institute official has a legitimate educational interest if the official needs to review a record in order to fulfill his/her professional responsibility. - The right to file a complaint with the U.S. Department of Education concerning alleged failures by The Rolf Institute to comply with the requirements of FERPA. The name and address of the office that administers FERPA is: Family Policy Compliance Office U.S. Department of Education 400 Maryland Avenue, SW Washington, DC 20202-5901 What are education records? With certain exceptions, a student has rights of access to those records which are directly related to him/her and which are maintained by an education institution or party authorized to keep records for the institution. “Educational Records” generally include any records in the possession of the institution which contain information directly related to a student.. What is NOT included in an education record? - sole-possession records or private notes held by education personnel - law enforcement or campus security records which are solely for law enforcement purposes - records relating to an individual’s employment by the institution (unless employment is contingent on student status) - records relating to treatment provided by a physician, psychiatrist, psychologist, or other recognized professional or paraprofessional and disclosed only to individuals providing treatment - records of an institution which contain only information about an individual obtained after that person is no longer a student at that institution (i.e. alumni records). What documents can be removed from an education record before the student views the record? - any information that pertains to another student - financial records of the student’s parents - some confidential letters and statements of recommendation under conditions described in FERPA section 99.12. What is directory information? Institutions may disclose information on a student without violating FERPA through what is known as “directory information.” At RISI this includes a student’s name, address, telephone number, date and place of birth, major field of study, dates of attendance, degrees and awards received, full or half-time status and recent previous school attended. Each institution is required to annually notify students in attendance of what constitutes directory information. This notice must also provide procedures for students to restrict the institution from releasing his/her directory information. Who would generally be permitted access without the student’s written consent? - school officials who have “legitimate educational interests”. - Parents of a “dependent student” as defined by the Internal Revenue Code. - The issuer of a judicial order or subpoena which allows the institution to release records without the student’s consent. However, a “reasonable effort” must generally be made to notify the student before complying with the order. When do you need consent to disclose personally identifiable information from an education record (including transcripts)? With specific exceptions, a signed and dated consent by the student must be provided by the student before any disclosure is made. The written consent must: a) specify the records that may be disclosed b) state the purpose of disclosure c) identify the party or class of parties to whom the disclosure may be made. What is “personally identifiable information”? - the student’s name - name of the student’s parent or other family members - address of the student or student’s family - a personal identifier, such as a social security number or student number - a list of personal characteristics that would make the student’s identity easily traceable. When is the student’s consent NOT required to disclose information? The exceptions are: - to RISI faculty, staff, and administrators with a legitimate educational interest - to parents of a dependent student – dependent is defined as claimed by parent(s) with IRS - to Federal, State, and local education authorities involving an audit or evaluation of compliance with education programs - in connection with processing Financial Aid loans - to organizations conducting studies for or on behalf of education institutions - to accrediting organizations - to comply with judicial order or subpoena - health or safety emergency - director information - to the student - results of disciplinary hearing to an alleged victim of a crime of violence. Requests to disclose will always be handled with caution and approached on a case-by-case basis.

Norton talks about a statue of Rosa Parks during a tour of the Capitol’s Statuary Hall that she gave to about 60 D.C. students. Norton has been giving the tours in honor of Black History Month, which is February. This February marks the first time the Capitol has celebrated Black History Month with two statues of prominent African-Americans standing in its collection. Prior to the Feb. 27, 2013, unveiling of a 9-foot, bronze-cast statue of civil rights icon Rosa Parks in National Statuary Hall, there were no full-size sculptures of African-Americans among the 110 portrait statues cared for by the Architect of the Capitol for the Congress. The 2,100-pound work depicts Parks seated on a rock-like foundation, symbolizing her 1955 arrest for refusing to move to the back of a segregated bus. Four months later, a 7-foot-tall bronze, bearded likeness of abolitionist Frederick Douglass was unveiled in the Capitol Visitor Center’s Emancipation Hall. Douglass stands in a formal double-breasted coat and bow tie, firmly grasping a lectern topped with an inkwell and quill pen, in homage to his incisive antislavery writing. The two statues joined a bust of women’s rights advocate and abolitionist Sojourner Truth, displayed in Emancipation Hall since 2009, and a bust of Martin Luther King Jr., on display in the Rotunda since 1986, for a total of four sculptures of African-Americans commemorated by Congress for their defining roles in our national character. For Del. Eleanor Holmes Norton, D-D.C., the new additions are a great reason to invite her constituents into the Capitol to commemorate Black History Month. Norton has started offering tours of the four statues for District residents, culminating with the figure she holds in highest esteem. The journey ends in Emancipation Hall with Douglass — the first statue Congress has granted to a jurisdiction that’s not a state and won after a long fight by Norton and her allies on Capitol Hill. “The reason we chose Frederick Douglass is because he was an ardent proponent of full equality for the residents of the District of Columbia,” Norton told CQ Roll Call. “We weren’t just looking for another famous black man; we found the right black man, a man who built his home in the District of Columbia who was an icon of his time and remains an icon of American history today.” The 50 states are each allowed two figures in Statuary Hall, and Norton for years proposed legislation to give D.C. that same privilege. Spurred by her bill, the D.C. Commission on the Arts and Humanities began the process of soliciting suggestions for which luminaries to honor. While Douglass won a place in the Capitol, a statue of Pierre L’Enfant — the architect who designed the city — remains downtown in the John A. Wilson Building. United We Dream protesters carry a mock coffin to the office of Sen. Ted Cruz, R-Texas, in the Dirksen Senate Office Building on Monday, July 21, 2014, to hold one of their "funeral services for the Republican Party" due to GOP positions on immigration. The immigration reform group visited several other Senate Republican offices to hold similar funeral services.

English as a Second Language (ESL) Links Accent Neutralization-Accent Reduction Links to articles on how to reduce your accent. Check out the other links on the page for information on English grammar and improving writing skills. BBC Learning English the news, stories and more. Choose the language you want to learn in - there's a menu in the upper right hand corner of the screen. your business and office-related English vocabulary with these exercises and comprehension tests. Or take a look at English for My Job, to build English vocabulary for hospitality, food, and tourism jobs. See pictures and hear sound files of everything from tools to animals, office supplies to exercises - easy, medium, and difficult. With questions to test your understanding. Or try where you can test your listening skills by watching a movie trailer and then answering questions. vocabulary and help feed the hungry! This site offers you the chance to learn and practice vocabulary words, whether you are a native speaker or just learning English. For every word you get right, they donate 20 grains of rice to feed hungry people around the world. This multilingual guide (English, Chinese, Korean, Russian, Spanish, Vietnamese) offers information for immigrants, refugees and other newcomers, on subjects including social services and activities. Internet 4 Classrooms Kindergarten Plus Phonics Links to many enjoyable sites teaching phonics and other language skills. dictionary with pictures! Learn English, French, German, Spanish, or Italian words. Also see Visual Dictionary, which covers biology, transportation, anatomy, musical instruments and clothing. Or see the excellent Visuwords, a dictionary and site with pictures and sound files. Choose your native language, and then the language you want to learn. Internet Polyglot also offers multiple languages, pictures and sound files. Memory And Match Play a game and practice your English! Then want to try another game? Learn the alphabet in English, and practice reading English. See "Browse Links for Students" on the left hand side of the page. Links to games, grammar help, listening practice, spelling, bilingual pages and much more. Technical College Program Pages English as a Second Language. Last updated: 9/6/12

Value chains can be an opportunity to link smallholder farmers in developing countries to lucrative markets for consumer goods worldwide. However, they are not a sure-fire success. This article provides an overview of the conditions under which smallholder engagement in value chains makes sense and what is necessary to make them a successful tool for development. Agricultural value chains are organisational schemes that enable a primary product to get sold and transformed into consumable end-products, adding value at each step of a gradual process of transformation and marketing. It is not only recently that the value chain concept has been entering the development debate. Already in the 1990s, supply chain and logistics management scholars as well as the school of global value chains (GVC) found that value chains play an important role in development. From different angles, these scholars looked into how developing country suppliers link to markets in the more developed world. Recently value chains have experienced renewed interest: Development agencies as well as private companies are using them as vehicles for smallholder engagement. This new agenda is driven by the following assumptions: Smallholder production can easily be absorbed by national and global value chains. Engaging smallholders brings income and employment benefits to smallholders. Smallholders have the capacities and resources required to produce in response to the requirements of value chain players, or at least they can acquire them with reasonable effort and time. Important value chain players, such as international buyers, would be keen on supporting the engagement of smallholders. However, there is evidence that not all that glitters is gold in value chain development engaging smallholders. The spectrum reaches from projects that successfully help farmers improve productivity and incomes complying with international buyer requirements to initiatives where only few smallholders make the race, and without reasonable benefits. This article tries to clarify a number of issues that result from smallholder engagement in value chains and to draw some conclusions on the usefulness of the approach and critical success factors. How can smallholders engage? Smallholder farmers often integrate in value chains as producers in the primary production segment supplying products to national and international buyers. One example is smallholder producers in Indonesia who sell cocoa beans to traders; the traders bring them to cocoa processing plants which process them into butter and paste to be sold to chocolate makers world-wide. Taking another example, smallholder engagement in Kenya’s flower value chain sector is of a different type; smallholders disengage from independent production and become employees in flower plantation companies, gaining salaries that are well above the average of independent smallholders or labourers employed in other sectors. Smallholders can also pursue value addition, as for example in the case of rice milling in Vietnam, an activity that rice producers engage in as they see it is more profitable and complementary to the cultivation of rice. In general, three types of smallholder engagement in value chains can be distinguished: Engagement in independent primary agricultural production with effect on smallholder incomes. Engagement in dependent primary agricultural production with effect on incomes and employment. Engagement in value addition of agricultural products with effect on incomes and employment. There may be further engagement of smallholders in various services that support the functioning of the value chain, e.g. transport, advisory service, etc. The Figure below provides an overview of the various effects through which smallholders can benefit from value chain development. Who drives smallholder engagement? A common scenario is that buyers, e.g. an international food retailer, are the main force pushing for the engagement of smallholders in the value chain. Usually, the buyers’ motive is that they are short in supply of primary products. This motive is sometimes paired with arguments of (corporate) social responsibility (CSR). In all cases, it is important to separate procurement of supplies motives from CSR-related motives. The latter address a limited group of target beneficiaries (e.g. building a school in a producer region), while the former are often able to generate a more sustainable impact on the businesses that smallholders engage in. “Outgrower schemes” in which a buyer provides seeds and fertiliser or alternatively credit as well as agronomic know-how to “outgrowing” farmers, are a special case. The “outgrowing” farmers, in turn, produce according to a particular protocol and are obliged to deliver the product to the buyer’s collection centres where, if compliant to quality standards, the product is paid, sometimes with delay and after reducing the advanced payments. Outgrower schemes are an efficient method to quickly provide farmers with the necessary technology and inputs to engage in value chains. However, they are vulnerable because payments and credits must be monitored but reliable accounting systems, sometimes covering a large number of smallholders, are expensive to maintain. Often, buyers are not willing to manage accounts of a large number of outgrowers relying on farmer organisations, credit schemes and/or development agencies which are also prone to mismanagement and conflicts. Outgrower schemes are particularly vulnerable because smallholders may decide to side-sell avoiding repayment of debts. Another scenario is that suppliers of agricultural inputs such as seeds and fertiliser seek to engage smallholders in value chains to extend sales. In some cases, it is also the smallholders themselves who initiate their engagement in a value chain and seek buyers to purchase their products. Finally, there are many cases in which governments and development agencies are the drivers of smallholder engagement based on the understanding that subsidising the smallholders’ integration in the value chain will lead to social benefits. The latter has also led to the very common model of development agencies partnering with large buyers, enabling the participation of smallholders in value chains. However, the latter model has been criticised in a range of cases where the development agencies have been subsidising all activities to help smallholders comply with standards while the private buyer reaps the benefits of sourcing more higher quality products at no additional costs. Who should initiate smallholder engagement? Often, the argument is made that lead buyers are the only appropriate drivers of smallholder engagement. However, the point is made here that any of the above, individually or jointly, can initiate such smallholder engagement, and, more importantly, that smallholder engagement is beneficial to value chain actors in general and to the smallholders in particular. This depends on a range of factors and can only be established on the basis of thorough analysis. What makes smallholders benefit? Engaging smallholders in value chains, e.g. via a lead buyer approach, must not necessarily result in benefits. Various studies have shown, for example, that the costs of certification can be higher than the benefits from selling a product to international buyers. Below are a number of considerations that one can make to better understand the benefits smallholders might have from value chain engagement: In the case of self-reliant smallholder production, engagement in the value chain brings the advantage that smallholders can sell a product at a fixed (and possibly higher) price. However, the engagement of smallholders often comes with an additional cost related to a new system of production and the efforts to comply with certain standards. Frequently, smallholders can only apply the new way of production after intensive capacity building and through additional investments in inputs and equipments. For example, the production of soybeans for the international market would usually require the application of zero-tillage cultivation and the purchase of Roundup Ready soy varieties. This practice requires substantial capital and larger parcels of land. In the end, it is the individual cost-benefit ratio of each farmer that determines whether engagement makes sense. For some farmers, it may be more beneficial than for others. Common practice – the lead buyer approach Many governments and development agencies find it difficult to choose the appropriate entry point for engaging smallholders. One common approach is to pick a lead buyer and support value chain development through that company. For example, a lead firm with connections to markets, e.g. a cassava starch processing company in Colombia, receives support through development agencies to source cassava from local farmers. The development agency helps the lead firm to provide technologies to farmers, including the arrangement of advances for production inputs such as seeds and fertilisers. Lead-firm approaches have the advantages that support by development agencies can easily be organised and all money can be channelled to one company instead of dealing with a large amount of primary producers. In many cases, however, development agencies also support the primary producers as the lead company is not able to provide technical training to large producer communities. When training and capacity strengthening of smallholders is required, the related project costs need to be compared with the overall benefits of engaging smallholders (the accumulated individual cost-benefit ratios). If only a small number of farmers engage in a value chain and each earns a couple of dollars more, an expensive project that fosters the engagement of these smallholders may not be justified. Some practitioners in development argue that there is often no alternative to an engagement in the value chain following a “grow or perish” logic. Indeed, local markets may sometimes not be an alternative for products that only get appropriately remunerated when they enter global value chains. However, smallholders often benefit from local markets where products of less quality can be sold parallel to value chains to which the better-quality products can be channelled. For example, second-grade mangoes from Ghana that do not meet export criteria can be sold on the local markets, sometimes at even higher prices than the first-grade export mangoes. In all cases, engagement in value chains can be a necessary condition for smallholders to maintain agricultural production when they provide a sure market outlet for products. It is also important to balance the effects of engaging smallholders in the various segments of the value chain. Employment created at the level of processing (for example a couple of hundred jobs) may constitute a small benefit in relation to tens of thousands of smallholders benefiting from higher prices for their products. Another consideration is that employment in regions with only underpaid jobs may provide an important push to the labour market. Contrarily, if the salary lies minimally above other job opportunities, the benefit for workers may be negligible. Employment targeting women labourers can be important for gender empowerment. In summary, the main parameters to be taken into consideration to evaluate the benefits from smallholder engagement in value chains are the following: the product price being paid to smallholders, the costs of smallholder production complying with buyer criteria, the costs of training and capacity building necessary to enable smallholders engaging in value chains, the number of smallholders that will be able to engage in the value chain (also in relation to the ones that may fall behind), the employment effect on engaging smallholders in primary production and other segments of the value chain. What works and what does not in engaging smallholders in value chains? This question is at the heart of many debates among development agents and value chain developers. Here are a number of recommendations based on the author’s experience: Engagement of smallholders can work for all value chains except for those ones in which smallholders find it too difficult to produce according to the required standards or where doing so requires just too much in terms of efforts and capital. Possibly, with the exception of some individuals, a smallholder community will not be able to produce sophisticated products such as Swiss watches or Kobe beef. However, smallholders around the world should be able to engage in the production of fruits, vegetables, cereals, roots and tubers and pulses as well as animal products for national value chains and export, and many studies have shown that they can even be more efficient in doing so than large producers. The integration of smallholders in value chains works well where the “engagement rent” provides a substantial benefit that is significantly higher than the benefit from producing while being excluded from value chains. In other words, the effort of engagement has to pay off and there needs to be a clear perception about this fact among the smallholders. The engagement of smallholders usually requires substantial investments in capacity strengthening. Smallholders often live in a reality where risk aversion and scarcity of resources prevail. Changing the way of production requires time, continuous coaching, eventually some subsidies and interaction among smallholders as well as with peers to build trust in and knowledge about the new production procedures. Initiatives that only have smallholders complying with buyer standards are unlikely to produce benefits for smallholders. They should be matched with efforts that help smallholders improve their businesses through cost reductions and better organisation of work. For example, large processors of dairy products have learned that simply focusing on smallholders’ compliance with quality criteria does not help extend the procurement of milk. In response, they have engaged in advisory services which help farmers to improve the quality of milk while also rendering milk production more profitable. Engaging smallholders in value chains does make sense where the market for the final product is large enough to include a reasonable number of smallholders. If the majority of smallholders are left out, engagement schemes will rather cause frustration and disequilibrium in production areas. This argument can be extended to some of the niche market products such as specialty foods and organic and fair-trade products. If such products only benefit a very small part of the smallholder population, leaving the majority without income options, there is not much sense to pursue them. Contractual arrangements help to fix commitments of buyers in outgrower schemes. In most cases, however, smallholders may not appreciate the logic of written contracts, which are also difficult to enforce in the socio-cultural environment of many developing countries. Instead, building trust between buyers and smallholder producers is of paramount importance and leads to non-written agreements that build the basis for sustainable businesses. In cases where lead-buyers and suppliers collaborate with governments and development agencies, the partnership needs to be thoroughly negotiated, and the investment of the private sector should be clearly earmarked. The details should be fixed in a contractual arrangement. In no circumstances should governments and development agencies embark on quick arrangements that favour a single buyer or even guarantee individual buyers exclusive purchasing rights. Often, options exist to work with networks of buyers, enabling integrated value chain development benefiting a whole spectrum of value chain partners. Engaging smallholders in value chains can generate benefits for smallholders as well as for buyers, suppliers and other actors in the value chain, but it does not have to. Some of the conditions that lead to real benefits for smallholders have been discussed above. However, a satisfactory answer to the question of whether the “engagement rent” is high enough can only be given on a case-by-case basis. Frank Hartwich Agribusiness Development Branch United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) Vienna, Austria f.hartwich(at)unido.org

Health is a Human Right: Race and Place in America “Of all the forms of inequality, injustice in health care is the most shocking and inhuman,” said the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. in 1966 at the Convention of the Medical Committee for Human Rights, which was organized to support civil-rights activists during Mississippi's Freedom Summer. Those words are part of the Health is a Human Right: Race and Place in America exhibit on display at the David J. Sencer Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Museum in Atlanta. The museum, located at the CDC’s Visitor Center, mounts several exhibits each year. The timing for the Health as a Human Right exhibit coincides with National Minority Health Month, observed each April to raise awareness of health disparities in the U.S. among ethnic and racial minorities. The CDC exhibit, curated by museum director Louise Shaw, is organized by social determinants of health such as housing and transportation. Photographs, like those of teeming settlements in urban cities, are a key tool to show museum goers and online viewers the health disparities in U.S. history and present day. Among the items in the exhibit: - Mexican men sprayed with DDT on their arrival for a guest worker program in the 1950s. - A corroded sanitation pipe and bottles of unsafe drinking water from the Community Water Center in the San Joaquin Valley, California. - An inventive and cheap air sampler from New Orleans that people used to catalogue pollution levels and share with law makers. - A Chinese version of the "Be Certain: Get Tested for Hepatitis B," campaign. - A March of Dimes poster depicting an African American child with polio from the late 1950s. (For a long time after the polio epidemic began, many believed African Americans could not contract the virus. As a result, precaution campaigns were rare and late among that population.) The exhibition is sponsored by CDC's Office of Minority Health and Health Equity, the CDC's Office of the Associate Director for Communication and the California Endowment. NewPublicHealth spoke with Louise Shaw in Atlanta. NewPublicHealth: What made you decide to mount and curate this exhibit? Louise Shaw: Three years ago the CDC Museum was approached by CDC’s Office of Minority Health and Health Equity (OMHHE) to organize an exhibition to commemorate its 25th anniversary. As curator of the Museum, I was excited by the possibilities and conceived of a project that extended beyond just honoring OMHHE accomplishments. Dr. Leandris Liburd, OMHHE director, and her terrific staff, quickly jumped on board, and we all agreed to develop a historic exhibition framed by the social determinants of health. NPH: What are some of the most striking issues you found in disparities between whites and minorities when it comes to social determinants of health? Louise Shaw: Although we have made progress in many areas, we are still tackling similar issues in the 21st century that were debated 100 years ago. For instance, how we provide quality education to all children, regardless of race, ethnicity, or income status, was and is one of the greatest challenges facing our country. As the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation has documented, education and the optimum health outcomes are closely linked. Ultimately, education is the pathway to eliminating health disparities. Income equality/inequality is another complex issue that is being hotly debated today. One more specific example: although pre-term birth rates have greatly declined over the past century among all groups, the disparities of those rates between whites and minorities stubbornly remain, and are yet to be eliminated. We need to ask ourselves why that is so. Collectively, we have still not resolved what it means to live in a diverse, multicultural society. NPH: Do you know of any outcomes that have come from the exhibit? Louise Shaw: Internally at CDC, the exhibition has been an important touchstone for discussion and debate. I have received incredible feedback about the honesty of the exhibition, thanking me for connecting the dots visually among race, place, and health. By the time it closes on April 25th, over 30,000 people will have seen the show. I don’t think we have ever mounted an exhibition that has been visited by so many college and university students — some even virtually. A consortium of faculty members from the University of Connecticut, Emory University, and Georgia State University, have developed a formal evaluation tool. In addition, there is a local and national movement underfoot to figure out how the show can live on whether online or in another form.

Definition of Xen- (prefix) Xen- (prefix): Foreign or other. As in: - Xenoantigen -- An antigen that is found in more than one species. - Xenograft -- A surgical graft of tissue from one species to an unlike species, genus or family. - Xenotransplantation -- Transplantation from one species to a foreign one, e.g., the heart transplant from a baboon to Baby Fae in 1984 at Loma Linda University, California. - Xenotropic virus -- A virus that can grow in the cells of a species foreign to the normal host species. The origin of "xen-" is from the Late Latin, from Greek, from "xenos" meaning stranger, guest, or host. Xen- and xeno- are variant forms of the same prefix.Source: MedTerms™ Medical Dictionary Last Editorial Review: 6/14/2012 Drug Medical Dictionary of Terms by Letter Medical Dictionary Term: Find out what women really need.

Long ago before the Mexicans had settled thickly in this country they heard there were cities to the north. Some of the Mexicans went to their government and asked to come up against these wild Indians. Twelve men started out and came first to Tucson. The Mexicans prayed to their god that nobody should harm them, and they promised not to harm anybody. Ten of the men were half-breeds (half Indian) and two were new-comers in the country [paragraph continues] (Spaniards). One of the Spaniards prayed for them all every day, and as they went on he grew wiser and more powerful. They came to Zuñi and stopped there. In those days they did not know how to count a year, but they stayed about a year. When the Zuñi people first saw them, they were afraid. They thought they were animals because of the hair that grew on their faces, but the Spaniard who prayed went out and asked their god for power to cure the sick at Zuñi, and it was given to him. When the people saw that the sick were healed, they welcomed the strangers, and in a few days they gave thanks to the god of the Mexicans. The Spaniard planned to send three of the party back to Mexico with messages, to tell their government that they were well received, that no sickness had interrupted their journey, and that the Zuñis were willing to take the Spanish on to new pueblos to the east. The three messengers started back to Old Mexico doing the best they could to avoid danger from the Indians, sometimes travelling by night. When they had gone, the Zuñis provided an escort to take, The-one-who-had-cured-the-sick to Acoma. He lived there and healed the people. They went on to Laguna. The Zuñis told the people how long they had lived at Zuñi, and how many miracles they had done, and that their only difference from the Indians was that they had hair on their faces. They stayed there a second year. The Acoma Indians followed to Laguna bringing other sick people who had not yet been cured. The Zuñis went back home from Laguna, and the Lagunas brought the Spaniards on to Isleta. They told them not to be afraid for all Indians in this country were brothers. The Acoma Indians who were sick were brought all the way to Isleta to be cured by the Spaniard who had power. Also the Lagunas brought their sick. If any were sick, too, in Isleta., they brought them to him to be cured, and he cured them. While they stayed, one of the men of the party in Isleta became the lover of a girl of this pueblo and it is for this reason that we think Isleta is the most Spanish of the Indian pueblos. They had children and their great-grandchildren speak of this ancestor to-day. The Isleta Indians guided the Spaniard-who-cured-the-sick on to Sandia, and the Sandia Indians brought them on to Santa Ana. After that they were taken west to Old Sia (to the northwest of present site). Many of the other pueblos had heard of these people who had come from the south, one of whom was a miracle worker, and they sent messages to each other asking about them. In every pueblo where they had been, the fathers said, "They are good people." When they came to Sia, they stayed there some time. Then the Indians took them to Jemez. Jemez was then far up in the canyon on the west side. The Jemez Indians brought the Spaniards to the present site of Cochiti (there were no people there then) and they passed east. They went to Pecos and stayed at Pecos two years. The fathers took them to the different northern pueblos, but they made their headquarters all this time in Pecos. While they were living there, another band of Spaniards started from Mexico. They reached Zuñi, and there they sent word to the others, "Meet us at Laguna; we have arrived from Mexico." As soon as they heard this word they went back to meet the others at Laguna. The new company had a priest from Old Mexico and he was already baptizing. They came on and met the others at Laguna. The priest taught them that they should build churches and missions. When they left Laguna, the priest and his companions went on to Jemez. They welcomed him and told him they would build a church. They built there the first church. The people had already known The-man-who-cured-the-sick and they therefore accepted the priest and the church with great readiness. When they had been accepted in Jemez they went on to Pecos. These were the first three churches. 2 That is the way we were taught the churches were built. Soon after they built the next church at Laguna. That is the way the new discoverers came from the south. Only seven returned to Old Mexico; the rest remained with the Indians. 187:1 Informant 4. 189:2 There is a fault here in the account. When questioned the narrator answered: "Yes, three: Isleta, Jemez, and Pecos. They built also a church at San Marcos" (whose inhabitants later joined Santo Domingo).

We asked, “What makes science so cool?” The experts answered... “From cosmology to molecular medicine, the origin of life and exobiology, being a scientist allows me to explore nature’s deepest mysteries without necessarily having to ‘grow up’ along the way. Imagine, playing at a shoreline of the universe on a beautiful starlit day.” - Professor Tom Keane “Studying science, at a molecular level, provides us with the opportunity of understanding our development, why we behave the way we do, how disease states progress and possibly how to treat those conditions. What could be more rewarding than to have a true understanding of who we are from the time we are born and using that same information to help us as we grow older?” - Professor Stacie Kutz “What makes science cool is science itself, the process of discovery, which can be highly systematic and organized with carefully crafted hypotheses and experimental designs and sometimes discovery can just be plain luck. But when you finally add a piece to the puzzle of scientific knowledge...wow!” - Professor Mary Rea “I believe science is so cool because of the undiscovered. The future of this field relies on the creativity and hard work of thosewho chose to take on the challenge.” - Michelle Pautler ’07

Dr. Rafael Laniado Laborín, head of the multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis clinic at Hospital General de Tijuana, recently told El Mexicano that the clinic diagnoses an average of 1000 TB cases a year, leading Mexico in the number of tuberculosis cases reported annually. "A thousand cases a year, that's a lot of cases," Laniado told the newspaper. He attributed the large number to high levels of migration into Tijuana and to a better system at the hospital of detecting the illness. TB, said the doctor, is associated with poverty, which explains why most pharmaceutical companies have little interest in developing new drugs to treat the illness. Nonetheless, Laniado told the newspaper, there is a single drug that is effective in curing TB as long as patients are diagnosed early and given adequate treatment early on. “If you have a cough, phlegm, weight loss, trouble breathing, and a fever, you need to see your doctor so he can examine you and eliminate tuberculosis as the cause," El Mexicano quoted him as saying. The disease is normally spread by airborne particles expelled when someone with tuberculosis coughs and someone else breathes in the microbes, he said. As means to prevent infection, Laniado recommended avoiding crowded spaces, practicing good hygiene, eating a well-balanced diet, and seeing a doctor at the first signs of the illness. According to health officials, 234 cases of tuberculosis were reported in San Diego County in 2012, and, as of November 1, 130 cases have been reported in 2013.

|Product #: EMC0561I_TQ| Native Americans (Enhanced eBook) (Resource Book Only) eBookGrade 1|Grade 2|Grade 3 Please Note: This ebook is a digital download, NOT a physical product. After purchase, you will be provided a one time link to download ebooks to your computer. Orders paid by PayPal require up to 8 business hours to verify payment and release electronic media. For immediate downloads, payment with credit card is required. Long before Columbus came, they lived and thrived throughout the land. This cross-curricular unit teaches that the term Native Americans represents a diverse group. There are many different tribes and nations and each has its own unique traditions. It also shows that Native Americans are members of our modern, contemporary society. We study their past to understand their rich traditions. The unit begins with the classroom environment, providing a chart for learning the traditions of Native Americans from six different geographic regions of North America. Teaching suggestions provided. Includes bibliography, and complete step-by-step instructions for all activities. All pages are reproducible and perforated for easy removal. This enhanced eBook gives you the freedom to copy and paste the content of each page into the format that fits your needs. You can post lessons on your class website, make student copies, and more. For more information on enhanced eBooks, Click Here. Submit a review

Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica Print version ISSN 0102-7972 FLORES-MENDOZA, Carmen E.; MANSUR-ALVES, Marcela; LELE, Álvaro José and BANDEIRA, Denise Ruschel. There are no sex differences on g factor and specific abilities in children from two Brazilian capitals. Psicol. Reflex. Crit. [online]. 2007, vol.20, n.3, pp. 499-506. ISSN 0102-7972. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0102-79722007000300018. This paper intended to verify sex differences on the g factor (general intelligence) and specific abilities from a sample of children from two Brazilian cities: Belo Horizonte (BH) and Porto Alegre (PA). The sample from BH (n=1.316) aged 5 to 11 years was examined with a battery of intelligence (CPM, Verbal Scale of WISC-III, R-2), psychomotor (Bender) and school achievement tests. The sample from PA (n=779) aged 5 to 11 years was examined with Matrices Progressives Raven. The analysis from these tests shows that the majority of sex differences on specific abilities are not statistically significant. The use of Method Correlated Vectors, which is a most sophisticated method of analyzing general intelligence (g factor), indicates that there are no sex differences. These results support the international records about non-existence of cognitive difference relate to sex in childhood and adolescence. Keywords : Sex differences; specific abilities; g factor; children.

Print version ISSN 0256-0100 S. Afr. j. educ. vol.30 no.4 Pretoria 2010 Aggression is increasingly seen in most parts of South African society. Aggressive behaviour of boys in secondary school often results from frustrations caused by perceived high expectations of others regarding the role, locus of control, and personality of boys. Locus of control plays an important role in a person's perception concerning a situation and possible reactions to what is happening, or should be happening. A 56-item questionnaire, based on Rotter's "Locus of control" questionnaire, and the DIAS Scale were used. The questionnaire was completed by 440 boys in Grades 9, 10, and 11. Various factor, item and differential statistical analyses were conducted. Three constructs were identified, i.e. physical, verbal, and indirect aggression. Results indicated that locus of control has a significant influence on verbal and indirect aggression. The differential analysis indicated that contextual variables (language of tuition, age, and grade) play a significant, but not substantial, role in aggression. Furthermore, boys with an internal locus of control are significantly and substantially less aggressive than boys with an external locus of control, with respect to physical, verbal and indirect aggression. Keywords: adolescent boys; aggression; differential analysis; locus of control; perception Introduction and problem statement Aggressive behaviour forms part of the everyday life of individuals in society. People of all ages, cultures, and both genders express their frustrations and emotions in variable aggressive ways. Lintner (1991:75) shows that there is a direct relationship between frustration and aggressive behaviour. According to Cooper (2002:9), there is increasing concern about the increase in the destructive nature of aggressive behaviour, specifically within the school context since it interferes with the education process. Adolescents lacking in social skills develop irritation that could lead to aggressive behaviour. They often experience failure in school because they frequently fail to do their homework and thus experience difficulties at school (Nevitt, Radhus & Greene, 2003: 506). Many questions concerning these manifestations of aggressive behaviour can be asked: Why are only some adolescents in schools guilty of explicit aggressive behaviour? Why are the acts of aggression apparently higher in some schools than in others? Why does it appear that certain individuals are apparently more in control during perceived aggressive situations in comparison to others? How do a person's locus of control and the level of internalisation thereof influence a person in a more reserved way in situations that would otherwise demand aggressive reactions? According to Jaffe (1998:527) some persons believe that they have no personal control over circumstances. These persons are functioning from an external locus of control and perception of their own aggression. Rotter describes "locus of control" as "... the degree to which individuals believe the things that happen to them are due to internal versus external factors" (Cooper, Okamura & McNeil, 1995:29-31). If individuals believe that they have no control over the circumstances of their lives (external locus of control), they will act according to such beliefs. Thus, and vice versa, when persons believe they are in control over life or circumstances (internal locus of control), such persons' behaviour and actions will reflect this stance (Chan in Valentine, Silver & Twigg, 1999:1268). Against this background, the research questions addressed here are: What is the relationship between the locus of control of adolescent boys from different ages, different grades, and different language of instruction, and aggression? and What are the implications of such possible relationships? In this article we explore the relationship between perceptions of adolescent boys of their own locus of control, demographic variables, and aggression. A deductive strategy is followed to accomplish this objective. From the findings concerning identified relationships, recommendations and guidelines are proposed. Perception of aggression and locus of control of adolescent boys In this article perception refers to the experience of sensing, interpreting and comprehending the world in which one lives (Kaplan & Saddock, 2007:281; Kneisl, Wilson & Trigoboff, 2004:143). Many researchers, psychologists and educators describe adolescence as the developmental stage from the age of 12 to 18 years (Cooper, 2002:43). During this period in an individual's life, new and demanding challenges regarding approaching adulthood often confront an adolescent. These challenges include discovering their own identity. This can cause many problems for adolescents when discovering who they truly are, and not how other people want them to be (Kaplan & Saddock, 2007: 210). Often the demands posed by these challenges are at the root of the frustrations experienced by the individual adolescent and these are the cause of aggression (Blau & Gullotta, 1996:78; Balk, 1995:21). If adolescents perceive and experience that external factors are in control of situations, these adolescents will act differently from those adolescents who perceive and experience that they are in control of what is happening. Locus of control The term "locus of control" originated from Julian Rotter (1966) (Pratt, 1987: 7-8; Kazdin, 2000:68; Rotter, n.d.). He distinguished between an external and an internal locus of control. The dominant type of locus of control present in a person's life often determines his or her reactions and behaviour. The dominant type of locus of control of an individual, whether external or internal, can also be used to explain the perceptions and motivation of a person's actions. In accordance with the above, Erikson (Louw, 1993:58) states that adolescence is the stage during which individuals discover their own identity. This stage, which Erikson calls stage five, identity versus role confusion, is between the ages of 18 and 21 years. During this stage, late adolescents are mostly concerned with what other people think of them, instead of how they see and feel about themselves (Kaplan & Saddock, 2007: 210). Role models play an important role during the process of identity formation (Meyerhoff, 2005:8; Enger, Howerton & Cobbs, 1994:269; August, Realmuto, Crosby & MacDonald, 1995:521). Locus of control forms an integral part of the identity formation of an individual adolescent. Moreover, socio-economic conditions, abuse, personal and interpersonal skills, personal relationships and culture are the context in which identity formation takes place (Swart, 1988:4; Marks, 1998:254). In the next section, the individual adolescent boy's perception of his own locus of control is operationalised in terms of his own actions and behaviour. This operationalisation is in terms of items referring to an external or internal locus of control. Only boys will be discussed. External locus of control A person with a dominant external locus of control perceives and attributes the consequences of what happens to him as being independent from his behaviour. Such a person is convinced that anything that happens is the result of fate, chance or external powers (Swart, 2004:23). An external locus of control indicates that a person believes that he does not have control over circumstances. These beliefs that negative outcomes will occur that are beyond their control often lead to a depressive outlook on life (Jaffe, 1998:572). This often causes feelings of anger, frustration and aggression (Perlow & Latham, 1993:831; Stroms in Perlow and Latham, 1993:833; Stevens, 2002: 316). A questionnaire was developed that adolescent boys could use to assess their own perception of aggression and locus of control. The questionnaire consisted of items that participants could use to assess their own perceptions concerning the causes of what was happening to them. In this questionnaire the following items were included: 12 items referring to perceptions of circumstances as being out of control; four items concerning restricted control regarding involvement in society; and three items concerning the refusal to take responsibility for own poor test results (see Breet, 2006, for the specific formulation of individual question items). Finally, three items were included regarding adolescent boys' perceptions that respect and admiration from other persons are perceived as resulting from own actions and behaviour. The perception of own locus of control of a person, namely, internal locus of control, is addressed in the following paragraph. Internal locus of control Lang (1996:192) describes the inner locus of control of a person as " ... a power of choice that carries with it both the freedom and the right to choose, and the burden of responsibility for one's choice". The inner control of a person develops from a conscious and active decision to accept responsibility for one's choices and to control one's feelings (Rotter & Hochreich, 1975:86; Kugelmass, 1973:141; Chan in Valentine, Silver & Twigg, 1999:1268; Brunas, 1998:106; Gershaw, 1989). Individuals with an internal locus of control can manage stressful situations effectively by using problem-solving strategies (Storms & Spector, 1987:227; Marks, 1998:257; Anonymous, 2004:9; Grimes, Millea & Woodruff, 2004:132). A person's locus of control can change and develop with age. Hopkins (1983:412; Sparrowmediagroup, n.d.) indicates that younger children are often more prone to act in accordance with a predominantly external locus of control, whereas in comparison, older learners are more inclined towards acting in accordance with an internal locus of control. Anderson (Pratt, 1987: 21) states that it may even happen that individuals with a greater inclination toward an internal locus of control can change to a greater inclination toward an external locus of control. This might happen because of certain experiences encountered by an individual. Next the perception of aggression is discussed as a possible result of the perception and management of frustrations in accordance with a person's perception of own locus of control. Aggression and adolescent boys Aggression can present as destructive behaviour when the aim is to harm another person. A national survey of secondary school students in the United States of America reported that 28% of the boys and 7% of the girls had been in a physical fight the previous month (Kaplan & Saddock, 2007:154). In a South African research project, secondary school learners expressed their experience that boys are more violent and aggressive than girls in their schools (Botha, 2006:123). Literature (Baron & Byrne, 1994:465; Berkowitz, 1993:393; Schaffer, 2002: 459) refers to gender differences in aggression and states that it seems that girls on the one hand tend to engage in indirect forms of aggression and verbal aggression such as shouting, gossiping, rejecting friends and spreading rumours. Boys, on the other hand, tend to engage more in physical forms of aggression like using weapons, kicking and hitting. Baron and Byrne (1994:465) and Schaffer (2002:493) state that research indicates that boys tend to use direct forms of aggression such as kicking, striking other persons, profanity, verbal abuse, pushing and shoving. Aggressive behaviour is also not consistent within a specific individual and often tends to change. As one becomes older, aggressive behaviour canchange from physical to verbal (Epanchin, 1987:109; Österman, 1999:8). Coie and Dodge (1998:768) and Goodenough (Epanchin, 1987:115) show that aggression is more individually orientated during adolescence in comparison to a more "instrumental inclination and manifestation" during the pre-school age, that is aggression is used as a instrument to reach a certain aim. Regardless of high expectancy from society regarding the role of adolescent boys and men (Franklin, 1986:48; Frank, 1996:116; Epanchin, 1987: 116; Kilmartin, 2000:247), aggression often varies with reference to internal factors (emotional and cognitive problems, poor social skills) and external factors (family problems, abuse and neglect). Perceptions concerning these contribute toward expressions of aggression (Jaffe, 1998:515; Christiansen & Evens, 2005:298-316; Anderson, 2000:163; Hunt & Marshall, 2002:47; National Youth Violence Prevention Resource Center, n.d.; Miller, 1993:11). Perceptions and actual victimisation of learners by educators and other administrators from the school staff can sometimes be the cause of aggression in schools. Imposing irrelevant and even unrealistic measures in the name of discipline, according to Coleman and Webber (2002:227), can also provoke an individual adolescent's aggression. The manifestation and perception of aggression of adolescents can thus change with time, because an individual's perception of his locus of control can change. The perception of an individual of his own aggression can also change because of his perception and experience of changes in his environment and the actions of other persons towards him. The manifestation of aggression can take various forms. For the purposes of this article, the focus will be on physical, verbal and indirect aggression (Björkqvist, Lagerspetz &Österman, 1992). Physical aggression includes destructive and hand-to-hand fighting types of behaviour. The purpose of such behaviour of an individual is to harm another individual or oneself, or to damage property (Hoghughi, 1996:288; Simpson, Zionts & Zionts, 2002:79; Balk, 1995:475). Verbal aggression entails the emotional and psychological harm done to another individual through negative and degrading communication towards them (Johnson, 2003:314; National Youth Violence Prevention Resource Center, n.d.). According to Björkqvist, Lagerspetz and Österman (1992) indirect aggression refers to " ... attacking the target person circuitously, thereby attempting to avoid retaliation". Indirect aggression also refers to socially manipulative behaviour. Relationship between the perception of locus of control and the perception of aggression Previous research findings indicate that an individual with an external locus of control tends to perceive and experience that he has no control over circumstances (Perlow & Latham, 1993:831; Stevens, 2002:316; Storms in Perlow & Latham, 1993:833; Interscience, n.d.). Often the consequences of such a person's perceptions and experiences are anger, frustration and aggression. Research (Grimes, Millea & Woodruff, 2004:132; Marks, 1998: 257; Shoal, Giancola & Kirillova, 2003:1101-1107; Storms & Spector, 1987: 227; Anonymous, 2004:9; Miller, Fitch & Marshall, 2003:548) further indicates that individuals with an internal locus of control in comparison to individuals with an external locus of control tends to handle stressful situations more effectively by making use of problem solving strategies. Research design and method This investigation followed a quantitative empirical research strategy. This strategy was contextual, descriptive, analytical, and derivative in nature. The researchers used a questionnaire to gather data from participants. The questionnaire was compiled and adapted from existing questionnaires. Rotter's (1966) "Locus of control" questionnaire consisting of internal and external locus of control items formed one part of the questionnaire. A second part of this questionnaire was based on the DIAS ("Direct and Indirect AggressionScale") (Björkqvist, Lagerspetz & Österman, 1992) questionnaire. Questions on biographical aspects of the participants were added. In addition, question items concerning their perception of their own locus of control and their perception and manifestation of their own aggression were selected and adapted from other existing research instruments. The sample selection, validity and reliability of the questionnaire, and the differential statistical analyses, are described. These were adhered to throughout the research process. The participants were invited to participate voluntarily in completing the questionnaires. They could withdraw from the research without penalty. No data to identify individual participants were included in the questionnaire. The participants benefitted from completing the questionnaire as they had the opportunity to reflect on their own behaviour and the behaviour of other persons (Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 2006). The questionnaire consisted of items that participants could use to assess their own perceptions concerning the causes of what was happening to them (locus of control). Items were included to assess what is happening to them and whether this could be attributed to their own decisions and mistakes (faults) (see Breet, 2006, for specific formulation of the question items); and not making use of opportunities (two items). In addition, seven questions items were included concerning their perception of the consequences that their own behaviour was the result of "powers within themselves" that are realised through own efforts, skills and knowledge. Finally, five items were included concerning boys' perception that they had an active problem solving behaviour, for example, in the case of addressing the correction of political corruption (Rotter & Hochreich, 1975:86; Kugelmass, 1973:141; Chan in Valentine, Silver & Twigg, 1999:1268; Brunas, 1998:106; Gershaw, 1989). The items in the questionnaire dealing with the perception of physical aggression include the extent to which individuals hit, kick, trip, push, pull other learners or take their belongings without their permission (see Table1). The perception of verbal aggression items included in the questionnaire, are: items concerning the extent to which a person shouts at, insults, threatens to hurt, calls nicknames or harasses other learners as indicators of the perception of a person's own aggression (See Table 1). The items involving perception of specific indirect aggression included in the questionnaire are as follows. Items were included on the extent to which an individual excludes other learners from a circle of friends; makes friends with other learners to take revenge; ignores gossips, tells lies of other learners, plans behind the backs of other learners to betray them and reports bad things about them. Other items in this regard are to stir up other learners against a certain learner; to repeat a learner's secrets to another learner; to write insulting notes about a certain learner to other learners; to criticise another learner's hair/clothes; and to persuade another learner to dislike a certain learner whom one does not like (Table 1). This process of adapting and developing the questionnaire for this investigation, resulted in 56 items: the biographical detail of the participants (three items); the "locus of control" (29 items) with a choice between two statements; and the aggression items (24 items) on a 5-point scale (Breet, 2006). Variables concerning the biographical aspects of participants were also included in the questionnaire. A pilot study was used to test and adapt the questionnaire, before it was implemented. Description of the sample A stratified (Sapsford, 1999:8) random sampling procedure was used to obtain the sample of boys (Bless & Higson-Smith, 2000:86; Walsh, 2001:45). Two secondary schools in the Western Cape province of South Africa in a middling socio-economic environment were identified and selected. Eventually 440 adolescent boys participated in the investigation; 157participants were Afrikaans and 283 were English speaking. They were between the ages of 14 and 18 years with an average age of 16 years; also 150 of the participants were in Grade 9, 159 in Grade 10, and 134 in Grade 11. Validity and reliability Content validity (See Vockell & Asher, 1995) was ensured by using items representing the theoretical framework. The answers of the participants on the biographical variables were used to assess whether the variables, i.e perception of own locus of control and aggression of boys, were sensitive for the context in which these adolescent boys were coming from. Also, the perceptions of the participants of their own locus of control as reflected in the responses on the items were gauged against the theoretical literature on the perceptions of a person's own locus of control. Lastly, it was ensured that the dependent variable, perception of own aggression, reflected existing literature and research concerning the manifestation and extent of aggression (Breet, 2006). Data analysis and findings Preliminary analyses were conducted concerning the construct validity of perceptions of own aggression. To assess construct validity, a first and second order factor analysis was conducted on the data gathered on the 24 aggression items in the questionnaire. During the first order factor analysis, a principle factor analysis with orthogonal axes (Field, 2005:740) and varimax rotation (Field, 2005:749) was done. During the second order factor analysis, the export of the first order analysis was used as import to conduct second order factor analysis. Four factors were identified, of which one factor indicated physical (seven items with a Cronbach's Alpha of 0.847 and no item rejected), a second factor verbal (five items with a Cronbach's Alpha of 0.820 and no item rejected) and two factors reflecting indirect aggression (12 items with a Cronbach's Alpha of 0.924 and no item rejected). The 24 items together gave a Cronbach's Alpha of 0.924, reflecting a high reliability of the research instrument overall (see Table 1 and Breet, 2006). When the factors in Table 1 are measured against the theoretical background and the results from the statistical analyses, they can be regarded as valid and reliable. No factor analyses were conducted on the biographical and locus of control items as these variables were measured on nominal and ordinal level. The relationship between perceptions of locus of control and aggression of adolescent boys In the further analyses described in this article, biographical variables and the perception of the locus of control of the adolescent boys were used to compare the data of groups of boys on their perception of their own aggression. First, the significance of various multiple variable differences was investigated (Hotelling's T-square, multiple analyses of variance [MANOVA]) between groups). Once a significant multiple variable difference had been identified, this was followed by the investigation of univariate differences between groups of adolescent boys' perceptions of their own aggression, i.e. Student's t tests or analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Scheffè/Dunnett post-hoc tests). The significance of differences, whether on multivariate or univariate levels, is reported on the 0.01 or 0.05 levels. Where it was found that a difference on multivariate level was not significant, no further univariate analysis followed. Once a significant difference on multivariate level was indicated, and it was followed by a significant difference on univariate level, the finding was finally scrutinised for the "substantiality of a finding". This is viewed as a prerequisite for arriving at a specific finding concerning data and statistical analysis. Discussion of the analyses is done in terms of an investigation concerning the comparison of language groups and aggression (Table 2); age groups and aggression (Table 3); grade groups and aggression (Table 4); and groups with an internal versus an external perception of locus of control and aggression (Table 5). Concerning the differential statistical analysis and interpretation regarding the perception of aggression, the factors (manifestations) identified during the first and second order factor analyses, namely, physical, verbal, and indirect aggression, were used (Table 1). Differential statistical analyses with respect to perception of aggression Analyses with respect to demographic variables: language of tuition, age, and grade The differential analysis with respect to language of tuition and perception of aggression indicated that a significant multiple variable difference between boys taught in Afrikaans and in English was identified on the 0.01 level (p = 0.01; Table 2). Following this analysis, a significant univariate difference was indicated between Afrikaans- and English-speaking learners on the 0.05 level with respect to verbal aggression (p = 0.016). English-speaking learners were significantly more verbally aggressive than Afrikaans-speaking learners. Although a significant difference was found for learners, it was not substantial because of the average scores 2.23 versus 2.43 on a 5-point scale (Table 2). It thus appears that language of tuition did not play a substantial role in the perception of aggression of adolescent boys from the two schools. The differential statistical analysis with respect to age groups and perception of aggression indicated a significant multivariate difference between younger and older boys with respect to perception of aggression on the 0.01 (p = 0.005; Table 3) level. With respect to the univariate analyses, it appeared that boys aged 15 years had a significantly lower average on indirect aggression than 17 years old boys. Again, inspecting the real differences between the averages in Table 3, these significant differences cannot be judged as real (substantial) differences (1.66 versus 1.80). It thus appears that age did not play a substantial role in the perception of aggression of adolescent boys from the two schools. Regarding the comparison of the perception of own aggression of boys from different grades, there was not a significant difference (multivariate p = 0.148) identified between learners in Grades 9, 10, and 11 (Table 4). It is clear that this biographical variable does not play a significant or substantial role regarding the interpretation of the differences of the perception of aggression of groups of adolescent boys in different grades. On inspecting the averages in Tables 2, 3, and 4, it is clear that the largest average is that of the verbal aggression of the English group (2.43 on a five-point scale). All other averages are smaller, most even substantially smaller. This is an indication that the levels of aggression within this specific group are not excessively high. Analysis with respect to locus of control Finally, the significance of the relationship between the perceptions of own locus of control and the perception of aggression of adolescent boys was investigated. The coherence between boys' perceptions of their own locus of control and aggression was examined by making use of the correlation calculations. Significant coherence (correlation) was identified on the 0.01 level between locus of control and the various manifestations of aggression. Locus of control correlated significantly with physical (0.279), verbal (0.200), indirect (0.175) and aggression in total (all items included (0.197)) for all the adolescent boys. Thus a significant relationship between locus of control and all the manifestations of aggression was identified. The finding that there is a direct relationship between locus of control and aggression, and physical, verbal and indirect aggression, is in agreement with the findings of Österman, (1999). The analysis concerning the relationship between perceptions of own locus of control and aggression was followed by an investigation of the differential analysis regarding the significance of differences (Table 5). On the multivariate level there was a significant difference between boys with an external and internal locus of control on the 0.01 level (p = 0.006; Table 5). A univariate analysis followed this identified multivariate significance difference. It was found that boys perceiving themselves as having an external locus of control, in comparison to boys perceiving themselves as having an internal locus of control, had a significantly higher physical (1%), verbal (1%), and indirect (1%) level of aggression. The averages of boys perceiving themselves as having an external locus of control, in comparison to boys perceiving themselves as having an internal locus of control, was significantly and substantially higher, i.e. for physical (1.57 < 1.92, see Table 5), verbal (2.22 < 2.58, see Table 5) and indirect aggression (1.60 < 1.85, see Table 5). Findings and educational implications The differential analysis indicated that contextual variables (language of tuition, age, and grade) do play a significant, but not substantial, role in the extent of the differential manifestation of aggression of adolescent boys. This can be seen as a slight indication that context does play a role. However, more research in this regard is necessary. Furthermore, boys with an internal locus of control are significantly and substantially less aggressive than boys with an external locus of control with respect to physical, verbal, and indirect aggression. These findings, however, are preliminary, and further research in this regard appears necessary. The research reported here confirms the findingscited by Österman (1999) of a direct relationship between the three manifestations of aggression (physical, verbal, and indirect aggression) and locus of control in adolescent boys in this sample. Some of the important educational implications are that teachers and parents alike should take cognisance of the fact that, on the one hand, the more adolescent boys are inclined towards an external locus of control, the higher the level of physical, verbal, and indirect aggression may be. On the other hand, if an internal locus of control is prevalent in adolescent boys, aggression may be lower. Personal responsibility for one's own actions is in our view the single most important aspect in the life of adolescent boys where aggression is concerned. As indicated in the various items in the questionnaire, these are prevalent in the simple aspects of everyday life and decision-making. In this research the finding concerning the role that context plays with respect to aggression was not clear. However, Hunt and Marshall (2002:245) indicated in their research that environment does play an important role in providing security for learners, especially those learners acting disruptively. Thus, the findings of this investigation indicate that healthy interaction and communication (Johnson, 2003:395-400) between educators and adolescent boys are some of the important educational imperatives confronting educators and there may be a need for a special programme to be developed. Educators should pay special attention to stimulating boys and ensuring that they are aware of the importance of taking responsibility for their own actions. The more educators prepare learners to handle frustration and other challenging circumstances such as emotional challenges and behavioural expectations, the more able and fit learners should be in handling everyday challenges with regard to aggression (Hunt & Marshall, 2002:245). Again, it seems imperative that adolescent boys be stimulated and challenged to take responsibility for their own actions and decisions. Although life skills training is a compulsory component of life orientation as a subject in secondary schools, research is necessary to ascertain whether the impact of this on the development of adolescents is in fact as envisaged. Anderson CA 2000. Violence and aggression. Encyclopedia of Psychology, 8:163. New York: Oxford University Press. [ Links ] August GJ, Realmuto GM, Crosby RD & MacDonald AW 1995. Community-based multiple-gate screening of children at risk for conduct disorder (Abstract). Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23:521. 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New Haven, Conn. -- In the largest genome project of its kind to date, Yale scientists have succeeded in fully characterizing the function of the yeast genome, furthering understanding of how human cells work. "While the human genome project so far has focused on the discovery of new genes, our study has taken gene discovery to the next level by figuring out how the genes work," said Michael Snyder, professor and chair of molecular, cellular and developmental biology at Yale. "We were pleasantly surprised to discover new genes in the process." Because as many as 70 percent of yeast genes are strikingly similar to human genes, information about the yeast gene is expected to enhance understanding about human genes and may provide insight into human diseases, said Snyder, whose work is published in the November 25 issue of Nature. "When a human gene is discovered that has been implicated in a genetic disease such as cancer, knowing how the accompanying yeast gene works can help in designing appropriate treatments to help cure the disease," Snyder said. "The yeast gene is basically a small person. It is very easy to manipulate and is very similar to the cellular processes of human cells." During the five-year study, Snyder's team invented a novel method of inserting pieces of DNA throughout the yeast genome. This method helps characterize the yeast gene by determining when the genes are active and also creates mutations in genes so that the functions of the genes can be analyzed. The Yale team analyzed 2,000 genes, or approximately one third of the genes encoded in the yeast genome. "We have discovered new genes and we can now help determine functions for many genes that had been discovered previously, but which had not been characterized," said Snyder, who is also a professor of biophysics and biochemistry at Yale. "It helps us understand both the genetic blueprint and what that blueprint actually does." The study establishes both an information database and a set of tools that many researchers in the scientific community can use. "Thousands of people have visited our database to help learn new things about the genes that they may either already be studying or interested in studying," said Snyder. "This helps give them clues to what experiments to try next. Having one thousand labs with the tools to analyze thousands of genes will provide the most detailed understanding of gene function imaginable. By comparing the characteristics of thousands of genes, we can understand relationships that we did not realize existed before." Snyder's team consisted of researchers from several Yale laboratories, including Shirleen Rodeur of the Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology; Perry Miller of the Center for Medical Informatics and the Department of Anesthesiology at Yale School of Medicine; and Mark Gerstein of the Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry. Cite This Page:

