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A yellow canary records animal suicides at the edge of a cliff, possibly the world. Animator Philip Bacon speaks in tongues of metaphor with his take on death and behavior. He tells this story in a way that allows the audience to create their own interpretations of the larger meaning. The protagonist, the canary, acts as a god-like character, simply observing suicides in ritual by recording in a book then eating a representation of their species (jelly beans). He is unfazed by the animals’ obvious strife. A break in the ritual occurs when a cat is caught dragging a briefcase to the cliff. Upon the discovery, the cat flees the scene leaving the briefcase behind. Curiosity drives the canary to reveal what is in the case. At this point, the canary has a crisis of conscience. Should he be involved with the dealings of his fellow animals? Can his routine return to normal after such an interruption? Props beautifully illustrate the difficult decision-making process. The canary’s decision eventually overwhelms him with emotion. A cow helps him complete his emotional journey by reminding him that he is an animal too, not alone. The canary character could be interpreted in many ways. He could be the physical manifestation of death, longing to be a human. Perhaps he’s a Jesus figure meddling and recording events only to be sucked into the drama of the moment then saved by Mary Magdalene. Maybe he assumes the identity of the title itself, cowardice. Or perhaps his costume has a literal meaning for humans as animals and our emotions is what eventually separates our species. This is why the short is enticing. Whichever interpretation you subscribe, this short will keep you talking for days after you watch.

Ones Street uses the idea that numbers are like houses on a street. The ones place is a house. The tens place is a street. The hundreds place is a block. The thousands place is a neighborhood. This tool helps K-2 students understand place value, how big a number is, how to count on, addition, and subtraction. Common Core Standards for K-2 math are listed that the tool can assist in teaching as well as some simple ideas of ways to use the tool. This tool can help you differentiate instruction for the more concrete learners in your classroom or it can help you bring math into your transportation theme or social studies unit. This is a PDF file.

SPRING CREEK (BOWIE COUNTY) SPRING CREEK (Bowie County). Spring Creek rises 2½ miles south of Wake Village in southeastern Bowie County (at 33°23' N, 94°07' W). Intermittent in its upper reaches, the stream flows in a southerly direction for six miles to its mouth on the Sulphur River, four miles east of the Arkansas state line (at 33°18' N, 94°07' W). The soils through which Spring Creek flows are loamy along the upper and middle reaches and clayey around the mouth of the creek. The area around the upper reaches is extensively developed for commercial and residential uses. That around the middle and lower reaches is heavily wooded, with pines and various hardwoods predominating. The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article."SPRING CREEK (BOWIE COUNTY)," Handbook of Texas Online (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/rbsel), accessed November 29, 2015. Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association. Get Texas history everyday, with day by day Each day's email tells a little bit more of the story of Texas and links to our collection of more than 27,000 articles

When writing in a particular genre and to a particular audience, one important consideration is the level of formality of your writing. For instance, the type of language typically used in texting differs significantly than that used in email and even more significantly than that used in an academic essay. Even if you are writing in the same genre, say an email message, your language should change depending on your audience. For instance, you would write an email differently to a friend than to a professor. Here are some characteristics of different genres of writing: 1. Brainstorm some additional informal/formal word pairs. 2. Compare an email that you wrote to a friend or family member and one that you have written to a professor. Did you adapt your language for the different audiences? If not, what could you have done differently to write to the more formal audience of your professor? 3. Why do you think expressions like “I think” and “In my opinion” are generally avoided in academic writing?

Water is getting more valuable by the day, it seems. It is so valuable that Amarillo city officials are pondering whether to impose a fee for the water we allow to run off into storm sewers. It's not without precedent, as cities such as Lubbock, Austin and Abilene impose fees - as much as $10 monthly - to help pay for infrastructure improvements. The Amarillo Development Policy Review Committee heard a presentation that projects the city could raise as much as $10 million annually with the fee, which would be assessed on customers' water-and-sewer bills each month. The money would pay for street and alley repair and maintenance, as well as storm-drain improvements. But consider this factor as well: The fee could deter the wasting of water, which in the grand scheme could cut into the revenue raised by its imposition. Perhaps you've seen it. Water pours from sprinkler heads on commercial property, spilling onto sidewalks and into streets. It runs into storm drains, where it does no good whatsoever. Add to that the fact that we've had some mighty cold mornings of late. The water turns to ice, thus creating a significant hazard to those walking along the sidewalks or driving on the streets. The city's capital-improvement projects need a revenue source. Attaching fees to the water many of us waste every day seems to be a reasonable option for the city to pursue. It also has an added benefit of deterring further waste. Who wants to pay more for water than is absolutely necessary? With surface and groundwater levels receding each day, we need to look for incentives to take better care of this valuable resource. A little extra money out of consumers' pockets just might do the trick.