New high-resolution images from NASA's Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft comparing the ice caps at the North and South poles show the difference between the two regions is in the 'cheese'. The North polar cap has a relatively flat, pitted surface that resembles cottage cheese, while the South polar cap has larger pits, trough and flat mesas that give it a holey, Swiss cheese appearance. "Looking like pieces of sliced and broken Swiss cheese, the upper layer of the Martian South polar residual cap has been eroded, leaving flat-topped mesas into which are set circular depressions," said Dr. Peter Thomas of Cornell University, Ithaca, NY and lead author of the paper. "Nothing like this has ever been seen anywhere on Mars except within the South polar cap, leading to some speculation that these landforms may have something to do with the carbon dioxide thought to be frozen in the South polar region." In a paper to be published March 9, 2000, in the journal Nature, members of the Mars Global Surveyor imaging team have described some of the newly discovered differences in polar terrain. "The unusual shapes of the landforms on the North and South polar caps suggest that these regions have had different climates and histories for thousands or perhaps even millions of years," said Thomas. "We are discovering them for the first time because Mars Global Surveyor is working to provide high-resolution views of the tremendously diverse terrain on Mars over all Martian seasons." "These landforms may be telling us what the South polar cap is made of," said Dr. Andrew Ingersoll of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena and one of the authors of the paper. "The North residual cap -- the part that survives the summer -- is made of water ice. The South residual cap seems to be made of carbon dioxide or dry ice, but we don't know if this is a veneer a few meters thick or a solid block that extends down 2 or 3 kilometers (1.24 or 1.86 miles). These images may help us decide." The North polar cap is covered mainly by pits, cracks, small bumps and knobs that give it the cottage cheese look. The pits that have developed on the surface are spaced close together relative to the very different depressions in the South polar cap. These pits probably developed slowly over successive spring and summer seasons. "The polar images demonstrate again that understanding Mars' complicated history requires studying many areas in detail, just as understanding the Earth does," Thomas said. "If we discovered that both polar caps are mostly water, it would leave a mystery about why there is so little carbon dioxide on Mars. Earth has a lot of carbon dioxide, but creatures living in the ocean have turned it into limestone rocks. Without oceans or life, Mars should have a lot more carbon dioxide on its surface than we seem to be finding," explained Ingersoll. Mars Global Surveyor is managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory for NASA's Office of Space Science, Washington, DC. JPL's industrial partner is Lockheed Martin Astronautics, Denver, which developed and operates the spacecraft. JPL is a division of the California Institute of Technology. Cite This Page:

A major cause of pain and disability, rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is also potentially the most treatable form of chronic arthritis. Researchers, doctors, and patients agree that a group of drugs called disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs) can effectively reduce joint pain and stiffness. Yet, even when prescribed early and aggressively, DMARDs alone do not guarantee the desired outcome: the rapid and prolonged suppression of inflammation needed to induce remission. Fortunately, there is new hope for treating RA early and experiencing long-lasting gains. Biologic agents that target tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha – a protein known for provoking inflammation – have been successfully used to curtail the activity of rheumatoid arthritis among other chronic inflammatory conditions. Recently, a team of researchers in the United Kingdom set out to test the effectiveness of anti-TNF-alpha therapy on a small sample of patients with very early, poor-prognosis, previously untreated RA. The promising results and practical treatment implications of their pilot study are featured in the January 2005 issue of Arthritis & Rheumatism (http://www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/arthritis). Based at Leeds General Infirmary, the research team recruited twenty patients with a diagnosis of RA meeting the American College of Rheumatology's criteria. On average, the patients had complained of disease symptoms for six months. None had ever been prescribed DMARDs or steroids. At the study's onset, the patients were randomly divided into two treatment groups. One group received a standard dosage of a TNF-alpha inhibitor, infliximab (also known by the commercial name Remicade), while the other group received the a placebo. Patients in both groups also began a course of escalating DMARD therapy with methotrexate. DMARDs are drugs that improve the signs and symptoms of RA and reduce damage as shown by joint X-rays All twenty RA patients adhered to their assigned treatment for a full year. To closely monitor the impact of anti-TFN-alpha therapy on synovitis, the inflammation of the membrane lining the joints, as well as bone erosions, every patient underwent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of the hand at baseline, at four weeks, and then at eight-week intervals until 54 weeks. The MRI scans were repeated a final time at 104 weeks – one year after the patients stopped taking infliximab. At its one-year culmination, the study achieved its primary goal for RA patients given the advantage of early anti-TNF-alpha therapy: disease remission to avert joint damage. At 14 weeks, according to the MRI findings, patients taking infliximab combined with methotrexate showed a significant reduction in levels of synovitis compared to their baseline scores and to their counterparts. At 24 weeks, the infliximab group had significantly fewer new telltale signs of joint erosions than the placebo group. Throughout the course of the study, up to week 104, remission rates were greater among those patients prescribed infliximab plus methotrexate. 7 out of 10 of the patients had met the ACR response criteria for remission, compared with 2 out of 10 patients in the placebo plus methotrexate group. One year after withdrawing from anti-TNF-alpha therapy, the patients in this group continued to experience therapeutic benefits. These patients scored significantly higher on measures of function and quality of life than the patients who had been treated with conventional DMARDs alone. "This appears to emphasize the importance of not only adequate disease suppression over time, but also of rapid disease suppression for optimal improvement in these outcomes," notes the study's author, Mark A. Quinn. "Rapid control of disease activity may prevent patients from entering the 'sick role' and may avoid the socioeconomic disadvantages associated with chronic illness, which extend beyond the anti-inflammatory nature of the therapy." Despite the small sample of patients, this study has important implications for the most effective, affordable, short-term use of anti-TNF-alpha therapy, at the very early stages of RA. "Large-scale studies are under way to confirm these findings," Quinn reports. Article: "Very Early Treatment With Infliximab in Addition to Methotrexate in Early, Poor-Prognosis Rheumatoid Arthritis Reduces Magnetic Resonance Imaging Evidence of Synovitis and Damage, With Sustained Benefit After Infliximab Withdrawal: Results From a Twelve-Month Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial," Mark A. Quinn, Philip G. Conaghan, Philip J. O'Connor, Zunaid Karim, Adam Greenstein, Andrew Brown, Clare Brown, Alexander Fraser, Stephen Jarret, and Paul Emery, Arthritis & Rheumatism, January 2005; 52:1; pp. 27-35. The above story is based on materials provided by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. Cite This Page:

An infestation of predator starfish is decimating large tracts of coral reef throughout the Philippines. The spiny and toxic crown-of-thorns starfish are voracious predators that can wipe out large areas of coral; an individual can consume up to 6 square metres of living reef per year. Outbreaks of the species often occur when ocean temperatures and nutrient levels increase. Crown-of-thorns starfish have long spines and are capable of severe stings. Contact will almost surely inflict severe swelling, pain and nausea that can last for hours or days. Unfortunately, some of the starfish’s major predators, such as humphead wrasse and giant triton, which usually keep the species in check have declined in recent years as a result of overfishing. “We are experiencing a return of the starfish in greater numbers,” said WWF-Philippines CEO Lory Tan. “The situation facing our reefs is far from normal.” The Philippines once boasted 25,000km2 of coral reef. However, a recent World Bank study shows that barely 1 per cent of this area remains pristine, and more than 50 per cent are reported to be in decline or unhealthy. To combat the outbreak, WWF-Philippines is enlisting the help of beachgoers to reduce the number of starfish in an infested area. The most recent action netted hundreds from the world-class diving site of Apo Reef off the west coast of the island of Mindoro, about 100km south of the capital, Manila. “In the long term, the best response to the situation is by putting a stop to overfishing and agricultural runoff, and to better manage sewage,” Tan adds. “It’s important to keep our oceans clean and our reefs well balanced.” According to a WWF survey, outbreaks of crown-of-thorns starfish have been reported at Apo Reef and Puerto Galera in Mindoro, as well as at Mabini in Batangas, Roxas in Palawan, Bolinao in Lingayen Gulf, and Kiamba and Glan in Sarangani Bay. It is possible that many other coastal areas have been affected as well. Cite This Page:

Sleeping just five hours a night over a workweek and having unlimited access to food caused participants in a new study led by the University of Colorado Boulder to gain nearly two pounds of weight. The study, performed in collaboration with the CU Anschutz Medical Campus, suggests that sufficient sleep could help battle the obesity epidemic. "I don't think extra sleep by itself is going to lead to weight loss," said Kenneth Wright, director of CU-Boulder's Sleep and Chronobiology Laboratory, which led the study. "Problems with weight gain and obesity are much more complex than that. But I think it could help. If we can incorporate healthy sleep into weight-loss and weight-maintenance programs, our findings suggest that it may assist people to obtain a healthier weight." But further research is needed to test that hypothesis, Wright added. Previous research has shown that a lack of sleep can lead to weight gain, but the reasons for extra pounds were unclear. In the new study, published March. 11 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the researchers show that, while staying awake longer requires more energy, the amount of food study participants ate more than offset the extra calories burned. "Just getting less sleep, by itself, is not going to lead to weight gain," Wright said. "But when people get insufficient sleep, it leads them to eat more than they actually need." For the study, researchers monitored 16 young, lean, healthy adults who lived for about two weeks at the University of Colorado Hospital, which is equipped with a "sleep suite" for controlling sleep opportunities -- by providing a quiet environment and by regulating when the lights are on and off -- and a sealed room that allows researchers to measure how much energy participants are using based on the amount of oxygen they breathe in and the amount of carbon dioxide they breathe out. All participants spent the first three days with the opportunity to sleep nine hours a night and eating meals that were controlled to give participants only the calories they needed to maintain their weight in order to establish baseline measurements. But after the first few days, the participants were split into two groups: one that spent five days with only five hours to sleep in and one that spent five days with nine hours of sleep opportunity. In both groups, participants were offered larger meals and had access to snack options throughout the day ranging from fruit and yogurt to ice cream and potato chips. After the five-day period, the groups switched. On average, the participants who slept for up to five hours a night burned 5 percent more energy than those who slept up to nine hours a night, but they consumed 6 percent more calories. Those getting less sleep also tended to eat smaller breakfasts but binge on after-dinner snacks. In fact, the total amount of calories consumed in evening snacks was larger than the calories that made up any individual meal. The current findings add to the growing body of evidence showing that overeating at night may contribute to weight gain. "When people are sleep-restricted, our findings show they eat during their biological nighttime when internal physiology is not designed to be taking in food," said Wright, who is already working on a new study to better determine the implications of when people are eating not just what they're eating. Wright and his colleagues also found that men and women responded differently to having access to unrestricted food. Men gained some weight even with adequate sleep when they could eat as much as they wanted, while women simply maintained their weight when they had adequate sleep, regardless of how much food was available. Both men and women gained weight when they were only allowed to sleep for up to five hours. Other co-authors of the new study include Rachel Markwarld and Mark Smith, who were both postdoctoral researchers in Wright's lab, as well as School of Medicine faculty members Edward Melanson, Leigh Perreault, Robert Eckel and Janine Higgins from the Anschutz Medical Campus. The research was funded with grants from the National Institutes of Health, the Colorado Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute in collaboration with the Biological Sciences Initiative and CU-Boulder's Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program. Cite This Page:

Scientists from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have identified a benign bacterium that shows promise in blocking Salmonella from colonizing raw tomatoes. Their research is published ahead of print in the journal Applied and Environmental Microbiology. When applied to Salmonella-contaminated tomato plants in a field study, the bacterium, known as Paenibacillus alvei, significantly reduced the concentration of the pathogen compared to controls. Outbreaks of Salmonella traced to raw tomatoes have sickened nearly 2,000 people in the US from 2000-2010, killing three. Since the millennium, this pathogen has caused 12 multistate outbreaks of food-borne illness -- more than one each year. It was this carnage that provided the impetus for the study, according to corresponding author Jie Zheng, of the FDA. "The conditions in which tomatoes thrive are also the conditions in which Salmonella thrives," says coauthor Eric W. Brown, also of FDA, "but we knew that if we could block Salmonella from infecting the tomato plant, we could reduce its risk of infecting the person who eats the tomato." The logic behind the work is simple. Many innocuous bacterial species thrive within the tomato-growing environment. "We hypothesized that such an organism could be found that possessed the ability to outcompete or chemically destroy Salmonella," says Zheng. "After screening many hundreds of potential biocontrol strains of bacteria that were isolated from farms and natural environments in the Mid-Atlantic region, we found about 10 isolates of bacteria representing very different genera and species that could curb the growth and/or destroy Salmonella in our test assays." Many of these were as pathogenic to humans as is Salmonella, but two isolates, belonging to the environmentally friendly species, P. alvei, strongly inhibited growth of Salmonella. "This bacterium also has no known history of human pathology, making it a great candidate as a biological control agent," says Zheng. "While farmers and agricultural scientists have long used microbes to prevent plant diseases, we now have the opportunity to add a naturally-occurring microbe to a crop in the field with the goal of preventing human disease," says Zheng. "Our ambitions are now to extend this microbial approach to cantaloupe, leafy greens, and other crops that have lately been responsible for outbreaks of food-borne Salmonella and E. coli." - S. Allard, A. Enurah, E. Strain, P. Millner, S. L. Rideout, E. W. Brown, J. Zheng. In situ Evaluation of Paenibacillus alvei in Reducing Carriage of Salmonella Newport on Whole Tomato Plants. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 2014; DOI: 10.1128/AEM.00835-14 Cite This Page:

Sleep deprivation is a quick and efficient way to treat depression. It works 60 to 70 percent of the time—far better than existing drugs—but the mood boost usually lasts only until the patient falls asleep. As an ongoing treatment, sleep deprivation is impractical, but researchers have been studying the phenomenon in an effort to uncover the cellular mechanisms behind depression and remission. Now a team at Tufts University has pinpointed glia as the key players. The researchers previously found that astrocytes, a star-shaped type of glial cell, regulate the brain chemicals involved in sleepiness. During our waking hours, astrocytes continuously release the neurotransmitter adenosine, which builds up in the brain and causes “sleep pressure,” the feeling of sleepiness and its related memory and attention impairments. The neurotransmitter causes this pressure by binding to adenosine receptors on the outside of neurons like a key fitting into a lock. As more adenosine builds up, more receptors are triggered, and the urge to sleep gets stronger. In the new study, published online January 15 in the journal Translational Psychiatry, the scientists investigated whether this process is responsible for the antidepressant effects of sleep deprivation. Mice with depressivelike symptoms were administered three doses of a compound that triggers adenosine receptors, thus mimicking sleep deprivation. Although the mice continued to sleep normally, after 12 hours they showed a rapid improvement in mood and behavior, which lasted for 48 hours. The results confirm that the adenosine buildup is responsible for the antidepressant effects of a lack of sleep. This finding points to a promising target for new drug development because it suggests that mimicking sleep deprivation chemically may offer the antidepressant benefits without the unwanted side effects of actually skipping sleep. Such an intervention could offer immediate relief from depression, in stark contrast with traditional antidepressants, which take six to eight weeks to kick in. The study may also have implications beyond depression and sleep regulation, according to Dustin Hines, lead author and a postdoctoral fellow at Tufts. “For many years neuroscientists focused almost exclusively on neurons, whereas the role of glia was neglected,” Hines says. “We now know that glia play an important role in the control of brain function and have the potential to aid in the development of new treatments for many illnesses, including depression and sleep disorders.”

Teachers might want to think twice about posting no gum-chewing signs in the classroom. It turns out that the sticky substance might help students concentrate. Researchers had two groups of 20 people each listen to a 30-minute recording that included a sequence of numbers. After listening, the participants were asked to remember the sequence. But only one groups chewed gum—and they had higher accuracy rates and faster reaction times than the non-gum chewers. Those chewing gum also maintained focus longer during the exercise. The study is in the British Journal of Psychology—and contradicts a 2012 study that found gum chewing decreased short-term memory performance. [Kate Morgan, Andrew J. Johnson and Christopher Miles, Chewing gum moderates the vigilance decrement] The researchers say that gum increases the flow of oxygen to regions of the brain responsible for attention. More oxygen can keep people alert and improve their reflexes. Research also shows that you won’t get the same effect by just pretending to chew gum. So the next time your mind is wandering in class, maybe try some gum. If it doesn’t help you concentrate you’ll at least be asked to leave. [The above text is a transcript of this podcast.]

Bonobos display consolation behavior, a sign of sensitivity to the emotions of others and the ability to take the perspective of another. Comforting a friend or relative in distress may be a more hard-wired behavior than previously thought, according to a new study of bonobos, which are great apes known for their empathy and close relation to humans and chimpanzees. This provides key evolutionary insight into how critical social skills may develop in humans. The results were published by the journal PLOS One. Researchers from the Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, observed juvenile bonobos at the Lola ya Bonobo sanctuary in the Democratic Republic of Congo engaging in consolation behavior more than their adult counterparts. Juvenile bonobos (3 to 7 years old) are equivalent in age to preschool or elementary school-aged children. By Lisa Newbern

STROM Thurmond, the longest serving senator in the history of the United States and longtime champion of racial segregation, has died at the age of 100. First elected to public office in his home state of South Carolina in 1932, he served 48 years in the Senate until his retirement in January. It seems safe to say US politics will not see his like again. No wonder the South Carolina senator Ernest Hollings, a Democrat who served with Mr Thurmond for 35 years, said: "A great oak in the forest of public service has fallen." Mr Thurmond will be best remembered for running for president in 1948 as a segregationist. He remained a robust opponent of civil rights in the 1950s and ’60s before accepting racial integration was inevitable. His defection to the Republican Party in 1964 helped begin the process by which Democrats lost the South. Although in recent years his hearing had gone and he had to be physically helped on to the Senate floor by aides - who could also be heard telling him which way to vote - he remained chairman of the Senate armed forces committee until the day before his 96th birthday. As the senior member of the Senate, he remained third in line of succession to the presidency, behind the vice-president and the speaker of the House of Representatives. His legislative achievements were few but he played a key role in breaking the dominance of the Democratic Party in the South, opening the way for a realignment of US politics that has meant Democrats have occupied the White House for just 12 years since 1968. Mr Thurmond ran for president in 1948 against Harry Truman, presenting himself as a "Dixiecrat" determined to champion states’ rights against what he viewed as the creeping encroachment, verging on totalitarianism, of the federal government. He argued that segregation was a matter for individual states and once said: "There's not enough troops in the army to force the Southern people to break down segregation and admit the Negro race into our theatres, into our swimming pools, into our homes, and into our churches." Mr Thurmond, then governor of South Carolina, won more than a million votes and captured his home state plus Alabama, Louisiana and Mississippi. The residual legacy of his campaign inadvertently claimed a final victim in December when the Senate majority leader, Trent Lott, resigned after suggesting, at Mr Thurmond’s 100th birthday party that the United States "wouldn’t have had all these problems over all these years" if Mr Thurmond had won. After a defeat in 1950, Mr Thurmond finally was elected to the Senate in 1954. He never left, his unstinting devotion to South Carolina and mastery of pork-barrel politics ensured his re-election. In his earlier days he was a vigorous opponent of the civil rights movement, which he believed was a communist-inspired plot. He had been a comparatively progressive governor, improving black schools in South Carolina and urging the vigorous prosecution of a mob that lynched a black man accused of murdering a white taxi driver. His most famous contribution came in 1957 when he set a record - still unbroken - for a Senate filibuster. In a doomed attempt to block a civil rights commission, Mr Thurmond, armed with throat lozenges and malted milk tablets, rose to his feet at 8:54pm on 28 August, 1957. He did not sit down until 9:12pm the following day. Mr Thurmond had prepared for his marathon speech by eating a sirloin steak and taking a steam bath to dehydrate his body so he would not have to visit the loo. Mr Thurmond’s conversion to integration was belated and based largely on political pragmatism. In 1970 he saw how the Republican candidate for South Carolina’s other Senate seat lost through standing up for "hard-core rednecks". While he never won more than 20 per cent of the black vote in South Carolina, the support he did win was sufficient to prevent Democrats from creating a base to challenge him. He endorsed Barry Goldwater’s presidential campaign in 1964, leaving a Democratic Party he claimed was "leading the evolution of our country to a socialistic dictatorship". Four years later he helped Richard Nixon hold off Ronald Reagan’s challenge for the presidential nomination and helped design Nixon’s "Southern strategy", designed to appeal to disaffected whites in the South. While other Southern Republicans opposed 1983 legislation making Martin Luther King’s birthday a national holiday, Mr Thurmond backed it. He explained in 1996: "Times change and people change, and people who can’t change don’t stay in office long." Mr Thurmond enjoyed a reputation as a ladies’ man. During President Bill Clinton’s impeachment trial - over which he presided - he flirted shamelessly with Mr Clinton’s female counsel. Ladies who shared a lift with him did so at their own risk it was said. Born in 1902 when Mark Twain was alive and Theodore Roosevelt was president, he became a teacher before becoming a lawyer. He served with distinction in the 82nd Airborne Division, taking part in the Normandy invasion. He was elected state governor in 1947. He did not marry until he was 44, proposing to his secretary, Jean Crouch, 20, in a memo he dictated to her. The couple were happily married until her death from a brain tumour in 1960 but did not have children. Eight years later he married Nancy Moore, a former Miss South Carolina. She was 22, he was 66. They had four children and Mr Thurmond became a grandfather for the first time last week.

by Staff Writers San Francisco CA (SPX) Feb 14, 2013 Nitrogen in ocean waters fuels the growth of two tiny but toxic phytoplankton species that are harmful to marine life and human health, warns a new study published in the Journal of Phycology. Researchers from San Francisco State University found that nitrogen entering the ocean -- whether through natural processes or pollution -- boosts the growth and toxicity of a group of phytoplankton that can cause the human illness Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning. Commonly found in marine waters off the North American West Coast, these diatoms (phytoplankton cells) of the Pseudo-nitzschia genus produce a potent toxin called domoic acid. When these phytoplankton grow rapidly into massive blooms, high concentrations of domoic acid put human health at risk if it accumulates in shellfish. It can also cause death and illness among marine mammals and seabirds that eat small fish that feed on plankton. "Regardless of its source, nitrogen has a powerful impact on the growth of phytoplankton that are the foundation of the marine food web, irrespective of whether they are toxic or not," said William Cochlan, senior research scientist at SF State's Romberg Tiburon Center for Environmental Studies. "Scientists and regulators need to be aware of the implications of both natural and pollutant sources of nitrogen entering the sea." Nitrogen can occur naturally in marine waters due to coastal upwelling, which draws cool, nutrient-rich water containing nitrate (the most stable form of nitrogen) from deeper depths into sunlit surface waters. Pollution, including agricultural runoff containing fertilizer and effluent from sewage plants, is also responsible for adding nitrogen, including ammonium and urea, to ocean waters, but in most regions these types of nitrogen occur at relatively low concentrations. In laboratory studies, Cochlan and former graduate student Maureen Auro found that natural and pollution-caused nitrogen forms equally support the growth of the harmful Pseudo-nitzschia algae and cause the production of the domoic acid, but in all cases the natural form of nitrogen caused the most toxic cells. They also found that these small diatoms became particularly toxic under low light levels - a condition that usually slows the growth of phytoplankton. The species, P. cuspidata, underwent an up to 50 fold increase in toxicity under low light levels compared to the conditions that are thought to normally favor phytoplankton growth. Scientists already know that in some large-celled species of Pseudo-nitzschia their toxicity increases when the cells grow slower, but in previous studies the slowing of cellular growth was due to the limitation of vital nutrients, such as silicate. However Cochlan's latest study found that the toxicity of these small toxigenic diatoms is affected by the type of nitrogen they consume. He found that under low light levels -- leading to slow growth -- phytoplankton cells that were fed on naturally occurring nitrate were more toxic than cells that were fed on either urea or ammonium caused by pollution. "Our results demonstrate that the reason for the growth of these specific harmful algal blooms off the coast of North America from British Columbia to California may in fact be due to totally natural causes," Cochlan said. Such toxic algal blooms may be largely supported by the natural upwelling of nitrogen. However, Cochlan cautions that when the pattern of upwelling is weaker, nitrogen from pollution could play an important role in sustaining a "seed population" of harmful algae - a remnant that keeps the bloom going until upwelling resumes and the bloom is able to grow again and perhaps increase their toxic effect on the marine ecosystem. "This is the first physiological study to look at the environmental conditions that promote both the growth and the toxicity of these small diatoms," Cochlan said. "The findings may shed light on why these microorganisms produce a potent neurotoxin and what the ecological advantage is for the phytoplankton producing it." "Nitrogen Utilization and Toxin Production by Two Diatoms of the Pseudo-nitzschia pseudodelicatissima complex: P. cuspidata and P. fryxelliana," was published in the February 2013 issue of the Journal of Phycology. The paper was authored by Maureen E. Auro, a graduate of the marine biology master's program at SF State, and William P. Cochlan, senior research scientist at SF State's Romberg Tiburon Center for Environmental Studies. The study was funded by the National Science Foundation's Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful Algal Blooms program (ECOHAB). San Francisco State University Farming Today - Suppliers and Technology |The content herein, unless otherwise known to be public domain, are Copyright 1995-2012 - Space Media Network. AFP, UPI and IANS news wire stories are copyright Agence France-Presse, United Press International and Indo-Asia News Service. ESA Portal Reports are copyright European Space Agency. All NASA sourced material is public domain. Additional copyrights may apply in whole or part to other bona fide parties. Advertising does not imply endorsement,agreement or approval of any opinions, statements or information provided by Space Media Network on any Web page published or hosted by Space Media Network. Privacy Statement|

The Black Eyed Susan (Rudbeckia) sprouts it’s seed in the middle of summer. Once summer has arrived, you will begin to see this flower growing towards the end of July. It sometimes can grow well into the fall, depending on climate, soil, and nature. Black Eyed Susan vines are bright yellow flowers that have a distinct black center. They will spread throughout the flowerbed and really add a certain brightness to the end of summer. They have very strong stems that will hold them upright. They will never fall over due to the strength of the stem. They do not need to be supported with any kind of staking. There are about 50 different species of this flower and one thing they have in common is that they all have a bright yellow blossom. The centers however, are not always black. They can also be red or green. This perennial flower just happens to be the Maryland state flower. Definitely a beautiful flower to have representing your state! Rudbeckia’s are easy to grow and will continue to come back every year. As I have said earlier, they are a perennial plant. The Black Eyed Susan grows well in a flowerbed all by itself. While you can have other flowers around them, they do not need it. They put on a beautiful show all on their own. In order to start the growing process, make sure you are planting them in fertile soil with very good drainage. If you live in colder regions, plant the flower in the springtime. If you live in a warmer climate, then you could begin planting the flower in the fall months. These plants will reseed themselves every year. Once they begin to grow, some of the plants may die off, but then, due to the reseeding, they will begin to grow again. If you have your Rudbeckia planted in the sun, do not worry; they are great plants for sunny spots. Just make sure to water them regularly. If your soil is moist, then you do not have to water them as often. Only on an as needed basis. The only problems you may come into contact with would be mildew on the leaves. When you see mildew, you can cut the plants to stop the growing of the mildew. Then they will continue to grow, as they should. While this usually is not a problem until the end of its growing season, just make sure to cut the plants that have it so that it doesn’t become a bigger problem.

Farmers and ranchers in Wyoming and around the country are going to have to make some changes when it comes to treating animals with antibiotics. The F-D-A is banning some off-label uses of the class of medications known as Cephalosporins. The ban stems from concerns that overuse in animals is creating drug-resistant bacteria, that would in turn eventually end up affecting humans. David Wallinga with the Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy applauds the decision. Wallinga says about 54,000 pounds of Cephalosporins were used in producing farm animals in the U-S in 2010. But he calls that just a “drop in the bucket” compared to the widespread use of other antibiotics in agriculture, and he thinks more needs to be done to end routine use of antibiotics. Those who oppose the ban say there are already few options for effective animal antibiotics, and this takes away another one of them. The ban goes into effect on April 5th.

The joy of birding : a beginner's guide New York : Skyhorse Publishing, c2011. More than 50 million birders can't be wrong. No matter where you live, you have the joy of hearing and seeing birds. This easy-to-use, full-color guide will provide you with the answers. Here you'll learn how to identify different bird species byobserving their body-parts, understand birds' behavior and habits, get to know the birds around the home or a vacation spot, attract and make a good home for these new feathered friends, and much more! Designed especially for the homebirdwatcher, but with information on destination vacations, this book teaches, âIf you're prepared to see them, they will come!â Birdwatcher's daily companion : 365 days of advice, insight, and information for enthusiastic birders Tom Warhol, Marcus H. Schneck. Beverly, Mass. : Quarry Books, c2010. Embrace your love of birdwatching, every day of the year! By nature, bird lovers are naturalists and collectors, and you know how easy it is to devote hours upon hours of time-a lifetime, in fact-to your hobby.Birdwatcherrsquo;s Daily Companionis a fun, sophisticated way to be newly inspired, every day of the year. Inside is insight into everything from how to identify look alike species to planting a hummingbird garden, planning birding travel, and so much more. Throughout the birdwatcherrsquo;s year, yoursquo;ll find: Mondays / bird-finding tips and techniques Tuesdays / all about species identification Wednesdays / ideas for birding excursions and travel Thursdays / learn to find and attract birds to your backyard Fridays / birds in history and mythology Saturdays & Sundays / birding projects and activities Global birding : traveling the world in search of birds Les Beletsky ; with birding narratives by David L. Pearson. Washington, D.C. : National Geographic Society, c2010. In six lively chapters organized by continent, each illustrated with 30-40 photographs and artwork and a map, this new book will help you discover "where the birds are": whether in Mexico and southern Europe or in the distant, mythic Galapagos, Korea, and Antarctica. In depth, instructive, but engaging text of 100,000 words is accompanied sidebars, lists of each area's most spectacular birds, and easy-access information about each place, the best time to visit, and what to expect. Spectacular photographs will make this a gorgeous gift book as well as practical reference. Each main chapter will begin with chapter-opener photo spread across one or two pages showing a typical habitat scene filled with birds of the continent addressed in the chapter. Each of the six main chapters will have 10 photos of exotic birding locations, such as the Pantanal region of Brazil, with its blue-violet Hyacinth Macaws; or photos of famous nature lodges that cater to birders, such as O'Reilly's Rainforest Guesthouse, near Brisbane, Australia. The most beautiful and sought-after birds of each region--about 20 per chapter--will be illustrated by some of the best bird photographers in the world. In addition, 8-10 maps will round out the coverage. The backyard bird lover's ultimate how-to guide : more than 200 easy ideas and projects for attracting and feeding your favorite birds [Emmaus, Pa.] : Rodale ; [New York] ; Macmillan, 2010. A comprehensive A-to-Z handbook for the foods and feeders, plants and projects that will guarantee a bird-friendly backyard One of the joys of spending time in the backyard is observing the birds. This acorns-to-wrens guide helps readers create a backyard thatrsquo;s right for them and right for their local birds. The book targets all skill levels, offering new birders plenty of basics while intriguing longtime birdwatchers with new ideas. Here readers will learn: ⢠which birdhouses are a smart buy and which ones to leave on the shelf ⢠how to choose a birdseed mix to attract colorful songbirdsârather than pesky crows ⢠why easy homemade suet blocks are irresistable to hungry birds in every season ⢠how to offer shelter to species dealing with disappearing natural habitats Along with the ins and outs of feeding, behavior, nesting, and gardening advice, each of the 200-plus entries is sprinkled with super-simple step-by-step projects, bird treat recipes, and planting ideas, along with plenty of fascinating bird lore and Rothrsquo;s own observations on bird behavior. Audubon pocket backyard birdwatch Stephen W. Kress. New York : DK Publishing, c2010, c2007. Revised and updated, the Audubon Pocket Backyard Birdwatchis a portable, visually rich guide for beginning birdwatchers to use at home or in the field and includes a foldout chart that illustrates over 30 common garden birds. Produced in conjunction with the experts at Audubon, the book is packed with practical and achievable advice, from how to provide water, food, and nesting sites to creating a bird-friendly environment in your yard. The bird watching answer book : everything you need to know to enjoy birds in your backyard and beyond North Adams, MA : Storey Pub., c2009. Birdwatching enthusiasts often turn to the Cornell Lab of Ornithology for answers to their most pressing birding questions. Now, the lab's most often asked questions about bird behavior are answered in a concise, friendly volume.

Underground Turin: the tunnels of Pietro Micca It may be hard to imagine today, but Turin was, at one time, a fortified city. The first stone of the fortification was laid in 1564, on the orders of Duke Emanuele Filiberto, who wished to protect his new capital. The Citadel was laid out in a pentagon shape, with a stronghold at every angle, and surrounded by a wide moat. In 1706, in the middle of the Spanish war of succession, the Citadel was attacked by more than forty thousand soldiers of Louis XIV, and was able to repel the assault due to the well-planned defense system beneath the city. In fact, 14 kilometers of tunnels had been dug, consisting of main tunnels (the deepest levels) and service tunnels (closer to the surface). Recessed areas were dug into the tunnels, and then packed with explosives, which were then ignited as necessary by a slow-burning fuse. The explosion, calculated with the utmost precision, reverberated upwards, just beneath with enemies’ cannons. This was an effective and nearly invisible method of defending Turin, which Field Marshal Vauban, a famous military engineer, defined as the “the quibble of the mines”. These defensive tunnels under the Citadel made one particular soldier famous - Pietro Micca, of the miners’ company. On the night between 29 and 30 August 1706, a battery of French grenadiers found the entrance to the service tunnel and entered it. Micca knew he had to stop them. If they reached the lower tunnel, they would have had easy access to the heart of the Citadel and could have taken it from inside. He was alone, and therefore unable to stop the enemy with force. Micca decided to ignite a short fuse, causing an immediate explosion that destroyed the stairs leading to the lower tunnel. The explosion prevented the French soldiers from entering the Citadel, but also resulted in the death of Pietro Micca, who was hurled into the air by the strong blast wave and choked by fumes. A section of the tunnels, including the part in which Micca’s body was recovered, can be visited at the Pietro Micca Civic Museum, in central Turin. Venturing into the underground tunnels feels a bit like being granted access to a secret spot, hidden from the world. The air is cold, regardless of the weather outside, and the only light comes from the few lamps that are hung along the route. The ceilings are so low that you are forced to bow your head and, at about shoulder height, there are bricks that stick out from the walls that the soldiers used to feel their way along the tunnels when it was necessary to turn out the lights. There are many details that narrate the precision that was involved in designing the military defense. For example, the stairs that connect that service tunnel to the lower main tunnel were made from small amounts of stone, but mostly from wood, so that, in the event of a threat from the enemy, the wood could be destroyed, rendering the stairs so disconnected that they were virtually unusable. The Museum also includes a display of weapons, including a French cannon, as well as models of the Citadel and all of the tunnels. Pietro Micca Civic Museum via Guicciardini 7a – Turin Telephone: +39 011 54 63 17 Open Tuesday through Sunday from 10:00am to 6:00pm Guided tours departing at 10:30am, 2:30pm, 4:30pm Full-priced ticket €3, discounted ticket €2 (up to 18 years of age) by Margherita Restelli

How To Draw An Eye This book focuses on drawing the perfect eye using a pencil and eraser. Step by step learn how to layer and shade the iris, pupil, brow, eyelid and nasal area. Learn the basics; the structure of the eye, the parts of the eye, and shading methods. Once you master these methods you will be able to use the same methods on the other parts of the face.

It’s one of the most well known optical illusions around, the Müller-Lyer illusion. Two lines, bounded by arrows. Simple. Through the trickery of human visual perception, lines of equal length look different when arrows facing different directions cap off their ends. For more than a century, says PopSci, the success of the illusion held unshaken: ision researchers assumed that the illusion told us something fundamental about human vision. When they showed the illusion to people with normal vision, they were convinced that the line with the inward-pointing arrows would seem longer than the line with outward-pointing arrows. But then, in the 1960s, the idea that cultural experience might come into to play arose. Up until that point, says PopSci, in an excerpt from a recent book by New York University marketing and psychology professor Adam Alter, “almost everyone who had seen the illusion was WEIRD—an acronym that cultural psychologists have coined for people from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic societies.” Taking the test worldwide, the persistence of the illusion fell apart. In the U.S. and for European descendants in South Africa, the illusion worked. Then the researchers journeyed farther afield, testing people from several African tribes. Bushmen from southern Africa failed to show the illusion at all, perceiving the lines as almost identical in length. Small samples of Suku tribespeople from northern Angola and Bete tribespeople from the Ivory Coast also failed to show the illusion, or saw Line B as only very slightly longer than Line A. Müller-Lyer’s eponymous illusion had deceived thousands of people from WEIRD societies for decades, but it wasn’t universal. The biological basis of how these different groups of people saw the illusion is identical, but the response was totally different. The success or failure of the illusion is a cultural effect. But what is driving that difference has been a matter of ongoing debate. In his book, Alter proposes the theory that western societies, used to seeing straight lines and geometric forms in buildings and houses, grow accustomed to looking at lines as three-dimension representations of space—the out-turned arrows of the “longer” line and the inward arrows of the “short” line invoke this spatial reasoning and underpin the illusion. These intuitions are bound up in cultural experience, and the Bushpeople, Suku, and Bete didn’t share those intuitions because they had rarely been exposed to the same geometric configurations. In the research, scientists led by Macquarie University’s Astrid Zeman found that a computer trained to mimic the perceptions of the human eye was also susceptible to the Müller-Lyer Illusion. “In the past,” writes Choi, “scientists had speculated this illusion was caused by human brains misinterpreting arrowheads and arrow tails as depth cues — in modern-day environments, rooms, buildings and roads present boxy scenes with many edges, and so might lead people to unknowingly make predictions regarding depth whenever they run across angles and corners. However, since this computer model was not trained with 3D images, these findings may rule out that idea.” “Recently, many computer models have tried to imitate how the brain processes visual information because it is so good at it,” Zeman said. “We are able to handle all sorts of changes in lighting and background, and we still recognize objects when they have been moved, rotated or deformed. I was curious to see whether copying all of the good aspects of object recognition also has the potential to copy aspects of visual processing that could produce misjudgments.” The scientists discovered these artificial mimics of the brain could get duped by the illusion. A computer failing the Müller-Lyer test doesn’t eliminate the cultural aspects of the perception of the illusion reported in the previous studies, but it does open the question as to what drives the differences. All in all, these findings suggest the illusion doesn’t necessarily depend on the environment or any rules people learn about the world. Rather, it may result from an inherent property of how the visual system processes information that requires further elucidation. More from Smithsonian.com:

Civil War Overview Civil War 1861 Civil War 1862 Civil War 1863 Civil War 1864 Civil War 1865 Civil War Battles Robert E. Lee Civil War Medicine Civil War Links Republic of Texas Civil War Gifts Robert E. Lee Portrait Page) mates and companions now rebels. One box in six or ten may reach its destination. The rest will be seized by the thieves and hangers on. Meanwhile the prisoners are dying at the rate of thirteen per cent. a month, or are tortured by hunger and suffering into enlisting in the rebel army. Mr. RICHARDSON proposes two remedies, either of which, he thinks, will be adequate. The first is an immediate general exchange, by which we shall recover all our prisoners within a month. The second is an immediate special retaliation, not upon the rebel soldiers, but the rebel officers in our custody, giving them, as nearly as possible, the same food, fuel, clothing, and shelter that our own men receive. This, he thinks, will bring the "eminent Confederates" to terms. The rebel leaders care nothing for their men in our hands ; but the officers are of the chiefs of the conspiracy ; they are of the blue blood of women whippers and baby In proof of the virtue of this latter course Mr. RICHARDSON refers to the case of the Union Captains SAWYER and FLYNN, who were sentenced by the rebels to be hung. The Government ordered the Commandant at Fortress Monroe to execute LEE and WINDER the moment he should ascertain the threat against our men had been carried out. It never was. Again, when the rebels put our colored prisoners to work in the fortifications of Richmond under fire, General BUTLER informed the rebel authorities that he had placed an equal number of rebel officers on his works under fire. Before the sun set the colored soldiers were put back in Libey, and were never exposed again in The statement and argument of Mr. RICHARDSON are very forcible, and no question deserves prompter consideration and more decisive action. Yet in suggesting a general exchange does he not forget that the rebels refuse to exchange our colored prisoners ? a point which at least embarrasses an easy settlement. General BUTLER proposed to exchange first the white prisoners man for man, and then he says we should still have held so many more of the rebels than they of our colored prisoners that we could have dictated terms. For some reason this plan was not adopted. Perhaps for this, among others, that it seemed rather absurd to allow an enemy who held fewer of our men than we of theirs to dictate distinctions among our soldiers ; and that it was rather a cruel desertion of those who had risked more in enlisting than their brethren in arms, to leave them in the hands of the tormentors, even if they were offset by a larger number of rebel captives. Besides, if we had retained some of the rebel officers as hostages, it might have been impossible to settle the cartel; while, if we had not, the larger number of rebel privates could not have certainly saved the colored Union As to the second suggestion, of retaliation in kind upon the officers, there are two obvious difficulties : The first is, to ascertain exactly what the rebel treatment is ; the next is, the impracticability of retaliation in kind when it is ascertained. That rebel officers should be shot to death upon clear proof of the atrocities alleged seems to us a proper retaliation. But that they should be starved to death, or frozen to death, or stung to death by mosquitoes, could no more be tolerated by a decent self respect than that they should be eaten alive if our soldiers had been so treated by other savages with whom we were at war. That something should be done, and done at once, we are most cordially agreed. That the Government is of the same opinion, but finds the difficulties very perplexing, we are as fully convinced ; and that the testimony of Messrs. RICHARDSON and BROWNE will be a most valuable aid to a wiser and speedier decision we do not doubt. HOW TO CHEER THE SOLDIERS. WHOEVER wishes to help the invalid soldiers can do so at a very small expense of personal effort. The great engines like the Sanitary Commission are very apt to paralyze individual exertion by the obvious reflection that while every body is doing something no single body need do any thing. One very good plan of remedying this negligence is the monthly tax of a larger or smaller amount, self imposed, by many of the most active circles of co-workers of the Sanitary in towns and villages. But another is the sending of books that have been read in the family, with the old magazines and illustrated papers. The value of these to the soldiers in the listless hours of hospital life is incalculable. Nor need any one refrain from sending because he may have so few to send. If one person in every village sent a dozen books if fifty papers go from a single neighborhood, the aggregate is one that can be readily computed. A letter just received from the Ninth Corps Hospital at City Point says, speaking of the prompt receipt of a box of books and a package of pamphlets and Harper's Weeklies, etc. : "I need not say that they are a great addition to our humble library, and eagerly welcomed by the soldiers here. It is singular but true that of all my appeals to acquaintance and others for books none have been successful thus far except in your case. It is because they are ignorant norant that the gospel of good books are a ministry to the spirits in a prison hospital." Why will not every reader of these lines send a little addition to the means of amusement for the soldiers, either to the nearest depot of the Sanitary Commission, to some hospital known to him, or to Mr. J. SAVARY, Agent United States Sanitary Commission, Ninth Corps Hospital, City Point prepaying all the charges WE are wrecked and we are We are lost, I heard them say, But of what could they be thinking? 'Tis not "lost" to pass away-- Gently, painlessly, together, Thus to feel our souls flow out Into calmer, better weather, All secure from further rout. I can see the boats yet, gaining Very little on the wind, O'er their sterns some forms are straining After dear ones left behind. If 'twere thus with thee and me, One had gone and one been left, Then the living could but die, love, And the dying be bereft. But thou wouldst not, couldst not leave me, Since there was but room for one, And the billows would upheave me Did I leave thee here alone. I am happy, for thy fingers Round my neck securely twine, Thou art happy while death lingers With thy heart at rest on mine. I, the stronger, grew despairing When this danger first seemed nigh, For I could not bear my darling Such a dreadful death should die. We can feel the waters singing, Cold and heavy, in our ears; And upon them, quick upspringing, We can see our by gone years. Cling closer to me, sweetest, I will not let thee go, Thou shalt not die till I do, Though death come swift or slow Even I can scarcely hold thee, But will, unto the last; Mine arms shall firm enfold thee Till death be overpast. Thy face grows strangely radiant, Our last warm breath is o'er, Good-by, sweet, for an instant, Then part we nevermore. HUMORS OF THE DAY. SHREWD SUGGESTION.—It often happens, when the husband fails to be home to dinner, that it is one of his fast WOMAN'S AGE. It is a curious fact that in sacred history the age, death, and burial of only one woman Sarah, the wife of Abraham is distinctly noted. Woman's age ever since appears not to have been a subject for history or discussion. A GENTLE HINT. The Pope has presented a hat of crimson velvet, lined with ermine, to the Emperor of Mexico. This is a very ancient Papal custom, and has always been considered highly symbolical. It was first used when the Papal treasury was, as it now is, very low, and originated in one of the many forms of collecting Peter's pence, called " Going round with the Hat." ADVICE TO CAPTAINS IN THE ARMY.-In forming your companies on the banks of a deep and rapid river be careful how you order the men to " fall in." LAUGH AND GROW FAT. Democritus, who was always laughing, lived one hundred and nine years ; Heraclitus, who never ceased crying, only sixty. Laughing, then, is best ; and to laugh at one another is perfectly justifiable, since we are told that the gods themselves, though they made us as they pleased, can not help laughing at us. The turtle-doves they bill and coo; The hen goes cluck-cluck-cluck! The cock cries "Urcarooraroo;" The drake quacks to the duck. The gander cackles to his goose; Compliance hisseth she; The lark—the lark were Hymen's noose, Old Fright, for you and me. A lady of an irascible temper asked George Selwyn why woman was made out of the rib of man. "Indeed, I can't say," was his reply, "except it be that the rib is the most crooked part of the A solicitor who had a remarkably long and pointed nose, once told a lady that if she did not immediately settle a matter which he had in hand against her he would file a bill against her. " Indeed, Sir," said the lady, " you need not file your bill, for I am sure it is sharp enough already." "There are three points in the case, may it please your Honor," said the counsel. "In the first place, we contend that the kettle in dispute was cracked when we borrowed it ; secondly, that it was whole when we returned it; and thirdly, that we never had it." A gentleman called one day on a broker to get a bill discounted. The broker looked at the acceptance, and started some difficulties. "It has, you'll observe," said he, "a great many days to run." "That's very true," replied the applicant, " but I beg you to note that they are the shortest days in the year." A gentleman dining with a friend, a large cheese, uncut, was brought to the table. " Where shall I cut it?" said the guest. "Any where you please," replied the host; upon which the guest handed it to the servant, bidding him carry it to his house, and he would cut it there. "George, how does your new horse answer?" "I regret to say that I can not inform you, for I never asked him a Why is a spider a good correspondent? Because he drops a line by every post. We asked a Frenchman once to point no out Wherein the rheumatism differed from the gout. He thus defined the two—" Suppose," said he, " You put your finger in de vice." "'Tis done," said we. " You turn it," he continued, "till de pain So great is you can't bear to turn again. Dat is de rheumatism ; den, no doubt, If you give one turn more, dat is de gout." AN IDIOT'S SHREWDNESS.—A clergyman in the north of Scotland, on coming into church one Sunday, found the pulpit occupied by the parish idiot. The authorities had been unable to remove hire. without more violence than was seemly, and therefore waited for the minister to dispossess Tam of the place he had assumed. " Come down, Sir, immediately," was the peremptory and indignant call; and on Tam being unmoved, it was repeated with still greater energy. Tam, however, very confidently replied, looking down from his elevation, "Na, na, minister! just ye come up wi' me. This is a perverse generation, and faith they need us baith." Milton, when blind, married a shrewish wife. A friend, desirous of complimenting the poet on his choice, termed his spouse a rose. "I can't judge of colors," said Milton, "and it may be as you say, for I feel the thorns daily." NOTE BY A GENTLEMAN WITH A BAD " Who runs may read." If your eyes run, they can't, read. A gentleman once rallying a physician on the inefficacy of his prescriptions, the doctor said he defied any of his patients to find fault with him. "That is exactly what Jack Ketch says," was the reply. Our forefathers knew nothing of Jenner's great specific to prevent small-pox. We are wiser in our Jen-neration A school-boy undergoing an examination, being asked who was the wickedest man, replied, " Moses; because he broke all the commandments at once." A person asking a wit if the tolling of a bell did not remind him of his latter end, was answered, " No; but the rope puts me in mind of yours." A Yankee peddler in his cart, overtaking another of his class, was addressed, "Hallo, what do you carry ?" "Drugs and medicines" was the reply. "Go ahead," was the rejoinder, " I carry moment you shoot a duck it becomes a duckshot. An Irishman called at the post-office to inquire if there were any letters for him. He was asked for his name. " Oh," said he, "sure you will find it on the back of the letter!" A comedian was once performing at one of the Dublin theatres in a dirty pair of white duck trowsers. A lad in the gallery, observing the state of the actor's nether garment, shouted out, "Och! mister, wouldn't your ducks be the better of a swim ?" "Idleness covers a man with rags," says the proverb. An Irish schoolmaster, thinking to improve on this, wrote a copy for one of his boys with the proverb thus altered: " Idleness covers a man with nakedness." THE following nine States have, during the past week, ratified the Constitutional Amendment abolishing slavery: Missouri, New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Illinois, Michigan, Maryland, Rhode Island, and West Virginia. The Senate has at length passed the House resolution to exclude the States in rebellion from representation in the Electoral College. The most important measures which have passed the House are the bills providing for a ship canal around Niagara Falls, and for a canal connecting the Mississippi River with Lake Michigan. The Fortification and the Army Appropriation bills have also been passed. The Canadian Parliament has passed an Alien bill, which will obviate all future difficulties similar to those growing out of the St. Albans raid. The Peace Conference at Hampton Roads appears to have had no beneficial result. The Commissioners had no sooner returned to Richmond than General Grant made a movement on the left in the vicinity of Hatcher's Run. Two Corps the Second and Fifth were engaged in the movement. The latter, preceded by Gregg's cavalry, moved to Reams Station, and thence westward across Rowanty Creek. After crossing the creek the Fifth Corps overtook a rebel commissary train on the Boydton Plank Road, and captured it. In the mean time the Second Corps took the Vaughan Road to Hatcher's Run, which the main portion of the corps crossed, and, taking some of the enemy's rifle pits on the way, advanced about a mile west of the Run, when the rebels were found in force. The Second Division of the Corps, under General Smyth, before reaching the Run, turned off northwestwardly toward Armstrong's Mill, but soon found the enemy strongly intrenched in front. In the afternoon the rebels attacked this division, which had thrown up some intrenchments, and were severely repulsed, leaving many dead and wounded on the field. An attempt to turn Smyth's right flank met with no better success. Thus ended the action for the 5th. The Second and Fifth Corps had succeeded in establishing a connection. General Sherman has taken rapid strides toward Branchville. Pocotaligo, which came into our possession January 19, has become an important base of operations. Broad River is accessible to transports, which ascend to within five miles of Pocotaligo. Since the capture of the latter place we have depended upon rebel journals for intelligence as to Sherman's movements, According to their reports he has advanced in three columns one directed against Charleston, and the other two against Augusta and Branchville. The movement against the latter place appeared to be the most definite. By the last of January Sherman's troops had moved up the Savannah River fifty miles to Robertsville. A dispatch from Braxton Bridge, between Pocotaligo and Branchville, February 1, states that the Federal force had reached the bridge. There still remained several tributaries of the Combahee, as well as the Edisto, to be crossed in the advance on Branchville. General Lee was appointed Generalissimo on the 1st of February; General Breckinridge at the same time was made Secretary of War. Lee still remains with the Army of Northern Virginia. According to the Richmond Sentinel Beauregard has arrived at Augusta, and taken charge of the military. In the Senate, the General Appropriation bill for 1866 was reported. A report adverse to the increase of the salaries of Congressmen was agreed to. The bill excluding rebellious States from representation in the Electoral College came up. An amendment was passed restricting its operation to States in rebellion November 8, 1864. Messrs. Stewart and Nye, Senators from Nevada, were sworn in, Mr. Nye drawing the In the House, the bill for the construction of a Ship Canal around Niagara Falls was passed, 95 to 51. The expense of such a work is estimated at between seven and eight millions. In the Senate, the entire session was consumed in the consideration of the bill to exclude rebellious States from representation in the Electoral College, without coming to any conclusion. In the House, a bill was passed granting to the five surviving Revolutionary soldiers a yearly allowance of $300 in addition to the $100 already allowed. The Illinois and Michigan Ship Canal bill was passed, with an amendment. providing for improvements on the Mississippi River. The canal is intended principally as a military work to facilitate the defense of the northern frontier, and enable gun boats and vessels of war to pass from the Mississippi to Lake Michigan. It will involve an outlay of ten millions. February 3 : In the Senate, the Exclusion bill was still under consideration. In the House, the Navy Appropriation bill came up. An amendment to establish a Board of Admiralty was debated at length. In the Senate, the joint resolution excluding the rebellious States from representation in the Electoral College was passed 29 to 10. In the House, the consideration of the Naval Appropriation bill was continued ; the amendment to establish a Board of Admiralty was rejected. In the Senate, a resolution of inquiry into the recent Peace Commission was passed. A bill was reported in relation to the Enrollment, the principal feature of which is, that it allows a substitute to be taken from those liable to draft. An amendment was passed to prevent recruiting in the rebel States by the agents of the loyal States. In the House, a resolution was adopted instructing the Committee on the Conduct of the War to investigate General Rosecrans's military operations from the campaign in West Virginia to the recent one in Missouri. The Naval Appropriation bill was passed. In the Senate, Mr. Wilson's new edition of the Enrollment bill was passed, with an amendment providing for the punishment of substitute brokers, recruiting, or other persons who shall for pay or profit enlist insane or drunken persons ; also, with an amendment that the drafted man may furnish as a substitute a person liable to draft in the same town, city, or ward. In the House, the Fortification bill and the Army Appropriation bill were passed. The former appropriates about five millions; the latter about five hundred millions. THE FIRE IN SAVANNAH. On the night of the 27th of January an extensive conflagration broke out in Savannah, in the western part of the city. The fire broke out in a stable, and is supposed to have been caused be rebel incendiaries. Owing to the inactivity of the Fire Department the flames spread rapidly, and at midnight had reached the Arsenal on Granite Hill. A large quantity of shells was stored in the buildings just as it had been left by the rebels. There was a series of explosions during the next two hours. Several squares were destroyed by the fire, and hundreds of unfortunate women and children were driven front their homes into the streets. Nearly all the houses consumed were private residences. THE REBEL INCENDIARY PLOT. Our Detective Police, to whom was committed the work of ferreting out the conspirators who plotted the New York on the night of November 25, have met with marked success. They Christmas night in capturing one M'Donald, the rebel agent in Canada. He was entrapped by Mr. Young, who got himself introduced to him as a friend of the hotel burners. It was ascertained that, besides him, Jacob Thompson and C. C. CIay had a part in the formation of the plot. Mr. Young discovered at length that not more than six persons were involved in the plot. He has secured nearly all of these, and other persons involved in rebel schemes against the North. The crew of the rebel steamer Florida, which was captured in the harbor of Bahia by the United States steamer Wachusett, have been liberated by order of the Government. They numbered about thirty. They were taken from Fort Warren in a tug, and placed on board the British steamer Canada, which sailed from Boston on the 1st for Halifax. The famous "Sanitary" sack of flour belonging to Mr. Gridley, which was sold and retold at Nevada, California, till it realized $165,000, for the benfit of the Sanitary Commission, changed hands twenty times, at public auction, at the Merchant's Exchange, St. Louis, on the 3d, realizing $ 3775, in behalf of the soldiers' Orphan Home. The sack was soon to be taken to New York. The following is a description given in the Albany Journal of Burley, the Lake Erie raider, who has been delivered up into our hands by the Canadian Government : " He does not appear to be past twenty-five years of age; if any thing younger. Is stout, short, and compactly built, and weighs about one hundred and sixty. During his confinement in jail he has been studying Greek and French, and writing the adventures of his early life. At the age of fourteen he ran away from his parents in Glasgow, Scotland, and found his way to Italy. There he entered the ranks of Garibaldi's army. Getting tired of the Great Liberator, he deserted to the Austrians and fought against Italy, until an opportunity offered itself for him to desert the standard of Francis Joseph and embark for Spain. Landing there, he found nothing particularly for his uneasy spirit to do; so, after a brief sojourn in the land of the ' old Castilian,' he set sail on an American merchantman for South America. The vessel was wrecked, but the most of the passengers were picked up by a Spanish trader and landed in the port of Norfolk, Virginia. Burley was among the saved. He soon found his way to Richmond, and there he remained until the breaking out of the American rebellion. He was engaged as clerk in a book and publishing house up to the time of his entering the Confederate navy." A melancholy occurrence happened at No. 228 Washington Street, Brooklyn, on the night of the 2d. A family, named Van Buren, comprising six persons, who had just moved into the house, temporarily occupied a single small room, and were overpowered by inhaling gas which had escaped from the burner and stove. An infant was suffocated to death. The father of the family is not likely to survive, but the others will probably A bounty jumper, named James Devlin, was executed February 3, at Governor's Island, in the presence of a large number of spectators. The accused had twice deserted from the army, and was convicted for both offenses. In approving the finding of the court-martial, General Dix signified his intention of checking the rapidly increasing and dangerous practice of desertion. The execution was conducted in an admirable manner by the authorities, and impressed all present with its solemnity. The entire command of the island, and a large number of new recruits, were assembled, to whom the spectacle was a terrible warning. It is stated that a scheme was recently set on foot by several members of the North Carolina Senate to bring about a meeting of the different Governors of States at Raleigh. The matter had met the approval of the Governors, the purpose being understood to be to discuss the question of the crisis and reconstruction; but Governor Vance, by information to Jeff Davis, broke up the entire arrangement. The Richmond Whig of the 3d has the following paragraph: The Army of Tennessee," says the Meridian Clarion, " will probably winter at Tupelo and Satillo. It needs rest and reorganization very much. It has marched and countermarched, fought and been shattered, from Rocky Race to Atlanta, thence back to Nashville, and now drops down to the spot where it quartered during the winter months of '62. Alas, how its columns have been thinned since that time !" A letter from General Grant's Secretary to Dr. H. W. Bellows, states that active measures are being adopted to secure a general exchange of prisoners. Hon. R. C. Winthrop, in his remarks before the Massachusetts Historical Society on the death of Mr. Everett, stated that at the time of his death Mr. E. was engaged in preparing a Life of James L. Pettigru, of South Carolina, and a volume of Washington's private Hon. Fernando Wood intends to leave for Europe soon after the adjournment of Congress, accompanied by his family. He proposes to travel through the Continent, and also to go to the Holy General Kelley telegraphs that on the 5th a scouting party of General Sheridan's Cavalry encountered the forces of Major Harry Gilmore, near Moorefield, West Virginia, whipped them handsomely, capturing upward of twenty officers and men. Among the officers captured was the noted guerrilla and robber, Harry Gilmore himself.