The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Foreign Affairs and National Security Policy and Strategy Ethiopia’s policy towards Somalia a) Historical background of relations The relation between Ethiopia and Somalia has not been a healthy one. In the recent historical period, one major and one lesser war were fought between the two countries. The empty dream of the so-called “Greater Somalia”, an expansionist policy, had brought to Somalia nothing but hostility and conflicts with all its neighbors, especially Ethiopia. Moreover, Somalia had always allied with all groups and countries it believed were anti-Ethiopian and had disturbed Ethiopia’s peace. On the other hand, Ethiopian Somalis had resisted the oppressive system in Ethiopia. Related to this, Somalia had succeeded in mobilizing a large number of Ethiopian Somalis as allays in its attempt to execute its expansionist policy. In this regard Ethiopia has been exposed to threats emanating from Somalia and other quarters. Ethiopia, for its part, rather than responding to the threat by respecting the right of Ethiopian Somalis and by fostering brotherhood between the peoples of Ethiopia, so Ethiopian Somalis could live in voluntary unity with their other fellow Ethiopians, resorted to dismantling Somalia to the extent possible. The policy was to respond to Somali aggression by taking the war to Somalia and, along the way, aggravating the contradiction between the Somali clans. The situation has now fundamentally changed. The “Greater Somalia” ideology has been discredited. It is now over ten years since Somalia has become stateless. On the other hand, in Ethiopia, a constitution in which peoples’ rights are guaranteed is being implemented. Ethiopian Somalis are living in brotherhood and voluntary unity with other Ethiopians in a newly defined, inclusive Ethiopian identity. Together with other Ethiopians, Ethio-Somalis are, in the spirit of equality, democracy, development and an Ethiopian identity, resting on strong foundations and contributing to the building of the country. Ethiopia’s vulnerability to the “Greater Somalia” ideology has been greatly diminished. On the other hand, the disintegration of Somalia has in itself brought ever-growing danger. The crisis in Somalia has allowed religious extremism to take hold. Somalia has become a haven and conduit for terrorists and extremists. Anti-peace elements are using the country as a base and place of transit in order to threaten Ethiopia’s peace. Somalia’s disintegration has brought danger to the peace in our country. b) Significance of the relations There is no condition whereby Somalia could contribute as a source of investment and financial development or as a significant market for Ethiopia. After a process of some length, followed by peace and stability in Somalia, there is the chance that it could become a significant market, but this is difficult to imagine in the short and medium term. Regarding natural resources, all the big rivers in Somalia flow from Ethiopia. The irrigation schemes in Somalia which effectively served the people are in a poor state. On the other hand, as our country steps up its development, we will have to dam the rivers for irrigation purposes. The harnessing of rivers in Ethiopia can help Somalia resist floods, and so the benefit would be mutual. But on the other hand, these rivers could be used in Ethiopia – mainly in the Somali region – for development purposes. This could create a minor conflict but the problem can be tackled by the principle of give and take in a way that takes into account the national interests of the two countries. As can be understood from the above, in the short and medium terms, Somalia does not have a positive or negative influence of note in the development of our country. And yet, in Somalia there are numerous ports that can provide services to Ethiopia. Starting from the port of Zeila which gave services to Ethiopia during its long history, all the way to Kismayo, there are no less than seven ports in Somalia that can be used by different parts of our countr