Artist's rendering of the Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle on a deep space mission. As NASA focuses considerable effort on a mission to send humans to Mars in the coming decades, sociology researchers are looking at what types of personalities would work the best together on such a long trip. Now, a new study finds that on long-term space missions — such as missions to Mars, which could take as long as three years to complete a round trip — having an extrovert on board could have several disadvantages. For example, extroverts tend to be talkative, but their gregarious nature may make them seem intrusive or demanding of attention in confined and isolated environments over the long term, the researchers say. "You're talking about a very tiny vehicle, where people are in very isolated, very confined spaces," said study researcher Suzanne Bell, an associate professor of psychology at DePaul University in Chicago. "Extroverts have a little bit of a tough time in that situation." If one person on a crew always wants to talk, while the other members are less social, "it could actually get pretty annoying," in that environment Bell said. (Remember George Clooney's character in the movie "Gravity"?) [10 Fitness Apps: Which Is Best for Your Personality?] The researchers concluded that extroverts could potentially be a "liability" on these missions. Extroverts and teams NASA is interested in a number of issues related to planning long-term space missions, including how to put together the most compatible teams for the missions. In the new study, which is funded by NASA, Bell and her colleagues reviewed previous research on teams who lived in environments similar to those of a long-term space mission, including simulated spacecraft missions of more than 100 days, as well as missions in Antarctica. Typically, extroverts— who tend to be sociable, outgoing, energetic and assertive — are good to have on work teams because they speak up and engage in conversations about what needs to be done, which is good for planning, Bell said. And because of their social interactions, extroverts tend to have a good understanding of who knows what on a team (such as who the experts in a certain field are), which helps foster coordination. But the researchers found several potential drawbacks to having extroverts on teams in isolated, confined environments. In one study of a spacecraft simulation, an extroverted team member was ostracized by two other members who were more reserved, Bell said. "They thought he was too brash, and would speak his mind too much, and talk too much," Bell said. Moreover, extroverts may have a hard time adjusting to environments where there's little opportunity for new activities or social interactions, the researchers said. "People who are extroverted might have a hard time coping because they want to be doing a lot; they want to be engaged in a lot of things," said study researcher Shanique Brown, a graduate student in industrial and organizational psychology at DePaul. "And [on these missions], there won't be that much to do — things become monotonous after a while, and you're seeing the same people." Don't send extroverts to Mars? The new findings don't mean that extroverts can't go to Mars. More specific studies are needed to look at how extroverts fare on these teams, and whether certain kinds of training could help prevent problems, Bell said. Such studies could be conducted in space-simulation environments, or on the International Space Station, Bell said. Bell noted that a team of all introverts is likely not the solution. "The question is, where's the balance, and once we find the balance, what can we do through training" to promote team compatibility? Bell said.

For urban areas, city directories can be wonderful resources. These directories predated telephones and telephone books, and listed individuals’ last and first names (generally only heads of household and, possibly, adult children in the work force), street address, and occupation. These directories can help locate potential churches for baptisms and churches/synagogues for marriages and burials using knowledge of specific ancestors’ street addresses. In some cases, knowledge of the name of a specific priest/minister/rabbi on a civil marriage record can lead, through the directory, to the church or synagogue where the marriage took place so that its records can be searched. Other relatives can be found in city directories (living at the same address, perhaps, or nearby), so that the search can be extended. Many city directories were published up through the middle of the 20th century, even when already supplanted by telephone directories. City directories can be found in microfilm or microfiche, and sometimes as the original document. The Ohio Room Collections City Directories are the Steubenville City Directories 1850-Present. Other official records, such as land, tax, and court records, can also be searched. Unlike the records described above, they require more investment of personal effort on the part of the researcher to learn where the records are kept, in what form, and how to use them. It bears repeating that all records are prone to error. Family names are misspelled, sometimes so badly that only experience will alert the researcher that yes, indeed, a particular record is of interest. Given names will change between birth and adulthood, addresses can be scrambled, important dates will be garbled, and crucial information will be illegible or entirely missing. That is the common, everyday experience of the genealogical researcher, and strategies for cross-checking with other records sources is usually the best way to unravel the errors.

Folate deficiencyDeficiency - folic acid, Folic acid deficiency Folate deficiency means you have a lower than normal amount of folic acid, a type of B vitamin, in your blood. Folic acid works with vitamin B12 and vitamin C to help the body break down, use, and make new proteins. The vitamin helps form red blood cells. It also helps produce DNA, the building block of the human body, which carries genetic information. Folic acid is a type of B vitamin. It is water-soluble, which means it is not stored in the fat tissues of the body. Water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water. Leftover amounts of the vitamin leave the body through the urine. Because folate is not stored in the body in large amounts, your blood levels of folate will get low after only a few weeks of eating a diet low in folate. You can get folate by eating green leafy vegetables and liver. Causes of folate deficiency are: - Diseases in which folic acid is not absorbed well, such as celiac disease (sprue) or Crohn's disease - Drinking too much alcohol - Eating overcooked food - Getting too much folic acid during the third trimester of pregnancy - Hemolytic anemia - Medications, such as phenytoin (Dilantin), sulfasalazine, or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole - Poor diet (often seen in the poor, the elderly, and people who do not eat fresh fruits or vegetables) Folic acid deficiency may cause: - Gray hair - Mouth sores (ulcers) - Poor growth - Swollen tongue Exams and Tests Folate deficiency can be diagnosed with a blood test. Pregnant women usually have such blood tests during prenatal checkups. - Anemia (low red blood cell count) - Low levels of white blood cells and platelets (in severe cases) In folate-deficiency anemia, the red blood cells are abnormally large (megaloblastic). Folic acid is also needed for the development of a healthy fetus. It plays an important part in the development of the fetus' spinal cord and brain. Folic acid deficiency can cause severe birth defects of the brain and spinal cord, known as neural tube defects. The best way to get the daily requirement of all essential vitamins is to eat a balanced diet that contains a variety of foods from the food guide plate. Most people in the United States eat enough folic acid because it is plentiful in the food supply. Folate occurs naturally in the following foods: - Beans and legumes - Citrus fruits and juices - Dark green leafy vegetables - Poultry, pork, and shellfish - Wheat bran and other whole grains The Institute of Medicine's Food and Nutrition Board recommends that adults get 400 micrograms of folate daily. Women who could become pregnant should take folic acid supplements to ensure that they get enough each day. Specific recommendations depend on a person's age, gender, and other factors (such as pregnancy). Many foods now have extra folic acid added to help prevent birth defects. See: Folic acid in diet for the full folic acid requirements by age group. See: Folic acid and birth defect prevention for more information on folic acid requirements during pregnancy. Antony AC. Megaloblastic anemias. In: Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Cecil Medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2007:chap 170. Antony AC. Megaloblastic anemias. In: Hoffman R, Benz EJ Jr., Shattil SJ, et al, eds. Hematology: Basic Principles and Practice. 5th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier; 2008:chap 39. Hamrick I, Counts SH. Vitamin and mineral supplements. Prim Care. 2008;35:729-747. First trimester of pregnancy - illustration First trimester of pregn... Folic acid - illustration Early weeks of pregnancy - illustration Early weeks of pregnancy Review Date: 8/24/2011 Reviewed By: David C. Dugdale, III, MD, Professor of Medicine, Division of General Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine; and Yi-Bin Chen, MD, Leukemia/Bone Marrow Transplant Program, Massachusetts General Hospital. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc.

STUDENT NAME: AKANKWASA JOHNSON ( 077/0702-978405) LECTURER: MR. MENYA SHAKIR MODULE: INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGY MODULE CODE: BIT 110 ASSIGNMENT NUMBER: 01 DATE ISSUED: 4TH /11/2012 DUE DATE: 11 /11/2012 ASSIGNMENT BRIEF: 1.Discuss the factors you would consider while buying a computer. 2.How has information networks solved the problems of an organization? GUIDE TO STUDENTS 1.Maximum 2 pages word processed excluding cover and reference pages. 2.Use Times New Roman 3.Font Size should be 12 4.1.5 Line Spacing 5.For referencing purposes, use the Harvard Author-Date System. Instructions to Students 1.This form must be attached to the front of your assignment. 2.The assignment must be handed in without fail by the due date. QUESTION.1: Discuss factors you would consider while buying a computer. According to Prof. More Manojkumar, (2009), various factors that would be considered when buying computers are discussed here bellow; 1. Processor Speed: A computer is a very fast device which can perform the amount of work that a human being can do in an entire year in few seconds. This therefore means that a good powerful computer should be capable of performing several billion arithmetic operations per second. The speed of a computer measure is in microseconds (10-6), Nanoseconds (10-9) and picoseconds (10-12). 2. Accuracy: The accuracy of a computer is principally highly considered; and the degree of accuracy of a particular computer depends upon its design however Errors can occur in a computer due to human rather than technological weaknesses. 3. Memory (Power of Remembering): A good Computer should have sound brain (Fast memory, 2 GB+) but unlike human (Man) beings. A computer can store data and information and recalled as long as one requires it for any numbers of years because of its...

Are you smarter than your computer? What about a robot? Explore the science of artificial intelligence. Hollywood keeps us on the edge of our seats with action movies, from James Bond to Jason Bourne. From Disney to Flash, the art of animation has brought our favorite cartoons to the screen. From ancient Greek to modern designs, explore the architecture that has defined countless landscapes. Like an online museum of the visual arts, from cave paintings to Rodin sculptures to Warhol prints. How do humans, plants and animals function? Learn about the mechanics of biological systems. Saving up for a Porsche? Either way, learn about cars, technologies, stunts and more here. Can't go a day without your cell phone? Learn about mobile plans, networks, providers and models. Where would movies or video games be without computer graphics? Learn about animation, modeling and more. That software's got to run on something. Explore monitors, keyboards and other computer hardware. Desktop or laptop? Apple or Dell? Hardware, software, monitors, CPUs, we love them all. From algorithms to data structures to programming languages, explore computer science and engineering. Keep those pesky viruses at bay! Learn about security systems for computers and internet networks. Find out more about data-center. Find out more about data-centers. There's a lot of information out there. Keep it organized with database systems, servers and more. Find out more about datacenter. Explore the art of design, from graphic design on the Web to interior design in the home. Love mixes and mashups? Learn more about the top DJs and the best house and club music. No more stick figures! Uncover your inner artist and the world of sketching, charcoals and pastels.

Work can be hard. We’re all susceptible to stress and anxiety, but there are ways to counteract these things. Mindfulness is a mental state of awareness of all that is around us and inside of us. It is a state of calmness, where the body’s autonomic nervous system is activated. With repeated practice you can activate your own mindfulness at any time. Throughout the day and before you go to sleep take in a series of breaths. Instead of allowing your mind to wander over the day’s concerns and letting stress create tension and worry, direct your attention to your breathing, focus on the breath, concentrating on the feeling in the body, on the repetitive motion. Be mindful of the breath. Really – it sounds simple but it’s a very powerful tool. Pay attention to your breathing or your environment when the phone rings, when you get an email, or when there is a knock on the door. One simple practice is to have your computer configured to announce the time on the hour, and at that time, remember to be mindful. Find a task that you do impatiently or unconsciously (i.e. waiting at a crosswalk or red light, standing in line, or washing the dishes) and concentrate on the experience as it is happening – in other words, be in the moment. Pay attention to sensory details—sight, sound, smell, touch, and taste. Fully experience the joy of slowing down for that moment. Meditation is another great way to counteract stress. Meditate on your own or in a class and you’ll see the difference it makes in your personal and work life. Sometimes the simplest things are the most important so – BREATHE!

Greetings，honorable magistrates，esteemed judges，respected assistants，noble ladies and gentlemen. I am deeply honored and humbled by the invitation to participate in this special occasion，inaugurating your new program，the 『Diploma Participation in Environmental Rights.』 As a fellow concerned citizen of this world，I offer my congratulations and gratitude for this sincere endeavor that demonstrates your high degree of care and dedication to the environment and our world. May it strengthen your ability to carry out what is most just for all beings on this planet. Today，I am very honored to offer my humble contribution toward your wise rulings by sharing some of the newest scientific evidence about climate change and its most urgent cause.A. CLIMATE EFFECTS & THREATS We have signs of imminent crisis that are evident in all corners of the world. First，storms have nearly doubled in intensity over the past ５ years，as we can see in Mexico’s own recent hurricanes and floods，which left damage，trauma and grieving families. Meanwhile，sea levels are rising and at a faster pace，with at least １８ island nations that have completely disappeared and many more coastal areas continually threatened. Once towering glaciers are receding so fast that over ２ billion people are already short of water and food. Many more suffer shortage as tens of thousands of rivers and waters are gone or drying. Mexico herself is currently undergoing the worst drought in nearly ７０ years. With ３００，０００ fellow human beings now dying each year due to climate change，more than ２０ million have been displaced as 『climate refugees.』 Scientists also worry about the billions of tons of methane sitting beneath the now-melting Arctic permafrost and the ever-warming oceans. Just a fraction released from either one could trigger mass extinctions. B. THE CAUSE What causes these damaging changes？ It’s not cars，ships or planes. It is not coal plants，and it’s not even all the smoke-spewing industries in our world. The number one cause of global warming is: livestock. Recent research tells us that livestock raising is responsible for more than ５０％ of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions. Livestock is the single largest source of human-generated methane，a greenhouse gas that traps at least ７２ times more heat than ＣＯ２，as measured over a ２０-year period. The good news about this heat-trapping methane is that this gas is also more short-lived than ＣＯ２ and disappears very quickly by comparison. ＣＯ２，(carbon dioxide) stays in the atmosphere for thousands of years，while the lifetime of methane in the atmosphere is only about １２ years. In other words，methane does much more damage in the short run but if we stop it，we will be able to reverse the trend of global warming very fast. Therefore，to rapidly halt global warming，to halt the emission of methane，we must stop its #１ source: that is，livestock breeding. C. LIVESTOCK Now，we talk about livestock. Livestock raising is responsible for countless adverse environmental effects，each of which further aggravates global warming. According to the United Nations and other studies，livestock raising is known to cause the following devastating effects: Livestock raising is the single largest human use of land，and the main reason for deforestation. Since １９７０，livestock production has been responsible for ９０％ of the Amazon deforestation，to clear land for pasture and grow animal feed crops. A rainforest area the size of a football field is destroyed every second to produce just ２５０ hamburgers. Scientists warn that if we continue on this damaging path，the Earth’s forests will soon stop absorbing greenhouse gases，and instead will start to release huge quantities of carbon dioxide (ＣＯ２). Moreover，deforestation for livestock activities also produces black carbon. Black carbon is a greenhouse particle that is ６８０ times as heat-trapping as ＣＯ２，and causes the ice sheets and glaciers around the world to melt even faster. Up to ４０％ of black carbon emissions come from burning forests for livestock. ２. Soil erosion and desertification: Over ５０％ of the world’s oil erosion is caused by livestock，which along with deforestation leads to desertification. ３. Biodiversity loss: Livestock is the leading cause of animal and plant extinction due to land degradation and other habitat-destroying effects. The livestock industry is killing off our beautiful wildlife，including Mexico's own. ４. Deadly pollution: Of all sectors，the meat industry is the biggest source of water pollution. Excessive and unregulated animal waste，chemical fertilizers，pesticides，antibiotics，and other livestock-related contaminants choke our waterways and create oceanic dead zones，such as the massive one in the Gulf of Mexico. ５. Disease: Over ６５％ of human infectious diseases are known to be transmitted by animals. The filthy and inhumane conditions of factory farming harbor lethal bacteria and viruses such as avian and swine flu， which we all know is a pandemic continuing its global deadly toll. ６. Food waste: Livestock uses up to １２ times the amount of grain as the same amount of vegetable protein. About ７３０ million tons of the world’s grain harvests are used to produce animal protein. This could feed all the hungry people，numbering １ billion in the world，and many times over. ７. Water waste: It takes over １，２００ gallons of water to grow １ serving of beef，but only ９８ gallons of water for one complete，nutritionally balanced vegan meal. While １.１ billion people lack access to safe drinking water，we waste ３.８ trillion tons of precious clean water each year for livestock production. ８. Energy and Resource waste: Animal products require ８ times as much fossil fuel energy to be produced，compared to vegetable products. A study found that meat and dairy production in Mexico use the most agricultural supplies and resources in the country，and this is reflected elsewhere around the world as well. All the evidence speaks so loud and clear. If these resources – land，water，and grain – were turned instead towards the direct support of human life instead of livestock，what a different world we would have. Respected climate scientists including Dr. James Hansen of NASA，Dr. Carlos Nobre of Brazil’s National Institute for Space Research，and Dr. Rajendra Pachauri，head of the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) – all have stated that reducing meat consumption or becoming vegetarian would be an effective solution to global warming. That is，we have to live an animal-free lifestyle，a compassionate lifestyle. Now，I will present just some of the many benefits of a vegan organic diet. D. We have VEG BENEFITS. First，the land for grazing and feed-growing could become forests that help reduce global warming. In addition，if all tillable land were turned into organic vegetable farmland，not only would people be fully fed， but up to ４０％ of all the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere could be absorbed. This is in addition to the elimination of over ５０％ of emissions caused by livestock raising. Therefore，in sum，we eliminate most of the human-made greenhouse gases by simply adopting the animal-free vegan organic lifestyle. This also leads to considerable financial savings for world governments. It has been calculated that by shifting to a vegan diet，the world’s governments would save US$３２ trillion by ２０５０，or a full ８０％ of total climate mitigation costs. Finally，of course，there are the excellent health benefits of the vegan diet，which has been shown to prevent cancer significantly. It prevents and reverses heart disease and diabetes. It boosts the immune system，extends longevity，and preserves the health，intelligence，and calmness of the adults and children alike. In closing，honorable sirs and madams，the great country of Mexico has always looked toward advancement in her environmental actions，and are planning to be at the forefront to combat climate change and protect the world. The Mexican Constitution even states that 『all persons have the right to an environment appropriate for their development and well-being.』 Bravo. At this most urgent time for the planet，I beseech your honorable graces to please help your country and our world spare lives from the impending global warming calamity. If you don’t，there will be too massive a catastrophe，too immense a suffering upon people，families，the children，that our conscience might never be able to bear it. I can only honor you with the truth when I say that we must become vegan to save our planet. We cannot wait for the sustainable energy and green technology to be available and used by everyone. It would be too late. I call upon the courage of all counsel present，with the authority and power vested in you， may you lead your co-citizens toward the noble，virtuous，life-saving，and planet-sustaining path. Thank you for your attention. God bless you all. God bless us all. God bless Mexico. Thank you. [Muchas gracias.]

The Paiwan tribe of Nanhui Township in Taitung County are no exception when it comes to making zongzi (glutinous rice wrapped in bamboo leaves) for the Dragon Boat Festival, which are called cheenafu in the Paiwan language. However, the shape and fillings used in Paiwan zongzi are quite different, and the Paiwan wrap glutinous rice in small shellflower leaves, forming a long and slender shape. Fillings differ according to personal preference. Some people like to fill them with fish from the river, snails or preserved mountain pork, while some people even put a big piece of salted mountain pork inside, creating flavors that are just as tasty as the typical Taiwanese zongzi. Aboriginal zongzi are more unique than the ones made in non-Aboriginal areas. Chelengleng, a woman living in a local village in Taitung County, says that in ancient times cheenafu were usually only made during special occasions, for example, when children were being named, during harvest festivals or when nobility were getting married. Knowledge from their ancestors about how to make cheenafu has been passed down from generation to generation, and the Paiwan are very particular about the cheenafu-making process. She says that each village has its own distinct style due to the different foods that are grown locally. Some of the ingredients they use include taro root powder, millet, glutinous rice and sorghum powder. Cheenafu usually have a meat filling, while the outside is covered with nicandra leaves, which increases their aroma and creates a unique flavor, while at the same time decreasing the chances of uncomfortable bloatedness. The final product has a long, narrow shape. 1. snail /snel/ n. 蝸牛 (gua1 niu2) 例: Why are there always snails all over the sidewalk when it rains? 2. preserved adj. 醃的 (yan1 de5) 例: They eat a lot of preserved foods because they don’t have refrigerators. 3. nobility n. 貴族 (gui4 zu2) 例: The prince and the princess were among the nobility attending the ceremony. Chelengleng says that the labor is split between men and women. Men are responsible for going up the mountain to pick nicandra leaves, while women are responsible for soaking the leaves, cooking the filling, and preserving the pork. In the past, the elderly would sing traditional songs and chat with the people making the cheenafu while sitting next to them, or use it as an opportunity to impart their knowledge. When the food is done cooking, the first thing that is done is letting the elderly try it, which is one part of traditional ethics that remains unchanged. (Liberty Times, Translated by Kyle Jeffcoat)

The Earth isn’t any bigger than it was during the 1960s, but if researchers are correct, Santa Claus will have twice as many households to visit this year as he did in 1961, when John F. Kennedy announced that an American would set foot on the moon before the decade's end. The U.S. did beat Kennedy’s deadline for a lunar landing, on July 20, 1969, but humanity is no closer to setting up residential centers on outlying orbs; so estimates that global population will pass 7 billion before 2011 ends raise some practical questions. Where will all these people live? (Mostly developing nations, in Africa and elsewhere.) What will all these people eat? (Not so much.) Does the Earth circulate enough clean water to go around? (Not as of now.) Will these 7 billion humans make responsible birth-control choices? (Look for 15.8 billion people by 2100.) So, is this perceived excess of consumer creatures any concern of yours, or is it just everybody else's problem? If you're the type who wants to make things better for yourself, and for everyone else, choose a solution from the United Nations Population Fund—it suggests 7 Billion Actions.

The Story of the Fall of the Alamo As Told in THE SAN ANTONIO LIGHT on March 6, 1886. This account appeared in the San Antonio Light newspaper on Sunday March 6, 1907. The fall of the Alamo has but one peer in the brilliant son of its glory. Thermopylae and the Alamo are side by side on the imperishable tables of history; the names of Leonidas and Travis are synonymous for heroism. The modern altar of liberty almost casts its shadow upon the majority of the readers of The Light.........It is, therefore, the purpose, not so much to give history as to recall and keep green in memory all the patriots who died to give us one of the fairest lands the sun ever shone on, and the free and liberal government under which we enjoy it. Fifty years, a half century, have passed since that awful sacrifice was made. Few men are now alive who then took part in that almost hopeless struggle against the perfidious and bloody tyrant of Mexico, General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, and they are old and decrepit. None of the defenders of the Alamo escaped. The most concise account is that of Francisco Antonio Ruiz, published in the Texas Almanac for 1860. Ruiz was the alcalde of this city. Following is the account given: "On the 23rd of February, 1836, at 2 p.m., General Santa Anna entered the city of San Antonio with a part of his army. This he effected without any resistances, the forces under the command of Travis, Bowie and Crockett having on the same day, at 8 a.m. learned that the Mexican army was on the banks of the Medina river, and concentrated in the Alamo. "In the evening they commenced to exchange fire with guns, and from the 23rd of February to the 6th of March (in which the storming was made by Santa Anna), the roar of artillery and volleys of musketry were constantly heard. On the 6th of March at 3 p.m. General Santa Anna at the head of 4000 men, advanced against the Alamo. The infantry, artillery and cavalry had formed about 1000 varas from the walls of said fortress. The Mexican army charged and were twice repulsed by the deadly fire of Travis' artillery, which resembled a constant thunder. At the third charge the Toluca battalion commenced to scale the walls and suffered severely. Out of 800 men, only 130 were left alive. "When the Mexican army had succeeded in entering the walls, I with Political Chief (Jefe Politico) Don Ramon Musquiz, and other members of the corporation, accompanied the curate Don Refugio de la Garza, who, by Santa Anna's orders had assembled during the night, at a temporary fortification erected in Potrero street, with the object of attending the wounded. As soon as the storming commenced, we crossed the bridge on Commerce street with this object in view, and about 100 yards from the same a party of Mexican dragoons fired upon us and compelled us to fall back on the river to the place occupied before. Half an hour had elapsed when Santa Anna sent one of his aides with an order for us to come before him. He directed me to call upon some of the neighbors to come with carts to carry the dead to the cemetery, and also to accompany him, as he was desirous to have Colonels Travis, Bowie and Crockett shown to him. "On the north battery of the fortress lay the lifeless body of Colonel Travis on the gun carriage shot only in the forehead. Toward the west in a small fort opposite the city we found the body of Colonel Crockett. Colonel Bowie was found dead in his bed in one of the rooms of the south side. "Santa Anna, after the Mexicans were taken out, ordered wood to be brought to burn the bodies of the Texans. He sent a company of dragoons with me to bring wood and dry branches from the neighboring forests. About 3 o'clock in the afternoon of the next day they commenced laying wood and dry branches upon which a file of dead bodies were placed, more wood was piled on them and another file brought, and in this manner all were arranged in layers. Kindling wood was distributed through the pile and at 8 o'clock it was lighted. "The dead Mexicans of Santa Anna's army were taken to the graveyard, but not having sufficient room for them, I ordered some of them to be thrown in the river, which was done on the same day. Santa Anna's loss estimated at 1600 men. These were the flower of his army. "The gallantry of the few Texans who defended the Alamo were really wondered at by the Mexican army. Even the generals were astonished at their vigorous resistance, and how dearly the victory had been bought. The generals who, under Santa Anna, participated in the storming of the Alamo were Juan Amador, Castrillion Ramirez and Asesma Andrade. "The men burned numbered 182. I was an eye witness, for as Alcalde of San Antonio, I was with some of the neighbors collecting the dead bodies and placing them on the funeral pyre. (Signed)"FRANCISCO ANTONIO RUIZ." "P.S. My father was Don Francisco Ruiz, a member of the Texas convention. He signed the Texas Declaration of Independence upon the second day of March, 1836. F.A.R." "The following is a list of the officers of the Alamo, numbering 28, and Davy Crockett, who ranked as private; W. Barrett Travis, Lieutenant Colonel commanding; Lieutenant Colonel James Bowie, Colonel J. Washington; Captains Forsythe, Harrison, Williams, Blazely, William C. M. Baker, S. B. Evans, W. R. Cary, S. P. Blair, Gilmore, Robert White, Lieutenants John Jones,AImeron Dickerson and George C. Kimball, Adjutant J. G. Baugh; Master of Ordnance Robert Evans; Sergeant Major Williamson; Aide de Camp Charles Desplaier; Quartermaster Ellias Melton; Assistant Quartermaster Anderson and Barnell; Surgeons D. Micheson, Amos Pollard and Thompson, Ensign Green B. Jameson. Privates: David Crockett, E. Nelson, G. Nelson. W. H. Smith, Louis Johnson, E. S. Mitchell, F. Desangue, T. Thurston, Moore, Christopher Parker, C. Haskell, Rose, John Blair,...Riddeson, William Wells, William Cummings, Valentine, Cochran, R. W. Valentine, S. Holloway, Isaac White, Day, Robert Musselmann, Robert Crossman, Richard Starr, J Robert B. Moore, Richard Duncan, William Lynn, Hutcheson, William Johnson, E. Nelson, George Tumlinson, William Deardorf, Daniel Bourne, Ingram, W. S. Lewis, Charles Zanco, James L. Ewein, Robert Cunningham. S. Burns, George Neggin, Robinson, Harris, John Flanders, Isaac Ryan, David Wilson, John N. Sutherland, D. W. Howell, Butler, Charley Smith, McGregor, Rusk, Hawkins, Samuel Holloway, Brown T. Jackson, James George, Dophin Ward, Thomas Jackson, George W. Cottle, Andrew Kent, Thomas R. Miller, Isaac Baker, William King, Jessie McCoy, Claiborne Write, William Fishback, Isaac Millsap, Galbafugua, John Davis, Albert Mart, John (a clerk to Deseague), B. A. M. Thomas, William Fuhbaigh, John J. King, Jacob Darst, M. L. Sewell, Robert White, A. Devault, John Harris, Andrew Kent and Willie B. Summers. On February 24, Colonel Travis issued this stirring appeal, which was sent by a trusty messenger through the Mexican lines: "Commandancy of the Alamo, Bexar, February 24, 1836. To the People of Texas and all the Americans in the World; "Fellow Citizens and Compatriots: I am besieged by a thousand or more Mexicans under Santa Anna. I have sustained a continual bombardment and cannonade for 24 hours, and I have not yet lost a man. The enemy has demanded the surrender; at discretion, otherwise the garrison is to be put to the sword if the fort is taken. I have answered the summons with cannon shot, and our flag still waves proudly from the wail. I shall never surrender or retreat. Then I call upon you in the name of liberty, patriotism and everything dear to the American character, to come to our aid with dispatch. The enemy is receiving reinforcements daily and will doubtless, in a few days, increase to three or four thousand men. Though this call may be neglected, I am determined to sustain myself as long as possible, and die like a soldier who never forfeits what is due to his own honor and that of his country. Victory or death! (Signed) "W. BARRETT TRAVIS, Lieut-Col. Commanding." And it was death and victory' The defenders of the Alamo knew nothing of the signing of the declaration of independence, signed by their compatriots in convention assembled in San Felipe on March 2, eight days after they were besieged and three days before they were massacred. They fought for the Mexican constitution of 1824 and against the usurpation of Santa Anna as dictator, and their flag flying from the top of the Alamo was the red, white and green, with the figures "1824" on a white center. Phoenix like, from their ashes grew the great and glorious southwestern empire of Texas. Its beginning was glorious and heroic. Let its future be grand and noble.

Deepwater archaeology uncovers secrets from the ancient maritime past . . . Thousands of shipwrecks and archaeological sites lie undiscovered in deep water, potentially holding important clues to our maritime past. Scientists have explored only a small percentage of the oceans' depths, as 98 percent of the seabed lies well beyond the reach of conventional diving. Ships from the Depths surveys the dramatic advances in technology over the last few years that have made it possible for scientists to locate, study, and catalogue archaeological sites in waters previously inaccessible to humans. Researcher and explorer Fredrik Søreide presents the development of deepwater archaeology since 1971, when Willard Bascom designed his Alcoa Seaprobe to locate and raise deepwater wrecks in the Mediterranean. Accompanied by descriptions and color photographs of deepwater projects and equipment, this book considers not only techniques that have been developed for location and observation of sites but also removal and excavation methods distinctive to these unique locations, far beyond the reach of scuba gear. Søreide provides an introduction to and survey of the history, development, and potential of this exciting branch of nautical archaeology. Scholars and field archaeologists will appreciate this handy compendium of the current state of the discipline and technology, and general readers will relish this comprehensive look at the challenges and opportunities associated with locating and studying historical and ancient shipwrecks in some of the world’s deepest waters. What Readers Are Saying: "The result has been a treasure trove of information that reveals shipbuilding throughout history and how people lived in earlier times. . . it presents a unique view into an intriguing field of research. . . 'Ships From the Depths' will fascinate those with an interest in the sea and the history of the sea." — Mark Lardas, Galveston Daily News "...beautifully illustrated book...the first comprehensive, integrated treatment of the subject...stimulating book..."--John Peter Oleson, International Journal of Maritime History "The overall format of the book provides sufficient detail on certain aspects of deepwater archaeology to satisfy professionals in the field, while still remaining accessible to non-specialists. The volume provides a good review of recent deepwater projects, and excellent discussions of photographic and visual documentation techniques and excavation methods. This volume serves as a much-needed opening in the discussion of what constitutes deepwater archaeology." --Amanda M. Evans, The Northern Mariner

Creating Opportunities for Young People Young readers were encouraged to visit their local library to explore the wild side. Summer learning loss occurs when children stop participating in educational activities1. Research shows that reading just 4-5 books over the summer months can help prevent learning loss2. - The TD Summer Reading Club reached over 540,000 children across Canada (5% more than last year) and helps to keep young minds active during the summer months. The program is designed to allow libraries to adapt the materials to their own community. Over 200 children with vision loss also participated using reading club stickers in Braille. - The TD Grade 1 Book Giveaway is the largest distribution of free books in Canada. Over 500,000 Grade 1 students received a book in English or French. - The TD Canadian Children’s Literature Award gives a $25,000 prize for the selected English-language and French-language books. Read about the TD Kids Bookclub. Helping Youth Reach Their Full Potential - Youth in Philanthropy: In 2010, this program involved over 180 high schools in Canada and disbursed $940,000 to charities in $5,000 donations. After studying the diverse needs of their local community, Grade 9 and 10 students select a social need they are passionate about. They research local charities, and each team chooses one and learns about how it operates, including its mission, budget, fund allocation and impact. The students present their findings in front of their school and a judging panel. The team with the most compelling presentation wins a $5,000 donation, issued by the Toskan Casale Foundation, toward their chosen charity. Children gain greater awareness of philanthropy and the local needs on their doorstep. In 2010, TD gave $225,000 to support this project, bringing our overall contribution over the last seven years to $1.25 million. - The Remix Project: This is an innovative arts and music program for at-risk youth in Toronto that helps talented youth reach their full potential in neighbourhoods where 30% of high school students do not expect to graduate. Participants can earn credits toward a high school diploma or an opportunity to earn an internship or can secure funds to create a new venture. TD has committed $225,000 over a three-year period. Half of Remix graduates are enrolled in post-secondary education. “The sole act of putting a book in the hand of every child with the TD Grade One Book Giveaway really does make a difference in supporting children’s literacy." Charlotte Teeple, Executive Director, Canadian Children’s Book Centre 1 Cooper, H., Nye, B., Charlton, K., Lindsay, J., and Greathouse, S. The Effects of Summer Vacation on Achievement Test Scores: A Narrative and Meta-analytic Review.Review of Educational Research, 66: 227-268, 1996. 2 Alexander, K.L., and D.R. Entwisle. "Schools and Children at Risk." In Family-School Links: How Do They Affect Educational Outcomes?, edited by A. Booth and J.F. Dunn, 67-89. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 1996.M.

W.E. Greiner Exploratory Arts Academy (magnet) Dallas Independent School District Greiner Exploratory Arts Academy (GEAA) serves a student population (total = 1,689) that is approximately 10% African American, 87% Hispanic, 2% White, 0.4% Native American, 0.4% Asian/Pacific Islander, 86% economically disadvantaged, 22% limited English proficient (LEP), and 48% at risk. Approximately 30% of students participate in the campus’ fine arts magnet program. The percentage of GEAA students passing mathematics TAKS increased from 74% passing in 2005–06 to 87% passing in 2009–10. The percentage of GEAA students performing at the Commended level on mathematics TAKS also increased from 12% in 2005–06 to 32% in 2009–10. Staff reported that the percentage of students participating in Pre-AP mathematics classes in Grades 6–7 increased from approximately 20% to 50% in recent years, and the percentage of Grade 8 students participating in Algebra I increased from approximately 20% to 45% (see Supporting Evidence for more information). GEAA was identified as an Algebra Readiness Exemplar Campus by the Texas Education Agency (TEA) to share best practices with campuses applying for TEA Algebra Readiness grants. In this summary, find out how the campus: - Maximizes the benefits of collaborative planning time through grade-level and departmental teams with high standards for sharing expertise and resources, lesson planning, and cross-curricular instruction - Creates an annual master plan for mathematics instruction based on student data - Refines and extends the instructional plan continuously based on ongoing data review, including well-developed lessons that incorporate engaging learning and real-world application projects - Provides opportunities for teachers to share lesson demonstrations, ideas, and resources to vertically align instruction - Provides additional support to struggling students through multiple extended learning opportunities (e.g., tutoring, Saturday school, enrichment classes) - Develops student, teacher, and departmental profiles to target specific student and teacher needs - Implements new teacher support and a peer coaching model based on teacher strengths, pairing teachers who need to develop skills in an area with the campus’ master teacher in that area Strategies that are aligned with research-based and TEA-identified key practices for Algebra Readiness programming include (see Research Base for more information): - Extended learning time for mathematics - Instructional coaching - Effective professional development - Common planning time - Effective supplemental resources - Administrator training - Appropriate technology - Active, ongoing student engagement - Guidance and communication for parents - GEAA is home to a Dallas ISD (DISD) fine arts magnet. Staff report that approximately 30% of enrolled students participate in the magnet program and that the magnet program has not significantly influenced campus performance. - The campus initially served only Grades 7–8, adding Grade 6 in 2007–08. - More than half of GEAA students attend classes in portable buildings. - The campus does not have double-blocked scheduling for mathematics. - DISD uses the Principles of Learning model from the Institute of Learning at the University of Pittsburgh to guide instruction in the district. The Principles of Learning consist of nine research-based statements that provide a common language for analyzing and improving teaching and learning. Campus staff reported that the framework provided a background for best practices. For more information, see http://www.dallasisd.org/academics/pdf/principlesoflearning.pdf. - GEAA was identified as an Algebra Readiness Exemplar Campus by TEA and the Institute for Public School Initiatives (IPSI) at the University of Texas at Austin, a TEA Algebra Readiness technical assistance provider. Exemplar campuses were identified based on review of National Center for Educational Achievement data scores and growth measures as well as interviews and classroom observations conducted by IPSI. To support grantees of TEA’s Middle School Students in Texas: Algebra Ready Pilot (MSTAR) and Algebra Readiness programs, IPSI then documented best practices at exemplar campuses. Grantees were required as part of the planning stages of their grants to visit exemplar campuses and talk with staff about strategies and implementation. For more information about TEA Algebra Readiness initiatives, see http://www.tea.state.tx.us/index2.aspx?id=8373&menu_id=814. Source: Academic Excellence Indicator System Providing enhanced access to rigorous coursework - In 2006–07, the campus mathematics department set a goal of increasing the number of students participating in Pre-AP mathematics in order to prepare more students for success in Grade 8 algebra. Historically, approximately 20% of students were enrolled in Pre-AP/Algebra, and staff noted that there were many more students who had the potential to succeed and were not being served. - Staff reviewed data to identify additional students who could be successful in Pre-AP/Algebra, and more sections of Pre-AP mathematics were offered. Pre-AP courses in Grades 6 and 7 were designed to strengthen basic skills for success in Algebra I, teach Grade 8 mathematics content tested on Grade 8 TAKS, and prepare students for success in rigorous classes. - In identifying students for participation in higher level mathematics courses, staff reported looking only at academics, noting that even if a student had attendance or discipline problems, he/she was not excluded from participation in Pre-AP/Algebra classes. - Teachers were also allowed to re-designate a grade-level mathematics course after the start of the school year as Pre-AP if a teacher felt that most students in the class were capable of success. Staff reported that including (rather than excluding) borderline students in a Pre-AP class often helped to motivate and raise the expectations of students who had not previously performed as well as they could. - The department tried to honor parent requests that students not identified by performance data for placement in Pre-AP/Algebra still be enrolled with the understanding that if the student did not meet performance criteria, he/she would be placed back in regular mathematics classes. - Staff emphasized that even with the increased enrollment, Pre-AP/Algebra courses were never “watered down.” Teachers incorporated Pre-AP strategies, lessons, and projects into regular mathematics classes, raising the rigor of mathematics instruction campuswide. - At the beginning of each year, in all classes, teachers provided a review of basic skills (e.g., number sense, multiplication and division, decimals, fractions, exponents, order of operations) to ensure that all students had a grasp of foundational skills that would enable them to complete more advanced higher-level critical thinking problems. Staff reported that the review was especially important for students in Grade 6 coming to the campus from various elementary schools. In Grade 6, teachers identified students who needed basic skills support based on elementary teacher recommendations, diagnostic tests, and GPA. The department then assigned these students to attend the classes of four teachers who, based on student performance data, were the best at teaching specific key review concepts. Identified students attended these teachers’ classes for a period of several weeks before returning to their regular assigned classes. In Grade 8, the beginning of year review was compacted and built into activities that combined review and practice with new skills and content. - In 2006–07, the district mandated that campus schedules include a daily collaborative period for teachers. Subsequently, GEAA teachers, who had previously met after school to plan collaboratively as grade-level teams, each taught five classes, with one planning period, and one collaborative group period. - Core content-area teachers met as grade-level teams 2-3 days per week during the collaborative period. Grade-level team members shared subject-area strategies, resources, and lessons based on identified learning needs, collaborated on projects, and incorporated activities to provide cross-curricular instruction and support. Grade-level teams also reviewed and discussed individual student needs, especially those of struggling students, developed academic and behavioral interventions, and conducted student and parent conferences as a team. - On the other two days per week during the collaborative meeting period, the mathematics department met to share and demonstrate grade-level lessons and resources to enhance coherence in instruction across grade levels and increase the rigor of instruction in Pre-AP and regular mathematics classes. The demonstration of grade-level “mini-lessons,” in particular, helped teachers to understand how key mathematical concepts had been and would be taught and to discuss the common vocabulary and approaches that should be presented consistently across grade levels with extensions to lay the foundations for the next grade level. This way, teachers were able to help students review concepts by referring specifically to and building from previous instruction. - Each summer, mathematics teachers met by grade level to modify and tailor the district-provided curriculum to create a comprehensive annual plan for campus mathematics instruction that improved the flow of instruction and highlighted opportunities to blend concepts, incorporated successful lessons and strategies already used at the campus, and reflected student needs as indicated by TAKS data. Teachers participating on grade-level teams were paid for 20-30 hours of summer meeting time, which was scheduled by individual teams over the course of the summer break. As part of the plan, teams created a schedule for instruction over the year, developed lessons, and created common assessments, including diagnostic tests and semester benchmarks that teachers would use as the year progressed. Staff emphasized that while the annual plan provided an outline for instruction on a weekly and day-to-day basis, it was flexible, and refinements and modifications were continuously added throughout the year. - Teachers met during the collaborative planning period to enhance and refine lessons to be used in the instructional plan based on ongoing classroom assessments and teacher research. Teachers were expected to conduct ongoing research by looking at materials, books, and manipulatives from other grade levels, other districts, online resources, publications, professional organizations, and professional development to identify additional tools and resources and/or approaches for refining lessons. Staff reported that these expectations helped teachers to really understand the lesson and material, rather than just printing off an existing lesson plan from the district curriculum. Ongoing refinements included creating lessons targeting specific identified student needs; incorporating real-world examples and applications; providing learning choices, cooperative learning, “discovery” and project-based lessons; integrating use of manipulatives to demonstrate all concepts; and choosing lessons that provided “entry points” for every level. - Staff reported that this ongoing refinement and improvement of lesson plans was expected, and the principal did not allow teachers to simply cut and paste the previous year’s lesson plans. - In lesson development, staff emphasized “discovery” type activities and projects that demonstrated real-life applications of mathematics learning. An example of a discovery-based activity involved students measuring a variety of triangles to identify which one aligned with the Pythagorean Theorem, rather than the teacher just telling students how to identify a right triangle. An example of a real-world application project involved a lesson in which students conducted job and salary research and calculated income and expenses associated with career/lifestyle choices with cross-curricular extensions in other classes. These types of projects were designed and coordinated through grade-level teams during collaborative planning periods. - Staff also reported allowing students to choose topics around project-based activities included in the district curriculum, increasing student choice and interest in some mathematics projects, and extending the projects through cross-curricular instruction. - Teachers regularly brought ideas for projects to collaborative meetings to get other teachers’ input and ideas. Increased instructional time - While the campus did not have double-blocked scheduling for mathematics, and typically had large classes (25-30+), the department developed a number of options to provide additional support for struggling students, including remedial electives for the lowest performing students, before- and after-school tutoring, Saturday school, and pull-out interventions. - Beginning in 2007–08, the campus targeted the lowest performing Grade 8 students who had a history of failure in mathematics for a special daily SSI (Student Success Initiative) mathematics course taught by master teachers. These classes focused on foundational skills, language barriers (as staff reported that this was a common issue for many students who were struggling with mathematics), and exposure to key concepts. The campus also began offering an additional remedial elective class for these students to provide additional instructional time. Teachers for both the SSI and remedial courses were trained in English as a second language (ESL) strategies. - Campus mathematics teachers also provided both daily individual and/or small-group tutoring for students in their classes before and after school. Teachers shared tutoring topics/schedules during collaborative periods, and if a teacher was going to offer tutoring in a specific concept area, other teachers in the department would send students from their classes needing support in that area to the tutoring session. Alternatively, if a teacher identified a need for his/her students, the teacher who taught the concept the best (as indicated by performance data) would teach a group tutoring session for those students. Tutoring topics were based on day-to-day classroom assessments and performance. - The principal emphasized that Title I funding was set aside for supplemental pay for teachers who worked extra hours to provide tutoring, though staff reported that many teachers did not “clock in” for the extra pay and provided the extra student support on their own time. - The campus also offered 10 Saturday school sessions for each core content area throughout the year. The focus of Saturday school was on improving student understanding of TAKS objectives based on data review. - In the spring, tutoring emphasis shifted toward the upcoming TAKS. In addition, the campus also provided pull-out sessions (during electives) for those struggling students who teachers felt needed extra support to pass TAKS. - For students who were struggling in Algebra I in Grade 8, the campus offered an elective support course. Students could participate for one or both semesters, and the course was designed to provide additional support to keep struggling students in Algebra I, rather than being placed back in a Grade 8 mathematics course. Students were identified for the course by teachers either the prior year or at the beginning of the year after a diagnostic assessment. Identifying student and teacher needs - The campus conducted review of TAKS data to create student, teacher, and department profiles, highlighting areas of strength and areas for improvement. Individual student profiles identified content objective areas in which a student needed additional support and tutoring. Teacher profiles highlighted which classes were having problems and with what concepts. The department profile identified which teachers’ students were performing well, which teachers needed to improve instruction and in which areas, and which classes or grade levels needed interventions. - The teacher and department profiles were used to provide peer coaching and professional development. As an example, staff reported that the profile might show that 40% of teacher A’s students were passing a certain objective while 90% of teacher B’s students were passing. The department would then pair those teachers up to arrange observations, team teaching, and other ways for the teachers to share and observe effective practices in teaching the concept. - Peer coaching/pairing occurred both within and outside the department. For example, if a teacher needed support in classroom management, he/she might be paired with the best teacher on the campus in another department to observe exemplary classroom management practices. Staff reported that the goal was always to pair the best teacher possible, as indicated by student performance data, with a struggling teacher. - The campus also developed programming to provide systematic new teacher support and development to build new teachers’ skill sets quickly. New teacher support included starter materials, reflection tools, and growth plans; identification of mentors; regular communication from the department chair and administrators; and celebrations of accomplishments through small social gatherings. A series of meetings to introduce new teachers to the campus mathematics program were scheduled on a six-week basis. Details of the support schedule can be accessed at http://www.ipsi.utexas.edu/docs/alg_readiness_toolkit/greiner.pdf. - Staff reported that teachers who did not want to be helped did not remain at the campus. - Staff also reported that the high standards and expectations for mathematics teachers were communicated during the hiring process to ensure that new teachers were aware they would be expected to provide regular tutoring, teach Saturday school, collaborate intensively with peers, and conduct continuous research and planning to improve instruction. - Professional development included external training as well as campus- and district-initiated book studies and research reviews. External training included Laying the Foundation training, which, in the past, all mathematics teachers were encouraged to attend. Beginning in 2009–10, the campus began requiring that all mathematics teachers attend Laying the Foundation training with district funding. Staff also reported that approximately 75% of mathematics teachers participated in the state Conference for the Advancement of Mathematics Teaching (CAMT) each summer, redelivering lesson demonstrations and new ideas from different CAMT sessions to other teachers during the departmental collaborative planning period. - The campus offered a parent night at the beginning of the year to help parents understand student expectations in each core content area so they would be better able to support their children. At these presentations, teachers showed parents examples from each of the core subject areas of what student work should look like. In mathematics, for example, parents were shown that a mathematics homework assignment would not simply involve circling answers on a multiple-choice worksheet but would also require evidence of the student working out the problem and written explanations and definitions. Staff reported that this approach was received positively by parents. - Because more than half of the campus’ students attended classes in portable buildings, access to technology had been limited due to safety and security concerns. Because Grade 8 courses were held in the main building, most of the technology integration had occurred at this grade level. Limited district funding for technology had also been an issue until recently due to the district policy of allocating technology funding primarily to the lowest performing campuses. Staff reported, however, that the district mathematics department had been effective in providing calculators, projectors, and document cameras. - Staff reported that all Grade 8 mathematics teachers had Smartboards, digital visual presenters (ELMO) and document cameras, and calculators. Staff reported incorporating video presentations to introduce lessons and the use of Powerpoint and other applications in Grade 8. - In Grades 6–7, access to technology had increased recently, though security was still a concern. Technology was incorporated into instruction based on teacher preference. Teachers could request technology and training, and the campus tried to fund the request with support from a mixture of campus and district funds. - ESL strategies - Laying the Foundation training - CAMT summer training - District and campus book studies, training, and peer coaching - Campus new teacher support system Resources, Cost Components, and Sources of Funding: The practice was supported primarily with campus and district funds. Staff reported that Title I funding was used to support supplemental pay for teachers offering extended learning opportunities but that most teachers did not apply for the funds. Cost components included the following: - Supplemental teacher pay for summer planning and tutoring - Laying the Foundation training, CAMT participation, and other professional development - Instructional resources, including manipulatives, TAKS prep books, lesson planning resources, paper and other tools for classroom activities, and technology - Before the district-mandated collaborative period was implemented, grade-level teacher teams met after school to plan collaboratively. Staff reported, however, that the inclusion of the collaborative period during the school day was critical to the improvements in performance the campus had experienced. - The mathematics department had created a dynamic culture based on high expectations and mutual support and enrichment. The principal reported that teachers were willing to perform extra duties without pay and were dedicated not just to the students in their own classes but to all students on campus. Staff reported that teachers regularly engaged in informal social activities, such as eating lunch together in the classroom, and that the department helped to support this relationship building. - Staff reported they believed that the quality of the teacher was the most significant factor in making a difference in student learning, not more instructional time, which was limited at the campus by both larger class sizes and the lack of a double-blocked schedule. - Staff reported that the size of the department (17 teachers) allowed for a broader, richer sharing of ideas. - Teachers reported that the administration was very supportive of teacher requests and worked to provide extra supports/resources for instruction, training, and technology. The principal reported that the district allowed the campus a degree of flexibility in designing instructional approaches based on its success. Established Best Practice Overview of Evidence: Since 2005–06, the percentage of GEAA students (all students) passing mathematics TAKS has improved. In 2005–06, 74% of GEAA students passed mathematics TAKS, compared to the state average of 72% and a peer campus group average of 59%.1,2 In 2009–10, 87% of GEAA students passed mathematics TAKS, compared to the state average of 81% and the peer campus group average of 81%. All comparisons were statistically significant (p<.05). Chart 1 shows trend data comparing the percentage of GEAA students passing mathematics TAKS to the state and peer campus group averages from 2005–06 to 2009–10. Since 2005–06, the percentage of GEAA students (all students) performing at the Commended level on mathematics TAKS also improved. In 2005–06, 12% of GEAA students performed at the Commended level, compared to the state average of 14% and a peer campus group average of 9%. In 2009–10, 32% of GEAA students performed at the Commended level on mathematics TAKS, compared to the state average of 26% and the peer campus group average of 20%. All comparisons were statistically significant (p<.05). Chart 2 shows trend data comparing the percentage of GEAA students performing at the Commended level on mathematics TAKS to the state and peer campus group averages from 2005–06 to 2009–10. Staff also reported that the percentage of GEAA Grade 6–7 students participating in Pre-AP mathematics courses increased from approximately 20% in 2005–06 to approximately 50% in 2009–10. Similarly, the percentage of GEAA Grade 8 students participating in Algebra I increased from approximately 20% in 2005–06 to approximately 45% in 2009–10. Source: Texas Assessment Management System Note: The campus served Grades 7–8 in 2005–06 and 2006–07 and Grades 6–8 in 2007–08, 2008–09, and 2009–10. Grade 8 data are from TAKS primary administration. Source: Texas Assessment Management System Note: The campus served Grades 7–8 in 2005–06 and 2006–07 and Grades 6–8 in 2007–08, 2008–09, and 2009–10. Grade 8 data are from TAKS primary administration. A principal’s presentation on the GEAA approach to improving mathematics instruction can be accessed at http://www.ipsi.utexas.edu/docs/alg_readiness_toolkit/greiner.pdf W.E. Greiner Exploratory Arts Academy Dallas Independent School District 501 South Edgefield Dallas, TX 75208 1Peer campuses were identified using the campus groups used in Academic Excellence Indicator System (AEIS) reporting. For more information on how campus groups are identified, see the AEIS Glossary, http://ritter.tea.state.tx.us/perfreport/aeis/2009/glossary.html. 2Averages are weighted averages including the number of test takers for the grade level(s) of the practice.

Summary: Africa: Volume 1, begins a series of books which adopt a new perspective on African history and culture, surveying the wide array of societies and states that have existed on the African continent and introducing readers to the diversity of African experiences and cultural expressions. Toyin Falola has brought together African studies professors from a variety of schools and settings. Writing from their individual areas of expertise, these authors work together to br ...show moreeak general stereotypes about Africa, focusing instead on the substantive issues of the African past from an African perspective. The texts are richly illustrated and include maps and timelines to make cultural and historical movements clear, and suggestions for further reading will help readers broaden their own particular interests. Africa provides new perspectives that challenge the accepted ways of studying Africa, flexibility for instructors to structure courses, and encouragement for readers who are eager to learn about the diversity of the African experience. Volume 1, African History Before 1885, introduces students to the various precolonial histories of Africa. Instead of generalizing about the continent, the chapters reconstruct the histories of many different societies in various historical periods.

Summary: With dynamic full-color illustrations and an easy-to-read writing style, Pathophysiology, 4th Edition explores the etiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestation, and treatment of disease. Each unit covers a specific body system and begins with an illustrated review of anatomy and normal physiology to prepare you for disease processes and abnormalities discussions. Coverage of the latest developments in pathophysiology and a wealth of student-friendly learning resour ...show moreces will help you understand all of the major degenerative, neoplastic, metabolic, immunologic and infectious diseases. # Highlighted Key Points focus you on the most important information. # Key Terms bolded within the text help you identify and understand new and important terms. # Key Questions for every chapter emphasize important concepts and develop critical thinking skills needed for practice. # Additional content on the Companion CD and the companion Evolve website provide more opportunities for learning with case study worksheets, additional exercises, animations, and much more. # Geriatric Considerations boxes discuss the age-related changes associated with each body system. # Frontiers in Research essays introduce each unit with an informative commentary on the history of scientific investigation, the current understanding, and potential future breakthroughs. # Revised content includes the most current information and research on RNA molecules in cell function, guidelines, heart failure, alzheimers, and more to keep you at the cutting-edge of pathophysiology. # A new focus on general introductory principles and data measurement in clinical practiceprovides a solid beginning to pathophysiology study. 36 more offers below.

Eating fish can reduce blindness risk by halfMarch 15th, 2011 - 6:15 pm ICT by IANS London, March 15 (IANS) Eating fish just once or twice a week could reduce the risk of suffering from the most common form of blindness by nearly half. Research shows that eating omega-3 fatty acids, most commonly found in tinned salmon and tuna, can help prevent the onset of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), a condition that leads to the gradual loss of vision. This finding backs up previous research which showed similar results in men. William Christen, of the Harvard Medical School, the US, who led the study said that “dark meat” fish appeared to help the most, the Telegraph reports. “This lower risk appeared to be due, primarily, to consumption of canned tuna fish and dark-meat fish,” said Christen. The disease, which mainly effects people over 40, robs sufferers of their sight by creating a black spot in the centre of their vision which slowly gets bigger. With the number of AMD sufferers expected to treble in the next 25 years as the population ages, there is an urgent need for a breakthrough. The team at Harvard Medical School piggybacked on another study of more than 38,000 women to obtain the findings. All the participants began the study AMD-free. - Eating fish 'cuts women's eyesight loss risk in old age' - Mar 15, 2011 - Eating oily fish keeps blindness at bay - Dec 02, 2010 - Omega-3 in seafood may protect seniors' eyes - Dec 02, 2010 - Eating oily fish may benefit people with age-related macular degeneration - Jun 09, 2009 - What's good for women's heart? Baked mackerel! - May 25, 2011 - Salmona, tuna 'protects against age-related macular degeneration' - Jun 19, 2009 - Daily dose of nutrients could save your sight - Jul 02, 2010 - Vitamin A pill could protect the sight of millions - Oct 18, 2010 - How omega-3 fatty acids keep blindness at bay - Feb 10, 2011 - Grapes can stave off age-related blindness - Jan 15, 2012 - Drugs to treat age-related blindness - Feb 07, 2011 - Smoking 'worsens age-related macular degeneration' - Dec 31, 2009 - Pot-bellied men run risk of going blind - Apr 03, 2011 - Prosthetic retina shows promise in restoring sight - May 18, 2012 - Stem cell therapy for age-related macular degeneration may soon be a reality - Mar 25, 2011 Tags: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

The memory of the 1989 massacre of protesters at Tiananmen Square remains neither alive nor dead, neither reckoned nor obliterated. Instead, it hangs specter-like in the background, a muted but latent and powerful symbol of resistance. - Food Safety: A Reality Check to the 'Chinese Dream' - The Chinese Graffiti Seen 'Round the World - The Wall Street Journal: Covering China Past and Present There's no question that an honest accounting of the incident, colloquially known as "6/4," would change China's future. Clearly, Chinese authorities have calculated that facing the truth of Tiananmen would be more trouble than denying it. After all, a great deal of grassroots blowback could result from this revision to recent history. Who wants to be the official held responsible for that? Even if China's new leaders -- who were too junior in 1989 to have had personal culpability in the brutal crackdown -- wanted to make a clean break from the past, doing so would implicate numerous power brokers and patrons within the Communist Party superstructure. Such a shift in the balance of power among a risk-averse leadership is unlikely to happen any time soon. Yet putting aside internal power politics for a moment, a compelling argument can be advanced that it makes sense to face Tiananmen's demons, not only for China's long term stability, but for the Party's. For one, the rise of digital media, which began in earnest in 2009, has made it harder to enforce the process of collective forgetting. Online censors are on high alert in the days leading up to and including the June 4 anniversary; this year, Internet company Sina even removed the candle emoticon from its Weibo platform. Nonetheless, they remain powerless to stop opinion leaders from discussing 6/4, or at least alluding to it in code. Anyone under 30 is probably too young to remember Tiananmen personally, but those older Chinese confronted with mentions of "that day, that month, that year" know what it means. Overlooking the cumulative impact of these allusions requires an affirmative effort. It's hard for authorities to plan around such an unstable quantity. Better for China's leaders to give some breathing room to collective discussion of Tiananmen, even if no one is prepared to apologize yet. If censors stood down, the Party could take the people's temperature on the issue, and gain a better sense of how it might explain its actions in a way that both satisfies most Chinese and accounts for the truth. This could be the start of a healing and self-examination process that would render the words "six, four" less explosive, although never inert. Until the Chinese Communist Party takes the difficult step of facing its recent past, it will continue to abdicate an important leadership role to the nation's dissidents and public intellectuals: guardian of the nation's history and its conscience. That duty needs wider stewardship. An increasingly pluralistic, confident, and digital China surely can do better. Near-term change is unlikely, but we can always dream aloud. I agree with both these points: that China would be better for it, and that it is unlikely to happen. This is obviously a resonant date, but Tiananmen is not the only significant piece of recent history that cannot be discussed: China is one of the rare places in the world where the profession of historian is truly hazardous. The long drawn out refurbishment of the National History Museum, one of the few high profile Chinese state projects in modern times to overshoot its deadline by more than two years, exemplifies the difficulties faced by a history minded nation that cannot freely discuss its recent past. Since we are writing on this day, it's worth remembering that one of the after-effects of those 1989 events was that history was declared a matter of national security: the old revolutionary history was displaced in favor of the nationalist version taught today, with its founding assertion that the interests of the nation and the interests of the Party are the same. This version blames outside forces for China's decline in the 19th century, and fails to explore the first thirty years of CCP rule -- land reform, the Anti-Rightist Movement, the Great Leap Forward, the Cultural Revolution -- where most of the bodies lie. It is a temporal landscape swarming with ghosts and, in the Chinese tradition, unhappy ghosts will go on causing trouble in the present until their needs are met. In 1989, I was in primary school in Sichuan. My experience of the Tiananmen Incident started with recognizing unfamiliar, scattered words and phrases. Beginning early that summer, I frequently heard the phrase from my aunt who was then in college: "Hunger strike." Each day, on my way to school, I found the buildings on my route covered with posters. One word stood out: "Democracy." The context in which these words were spoken didn't become clear to me until I went to Beijing for college. "Liu Si" --Chinese for 6/4, and code what happened in Tiananmen that June 4 -- became a siren call. The day was a dangerous, forbidden, tantalizing secret, especially when people abruptly veered away from talk of it if they felt the conversation might touch on this time and place. If only my fellow Chinese could see a chance to make money in the past, they definitely would remember the past, face the past, and make use of the past. Otherwise, there is no such thing called the past. But I have always been able to hear the siren. It returns from time to time. One day, after a long talk with a professor of mine, he unexpectedly recounted how he had tried to persuade one of his favorite students not to go into the streets on June 4 and how he later carried his body back to campus. When I began work as a journalist, I discovered that many people were holding onto their stories of that day like secrets, no matter if they were environmentalists, journalists, lawyers or officials. When getting familiar with them, they didn't mind telling me their stories, quietly and in vivid detail. But not everybody's willing to hear siren. In 2004, on the 15th anniversary of the incident, I went to Tiananmen with a colleague. Plainclothes cops outnumbered the tourists posing for photos, smiling, excited, and a little tired. Each year, the government orders universities to watch their students more closely around June 4, but the order seems increasingly paranoid and ironic. When, for instance, I called another college professor of mine to check in, she told me students were busy looking for jobs and preparing for final exams. Without the order to remind them, June 4 would be like any other day. At a high school reunion dinner back in my home town, I talked with old classmates about the secret. One woman who'd shared my cynicism when we were teens, raised her head and looked at me with surprise and slight disappointment, saying, "You are such a contrarian." I would remind readers that the Deng Xiaoping era, which carried on through Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao and continues today under President Xi Jinping, started with the famous slogan "in solidarity look forward" (tuanjie yizhi xiang qian kan) -- a slogan that can be interpreted as a reproach to avoid facing the past. Though China's political values today may be more diverse across different social groups, it seems to me that most Chinese still are impacted greatly by government attitudes in their choice of approach to social, political, and historical issues. China is a nation with a written history of 5,000 years. It is perhaps because of the length of its story that the nation often is cynical about its often heavy past. China remembers like an old person, recalling remote history more easily than it remembers yesterday. Political cleansing of people's memory is one of the problems. I am sure, for instance, that every high school pupil in China knows more about 221 BC -- the year Qin Shihuang unified China -- than he does about 1912. What happened that year? What about in 1989? But June 4th keeps coming back. And it sits silently at the heart of those discussions that are allowed and semi-allowed, about abuse of power, rule of law, universal values, official corruption, and constitutionalism. I know that more and more young people today have become curious about 1989 and are getting around to exploring what happened. But these people are but a very tiny portion of the Chinese populace. In the 1980s, Deng's slogan was mocked and rewritten as "in unity looking at money" (xiang qian kan). If only my fellow Chinese could see a chance to make money in the past, they definitely would remember the past, face the past, and make use of the past. Otherwise, there is no such thing called the past. What kills me about the fact that the Chinese don't look at or know their recent history is the growing sense that there could have been no other way. Since June 4, 1989, the Communist Party has been extremely effective in spinning the narrative to suggest that if the army hadn't cracked down, there would be chaos in China today. What is forgotten is the fact that what was at play was nothing short of a power struggle at the highest level, between leaders with different visions for the future. Party Secretary Zhao Ziyang, despite being a product of the Communist system, had started to see the dangers of not reforming the system politically: He launched a political reform institute that was exploring various models that might be adopted by China. He may not have seen it all clearly back then, but over the years, he came to believe that parliamentary democracy was the only way forward. As Zhao said in secretly taped interviews, published in 2009 as a memoir, "Prisoner of the State": If a country wishes to modernize, not only should it implement a market economy, it must also adopt a parliamentary democracy as its political system. Otherwise, this nation will not be able to have a market economy that is healthy and modern, nor can it become a modern society with a rule of law. Instead it will run into the situations that have occurred in so many developing countries, including China: commercialization of power, rampant corruption, a society polarized between rich and poor. When talking about corruption or the injustices of authoritarian rule, the Chinese often have a way of shrugging their shoulders and saying "沒辦法," or "there's nothing you can do about it." But it's important for young Chinese to know their history, to understand that things could have taken a very different direction, so that they can approach the future with open minds and help their country forge a better path. One pull on this thread and the whole edifice of political control starts shaking. If June 4th can be mentioned, the actions of senior retired leaders can be questioned: they and their clients will fight to protect themselves, ending the tenuous truce in elite politics. If June 4th can be mentioned, the legitimacy of the current leaders can be examined: they are the heirs of Jiang Zemin, who was installed in 1989 in an illegal coup by Deng Xiaoping. If June 4th can be mentioned, the issue it was all about can be raised: democracy. No wonder the leaders are scared of the topic. But June 4th keeps coming back. And it sits silently at the heart of those discussions that are allowed and semi-allowed, about abuse of power, rule of law, universal values, official corruption, and constitutionalism. The issue seems to get harder to suppress as time goes by rather than easier. The effort to suppress it shows the vulnerability of the regime. The place of memory, West and East. What a paradox that the society that has been most obsessed with remembering its history over the many milennia of its long evolution -- even to the point of writing exhaustive dynastic histories as a way to memorialize the past, the better to start anew -- has arrived more recently at a place where political sensitivities make it too complicated to allow its historical gate keepers to chronicle most of what has happened since 1950, honestly and publicly. The Chinese Communist Party's infinitely complicated relationship to its own history has left so many historical no-fly zones, that Chinese today confront a picture that is something like a mosaic with most of the pieces missing. One giant missing piece is, of course, the traumatic events of 1989. Is the Chinese Communist Party perhaps wise not to dwell on the barbarous and tragic events that enveloped their capital city in the spring of 1989? After all, what's done is done. Does it matter? Is it possible that sometimes it may be best just to forget, if not forgive, rather than dwell on some unwelcome occurrence? Is the Chinese Communist Party perhaps wise not to dwell on the barbarous and tragic events that enveloped their capital city in the spring of 1989? After all, what's done is done. What's the point of rubbing salt in wounds by continually raising an event which has now passed, never to be re-enacted or set right again? Perhaps the great Chinese writer Lu Xun was wrong when in 1926, after a group of students were shot dead in front of the Tiananmen Gate, he wrote: "This is not the conclusion of an incident, but a new beginning. Lies written in ink, can never disguise truths written in blood. All blood debts must be repaid in kind: the longer the delay, the greater the interest" Maybe. One of the building blocks of modern Western civilization is the very Freudian notion that a life unexamined -- one that is not introspective and does not strive continually to remember, understand and deal with how the past has made us who we are -- is a recipe for disaster. Behind this assumption lays the also-very-Western notion that memory is a key to the process of maintaining mental health and comprehending something about how we came to be psychologically formed -- or malformed, as the case may be. Implicit in all these assumptions -- to which much of Western literature is consecrated -- is the idea that the interior world of our being needs constant gardening to remain whole, humane, and functional; that it is not enough just to try and rearrange the exterior furniture in the room through various kinds of revolutions, but that we must also attend to our interiors, our psyches. Traumatic events, by this logic, are assumed to come back to haunt a person unless they are retrieved carefully and dealt with in a self-reflective way ... before they start creating errant behavior. By this same logic, a society that refuses to look inward and carefully call into consciousness and process its own history -- especially a history that shows leaders harming their constituents in some grievous way -- is a society destined to be unstable, unpredictable and to act out to the detriment of other societies around it, and to its own people. When speaking either of individuals or societies there clearly are inappropriate, and certainly counter-productive, times to raise painful past incidents and historical events. But, that is not to say that what Freud called "repression" can be a successful long-term strategy for remedy. In the end, it is doubtless true that if individuals, like societies, are ever to escape their parlous pasts, it will often be only through the painful, almost psycho-analytic process of remembering, processing, coming to terms with, and perhaps even finally forgiving. Such may sound like an indelibly Western notion steeped irrevocably in Judeo-Christian kultur with little relevance to Eastern cultures. But, in this day and age, you do not have to a follower of Sigmund Freud to believe that a healthy person, like a healthy society, almost inevitably needs to come to terms with who, or what, it is. To do that effectively, the always-painful process of engaging the gears of historical memory is almost inevitable. For the Chinese Communist Party to imagine that it alone might somehow be exempt from this ineluctable verity would seem arrogant folly. Every society, like every person, makes grievous mistakes in the course of its existence. After the fact, the critical question becomes: What is each willing to do to correct those mistakes by way of understanding why they did what they did and by making amends both to themselves and others who have been harmed in the process. This is never an easy process, as any post-WWII German will tell you. And for a society like China, which for so long has been engaged first in the process of waging revolution against external enemies, and then just as aggressively leaning into the process of gaining the equally external affectations of "wealth and power" (明朝), the very internal process of righting the wrongs of the past -- all too many of which were self-inflicted -- certainly will not be easy. But, is it unavoidable? I suspect so. June 4th raises a challenge equally as daunting as making a revolution or enriching a nation -- a challenge that represents but one of the many painful memories that Chinese leaders ultimately will have to address to undertake this painful but inescapable process of self-absolution. A version of this post appears at ChinaFile, an Atlantic partner site.

This image of Mars' Newton Crater has been created by scientists at NASA using a combination of images from by the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) camera on NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and 3D modeling techniques in order to give a viewer the perspective of looking at the slope as though he or she were in a helicopter hovering inside the crater. They have enhanced the color of the image and imposed a synthetic sky in the background. In the image, dark flows of what some scientists believe is salty liquid water are visible. These flows appear in the warm seasons but fade during Martian winter. Image: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Univ. of Arizona. This article available online at:

The South Carolina NAACP honored Martin Luther King Jr. Day Monday while simultaneously dishonoring the nation’s first president. An organized rally — dubbed “King Day at the Dome” — protested the Confederate battle flag on display at the State House in Columbia and featured speakers and guests who called on government leaders to address “racial disparities” in education, health care, community development, criminal justice, employment and economic development in the state. But as a number of local and national speakers stepped forward to speak from the capitol steps, a large bronze statue of George Washington was conspicuously hidden (h/t Atlas Shrugs). A large box covered with cloth hid the father of the country from view of the rally’s guests: Here’s the view of the stage from the audience (h/t Weasel Zippers): Here’s Washington’s vantage point, via TheState.com which noted, “The monument of George Washington was concealed from the crowd during the King Day at the Dome rally,” but offered no explanation: It’s not clear why the NAACP insisted on covering up the likeness of the nation’s first president and a spokesman for the organization was not immediately available for comment. Update: The South Carolina NAACP has responded to a request for comment and said the only reason the statue of Washington was covered up was for aesthetic purposes. “We had created a backdrop behind the speakers,” the group spokesman told The Blaze late Tuesday afternoon, noting that someone in his organization forgot to post an NAACP placard on the backdrop. According to the group, the statue of Washington has been covered each year for the annual rally. The spokesman said he was “at a loss for words” as to why covering President Washington would offend anyone, claiming it was “non-sensical” for people to believe it may have been politically motivated.

Who Is Looking for the Cure for AIDS? The Government Has an Extensive Plan for AIDS Research, but Finding a Cure Is Not Part of it Martin Delaney was a pioneering AIDS activist who believed that knowledge was strength and that hope was an essential ingredient in the fight against HIV. In that spirit he founded San Francisco's Project Inform in 1985 and dedicated his life to obtaining information and clearly communicating what he learned to people living with the virus. Perhaps thousands of people are alive today because they heard Marty Delaney speak at a town hall forum, or read one of his newsletter articles, and understood that treating HIV was possible, and that there was hope. Marty had seen the darkest days of the epidemic and he heralded the dawn when the first effective combination therapies were revealed in the mid-1990s. Despite the triumphs and disappointments with what AIDS drugs could and couldn't do, Marty never lost sight of the ultimate hope: that one day a cure for AIDS would be found. While others dismissed seeking a cure as scientifically naïve, Marty continued to raise the issue whenever he met with the government, scientists, the drug companies, or with groups of people living with HIV. Martin Delaney died of liver cancer in January 2009, but his hopes for seeking a cure no longer seem naïve. A few visionary researchers are finally starting to turn their attention to the supremely difficult challenge of eliminating or permanently defeating HIV in the body. It may take 20 years or more for curing HIV infection to become practical -- or even possible -- but the quest is now being taken seriously. And that is what is needed to keep hope alive. Since the beginning of the epidemic nearly 30 years ago, the two great quests of AIDS scientists have been to develop a vaccine to prevent HIV infection and a treatment to cure it. Although combination drug treatment has proven able to stop HIV cold, it is not a cure, and drugs must be taken carefully and consistently for life or the virus will come roaring back. After great hopes and millions spent on finding a vaccine, science's best efforts have been disappointing, although the search continues. Yet, despite the thousands of scientists working to improve the lives of people with HIV, relatively few have taken up the challenge of curing the disease for good. While there are signs the quest for a cure for AIDS is finally gaining some respect, high level leadership is still lacking. Even the government does not rank curing HIV very high on its list of priorities for AIDS research. The 200-page National Institutes of Health (NIH) Plan for HIV-Related Research1 for 2010 sets out the US government's priority areas for AIDS research and serves as a road map to coordinate its investment in AIDS science. The plan establishes two major priorities for NIH AIDS research: the prevention of HIV transmission and the prevention and treatment of HIV-associated illnesses and coinfections. A glance at the plan's priorities makes it clear that finding a vaccine is a key goal of the NIH AIDS science effort. This is certainly justified given the enormous impact that a preventive vaccine would have on the course of the epidemic. However, if you search for mention of a cure, you will come up short. Attempting to eliminate HIV infection is not a priority, an objective, or even a strategy mentioned in the NIH plan. This gap in the national research effort raises a troubling question: How likely are we to find a cure for AIDS if it is not on the official road map? One reason why curing HIV infection receives insufficient attention from the scientific establishment is because it has seemed like an extraordinarily difficult -- perhaps impossible -- goal to achieve; and research money tends to flow to problems that people believe can be solved. There are two things that will make curing HIV infection so tough. The first is that HIV inserts its DNA into the DNA of an infected person's immune cells, and in some of these cells, the viral genes go to sleep, giving no sign that they are there until they are activated at some future point. This is called latency. Because modern antiretroviral (ARV) drugs can effectively prevent circulating virus particles from infecting fresh cells, latency on its own wouldn't be such a problem if all of the infected cells died off fairly quickly (cells that actively produce HIV tend to self-destruct after a short while; uninfected and latently infected cells survive longer). But some of the infected immune cells go into a "resting state" of dormancy, and may stay that way for ten years or longer. Others may divide and give rise to fresh daughter cells that carry a latent copy of HIV. This means that HIV infection is persistent. Because HIV establishes a persistent and latent infection in very long-lived resting immune cells, a reservoir of HIV is created within the body that could potentially take decades to disappear -- and that's if the reservoir was never replenished by viruses that managed to escape the antiretroviral drugs. One of the lingering questions for scientists is whether reservoirs are replenished by active viral replication or not. In any event, if the drugs are stopped before the reservoir is fully depleted, then HIV will resume infecting new cells, and levels of virus in the body will surge. The investigation of HIV latency and persistence does not appear in the short list of research topics that the NIH says will receive the highest priority under its plan for HIV research. Only a few lines in the plan call for studying factors that enable HIV to establish a persistent infection or for understanding the reservoirs that permit HIV persistence. It's no wonder that scientists who apply for funding to study HIV latency are so often turned down: the term does not appear in the NIH plan. There are many good reasons to be skeptical about the chances for actually curing HIV. The mechanisms that permit latency are still not fully understood, and there are competing theories for how the viral genes are silenced in certain cells. In fact, there are likely multiple mechanisms at work, which means that any single approach to a cure could be insufficient. In brief, the main theoretical strategies for eliminating HIV from the body involve: The last of these strategies is the sci-fi approach and (despite a recent report2) may not be possible for many decades. Identifying latently infected cells and killing them sounds ideal, but how to do it remains a puzzle since, by definition, such cells look exactly like uninfected cells. Thus, a strategy of waking up the cells of the latent reservoir and getting them to start making HIV copies seems like a plausible first step. Once awake, the infected cells would self-destruct or be eliminated by the immune system; antiretroviral drugs would protect new cells from becoming infected; and, theoretically, the body would soon be free of HIV. This idea is thought of as "purging the reservoir" and a few early, though unsuccessful, trials have been attempted in people. Research into how the reservoir of latently infected cells can be flushed out is proceeding slowly in a few laboratories around the world. But government support is needed to invigorate this research and put finding a cure for AIDS back on the map. Marty Delaney kept our hopes for curing HIV infection alive. Now it is time for all of us to demand that the quest for a cure not be forgotten. Bob Huff is the antiretroviral project director at Treatment Action Group (TAG) in New York. Future Studies Needed to Determine If "Test and Treat" Approach Could "End HIV Pandemic Within 50 Years," Researchers Say This article was provided by Being Alive. It is a part of the publication Being Alive Newsletter. Visit Being Alive's website to find out more about their activities, publications and services. Add Your Comment: (Please note: Your name and comment will be public, and may even show up in Internet search results. Be careful when providing personal information! Before adding your comment, please read TheBody.com's Comment Policy.)

The Mercator projection is a cylindrical map projection presented by the Flemish geographer and cartographer Gerardus Mercator, in 1569. It became the standard map projection for nautical purposes because of its ability to represent lines of constant course, known as rhumb lines or loxodromes, as straight segments. While the linear scale is constant in all directions around any point, thus preserving the angles and the shapes of small objects (which makes the projection conformal), the Mercator projection distorts the size and shape of large objects, as the scale increases from the Equator to the poles, where it becomes infinite. Mercator's 1569 edition was a large planisphere measuring 202 by 124 cm, printed in eighteen separate sheets. As in all cylindrical projections, parallels and meridians are straight and perpendicular to each other. In accomplishing this, the unavoidable east-west stretching of the map, which increases as distance away from the equator increases, is accompanied by a corresponding north-south stretching, so that at every point location, the east-west scale is the same as the north-south scale, making the projection conformal. A Mercator map can never fully show the polar areas, since linear scale becomes infinitely high at the poles. Being a conformal projection, angles are preserved around all locations. However scale varies from place to place, distorting the size of geographical objects and conveying a distorted idea of the overall geometry of our planet. At latitudes greater than 70° north or south, the Mercator projection is practically unusable. All lines of constant bearing (rhumb lines or loxodromes — those making constant angles with the meridians), are represented by straight segments on a Mercator map. This is precisely the type of route usually employed by ships at sea, where compasses are used to indicate geographical directions and to steer the ships. The two properties, conformality and straight rhumb lines, make this projection uniquely suited to marine navigation: courses and bearings are measured using wind roses or protractors, and the corresponding directions are easily transferred from point to point, on the map, with the help of a parallel ruler or a pair of navigational squares. The name and explanations given by Mercator to his world map (Nova et Aucta Orbis Terrae Descriptio ad Usum Navigatium Emendate: "new and augmented description of Earth corrected for the use of navigation") show that it was expressly conceived for the use of marine navigation. Although the method of construction is not explained by the author, Mercator probably used a graphical method, transferring some rhumb lines previously plotted on a globe to a square graticule, and then adjusting the spacing between parallels so that those lines became straight, making the same angle with the meridians as in the globe. The development of the Mercator projection represented a major breakthrough in the nautical cartography of the 16th century. However, it was much ahead of its time, since the old navigational and surveying techniques were not compatible with its use in navigation. Two main problems prevented its immediate application: the impossibility of determining the longitude at sea with adequate accuracy and the fact that magnetic directions, instead of geographical directions, were used in navigation. Only in the middle of the 18th century, after the marine chronometer was invented and the spatial distribution of magnetic declination was known, could the Mercator projection be fully adopted by navigators. Several authors are associated with the development of Mercator projection: This is the inverse of the Gudermannian function: Assume a spherical Earth. (It is actually slightly flattened, but for small-scale maps the difference is immaterial. For more precision, interpose conformal latitude.) We seek a transform of longitude-latitude (λ, φ) to Cartesian (x, y) that is "a cylinder tangent to the equator" (i.e. x = λ) and conformal, so that: From x = λ we get Thus y is a function only of φ with from which a table of integrals gives It is convenient to map φ = 0 to y = 0, so take C = 0. Like all map projections that attempt to fit a curved surface onto a flat sheet, the shape of the map is a distortion of the true layout of the Earth's surface. The Mercator projection exaggerates the size of areas far from the equator. For example: Although the Mercator projection is still in common use for navigation, due to its unique properties, cartographers agree that it is not suited to large area maps due to its distortion of land area. Mercator himself used the equal-area sinusoidal projection to show relative areas. As a result of these criticisms, modern atlases no longer use the Mercator projection for world maps or for areas distant from the equator, preferring other cylindrical projections, or forms of equal-area projection. The Mercator projection is still commonly used for areas near the equator, however, where distortion is minimal. Arno Peters stirred controversy when he proposed what is known as the Gall-Peters projection, a slight modification of the Lambert Cylindrical Equal-Area projection, as the alternative to the Mercator. A 1989 resolution by seven North American geographical groups decried the use of all rectangular-coordinate world maps, including the Mercator and Gall-Peters. Google Maps currently uses a Mercator projection for its map images. Despite its obvious scale distortions at small scales, the projection is well-suited as an interactive world map that can be zoomed seamlessly to large-scale (local) maps, where there is relatively little distortion due to the projection's conformal nature. (Google Satellite Maps, on the other hand, used a plate carrée projection until July 22, 2005.) The Google Maps tiling system displays most of the world at zoom level 0 as a single 256 pixel-square image, excluding the polar regions. Since the Mercator coordinate x varies over 2π, the other coordinate is limited to -π ≤ y ≤ π. Because the corresponding latitude extrema are φ = ±85.05113°. Latitude values outside this range are mapped using a different relationship that doesn't diverge at φ = ±90°.

This week, Collected Wisdom is going surveying on its vast country estate. Let's see if we have all the necessary equipment. Theodolite? Check. Field books? Check. Sedan chair and team of minions? Check. Then off we go. Why is the Saskatchewan-Manitoba border a series of small jogs, rather than being a straight line like the Saskatchewan-Alberta border? asks Don Keith of Waterloo, Ont. In a nutshell, the jogs are caused by adjustments in the land-survey grid for Western Canada, to compensate for the curvature of the Earth. When the West was being colonized in the 1800s, says Michael Zawalsky of Cobalt, Ont., the Dominion government undertook a vast project to promote orderly settlement, at the core of which was the Dominion Land Survey (DLS). The basic mapping unit of the DLS is a square tract of land, called a township, measuring six miles on each side, writes Mr. Zawalsky, who is a retired employee of the cartography section at Agriculture Canada. On the DLS grid, he writes, “latitude lines, which run parallel to the equator, are used as horizontal lines. Longitude or meridian lines are used as vertical lines for the map grid.” Because the Earth is a globe, the vertical lines are not parallel, but gradually get closer together until they converge at the North Poles. Over now to John Patterson of London, Ont. Due to these converging vertical lines, he says, the width of the southern boundary of a block on the DLS grid is longer than that of the northern boundary. If this pattern were left uncorrected, says Mr. Zawalsky, the converging lines would enclose increasingly smaller township areas as they progressed northward. According to a 1986 paper by University of Saskatchewan professors Robert McKercher and Bertram Wolfe, this problem was solved in the following manner: Every 24 miles, the vertical boundaries that define the western edges of townships are corrected, essentially by breaking the boundary, moving it 225 feet farther west, and then allowing it to continue on its northward path. This causes a series of jogs, which increase in size as they progress westward from the beginning of the grid, near Winnipeg. The first jog is about 225 feet, the next is 450 feet, and so on. By the time the grid reaches the Saskatchewan-Manitoba border, says Mr. Patterson, the jog is about 1.25 miles. In the case of the Saskatchewan-Alberta border, the meridian lying along 110 degrees west longitude was chosen as the boundary. This is one of the points in the system where the grid is recalibrated to follow a meridian, so the border has no jogs. Here's a follow-up entry to last week's discussion about the origins of the terms “bull” and “bear” in stock-market-speak. “The original London Stock Exchange consisted of a bulletin board on which offers to buy (bulletins or ‘bulls') were posted,” writes Mel Wiebe of Kingston. Thus, during a hot market, the board would be full of bulletins, or bulls (“bullish”), while during a cooler trend the board would be bare (“bare/bearish”). - T.J. Machado of Mississauga asks: Why do we have to have manholes in the road? They quickly crater and make for bad driving conditions. Why can't we have them on the sidewalk instead? - Do the “crisper” drawers in refrigerators actually do anything? Megan Gelb of Vancouver doesn't think they do. - Why does the water in the toilet move on very windy days? Graham Duncan of Mahone Bay, N.S., wants to know. Let's hear from you: If you have the answer to one of these questions (or a question of your own) send an e-mail to [email protected]. Please include your location and a daytime phone number. Follow us on Twitter:

As a Filipino-American, I have reeled in shock and helplessness as thousands of Filipinos in Typhoon Haiyan-decimated Tacloban City were shown every day sitting, wandering, crying, with nowhere to go, without food, water, shelter, and medical attention. After six days and reports of no aid arriving yet, I wrote 17 friends in Manila seeking answers as to why more aid had not reached those devastated by this natural disaster. They felt the same despair I did, often telling me: "not enough aid reached the people in a timely manner". Like many others, I am thankful for the generosity of my fellow Americans, many of whom have already donated millions to the relief effort. But I could never have imagined that red-tape and outdated rules written by the US Congress in the 1950s could delay urgently needed relief from reaching the millions of people who desperately need humanitarian assistance in my native land. These regulations require the vast majority of US food aid to be shipped from preferred growers in the US on preferred US ships. Food has to be shipped more than 11,000 nautical miles across the ocean, even though there is ample food available much closer to the crisis, in unaffected areas of the Philippines and in countries like Thailand and Vietnam – at a lower price for taxpayers. The rules prevent aid agencies like the World Food Program from purchasing food from the closest and most cost-effective sellers. Delays in delivering food because of red tape doesn't just cost tax dollars, it can cost lives. It is unconscionable that red tape is delaying food from reaching people whose lives have already been destroyed by Haiyan. Since I started a petition to exempt Typhoon relief from outdated regulations, tens of thousands of Americans signed on to let the US Congress know they care about the issue. Their message is loud and clear: fix the broken food aid system. Haiyan is a perfect example of why reform is so desperately needed, both now and for future disasters. It is now more than a month since super-typhoon Haiyan devastated the central region of the Visayas in the Philippines. We now know that 14 million were impacted, 4 million were displaced and are without homes. The Philippine government said weeks ago that they were feeding 1.4 million people a day, and the government is being blamed for not doing more. Yet as the WHO Director of Emergency Risk Management and Humanitarian Response said on NPR: the complexity of the disaster is not only its magnitude, but the enormous geographic spread of the impact of the cyclone over 600 km or a 400 mile swath over different islands. The logistics of aiding disaster survivors in the Philippines are further complicated by the fact that it is made up of 7,107 islands. The reality on the ground in such disasters is so complex that it is indefensible for US food aid regulations to hinder our humanitarian response simply to enforce antiquated rules. We could start reaching more people at no extra cost to taxpayers almost immediately, because Congress has the power to waive these regulations. Please join me and thousands of others in calling on Congress to save lives now by exempting the emergency response from FDA food regulations, so humanitarian aid can reach suffering people when they need it most. It has been said that 90% of all giving happens within 90 days of an event. When 8 February 2014 comes around, the world may have forgotten how hard super-typhoon Haiyan hit the Philippines. But if we achieve this small change in policy, we can be proud of helping to empower the Philippines to walk strong on the long road to recovery and rebuilding.

Paul Brown is right to imply that "building houses across the south without any reference to available water supply" is not a good idea, especially at a time of climatic uncertainty (Weatherwatch, 10 May). He is also right that in southern England "the last three years [have seen] heavier than normal summer rainfall". I would however take issue with him that it is only this unusual summer rainfall that has "maintained" the flows of the south's rivers for the last three years, and I disagree strongly that "a single dry summer, maybe this one, will find us out". As I am sure Brown knows, aquifers (layers of permeable rock) receive most of their recharge during winter and early spring, when plants are not growing and the soil is not grabbing most of the rainfall; it is therefore dry winters that pose the problem for ground-water resources, not dry summers. Because water enters the aquifers for part of the year but drains from them continuously to support the flows of many rivers, water tables rise and fall in an annual cycle; as they fall, stream networks shrink and flows decline naturally. This is particularly apparent in chalk areas, where the annual fluctuation of the water table may be more than 20 metres. Given the shallow slope of chalk valleys, the head of the stream may move several kilometres up and down the valley, giving rise to the familiar winterbournes. The last three summers have been exceptional in that for some periods, especially in 2007, the rainfall was so heavy that soil-moisture deficits were reduced or eliminated in some areas and there was, unusually, a rise in water tables and an increase in the flow of some ground-water-fed rivers. However, far from being just sufficient to keep these streams flowing, as Brown implies, this pushed some of them to record flows for summer months. Of course Brown is right that removing water for household supply also lowers water tables and decreases river flows, as does obstructing a river by building a dam; but the issue is often confused. In 1988-92 and 1995-97 a series of dry winters lowered water tables, leading to complaints from those living in winterbourne valleys about the disappearance of their streams. The winter of 2000-01 was so wet that some of the same householders were complaining of flooding and asking water companies to remove more water. The predictions of climate change are that rainfall will become less predictable, so stream networks will expand and shrink more markedly than we are used to; maybe the past two or three decades have seen the first signs of that. But ground-water levels last month were at or above average. In simple terms, we don't buy water for public supply, we just rent it – so most of it should be returned to the river with little net loss of downstream flow. This happens to a degree in the Thames catchment, and at Winchester where sewage is recharged to the chalk aquifer, but too rarely in other areas of Britain. This is where more effort might pay dividends.

Few people outside Japan would have heard of Kyoto prior 1997, its Katsura palace or famous spring blossom. Mention the city now and it is immediately associated with the closest thing we have to an adequate global response to the global climate problem. But the deficiencies of the protocol are also well known. To name only three: the reductions required are small when compared to what climate science is now telling us; the most rapidly developing economies are not required to achieve any measurable emissions reductions, and it provides no real guidance to business needing to plan for the long term. It isn't as if the world has been blind to these deficiencies. Since the United Nations climate conference in Bali in 2007, over the past two years climate negotiators from more than 190 countries have been meeting to overcome these constraints and establish a more effective global climate treaty. And this task is meant to conclude in less than 10 days at the UN climate conference in Copenhagen. Already the Scandinavian city made famous by Hans Christian Andersen is becoming shorthand for the success or failure of our collective efforts to combat climate change. If Copenhagen ends in "success" then we will have succeeded in avoiding the danger of global warming and climate destabilisation; if it is a "failure" then we too will have failed to address this most wicked of problems. If only it were so simple. If only tools such as text and agreement actually achieved the measureable, reportable and verifiable emissions reductions that all economies must achieve over the coming years. For Copenhagen can only be a beginning: the start to investment in modern low emissions technology and infrastructure and the imposition of costs on the old, polluting industries of the past. The stakes at Copenhagen are high. The peer reviewed science has only firmed since Kyoto. There is now a consensus that the level of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases that the atmosphere can bear before warming triggers unpredictable and potentially catastrophic changes to the global climate system is considerably lower. Climate scientists who only a decade ago would have argued that the amount of greenhouse gas should be 550 parts per million, now argue that even 450pmm may be too much. Our understanding of the climate problem and our experience of developing effective climate policy have progressed enormously over the past twelve years. The world is now a lot clearer about the policies and incentives that can reduce emissions, maintain economic growth and get our carbon cycle into greater balance. Prior to 1997 no one could refer to the learning from an emissions trading system in Europe, or the rapid move to renewable energy in Germany. And perhaps more important than all of this is how public sentiment, and with it our politics, has shifted. Kyoto was before An Inconvenient Truth , the Stern review, hurricane Katrina, the 2003 European heatwave and Australia's worst drought on record. In many countries climate change is now an issue which bridges the standard political divide. Some of the most progressive leaders on the issue come from the right of politics: Angela Merkel, Nicolas Sarkozy and even an actor turned politician not known for his warm hearted roles: Arnold Schwarzenegger. Climate change is now a fixed agenda item for any meeting between heads of state: how to maintain economic growth, energy security and reduce emissions. And no longer is the President of the United States sceptical of the problem: in Barack Obama the White House is occupied by a man who has made tackling climate change a core part of his political narrative. In accounting for Kyoto's ineffectiveness, in 1997 one could easily cite the lack of public understanding; a lack of clarity in the science; a lack of effective politics or an immaturity in our experience of effective climate policy. None of these excuses now apply. Whether the final chapter in a story that started in Bali two years ago is one of resolution and joy, or confusion and despair, remains unknown. An unambiguous political agreement establishing how the new binding international rules can be agreed may still mean that Copenhagen becomes shorthand for describing when a new and powerful approach to tackling this most wicked of global problems was begun. That would be cause for celebration by this and all future generations. • Erik Rasmussen is the founder of the Copenhagen Climate Council. Professor Tim Flannery is chairman of the Copenhagen Climate Council and author of The Weather Makers

Researchers from the University of Arizona has built a pair of robotic legs that mimics our own. While bipedal movement is nothing new in robotics — Honda has had a free-walking robot for some time now — the research team describes its creation as "biologically accurate." It developed a simplified software equivalent of a central pattern generator (CPG), the neural network in our spinal cords that enables us to walk without thinking about it. The legs themselves are constructed from 3D-printed plastic, and our tendons and muscles are emulated by a series of Kevlar straps pulled by motors. While walking, the CPG receives environmental data from force sensors that enable it to accurately perceive the legs' position and under-foot conditions. The CPG then allows for tiny on-the-fly adjustments to be made. This top-down control system stabilizes the legs in a way not possible with traditional, reflex-based feedback. While biologically accurate, the legs can only walk while tethered to a cart that the research paper likens to a baby walker. The team says the simplified CPG it developed is perhaps akin to that of a toddler, theorizing that we develop a more complex CPG with age.

The art of Tibetan rug weaving is an ancient craft and a “centuries old” tradition of the Tibetan people. The skill of carpet weaving has been handed down from generation to generation and the weaving and knotting techniques have remained much the same today. Researchers believe that the origin of Tibetan rug weaving evolved in isolation within Tibet and dates back as far and beyond the 4th century BC. These findings have been supported through evidence found during excavations around Tibet and the Silk Road reviling the ancient weaving (knotting) technique and the vertical loom. Evidence of wool processing in Tibet can also be traced back to the 4th century BC. Tibetan rugs are exclusively different from other “hand woven” rugs world wide. They are eloquently unique and the “loop knot” used in the weaving process has no “equivalent”. No other rug region in the world uses this knot. The type of wool, the vertical loom and the use of an extensive range of colour combinations, symbolism and their thick plush pile composition sets these beautiful “works of art” apart from any other “cultural” hand woven rugs. Asian artworks, handicrafts and carpets are rarely just ornamental “art works”. Traditional Tibetan carpets are the bearers of encrypted messages written in an ancient language of symbolism. The messages are intended to bring prosperity, good luck, long life, protection, and well-being to their owner. Each symbol has a traditional Tibetan meaning, signifying the Tibetan way of life and Buddhism. Every carpet is handmade, individually exclusive and tells a story of a hidden culture which has only been researched in recent times. Tibetan rugs are also referred to as tribal rugs due to their Nomadic origins in the high Himalayan plateaus of Tibet. For centuries, the Tibetan people have utilised their rugs for many purposes including flooring, blankets, wall hangings, bedding, chair covers, horse saddles and by lamas in Tibetan Buddhist monasteries. They were also found in ancient palaces and courts throughout China and the Middle East. Today, they can be found in Tibetan Buddhist monasteries and in homes throughout the world, displayed as “artwork” on walls, tables, sofas and as show pieces on floors. Traditional Tibetan carpets including the rugs produced today are of the highest quality and they are highly valued world wide. Tibetan rugs are renowned for retaining their fine appearance and can last for 100’s of years. These fine works of art are family heirlooms in the Tibetan tradition and can be handed down from generation to generation. Antique Tibetan rugs are being increasingly sought after as collector’s items in Europe and the USA and they are often sold and auctioned in upper class establishments in Beverly Hills, New York, Germany and the UK. Their ages can be dated back for 100’s of years and they can be distinguished by their colour and symbolic combinations, the type of under surface foundation and their dye pigments and floral designs. Traditionally, the natural pigment materials used to colour the yarn were sourced from regional vegetation producing reds, pinks, oranges, yellows, browns, green and blues. Antique rugs were historically made in strict accordance to Buddhist designs and knot counts. They are also known to portray influences from historical Chinese floral designs and symbols. Whites, greys, black and natural colours were not evident until the 19th century when aniline colours spread to Tibet from India. Successive to the Chinese invasion of Tibet in 1959 approximately one million Tibetans fled their country and sought asylum in India, Bhutan and Nepal. In recent years carpet weaving has evolved as the primary means of support for Tibetan people living in exile in Nepal and India. Many Tibetan’s now reside in refugee camps within these countries and through the sale of carpets, they are able to provide an education of their children, medical care, housing and aged care for their elderly.

Parents, step away from the toys? Mon Jul 16 2007 Anthropologist David Lancy is causing somewhat of a stir in the world of child psychology. In his recent article, published in American Anthropologist , Lancy claims that the often-promoted idea of parents participating in play time with their young kids might not be the only way to raise happy, well-rounded individuals. In fact, most cultures would roll their eyes at our habit of squatting on the floor next to our kids with plastic trains and Barbies. All kids play, regardless of culture, but in most communities parents don't enter the picture, Lancy asserts. According to the Boston Globe , his findings do more than reveal our differences to other cultures: they challenge the necessity of many widely used (and marketed) lessons in parenting. Many initiatives, like the Parent-Child Home Program in Massachusetts, teach low-income families parenting strategies like "play activities" that are said to promote literacy. Representatives of this traditional approach aren't convinced that Lancy's findings should encourage us to change our parenting methods. "I'm not clear what's bothering this guy," Yale psychologist Jerome Singer told the Boston Globe. "We are not talking about the parents playing all day long with the children. We're just saying that children need to play, and particular kinds of play -- imaginative play that has a storytelling element to it -- are very useful." "The fact that non-Western parents do not interact with their babies like Western parents doesn't mean they aren't interacting with them," said Alison Gopnik, a developmental psychologist. The conclusion? Don't strike those play sessions from your overscheduled calendars just yet. But it's useful to know that kids can benefit just as much from hanging out with you in the kitchen or accompanying you on a walk to the park.Share your thoughts

Published Thursday, November 01, 2012 The Obama Administration thinks it knows what the energy of the future will look like, so it squanders billions on solar and wind companies that go broke. Too bad it never learned about the failures of government in the early 1800s when it thought it knew what the future of communications looked like. Did you know that the federal government first controlled the telegraph business? Only when it was privatized, however, did it expand beyond the East coast and become profitable. In 1844, the federal government subsidized and controlled the nation’s first telegraph wire — a Washington to Baltimore line built by Samuel Morse. His system of dots and dashes, run electronically through a magnetic wire, instantly conveyed letters of the alphabet to listeners miles away. When the effectiveness of Morse Code was proven, some people wanted only the government — through the Post Office — to build and operate lines throughout the country. Cave Johnson, the postmaster general, argued that the use of the telegraph, “So powerful for good or evil, cannot with safety to the people be left in the hands of private individuals uncontrolled.” Only the government, Johnson concluded, could be trusted to operate the telegraph in “the public interest.” The federal telegraph monopoly didn’t last very long. The Washington to Baltimore line was losing money every month. During 1845, expenditures for the government telegraph exceeded revenue by six to one and sometimes by 10 to one each month. Washington bureaucrats could not figure out how to market the new invention and could not imagine what uses people might have for it. In 1846, Congress officially turned the telegraph business over to private enterprise and allowed an unfettered marketplace to spread its wings. The telegraph business expanded immediately. Telegraph promoters showed the press how it could instantly report stories occurring hundreds of miles away. Bankers and stock brokers could live in Philadelphia and invest daily in New York. Policemen used the telegraph to catch escaped criminals. By 1847, many private companies were competing for pieces of the telegraph business. Keeping wires from breaking, sealing them under water, and maintaining the strength of the signal over half the continent stretched the capabilities of even the best entrepreneurs. But they did it. Washington bureaucrats received no profits from the government’s wire. The cash they lost each month was the taxpayer’s, not their own. They had no incentive to improve service, find new customers or expand it to more cities. Private entrepreneurs, however, had strong incentives to improve and market the product. Just 15 years after telegraph privatization, the costs of construction and the rates for service linking the major cities were as little as one-tenth of the original rates established by Washington. Americans of the 1800s thus learned that it was a free market, not government, that really supported the “public interest.” That’s a lesson we need to relearn today. (Lawrence W. Reed, a resident of Newnan, is president of the Foundation for Economic Education in Irvington, N.Y., and Atlanta.)

Born into a wealthy and powerful family, Kennedy’s father had been the Ambassador to the UK in the years leading up to World War II. Kennedy joined his father in Europe in 1938 and 1939, and witnessed first-hand Great Britain’s failed policy of appeasement. Sent home shortly after Britain declared war on Germany in 1939, Kennedy turned his experience into his graduate thesis. Retooled as a book, 1940′s Why England Slept became a bestseller. In subsequent years, Kennedy became a naval officer and war hero. In 1946, he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, and in 1952, the Senate. While in the latter, and recovering from a back operation in 1956, he researched and wrote Profiles in Courage. Discussing the difficulty of maintaining political integrity in the face of party, personal and constituent pressures, Profiles in Courage, and its message of the need for politicians to strike a balance between conflicting interests in order to effectively govern, remains relevant today: The fanatics and extremists and even those conscientiously devoted to hard and fast principles are always disappointed at the failure of their Government to rush to implement all of their principles and to denounce those of their opponents. But the legislator has some responsibility to conciliate those opposing forces within his state and party and to represent them in the larger clash of interests on the national level; and he alone knows that there are few if any issues where all the truth and all the right and all the angels are on one side. Kennedy goes on to argue that, far from being spineless lapdogs, many politicians who conciliate, and whose voting “evolves,” demonstrate a unique and necessary form of courage: Some of my colleagues who are criticized today for lack of forthright principles – or who are looked upon with scornful eyes as compromising “politicians” – are simply engaged in the fine art of conciliating, balancing and interpreting the forces and factions of public opinion, an art essential to keeping our nation united and enabling our Government to function. Kennedy concludes that “a fair or poor bill is better than no bill at all, and that only through the give-and-take of compromise will any bill” become law. Illustrating these points, Kennedy profiles instances of political courage shown by several legislators throughout our history, and the experiences of some mirror what we see in Washington, D.C. today. For example, in 1807 during his brief sojourn in the Senate, John Quincy Adams defied his party (the Federalists) and his constituents in support of a Republican trade embargo in response to British aggression. As a direct consequence, he lost his Senate seat the next year. Likewise, during his second term as a Republican Senator, Chuck Hagel questioned his party’s stance on the war in Iraq in 2006, requesting a “phased troop withdrawal,” and in 2007, calling the Iraq surge, “the most dangerous foreign policy blunder in this country since Vietnam.” In 2008, Hagel explained his position: Each one of us who has a responsibility of helping lead this country needs to reflect on what we think is in the interests of our country, not the interest of our party or our president. Knowing he would face strong opposition from his own party for his disloyalty, Like Senator Adams before him, Senator Hagel did not run for re-election. Another pair of politicians that may have shared a similar experience, albeit 160 years apart, are Senator Daniel Webster and Barack Obama. In 1850, Webster gave his famous “Seventh of March” speech in which he set aside his strong Abolitionist beliefs in support of legislation that, at least in his mind, would preserve the Union. Webster was crucified for his support of Henry Clay’s last great compromise and was vilified by those he respected most, including Mann, Longfellow, Emerson, Lowell and Whittier. Similarly, Barack Obama very controversially discarded his strong opposition to the indefinite detention of suspected terrorists at Guantanamo Bay, and equally strong support for our system of justice, after he became President. In order to, at least in his estimation, ensure the safety and security of the American people, he has repeatedly authorized the killing of individuals without trial, as well as the indefinite detention of those “too dangerous to transfer but not feasible for prosecution.” It is too early to discern the effect on his legacy this will have although many, even on the left, including Michael Moore, Code Pink and the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) have expressed disdain and outrage. Kennedy sums up his analysis of political courage in the end: Some demonstrated courage through their unyielding devotion to absolute principle. Others demonstrated courage through their acceptance of compromise . . . Most of them, despite their differences, held much in common . . . and, above all, a deep-seated belief in themselves, their integrity and the rightness of their cause. I’ll close this article with one of my favorite JFK quotes, coming just shortly before his death, concerning his commitment so securing peace: What kind of peace do I mean? What kind of peace do we seek? Not a Pax Americana enforced on the world by American weapons of war. Not the peace of the grave or the security of the slave. I am talking about genuine peace, the kind of peace that makes life on earth worth living . . . not merely peace for Americans but peace for all men and women – not merely peace in our time but peace for all time. For, in the final analysis, our most basic common link is that we all inhabit this small planet. We all breathe the same air. We all cherish our children’s future. And we are all mortal. June 10, 1963 If you liked this article, you might also enjoy: - Al Gore Never Said He Invented the Internet - The Amazing Life of Theodore Roosevelt - The Origin of the Democratic Party - JFK’s Statement “Ich Bin Ein Berliner” was Not Misinterpreted as “I’m a Jelly Filled Doughnut” - When the Joint Chiefs of Staff Recommended to President Kennedy that the U.S. Commit Acts of Terrorism Against U.S. Citizens and Blame Cuba Bonus JFK Quote and Fact: - Among Kennedy’s most enduring oratory includes these famous words from his Inaugural Address in January 1961: And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you – ask what you can do for your country. - John F. Kennedy was shot to death on November 22, 1963. No one has ever been convicted of his murder. Two U.S. official investigations were conducted regarding it: the first from the Warren Commission concluded in 1964 that two bullets, including the “magic bullet,” caused the many wounds to Kennedy and his travelling companion, Governor Connelly. The second, the United States House Select Committee on Assassinations in 1979, concluded that Kennedy’s assassination was likely a conspiracy, but it did no further investigation. Some assassination documents will remain sealed until 2017; the autopsy photographs and x-rays of Kennedy’s injuries remain restricted, as well. Expand for Further References

Rings of Love J. R. R. Tolkien & the Four Loves by Dale Nelson A tombstone in Oxford’s Wolvercote Cemetery is inscribed “John Ronald Reuel Tolkien / Beren” and “Edith Mary Tolkien / Lúthien.” Because Beren and Lúthien are the names of husband and wife, lovers, in Tolkien’s writings, and because their equation here with Tolkien himself and his wife is firmly founded on his own conception of the man who married the daughter of an Elf-King and a goddess, as a parallel to his own romance, his inscription hints at an answer, differing from the usual ones, to the question of why The Lord of the Rings has been such a meaningful novel for innumerable readers for nearly half a century: It and the invented mythology from which it was developed are permeated by love. Readers of a 1960 book by Tolkien’s friend C. S. Lewis will remember that the Greeks discerned four loves: storge, philia, eros, and agape. Tolkien has ensured that it’s not just “given” that the conflict in The Lord of the Rings is between good and evil. He has carefully depicted each of these loves, which provide a constant and persuasive contrast to the Dark Lord’s political and spiritual totalitarianism. An Origin in Love To the authors of a newspaper profile on him, Tolkien maintained that Middle-earth originated in his love of language. He said that he liked to invent new languages—but they required people to speak them—indeed, required a world; so he would make that world. But attributing the origin of Middle-earth to the love of languages linked it to his public, scholarly life. The Wolvercote monument, and remarks in Tolkien’s letters, show that Middle-earth drew also upon his most private life—specifically upon his experience of eros, the passionate love of man for woman or woman for man. Tolkien told one of his sons about his young love for Edith in a letter, written after her death. “I met the Lúthien Tinúviel of my own personal ‘romance’ with her long dark hair, fair face and starry eyes, and beautiful voice” in 1908, when he was 16 and she was 19. Very soon after they married, he was captivated by his wife’s dancing, for him alone, when he was an army officer on leave from the Great War, in 1917, and they slipped away to “a woodland glade filled with hemlocks” in Yorkshire. And that moment was the origin of the myth of Beren and Lúthien, Tolkien wrote to another of their sons. He refused to give the world an autobiography. His nature expressed itself “about things deepest felt in tales and myths.” He went so far as to identify an enchanted moment in a wood as “the kernel of the mythology” of his imaginary world, in a 1955 letter to his American publishers, but he didn’t tell them about his romance. When we put the evidence of these three letters together, we can see that Tolkien believed that his imaginative world owed its existence not only to his love of languages, but also to his love for one woman, Edith Tolkien. Furthermore, Tolkien’s world of Middle-earth might never have been realized if not for his affection (storge) for his and Edith’s children. The first-published story of Middle-earth was, of course, The Hobbit (1937). It grew out of stories that Tolkien told at home—young Christopher Tolkien called them “Winter ‘Reads’” that they enjoyed “after tea in the evening.” Eventually Tolkien prepared a typescript, but, according to his biographer, Humphrey Carpenter, Tolkien had not finished it before his sons had “outgrown” it and no longer were asking for winter-evening stories—and “so there was no reason why The Hobbit should ever be finished.” Tolkien dropped it. If not for the intervention of a family friend who knew someone who worked for the publishing firm of Allen and Unwin, Tolkien might have left the book at the point at which he had arrived, the death of the dragon (with no second climax—no Battle of the Five Armies, in which Bilbo Baggins plays such an important role). As it was, enough had been written that Tolkien was able to finish the book without requiring very much time. The history of Tolkien’s composition of The Hobbit shows that it was grounded in a father’s love for his children; without them, it would not have been. Without The Hobbit, there would have been no call for a sequel—that is, no call for The Lord of the Rings. The great novel was indebted not only to the eros of Ronald and Edith Tolkien, and to the storge felt by Tolkien for his sons, but also to philia—to friendship, the companionship, esteem, and loyalty of two persons united by a shared enthusiasm (and by opposition to certain foes). The writing of its three volumes, which commenced in December 1937, took 12 years. If not for the friendship of C. S. “Jack” Lewis, Tolkien said ten years after the Rings’ final volume was published, “I do not think that I should ever have completed [it] or offered [it] for publication.” The interest of Tolkien’s son Christopher and of other members of the Inklings circle, and the patience of publishers, was also of immense importance, but, Tolkien confessed, Lewis “was for long my only audience. Only from him did I ever get the idea that my ‘stuff’ could be more than a private hobby.” Tolkien felt uneasy about the time he took from scholarship and gave to The Lord of the Rings. Jack Lewis, Oxford don like Tolkien, tacitly, perhaps explicitly, assured him that he was right to devote so much energy and care to the fantasy. Love, then, brought The Lord of the Rings into being. The great narrative itself memorably depicts the Four Loves by means of a number of its chief characters. Affection & Friendship Storge is the first of the four loves discussed in Lewis’s book—“the humblest and most widely diffused of loves,” the love of familiar faces because they are familiar, for this is “the least discriminating of loves.” It’s the fondness of parents for children, the fondness of pet owners for their pets. Samwise, gardener and valet to Frodo, exhibits storge. When the Fellowship of the Ring arrives at the portal of the subterranean realm of Moria, Sam is bitterly sorrowful about abandoning Bill, a pony abused by his former owner but much invigorated by Sam’s attention and a stay in the Elves’ hidden refuge of Rivendell. The narrative’s very last image is of Sam with his infant daughter, Elanor, upon his lap. That is where the whole heroic tale ends, rather than with the fulfillment of Frodo’s vision as he arrives on the splendid, deathless shores of the elven paradise. Philia is everywhere in The Lord of the Rings. The preservation of the world depends upon the fellowship of the Ring—the fellowship of nine companions who represent the free peoples of Middle-earth: Hobbits, Men, Elves, Dwarves, and a Wizard. The four Hobbits are already friends, and ready to trust the others, but it takes time for Gimli the Dwarf and Legolas the Elf to outgrow their antipathy towards one another. “Friendship arises out of mere Companionship,” Lewis wrote, “when two or more of the companions discover that they have in common some insight or interest or taste which the others do not share and which, till that moment, each believed to be his own unique treasure.” Gimli beholds the radiant Lady of the elvish realm of Lorien and is overcome. Say, rather, he is lifted above the ordinary trammels of dwarf-nature by the vision of such surpassing loveliness, not of stone and gem, but in flesh and blood. Thus surprised by Beauty, he becomes open also to the Elves as a people, and, so, to Legolas. Legolas, in turn, begins to learn from Gimli, to see, that subterranean places—Aglarond, Helm’s Deep—may be, or become, realms where beauty dwells. Eros & Charity Eros, the third of the four loves described by Lewis, is not absent from The Lord of the Rings. There is, first, the almost entirely offstage romance of Aragorn and Arwen, as one subplot. My guess is that the films will bring forward this love story, as well as a subplot that is developed with much care by Tolkien, the unrequited love of the shield-maiden Éowyn of Rohan for Aragorn. The understated quality of Tolkien’s account of this love story, and the turmoil of the war of the Ring, sometimes cause the Éowyn-Aragorn story to be almost forgotten by readers. In fact, though, Tolkien wrote with much sensitivity of the sorrowful passion of a young woman who, despairing first of her homeland and her father, and then of the man she longs for, desperately longs to die in battle; of her near approach to death; and of her gradual opening to a new and deeper love. Elements of this plot are strangely akin to the experiences of some women who, when young, went through a “phase” of bitter dissatisfaction with American society as well as anguished disappointment with their fathers and/or men for whom they felt sexual passion, and who then threw themselves into nihilistic political radicalism or feminism. Tolkien gives us just enough of the further story of Éowyn and Faramir for us to see eros arising in her chastened soul. Another instance of eros in The Lord must be mentioned: Tom Bombadil and Goldberry. Some readers have objected to the nonsensical endearments—“Hey come derry dol! merry dol! my darling!”—that pour from Tom’s lips as he bustles about, bringing flowers to lay before his “pretty lady.” Why, isn’t it obvious that Tom and Goldberry are perpetual newlyweds? Tom has the giddy happiness of a young man who’s just married his sweetheart. That’s why they don’t have any children! They’ve been together from time immemorial—yet they live as if he’s just brought her home. The title poem in the collection The Adventures of Tom Bombadil confirms this, telling of Tom catching the River-woman’s daughter and taking her home with him. “Lamps gleamed within his house, and white was the bedding; / in the bright honey-moon badger-folk came treading,” these last being members of Tom’s little kingdom. The poem ends with the image of “fair Goldberry comb[ing] her tresses yellow”—and perhaps one has seen a sheet of sketches drawn by Tolkien with colored pencils, printed in J. R. R. Tolkien: Artist and Illustrator, that includes the slender young Edith, seen from behind, wearing just a petticoat and arranging her hair as she looks in a mirror. Frodo Baggins, hobbit of the Shire, is the great novel’s chief image of agape or charity, fourth and final of the loves discussed by Lewis. “Frodo undertook his quest” to destroy Sauron’s perilous Ring “out of love—to save the world he knew from disaster at his own expense, if he could; and also in complete humility, acknowledging that he was wholly inadequate to the task,” Tolkien wrote in a letter of 1963. In the book itself, Frodo has faced the stark fact: “‘It must often be so . . . when things are in danger: someone has to give them up, lose them, so that others may keep them.’” This self-surrender costs Frodo dearly, although Tolkien, in the same letter, states explicitly what is implicit in the novel, that “Frodo was given ‘grace’: first to answer the call (at the end of the council) after long resisting a complete surrender; and later in his resistance to the temptation of the Ring . . . and in his endurance of fear and suffering.” (The “council” is the Council of Elrond in The Fellowship of the Ring.) Frodo crawling up Mount Doom inevitably recalls the ascent of Jesus, carpenter of Nazareth, bearing the burden laid on him. Frodo bears an evil load not of his own making to the place where it was forged and can be destroyed. Christ bore the burden of mankind’s sin to the place of the Cross, which was, many Christians have believed, the same place where grew that Tree whose fruit was sinfully plucked, long before. The scene of primordial evil becomes the place of the great sacrifice for the deliverance of others. Only love—only charity—would suffer so much for others. A Sort of Ritual Because of its abundant images of storge, philia, eros, and agape, the reading of The Lord of the Rings can become a sort of ritual of the “Stations,” not of the Cross, but of the Four Loves, which refreshes readers again and again. Many people probably think they are simply reading a great tale of adventure, the most captivating fantasy of them all. It isn’t the adventures and the fantasy that keeps them coming back—so that it’s nothing unusual for people to have read this huge book five or more times. Fantasy, Tolkien said in “On Fairy-stories,” can “recover” for us the reality of “common” things such as fire, bread, tree, iron—freeing them from the “drab blur of triteness or familiarity—from possessiveness.” Such stories take “simplicities,” “fundamental things,” and make them luminous for us. He does this for no lesser matters than the Four Loves themselves, in The Lord of the Rings. Surely that draws readers back to the book—all their lives. It was written out of love, it was written about love, it will be one of its century’s most enduring literary testaments of love. Dale Nelson is Associate Professor of Liberal Arts, Mayville State University, Mayville, North Dakota. Letters Welcome: One of the reasons Touchstone exists is to encourage conversation among Christians, so we welcome letters responding to articles or raising matters of interest to our readers. However, because the space is limited, please keep your letters under 400 words. All letters may be edited for space and clarity when necessary. [email protected] “Rings of Love” first appeared in the January/February 2002 issue of Touchstone. If you enjoyed this article, you'll find more of the same in every issue. An introductory subscription (six copies for one year) is only $29.95. This issue, as well as other issues, can be purchased at our online store. Read issues in digital format at the Touchstone digital archives! You can also subscribe to Touchstone at amazon.com to read on your Kindle.

A skeleton with a cleaved skull and a curved spine entombed under a car park is that of Richard III, scientific tests confirmed, solving a 500-year-old mystery about the final resting place of the last English king to die in battle. Richard, depicted by William Shakespeare as a monstrous tyrant who murdered two princes in the Tower of London, was killed fighting his eventual successor Henry Tudor at the Battle of Bosworth Field in central England in 1485. In one of the most significant archaeological discoveries of recent times, a team from the University of Leicester said evidence showed that a skeleton found last year during excavations of a mediaeval friary under a parking lot in the city was indeed that of Richard. After a detailed academic presentation focusing on the life, wounds and physique of Richard III, the lead archaeologist on the project, Richard Buckley, announced his conclusion to cheers and applause. ďItís the academic conclusion of the University of Leicester that beyond reasonable doubt the individual exhumed at Grey Friars in September 2012 is indeed Richard III, the last Plantagenet king of England,Ē Buckley said. Academics said DNA taken from the body matched that of Michael Ibsen, a Canadian-born furniture maker in London who genealogists said was the direct descendant of Richardís sister, Anne of York. The skeleton showed signs of injuries consistent with wounds received in battle; a bladed implement appeared to have cleaved part of the rear of the skull while a barbed metal arrowhead was found between vertebrae of the skeletonís upper back. While the findings may solve one riddle about Richard, the last Plantagenet king of England remains a complex figure whose life, made famous by Shakespeareís history play, deeply divides opinion among historians in Britain and abroad.

Online: Aug 5 Kimberly-Clark & Greenpeace The chat will cover topics such as how K-C and Greenpeace resolved their differences five years ago, what they've achieved since, how their relationship thrives, and where the two are moving next. Register here. The Access Economy A Slightly More Accurate Term for the "Sharing Economy" The “access economy” describes a type of business built on the sharing of resources, like AirBnb or ZipCar. As of 2012, the concept of sharing has moved from a community practice into a legitimate business opportunity. More popularly known as the sharing economy, the access economy suggests that “access” to goods and services may be more desirable than “ownership” of them. The result, in theory, is a lower environmental and cultural burden through mass consumption.

On this day in 1869, twenty-four defendants went on trial in the celebrated Stockade Case. On the night of October 24, 1868, a Marion County mob dragged five Republicans, arrested the previous night after a Republican meeting ended in a gunfight with local Democrats, from the Jefferson jail and killed three of them, a white and two blacks. After the killings Reconstruction officials arrested some thirty-five suspects, and eventually tried twenty-four of them. The trial involved the testimony of 176 witnesses, and a verdict was not delivered until August 23, 1869. Only seven of the defendants were found guilty of any of the charges, and it is unclear whether any of them served any time in prison. On this day in 1857, Ernst Kohlberg was born in Beverungen, Westphalia, at that time a province of Prussia. He left home in 1875 with Solomon C. Schutz, who had business interests in the El Paso area. Kohlberg agreed to work for Schutz without salary for six months to a year in order to defray the costs of his passage to Texas. The two reached Franklin, as El Paso was then called, by stagecoach. Kohlberg's first impressions of his new home were less than glowing. He wrote to his parents that the town was "nearly the end of the world and the last creation." After working off his debt to Schutz, Kohlberg invested in a Mexican gold mine and worked in San Francisco before returning to Franklin in 1881 and opening a cigar store in partnership with his brother. On a family visit to Germany in 1884, Kohlberg met and married Olga Bernstein. The two became prominent civic leaders and philanthropists in El Paso; Olga Kohlberg founded the first public kindergarten in Texas. In 1886 the Kohlberg brothers established the first cigar factory in the Southwest. Among Ernst Kohlberg's other holdings was the St. Charles Hotel, which he leased to a compulsive gambler who in 1910 shot and killed Kohlberg after falling far behind in his rent. On this day in 1829, Almaron Dickinson eloped with Susanna Wilkerson. Dickinson, a native of Pennsylvania, was born around 1800 and later moved to the area of Bolivar, Tennessee, where he met Wilkerson, who was born in that state in 1814. The couple moved to Gonzales, Texas, in 1831 and had a daughter, Angelina Dickinson, in 1834. As a colonist in Green DeWitt's colony, Dickinson received a league of land on the San Marcos River. He participated in the battle of Gonzales in 1835 and distinguished himself as a lieutenant of artillery at the siege of Bexar; at the battle of the Alamo he was the captain in charge of artillery. Although he died at the Alamo, his wife and child survived; legend says Susanna displayed her husband's Masonic apron to a Mexican general in a plea for help. General Santa Anna sent Susanna and her daughter to Sam Houston with a letter of warning dated March 7. Susanna married four more times before her death in 1883.

Depending on the type and severity of your arrhythmia, and the results of various tests including the electrophysiology study, there are several treatment options. You and your doctor will decide which one is right for you. Certain anti-arrhythmic drugs change the electrical signals in the heart and help prevent abnormal sites from starting irregular or rapid heart rhythms. To make sure the medication is working properly after two or more days in the hospital, you may be brought back to the laboratory for a follow-up study. Our goal is to find the drug that works best for you. All implantable devices or pacemakers work on "demand" and are used to treat slow heart rhythms. They are small devices that are implanted beneath the skin below the collarbone and connected to a pace wire(s) positioned inside the heart via a vein; this delivers a small electrical impulse to stimulate the heart to beat when it is going too slow. A technique pioneered at UCSF, radiofrequency catheter ablation destroys or disrupts parts of the electrical pathways causing the arrhythmias, providing relief for patients who may not have responded well to medications, or who would rather not or can't take medications. Catheter ablation involves threading a tiny metal-tipped wire catheter through a vein or artery in the leg and into the heart. Fluoroscopy, which allows cardiologists to view on a monitor the catheter moving through the vessel, provides a road map. Other catheters, usually inserted through the neck, contain electrical sensors to help find the area causing the short-circuits. The metal-tipped catheter is then maneuvered to each problem site and radiofrequency waves — the same energy used for radio and television transmission — gently burn away each unwanted strand of tissue. When catheter ablation was first tried, direct current shocks were used, but researchers later developed the use of radiofrequency waves — a more precise form of energy. With radiofrequency catheter ablation, patients usually leave the hospital in one day, compared to open heart surgery, which requires a week stay and months of recovery. For conditions like Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome, in which a hair-thin strand of tissue creates an extra electrical pathway between the upper and lower chambers of the heart, radiofrequency ablation offers a cure. It has become the treatment of choice for patients with that disorder who don't respond well to drug therapy or who have a propensity for rapid heart rates. Even in arrythmias that can be controlled with drugs, the procedure has been shown to be cost effective because it eliminates medication failures that require hospitalization. It also is an attractive option for elderly patients who are prone to suffer side effects from drug therapy and women of childbearing age who can't take medications because of potential health risk to the fetus. While studies have shown that catheter ablation is more cost effective than drug therapy or surgery, patients who undergo the procedure also experience remarkable improvement in quality of life. A recent study of nearly 400 ablation patients with dangerously rapid heart rates — nearly a third of whom were considered candidates for open heart surgery — found that one month after the procedure 98 percent required no medication and 95 percent reported that their overall health had markedly improved. The UCSF study also found improvement in the patients' ability to work, exercise and take on physical activities. Internal cardioversion for conversion of atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter to a normal sinus rhythm was developed here at UCSF Medical Center in 1991. Internal cardioversion is low energy electrical shock (1 to 10 joules) delivered internally in the heart through two catheters inserted in a vein in the groin and a small electrode pad applied to the chest. This procedure is performed in the electrophysiology lab by our electrophysiologist. During the internal cardioversion, short-acting sedatives are given to make the patient sleepy. Currently, atrial flutter is successfully "cured" by radiofrequency catheter ablation; but treatment to restore atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm has been the traditional use of medications and external cardioversion. External cardioversion is delivery of high energy shocks of 50 to 300 joules through two defibrillator pads attached to the chest. In some cases, external cardioversion has failed because the electrical current has to first travel through chest muscle and skeletal structures before reaching the heart. Internal cardioversion has been performed when medications and external cardioversion have failed to restore a patient's rhythm back to a normal sinus rhythm. UCSF's success rate of converting a patient from atrial fibrillation to normal sinus rhythm with internal cardioversion has been 95 percent. The less time a patient is in atrial fibrillation, the easier it is to cardiovert back to a normal rhythm, but even patients with long-standing chronic atrial fibrillation can be converted successfully to a normal rhythm through internal cardioversion. With internal cardioversion, our electrophysiology team was successful in converting a patient who had been in chronic atrial fibrillation for eight years. An implantable cardioverter defibrillator is a device for people who are prone to life-threatening rapid heart rhythms. It is slightly larger than a pacemaker and usually is implanted beneath the skin below the collarbone. It is connected to a defibrillation/pace wire(s) positioned inside the heart via a vein. It has the capability of delivering an electric shock to the heart when it determines the heart rate is too fast. It also is capable of pacing or stimulating the heart when it is going too slow. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recently approved the first of a new type of pacemaker that paces both ventricles of the heart to coordinate their contractions and improve their pumping ability. According to the test results presented to the FDA, cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT): CRT devices work by pacing both the left and right ventricles simultaneously, which results in resynchronizing the muscle contractions and improving the efficiency of the weakened heart. In the normal heart, the electrical conduction system delivers electrical impulses to the left ventricle in a highly organized pattern of contractions that pump blood out of the ventricle very efficiently. In systolic heart failure caused by an enlarged heart (dilated cardiomyopathy), this electrical coordination is lost. Uncoordinated heart muscle function leads to inefficient ejection of blood from the ventricles. Reviewed by health care specialists at UCSF Medical Center.

Issues in Primary Foundation Subjects and RE Teachers are required to deliver a broad and balanced curriculum covering the core subjects: Literacy, Numeracy and Science and the foundation subjects and where possible ensuring five non-statutory cross-curricular elements including creativity, ICT, global issues and literacy and numeracy across the curriculum (QCDA, 2000). This heavily charged curriculum and a restricted timetable have led teachers to think of new ways of delivering foundation subjects. The Qualifications and Curriculum Development Agency (QCDA) schemes intended to provide support for teachers in presenting a curriculum seen as difficult to fit into the time available. However the ‘over-prescriptive’ (Jones and Wyse 2004) delivery of the curriculum via the National Strategies has been criticised by the likes of Ofsted (2003) and other government bodies for restricting creativity in both the teaching and learning. This lack of creativity in education is seen as a major issue by experts such as Sir Ken Robinson (2006) who argue that it can have a negative impact on the development of the ‘whole child’ at such an important stage of their lives. In order to tackle both issues of time and lack of creativity, teachers and educational specialists have looked towards cross-curricular and theme-based learning. These approaches to teaching and learning are said to contribute effectively to the creative learning and development of primary aged children. When considering the role of primary education in child development, reports by OFTED have focussed on how schools promote the personal and social development of their pupils. The Scottish Curriculum of Excellence (2004) goes further still by establishing the four purposes of education as the development of: Successful learners, confident individuals, responsible citizens and effective contributors. For the purpose of this study, we will consider how the four areas of development as set out by the Curriculum of Excellence (2004) can be enhanced and promoted through the creative teaching and learning of foundation subjects at primary level. In a fifth section the barriers to creativity and child development within foundation subjects will be analysed. Here we will consider how a creative approach to foundation subjects can contribute to the development of successful learners by examining the characteristics of a successful learner and identifying how children learn best. The development of successful learners is a complex process and involves more than just high attainment and an ability to retain information (Kyriacou 2009, Wallace 2001), the key to successful learning is to provide children with skills which will allow them to independently use and apply their knowledge in new contexts and situations (Hayes 2004). It is this skill of identifying links between prior knowledge and new contexts that highlights the importance of creativity in primary education in helping develop successful learners. Creativity can be a difficult concept to define as it is abstract, cannot be measured and is also highly subjective (Craft 2000, Jones & Wyse 2004, Prentice 2000). However, Barnes (2007 p8) offers a clear yet open definition of creativity as being: ‘The ability in all humans imaginatively or practically to put two or more ideas together to make a new idea.’ It can therefore be suggested that successful learners have acquired creative thinking skills enabling them to transfer skills to other subjects (Wallace 2001). Here creativity is considered to be a learning process as opposed to a learning style (Craft 2000). Foundation subjects can offer opportunities for the development of creative thinking by providing children with a ‘questioning classroom’ where they are encouraged to participate in challenging activities such as debates where they challenge and question views and opinions (Fisher 2004). Creative thinking can also be demonstrated through the children’s different representation of ideas; visually, physically and verbally (Fisher 2004) During a recent placement, I was able to observe a R.E lesson where children were asked to use a spider-gram to illustrate their ideas surrounding ‘remembrance’. The children used the spider-gram effectively and were able to link ideas together and develop explanations of other key words. From observations it was clear that all children proceeded in different ways but the outcome was identical; they successfully produced a visual representation of their thoughts and ideas surrounding a topic demonstrating their use of creative thinking. This example also highlights the importance of providing a dynamic and engaging learning environment in the development of effective learners as the level of children’s mental capacity can be enhanced through effective stimulating and creative teaching methods (Wallace 2001). Considering how children learn is an important factor in the teaching of foundation subjects. Theories on which learning environments are the most effective vary considerably but today Constructivism is generally accepted as being the most effective for child development and learning as opposed to ‘Transmission’ models of learning. There are also debates surrounding the delivery of foundation subjects. Experts such as Barnes (2007) and Jones and Wyse (2004) argue that creativity and cross-curricular learning go ‘hand in hand’, but others such as Nachmanovitch (1999) claim that the structure of subject specific learning ‘ignites spontaneity’ benefiting creativity. This study supports the constructivist and cross-curricular approaches to successful learning as these approaches are reflected in a majority of schools’ policies and practices. Constructivists such as Piaget and Vygotsky argued that children learn best when they are given opportunities to build on their prior knowledge and learn through practical first-hand experiences (Kyriacou 2009). Hayes (2004) also argues that learning is enhanced by experiencing and that trans-missive teaching cannot replace this. Experiential learning of foundation subjects can involve field trips, designing and making a product or art piece and investigations. Children’s understandings of topics under study can be brought to life by trips to museums and other field trips (Hayes 2004) offering opportunities for the children to relate what they know about a particular topic to how they experience it. Children also learn from investigations where the outcome in the beginning is uncertain. They learn through the process of applying knowledge and understanding to acquiring new skills (Hayes 2004) for example in an art lesson On a previous placement where the children were about to begin a topic on ‘Lindisfarne’, the school arranged a day visit to the island in order to spark the children’s curiosity and provide them with experience from which they could develop and attach knowledge back in the classroom. During the first topic lesson that followed the trip the children wrote down a number of questions that had arisen from their experience on Lindisfarne and discussed with the teacher what they wanted to find out about the island. This provided the teacher with a clear view of the children’s interests and initial understanding of the features of Lindisfarne which enabled her to plan for child led investigations that highly motivated the children and gave them ownership of their learning. I felt that the use of the children’s experience combined with a cross-curricular approach to the delivery of the topic established a very creative and motivating learning environment. Cross-curricular learning as mentioned briefly above has been defined by Barnes (2007 p8) as: ‘When the skills knowledge and attitudes of a number of different disciplines are applied to a single experience, theme or idea, we are working in a cross-curricular way. We are looking at the experience of learning on a macro level and with the curriculum as the focus.’ This approach to teaching and learning allows for a broad and creative delivery of the curriculum. An OFSTED report (2003) found that creative classroom environments were often where teachers used cross-curricular themes and did not feel bound by orthodoxies (Hayes 2004). Foundation subjects are often used in a cross-curricular way through the teaching of topics and themes. For example the topic on ‘Lindisfarne’ mentioned earlier focussed on geography, history and some aspects of R.E. This approach meant that coverage of both history and geography was possible within the same lesson, thus gaining valuable time and making the learning relevant to the children’s experiences of Lindisfarne. The development of successful learners depends on the provision of a creative, experiential, and cross-curricular learning environment where the children can develop thinking skills and creativity essential to successful learning. Confidence plays a vital role in the development of primary aged children as it contributes to their physical, emotional and moral well-being enabling them to enjoy their education and fulfil their full potential. In order for this development to occur, teachers must believe that all children can achieve (Gipps & MacGilchrist in Pollard 2002). This belief is then translated into high expectations and providing motivating, appropriate and relevant challenges for the children (Gipps & MacGilchrist in Pollard 2002). Setting children learning challenges can be a complex task as teachers have to take into account their different abilities and learning styles in order for the children to become motivated by appropriate and relevant challenges (Kyriacou, 2009). Over the past 30 years theories on different learning styles also known as ‘multiple intelligences’ have sparked debates over the number of ‘intelligences’. Gardner established eight ‘intelligences’ including; verbal/linguistic, logic/mathematical, musical, visual/spatial, kinaesthetic, naturalistic, interpersonal and intrapersonal (Jones & Wyse 2004) and stated that approaching subjects in a number of different ways that cater for different learning styles, will help to engage a maximum of children and with this engagement creativity will flourish. However, Gardner’s theory was highly criticised as people found it hard to relate to just one form of intelligence and often felt they learnt in two or more styles (Barlett & Burton 2007). In response to these debates Sternberg (1985) distinguished three more comprehensive types of intelligences: analytical (measurable in tests e.g. IQ tests), Creative or experiential (The ability to see connections between things and develop original ideas), practical or contextual (The ability to read situations and people then manipulate to one’s needs e.g problem solving). The implications of these theories led to an acknowledgement that children do not learn in the same way and in order to develop children’s confidence they must feel that they are able to achieve and overcome learning challenges. Creative teaching and learning of foundation subjects offer a holistic approach to the development of confident individuals. For example a P.E lesson involving children carrying out long jumps, measuring the distance of their jumps and finding ways of lengthening their jumps enables all three types of learners as defined by Sternberg (1985) to apply and use their form of intelligence within a context that also allows them to develop other intelligences. An analytical learner would thrive in the measuring and comparing of distances jumped whereas a creative or experiential learner would benefit from the practice of jumping and be able to relate their experience to other activities involving jumping, measuring or analysing results. A practical learner would be able to read the results and establish techniques to improve the distance of their jump. This example demonstrates how including elements of cross-curricular learning in foundation subjects can help engage and motivate children different learning styles and covers some of the non-statutory cross-curricular elements: numeracy across the curriculum and creativity (QCDA 2000). Promoting the development of children’s confidence in foundation subjects also involves the children feeling valued and respected (Hayes 2004). This implies that teachers praise and reward children for their efforts and contributions. Failure to value and praise children’s work can demotivate and crush children’s confidence (Craft 2000). Lack of confidence can also affect children’s creativity holding them back from taking risks and exploring which are very important elements of children’s development and creativity (Barnes 2007, Palmer 2007). Sir Ken Robinson argues that if children are not given the confidence or opportunities to take risks and make mistakes they will be educated out of their creativity. Child led investigations offer valuable opportunities for children to take risks, make mistakes and develop their confidence. Observations on placements indicated that children thrive to learn and explore in environments where they feel ‘free’ to apply their knowledge and skills in order to solve problems and investigations. Foundation subjects such as R.E, citizenship and PHSE help contribute towards the development of confident individuals by addressing issues and discussions surrounding Respect and Self-Respect. These subjects and topics help the children to feel safe within their learning environment and establish a trusting relationship with their teacher and peers which in turn assists their physical, emotional and moral well-being. They equally enable children to communicate their own beliefs and views of the world through discussions and debates (Curriculum of Excellence 2004). The understanding and growth of self-respect as mentioned previously is an active contributor towards the development of confident children. Moreover Respect plays an important part in helping children become responsible citizens. Recent teaching experience offered a valuable insight of one school’s ethos where they aimed for children to become ‘independent and responsible learners’. Children were given responsibility and ownership of their learning during child-led investigations and in carrying out classroom duties such as tidying, handing out resources and registration. Foundation subjects such as history, geography, R.E, Citizenship and PHSE offer occasions for children to consider their responsibilities on issues surrounding the environment, local and global communities (Weil & McGill 1989) they also provide opportunities for children to use their creative and critical thinking skills in order to consider their future (Barnes 2007). An observation of a PHSE lesson after the recent natural disasters in Japan was an illustration of this. The teacher was aware that many of the children had been talking about the Tsunami and were somewhat affected by the images shown on television. During PHSE the teacher decided to talk about ‘Charity’. The children expressed a strong willingness to help the victims of Japan by raising money and came up with the idea of a ‘cake sale’ to help raise money. Although the children did not feel responsible for the disasters in Japan they were aware that they could play an active role in helping the victims. By coming up with the idea of a cake sale they used their critical and creative thinking and took responsibility for the charity event. After having organised and held the cake sale the children received individual certificates from the head teacher to reward them for their charitable action. The children displayed a true sense of proudness in being the original creators of the event. What this example shows is that foundation subjects can lead to creative learning where the children take full responsibility of their learning and acknowledge the impact that it will have on the wider community, in this case the victims of Japan. Development of social skills is also high on the educational agenda. Teachers and education specialists have often suggested the use of collaborative learning opportunities when seeking to develop the children’s social skills (Kyriacou, 2009, Pollard 2008 and Wallace 2001). Group work itself is one of the three key skills stated in the non-statutory skills framework (QCDA 2000) alongside communication and problem solving. Wallace (2001) suggests a framework for developing effective thinking skills and stresses the importance of the social context which group work can provide in offering a climate of interaction, sharing and cooperation (Wallace 2001). When engaging in group activities children learn to become self-aware and build cooperative relationships with their peers in order to accomplish the task. Foundation subjects such as PE offer practical contexts within which children can develop team skills and use creative thinking to establish winning strategies and techniques (Littledyke & Huxford 1998). In sum, encouraging children to take responsibility for their learning and roles within the classroom and local and global communities allows children to develop self-awareness and respect for other people thus contributing to the development of social skills. The fourth area of development to which the creative learning of foundation subjects can contribute is that of ‘effective contributors’. The notion of children becoming ‘Effective Contributors’ implies that they are able to apply critical thinking to new contexts, work in partnerships and teams, create and develop and solve problems ( Curriculum of Excellence 2004). In order for children to become effective contributors they need to feel the need and motivation to contribute and understand its purpose (Kyriacou 2009). For teachers this means that they must set a context/ audience and be explicit about the purpose for the learning experience. From observations on placements giving the children a purpose and audience for their learning is often a result of creative teaching linking learning to a wider context in order to establish a motivating environment and focus for the children’s learning. Jeffery (2008) relates this ‘meaningfulness’ of learning to ‘relevance’ For example in Music the children were learning about percussion with a view to participating in the end of year performance. This particular context motivated all the children to do their best as they all knew they would be performing in front of their friends and parents and wanted them to be proud of them. It also gave the children an understanding of why they were learning to play percussion instruments preventing them from feeling that it was somewhat useless or void of meaning. Children’s ability to apply critical thinking to new situations demonstrates the effectiveness of creative learning and thinking skills developed within foundation subjects as mentioned earlier. The ability and willingness to create and develop also implies intrinsic motivation (Kyriacou 2009) and acknowledgement that their creations or developments will be valued. The creativity here is not restricted to the more traditionally creative subjects such as Art and Design, Design and Technology and Music (Jeffery & Craft 2001) but envelops all of the foundation subjects where children may produce an original or unique idea, concept or indeed a physical work of art/ creation. Children who have assimilated creative and critical thinking skills and who are able to use techniques such as open-ended questioning, mind-maps and spider-grams will be able to apply these skills independently to problem solving in a variety of contexts and subjects. Observations from placements suggest that children contribute more in environments where speaking and listening opportunities constitute an important part of the learning. In one RE lesson the teacher used a number of open-ended questions such as ‘What are your thoughts on this?’, ‘How would you feel in this situation?’ and ‘why do you think this is?’ to provoke dialogue amongst the children and then on a one-to-one basis. The children engaged in dialogue guided by the teacher’s open-ended questions and became more and more involved as the teacher continued to add questions to the debate. The children also began to ask each other questions and challenge one another’s views. This use of open-ended questions enabled the children to think in a creative why by having to seek for clear answers that often required critical thinking and evaluating the situation. It also helped establish an environment where children contributed naturally and effectively and the dialogue between pupils and the teacher flowed easily. On reflection this was ensured by the teacher’s skill of asking pertinent and thought provoking questions but also by the encouragement given to the children to participate in a non-judgemental environment. However, this example demonstrates that the factors contributing to the successful and creative development of Primary-aged children often depends on the learning environment and teaching to which the children are exposed. This last section examines the barriers to creative learning and development of Primary-aged children in the context of foundation subjects. Although there is a significant amount of research surrounding the contributions of foundation subjects in providing creative learning and helping children develop into confident and successful learners, there are however barriers to these contributions. The first barriers surround the delivery of creative teaching. For many Creativity is purely associated with the Arts (Pretence 2000) limiting creative approaches to the delivery of foundation subjects. Some even argue that because creativity cannot be measured, it will not help raise attainment levels which are measured (Craft & Jeffrey 2001). This is highly debateable as creativity contributes to other skills which may be measured. For example creative and critical thinking demonstrated in a written test surrounding environmental issues will support the child’s evaluations of the topic thus contributing to a good quality piece of written work. Another issue surrounding creativity is that of subjectivity. Opinions on what is creative and what is not vary from person to person. Creativity is subjective and therefore if a child’s creative efforts are not recognised or valued by the teacher then this can impact on their motivation and confidence (Barnes 2007). This can often be the case when teachers send out messages to children about what is considered to be the right or wrong outcome of an activity. Children become afraid or being wrong and are less likely to take risks and be creative (Robinson 2006). Other barriers to Creativity include teaching that is badly prepared for and lacks subject knowledge. Creativity has to be carefully planned for and an important amount of subject specific skills are required other-wise the learning opportunities are restricted, blurred and become unclear to pupils (Craft & Jeffrey 2001). Attempts to deliver creative teaching on recent placements have sometimes resulted in the children becoming disinterested as the learning objectives and context were not motivating or clear enough for them to become engaged. These experiences highlighted the importance of detailed and thorough planning even when planning for child-led activities and investigations. Teachers who have had little input or training in creativity often feel intimidated or even scared at the thought of teaching and planning for creative lessons (Barnes 2007). These attitudes are sometimes backed up by arguments claiming that effective models of creative teaching have been imported from contexts that do not always match the context of their schools where they are trying to adopt their creative approach (Craft & Jeffrey2001). The ‘over prescriptive’ use of QCA schemes of work criticised in ‘Excellence and Enjoyment’ (2003) is claimed to impede creative teaching and learning and students have noted the lack of breadth and balance and a steady decline in time dedicated to foundation subjects (Barnes 2007, Pretence 2000). Some of the schools on placement followed the National Strategies as if they were the statutory curriculum. Other teachers who were greatly concerned about the progress of their pupils in core subjects would often marginalise foundation subjects as being ‘less important’. This has led to discussions over terms used to distinguish ‘core’ and ‘foundation’ subjects suggesting a hierarchy amongst subjects (Prentice 2000). Recent suggestions about future changes to the curriculum also indicate a ‘back to basics’ approach where foundation subjects such as History will be given more ‘importance’. These suggestions indirectly criticise cross-curricular learning where History has been taught as part of topics or themes because it is felt that within a topic children may not be aware of the historical aspect if it has not been taught discretely. On reflection this may be a valuable argument in some cases where the delivery of subjects such as History has not been explicit to the children but this depends on the whole school approach to their delivery of the curriculum and the quality of the teaching. In sum, foundation subjects help contribute towards the development of the ‘whole child’. Creative approaches to the delivery of foundation subjects such as cross-curricular learning and the development of thinking skills have been argued as essential factors in the development of successful, confident and responsible individuals. The range of subjects taught and the variation of activities provided facilitate creative learning and development for all children by catering for and acknowledging their different learning styles. However, despite significant research on the benefits of Creativity in Primary Education, Creativity remains a non-statutory element of the National Curriculum leaving teachers and schools to consider Creativity within their own policies and practices. Barlett, S., Burton, D. (2007) Introduction to Education Studies. Sage: London Craft, A., Jefferey, B., Leibling, M., (2001) Creativity in Education. Continuum: London Hayes, D. (2004) Foundations of Primary Teaching. David Fulton Publishers: London Jones, R., Wyse, D., (2004) Creativity in the Primary Curriculum. David Fulton Publishers: London Kyriacou, C. (2009) Effective Teaching in Schools: Theory and Practice. Nelson Thornes: London. Littledyke, M., Huxford, L. (1998). Teaching the Primary Curriculum for Constructive Learning. David Fulton Publishers: London Prentice, R. (2000) ‘Creativity: a reaffirmation of its place in early childhood education’.The Curriculum Journal. Vol 11, No 2 Summer 2000, pp 145-158. Pollard, A., Gipps, C., MacGilchrist, B. (2002. Readings for Reflective Teaching. Chapter 6.6 Teacher expectations and pupil achievement . Continuum: London Sternberg, J. (1999) Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge Wallace, B. (2001) Teaching Thinking Skills Across The Curriculum. David Fulton Publishers: London Weil, SW., McGill, I. (1989) Making sense of Experiential Learning. Open University Press: Buckingham White, J., Steers, J., Kimbell, R., Marshall, B., Lambert, D., Haydyn, T., Gill, P., Williams, K., Plummeridge, C., Swanwick, K., Penney, D., Hand, H., Jenkins, E. (2004) Rethinking the School Curriculum: Values, Aims and Purposes. Routledge Falmer: London. Wilkinson, S., Clive, S., Blain, J. (2001) Developing Cross-Curricular Learning in Museums and Galleries. Trentham Books: Wiltshire Wilson, A., Craft, A., Loveless, A., Grainger, T., Goodwin, P., Myhill, D., Johnston, J., Briggs, M., Chedzoy, S., Key, P., Hennessey, S., Claire, H., Davies, D., Howe, A. (2005) Creativity in Primary Education. Learning Matters Ltd.: Exeter Promoting Creativity in Education: Overview of Key National Policy Developments Across the UK. An Information Paper by SEED(2006) http://www.hmie.gov.uk/documents/publication/hmiepcie.html Expect the Unexpected (OFSTED, 2003) http://www.ofsted.gov.uk/publications/index.cfm?fuseaction=pubs.summary&id=3377 Creativity: Find it, Promote it website — Qualifications and Curriculum Authority http://www.ncaction.org.uk/creativity/index.htm Nurturing Creativity in Young People: A report to Government to inform future policy (Paul Roberts; DCMS, DfES, 2006) http://www.culture.gov.uk/Reference_library/Publications/archive_2006/nurturing_creativity.htm Educating the Whole Child: Personal and Social Development in Primary Schools and the Primary Stages of Special Schools. A Report by HM Inspector of Schools If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have the essay published on the UK Essays website then please click on the link below to request removal:

|A Brief Photo Essay on the History of Education in Kentucky| |Mother and daughter, reading, c. 1908. The Louis E. Nollau Collection. University Archives. University of Kentucky Libraries.| Reading as skill or technique matters less to the history of education than the shifting social contexts which organize and motivate reading practice. Because the 19th century knew nothing of the prolonged school careers we take for granted, reading had not yet been shaped by the demands of a lengthy, prescribed curriculum. Flourishing with more prestige than we can easily imagine in the parlors of the middle-class and the well-to-do, serious reading, journal keeping, correspondence and conversation were cultivated daily in a spirit that is difficult for us to appreciate today. Whether in the parlor or in the literary societies, in reading clubs or church groups, an alert commitment to edification and mutual self-improvement helped to set the tone for relationships among family, friends and associates alike. Along with the high-minded books and periodical literature with which it was so closely allied, reading was at once the instrument and the emblem of gentility and refinement. Several books discuss "parlor culture" together with the politics of race and gender that was internal to it: Louise Stevenson, The Victorian Homefront: American Thought and Culture, 1860-1880 (Cornell, 2001 edition); Richard Bushman, The Refinement of America: Persons, Houses, Cities (Vintage Books, 1993); Joan D. Hedrick, Harriet Beech Stowe: A Life (Oxford, 1994); Thomas Augst, The Clerk's Tale: Young Men and the Moral Life in 19th Century America (Chicago, 2003); Elizabeth McHenry, Forgotten Readers: Recovering the Lost Hstory of African-American Literary Societies (Duke, 2002). For a glimpse of the way public entertainment could reinforce or threaten parlor culture in Lexington, see Gregory A. Waller, Main Street Amusements: Movies & Commerical Entertainment in a Southern City, 1896-1930 (Smithsonian Institution, 1995) and Kolan Thomas Morelock, Taking the Town: Collegiate and Community Culture in the Bluegrass, 1880-1917 (University Press of Kentucky, 2008). |BACK||Contact Professor Richard Angelo for more information||NEXT| December 25, 2008 12:12 by the Webmaster - Content by Dr. Richard Angelo For best viewing, a current browser is recommended. The University of Kentucky is an equal opportunity university. Some web sites to which these materials link are NOT managed by the University of Kentucky. The university does not review, control, or take responsibility for the content of those sites. Copyright University of Kentucky College of Education 1995 - 2008, All rights reserved

Geneva Convention IV: relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War The undersigned Plenipotentiaries of the Governments represented at the Diplomatic Conference held at Geneva from April 21 to August 12, 1949, for the purpose of establishing a Convention for the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, have agreed as follows: Part I. General Provisions The High Contracting Parties undertake to respect and to ensure respect for the present Convention in all circumstances. In addition to the provisions which shall be implemented in peace-time, the present Convention shall apply to all cases of declared war or of any other armed conflict which may arise between two or more of the High Contracting Parties, even if the state of war is not recognized by one of them. The Convention shall also apply to all cases of partial or total occupation of the territory of a High Contracting Party, even if the said occupation meets with no armed resistance. Although one of the Powers in conflict may not be a party to the present Convention, the Powers who are parties thereto shall remain bound by it in their mutual relations. They shall furthermore be bound by the Convention in relation to the said Power, if the latter accepts and applies the provisions thereof. In the case of armed conflict not of an international character occurring in the territory of one of the High Contracting Parties, each Party to the conflict shall be bound to apply, as a minimum, the following provisions: (1) Persons taking no active part in the hostilities, including members of armed forces who have laid down their arms and those placed hors de combat by sickness, wounds, detention, or any other cause, shall in all circumstances be treated humanely, without any adverse distinction founded on race, colour, religion or faith, sex, birth or wealth, or any other similar criteria. To this end the following acts are and shall remain prohibited at any time and in any place whatsoever with respect to the above-mentioned persons: (a) violence to life and person, in particular murder of all kinds, mutilation, cruel treatment and torture; (b) taking of hostages; (c) outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment; (d) the passing of sentences and the carrying out of executions without previous judgment pronounced by a regularly constituted court, affording all the judicial guarantees which are recognized as indispensable by civilized peoples. (2) The wounded and sick shall be collected and cared for. An impartial humanitarian body, such as the International Committee of the Red Cross, may offer its services to the Parties to the conflict. The Parties to the conflict should further endeavour to bring into force, by means of special agreements, all or part of the other provisions of the present Convention. The application of the preceding provisions shall not affect the legal status of the Parties to the conflict. Persons protected by the Convention are those who, at a given moment and in any manner whatsoever, find themselves, in case of a conflict or occupation, in the hands of a Party to the conflict or Occupying Power of which they are not nationals. Nationals of a State which is not bound by the Convention are not protected by it. Nationals of a neutral State who find themselves in the territory of a belligerent State, and nationals of a co-belligerent State, shall not be regarded as protected persons while the State of which they are nationals has normal diplomatic representation in the State in whose hands they are. The provisions of Part II are, however, wider in application, as defined in Article 13. Persons protected by the Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field of 12 August 1949, or by the Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea of 12 August 1949, or by the Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War of 12 August 1949, shall not be considered as protected persons within the meaning of the present Convention. Where in the territory of a Party to the conflict, the latter is satisfied that an individual protected person is definitely suspected of or engaged in activities hostile to the security of the State, such individual person shall not be entitled to claim such rights and privileges under the present Convention as would, if exercised in the favour of such individual person, be prejudicial to the security of such State. Where in occupied territory an individual protected person is detained as a spy or saboteur, or as a person under definite suspicion of activity hostile to the security of the Occupying Power, such person shall, in those cases where absolute military security so requires, be regarded as having forfeited rights of communication under the present Convention. In each case, such persons shall nevertheless be treated with humanity and, in case of trial, shall not be deprived of the rights of fair and regular trial prescribed by the present Convention. They shall also be granted the full rights and privileges of a protected person under the present Convention at the earliest date consistent with the security of the State or Occupying Power, as the case may be. The present Convention shall apply from the outset of any conflict or occupation mentioned in Article 2. In the territory of Parties to the conflict, the application of the present Convention shall cease on the general close of military operations. In the case of occupied territory, the application of the present Convention shall cease one year after the general close of military operations; however, the Occupying Power shall be bound, for the duration of the occupation, to the extent that such Power exercises the functions of government in such territory, by the provisions of the following Articles of the present Convention: 1 to 12, 27, 29 to 34, 47, 49, 51, 52, 53, 59, 61 to 77, 143. Protected persons whose release, repatriation or re-establishment may take place after such dates shall meanwhile continue to benefit by the present Convention. In addition to the agreements expressly provided for in Articles 11, 14, 15, 17, 36, 108, 109, 132, 133 and 149, the High Contracting Parties may conclude other special agreements for all matters concerning which they may deem it suitable to make separate provision. No special agreement shall adversely affect the situation of protected persons, as defined by the present Convention, not restrict the rights which it confers upon them. Protected persons shall continue to have the benefit of such agreements as long as the Convention is applicable to them, except where express provisions to the contrary are contained in the aforesaid or in subsequent agreements, or where more favourable measures have been taken with regard to them by one or other of the Parties to the conflict. Protected persons may in no circumstances renounce in part or in entirety the rights secured to them by the present Convention, and by the special agreements referred to in the foregoing Article, if such there be. The present Convention shall be applied with the cooperation and under the scrutiny of the Protecting Powers whose duty it is to safeguard the interests of the Parties to the conflict. For this purpose, the Protecting Powers may appoint, apart from their diplomatic or consular staff, delegates from amongst their own nationals or the nationals of other neutral Powers. The said delegates shall be subject to the approval of the Power with which they are to carry out their duties. The Parties to the conflict shall facilitate to the greatest extent possible the task of the representatives or delegates of the Protecting Powers. The representatives or delegates of the Protecting Powers shall not in any case exceed their mission under the present Convention. They shall, in particular, take account of the imperative necessities of security of the State wherein they carry out their duties. The provisions of the present Convention constitute no obstacle to the humanitarian activities which the International Committee of the Red Cross or any other impartial humanitarian organization may, subject to the consent of the Parties to the conflict concerned, undertake for the protection of civilian persons and for their relief. The High Contracting Parties may at any time agree to entrust to an international organization which offers all guarantees of impartiality and efficacy the duties incumbent on the Protecting Powers by virtue of the present Convention. When persons protected by the present Convention do not benefit or cease to benefit, no matter for what reason, by the activities of a Protecting Power or of an organization provided for in the first paragraph above, the Detaining Power shall request a neutral State, or such an organization, to undertake the functions performed under the present Convention by a Protecting Power designated by the Parties to a conflict. If protection cannot be arranged accordingly, the Detaining Power shall request or shall accept, subject to the provisions of this Article, the offer of the services of a humanitarian organization, such as the International Committee of the Red Cross, to assume the humanitarian functions performed by Protecting Powers under the present Convention. Any neutral Power or any organization invited by the Power concerned or offering itself for these purposes, shall be required to act with a sense of responsibility towards the Party to the conflict on which persons protected by the present Convention depend, and shall be required to furnish sufficient assurances that it is in a position to undertake the appropriate functions and to discharge them impartially. No derogation from the preceding provisions shall be made by special agreements between Powers one of which is restricted, even temporarily, in its freedom to negotiate with the other Power or its allies by reason of military events, more particularly where the whole, or a substantial part, of the territory of the said Power is occupied. Whenever in the present Convention mention is made of a Protecting Power, such mention applies to substitute organizations in the sense of the present Article. The provisions of this Article shall extend and be adapted to cases of nationals of a neutral State who are in occupied territory or who find themselves in the territory of a belligerent State in which the State of which they are nationals has not normal diplomatic representation. In cases where they deem it advisable in the interest of protected persons, particularly in cases of disagreement between the Parties to the conflict as to the application or interpretation of the provisions of the present Convention, the Protecting Powers shall lend their good offices with a view to settling the disagreement. For this purpose, each of the Protecting Powers may, either at the invitation of one Party or on its own initiative, propose to the Parties to the conflict a meeting of their representatives, and in particular of the authorities responsible for protected persons, possibly on neutral territory suitably chosen. The Parties to the conflict shall be bound to give effect to the proposals made to them for this purpose. The Protecting Powers may, if necessary, propose for approval by the Parties to the conflict a person belonging to a neutral Power, or delegated by the International Committee of the Red Cross, who shall be invited to take part in such a meeting. The provisions of Part II cover the whole of the populations of the countries in conflict, without any adverse distinction based, in particular, on race, nationality, religion or political opinion, and are intended to alleviate the sufferings caused by war. In time of peace, the High Contracting Parties and, after the outbreak of hostilities, the Parties thereto, may establish in their own territory and, if the need arises, in occupied areas, hospital and safety zones and localities so organized as to protect from the effects of war, wounded, sick and aged persons, children under fifteen, expectant mothers and mothers of children under seven. Upon the outbreak and during the course of hostilities, the Parties concerned may conclude agreements on mutual recognition of the zones and localities they have created. They may for this purpose implement the provisions of the Draft Agreement annexed to the present Convention, with such amendments as they may consider necessary. The Protecting Powers and the International Committee of the Red Cross are invited to lend their good offices in order to facilitate the institution and recognition of these hospital and safety zones and localities. Any Party to the conflict may, either direct or through a neutral State or some humanitarian organization, propose to the adverse Party to establish, in the regions where fighting is taking place, neutralized zones intended to shelter from the effects of war the following persons, without distinction: (a) wounded and sick combatants or non-combatants; (b) civilian persons who take no part in hostilities, and who, while they reside in the zones, perform no work of a military character. When the Parties concerned have agreed upon the geographical position, administration, food supply and supervision of the proposed neutralized zone, a written agreement shall be concluded and signed by the representatives of the Parties to the conflict. The agreement shall fix the beginning and the duration of the neutralization of the zone. The wounded and sick, as well as the infirm, and expectant mothers, shall be the object of particular protection and respect. As far as military considerations allow, each Party to the conflict shall facilitate the steps taken to search for the killed and wounded, to assist the shipwrecked and other persons exposed to grave danger, and to protect them against pillage and ill-treatment. The Parties to the conflict shall endeavour to conclude local agreements for the removal from besieged or encircled areas, of wounded, sick, infirm, and aged persons, children and maternity cases, and for the passage of ministers of all religions, medical personnel and medical equipment on their way to such areas. Civilian hospitals organized to give care to the wounded and sick, the infirm and maternity cases, may in no circumstances be the object of attack but shall at all times be respected and protected by the Parties to the conflict. States which are Parties to a conflict shall provide all civilian hospitals with certificates showing that they are civilian hospitals and that the buildings which they occupy are not used for any purpose which would deprive these hospitals of protection in accordance with Article 19. Civilian hospitals shall be marked by means of the emblem provided for in Article 38 of the Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field of 12 August 1949, but only if so authorized by the State. The Parties to the conflict shall, in so far as military considerations permit, take the necessary steps to make the distinctive emblems indicating civilian hospitals clearly visible to the enemy land, air and naval forces in order to obviate the possibility of any hostile action. In view of the dangers to which hospitals may be exposed by being close to military objectives, it is recommended that such hospitals be situated as far as possible from such objectives. The protection to which civilian hospitals are entitled shall not cease unless they are used to commit, outside their humanitarian duties, acts harmful to the enemy. Protection may, however, cease only after due warning has been given, naming, in all appropriate cases, a reasonable time limit and after such warning has remained unheeded. The fact that sick or wounded members of the armed forces are nursed in these hospitals, or the presence of small arms and ammunition taken from such combatants and not yet been handed to the proper service, shall not be considered to be acts harmful to the enemy. Persons regularly and solely engaged in the operation and administration of civilian hospitals, including the personnel engaged in the search for, removal and transporting of and caring for wounded and sick civilians, the infirm and maternity cases shall be respected and protected. In occupied territory and in zones of military operations, the above personnel shall be recognizable by means of an identity card certifying their status, bearing the photograph of the holder and embossed with the stamp of the responsible authority, and also by means of a stamped, water-resistant armlet which they shall wear on the left arm while carrying out their duties. This armlet shall be issued by the State and shall bear the emblem provided for in Article 38 of the Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field of 12 August 1949. Other personnel who are engaged in the operation and administration of civilian hospitals shall be entitled to respect and protection and to wear the armlet, as provided in and under the conditions prescribed in this Article, while they are employed on such duties. The identity card shall state the duties on which they are employed. The management of each hospital shall at all times hold at the disposal of the competent national or occupying authorities an up-to-date list of such personnel. Convoys of vehicles or hospital trains on land or specially provided vessels on sea, conveying wounded and sick civilians, the infirm and maternity cases, shall be respected and protected in the same manner as the hospitals provided for in Article 18, and shall be marked, with the consent of the State, by the display of the distinctive emblem provided for in Article 38 of the Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field of 12 August 1949. 2. Aircraft exclusively employed for the removal of wounded and sick civilians, the infirm and maternity cases or for the transport of medical personnel and equipment, shall not be attacked, but shall be respected while flying at heights, times and on routes specifically agreed upon between all the Parties to the conflict concerned. They may be marked with the distinctive emblem provided for in Article 38 of the Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field of 12 August 1949. Unless agreed otherwise, flights over enemy or enemy occupied territory are prohibited. Such aircraft shall obey every summons to land. In the event of a landing thus imposed, the aircraft with its occupants may continue its flight after examination, if any. Each High Contracting Party shall allow the free passage of all consignments of medical and hospital stores and objects necessary for religious worship intended only for civilians of another High Contracting Party, even if the latter is its adversary. It shall likewise permit the free passage of all consignments of essential foodstuffs, clothing and tonics intended for children under fifteen, expectant mothers and maternity cases. The obligation of a High Contracting Party to allow the free passage of the consignments indicated in the preceding paragraph is subject to the condition that this Party is satisfied that there are no serious reasons for fearing: (a) that the consignments may be diverted from their destination, (b) that the control may not be effective, or (c) that a definite advantage may accrue to the military efforts or economy of the enemy through the substitution of the above-mentioned consignments for goods which would otherwise be provided or produced by the enemy or through the release of such material, services or facilities as would otherwise be required for the production of such goods. The Power which allows the passage of the consignments indicated in the first paragraph of this Article may make such permission conditional on the distribution to the persons benefited thereby being made under the local supervision of the Protecting Powers. Such consignments shall be forwarded as rapidly as possible, and the Power which permits their free passage shall have the right to prescribe the technical arrangements under which such passage is allowed. The Parties to the conflict shall take the necessary measures to ensure that children under fifteen, who are orphaned or are separated from their families as a result of the war, are not left to their own resources, and that their maintenance, the exercise of their religion and their education are facilitated in all circumstances. Their education shall, as far as possible, be entrusted to persons of a similar cultural tradition. The Parties to the conflict shall facilitate the reception of such children in a neutral country for the duration of the conflict with the consent of the Protecting Power, if any, and under due safeguards for the observance of the principles stated in the first paragraph. They shall, furthermore, endeavour to arrange for all children under twelve to be identified by the wearing of identity discs, or by some other means. All persons in the territory of a Party to the conflict, or in a territory occupied by it, shall be enabled to give news of a strictly personal nature to members of their families, wherever they may be, and to receive news from them. This correspondence shall be forwarded speedily and without undue delay. If, as a result of circumstances, it becomes difficult or impossible to exchange family correspondence by the ordinary post, the Parties to the conflict concerned shall apply to a neutral intermediary, such as the Central Agency provided for in Article 140, and shall decide in consultation with it how to ensure the fulfilment of their obligations under the best possible conditions, in particular with the cooperation of the National Red Cross (Red Crescent, Red Lion and Sun) Societies. If the Parties to the conflict deem it necessary to restrict family correspondence, such restrictions shall be confined to the compulsory use of standard forms containing twenty-five freely chosen words, and to the limitation of the number of these forms despatched to one each month. Each Party to the conflict shall facilitate enquiries made by members of families dispersed owing to the war, with the object of renewing contact with one another and of meeting, if possible. It shall encourage, in particular, the work of organizations engaged on this task provided they are acceptable to it and conform to its security regulations. Part III. Status and Treatment of Protected Persons Section I. Provisions common to the territories of the parties to the conflict and to occupied territories Protected persons are entitled, in all circumstances, to respect for their persons, their honour, their family rights, their religious convictions and practices, and their manners and customs. They shall at all times be humanely treated, and shall be protected especially against all acts of violence or threats thereof and against insults and public curiosity. Women shall be especially protected against any attack on their honour, in particular against rape, enforced prostitutiOn, or any form of indecent assault. Without prejudice to the provisions relating to their state of health, age and sex, all protected persons shall be treated with the same consideration by the Party to the conflict in whose power they are, without any adverse distinction based, in particular, on race, religion or political opinion. However, the Parties to the conflict may take such measures of control and security in regard to protected persons as may be necessary as a result of the war. The presence of a protected person may not be used to render certain points or areas immune from military operations. The Party to the conflict in whose hands protected persons may be, is responsible for the treatment accorded to them by its agents, irrespective of any individual responsibility which may be incurred. Protected persons shall have every facility for making application to the Protecting Powers, the International Committee of the Red Cross, the National Red Cross (Red Crescent, Red Lion and Sun) Society of the country where they may be, as well as to any organization that might assist them. These several organizations shall be granted all facilities for that purpose by the authorities, within the bounds set by military or security considerations. Apart from the visits of the delegates of the Protecting Powers and of the International Committee of the Red Cross, provided for by Article 143, the Detaining or Occupying Powers shall facilitate, as much as possible, visits to protected persons by the representatives of other organizations whose object is to give spiritual aid or material relief to such persons. No physical or moral coercion shall be exercised against protected persons, in particular to obtain information from them or from third parties. The High Contracting Parties specifically agree that each of them is prohibited from taking any measure of such a character as to cause the physical suffering or extermination of protected persons in their hands. This prohibition applies not only to murder, torture, corporal punishments, mutilation and medical or scientific experiments not necessitated by the medical treatment of a protected person, but also to any other measures of brutality whether applied by civilian or military agents. No protected person may be punished for an offence he or she has not personally committed. Collective penalties and likewise all measures of intimidation or of terrorism are prohibited. Pillage is prohibited. Reprisals against protected persons and their property are prohibited. The taking of hostages is prohibited. Section II. Aliens in the territory of a party to the conflict All protected persons who may desire to leave the territory at the outset of, or during a conflict, shall be entitled to do so, unless their departure is contrary to the national interests of the State. The applications of such persons to leave shall be decided in accordance with regularly established procedures and the decision shall be taken as rapidly as possible. Those persons permitted to leave may provide themselves with the necessary funds for their journey and take with them a reasonable amount of their effects and articles of personal use. If any such person is refused permission to leave the territory, he shall be entitled to have refusal reconsidered, as soon as possible by an appropriate court or administrative board designated by the Detaining Power for that purpose. Upon request, representatives of the Protecting Power shall, unless reasons of security prevent it, or the persons concerned object, be furnished with the reasons for refusal of any request for permission to leave the territory and be given, as expeditiously as possible, the names of all persons who have been denied permission to leave. Departures permitted under the foregoing Article shall be carried out in satisfactory conditions as regards safety, hygiene, sanitation and food. All costs in connection therewith, from the point of exit in the territory of the Detaining Power, shall be borne by the country of destination, or, in the case of accommodation in a neutral country, by the Power whose nationals are benefited. The practical details of such movements may, if necessary, be settled by special agreements between the Powers concerned. The foregoing shall not prejudice such special agreements as may be concluded between Parties to the conflict concerning the exchange and repatriation of their nationals in enemy hands. Protected persons who are confined pending proceedings or serving a sentence involving loss of liberty, shall during their confinement be humanely treated. As soon as they are released, they may ask to leave the territory in conformity with the foregoing Articles. With the exception of special measures authorized by the present Convention, in particularly by Article 27 and 41 thereof, the situation of protected persons shall continue to be regulated, in principle, by the provisions concerning aliens in time of peace. In any case, the following rights shall be granted to them: (1) they shall be enabled to receive the individual or collective relief that may be sent to them. (2) they shall, if their state of health so requires, receive medical attention and hospital treatment to the same extent as the nationals of the State concerned. (3) they shall be allowed to practise their religion and to receive spiritual assistance from ministers of their faith. (4) if they reside in an area particularly exposed to the dangers of war, they shall be authorized to move from that area to the same extent as the nationals of the State concerned. (5) children under fifteen years, pregnant women and mothers of children under seven years shall benefit by any preferential treatment to the same extent as the nationals of the State concerned. Protected persons who, as a result of the war, have lost their gainful employment, shall be granted the opportunity to find paid employment. That opportunity shall, subject to security considerations and to the provisions of Article 40, be equal to that enjoyed by the nationals of the Power in whose territory they are. Where a Party to the conflict applies to a protected person methods of control which result in his being unable to support himself, and especially if such a person is prevented for reasons of security from finding paid employment on reasonable conditions, the said Party shall ensure his support and that of his dependents. Protected persons may in any case receive allowances from their home country, the Protecting Power, or the relief societies referred to in Article 30. Protected persons may be compelled to work only to the same extent as nationals of the Party to the conflict in whose territory they are. If protected persons are of enemy nationality, they may only be compelled to do work which is normally necessary to ensure the feeding, sheltering, clothing, transport and health of human beings and which is not directly related to the conduct of military operations. In the cases mentioned in the two preceding paragraphs, protected persons compelled to work shall have the benefit of the same working conditions and of the same safeguards as national workers in particular as regards wages, hours of labour, clothing and equipment, previous training and compensation for occupational accidents and diseases. If the above provisions are infringed, protected persons shall be allowed to exercise their right of complaint in accordance with Article 30. Should the Power, in whose hands protected persons may be, consider the measures of control mentioned in the present Convention to be inadequate, it may not have recourse to any other measure of control more severe than that of assigned residence or internment, in accordance with the provisions of Articles 42 and 43. In applying the provisions of Article 39, second paragraph, to the cases of persons required to leave their usual places of residence by virtue of a decision placing them in assigned residence, by virtue of a decision placing them in assigned residence, elsewhere, the Detaining Power shall be guided as closely as possible by the standards of welfare set forth in Part III, Section IV of this Convention. The internment or placing in assigned residence of protected persons may be ordered only if the security of the Detaining Power makes it absolutely necessary. If any person, acting through the representatives of the Protecting Power, voluntarily demands internment, and if his situation renders this step necessary, he shall be interned by the Power in whose hands he may be. Any protected person who has been interned or placed in assigned residence shall be entitled to have such action reconsidered as soon as possible by an appropriate court or administrative board designated by the Detaining Power for that purpose. If the internment or placing in assigned residence is maintained, the court or administrative board shall periodically, and at least twice yearly, give consideration to his or her case, with a view to the favourable amendment of the initial decision, if circumstances permit. Unless the protected persons concerned object, the Detaining Power shall, as rapidly as possible, give the Protecting Power the names of any protected persons who have been interned or subjected to assigned residence, or who have been released from internment or assigned residence. The decisions of the courts or boards mentioned in the first paragraph of the present Article shall also, subject to the same conditions, be notified as rapidly as possible to the Protecting Power. In applying the measures of control mentioned in the present Convention, the Detaining Power shall not treat as enemy aliens exclusively on the basis of their nationality de jure of an enemy State, refugees who do not, in fact, enjoy the protection of any government. Protected persons shall not be transferred to a Power which is not a party to the Convention. This provision shall in no way constitute an obstacle to the repatriation of protected persons, or to their return to their country of residence after the cessation of hostilities. Protected persons may be transferred by the Detaining Power only to a Power which is a party to the present Convention and after the Detaining Power has satisfied itself of the willingness and ability of such transferee Power to apply the present Convention. If protected persons are transferred under such circumstances, responsibility for the application of the present Convention rests on the Power accepting them, while they are in its custody. Nevertheless, if that Power fails to carry out the provisions of the present Convention in any important respect, the Power by which the protected persons were transferred shall, upon being so notified by the Protecting Power, take effective measures to correct the situation or shall request the return of the protected persons. Such request must be complied with. In no circumstances shall a protected person be transferred to a country where he or she may have reason to fear persecution for his or her political opinions or religious beliefs. The provisions of this Article do not constitute an obstacle to the extradition, in pursuance of extradition treaties concluded before the outbreak of hostilities, of protected persons accused of offences against ordinary criminal law. In so far as they have not been previously withdrawn, restrictive measures taken regarding protected persons shall be cancelled as soon as possible after the close of hostilities. Restrictive measures affecting their property shall be cancelled, in accordance with the law of the Detaining Power, as soon as possible after the close of hostilities. Section III. Occupied territories Protected persons who are in occupied territory shall not be deprived, in any case or in any manner whatsoever, of the benefits of the present Convention by any change introduced, as the result of the occupation of a territory, into the institutions or government of the said territory, nor by any agreement concluded between the authorities of the occupied territories and the Occupying Power, nor by any annexation by the latter of the whole or part of the occupied territory. Protected persons who are not nationals of the Power whose territory is occupied, may avail themselves of the right to leave the territory subject to the provisions of Article 35, and decisions thereon shall be taken according to the procedure which the Occupying Power shall establish in accordance with the said Article. Individual or mass forcible transfers, as well as deportations of protected persons from occupied territory to the territory of the Occupying Power or to that of any other country, occupied or not, are prohibited, regardless of their motive. Nevertheless, the Occupying Power may undertake total or partial evacuation of a given area if the security of the population or imperative military reasons so demand. Such evacuations may not involve the displacement of protected persons outside the bounds of the occupied territory except when for material reasons it is impossible to avoid such displacement. Persons thus evacuated shall be transferred back to their homes as soon as hostilities in the area in question have ceased. The Occupying Power undertaking such transfers or evacuations shall ensure, to the greatest practicable extent, that proper accommodation is provided to receive the protected persons, that the removals are effected in satisfactory conditions of hygiene, health, safety and nutrition, and that members of the same family are not separated. The Protecting Power shall be informed of any transfers and evacuations as soon as they have taken place. The Occupying Power shall not detain protected persons in an area particularly exposed to the dangers of war unless the security of the population or imperative military reasons so demand. The Occupying Power shall not deport or transfer parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies. The Occupying Power shall, with the cooperation of the national and local authorities, facilitate the proper working of all institutions devoted to the care and education of children. The Occupying Power shall take all necessary steps to facilitate the identification of children and the registration of their parentage. It may not, in any case, change their personal status, nor enlist them in formations or organizations subordinate to it. Should the local institutions be inadequate for the purpose, the Occupying Power shall make arrangements for the maintenance and education, if possible by persons of their own nationality, language and religion, of children who are orphaned or separated from their parents as a result of the war and who cannot be adequately cared for by a near relative or friend. A special section of the Bureau set up in accordance with Article 136 shall be responsible for taking all necessary steps to identify children whose identity is in doubt. Particulars of their parents or other near relatives should always be recorded if available. The Occupying Power shall not hinder the application of any preferential measures in regard to food, medical care and protection against the effects of war which may have been adopted prior to the occupation in favour of children under fifteen years, expectant mothers, and mothers of children under seven years. The Occupying Power may not compel protected persons to serve in its armed or auxiliary forces. No pressure or propaganda which aims at securing voluntary enlistment is permitted. The Occupying Power may not compel protected persons to work unless they are over eighteen years of age, and then only on work which is necessary either for the needs of the army of occupation, or for the public utility services, or for the feeding, sheltering, clothing, transportation or health of the population of the occupied country. Protected persons may not be compelled to undertake any work which would involve them in the obligation of taking part in military operations. The Occupying Power may not compel protected persons to employ forcible means to ensure the security of the installations where they are performing compulsory labour. The work shall be carried out only in the occupied territory where the persons whose services have been requisitioned are. Every such person shall, so far as possible, be kept in his usual place of employment. Workers shall be paid a fair wage and the work shall be proportionate to their physical and intellectual capacities. The legislation in force in the occupied country concerning working conditions, and safeguards as regards, in particular, such matters as wages, hours of work, equipment, preliminary training and compensation for occupational accidents and diseases, shall be applicable to the protected persons assigned to the work referred to in this Article. In no case shall requisition of labour lead to a mobilization of workers in an organization of a military or semi-military character. No contract, agreement or regulation shall impair the right of any worker, whether voluntary or not and wherever he may be, to apply to the representatives of the Protecting Power in order to request the said Power's intervention. All measures aiming at creating unemployment or at restricting the opportunities offered to workers in an occupied territory, in order to induce them to work for the Occupying Power, are prohibited. Any destruction by the Occupying Power of real or personal property belonging individually or collectively to private persons, or to the State, or to other public authorities, or to social or cooperative organizations, is prohibited, except where such destruction is rendered absolutely necessary by military operations. The Occupying Power may not alter the status of public officials or judges in the occupied territories, or in any way apply sanctions to or take any measures of coercion or discrimination against them, should they abstain from fulfilling their functions for reasons of conscience. This prohibition does not prejudice the application of the second paragraph of Article 51. It does not affect the right of the Occupying Power to remove public officials from their posts. To the fullest extent of the means available to it, the Occupying Power has the duty of ensuring the food and medical supplies of the population; it should, in particular, bring in the necessary foodstuffs, medical stores and other articles if the resources of the occupied territory are inadequate. The Occupying Power may not requisition foodstuffs, articles or medical supplies available in the occupied territory, except for use by the occupation forces and administration personnel, and then only if the requirements of the civilian population have been taken into account. Subject to the provisions of other international Conventions, the Occupying Power shall make arrangements to ensure that fair value is paid for any requisitioned goods. The Protecting Power shall, at any time, be at liberty to verify the state of the food and medical supplies in occupied territories, except where temporary restrictions are made necessary by imperative military requirements. To the fullest extent of the means available to it, the public Occupying Power has the duty of ensuring and maintaining, with the cooperation of national and local authorities, the medical and hospital establishments and services, public health and hygiene in the occupied territory, with particular reference to the adoption and application of the prophylactic and preventive measures necessary to combat the spread of contagious diseases and epidemics. Medical personnel of all categories shall be allowed to carry out their duties. If new hospitals are set up in occupied territory and if the competent organs of the occupied State are not operating there, the occupying authorities shall, if necessary, grant them the recognition provided for in Article 18. In similar circumstances, the occupying authorities shall also grant recognition to hospital personnel and transport vehicles under the provisions of Articles 20 and 21. In adopting measures of health and hygiene and in their implementation, the Occupying Power shall take into consideration the moral and ethical susceptibilities of the population of the occupied territory. The Occupying Power may requisition civilian hospitals of hospitals only temporarily and only in cases of urgent necessity for the care of military wounded and sick, and then on condition that suitable arrangements are made in due time for the care and treatment of the patients and for the needs of the civilian population for hospital accommodation. The material and stores of civilian hospitals cannot be requisitioned so long as they are necessary for the needs of the civilian population. The Occupying Power shall permit ministers of religion to give spiritual assistance to the members of their religious communities. The Occupying Power shall also accept consignments of books and articles required for religious needs and shall facilitate their distribution in occupied territory. If the whole or part of the population of an occupied territory is inadequately supplied, the Occupying Power shall agree to relief schemes on behalf of the said population, and shall facilitate them by all the means at its disposal. Such schemes, which may be undertaken either by States or by impartial humanitarian organizations such as the International Committee of the Red Cross, shall consist, in particular, of the provision of consignments of foodstuffs, medical supplies and clothing. All Contracting Parties shall permit the free passage of these consignments and shall guarantee their protection. A Power granting free passage to consignments on their way to territory occupied by an adverse Party to the conflict shall, however, have the right to search the consignments, to regulate their passage according to prescribed times and routes, and to be reasonably satisfied through the Protecting Power that these consignments are to be used for the relief of the needy population and are not to be used for the benefit of the Occupying Power. Relief consignments shall in no way relieve the Occupying Power of any of its responsibilities under Articles 55, 56 and 59. The Occupying Power shall in no way whatsoever divert relief consignments from the purpose for which they are intended, except in cases of urgent necessity, in the interests of the population of the occupied territory and with the consent of the Protecting Power. The distribution of the relief consignments referred to in the foregoing Articles shall be carried out with the cooperation and under the supervision of the Protecting Power. This duty may also be delegated, by agreement between the Occupying Power and the Protecting Power, to a neutral Power, to the International Committee of the Red Cross or to any other impartial humanitarian body. Such consignments shall be exempt in occupied territory from all charges, taxes or customs duties unless these are necessary in the interests of the economy of the territory. The Occupying Power shall facilitate the rapid distribution of these consignments. All Contracting Parties shall endeavour to permit the transit and transport, free of charge, of such relief consignments on their way to occupied territories. Subject to imperative reasons of security, protected persons in occupied territories shall be permitted to receive the individual relief consignments sent to them. Subject to temporary and exceptional measures imposed for urgent reasons of security by the Occupying Power: (a) recognized National Red Cross (Red Crescent, Red Lion and Sun) Societies shall be able to pursue their activities in accordance with Red Cross principles, as defined by the International Red Cross Conferences. Other relief societies shall be permitted to continue their humanitarian activities under similar conditions; (b) the Occupying Power may not require any changes in the personnel or structure of these societies, which would prejudice the aforesaid activities. The same principles shall apply to the activities and personnel of special organizations of a non-military character, which already exist or which may be established, for the purpose of ensuring the living conditions of the civilian population by the maintenance of the essential public utility services, by the distribution of relief and by the organization of rescues. The penal laws of the occupied territory shall remain in force, with the exception that they may be repealed or suspended by the Occupying Power in cases where they constitute a threat to its security or an obstacle to the application of the present Convention. Subject to the latter consideration and to the necessity for ensuring the effective administration of justice, the tribunals of the occupied territory shall continue to function in respect of all offences covered by the said laws. The Occupying Power may, however, subject the population of the occupied territory to provisions which are essential to enable the Occupying Power to fulfil its obligations under the present Convention, to maintain the orderly government of the territory, and to ensure the security of the Occupying Power, of the members and property of the occupying forces or administration, and likewise of the establishments and lines of communication used by them. The penal provisions enacted by the Occupying Power shall not come into force before they have been published and brought to the knowledge of the inhabitants in their own language. The effect of these penal provisions shall not be retroactive. In case of a breach of the penal provisions promulgated by it by virtue of the second paragraph of Article 64 the Occupying Power may hand over the accused to its properly constituted, non-political military courts, on condition that the said courts sit in the occupied country. Courts of appeal shall preferably sit in the occupied country. The courts shall apply only those provisions of law which were applicable prior to the offence, and which are in accordance with general principles of law, in particular the principle that the penalty shall be proportionate to the offence. They shall take into consideration the fact the accused is not a national of the Occupying Power. Protected persons who commit an offence which is solely intended to harm the Occupying Power, but which does not constitute an attempt on the life or limb of members of the occupying forces or administration, nor a grave collective danger, nor seriously damage the property of the occupying forces or administration or the installations used by them, shall be liable to internment or simple imprisonment, provided the duration of such internment or imprisonment is proportionate to the offence committed. Furthermore, internment or imprisonment shall, for such offences, be the only measure adopted for depriving protected persons of liberty. The courts provided for under Article 66 of the present Convention may at their discretion convert a sentence of imprisonment to one of internment for the same period. The penal provisions promulgated by the Occupying Power in accordance with Articles 64 and 65 may impose the death penalty against a protected person only in cases where the person is guilty of espionage, of serious acts of sabotage against the military installations of the Occupying Power or of intentional offences which have caused the death of one or more persons, provided that such offences were punishable by death under the law of the occupied territory in force before the occupation began. The death penalty may not be pronounced against a protected person unless the attention of the court has been particularly called to the fact that since the accused is not a national of the Occupying Power, he is not bound to it by any duty of allegiance. In any case, the death penalty may not be pronounced on a protected person who was under eighteen years of age at the time of the offence. In all cases the duration of the period during which a protected person accused of an offence is under arrest awaiting trial or punishment shall be deducted from any period of imprisonment of awarded. Protected persons shall not be arrested, prosecuted or convicted by the Occupying Power for acts committed or for opinions expressed before the occupation, or during a temporary interruption thereof, with the exception of breaches of the laws and customs of war. Nationals of the occupying Power who, before the outbreak of hostilities, have sought refuge in the territory of the occupied State, shall not be arrested, prosecuted, convicted or deported from the occupied territory, except for offences committed after the outbreak of hostilities, or for offences under common law committed before the outbreak of hostilities which, according to the law of the occupied State, would have justified extradition in time of peace. No sentence shall be pronounced by the competent courts of the Occupying Power except after a regular trial. Accused persons who are prosecuted by the Occupying Power shall be promptly informed, in writing, in a language which they understand, of the particulars of the charges preferred against them, and shall be brought to trial as rapidly as possible. The Protecting Power shall be informed of all proceedings instituted by the Occupying Power against protected persons in respect of charges involving the death penalty or imprisonment for two years or more; it shall be enabled, at any time, to obtain information regarding the state of such proceedings. Furthermore, the Protecting Power shall be entitled, on request, to be furnished with all particulars of these and of any other proceedings instituted by the Occupying Power against protected persons. The notification to the Protecting Power, as provided for in the second paragraph above, shall be sent immediately, and shall in any case reach the Protecting Power three weeks before the date of the first hearing. Unless, at the opening of the trial, evidence is submitted that the provisions of this Article are fully complied with, the trial shall not proceed. The notification shall include the following particulars: (a) description of the accused; (b) place of residence or detention; (c) specification of the charge or charges (with mention of the penal provisions under which it is brought); (d) designation of the court which will hear the case; (e) place and date of the first hearing. Accused persons shall have the right to present evidence necessary to their defence and may, in particular, call witnesses. They shall have the right to be assisted by a qualified advocate or counsel of their own choice, who shall be able to visit them freely and shall enjoy the necessary facilities for preparing the defence. Failing a choice by the accused, the Protecting Power may provide him with an advocate or counsel. When an accused person has to meet a serious charge and the Protecting Power is not functioning, the Occupying Power, subject to the consent of the accused, shall provide an advocate or counsel. Accused persons shall, unless they freely waive such assistance, be aided by an interpreter, both during preliminary investigation and during the hearing in court. They shall have the right at any time to object to the interpreter and to ask for his replacement. 3. A convicted person shall have the right of appeal provided for by the laws applied by the court. He shall be fully informed of his right to appeal or petition and of the time limit within which he may do so. The penal procedure provided in the present Section shall apply, as far as it is applicable, to appeals. Where the laws applied by the Court make no provision for appeals, the convicted person shall have the right to petition against the finding and sentence to the competent authority of the Occupying Power. Representatives of the Protecting Power shall have the right to attend the trial of any protected person, unless the hearing has, as an exceptional measure, to be held in camera in the interests of the security of the Occupying Power, which shall then notify the Protecting Power. A notification in respect of the date and place of trial shall be sent to the Protecting Power. Any judgement involving a sentence of death, or imprisonment for two years or more, shall be communicated, with the relevant grounds, as rapidly as possible to the Protecting Power. The notification shall contain a reference to the notification made under Article 71 and, in the case of sentences of imprisonment, the name of the place where the sentence is to be served. A record of judgements other than those referred to above shall be kept by the court and shall be open to inspection by representatives of the Protecting Power. Any period allowed for appeal in the case of sentences involving the death penalty, or imprisonment of two years or more, shall not run until notification of judgement has been received by the Protecting Power. In no case shall persons condemned to death be deprived of the right of petition for pardon or reprieve. No death sentence shall be carried out before the expiration of a period of a least six months from the date of receipt by the Protecting Power of the notification of the final judgment confirming such death sentence, or of an order denying pardon or reprieve. The six months period of suspension of the death sentence herein prescribed may be reduced in individual cases in circumstances of grave emergency involving an organized threat to the security of the Occupying Power or its forces, provided always that the Protecting Power is notified of such reduction and is given reasonable time and opportunity to make representations to the competent occupying authorities in respect of such death sentences. Protected persons accused of offences shall be detained in the occupied country, and if convicted they shall serve their sentences therein. They shall, if possible, be separated from other detainees and shall enjoy conditions of food and hygiene which will be sufficient to keep them in good health, and which will be at least equal to those obtaining in prisons in the occupied country. They shall receive the medical attention required by their state of health. They shall also have the right to receive any spiritual assistance which they may require. Women shall be confined in separate quarters and shall be under the direct supervision of women. Proper regard shall be paid to the special treatment due to minors. Protected persons who are detained shall have the right to be visited by delegates of the Protecting Power and of the International Committee of the Red Cross, in accordance with the provisions of Article 143. Such persons shall have the right to receive at least one relief parcel monthly. Protected persons who have been accused of offences or convicted by the courts in occupied territory, shall be handed over at the close of occupation, with the relevant records, to the authorities of the liberated territory. If the Occupying Power considers it necessary, for imperative reasons of security, to take safety measures concerning protected persons, it may, at the most, subject them to assigned residence or to internment. Decisions regarding such assigned residence or internment shall be made according to a regular procedure to be prescribed by the Occupying Power in accordance with the provisions of the present Convention. This procedure shall include the right of appeal for the parties concerned. Appeals shall be decided with the least possible delay. In the event of the decision being upheld, it shall be subject to periodical review, if possible every six months, by a competent body set up by the said Power. Protected persons made subject to assigned residence and thus required to leave their homes shall enjoy the full benefit of Article 39 of the present Convention. Section IV. Regulations for the treatment of internees Chapter I. General provisions The Parties to the conflict shall not intern protected persons, except in accordance with the provisions of Articles 41, 42, 43, 68 and 78. Internees shall retain their full civil capacity and shall exercise such attendant rights as may be compatible with their status. Parties to the conflict who intern protected persons shall be bound to provide free of charge for their maintenance, and to grant them also the medical attention required by their state of health. No deduction from the allowances, salaries or credits due to the internees shall be made for the repayment of these costs. The Detaining Power shall provide for the support of those dependent on the internees, if such dependents are without adequate means of support or are unable to earn a living. The Detaining Power shall, as far as possible, accommodate the internees according to their nationality, language and customs. Internees who are nationals of the same country shall not be separated merely because they have different languages. Throughout the duration of their internment, members of the same family, and in particular parents and children, shall be lodged together in the same place of internment, except when separation of a temporary nature is necessitated for reasons of employment or health or for the purposes of enforcement of the provisions of Chapter IX of the present Section. Internees may request that their children who are left at liberty without parental care shall be interned with them. Wherever possible, interned members of the same family shall be housed in the same premises and given separate accommodation from other internees, together with facilities for leading a proper family life. Chapter II. Places of Internment The Detaining Power shall not set up places of internment in areas particularly exposed to the dangers of war. The Detaining Power shall give the enemy Powers, through the intermediary of the Protecting Powers, all useful information regarding the geographical location of places of internment. Whenever military considerations permit, internment camps shall be indicated by the letters IC, placed so as to be clearly visible in the daytime from the air. The Powers concerned may, however, agree upon any other system of marking. No place other than an internment camp shall be marked as such. Internees shall be accommodated and administered separately from prisoners of war and from persons deprived of liberty for any other reason. The Detaining Power is bound to take all necessary and possible measures to ensure that protected persons shall, from the outset of their internment, be accommodated in buildings or quarters which afford every possible safeguard as regards hygiene and health, and provide efficient protection against the rigours of the climate and the effects of the war. In no case shall permanent places of internment be situated in unhealthy areas or in districts, the climate of which is injurious to the internees. In all cases where the district, in which a protected person is temporarily interned, is in an unhealthy area or has a climate which is harmful to his health, he shall be removed to a more suitable place of internment as rapidly as circumstances permit. The premises shall be fully protected from dampness, adequately heated and lighted, in particular between dusk and lights out. The sleeping quarters shall be sufficiently spacious and well ventilated, and the internees shall have suitable bedding and sufficient blankets, account being taken of the climate, and the age, sex, and state of health of the internees. Internees shall have for their use, day and night, sanitary conveniences which conform to the rules of hygiene, and are constantly maintained in a state of cleanliness. They shall be provided with sufficient water and soap for their daily personal toilet and for washing their personal laundry; installations and facilities necessary for this purpose shall be granted to them. Showers or baths shall also be available. The necessary time shall be set aside for washing and for cleaning. Whenever it is necessary, as an exceptional and temporary measure, to accommodate women internees who are not members of a family unit in the same place of internment as men, the provision of separate sleeping quarters and sanitary conveniences for the use of such women internees shall be obligatory. The Detaining Power shall place at the disposal of interned persons, of whatever denomination, premises suitable for the holding of their religious services. Canteens shall be installed in every place of internment, except where other suitable facilities are available. Their purpose shall be to enable internees to make purchases, at prices not higher than local market prices, of foodstuffs and articles of everyday use, including soap and tobacco, such as would increase their personal well-being and comfort. Profits made by canteens shall be credited to a welfare fund to be set up for each place of internment, and administered for the benefit of the internees attached to such place of internment. The Internee Committee provided for in Article 102 shall have the right to check the management of the canteen and of the said fund. When a place of internment is closed down, the balance of the welfare fund shall be transferred to the welfare fund of a place of internment for internees of the same nationality, or, if such a place does not exist, to a central welfare fund which shall be administered for the benefit of all internees remaining in the custody of the Detaining Power. In case of a general release, the said profits shall be kept by the Detaining Power, subject to any agreement to the contrary between the Powers concerned. In all places of internment exposed to air raids and other hazards of war, shelters adequate in number and structure to ensure the necessary protection shall be installed. In case of alarms, the measures internees shall be free to enter such shelters as quickly as possible, excepting those who remain for the protection of their quarters against the aforesaid hazards. Any protective measures taken in favour of the population shall also apply to them. All due precautions must be taken in places of internment against the danger of fire. Chapter III. Food and Clothing Daily food rations for internees shall be sufficient in quantity, quality and variety to keep internees in a good state of health and prevent the development of nutritional deficiencies. Account shall also be taken of the customary diet of the internees. Internees shall also be given the means by which they can prepare for themselves any additional food in their possession. Sufficient drinking water shall be supplied to internees. The use of tobacco shall be permitted. Internees who work shall receive additional rations in proportion to the kind of labour which they perform. Expectant and nursing mothers and children under fifteen years of age, shall be given additional food, in proportion to their physiological needs. When taken into custody, internees shall be given all facilities to provide themselves with the necessary clothing, footwear and change of underwear, and later on, to procure further supplies if required. Should any internees not have sufficient clothing, account being taken of the climate, and be unable to procure any, it shall be provided free of charge to them by the Detaining Power. The clothing supplied by the Detaining Power to internees and the outward markings placed on their own clothes shall not be ignominious nor expose them to ridicule. Workers shall receive suitable working outfits, including protective clothing, whenever the nature of their work so requires. Chapter IV. Hygiene and Medical Attention Every place of internment shall have an adequate infirmary, under the direction of a qualified doctor, where internees may have the attention they require, as well as an appropriate diet. Isolation wards shall be set aside for cases of contagious or mental diseases. Maternity cases and internees suffering from serious diseases, or whose condition requires special treatment, a surgical operation or hospital care, must be admitted to any institution where adequate treatment can be given and shall receive care not inferior to that provided for the general population. Internees shall, for preference, have the attention of medical personnel of their own nationality. Internees may not be prevented from presenting themselves to the medical authorities for examination. The medical authorities of the Detaining Power shall, upon request, issue to every internee who has undergone treatment an official certificate showing the nature of his illness or injury, and the duration and nature of the treatment given. A duplicate of this certificate shall be forwarded to the Central Agency provided for in Article 140. Treatment, including the provision of any apparatus necessary for the maintenance of internees in good health, particularly dentures and other artificial appliances and spectacles, shall be free of charge to the internee. Medical inspections of internees shall be made at least once a month. Their purpose shall be, in particular, to supervise the general state of health, nutrition and cleanliness of internees, and to detect contagious diseases, especially tuberculosis, malaria, and venereal diseases. Such inspections shall include, in particular, the checking of weight of each internee and, at least once a year, radioscopic examination. Chapter V. Religious, Intellectual and Physical Activities Internees shall enjoy complete latitude in the exercise of their religious duties, including attendance at the services of their faith, on condition that they comply with the disciplinary routine prescribed by the detaining authorities. Ministers of religion who are interned shall be allowed to minister freely to the members of their community. For this purpose the Detaining Power shall ensure their equitable allocation amongst the various places of internment in which there are internees speaking the same language and belonging to the same religion. Should such ministers be too few in number, the Detaining Power shall provide them with the necessary facilities, including means of transport, for moving from one place to another, and they shall be authorized to visit any internees who are in hospital. Ministers of religion shall be at liberty to correspond on matters concerning their ministry with the religious authorities in the country of detention and, as far as possible, with the international religious organizations of their faith. Such correspondence shall not be considered as forming a part of the quota mentioned in Article 107. It shall, however, be subject to the provisions of Article 112. When internees do not have at their disposal the assistance of ministers of their faith, or should these latter be too few in number, the local religious authorities of the same faith may appoint, in agreement with the Detaining Power, a minister of the internees' faith or, if such a course is feasible from a denominational point of view, a minister of similar religion or a qualified layman. The latter shall enjoy the facilities granted to the ministry he has assumed. Persons so appointed shall comply with all regulations laid down by the Detaining Power in the interests of discipline and security. The Detaining Power shall encourage intellectual, educational and recreational pursuits, sports and games amongst internees, whilst leaving them free to take part in them or not. It shall take all practicable measures to ensure the exercice thereof, in particular by providing suitable premises. All possible facilities shall be granted to internees to continue their studies or to take up new subjects. The education of children and young people shall be ensured; they shall be allowed to attend schools either within the place of internment or outside. Internees shall be given opportunities for physical exercise, sports and outdoor games. For this purpose, sufficient open spaces shall be set aside in all places of internment. Special playgrounds shall be reserved for children and young people. The Detaining Power shall not employ internees as workers, unless they so desire. Employment which, if undertaken under compulsion by a protected person not in internment, would involve a breach of Articles 40 or 51 of the present Convention, and employment on work which is of a degrading or humiliating character are in any case prohibited. After a working period of six weeks, internees shall be free to give up work at any moment, subject to eight days' notice. These provisions constitute no obstacle to the right of the Detaining Power to employ interned doctors, dentists and other medical personnel in their professional capacity on behalf of their fellow internees, or to employ internees for administrative and maintenance work in places of internment and to detail such persons for work in the kitchens or for other domestic tasks, or to require such persons to undertake duties connected with the protection of internees against aerial bombardment or other war risks. No internee may, however, be required to perform tasks for which he is, in the opinion of a medical officer, physically unsuited. The Detaining Power shall take entire responsibility for all working conditions, for medical attention, for the payment of wages, and for ensuring that all employed internees receive compensation for occupational accidents and diseases. The standards prescribed for the said working conditions and for compensation shall be in accordance with the national laws and regulations, and with the existing practice; they shall in no case be inferior to those obtaining for work of the same nature in the same district. Wages for work done shall be determined on an equitable basis by special agreements between the internees, the Detaining Power, and, if the case arises, employers other than the Detaining Power to provide for free maintenance of internees and for the medical attention which their state of health may require. Internees permanently detailed for categories of work mentioned in the third paragraph of this Article, shall be paid fair wages by the Detaining Power. The working conditions and the scale of compensation for occupational accidents and diseases to internees, thus detailed, shall not be inferior to those applicable to work of the same nature in the same district. All labour detachments shall remain part of and dependent upon a place of internment. The competent authorities of the Detaining Power and the commandant of a place of internment shall be responsible for the observance in a labour detachment of the provisions of the present Convention. The commandant shall keep an up-to-date list of the labour detachments subordinate to him and shall communicate it to the delegates of the Protecting Power, of the International Committee of the Red Cross and of other humanitarian organizations who may visit the places of internment. Chapter VI. Personal Property and Financial Resources Internees shall be permitted to retain articles of personal use. Monies, cheques, bonds, etc., and valuables in their possession may not be taken from them except in accordance with established procedure. Detailed receipts shall be given therefor. The amounts shall be paid into the account of every internee as provided for in Article 98. Such amounts may not be converted into any other currency unless legislation in force in the territory in which the owner is interned so requires or the internee gives his consent. Articles which have above all a personal or sentimental value may not be taken away. A woman internee shall not be searched except by a woman. On release or repatriation, internees shall be given all articles, monies or other valuables taken from them during internment and shall receive in currency the balance of any credit to their accounts kept in accordance with Article 98, with the exception of any articles or amounts withheld by the Detaining Power by virtue of its legislation in force. If the property of an internee is so withheld, the owner shall receive a detailed receipt. Family or identity documents in the possession of internees may not be taken away without a receipt being given. At no time shall internees be left without identity documents. If they have none, they shall be issued with special documents drawn up by the detaining authorities, which will serve as their identity papers until the end of their internment. Internees may keep on their persons a certain amount of money, in cash or in the shape of purchase coupons, to enable them to make purchases. All internees shall receive regular allowances, sufficient to enable them to purchase goods and articles, such as tobacco, toilet requisites, etc. Such allowances may take the form of credits or purchase coupons. Furthermore, internees may receive allowances from the Power to which they owe allegiance, the Protecting Powers, the organizations which may assist them, or their families, as well as the income on their property in accordance with the law of the Detaining Power. The amount of allowances granted by the Power to which they o~e allegiance shall be the same for each category of internees (infirm, sick, pregnant women, etc.) but may not be allocated by that Power or distributed by the Detaining Power on the basis of discriminations between internees which are prohibited by Article 27 of the present Convention. The Detaining Power shall open a regular account for every internee, to which shall be credited the allowances named in the present Article, the wages earned and the remittances received, together with such sums taken from him as may be available under the legislation in force in the territory in which he is interned. Internees shall be granted all facilities consistent with the legislation in force in such territory to make remittances to their families and to other dependants. They may draw from their accounts the amounts necessary for their personal expenses, within the limits fixed by the Detaining Power. They shall at all times be afforded reasonable facilities for consulting and obtaining copies of their accounts. A statement of accounts shall be furnished to the Protecting Power, on request, and shall accompany the internee in case of transfer. Chapter VII. Administration and Discipline Every place of internment shall be put under the authority of a responsible officer, chosen from the regular military forces or the regular civil administration of the Detaining Power. The officer in charge of the place of internment must have in his possession a copy of the present Convention in the official language, or one of the official languages, of his country and shall be responsible for its application. The staff in control of internees shall be instructed in the provisions of the present Convention and of the administrative measures adopted to ensure its application. The text of the present Convention and the texts of special agreements concluded under the said Convention shall be posted inside the place of internment, in a language which the internees understand, or shall be in the possession of the Internee Committee. Regulations, orders, notices and publications of every kind shall be communicated to the internees and posted inside the places of internment, in a language which they understand. Every order and command addressed to internees individually must, likewise, be given in a language which they understand. The disciplinary regime in places of internment shall be consistent with humanitarian principles, and shall in no circumstances include regulations imposing on internees any physical exertion dangerous to their health or involving physical or moral victimization. Identification by tattooing or imprinting signs or markings on the body, is prohibited. In particular, prolonged standing and roll-calls, punishment drill, military drill and manoeuvres, or the reduction of food rations, are prohibited. Internees shall have the right to present to the authorities in whose power they are, any petition with regard to the conditions of internment to which they are subjected. They shall also have the right to apply without restriction through the Internee Committee or, if they consider it necessary, direct to the representatives of the Protecting Power, in order to indicate to them any points on which they may have complaints to make with regard to the conditions of internment. Such petitions and complaints shall be transmitted forthwith and without alteration, and even if the latter are recognized to be unfounded, they may not occasion any punishment. Periodic reports on the situation in places of internment and as to the needs of the internees may be sent by the Internee Committees to the representatives of the Protecting Powers. In every place of internment, the internees shall freely elect by secret ballot every six months, the members of a Committee empowered to represent them before the Detaining and the Protecting Powers, the International Committee of the Red Cross and any other organization which may assist them. The members of the Committee shall be eligible for re-election. Internees so elected shall enter upon their duties after their election has been approved by the detaining authorities. The reasons for any refusals or dismissals shall be communicated to the Protecting Powers concerned. The Internee Committees shall further the physical, spiritual and intellectual well-being of the internees. In case the internees decide, in particular, to organize a system of mutual assistance amongst themselves, this organization would be within the competence of the Committees in addition to the special duties entrusted to them under other provisions of the present Convention. Members of Internee Committees shall not be required to perform any other work, if the accomplishment of their duties is rendered more difficult thereby. Members of Internee Committees may appoint from amongst the internees such assistants as they may require. All material facilities shall be granted to them, particularly a certain freedom of movement necessary for the accomplishment of their duties (visits to labour detachments, receipt of supplies, etc.). All facilities shall likewise be accorded to members of Internee Committees for communication by post and telegraph with the detaining authorities, the Protecting Powers, the International Committee of the Red Cross and their delegates, and with the organizations which give assistance to internees. Committee members in labour detachments shall enjoy similar facilities for communication with their Internee Committee in the principal place of internment. Such communications shall not be limited, nor considered as forming a part of the quota mentioned in Article 107. Members of Internee Committees who are transferred shall be allowed a reasonable time to acquaint their successors with current affairs. Chapter VIII. Relations with the Exterior Immediately upon interning protected persons, the Detaining Powers shall inform them, the Power to which they owe allegiance and their Protecting Power of the measures taken for executing the provisions of the present Chapter. The Detaining Powers shall likewise inform the Parties concerned of any subsequent modifications of such measures. As soon as he is interned, or at the latest not more than one week after his arrival in a place of internment, and likewise in cases of sickness or transfer to another place of internment or to a hospital, every internee shall be enabled to send direct to his family, on the one hand, and to the Central Agency provided for by Article 140, on the other, an internment card similar, if possible, to the model annexed to the present Convention, informing his relatives of his detention, address and state of health. The said cards shall be forwarded as rapidly as possible and may not be delayed in any way. Internees shall be allowed to send and receive letters and cards. If the Detaining Power deems it necessary to limit the number of letters and cards sent by each internee, the said number shall not be less than two letters and four cards monthly; these shall be drawn up so as to conform as closely as possible to the models annexed to the present Convention. If limitations must be placed on the correspondence addressed to internees, they may be ordered only by the Power to which such internees owe allegiance, possibly at the request of the Detaining Power. Such letters and cards must be conveyed with reasonable despatch; they may not be delayed or retained for disciplinary reasons. Internees who have been a long time without news, or who find it impossible to receive news from their relatives, or to give them news by the ordinary postal route, as well as those who are at a considerable distance from their homes, shall be allowed to send telegrams, the charges being paid by them in the currency at their disposal. They shall likewise benefit by this provision in cases which are recognized to be urgent. As a rule, internees' mail shall be written in their own language. The Parties to the conflict may authorize correspondence in other languages. Internees shall be allowed to receive, by post or by any other means, individual parcels or collective shipments containing in particular foodstuffs, clothing, medical supplies, as well as books and objects of a devotional, educational or recreational character which may meet their needs. Such shipments shall in no way free the Detaining Power from the obligations imposed upon it by virtue of the present Convention. Should military necessity require the quantity of such shipments to be limited, due notice thereof shall be given to the Protecting Power and to the International Committee of the Red Cross, or to any other organization giving assistance to the internees and responsible for the forwarding of such shipments. The conditions for the sending of individual parcels and collective shipments shall, if necessary, be the subject of special agreements between the Powers concerned, which may in no case delay the receipt by the internees of relief supplies. Parcels of clothing and foodstuffs may not include books. Medical relief supplies shall, as a rule, be sent in collective parcels. In the absence of special agreements between Parties to the conflict regarding the conditions for the receipt and distribution of collective relief shipments, the regulations concerning collective relief which are annexed to the present Convention shall be applied. The special agreements provided for above shall in no case restrict the right of Internee Committees to take possession of collective relief shipments intended for internees, to undertake their distribution and to dispose of them in the interests of the recipients. Nor shall such agreements restrict the right of representatives of the Protecting Powers, the International Committee of the Red Cross, or any other organization giving assistance to internees and responsible for the forwarding of collective shipments, to supervise their distribution to the recipients. An relief shipments for internees shall be exempt from import, customs and other dues. All matter sent by mail, including relief parcels sent by parcel post and remittances of money, addressed from other countries to internees or despatched by them through the post office, either direct or through the Information Bureaux provided for in Article 136 and the Central Information Agency provided for in Article 140, shall be exempt from all postal dues both in the countries of origin and destination and in intermediate countries. To this end, in particular, the exemption provided by the Universal Postal Convention of 1947 and by the agreements of the Universal Postal Union in favour of civilians of enemy nationality detained in camps or civilian prisons, shall be extended to the other interned persons protected by the present Convention. The countries not signatory to the above-mentioned agreements shall be bound to grant freedom from charges in the same circumstances. The cost of transporting relief shipments which are intended for internees and which, by reason of their weight or any other cause, cannot be sent through the post office, shall be borne by the Detaining Power in all the territories under its control. Other Powers which are Parties to the present Convention shall bear the cost of transport in their respective territories. Costs connected with the transport of such shipments, which are not covered by the above paragraphs, shall be charged to the senders. The High Contracting Parties shall endeavour to reduce, so far as possible, the charges for telegrams sent by internees, or addressed to them. Should military operations prevent the Powers concerned from fulfilling their obligation to ensure the conveyance of the mail and relief shipments provided for in Articles 106, 107, 108 and 113, the Protecting Powers concerned, the International Committee of the Red Cross or any other organization duly approved by the Parties to the conflict may undertake the conveyance of such shipments by suitable means (rail, motor vehicles, vessels or aircraft, etc.). For this purpose, the High Contracting Parties shall endeavour to supply them with such transport, and to allow its circulation, especially by granting the necessary safe-conducts. Such transport may also be used to convey: (a) correspondence, lists and reports exchanged between the Central Information Agency referred to in Article 140 and the National Bureaux referred to in Article 136; (b) correspondence and reports relating to internees which the Protecting Powers, the International Committee of the Red Cross or any other organization assisting the internees exchange either with their own delegates or with the Parties to the conflict. These provisions in no way detract from the right of any Party to the conflict to arrange other means of transport if it should so prefer, nor preclude the granting of safe-conducts, under mutually agreed conditions, to such means of transport. The costs occasioned by the use of such means of transport shall be borne, in proportion to the importance of the shipments, by the Parties to the conflict whose nationals are benefited thereby. The censoring of correspondence addressed to internees or despatched by them shall be done as quickly as possible. The examination of consignments intended for internees shall not be carried out under conditions that will expose the goods contained in them to deterioration. It shall be done in the presence of the addressee, or of a fellow-internee duly delegated by him. The delivery to internees of individual or collective consignments shall not be delayed under the pretext of difficulties of censorship. Any prohibition of correspondence ordered by the Parties to the conflict either for military or political reasons, shall be only temporary and its duration shall be as short as possible. The Detaining Powers shall provide all reasonable execution facilities for the transmission, through the Protecting Power or the Central Agency provided for in Article 140, or as otherwise required, of wills, powers of attorney, letters of authority, or any other documents intended for internees or despatched by them. In all cases the Detaining Powers shall facilitate the execution and authentication in due legal form of such documents on behalf of internees, in particular by allowing them to consult a lawyer. The Detaining Power shall afford internees all facilities to enable them to manage their property, provided this is not incompatible with the conditions of internment and the law which is applicable. For this purpose, the said Power may give them permission to leave the place of internment in urgent cases and if circumstances allow. In all cases where an internee is a party to proceedings in any court, the Detaining Power shall, if he so requests, cause the court to be informed of his detention and shall, within legal limits, ensure that all necessary steps are taken to prevent him from being in any way prejudiced, by reason of his internment, as regards the preparation and conduct of his case or as regards the execution of any judgment of the court. Every internee shall be allowed to receive visitors, especially near relatives, at regular intervals and as frequently as possible. As far as is possible, internees shall be permitted to visit their homes in urgent cases, particularly in cases of death or serious illness of relatives. Chapter IX. Penal and Disciplinary Sanctions Subject to the provisions of the present Chapter, the laws in force in the territory in which they are detained will continue to apply to internees who commit offences during internment. If general laws, regulations or orders declare acts committed by internees to be punishable, whereas the same acts are not punishable when committed by persons who are not internees, such acts shall entail disciplinary punishments only. No internee may be punished more than once for the same act, or on the same count. The courts or authorities shall in passing sentence take as far as possible into account the fact that the defendant is not a national of the Detaining Power. They shall be free to reduce the penalty prescribed for the offence with which the internee is charged and shall not be obliged, to this end, to apply the minimum sentence prescribed. Imprisonment in premises without daylight, and, in general, all forms of cruelty without exception are forbidden. Internees who have served disciplinary or judicial sentences shall not be treated differently from other internees. The duration of preventive detention undergone by an internee shall be deducted from any disciplinary or judicial penalty involving confinement to which he may be sentenced. Internee Committees shall be informed of all judicial proceedings instituted against internees whom they represent, and of their result. The disciplinary punishments applicable to internees shall be the following: (1) a fine which shall not exceed 50 per cent of the wages which the internee would otherwise receive under the provisions of Article 95 during a period of not more than thirty days. (2) discontinuance of privileges granted over and above the treatment provided for by the present Convention (3) fatigue duties, not exceeding two hours daily, in connection with the maintenance of the place of internment. (4) confinement. In no case shall disciplinary penalties be inhuman, brutal or dangerous for the health of internees. Account shall be taken of the internee's age, sex and state of health. The duration of any single punishment shall in no case exceed a maximum of thirty consecutive days, even if the internee is answerable for several breaches of discipline when his case is dealt with, whether such breaches are connected or not. Internees who are recaptured after having escaped or when attempting to escape, shall be liable only to disciplinary punishment in respect of this act, even if it is a repeated offence. Art. 118, paragraph 3, notwithstanding, internees punished as a result of escape or attempt to escape, may be subjected to special surveillance, on condition that such surveillance does not affect the state of their health, that it is exercised in a place of internment and that it does not entail the abolition of any of the safeguards granted by the present Convention. Internees who aid and abet an escape or attempt to escape, shall be liable on this count to disciplinary punishment only. Escape, or attempt to escape, even if it is a repeated offence, shall not be deemed an aggravating circumstance in cases where an internee is prosecuted for offences committed during his escape. The Parties to the conflict shall ensure that the competent authorities exercise leniency in deciding whether punishment inflicted for an offence shall be of a disciplinary or judicial nature, especially in respect of acts committed in connection with an escape, whether successful or not. Acts which constitute offences against discipline shall be investigated immediately. This rule shall be applied, in particular, in cases of escape or attempt to escape. Recaptured internees shall be handed over to the competent authorities as soon as possible. In cases of offences against discipline, confinement awaiting trial shall be reduced to an absolute minimum for all internees, and shall not exceed fourteen days. Its duration shall in any case be deducted from any sentence of confinement. The provisions of Articles 124 and 125 shall apply to internees who are in confinement awaiting trial for offences against discipline. Without prejudice to the competence of courts and higher authorities, disciplinary punishment may be ordered only by the commandant of the place of internment, or by a responsible officer or official who replaces him, or to whom he has delegated his disciplinary powers. Before any disciplinary punishment is awarded, the accused internee shall be given precise information regarding the offences of which he is accused, and given an opportunity of explaining his conduct and of defending himself. He shall be permitted, in particular, to call witnesses and to have recourse, if necessary, to the services of a qualified interpreter. The decision shall be announced in the presence of the accused and of a member of the Internee Committee. The period elapsing between the time of award of a disciplinary punishment and its execution shall not exceed one month. When an internee is awarded a further disciplinary punishment, a period of at least three days shall elapse between the execution of any two of the punishments, if the duration of one of these is ten days or more. A record of disciplinary punishments shall be maintained by the commandant of the place of internment and shall be open to inspection by representatives of the Protecting Power. Internees shall not in any case be transferred to penitentiary establishments (prisons, penitentiaries, convict prisons, etc.) to undergo disciplinary punishment therein. The premises in which disciplinary punishments are undergone shall conform to sanitary requirements: they shall in particular be provided with adequate bedding. Internees undergoing punishment shall be enabled to keep themselves in a state of cleanliness. Women internees undergoing disciplinary punishment shall be confined in separate quarters from male internees and shall be under the immediate supervision of women. Internees awarded disciplinary punishment shall be allowed to exercise and to stay in the open air at least two hours daily. They shall be allowed, if they so request, to be present at the daily medical inspections. They shall receive the attention which their state of health requires and, if necessary, shall be removed to the infirmary of the place of internment or to a hospital. They shall have permission to read and write, likewise to send and receive letters. Parcels and remittances of money, however, may be withheld from them until the completion of their punishment; such consignments shall meanwhile be entrusted to the Internee Committee, who will hand over to the infirmary the perishable goods contained in the parcels. No internee given a disciplinary punishment may be deprived of the benefit of the provisions of Articles 107 and 143 of the present Convention. The provisions of Articles 71 to 76 inclusive shall apply, by analogy, to proceedings against internees who are in the national territory of the Detaining Power. Chapter X. Transfers of Internees The transfer of internees shall always be effected humanely. As a general rule, it shall be carried out by rail or other means of transport, and under conditions at least equal to those obtaining for the forces of the Detaining Power in their changes of station. If, as an exceptional measure, such removals have to be effected on foot, they may not take place unless the internees are in a fit state of health, and may not in any case expose them to excessive fatigue. The Detaining Power shall supply internees during transfer with drinking water and food sufficient in quantity, quality and variety to maintain them in good health, and also with the necessary clothing, adequate shelter and the necessary medical attention. The Detaining Power shall take all suitable precautions to ensure their safety during transfer, and shall establish before their departure a complete list of all internees transferred. Sick, wounded or infirm internees and maternity cases shall not be transferred if the journey would be seriously detrimental to them, unless their safety imperatively so demands. If the combat zone draws close to a place of internment, the internees in the said place shall not be transferred unless their removal can be carried out in adequate conditions of safety, or unless they are exposed to greater risks by remaining on the spot than by being transferred. When making decisions regarding the transfer of internees, the Detaining Power shall take their interests into account and, in particular, shall not do anything to increase the difficulties of repatriating them or returning them to their own homes. In the event of transfer, internees shall be officially advised of their departure and of their new postal address. Such notification shall be given in time for them to pack their luggage and inform their next of kin. They shall be allowed to take with them their personal effects, and the correspondence and parcels which have arrived for them. The weight of such baggage may be limited if the conditions of transfer so require, but in no case to less than twenty-five kilograms per internee. Mail and parcels addressed to their former place of internment shall be forwarded to them without delay. The commandant of the place of internment shall take, in agreement with the Internee Committee, any measures needed to ensure the transport of the internees' community property and of the luggage the internees are unable to take with them in consequence of restrictions imposed by virtue of the second paragraph. Chapter XI. Deaths The wills of internees shall be received for safe-keeping by the responsible authorities; and if the event of the death of an internee his will shall be transmitted without delay to a person whom he has previously designated. Deaths of internees shall be certified in every case by a doctor, and a death certificate shall be made out, showing the causes of death and the conditions under which it occurred. An official record of the death, duly registered, shall be drawn up in accordance with the procedure relating thereto in force in the territory where the place of internment is situated, and a duly certified copy of such record shall be transmitted without delay to the Protecting Power as well as to the Central Agency referred to in Article 140. The detaining authorities shall ensure that internees who die while interned are honourably buried, if possible according to the rites of the religion to which they belonged and that their graves are respected, properly maintained, and marked in such a way that they can always be recognized. Deceased internees shall be buried in individual graves unless unavoidable circumstances require the use of collective graves. Bodies may be cremated only for imperative reasons of hygiene, on account of the religion of the deceased or in accordance with his expressed wish to this effect. In case of cremation, the fact shall be stated and the reasons given in the death certificate of the deceased. The ashes shall be retained for safe-keeping by the detaining authorities and shall be transferred as soon as possible to the next of kin on their request. As soon as circumstances permit, and not later than the close of hostilities, the Detaining Power shall forward lists of graves of deceased internees to the Powers on whom deceased internees depended, through the Information Bureaux provided for in Article 136. Such lists shall include all particulars necessary for the identification of the deceased internees, as well as the exact location of their graves. Every death or serious injury of an internee, caused or suspected to have been caused by a sentry, another internee or any other person, as well as any death the cause of which is unknown, shall be immediately followed by an official enquiry by the Detaining Power. A communication on this subject shall be sent immediately to the Protecting Power. The evidence of any witnesses shall be taken, and a report including such evidence shall be prepared and forwarded to the said Protecting Power. If the enquiry indicates the guilt of one or more persons, the Detaining Power shall take all necessary steps to ensure the prosecution of the person or persons responsible. Chapter XIII. Release, Repatriation and Accommodation in Neutral Countries Each interned person shall be released by the Detaining Power as soon as the reasons which necessitated his internment no longer exist. The Parties to the conflict shall, moreover, endeavour during the course of hostilities, to conclude agreements for the release, the repatriation, the return to places of residence or the accommodation in a neutral country of certain classes of internees, in particular children, pregnant women and mothers with infants and young children, wounded and sick, and internees who have been detained for a long time. Internment shall cease as soon as possible after the close of hostilities. Internees in the territory of a Party to the conflict against whom penal proceedings are pending for offences not exclusively subject to disciplinary penalties, may be detained until the close of such proceedings and, if circumstances require, until the completion of the penalty. The same shall apply to internees who have been previously sentenced to a punishment depriving them of liberty. By agreement between the Detaining Power and the Powers concerned, committees may be set up after the close of hostilities, or of the occupation of territories, to search for dispersed internees. The High Contracting Parties shall endeavour, upon the close of hostilities or occupation, to ensure the return of all internees to their last place of residence, or to facilitate their repatriation. The Detaining Power shall bear the expense of returning released internees to the places where they were residing when interned, or, if it took them into custody while they were in transit or on the high seas, the cost of completing their journey or of their return to their point of departure. Where a Detaining Power refuses permission to reside in its territory to a released internee who previously had his permanent domicile therein, such Detaining Power shall pay the cost of the said internee's repatriation. If, however, the internee elects to return to his country on his own responsibility or in obedience to the Government of the Power to which he owes allegiance, the Detaining Power need not pay the expenses of his journey beyond the point of his departure from its territory. The Detaining Power need not pay the cost of repatriation of an internee who was interned at his own request. If internees are transferred in accordance with Article 45, the transferring and receiving Powers shall agree on the portion of the above costs to be borne by each. The foregoing shall not prejudice such special agreements as may be concluded between Parties to the conflict concerning the exchange and repatriation of their nationals in enemy hands. Section V. Information Bureaux and Central Agency Upon the outbreak of a conflict and in all cases of occupation, each of the Parties to the conflict shall establish an official Information Bureau responsible for receiving and transmitting information in respect of the protected persons who are in its power. Each of the Parties to the conflict shall, within the shortest possible period, give its Bureau information of any measure taken by it concerning any protected persons who are kept in custody for more than two weeks, who are subjected to assigned residence or who are interned. It shall, furthermore, require its various departments concerned with such matters to provide the aforesaid Bureau promptly with information concerning all changes pertaining to these protected persons, as, for example, transfers, releases, repatriations, escapes, admittances to hospitals, births and deaths. Each national Bureau shall immediately forward information concerning protected persons by the most rapid means to the Powers in whose territory they resided, through the intermediary of the Protecting Powers and likewise through the Central Agency provided for in Article 140. The Bureaux shall also reply to all enquiries which may be received regarding protected persons. Information Bureaux shall transmit information concerning a protected person unless its transmission might be detrimental to the person concerned or to his or her relatives. Even in such a case, the information may not be withheld from the Central Agency which, upon being notified of the circumstances, will take the necessary precautions indicated in Article 140. All communications in writing made by any Bureau shall be authenticated by a signature or a seal. The information received by the national Bureau and transmitted by it shall be of such a character as to make it possible to identify the protected person exactly and to advise his next of kin quickly. The information in respect of each person shall include at least his surname, first names, place and date of birth, nationality last residence and distinguishing characteristics, the first name of the father and the maiden name of the mother, the date, place and nature of the action taken with regard to the individual, the address at which correspondence may be sent to him and the name and address of the person to be informed. Likewise, information regarding the state of health of internees who are seriously ill or seriously wounded shall be supplied regularly and if possible every week. Each national Information Bureau shall, furthermore, be responsible for collecting all personal valuables left by protected persons mentioned in Article 136, in particular those who have been repatriated or released, or who have escaped or died; it shall forward the said valuables to those concerned, either direct, or, if necessary, through the Central Agency. Such articles shall be sent by the Bureau in sealed packets which shall be accompanied by statements giving clear and full identity particulars of the person to whom the articles belonged, and by a complete list of the contents of the parcel. Detailed records shall be maintained of the receipt and despatch of all such valuables. A Central Information Agency for protected persons, in particular for internees, shall be created in a neutral country. The International Committee of the Red Cross shall, if it deems necessary, propose to the Powers concerned the organization of such an Agency, which may be the same as that provided for in Article 123 of the Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War of 12 August 1949. The function of the Agency shall be to collect all information of the type set forth in Article 136 which it may obtain through official or private channels and to transmit it as rapidly as possible to the countries of origin or of residence of the persons concerned, except in cases where such transmissions might be detrimental to the persons whom the said information concerns, or to their relatives. It shall receive from the Parties to the conflict all reasonable facilities for effecting such transmissions. The High Contracting Parties, and in particular those whose nationals benefit by the services of the Central Agency, are requested to give the said Agency the financial aid it may require. The foregoing provisions shall in no way be interpreted as restricting the humanitarian activities of the International Committee of the Red Cross and of the relief Societies described in Article 142. The national Information Bureaux and the Central Information Agency shall enjoy free postage for all mail, likewise the exemptions provided for in Article 110, and further, so far as possible, exemption from telegraphic charges or, at least, greatly reduced rates. Part IV. Execution of the Convention Section I. General Provisions Subject to the measures which the Detaining Powers may consider essential to ensure their security or to meet any other reasonable need, the representatives of religious organizations, relief societies, or any other organizations assisting the protected persons, shall receive from these Powers, for themselves or their duly accredited agents, all facilities for visiting the protected persons, for distributing relief supplies and material from any source, intended for educational, recreational or religious purposes, or for assisting them in organizing their leisure time within the places of internment. Such societies or organizations may be constituted in the territory of the Detaining Power, or in any other country, or they may have an international character. The Detaining Power may limit the number of societies and organizations whose delegates are allowed to carry out their activities in its territory and under its supervision, on condition, however, that such limitation shall not hinder the supply of effective and adequate relief to all protected persons. The special position of the International Committee of the Red Cross in this field shall be recognized and respected at all times. Representatives or delegates of the Protecting Powers shall have permission to go to all places where protected persons are, particularly to places of internment, detention and work. They shall have access to all premises occupied by protected persons and shall be able to interview the latter without witnesses, personally or through an interpreter. Such visits may not be prohibited except for reasons of imperative military necessity, and then only as an exceptional and temporary measure. Their duration and frequency shall not be restricted. Such representatives and delegates shall have full liberty to select the places they wish to visit. The Detaining or Occupying Power, the Protecting Power and when occasion arises the Power of origin of the persons to be visited, may agree that compatriots of the internees shall be permitted to participate in the visits. The delegates of the International Committee of the Red Cross shall also enjoy the above prerogatives. The appointment of such delegates shall be submitted to the approval of the Power governing the territories where they will carry out their duties. The High Contracting Parties undertake, in time of peace as in time of war, to disseminate the text of the present Convention as widely as possible in their respective countries, and, in particular, to include the study thereof in their programmes of military and, if possible, civil instruction, so that the principles thereof may become known to the entire population. Any civilian, military, police or other authorities, who in time of war assume responsibilities in respect of protected persons, must possess the text of the Convention and be specially instructed as to its provisions. The High Contracting Parties shall communicate to one another through the Swiss Federal Council and, during hostilities, through the Protecting Powers, the official translations of the present Convention, as well as the laws and regulations which they may adopt to ensure the application thereof. The High Contracting Parties undertake to enact any legislation necessary to provide effective penal sanctions for persons committing, or ordering to be committed, any of the grave breaches of the present Convention defined in the following Article. Each High Contracting Party shall be under the obligation to search for persons alleged to have committed, or to have ordered to be committed, such grave breaches, and shall bring such persons, regardless of their nationality, before its own courts. It may also, if it prefers, and in accordance with the provisions of its own legislation, hand such persons over for trial to another High Contracting Party concerned, provided such High Contracting Party has made out a prima facie case. Each High Contracting Party shall take measures necessary for the suppression of all acts contrary to the provisions of the present Convention other than the grave breaches defined in the following Article. In all circumstances, the accused persons shall benefit by safeguards of proper trial and defence, which shall not be less favourable than those provided by Article 105 and those following of the Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War of 12 August 1949. Grave breaches to which the preceding Article relates shall be those involving any of the following acts, if committed against persons or property protected by the present Convention: wilful killing, torture or inhuman treatment, including biological experiments, wilfully causing great suffering or serious injury to body or health, unlawful deportation or transfer or unlawful confinement of a protected person, compelling a protected person to serve in the forces of a hostile Power, or wilfully depriving a protected person of the rights of fair and regular trial prescribed in the present Convention, taking of hostages and extensive destruction and appropriation of property, not justified by military necessity and carried out unlawfully and wantonly. No High Contracting Party shall be allowed to absolve itself or any other High Contracting Party of any liability incurred by itself or by another High Contracting Party in respect of breaches referred to in the preceding Article. At the request of a Party to the conflict, an enquiry shall be instituted, in a manner to be decided between the interested Parties, concerning any alleged violation of the Convention. If agreement has not been reached concerning the procedure for the enquiry, the Parties should agree on the choice of an umpire who will decide upon the procedure to be followed. Once the violation has been established, the Parties to the conflict shall put an end to it and shall repress it with the least possible delay. Section II. Final Provisions The present Convention is established in English and in French. Both texts are equally authentic. The Swiss Federal Council shall arrange for official translations of the Convention to be made in the Russian and Spanish languages. The present Convention, which bears the date of this day, is open to signature until 12 February 1950, in the name of the Powers represented at the Conference which opened at Geneva on 21 April 1949. The present Convention shall be ratified as soon as possible and the ratifications shall be deposited at Berne. A record shall be drawn up of the deposit of each instrument of ratification and certified copies of this record shall be transmitted by the Swiss Federal Council to all the Powers in whose name the Convention has been signed, or whose accession has been notified. The present Convention shall come into force six months after not less than two instruments of ratification have been deposited. Thereafter, it shall come into force for each High Contracting Party six months after the deposit of the instrument of ratification. In the relations between the Powers who are bound by the Hague Conventions respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, whether that of 29 July 1899, or that of 18 October 1907, and who are parties to the present Convention, this last Convention shall be supplementary to Sections II and III of the Regulations annexed to the above-mentioned Conventions of The Hague. From the date of its coming into force, it shall be open to any Power in whose name the present Convention has not been signed, to accede to this Convention. Accessions shall be notified in writing to the Swiss Federal Council, and shall take effect six months after the date on which they are received. The Swiss Federal Council shall communicate the accessions to all the Powers in whose name the Convention has been signed, or whose accession has been notified. The situations provided for in Articles 2 and 3 shall effective immediate effect to ratifications deposited and accessions notified by the Parties to the conflict before or after the beginning of hostilities or occupation. The Swiss Federal Council shall communicate by the quickest method any ratifications or accessions received from Parties to the conflict. Each of the High Contracting Parties shall be at liberty to denounce the present Convention. The denunciation shall be notified in writing to the Swiss Federal Council, which shall transmit it to the Governments of all the High Contracting Parties. The denunciation shall take effect one year after the notification thereof has been made to the Swiss Federal Council. However, a denunciation of which notification has been made at a time when the denouncing Power is involved in a conflict shall not take effect until peace has been concluded, and until after operations connected with the release, repatriation and re-establishment of the persons protected by the present Convention have been terminated. The denunciation shall have effect only in respect of the denouncing Power. It shall in no way impair the obligations which the Parties to the conflict shall remain bound to fulfil by virtue of the principles of the law of nations, as they result from the usages established among civilized peoples, from the laws of humanity and the dictates of the public conscience. The Swiss Federal Council shall register the present Convention with the Secretariat of the United Nations. The Swiss Federal Council shall also inform the Secretariat of the United Nations of all ratifications, accessions and denunciations received by it with respect to the present Convention. In witness whereof the undersigned, having deposited their respective full powers, have signed the present Convention. Done at Geneva this twelfth day of August 1949, in the English and French languages. The original shall be deposited in the Archives of the Swiss Confederation. The Swiss Federal Council shall transmit certified copies thereof to each of the signatory and acceding States. Hospital and safety zones shall be strictly reserved for the persons mentioned in Article 23 of the Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field of 12 August 1949, and in Article 14 of the Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War of 12 August 1949, and for the personnel entrusted with the organization and administration of these zones and localities, and with the care of the persons therein assembled. Nevertheless, persons whose permanent residence is within such zones shall have the right to stay there. No persons residing, in whatever capacity, in a hospital and safety zone shall perform any work, either within or without the zone, directly connected with military operations or the production of war material. The Power establishing a hospital and safety zone shall take all necessary measures to prohibit access to all persons who have no right of residence or entry therein. Hospital and safety zones shall fulfil the following conditions: (a) they shall comprise only a small part of the territory governed by the Power which has established them (b) they shall be thinly populated in relation to the possibilities of accommodation (c) they shall be far removed and free from all military objectives, or large industrial or administrative establishments (d) they shall not be situated in areas which, according to every probability, may become important for the conduct of the war. Hospital and safety zones shall be subject to the following obligations: (a) the lines of communication and means of transport which they possess shall not be used for the transport of military personnel or material, even in transit (b) they shall in no case be defended by military means. Hospital and safety zones shall be marked by means of oblique red bands on a white ground, placed on the buildings and outer precincts. Zones reserved exclusively for the wounded and sick may be marked by means of the Red Cross (Red Crescent, Red Lion and Sun) emblem on a white ground. They may be similarly marked at night by means of appropriate illumination. The Powers shall communicate to all the High Contracting Parties in peacetime or on the outbreak of hostilities, a list of the hospital and safety zones in the territories governed by them. They shall also give notice of any new zones set up during hostilities. As soon as the adverse party has received the above-mentioned notification, the zone shall be regularly established. If, however, the adverse party considers that the conditions of the present agreement have not been fulfilled, it may refuse to recognize the zone by giving immediate notice thereof to the Party responsible for the said zone, or may make its recognition of such zone dependent upon the institution of the control provided for in Article 8. Any Power having recognized one or several hospital and safety zones instituted by the adverse Party shall be entitled to demand control by one or more Special Commissions, for the purpose of ascertaining if the zones fulfil the conditions and obligations stipulated in the present agreement. For this purpose, members of the Special Commissions shall at all times have free access to the various zones and may even reside there permanently. They shall be given all facilities for their duties of inspection. Should the Special Commissions note any facts which they consider contrary to the stipulations of the present agreement, they shall at once draw the attention of the Power governing the said zone to these facts, and shall fix a time limit of five days within which the matter should be rectified. They shall duly notify the Power which has recognized the zone. If, when the time limit has expired, the Power governing the zone has not complied with the warning, the adverse Party may declare that it is no longer bound by the present agreement in respect of the said zone. Any Power setting up one or more hospital and safety zones, and the adverse Parties to whom their existence has been notified, shall nominate or have nominated by the Protecting Powers or by other neutral Powers, persons eligible to be members of the Special Commissions mentioned in Articles 8 and 9. In no circumstances may hospital and safety zones be the object of attack. They shall be protected and respected at all times by the Parties to the conflict. In the case of occupation of a territory, the hospital and safety zones therein shall continue to be respected and utilized as such. Their purpose may, however, be modified by the Occupying Power, on condition that all measures are taken to ensure the safety of the persons accommodated. The present agreement shall also apply to localities which the Powers may utilize for the same purposes as hospital and safety zones. Annex II. Draft Regulations concerning Collective Relief The Internee Committees shall be allowed to distribute collective relief shipments for which they are responsible to all internees who are dependent for administration on the said Committee's place of internment, including those internees who are in hospitals, or in prison or other penitentiary establishments. The distribution of collective relief shipments shall be effected in accordance with the instructions of the donors and with a plan drawn up by the Internee Committees. The issue of medical stores shall, however, be made for preference in agreement with the senior medical officers, and the latter may, in hospitals and infirmaries, waive the said instructions, if the needs of their patients so demand. Within the limits thus defined, the distribution shall always be carried out equitably. Members of Internee Committees shall be allowed to go to the railway stations or other points of arrival of relief supplies near their places of internment so as to enable them to verify the quantity as well as the quality of the goods received and to make out detailed reports thereon for the donors. Internee Committees shall be given the facilities necessary for verifying whether the distribution of collective relief in all subdivisions and annexes of their places of internment has been carried out in accordance with their instructions. Internee Committees shall be allowed to complete, and to cause to be completed by members of the Internee Committees in labour detachments or by the senior medical officers of infirmaries and hospitals, forms or questionnaires intended for the donors, relating to collective relief supplies (distribution, requirements, quantities, etc.). Such forms and questionnaires, duly completed, shall be forwarded to the donors without delay. In order to secure the regular distribution of collective relief supplies to the internees in their place of internment, and to meet any needs that may arise through the arrival of fresh parties of internees, the Internee Committees shall be allowed to create and maintain sufficient reserve stocks of collective relief. For this purpose, they shall have suitable warehouses at their disposal; each warehouse shall be provided with two locks, the Internee Committee holding the keys of one lock, and the commandant of the place of internment the keys of the other. The High Contracting Parties, and the Detaining Powers in particular, shall, so far as is in any way possible and subject to the regulations governing the food supply of the population, authorize purchases of goods to be made in their territories for the distribution of collective relief to the internees. They shall likewise facilitate the transfer of funds and other financial measures of a technical or administrative nature taken for the purpose of making such purchases. The foregoing provisions shall not constitute an obstacle to the right of internees to receive collective relief before their arrival in a place of internment or in the course of their transfer, nor to the possibility of representatives of the Protecting Power, or of the International Committee of the Red Cross or any other humanitarian organization giving assistance to internees and responsible for forwarding such supplies, ensuring the distribution thereof to the recipients by any other means they may deem suitable.

Our surgeons are among the most experienced in the world in treating an array of neurosurgical conditions. Read about our surgical team > A meningioma is a tumor of the protective linings of the brain and spinal cord. These linings are called meninges. Most meningiomas are benign, though some may be cancerous. Benign meningiomas are generally slow growing. They usually don't cause problems unless they are pushing on the brainstem and/or compressing structures such as optic and cranial nerves. Malignant (cancerous) meningiomas are faster growing, often cause neurological problems, and can cause swelling in the brain. Meningioma symptoms may include: Treatments for meningiomas vary, depending on the type and location. The neurosurgical team at UPMC may recommend a combination of surgical and non-surgical approaches for treating meningiomas: To diagnose a meningioma, your doctor will: Symptoms of meningioma are usually related to the area of the brain that is affected. Often the symptoms are caused by increased pressure within the skull. Symptoms may include: Your doctor will request imaging and diagnostic procedures such as CT and MRI scans, angiogram, and electroencephalogram (EEG). You will also be given a neurologic test to assess your motor skills. Often both benign and malignant meningiomas require some form of treatment. These could include surgery and/or stereotactic radiosurgery, depending upon the location of the tumor and symptoms. Our neurosurgical team may recommend a combination of surgical and non-surgical approaches to maximize the benefits of surgery while minimizing the risks. Malignant meningiomas are surgically removed whenever possible, while benign meningiomas are removed if they are large and/or causing neurologic problems. The type of procedure depends on the size and location of the tumor. At UPMC, we take a 360° approach to treatment when evaluating you. We look at your condition from every direction to find the path that is least disruptive to your brain, critical nerves, and ability to return to normal functioning. Several minimally invasive surgical options allow UPMC surgeons to access areas that previously were difficult or impossible to reach. Meningiomas of the skull base and upper spine may be approached directly using the Endoscopic Endonasal Approach (EEA). This state-of-the-art, minimally invasive approach allows surgeons to access the tumor through the natural corridor of the nose, without making an open incision. Surgeons then remove the meningioma through the nose and nasal cavities. EEA offers the benefits of no incisions to heal, no disfigurement, and a faster recovery time. Tumors located in the following areas can be treated with EEA: If you need complementary treatments, such as radiation, those therapies can begin soon after EEA surgery. Neuroendoport surgery offers a minimally invasive option for tumors within the ventricles (fluid spaces) or deep-seated tumors within the substance of the brain. A narrow tube or port allows surgeons to access these tumors through a tiny incision in the scalp, in contrast to traditional brain surgery. Gamma Knife radiosurgery is a painless procedure that uses hundreds of highly focused radiation beams to target tumors and lesions within the brain, with no surgical incision. Gamma Knife treatment may be used as a primary management option or after surgery for residual meningiomas. For small skull base meningiomas it may be the primary, minimally invasive option. For malignant meningiomas, in addition to surgery, both Gamma Knife radiosurgery and radiation therapy may be needed. As the nation's leading provider of Gamma Knife procedures, UPMC has treated more than 12,000 patients with tumors, vascular malformations, pain, and other functional problems. Chemotherapy is used only in the treatment of malignant meningiomas. Several medications are available and are generally used in conjunction with surgery and radiation therapy. » Read the EEA Olfactory Groove Meningioma case study. How can we help you? Schedule anappointment > Ask a question > Request our expertopinion > 1-877-986-9862(within the U.S.) When a Jain Guru with 1 million followers was losing his sight—and traditional surgery failed—his followers sought sight-saving endonasal brain surgery at UPMC in Pittsburgh. Read more > When Spain native Maria del Mar Minguez was diagnosed with a complex brain condition, her family and friends rallied to send her to the experts at UPMC. Affiliated with the University of Pittsburgh Schools of the Health Sciences Supplemental content provided by A.D.A.M. Health Solutions. All rights reserved. For help in finding a doctor or health service that suits your needs, call the UPMC Referral Service at 412-647-UPMC (8762) or 1-800-533-UPMC (8762). Select option 1. UPMC is an equal opportunity employer. UPMC policy prohibits discrimination or harassment on the basis of race, color, religion, ancestry, national origin, age, sex, genetics, sexual orientation, marital status, familial status, disability, veteran status, or any other legally protected group status. Further, UPMC will continue to support and promote equal employment opportunity, human dignity, and racial, ethnic, and cultural diversity. This policy applies to admissions, employment, and access to and treatment in UPMC programs and activities. This commitment is made by UPMC in accordance with federal, state, and/or local laws and regulations. Medical information made available on UPMC.com is not intended to be used as a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. You should not rely entirely on this information for your health care needs. Ask your own doctor or health care provider any specific medical questions that you have. Further, UPMC.com is not a tool to be used in the case of an emergency. If an emergency arises, you should seek appropriate emergency medical services. For UPMC Mercy Patients: As a Catholic hospital, UPMC Mercy abides by the Ethical and Religious Directives for Catholic Health Care Services, as determined by the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. As such, UPMC Mercy neither endorses nor provides medical practices and/or procedures that contradict the moral teachings of the Roman Catholic Church. Pittsburgh, PA, USA UPMC.com

Math & Science Program What is the Math & Science Program? The Upward Bound Math-Science program is designed to strengthen the math and science skills of high school students. The goal of the program is to help participating students recognize and develop their potential to excel in math and science and to encourage them to pursue postsecondary degrees in math and science. - Summer programs with intensive math and science training - Year-round counseling and advising - Exposure to university faculty members who do research in mathematics and the sciences - Computer training Each year USD's Upward Bound Program provides 40 rural South Dakota high school students an opportunity to experience college life through an intensive six-week summer program under the instruction and supervision of summer staff. This program is supplemental to the high school curriculum; it is not remedial. Three separate components - Summer, Academic Year and Bridge - expose students to math and science-based topics, courses of study and careers.

U.S. Geological Survey Previous Congressional Briefings Third in the 2011 series Global Threats from Emerging Wildlife Diseases and Invasive Species Decision makers across the United States and internationally are increasingly confronted with the vexing problems of invasive species and wildlife diseases. Minimizing economic and wildlife losses and the associated negative ecological and health impacts depends on having technical expertise, providing knowledgeable guidance, and timely intervention. Come hear how USGS and its partners are working to meet the challenges of conducting cutting edge scientific research and providing information and technical expertise to the public and scientific community regarding national and international wildlife health. Date: Friday, November 18, 2011 Time: 10:00 a.m. - 11:00 a.m. Rayburn House Office Building, Room 2325 Dr. Jonathan Sleeman Director, National Wildlife Health Center www.nwhc.usgs.gov Drs. William Karesh and Jonathan Epstein EcoHealth Alliance Wildlife Trade and Global Disease Emergence Dr. Brenda Moraska Lafrancois National Park Service Avian Botulism in the Distressed Great Lakes Download if needed: Powerpoint Viewer | Word Viewer National Wildlife Health Center Jonathan is currently the Director of the USGS National Wildlife Health Center whose mission is to provide national leadership to safeguard wildlife and ecosystem health. He graduated from the University of Cambridge, England with a Master's Degree in Zoology and his Veterinary Medical Degree. He is a recognized veterinary specialist in wildlife diseases and is a Diplomate of the American College of Zoological Medicine and the European College of Zoological Medicine. He has published widely in the field of wildlife medicine on topics as varied as disease threats to great apes, wildlife anesthesia, and wildlife disease surveillance, and is an adjunct Professor at the University of Wisconsin's School of Veterinary Medicine. Previous positions include Director of the Mountain Gorilla Veterinary Project, and wildlife veterinarian for the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries. Jonathan, along with colleagues at EcoHealth Alliance, has most recently begun working with a consortia of university and NGO partners under USAID's "Emerging Pandemic Threats" program, designed to establish an early warning system for zoonotic disease emergence by studying the diversity of pathogens in wildlife and assessing the risk of spillover into livestock and human populations in the most vulnerable countries around the world. He received his DVM and MPH from The Tufts Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine and Tufts School of Medicine's Graduate Programs in Public Health. Jonathan holds adjunct faculty positions at Columbia University's Mailman School of Public Health and the Dept. of Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Biology; Tufts Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine and Tufts School of Medicine; and Mount Sinai School of Medicine. His work has been published in several leading scientific journals including the CDC's Emerging Infectious Diseases journal, and Science. William is the Executive Vice President for Health and Policy for EcoHealth Alliance. He serves as the president of the World Animal Health Organization (OIE) Working Group on Wildlife Diseases and also chairs the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Wildlife Health Specialist Group. International programs under his direction have covered terrain from Argentina to Zambia, including efforts in the Congo Basin to reduce the impact of diseases such as Ebola and measles on humans and endangered species. William has also contributed to global surveillance systems for emerging diseases. He serves as the co-chair of the IUCN Veterinary Specialist Group, and is a member of the Advisory Council for the Wildlife Disease Association. In addition to having published over one hundred scientific papers, Dr. Karesh has written a book called Appointment at the Ends of the World: Memoirs of a Wildlife Veterinarian. Brenda Moraska Lafrancois Since 2002, Brenda has served as the aquatic ecologist for the National Park Service Midwest Region, working primarily in nine National Parks, Lakeshores, Riverways, and Monuments in the western Great Lakes area. Since 2010, she has served as the program lead or co-lead for three large-scale Great Lakes Restoration Initiative projects, addressing park needs related to benthic habitat mapping, nearshore water quality conditions, protection of vulnerable shoreline habitats, and effects of recent food web changes in Lake Michigan. Brenda has worked intensively with National Park Service staff, university partners, and scientists from several US Geological Survey Science Centers to coordinate a research program addressing nearshore ecological changes and type E botulism outbreaks at Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore in Michigan. Brenda holds Bachelor of Science degrees in Biology and Spanish from the University of Wisconsin at La Crosse, and a Ph.D. in Ecology from Colorado State University, where she studied the effects of atmospheric deposition on mountain lakes. For information on the Briefing on Capitol Hill, please call 703-648-4455.

WARSAW, Poland (AP) – Marek Edelman, the last surviving leader of the ill-fated 1943 Warsaw ghetto revolt against the Nazis, died Friday of old age. He was 90. Edelman also fought the Nazis in the Warsaw city Uprising in 1944. And for decades he fought communism in Poland. The uprising at the Warsaw ghetto was the first act of large-scale armed civilian resistance against the Germans in occupied Poland during World War II. The Nazis in November 1940 crammed some 460,000 Jews from the city and from across Poland in inhuman conditions in the ghetto. After a year, almost half the people there had died of disease and starvation. The resistance plans were implemented April 19, 1943, when the Nazis moved to liquidate the ghetto by killing or sending some remaining 60,000 residents to the death camps. But the well-trained German troops encountered unexpectedly fierce resistance from a few hundred young, poorly armed Jewish civilians, determined to die fighting rather than in gas chambers. The ghetto fighters inflicted heavy losses on the Germans, but eventually succumbed. With a small group of survivors, Edelman left through the sewers to the Aryan side of Warsaw, where he hid while helping to coordinate Jewish partisan groups in nearby forests. In August and September of 1944, Edelman fought in the Warsaw Uprising, another ill-fated revolt meant to free the capital from Germans ahead of the advancing Red Army.

Nearly 220 counties in a dozen drought-stricken states were added Wednesday to the U.S. government's list of natural disaster areas as the nation's agriculture chief unveiled new help for frustrated, cash-strapped farmers and ranchers grappling with extreme dryness and heat. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's addition of the 218 counties means that more than half of all U.S. counties - 1,584 in 32 states - have been designated primary disaster areas this growing season, the vast majority of them mired in a drought that's considered the worst in decades. Counties in Arkansas, Georgia, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Mississippi, Nebraska, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Tennessee and Wyoming were included in Wednesday's announcement. The USDA uses the weekly U.S. Drought Monitor to help decide which counties to deem disaster areas, which makes farmers and ranchers eligible for federal aid, including low-interest emergency loans. To help ease the burden on the nation's farms, Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack on Thursday opened up 3.8 million acres of conservation land for ranchers to use for haying and grazing. Under that conservation program, farmers have been paid to take land out of production to ward against erosion and create wildlife habitat. "The assistance announced today will help U.S. livestock producers dealing with climbing feed prices, critical shortages of hay and deteriorating pasturelands," Vilsack said. Vilsack also said crop insurers have agreed to provide farmers facing cash-flow issues a penalty-free, 30-day grace period on premiums in 2012. As of this week, nearly half of the nation's corn crop was rated poor to very poor, according to the USDA's National Agricultural Statistics Service. About 37 percent of the U.S. soybeans were lumped into that category, while nearly three-quarters of U.S. cattle acreage is in drought-affected areas, the survey showed. The potential financial fallout in the nation's midsection appears to be intensifying. The latest weekly Mid-America Business Conditions Index, released Wednesday, showed that the ongoing drought and global economic turmoil is hurting business in nine Midwest and Plains states, boosting worries about the prospect of another recession, according to the report. Creighton University economist Ernie Goss, who oversees the index, said the drought will hurt farm income while the strengthening dollar hinders exports, meaning two of the most important positive factors in the region's economy are being undermined. The survey covers Arkansas, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma and South Dakota. Thursday's expansion of federal relief was welcomed in rain-starved states like Illinois, where the USDA's addition of 66 counties leaves just four of the state's 102 counties - Cook, DuPage, Kane and Will, all in the Chicago area - without the natural disaster classification. The Illinois State Water Survey said the state has averaged just 12.6 inches from January to June 2012, the sixth-driest first half of a year on record. Compounding matters is that Illinois has seen above-normal temperatures each month, with the statewide average of 52.8 degrees over the first six months logged as the warmest on record. "While harvest has yet to begin, we already see that the drought has caused considerable crop damage," Illinois Gov. Pat Quinn said. In his state, 71 percent of the corn crop and 56 percent of soybean acreage is considered poor or very poor.

It’s a fact of life: Kids hit their heads. From toddlers just taking their first steps to teenagers getting in car accidents, the world is full of scenarios that can lead to head injuries. In the United States, there are approximately 600,000 emergency room visits every year for head injuries. These include minor problems such as scrapes and bumps to more serious injuries such as concussions or brain injuries. Fortunately, 99 percent of the time the injury is of the minor variety and causes no further concerns. The difficult issue for many parents is determining whether an injury is mild or whether it is more severe. Though there are no absolute answers, a large nationwide study conducted in 2009 offers guidelines to help differentiate mild injuries from more severe brain injuries. Because verbal-aged children can often tell a doctor how they are feeling, the guidelines have been split into two groups based on age. For children under 2 years old, worrisome symptoms would be loss of consciousness, falls from two feet or greater, altered behavior, and/or a large bump to the head located anywhere except the forehead. For those older than 2 years old, the guidelines include loss of consciousness, falls from a significant height, vomiting, change in behavior and severe headache. Other concerning symptoms include seizures or bleeding from the ears. If your child’s injury displays any of these characteristics, they may have a more serious problem and you should either see your doctor or take them to the emergency room for further evaluation. During the medical evaluation, a physician will likely ask you about any worrisome symptoms and examine your child to look for other concerning signs. If your child looks well and you agree that they are improving, it is possible the physician will discharge you home after a small period of observation. On the other hand, if the symptoms are not improving or have worsened, you may be asked to stay longer for observation or have other tests done. One test that may be considered is the computed tomography scan (CT) or “CAT scan.” This test is a type of X-ray that can look for fractures of the skull or bleeding in or around the brain. It is a quick, painless test that allows a physician to determine if any life-threatening injuries exist. Since it is such an easy test to do, many parents wonder why it is not ordered on every patient with even a mild bump to the head. The reason is radiation. New evidence suggests that the radiation from a CT scan can damage cellular DNA, so it is prudent to use CT scans only when indicated by the guidelines above or if there is other worry for brain injury. If there are no concerning findings on the CT scan, you will likely be discharged home. You will be asked to observe your child for the next 24 hours. Another diagnosis many have heard of is concussion. These are the types of injuries that are common in football and other high-impact sports. Essentially, it means that the brain was shaken up inside the skull and that the patient may have had some confusion or memory loss after the event. It does not mean there is bleeding in or around the brain and there is no test in the emergency room that confirms the diagnosis.

On Sept. 26, The Vancouver Sun reported that Canada ranks second only to Denmark as the world’s happiest country, and that Canadians are “satisfied or very satisfied” mainly because they enjoy relatively high levels of income and a publicly funded health care system. Before cheering, we should also heed The Sun’s frequent warnings that Canadians jeopardize their future by saving too little, and by assuming too much debt, and that there’s compelling evidence consuming more does not necessarily make humans happier. It’s past time to acknowledge that the individual and collective well-being of Homo sapiens —“happiness” if you wish — depends on economic, cultural, social and, yes, “spiritual” aspects hardwired to the health of the environment. Or to ecosystem services, to be more precise: the providing and filtering of water, regulating climate, protecting against floods, and so on. A recent report puts the total economic benefits accruing from these three ecosystem services to Lower Mainlanders at an impressive $5.4 billion annually, or $6,368 per household. But those figures don’t begin to capture the full value of our wild Pacific salmon. Maybe we don’t even need polls or experts to tell us that wild salmon have a diverse and immense value — or that things aren’t all that rosy with Fraser sockeye (or, for that matter, with the Pacific ecosystem itself). We know deep down that our future well-being is inextricably linked to the full suite of benefits that comes to us from healthy populations of wild salmon. Thanks to the Cohen Inquiry, we’ve gained a far better understanding of the plight of the still-revered Fraser sockeye. A veritable army of experts produced mountains of depressing evidence that the once magnificent sockeye resource has been, and still is being, victimized by thermal stress, habitat loss, pollution, over-fishing, native and introduced pathogens, short-sightedness, conflicted government mandates, and a host of other indignities. Those who study resource management will tell you the abuses heaped on sockeye are but one more example of a remarkably robust pattern of what they ominously call “resource management pathology.” In other words, our resource management policies and practices have harmed and are still harming the very resource they purportedly protect. It’s another Canadian example, British Columbia’s own Atlantic cod story. The steep, two-decade decline in Fraser River sockeye means not just that there are fewer fish to catch, but that the intricately linked web of economic, cultural, social and “spiritual” services normally delivered by healthy populations of Fraser sockeye has been severely ravaged. We shouldn’t need to be told that our overall well-being and happiness have been affected by the loss of services provided by salmon. So, can we turn the ship around — for both sockeye and our well-being? Answering this vital question hinges on the official findings of Justice Cohen — now promised by the end of October — and, more importantly, on how government responds to the $26 million inquiry it announced with fanfare almost three years ago. There’s certainly no shortage of positive actions the federal government could and should take. It could start by putting the needs of the public’s wild salmon resource ahead of the wishes of the salmon farmers by transitioning the industry to closed-containment systems and controlling pathogen threats. It could toughen habitat protection laws and encourage rather than smother unbiased science. But history, recent events and expert opinions suggest government response will be tepid. Government food inspection officials testifying at the Cohen Inquiry were more concerned about protecting trade than protecting wild sockeye. One government scientist bravely testified she felt threatened and muzzled. And even before receiving Cohen’s final report and recommendations, the federal government shamelessly gutted the federal fisheries and environmental assessment acts. Accordingly, the public has good reason to suspect its own federal government will undermine Canada’s long-term well-being by continuing to undervalue the nation’s ecosystems and the precious services they provide. The ultimate legacy of the Cohen Inquiry may yet be an officially sanctioned unmasking of a long and vigorous ideology that ultimately leads to yet more homegrown loss. Still, we should forgive those who endured the process and waded through the evidence (see Cohen Inquiry Highlights at www.watershed-watch.org), for clinging to the hope that Justice Cohen’s report may yet prompt positive change. Maybe the report will help people understand that human well-being is less about GDP than about sustaining renewable resources, and that extracting and exploiting resources as quickly as possible, and being otherwise heedless of the full value of the Earth’s ecosystem services are surefire ways to reduce our individual and collective well-being — no matter what defenders of the status quo claim. With its still-rich-though-now-fragile resources, and with enlightened resource management, Canada could still legitimately become the planet’s happiest country. Craig Orr is executive director and Pete Broomhall an editor and adviser to Watershed Watch Salmon Society, a participant in the Cohen Sockeye Inquiry.

Kenneth W. Chin (M.D., F.A.C.R.) gives expert video advice on: How should I prepare for a mammogram?; What does mammography equipment look like?; What can I expect when getting a mammogram? and more... What is 'mammography'? Mammography is an X-ray technique where women's breasts can be imaged. Usually the reason for the X-ray examination is to determine whether or not there's a cancer that might be developing. What is 'digital mammography'? Digital mammography is different to film mammography in that the x-ray information that is obtained is captured in a solid state device. This is then immediately available on a computer console. As opposed to film mammography, which requires development of that film, that sometimes can take five to ten minutes. Who should get mammograms? All women who are older than 40 should have a mammogram annually. Why would someone get a mammogram? A woman should get a mammogram as a screening examination on an annual basis after 40 years of age. However, if the woman has a higher risk for breast cancer because of a family history, or if you feel a breast lump, then you should contact your physician, who will then advise you with regard as to whether or not a mammogram is the appropriate examination. What does mammography equipment look like? Mammography equipment looks like a small x-ray machine with a paddle which is usually a clear plastic that can assist in compressing the breast tissue so that we can have a uniform image of the breasts. How does mammography work? A mammogram works on the basis of allowing us to look at differences in density of the tissue in the breast. If there are areas that are particularly dense, especially in a certain pattern, then we become more suspicious that a cancer might be present. We also look for calcium deposits because some calcium deposits can be more suspicious or worrisome than others. What can I expect when getting a mammogram? What you can expect when you are having a mammogram; is that the technologists will place you into the X-Ray machine and a device will be placed on your breast. This will press down on your breast in order to hold it still and in order to allow us to have a uniform thickness of your breast that we can image, without having to have areas that are too thick or too thin. Are there risks involved in getting a mammogram? There can occasionally be some risks involved in mammography. In particular, if you have a breast implant, please notify your technologist, because some implants are more susceptible to injury or rupture than others. However, the procedure is still a very safe one in patients with breast implants. What is a 'false positive' and 'false negative' mammogram? Mammography however is not a perfect test. You can have abnormalities that are seen on mammograms that don't turn out to be cancers or anything to be concerned about. Those are called false positive examinations. On the other hand, you can also have examinations that might not detect a cancer that you might have in your breast. So it's not a perfect examination. What are the benefits of mammography? The benefits of mammography include the potential for early detection of breast cancers. It can be done on a regular basis with very little risk. How accurate is mammography in detecting an abnormality in the breast? In patients with very fatty breasts, mammography can be accurate up to 95 percent of instances. In patients with very, very dense breasts, the accuracy drops to as low as 45 percent.

January and February 2013 brought some unusual ice behavior in the Weddell Sea, east of the Antarctic Peninsula, as sea ice pushed northward toward warmer latitudes. On February 5, 2013, the National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) reported that the ice edge was roughly 200 to 300 kilometers (100 to 200 miles) north of what is normal for this time of year. Ice lingered north of the Weddell Sea on February 22, 2013, when the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Terra satellite acquired this natural-color image. This image has been rotated so that north is toward the upper right. The coastline of the Antarctic Peninsula appears as a gray line. Just off the thin peninsula is the Larsen C ice shelf; beyond that there is sea ice. Walt Meier, a scientist at NSIDC, noted both the unusual location and the unusual condition of sea ice. Just off the edge of the Larsen C Ice Shelf, ice in the Weddell Sea appeared closely packed, with few areas of open water. “Compared to the ice in the Weddell Sea proper, sea ice in the north is very diffuse, broken up, and thin,” Meier observed. But at this time of year, the region north of the Weddell Sea typically has little or no ice at all. So even though the ice north of the Weddell Sea is thin, it’s more ice than normally occurs. Winds played a crucial role in driving the ice northward. NSIDC attributed the unusual pattern to “persistent high pressure in the region west of the Weddell Sea, across the Antarctic Peninsula to the Bellingshausen Sea.” (See this map of Antarctica for more information.) NSIDC explained that the high-pressure caused winds to blow from south to north on the east side of the Antarctic Peninsula. These winds not only pushed ice toward the middle latitudes; it also carried cold air northward. The frigid air impeded surface melting of the sea ice, keeping it frozen as it moved north. Compared to sea ice in the Arctic, Antarctic sea ice generally shows greater variability. Unlike Arctic sea ice, which is confined to an ocean basin and surrounded by land, Antarctic sea ice fringes a continent. It has more room to grow in the winter and melts more completely in the summer. Moreover, Antarctic ice is subject to a wider range of influences from land, the atmosphere, and the ocean. - Arctic Sea Ice News and Analysis. (2013, February 5) A wintry mix from a dynamic cryosphere. NSIDC. - Leitzell, K. (2012, January 11) Sea ice down under: Antarctic ice and climate. NSIDC. - NSIDC. Sea ice index. Accessed February 28, 2013. - Scott, M. (2009, April 20) Sea ice. Earth Observatory. NASA image by Jeff Schmaltz, LANCE/EOSDIS Rapid Response, and Jesse Allen. Caption by Michon Scott. - Terra - MODIS

In April 1860, nineteen-year old Mollie Tucker wrote a letter to her sister about a special meal that she had recently prepared. "We had a grand supper for the gentlemen the other night" she said. She recounted the menu for the evening, boasting that"everyone is talking about Mrs. Tucker's supper." Who were these gentlemen and what was the occasion? Was her menu typical for the time? How was the meal prepared, where and how was it served? In this program, Cathy Messmer will share her research into this gentlemen's supper and what it revealed about life at Castle Tucker. Join her on this journey back to that special evening in the spring of 1860. The program includes a tour of the house. Advance registration is equired. Space is limitd. 10:00 - 11:30 am $10 members. $15 nonmembers.

Russia, the world's largest producer of oil and gas, has always taken a skeptical view of climate change. In the wake of last summer's fires, public opinion is shifting. In the past, Prime Minister Vladimir Putin has joked that global warming would mean that Russians would buy fewer fur coats and enjoy longer growing seasons. But after the fires, he and many Russians are taking a more open-minded view of the impact of humans on their climate. At a recent conference here on the Arctic, he surprised visiting scientists by supporting research into theories that burning hydrocarbons is causing a dangerous build up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Referring to global warming, he asked: "How are we influencing the speed of this process?" Last summer's record high temperatures did not just bring Miami heat to Moscow. Droughts destroyed one third of the nation's grain crops, causing $1.3 billion in losses to farmers. Around Moscow, fires smoldered unchecked in dried out peat bogs, filling the capital with woodsmoke. According to new figures, Moscow alone saw 9,000 extra deaths in August - almost a 70 percent jump in the mortality rate. Across Russia, the mortality rate jumped by more than one quarter. According to a new survey, one third of Russians polled attributed the fires to global warming. An overwhelming majority expected a repeat of the fires next summer. Igor Chestin, executive director of WWF Russia, has watched the change in public attitudes in a nation that relies heavily on its oil and gas exports: "The public does not think they can do anything about it," said Chestin. "It is just something that happens, but it is not in their hands." At the Arctic conference, Alexander Bedritsky, the Kremlin's advisor on climate change, said that temperatures in the Russian arctic had increased twice as fast as in the rest of the world. Last week, a Norwegian trimaran, the Northern Passage, completed circling the North Pole in a single summer season. With much of the route going through Russian waters, the crew said in a statement: "Less than 10 years ago, the first steel-hulled sailboat managed to get through just one of the passages, and 100 years ago, a circumnavigation would have taken six years." At the Moscow conference, Anatoli Brouchkov, a permafrost expert at Moscow State University' said that climate change is eroding the permafrost, the frozen soil layer essential for construction in the Russian Arctic "About 50 percent of the buildings in the Russian Far North are damaged," said Brouchkov. With Russian public opinion shifting, Russian leaders increasingly call for energy efficiency in a gas guzzling economy. As a sign of the times, Moscow's new mayor, Sergei Sobyanin, vowed Thursday to impose construction standards that could raise the energy efficiency in new homes and offices by 30 percent.

Mathematical Markup Language (MathML) Version 2.0 2 MathML Fundamentals 2.1 MathML Overview 2.1.1 Taxonomy of MathML Elements 2.1.2 Expression Trees and Token Elements 2.1.3 Presentation Markup 2.1.4 Content Markup 2.1.5 Mixing Presentation and Content 2.2 Some MathML Examples 2.2.1 Presentation Examples 2.2.2 Content Examples 2.2.3 Mixed Markup Examples 2.3 MathML Syntax and Grammar 2.3.1 An XML Syntax Primer 2.3.2 Children versus Arguments 2.3.3 MathML Attribute Values 2.3.4 Attributes Shared by all MathML Elements 2.3.5 Collapsing Whitespace in Input 3 Presentation Markup This chapter introduces the basic ideas of MathML. The first section describes the overall design of MathML. The second section presents a number of motivating examples, to give the reader something concrete to refer to while reading subsequent chapters of the MathML Specification. The final section describes basic features of the MathML syntax and grammar, which apply to all MathML markup. In particular, section 2.3 [MathML Syntax and Grammar] should be read before chapter 3 [Presentation Markup], chapter 4 [Content Markup] and chapter 5 [Combining Presentation and Content Markup]. A fundamental challenge in defining a mathematics markup language for the Web is reconciling the need to encode both the presentation of a mathematical notation and the content of the mathematical idea or object which it represents. The relationship between a mathematical notation and a mathematical idea is subtle and deep. On a formal level, the results of mathematical logic raise unsettling questions about the correspondence between symbolic logic systems and the phenomena they model. At a more intuitive level, anyone who uses mathematical notation knows the difference that a good choice of notation can make; the symbolic structure of the notation suggests the logical structure. For example, the Leibniz notation for derivatives `suggests' the chain rule of calculus through the symbolic cancellation of fractions: . Mathematicians and teachers understand this very well; part of their expertise lies in choosing notation that emphasizes key aspects of a problem while hiding or diminishing extraneous aspects. It is commonplace in mathematics and science to write one thing when technically something else is meant, because long experience shows this actually communicates the idea better at some higher level. In many other settings, though, mathematical notation is used to encode the full, precise meaning of a mathematical object. Mathematical notation is capable of prodigious rigor, and when used carefully, it is virtually free of ambiguity. Moreover, it is precisely this lack of ambiguity which makes it possible to describe mathematical objects so that they can be used by software applications such as computer algebra systems and voice renderers. In situations where such inter-application communication is of paramount importance, the nuances of visual presentation generally play a minimal role. MathML allows authors to encode both the notation which represents a mathematical object and the mathematical structure of the object itself. Moreover, authors can mix both kinds of encoding in order to specify both the presentation and content of a mathematical idea. The remainder of this section gives a basic overview of how MathML can be used in each of these ways. All MathML elements fall into one of three categories: presentation elements, content elements and interface elements. Each of these categories is described in detail in chapter 3 [Presentation Markup], chapter 4 [Content Markup] and chapter 7 [The MathML Interface] respectively. Presentation elements describe mathematical notation structure. Typical examples are the mrow element, which is used to indicate a horizontal row of pieces of expressions, and the msup element, which is used to indicate a base and superscript. As a general rule, each presentation element corresponds to a single kind of notational `schema' such as a row, a superscript, an underscript and so on. Since many notational schemata have a number of frequently occurring variants, most presentation elements accept a number of attributes which can be used to select between variants. For example, the superscript element accepts a `superscript shift' attribute which specifies the minimum amount the superscript should shift upward. Content elements describe mathematical objects directly, as opposed to describing the notation which represents them. Typical examples include the plus element, which denotes the usual addition operator for real numbers, and the which denotes a vector from linear algebra. Each content element corresponds to some mathematical concept. Some elements represent mathematical objects like vectors, while others represent functions or operations like addition. Every MathML element but one is either a presentation element or a content element. The math element is neither, since its role is to serve as a top-level, interface element. One function of math element is to pass on parameters to a MathML processor that affect an entire expression, such as style preferences. A second function is to communicate parameters to a Web browser about what software to use to render a MathML expression, and how the expression should be integrated into the surrounding HTML page. (As XML support is added to browsers, it may ultimately be necessary to introduce one or two more interface elements, to handle these functions separately. See chapter 7 [The MathML Interface] for details.) Presentation and content expressions both share a number of formal properties. In both cases, most expressions naturally decompose into pieces, or sub-expressions. For example, the expression (a + b)2 naturally breaks into a `base', the (a + b), and a `script', which is the single character `2' in this case. Furthermore, as this example shows, the sub-expressions may themselves decompose into further sub-expressions, and so on. Of course, the decomposition process eventually terminates with indivisible expressions such as digits, letters, or other symbol characters. Although this particular example involves mathematical notation, and hence presentation markup, the same observation applies equally well to abstract mathematical objects, and hence to content markup. For example, in a context of content markup our superscript example would typically be denoted by an exponentiation operation that would require two operands: a `base' and an `exponent'. This is no coincidence, since as a general rule, mathematical notation closely mirrors the logical structure of the underlying mathematical objects. The recursive nature of mathematical objects and notation is strongly reflected in MathML markup. Most presentation or content elements contain some number of other MathML elements corresponding to the constituent pieces out of which the original object is recursively built. The original schema is commonly called the parent schema, and the constituent pieces are called child schemata. More generally, MathML expressions can be regarded as trees, where each node corresponds to a MathML element, the branches under a `parent' node correspond to its `children', and the leaves in the tree correspond to indivisible notation or content units such as numbers, characters, etc. Most leaf nodes in a MathML expression tree are either canonically empty elements, or token elements. Canonically empty elements directly represent symbols in MathML, such as the content element plus. MathML token elements are the only MathML elements permitted to directly contain character data. The character data may consist of ASCII characters and MathML entities, which are escape sequences of the form &name;. MathML entities typically denote non-ASCII Unicode characters such as A third kind of leaf node permitted in MathML is the annotation element, which is used to hold data in a The most important presentation token elements are mo for representing identifiers, numbers and operators respectively. Typically a renderer will employ slightly different typesetting styles for each of these kinds of character data: numbers are usually in upright font, identifiers in italics, and operators have extra space around them. In content markup, there are only two tokens, cn for identifiers and numbers respectively. In content markup, separate elements are provided for commonly used functions and operators. The fn element is provided for user-defined extensions to the base set. In terms of markup, most MathML elements have a start tag and an end tag, which enclose the markup for their contents. In the case of tokens, the content is character data, and in most other cases, the content is the markup for child elements. A third category of elements, called canonically empty elements, don't require any contents, and are marked up using a single tag of the form <name/>. An example of this kind of markup is <plus/> in content markup. Returning to the example of (a + b)2, we can now see how the principles discussed above play out in practice. One form of presentation markup for this example is: <msup> <mfenced> <mrow> <mi>a</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>b</mi> </mrow> </mfenced> <mn>2</mn> </msup> The content markup for the same example is: <apply> <power/> <apply> <plus/> <ci>a</ci> <ci>b</ci> </apply> <cn>2</cn> </apply> While a full discussion of presentation and content markup must wait until chapter 3 [Presentation Markup] and chapter 4 [Content Markup], the main features of these sample encodings should now be relatively clear. MathML presentation markup consists of 30 elements which accept over 50 attributes. Most of the elements correspond to layout schemata, which contain other presentation elements. Each layout schema corresponds to a two-dimensional notational device, such as a superscript or subscript, fraction or table. In addition, there are the presentation token elements mo introduced above, as well as several other less commonly used token elements. The remaining few presentation elements are empty elements, and are used mostly in connection The layout schemata fall into several classes. One group of elements is concerned with scripts, and contains elements such as mmultiscripts. Another group focuses on more general layout and includes mfrac. A third group deals with tables. The maction element is a category by itself, and represents various kinds of actions on notation, such as in an expression which toggles between two pieces of notation. An important feature of many layout schemata is that the order of child schemata is significant. For example, the first child of an mfrac element is the numerator and the second child is the denominator. Since the order of child schemata is not enforced at the XML level by the MathML DTD, the information added by ordering is only available to a MathML processor, as opposed to a generic XML processor. When we want to emphasize that a MathML element such as mfrac requires children in a specific order, we will refer to them as arguments, and think of the mfrac element as a notational `constructor'. Content markup consists of about 100 elements accepting roughly a dozen attributes. The majority of these elements are empty elements corresponding to a wide variety of operators, relations and named functions. Examples of this sort include tan. Others such as set are used to encode various mathematical data types, and a third, important category of content elements such as apply are used to make new mathematical objects from others. apply element is perhaps the single most important content element. It is used to apply a function to a collection of arguments. The positions of the child schemata is again significant, with the first child denoting the function to be applied, and the remaining children denoting the arguments of the function, with order preserved. Note that the apply construct always uses prefix notation, like the programming language LISP. In particular, even binary operations like subtraction are marked up by applying a prefix subtraction operator to two arguments. For example, a - b would be marked up as <apply> <minus/> <ci>a</ci> <ci>b</ci> </apply> A number of functions and operations require one or more quantifiers to be well-defined. For example, in addition to an integrand, a definite integral must specify the limits of integration and the bound variable. For this reason, there are several qualifier schemata such as lowlimit. They are used with operators such as declare construct is especially important for content markup that might be evaluated by a computer algebra system. declare element provides a basic assignment mechanism, where a variable can be declared to be of a certain type, with a certain value. Typically, declarations are ignored for visual rendering, and are used when an expression is evaluated. Different kinds of markup will be most appropriate for different kinds of tasks. Legacy data is probably best translated into pure presentation markup, since semantic information about what the author meant can only be guessed at heuristically. By contrast, some mathematical applications and pedagogically-oriented authoring tools will likely choose to be entirely content-based. However, the majority of applications fall somewhere in between these extremes. For these applications, the most appropriate markup is a mixture of both presentation and content markup. The rules for mixing presentation and content markup derive from the general principle that mixed content should only be allowed in places where it makes sense. For content markup embedded in presentation markup this basically means that any content fragments should be semantically meaningful, and should not require additional arguments or quantifiers to be fully specified. For presentation markup embedded in content markup, this usually means that presentation markup must be contained in a content token element, so that it will be treated as an indivisible notational unit used as a variable or function name. Another option is to use a semantics element. The semantics element is used to bind MathML expressions to various kinds of annotations. One common use for the semantics element is to bind a content expression to a presentation expression as a semantic annotation. In this way, an author can specify a non-standard notation to be used when displaying a particular content expression. Another use of the semantics element is to bind some other kind of semantic specification, such as an OpenMath expression, to a MathML expression. In this way, the semantics element can be used to extend the scope of MathML content markup. Notation: x2 + 4x + 4 = 0. <mrow> <mrow> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> <mo>+</mo> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mo>⁢</mo> <mi>x</mi> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> Note the use of nested mrow elements to denote terms, in this case the left-hand side of the equation functioning as an operand of `='. Marking terms greatly facilitates things like spacing for visual rendering, voice rendering, and line breaking. <mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mfrac> <mrow> <mrow> <mo>-</mo> <mi>b</mi> </mrow> <mo>±</mo> <msqrt> <mrow> <msup> <mi>b</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> <mo>-</mo> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mo>⁢</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mo>⁢</mo> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msqrt> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mo>⁢</mo> <mi>a</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> Notice that the plus/minus sign is given by a special named entity ±. MathML provides a very comprehensive list of entity names for mathematical symbols. In addition to the mathematical symbols needed for screen and print rendering, MathML provides symbols to facilitate audio rendering. For audio rendering, it is important to be able to automatically determine whether <mrow> <mi>z</mi> <mfenced> <mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>y</mi> </mrow> </mfenced> </mrow> should be read as `z times the quantity x plus y' or `z of x plus y'. The entities provide a way for authors to directly encode the distinction for audio renderers. For instance, in the first case ⁢ should be inserted after the line containing the z. MathML also introduces entities like ⅆ which represents a `differential d' which renders with slightly different spacing in print, and can be rendered as `d' or `with respect to' in speech. Unless content tags, or some other mechanism, are used to eliminate the ambiguity, authors should always use these entities, in order to make their documents <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mfenced open="[" close="]"> <mtable> <mtr> <mtd><mi>x</mi></mtd> <mtd><mi>y</mi></mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd><mi>z</mi></mtd> <mtd><mi>w</mi></mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mfenced> </mrow> Most elements have a number of attributes that control the details of their screen and print rendering. For example, there are several attributes for mfenced element that control what delimiters should be used at the beginning and the end of the expression. The attributes for operator elements given using are set to default values determined by a dictionary. (For the suggested MathML operator dictionary, see appendix D [Operator Dictionary].) Notation: x2 + 4x + 4 = 0. <apply> <eq/> <apply> <plus/> <apply> <power/> <ci>x</ci> <cn>2</cn> </apply> <apply> <times/> <cn>4</cn> <ci>x</ci> </apply> <cn>4</cn> </apply> <cn>0</cn> </apply> Note that the apply element is used for relations, operators and functions. <apply> <eq/> <ci>x</ci> <apply> <divide/> <apply> <fn><mo>±</mo></fn> <apply> <minus/> <ci>b</ci> </apply> <apply> <root/> <apply> <minus/> <apply> <power/> <ci>b</ci> <cn>2</cn> </apply> <apply> <times/> <cn>4</cn> <ci>a</ci> <ci>c</ci> </apply> </apply> <cn>2</cn> </apply> </apply> <apply> <times/> <cn>2</cn> <ci>a</ci> </apply> </apply> </apply> MathML content markup does not directly contain an element for the `plus or minus' operation. Therefore, we use the fn element to declare that we want the presentation markup for this operator to act as a content operator. This is a simple example of how presentation and content markup can be mixed to extend <apply> <eq/> <ci>A</ci> <matrix> <matrixrow> <ci>x</ci> <ci>y</ci> </matrixrow> <matrixrow> <ci>z</ci> <ci>w</ci> </matrixrow> </matrix> </apply> Note that by default, the rendering of the content element matrix includes enclosing parentheses, so we need not directly encode them. This is quite different from the presentation element mtable which may or may not refer to a matrix, and hence requires explicit encoding of the parentheses if they are desired. <semantics> <mrow> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mi>t</mi> </msubsup> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo>ⅆ</mo> <mi>x</mi> </mrow> <mi>x</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <annotation-xml encoding="MathML-Content"> <apply> <int/> <bvar><ci>x</ci></bvar> <lowlimit><cn>0</cn></lowlimit> <uplimit><ci>t</ci></uplimit> <apply> <divide/> <cn>1</cn> <ci>x</ci> </apply> </apply> </annotation-xml> </semantics> In this example, we use the semantics element to provide a MathML content expression to serve as a `semantic annotation' for a presentation expression. The semantics element has as its first child the expression being annotated, and the subsequent children are the annotations. There is no restriction on the kind of annotation that can be attached using the For example, one might give a TEX encoding, or computer algebra input in an annotation. The type of annotation is specified by the encoding attribute and the Another common use of the semantics element arises when one wants to use a content coding, and provide a suggestion for its presentation. In this case, we would have the markup: <semantics> <apply> <int/> <bvar><ci>x</ci></bvar> <lowlimit><cn>0</cn></lowlimit> <uplimit><ci>t</ci></uplimit> <apply> <divide/> <cn>1</cn> <ci>x</ci> </apply> </apply> <annotation-xml encoding="MathML-Presentation"> <mrow> <msubsup> <mo>∫</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mi>t</mi> </msubsup> <mfrac> <mrow> <mo>ⅆ</mo> <mi>x</mi> </mrow> <mi>x</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </annotation-xml> </semantics> This kind of annotation is useful when something other than the default rendering of the content encoding is desired. For example, by default, some renderers might layout the integrand something like `1/x dx'. Specifying that the integrand should by preference render as `dx/x' instead can be accomplished with the use of a MathML Presentation annotation as shown. Be aware, however, that renderers are not required to take into account information contained in annotations, and what use is made of them, if any, will depend on the renderer. MathML is an application of XML, or Extensible Markup Language [Bray1998], and as such its syntax is governed by the rules of XML syntax, and its grammar is in part specified by a DTD, or Document Type Definition. In other words, the details of using tags, attributes, entity references and so on are defined in the XML language specification, and the details about MathML element and attribute names, which elements can be nested inside each other, and so on are specified in the MathML DTD. The following needs to be revised pending creation of a schema for MathML. However, MathML also specifies some syntax and grammar rules in addition to the general rules it inherits as an XML application. These rules allow MathML to encode a great deal more information than would ordinarily be possible with pure XML, without introducing many more elements, and using a substantially more complex DTD. A grammar for content markup expressions is given in appendix B [Content Markup Validation Grammar]. Of course, one drawback to using MathML specific rules is that they are invisible to generic XML processors and validators. There are basically two kinds of additional MathML grammar and syntax rules. One kind involves placing additional criteria on attribute values. For example, it is not possible in pure XML to require that an attribute value be a positive integer. The second kind of rule specifies more detailed restrictions on the child elements (for example on ordering) than are given in the DTD. For example, it is not possible in XML to specify that the first child be interpreted one way, and the second in another. The following sections discuss features both of XML syntax and grammar in general, and of MathML in particular. Throughout the remainder of the MathML specification, we will usually take care to distinguish between usage required by XML syntax and the MathML DTD and usage required by MathML specific rules. However, we will frequently allude to `MathML errors' without identifying which part of the specification is being violated. Since MathML is an application of XML, the MathML Specification uses the terminology of XML to describe it. Briefly, XML data is composed of Unicode characters (which include ordinary ASCII characters), `entity references' (informally called `entities') such as → which usually represent `extended characters', and `elements' such as <mi fontstyle="normal"> x </mi>. Elements enclose other XML data called their `content' between a `start tag' (sometimes called a `begin tag') and an `end tag', much like in HTML. There are also `empty elements' such as <plus/>, whose start tag /> to indicate that the element has no content or end tag. The start tag can contain named parameters called `attributes', such as fontstyle="normal" in the example above. For further details on XML, consult the XML As XML is case-sensitive, MathML element and attribute names are case-sensitive. For reasons of legibility, the MathML defines them almost all in lowercase. In formal discussions of XML markup a distinction is maintained between an element, such as an mrow element, and the tags it. What is between the <mrow> start tag and the </mrow> end tag is the content of the element. An `empty element' such as none is defined to have no content and so has a single tag of the form <none/>. Usually, the distinction between elements and tags will not be so finely drawn in this specification. For instance, we will sometimes refer to the really meaning the elements whose tags these are, in order that references to elements are visually distinguishable from references to attributes. However, the words `element' and `tag' themselves will be used strictly in accordance with XML Many MathML elements require a specific number of child elements and/or attach additional meanings to children in certain positions. As noted above, these kinds of requirements are MathML specific, and cannot be specified entirely in terms of XML syntax and grammar. When the children of a given MathML element are subject to these kinds of additional conditions, we will often refer to them as arguments instead of merely children in order to emphasize their MathML specific usage. Note that especially in chapter 3 [Presentation Markup] the term `argument' is usually used in this technical sense, unless otherwise noted, and therefore refers to a child element. In the detailed discussions of element syntax given with each element throughout the MathML specification, the number of required arguments and their order is implicitly indicated by giving names for the arguments at various positions. This information is also given for presentation elements in the table of argument requirements in section 3.1.3 [Required Arguments], and for content elements in appendix B [Content Markup Validation Grammar]. A few elements have other requirements on the number or type of arguments. These additional requirements are described together with the individual elements. According to the XML language specification, attributes given to elements must have one of the forms attribute-name = "value" attribute-name = 'value' where whitespace around the '=' is optional. Attribute names are generally shown in a monospaced font within descriptive text in this specification, but not within examples. The attribute value, which in general in MathML can be a string of arbitrary characters, must be surrounded by a pair of either double ") or single quotes ( kind of quotes not used to surround the value may be included within MathML uses a more complicated syntax for attribute values than the generic XML syntax required by the MathML DTD. These additional rules are intended for use by MathML applications, and it is a MathML error to violate them, though they are not enforced by XML processing. The MathML syntax of each attribute value is specified in the table of attributes provided with the description of each element it can be used with, using a notation described below. In MathML applications these attribute values should be further processed as follows, unless otherwise specified: whitespace is ignored except to separate letter and/or digit sequences into individual words or numbers; and the same entity references (listed in chapter 6 [Entities, Characters and Fonts]) which can be used within token elements to represent characters can be used to represent those characters in attribute values (whenever those characters would be permitted by that attribute value's syntax). In particular, the characters < can be included in MathML attribute values (when permitted by the attribute value syntax) using the The MathML DTD provided in appendix A [Parsing MathML] declares most attribute value types as CDATA strings. This permits increased interoperability with existing SGML and XML software and allows extension to the lists of predefined values. To describe the MathML-specific syntax of permissible attribute values, the following conventions and notations are used for most attributes in the present document. |Notation||What it matches| |number||decimal integer or rational number (digits with one decimal point), optionally starting with '-'| |unsigned-number||decimal integer or real number, no sign| |integer||decimal integer, optionally starting with '-'| |positive-integer||decimal integer, unsigned, not 0| |string||arbitrary string (always the entire attribute value)| |character||single non-whitespace character, or MathML entity reference; whitespace separation is optional| |#rgb||RGB color value| |#rrggbb||RGB color value| |h-unit||unit of horizontal length (allowable units are listed below)| |v-unit||unit of vertical length (allowable units are listed below)| |css-fontfamily||explained in CSS subsection, below| |html-color-name||explained in CSS subsection, below| |other italicized words||explained in the text for each attribute| |form +||one or more instances of form| |form *||zero or more instances of form| |f1 f2 ... fn||one instance of each form, in sequence, perhaps separated by whitespace| |f1 | f2 | ... | fn||any one of the specified forms| |[ form ]||optional instance of form| |( form )||same as form| |word in plain text||that word, literally present in attribute value (unless it is obviously part of an explanatory phrase)| |quoted symbol||that symbol, literally present in attribute value (e.g. "+" or '+')| Do we need to explain what RGB colour notation is? The order of precedence of the syntax notation operators is, from highest to lowest precedence: A string can contain arbitrary characters which are specifiable within XML CDATA attribute values; it must use entity references for certain characters, as described earlier. It can contain XML-format entity or character references for any of the characters listed in chapter 6 [Entities, Characters and Fonts]. No syntax rule in MathML includes string as only part of an attribute value, only as the entire This needs to be revised for the introduction of the A character consists of a single non-whitespace character or entity reference. As a simple example, the permissible values of boolean attributes are specified as true | false, meaning that the entire attribute value should be either Adjacent keywords and/or numbers must be separated by whitespace in the actual attribute values, except for unit identifiers (symbolized v-unit syntax symbols) following numbers. Whitespace is not otherwise required, but is permitted between any of the tokens listed above, except (for compatibility with CSS1) immediately before unit identifiers, between the '-' signs and digits of negative numbers, or between Numeric attribute values for dimensions that should depend upon the current font can be given in font-related units, or in named absolute units (described in a separate subsection below). Horizontal dimensions are conventionally given in em's, and vertical dimensions in ex's, by immediately following a number by one of the unit ex. For example, the horizontal spacing around an operator such as `+' is conventionally ems, though other units can be used. Using font-related units is usually preferable to using absolute units, since it allows renderings to grow or shrink proportionately to the current font size. For most numeric attributes, only those in a subset of the expressible values are sensible; values outside this subset are not errors, unless otherwise specified, but rather are rounded up or down (at the discretion of the renderer) to the closest value within the allowed subset. The set of allowed values may depend on the renderer, and is not specified by MathML. If a numeric value within an attribute value syntax description is declared to allow a minus sign ('-'), e.g. integer, it is not a syntax error when one is provided in cases where a negative value is not sensible. Instead, the value should be handled by the processing application as described in the preceding paragraph. An explicit plus sign ('+') is not allowed as part of a numeric value except when it is specifically listed in the syntax (as a quoted '+' or "+"), and its presence can change the meaning of the attribute value (as documented with each attribute which permits it). html-color-nameis used but never explained. explained in the following subsections. Some attributes accept horizontal or vertical lengths as numbers followed by a `unit identifier' (often just called a `unit'). The syntax symbols v-unit refer to a unit for horizontal or vertical length, respectively. The possible units and the lengths they refer to are shown in the table below; they are the same for horizontal and vertical lengths, but the syntax symbols are distinguished in attribute syntaxes as a reminder of the direction they are each used in. The unit identifiers and meanings are taken from CSS1. (However, the syntax of numbers followed by unit identifiers in MathML is not identical to the syntax of length values with units in CSS style sheets, since numbers in CSS can't end with decimal points, and are allowed to start with '+' signs.) The possible horizontal or vertical units in MathML are: |Unit identifier||Unit description| |em||em (font-relative unit traditionally used for horizontal lengths)| |ex||ex (font-relative unit traditionally used for vertical lengths)| |px||pixels, or pixel size of the current display| |in||inches (1 inch = 2.54 centimeters)| |pt||points (1 point = 1/72 inch)| |pc||picas (1 pica = 12 points)| |%||percentage of default value| The typesetting units ex are defined in appendix F [Glossary], and discussed further under `Additional notes' below. % is a `relative unit'; when an attribute value is n% (for any numeric value n), the value being specified is the default value for the property being controlled multiplied by by 100. The default value (or the way in which it is obtained, when it is not constant) is listed in the table of attributes for each element, and its meaning is described in the subsequent documentation about that attribute. (The mpadded element has its own syntax for % and does not allow it as a unit For consistency with CSS, length units in MathML are rarely optional. When they are, the unit symbol is enclosed in square brackets in the attribute syntax, following the number it applies to, number [ h-unit ]. The meaning of specifying no unit is given in the documentation for each attribute; in general it is that the number given is a multiplier for the default value of the attribute. (In such cases, specifying the nnn without a unit is equivalent to specifying the nnn times 100 followed by <mo maxsize="2"> ( </mo> is <mo maxsize="200%"> ( </mo>.) As a special exception (also consistent with CSS), a numeric value equal to 0 need not be followed by a unit identifier even if the syntax specified here requires one. In such cases, the unit identifier (or lack of one) would not matter, since 0 times any unit is 0. For most attributes, the typical unit which would be used to describe them in typesetting is the same as the one used in that attribute's default value in this specification; when a specific default value is not given, the typical unit is usually mentioned in the syntax table or in the documentation for that attribute. The typical unit is usually any unit can be used, unless otherwise specified for a specific Note that some attributes, e.g. <mtable>, can contain more than one numeric value, each followed by its own unit. It is conventional to use the font-relative unit for vertical lengths, and em mainly for horizontal lengths, but this is not required. These units are relative to the font and fontsize which would be used for rendering the element in whose attribute value they are specified, which means they should be interpreted after attributes such as fontsize are processed, if those occur on the same element, since changing the current font or fontsize can change the length of these units. The definition of the length of each unit (but not the MathML syntax for length values) is as specified in CSS1, except that if a font provides specific values for em and/or ex which differ from the values defined by CSS1 (the font size and `x'-height respectively), those values should be used. Several MathML attributes, listed below, correspond closely with text rendering properties defined by Cascading Style Sheets, Level 1 (CSS1). The names and acceptable values of these attributes have been aligned with the CSS1 recommendation where possible. In general, the MathML syntax for each attribute is intended to be a subset of the CSS syntax for the corresponding property. Differences at the detail level, where they exist, are explained with the documentation about each attribute, in the sections of this specification listed in the table. The syntax of certain attributes is partially specified, in the tables of attribute syntax in this specification, using one of the as shown in the following table. These symbols refer to syntaxes from other W3C Recommendations, and are explained in the sections of this specification referred to in the table. |MathML attribute||CSS property||syntax symbol||MathML elements||refer to| See also section 2.3.4 [Attributes Shared by all MathML Elements] below for a discussion of the id attributes for use with style sheets. CSS or analogous style sheets specify changes to rendering properties of selected MathML elements (selecting the elements in various ways). Either the properties listed above, or any other MathML rendering attributes or properties supported by a style sheet mechanism, can be affected, in principle for any element. Since rendering properties can also be changed by attributes on an element, or automatically (which can happen to explained in the discussion on scriptlevel in section 3.3.4 [Style Change ( mstyle)]), it is necessary to specify the relative order in which changes from various sources occur. In the case of `absolute' changes, i.e. setting a new property value independent of the old value (as opposed to `relative' changes, such as increments or multiplications by a factor), the absolute change performed last will be the only absolute change which is effective, so the sources of changes which should have the highest priority must be processed last. In the case of CSS1, the order of processing of changes from various sources which affect one MathML element's rendering properties should be as follows: (first changes; lowest priority) fontsizein relation to scriptlevelmentioned above; such changes will usually be implemented by the parent element itself before it passes a set of rendering properties to this element (last changes; highest priority) Note that the order of the changes derived from CSS style sheets is specified by CSS itself. The following rationale is related only to the issue of where in this pre-existing order the changes caused by explicit MathML attribute settings should be inserted. Rationale: MathML rendering attributes are analogous to HTML rendering attributes such as align, which the CSS1 section on cascading order specifies should be processed with the same priority. Furthermore, this choice of priority permits readers, by declaring certain CSS styles as `important', to decide which of their style preferences should override explicit attribute settings in MathML. Since MathML expressions, whether composed of `presentation' or `content' elements, are primarily intended to convey meaning, with their `graphic design' (if any) intended mainly to aid in that purpose but not to be essential in it, it is likely that readers will often want their own style preferences to have priority; the main exception will be when a rendering attribute is intended to alter the meaning conveyed by an expression, which is generally discouraged in the presentation attributes Default values for MathML attributes are in general given along with the detailed descriptions of specific elements in the text. Default values shown in plain text, in the tables of attributes for an element, are literal (unless they are obviously explanatory phrases), but when italicized are descriptions of how default values can be computed. Default values described as inherited are taken from the rendering environment, as described under mstyle, or in some cases (described individually) from the values of other attributes of surrounding elements, or from certain parts of those values. The value used will always be one which could have been specified explicitly, had it been known; it will never depend on the content or attributes of the same element, only on its environment. (What it means when used may, however, depend on Default values described as automatic should be computed by a MathML renderer in a way which will produce a high-quality rendering; how to do this is not usually specified by MathML. The value computed will always be one which could have been specified explicitly, had it been known, but it will usually depend on the element content and/or the rendering environment. Other italicized descriptions of default values which appear in the tables of attributes are explained for each attribute individually. The single or double quotes which are required around attribute values in an XML start tag are not shown in the tables of attribute value syntax for each element, but are shown around example attribute values in the text. Note that, in general, there is no value which can be given explicitly for a MathML attribute which will simulate the effect of not specifying the attribute at all, for attributes which are inherited or automatic. Giving the words `inherited' or `automatic' explicitly will not work, and is not generally allowed. Furthermore, even for presentation attributes for which a specific default value is documented here, the element (section 3.3.4 [Style Change ( mstyle)]) can be used to change this for the elements it contains. Therefore, the MathML DTD declares most presentation attribute default values as #IMPLIED, which prevents XML preprocessors from adding them with any specific default value. In an XML DTD, allowed attribute values can be declared as general strings, or they can be constrained in various ways, either by enumerating the possible values, or by declaring them to be certain special data types. The choice of an XML attribute type affects the extent to which validity checks can be performed using a DTD. The MathML DTD specifies formal XML attribute types for all MathML attributes, including enumerations of legitimate values in some cases. In general, however, the MathML DTD is relatively permissive, frequently declaring attribute values as strings; this is done to provide for interoperability with SGML parsers while allowing multiple attributes on one MathML element to accept the same values (such as false), and also to allow extension to the lists of predefined values. At the same time, even though an attribute value may be declared as a string in the DTD, only certain values are legitimate in MathML, as described above and in the rest of this specification. For example, many attributes expect numerical values. In the sections which follow, the allowed attribute values are described for each element. To determine when these constraints are actually enforced in the MathML DTD, consult appendix A [Parsing MathML]. However, lack of enforcement of a requirement in the DTD does not imply that the requirement is not part of the MathML language itself, or that it will not be enforced by a particular MathML renderer. (See section 7.2.2 [Handling of Errors] for a description of how MathML renderers should respond to MathML errors.) Furthermore, the MathML DTD is provided for convenience; although it is intended to be fully compatible with the text of the specification, the text should be taken as definitive if there is a contradiction. (Any contradictions which may exist between various chapters of the text should be resolved by favoring chapter 6 [Entities, Characters and Fonts] first, then chapter 3 [Presentation Markup], chapter 4 [Content Markup], then section 2.3 [MathML Syntax and Grammar], and then other parts of the text.) In order to facilitate compatibility with Cascading Style Sheets, Level 1 (CSS1), all MathML elements accept id attributes in addition to the attributes described specifically for each element. MathML renderers not supporting CSS may ignore these attributes. (MathML specifies these attribute values as general strings, even if style-sheet mechanisms have more restrictive syntaxes for them. That is, any value for them is valid in MathML.) Renderers supporting CSS (or analogous style sheet mechanisms) may use these attributes to help determine which MathML elements should be subject to which style sheet-induced changes to various rendering properties. The properties that can be affected, and how these changes affect them, are discussed in section 184.108.40.206 [CSS-compatible attributes] above. Every MathML element also accepts the attribute other (section 7.2.3 [Attribute for unspecified data]) for passing non-standard attributes without violating the MathML DTD. MathML renderers are only required to process this attribute if they respond to any attributes which are not standard in MathML. See also section 3.2.1 [Attributes common to token elements] for a list of MathML attributes which can be used on most presentation token elements. MathML ignores whitespace occurring outside token elements. Non-whitespace characters are not allowed there. Whitespace occurring within the content of token elements is `trimmed' from the ends (i.e. all whitespace at the beginning and end of the content is removed), and `collapsed' internally (i.e. each sequence of 1 or more whitespace characters is replaced with one blank character). In MathML, as in XML, `whitespace' means blanks, tabs, newlines, or carriage returns, i.e. characters with hexadecimal Unicode codes <mo> ( </mo> is equivalent to <mtext> Theorem 1: </mtext> is equivalent to Authors wishing to encode whitespace characters at the start or end of the content of a token, or in sequences other than a single blank, without having them ignored, must use `whitespace' non-marking entities as described in section 6.1.4 [Non-Marking Entities]. For example, compare <mtext> Theorem 1: </mtext> When the first example is rendered, there is no whitespace before `Theorem', one blank between `Theorem' and `1:', and no whitespace after `1:'. In the second example, a single blank is rendered before `Theorem', a new line is placed after `Theorem', two blanks are rendered before `1:', and there is no whitespace after the `1:'. Note that the does not apply in this situation since XML processors pass whitespace in tokens to a MathML processor; it is the MathML processing rules which specify that whitespace is trimmed and collapsed. For whitespace occurring outside the content of the token elements should be used, as opposed to an containing only `whitespace' entities.

Physics Photo of the Week Needles from the sky January 10 this winter - during one of the major snowstorms - it was very cold with a light snow falling. This snow was unusual for ground-reaching snow in that the snowflakes were tiny needles. One snowstar is visible in this photo. A fine dusting of snow lay on the vinyl grill cover, the mesh pattern is aout a 2 mm in size. These snow needles are thus about 3 mm long and about 0.1 to 0.2 mm across. A close-up photo of a cluster of shorter needles is shown below. These snow needles are not nearly as spectacular as snow stars (see PPOW for January 22, 2010). However, these needle-like crystals are important in producing wonderful optical effects in the atmosphere when they form at high elevations in some cirrus clouds. Because of the hexagonal nature of ice, these snow needles are believed to have hexagonal cross-sections resembling hexagonal wooden pencils. When they fall they tend to line-up with the long axes horizontal. Light from the Sun or Moon shining through these crystals creates the spectacular Solar and Lunar 22 degree haloes (see PPOW for December 3, 2010). To produce the close-up photos without an expensive macro lens, I handhold a fairly powerful magnifier up to the camera lens and take the photo. It is rather difficult to hold the lens centered on the camera lens without scratching the surface in addition to keeping the optics in focus. I used a "paparozzi" mode - snapping a continuous stream of images while slowly moving the camera-subject distance to have a better chance of capturing an in-focus image. Photo of the published weekly during the academic year on Fridays by the Warren Wilson College Physics Department. These photos feature interesting phenomena in the world around us. Students, faculty, and others are invited to submit digital (or film) photographs for publication and explanation. Atmospheric phenomena are especially welcome. Please send any photos to [email protected]. All photos and discussions are copyright by Donald Collins or by the person credited for the photo and/or discussion. These photos and discussions may be used for private individual use or educational use. Any commercial use without written permission of the photoprovider is forbidden. to see the Physics Photo the Week Archive. Observers are invited to submit digital photos to:

Examines the various regions of North America in comparative fashion. Topics may include the characteristics of the New England, Southern, frontier, Mississippi Valley, Canadian, Pacific Northwestern, and Southwestern regions of North America. Focus for Spring 2003: The Frontier Student learning goals General method of instruction Class assignments and grading

Carving Grand Canyon: Evidence, Theories and Mystery 2nd edition, 2012 An All New Edition The Grand Canyon is one of earth's most recognizable landscapes, yet no single theory can say exactly how or when the canyon formed. The one thing that is known is that it is the Colorado River that is responsible for carving the great gorge and without it there would be no Grand Canyon. Even though the Colorado River has carried away much of the evidence for its earliest history, geologist have unraveled many of the secrets held in this spectacular landscape. Carving Grand Canyon is one of the very few books that explains in layman's terms the possible sequence of events that may have given rise to the canyon. The text is highly readable with very little use of geologic jargon. Readers will find chapters on how rivers actually carve canyons, a sequential listing and discussion about the various theories that have been proposed through 150 years of scientific study, as well as learn about the geologists who developed these theories. Lastly, a plausible sequence of events that may have formed the canyon is given in a final chapter. The book is graced with many color photographs by the author or other well-known southwestern photographers, numerous and colorful illustrations and maps by Bronze Black, paleogeographic maps by Dr. Ron Blakey, and numerous sidebars to expand upon key concepts. A concise summary of the most likely set of events that gave rise to Grand Canyon is included at the end of the book. A glossary, index, and scientific and popular bibliographies are also included. Carving Grand Canyon 190 pages All color within Maps and diagrams Over 26,000 copies sold (1st edition) Read reviews of the 1st edition here: Order a copy today! Ancient Landscapes of the Colorado Plateau by Ron Blakey and Wayne Ranney Ancient Landscapes of the Colorado Plateau is an award winning book written by myself and one of my former professors, Dr. Ron Blakey. This book has won a Glyph Award, given by the Arizona Book Publishers Association! I accepted the award on May 9, 2009 at the Arizona Club on the top floor of the Chase Tower in downtown Phoenix. The category it won was first place in the "Science/Environment" category. Here is the link that lists all of the winners. This breakthrough publication has numerous paleogeographic maps that portray the landscape history of this exceptional region. The maps were created by Dr. Ron Blakey, a former professor of mine at Northern Arizona University and I wrote the text that accompanies his maps. Please follow the link above to see my lecture schedule for when and where I will be giving presentations about this fantastic story. The book is available from the Grand Canyon Association at this link. Easy Field Guide to Arizona Landforms A new book about the interesting landforms found in and around the Grand Canyon State Do geology books always need to be in a large format with colorful photographs? I don't think so. Check out this little gem of a book that is brand new and serves as a guide to Arizona's wonderful landforms. At 32 pages and only 4 1/2 by 5 1/2 inches, it is not a "thick read" but gives the reader an idea of how the more prominent landforms in Arizona came to be. This book retails for $1.75. You can order it directly from the publisher here or you can get a signed copy from me at this link Sedona Through Time: A Guide to Sedona's Geology Completely Updated and Revised 3rd Edition Recently republished as an all new 3rd edition! Visitors to the towering red rock cliffs near Sedona seldom realize that the area was once a broad river floodplain that lay beyond the Ancestral Rocky Mountains. Or that this same place was later buried in a vast, Sahara-like desert, still later to lie beneath the waters of a warm tropical sea filled with ancient life forms. Sedona Through Time is an eminently readable story of the evolution of this fantastic landscape through the eons of geologic time. $17.95. [How to order] Defining the Colorado Plateau: A Geologic Perspective This is the latest issue of the journal of the Museum of Northern Arizona, called Plateau (Volume 6, Numbers 1 and 2). This issue explores the various ways that geologists have defined the Colorado Plateau, with respect to its location, its mode of formation, and how it is differentiated from surrounding terrains such as the Rocky Mountains. The book is richly illustrated with photographs by Adriel Heisley, Michael Collier, Shane McDermott and myself. The issue was beautifully designed by Julie Sullivan. It is priced at $10 and can be purchased from the Museum of Northern Arizona Bookstore here. Images: Grand Canyon Written by Charles Bowden and Wayne Ranney "Images" by Jack Dykinga, Charles Bowden, and Wayne Ranney, and published by Arizona Highways, won two Glyph Awards on May 9. The book contains a collection of Jack Dykinga's greatest Grand Canyon photographs and Bowden and I wrote accompanying articles. The awards were in the "Best Coffee Table/Large Format" category and the "Nature and the Environment" category. Here is the link to read about the award winners in each category. Click here to order a signed copy of this book from me. The Verde Valley: A Geological History Volcanoes erupting on a primeval ocean floor, tropical seas, sand dunes blowing along the coastline of an ancient supercontinent. These are some of the colorful scenes that geologists have reconstructed from the rocks contained within the Verde Valley. Published in 1989, this is Volume 60, Number 3 in the Museum of Northern Arizona's Plateau series. $15.00. You can order a copy from the Museum of Northern Arizona Bookstore here. An overview of the geology of Grand Canyon and other areas of geologic and scenic interest in northern Arizona and southern Utah. Published in 1993, this is Volume 64, Number 1 in Plateau, a quarterly series of the Museum of Northern Arizona. $5.00. You can order a copy from the Museum of Northern Arizona Bookstore here.

WASHINGTON -- Feeling chilly? Here's cold comfort: You could be in East Antarctica which new data says set a record for soul-crushing cold. Try 135.8 degrees Fahrenheit below zero; that's 93.2 degrees below zero Celsius, which sounds only slightly toastier. Better yet, don't try it. That's so cold scientists say it hurts to breathe. A new look at NASA satellite data revealed that Earth set a new record for coldest temperature recorded. It happened in August 2010 when it hit -135.8 degrees. Then on July 31 of this year, it came close again: -135.3 degrees. The old record had been -128.6 degrees, which is -89.2 degrees Celsius. - Weekend Severe Threat - Tornado At Va. Campground Killing 3 - Earth's Near Miss from Solar Storm - Great News for Water Balloon Fights - Did All Dinosaurs have Feathers? - Passenger Mistakes Exit for Bathroom - 'Creepy Dolls' Left at Homes - It Has Been One COOL Summer - A Weatherman for 84 years - Don't Miss Monday's Meteor Shower! - Keeping an Eye on the Tropics - Chihuahua Puppy Gets Wheelchair - What was Spotted on Radar? - Take a Ride on Record Roller Coaster - Millions of Mayflies Cover Everything - Lightning Kills 45 Cows - Dramatic Satellite Images of Drought - Dad Kicked Off Plane Due to Tweet - Brothers Share Heartwarming Bond - Another Plane Crashes, 116 Missing - Big Changes in Temps Next Week - Teen Attacked by Barracuda in Daytona Beach - Cause of Deadly VA Tornado? - Man Bitten by Gator Twice - Massive Python Gets Physical - Did Weather Bring Down Taiwan Plane? - Largest Ketchup Bottle for Sale - Costa Concordia Begins Final Journey - Raw: Winds and Rain in Taiwan - See How You Could Win $25 Million From NASA - View From Above A World Hub - Inside the Siberian Mystery Hole - Secret Bear Feeding Spot FOUND - Boys Perish Soon After This Selfie - Sun Goes Quiet After Recent Activity - Man Dies in Stunning Beach Collapse - You Won't Believe What She Did - Teen Dies While Attempting World Record - Hot Air Balloon Collides with Power Line - Sharks Send Tourists TOWARDS Beach? - Subways You Must See! - New Clues to Lives of Ancient Mummies! - Raw: Typhoon in Taiwan - Shopper Rattles Wal-Mart Customers - Whoa. A Man Punched by Whale - Moon Return: Where We'll Camp - Cause of Death Released for Teen - Adorable Baby Girl is 1 in 100 Million - Tragedy for Texas Teen - Woman Dies Helping Injured Dog - Flood Helping Drought? - Scientists Baffled By This - Another Reason to Hate Mosquitoes - THIS Keeps Washing On Shore - Shocking Find on Nearby Comet - 45 Years Ago, NASA Made History - Astonishing Photo is Actually Real - Innocent Summer Swim Goes Wrong - Universe Missing 80 percent of WHAT? - Scientists Baffled By This - Stolen Dino Bones Returned - Fiance's Last Text Before Tornado Strike - Dad's Plea To Parents - Underwater Proposal Goes Viral - Death Spurs Water Warning - WWII Vet Gets to Skydive - Florida Is Bulldozing THIS? - Eavesdropping On ET - Summer of Super Moons? - Kayaker's SHOCKING Catch! - Rare Blue Crab Found By Fisherman In Alaska - Looks, Moves, and Feels Like a Fish - Stop Blaming Weather for Back Pain - Teen Model Hired, Then Fired for THIS - Missing Climber Found 32 Years Later - Why Are They Killing Rare Elephants? - Hundreds of Fish Fall From the Sky - Researchers Plan Explosions At Mount St. Helens - The Secrets Behind a Frogs Jump - Volcano's and Climate Change - 80 Percent Of Light In Universe Is Missing - Baby Ducks Rescued from Drain - Measuring Wind Speeds Over the Ocean - Family Rescued at Sea Speaks Out - Raw: Watch and Hear Baseball Sized Hail - Cars Crushed in Massive Sinkhole - 10 Crazy Weather Events of 2014 - Toddler Saved From Hot Car by 6-Yr-Old - Will This Prevent Tragedy? - Storm Surge From 160 Miles Away - Marine's Pregnant Wife Missing - Why People Live In Tornado Alley? - 'Shoe Trick' Can Save Kids' LIVES - Is The Mississippi Flood Over? - Reporter Pummeled By Haboob! - Inside a Sunken Swedish Warship - Inside The ESPN Body Issue - Tragic End at Walmart Parking Lot - Voyager Leaves Solar System - Whale Poop Helps Ocean - Typhoon Neoguri Slams Japan - Why Did This Town Go Underground? - Iron Age Coins Discovered! - FOUND: World War I Submarine - No One Knew He Was at Risk - You'll Never Guess What's Inside - Teens' Heroic Efforts to Save Man - Kayakers Happen Upon Abandoned Ship - Pope on Sin of Our Times - Yikes! This Jet is Way Too Close - Rebuilding Staten Island Post Sandy - Vampire Bird Terrorizes Island - Saturn's Moon Has Salt Water? - Explore Sunken Ships in Real Time - New Frozen Planet Discovered - Air Quality Drops After Fires - A Unique View of Hurricane Arthur - Dramatic Rescue on Side of Cliff - Tornado on the Ground - Coast Guard Rescues Mickey Mouse - Baby Bear Gets Head Stuck in Jar - Sheep Adopts Baby Rhino - Hurricane Arthur 34 Miles off the Coast - Hurricane Arthur: Worst of Landfall - Woman Gives Birth During Arthur - Kangaroos Use Tail as Fifth Leg - Sights and Sounds of Hurricane Arthur - Landfall? Hit? Strike? - Could Salt Melt Martian Ice - Snake Bite Causes Problems 50 Years Later - Plants Fight Back Against Caterpillars - Shocking NASA Images - Storm Watch Ice scientist Ted Scambos at the National Snow and Ice Data Center said the new record is "50 degrees colder than anything that has ever been seen in Alaska or Siberia or certainly North Dakota." "It's more like you'd see on Mars on a nice summer day in the poles," Scambos said, from the American Geophysical Union scientific meeting in San Francisco Monday, where he announced the data. "I'm confident that these pockets are the coldest places on Earth." However, it won't be in the Guinness Book of World Records because these were satellite measured, not from thermometers, Scambos said. "Thank God, I don't know how exactly it feels," Scambos said. But he said scientists do routinely make naked 100 degree below zero dashes outside in the South Pole, so people can survive that temperature for about three minutes. Most of the time researchers need to breathe through a snorkel that brings air into the coat through a sleeve and warms it up "so you don't inhale by accident" the cold air, Scambos said. On Monday, the coldest U.S. temperature was a relatively balmy 27 degrees below zero Fahrenheit in Yellowstone, Wyo., said Jeff Masters, meteorology director of the private firm Weather Underground. Just because one spot on Earth has set records for cold that has little to do with global warming because it is one spot in one place, said Waleed Abdalati, an ice scientist at the University of Colorado and NASA's former chief scientist. Both Abdalati, who wasn't part of the measurement team, and Scambos said this is likely an unusual random reading in a place that hasn't been measured much before and could have been colder or hotter in the past and we wouldn't know. "It does speak to the range of conditions on this Earth, some of which we haven't been able to observe," Abdalati said. MORE ON WEATHER.COM: The Stunning Beauty of Antarctica Stunning Images of Antarctica

ALTOONA, Wis (WEAU)--In the hands of most kids, high tech gadgets are little more than plug-in toys but for some students dealing with a disability iPads and iPod Touches are game changers. "In my 28 years of being a Speech and Language Pathologist there's just been a huge change in kids’ ability and access to communicate on so many different levels,” said Tracy Boyd Altoona Middle School 5th grader Logan Riechers is using an i Pad as personal communication device. Logan has Down Syndrome and Autism and while he can speak Logan has trouble verbalizing needs and wants. Logan is using Proloquo2Go. The app is personalized for Logan to help him communicate daily tasks and activities. Speech and Language Pathologist, Tracy Boyd says iPad give students, like Logan, another way to express themselves and learn. "I’ve noticed that it increases their communication. Research shows that assistive technoloy really bridges the gap,” said Boyd. The app only costs about $200 plus the cost of the iPad. So it's a much cheaper and sleeker option to other assistive technology systems that made students stand out and cost thousands of dollars. "It's portable, its user friendly, and I think there is a definite cool factor," said Boyd. The technology is helping take away the learning barrier that once separated kids dealing with a disability from their peers. "There is stigma that comes with having to be pulled out of class and apart from their peers," said Karsten Powell, Special Education Teacher with Altoona High School. But now the apps are helping more kids stay in class. One app Altoona High School is using is called 'Read2go' “The big thing is that they can't decode grade level text and read it properly and it limits their ability to comprehend. So this reads it out loud to them and usually their auditory comprehension is much higher,” said Powell. 14 year old Kora Smith uses the app to help her read novels in her 9th grade English class. "If I feel good about my school work I work harder,” said Smith. "It gives kids confidence because they know that they can do something that everybody else did," said Powell. Another app will read a paragraph the student has written back to them to help catch misspelled words or broken sentences. 9th grader Brady Linderman, who has Asperger’s, says he used to get nervous to let other kids read his papers in class. Brady say the technology has shown him can do anything he puts his mind too. "I can actually get in to a college and achieve my goals that I’ve always wanted to achieve," said Linderman "Seeing them fit in and be able to keep up with their peers that's huge," said Powell.

During the Renaissance, Italy was a collection of city-states, each with its own ruler—the Pope in Rome, the Medici family in Florence, the Doge in Venice, the Sforza family in Milan, the Este family in Ferrara, etc. Among the ruling families of these city-states there was unceasing conflict and intense rivalry—either by open warfare or, in times of peace, through economic and artistic competition to achieve the most brilliant court. It was this rivalry that drove Alfonso d'Este to commission the Feast of the Gods for his palace in Ferrara, some 100 miles southwest of Venice. The Renaissance was a time of paradoxical contrasts, when artistic enlightenment was mixed with savage barbarism. Thus, the d'Este family in Ferrara was committed to learning, art and the new humanism—and none more so than Alfonso d'Este. Yet Alfonso's grandfather had his wife brutally murdered together with her lover, who had been her illegitimate stepson, and Alfonso's father, failing to poison a nephew, simply had him executed instead. < Previous Next >

What is smallpox? Smallpox is a contagious infection caused by the variola virus. Smallpox can be deadly, so if an outbreak happens, it is vital to stay away from infected people. Get vaccinated if you have been around someone who has smallpox. And if you have symptoms, seek medical care. The telltale signs of smallpox are severe illness with a high fever, then a body rash. Symptoms appear about 12 days after the person is infected. Before there was a vaccine, smallpox used to cause death all around the world. Thanks to widespread use of the vaccine, the last natural case of smallpox occurred in 1977. And in 1980 the World Health Organization (WHO) declared that the spread of smallpox was stopped and that the disease had been wiped out. Because there is a slight risk of serious reactions and even death from the smallpox vaccine, routine smallpox immunization ended in the United States in 1972. Smallpox virus is known to exist in labs at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in the U.S. and at the Institute of Virus Preparations in Siberia, Russia. But it may also be in other labs. Some people worry that terrorists could release the virus and spread smallpox to many people. What are the symptoms? The first symptoms of smallpox include a high fever, fatigue, a headache, and a backache. After 2 to 3 days of illness, a flat, red rash appears. It usually starts on the face and upper arms, and then it spreads all over your body. Over the next 2 to 3 weeks, the flat, red spots become firm and dome-shaped and fill with pus. Then they scab over. Scabs fall off 3 to 4 weeks after the rash first appears, and they leave pitted incubation period for smallpox is about 12 days. But symptoms can develop as soon as 7 days or as long as 19 days after exposure. You may mistake a severe chickenpox rash for a smallpox rash at first. But different viruses cause these illnesses and there are many differences between chickenpox and smallpox rashes . How is smallpox spread? Smallpox is contagious. It can be passed from one person to another through coughing, sneezing, or breathing, or by contact with the scabs or the fluid from blisters. It can even spread from an infected person's personal items and bedding. Smallpox is easiest to spread during the first week of the rash. As scabs form, the person is less contagious. But a person can spread the virus from the time the rash first appears until all scabs have fallen off. If a terrorist were to release a small amount of the virus into the air, it is possible that it could spread among a large number of people. The virus may be able to survive and infect people for up to a day. People who get this disease must stay away from others to help prevent it from spreading. If there has been a smallpox outbreak and you think you might have been exposed, call your doctor or local health department. Do not go directly to a health facility, because you could pass the disease to other

Character Entities in HTML & XHTML Single characters can be embedded into documents using character entity references. These references have a numeric value as well as a named value. You can use either one just so long as it is allowed within the DTD in question. Using character entities is particularly helpful when the encoding set doesn’t express all the characters that you might want to use in the document. For example, if I were authoring a document in English and wanted to use an inverted exclamation mark for a Spanish quotation, I’d use an entity to create that character. Other character entity references help control space, symbols, and so on. There are three types of character entities available in HTML and XHTML. Follow the links to the complete chart listings for that entity type. - ISO 8859-1 characters. This set includes the Latin set of character entities. - Symbols, Mathematical Characters, Greek and Latin Letters. This set includes entities for various symbols (such as copyright symbols and so on), math characters, and Greek and Latin letters. - Markup-significant Characters. This set includes internationalization characters such as those required for bi-directional text. The Web Standards Project is a grassroots coalition fighting for standards which ensure simple, affordable access to web technologies for all.

Global Agenda Council on Informed Societies 2012-2014 A healthy democracy requires an informed citizenry, or so the theory goes. This argument assumes that citizens receive impartial and objective information, delivered via a free and diverse media, leading to a robust exchange of opinions. Members of society are thus able to participate fully in community decisions and democracy can flourish. In practice, however, it is acknowledged that the media has not served this purpose. Concentrations of ownership, the assimilation of mass media, concerns over private interests – in everything ranging from advertising to sourcing – have forced a rethink of the respected notions of free speech, impartiality and objectivity. The rise in communication technologies has exacerbated this problem and made it more pertinent than ever. Although these tools give users greater control over their information diet, the speed at which news is disseminated has increased, the channels through which information is sourced have changed and the platforms have multiplied, challenging the ability of media organizations to ensure accurate and unbiased reports. There have been a number of cases where false information has rapidly spread online and fooled traditional media outlets. Large media groups have a near-monopoly on news coverage, resulting in issues and groups being under-represented. At the same time, Edward Snowden’s revelations of surveillance by government agencies have created additional risks to informed societies, notably threats of greater regulatory oversight and reduced whistle-blower protection, which will hinder free speech. Given the disconnect between theory and reality, what must be done to foster the development of an informed society? The fundamental problems surrounding media are persistent and likely to endure. Nonetheless, issues of transparency and accountability, media literacy and privacy must be addressed. Questions on how to best integrate new communication channels into “old” media remain. Fundamentally, the priority is to develop a model for a society in which all citizens have access to reliable and pertinent information, allowing them to make better-informed decisions. What the Council is doing about it In 2013, the Council launched a Blueprint for Informed Societies. The document is designed to serve as a model and guide for how societies can improve their level of “informedness”, to benefit their societies and the world as a whole. “Issues of transparency and accountability, media literacy and privacy must be addressed.” Over the next 12 months, the Council intends to work further on an Index of Informed Societies by continuing research and statistical analysis, with the long-term aim of developing a complete ranking of the world’s nations and their level of informedness. The Council has developed a university seminar series to promote the messages of this Index. Finally, there are plans to create a public space for online debate about what an informed society means for the world. To get involved please contact Document archive for all the issues you are interested in

Warning: Creating default object from empty value in /home/weirdex/public_html/includes/functions_core.php on line 260 When the sky above the great, ancient forests of USA , Canada, Mexico, Honduras or Guatemala shroud in darkness, high upon the treetops you can hear the flapping sound other than a bird's wings. You can assume it's unusual lodger of those woods. We are, of course talking about a flying squirrel, Glaucomys Sciuridae, mammal, rodent from sciuridae family. His fur is gray and brown on his back, almost white and really smooth on his belly. He can glide the air between the trees thanks to membranes that stretch from his cheeks to ornate tail. Although, he is almost invisible in day light, hiding in the treetops of deciduous and mixed forests. The animal was discovered 1758. Carl von Linne was the founder of this amazing creatures.