f the country. Ethiopia’s vulnerability to the “Greater Somalia” ideology has been greatly diminished. On the other hand, the disintegration of Somalia has in itself brought ever-growing danger. The crisis in Somalia has allowed religious extremism to take hold. Somalia has become a haven and conduit for terrorists and extremists. Anti-peace elements are using the country as a base and place of transit in order to threaten Ethiopia’s peace. Somalia’s disintegration has brought danger to the peace in our country. b) Significance of the relations There is no condition whereby Somalia could contribute as a source of investment and financial development or as a significant market for Ethiopia. After a process of some length, followed by peace and stability in Somalia, there is the chance that it could become a significant market, but this is difficult to imagine in the short and medium term. Regarding natural resources, all the big rivers in Somalia flow from Ethiopia. The irrigation schemes in Somalia which effectively served the people are in a poor state. On the other hand, as our country steps up its development, we will have to dam the rivers for irrigation purposes. The harnessing of rivers in Ethiopia can help Somalia resist floods, and so the benefit would be mutual. But on the other hand, these rivers could be used in Ethiopia – mainly in the Somali region – for development purposes. This could create a minor conflict but the problem can be tackled by the principle of give and take in a way that takes into account the national interests of the two countries. As can be understood from the above, in the short and medium terms, Somalia does not have a positive or negative influence of note in the development of our country. And yet, in Somalia there are numerous ports that can provide services to Ethiopia. Starting from the port of Zeila which gave services to Ethiopia during its long history, all the way to Kismayo, there are no less than seven ports in Somalia that can be used by different parts of our country. These possibilities could significantly contribute to our development, but due to the “Greater Somalia”-driven conflict and national oppression in Ethiopia, they were never seriously considered (not to forget that Ethiopia had ports of its own). The current collapse of the state in Somalia makes it unrealistic to think of using the ports at the present time. Even if the chances to use the ports were to arise, and though that would increase Somalia’s relevance to our development, one cannot see a positive role that Somalia can play at this time. On the negative side, it is worth noting that the disintegration of Somalia has posed dangers for peace and stability in Ethiopia. This situation has spoilt the image of our sub-region, and the Horn is now perceived as an area of conflict. Our chances to attract investment have been reduced and the “Somalia effect” has contributed to the uncertainty about regional peace and the lack of economic linkages between the two countries. c) Policy Direction Our proximity to Somalia would be beneficial to our development if there were peace and stability in Somalia. Peace can come to our region if a government committed to fighting disorder, terrorism and extremism in cooperation with its neighbours is established in Somalia. Some circles say that the establishment of such a government in Somalia would once again resuscitate the ideology of “Greater Somalia” and that peace, democracy and development in Somalia would, in that case, not benefit Ethiopia. This view is fundamentally wrong and dangerous. First, of all, from now onwards, our country safeguards the unity of its peoples not by denying them options but by helping them recognise and confirm in practice, the option based on equality, mutual development and democracy. As a result of this, we have created the condition whereby Ethiopian Somalis, no matter whether the ideology of “Greater Somalia” is revived or not, would choose to live in equality and unity with their other Ethiopian brothers and sisters. As our development

y. These possibilities could significantly contribute to our development, but due to the “Greater Somalia”-driven conflict and national oppression in Ethiopia, they were never seriously considered (not to forget that Ethiopia had ports of its own). The current collapse of the state in Somalia makes it unrealistic to think of using the ports at the present time. Even if the chances to use the ports were to arise, and though that would increase Somalia’s relevance to our development, one cannot see a positive role that Somalia can play at this time. On the negative side, it is worth noting that the disintegration of Somalia has posed dangers for peace and stability in Ethiopia. This situation has spoilt the image of our sub-region, and the Horn is now perceived as an area of conflict. Our chances to attract investment have been reduced and the “Somalia effect” has contributed to the uncertainty about regional peace and the lack of economic linkages between the two countries. c) Policy Direction Our proximity to Somalia would be beneficial to our development if there were peace and stability in Somalia. Peace can come to our region if a government committed to fighting disorder, terrorism and extremism in cooperation with its neighbours is established in Somalia. Some circles say that the establishment of such a government in Somalia would once again resuscitate the ideology of “Greater Somalia” and that peace, democracy and development in Somalia would, in that case, not benefit Ethiopia. This view is fundamentally wrong and dangerous. First, of all, from now onwards, our country safeguards the unity of its peoples not by denying them options but by helping them recognise and confirm in practice, the option based on equality, mutual development and democracy. As a result of this, we have created the condition whereby Ethiopian Somalis, no matter whether the ideology of “Greater Somalia” is revived or not, would choose to live in equality and unity with their other Ethiopian brothers and sisters. As our development and democratisation process gains momentum, our vulnerability to the effects of this and other similar slogans will be much reduced. Furthermore, it should be underscored that, since it has been the cause of much suffering first and foremost to the people of Somalia, this slogan of “Greater Somalia” has been discredited and its chances of revival are indeed very slim. In light of the encouraging political and economic situation in Ethiopia, the fact that Somalis live in both countries would actually ensure that they serve as a bridge that creates strong connections between the two countries, rather than as a factor of suspicion. On the contrary, if Somalia enjoys peace and democracy, we will have the opportunity to use the Somali ports extensively and continuously and this would contribute to our development significantly. Such a situation would make it possible, in alliance with the new government, to stamp out anti-peace activities originating from Somalia. Both countries can work together to jointly develop river utilization plans. The way would also be clear to promote strong educational and cultural ties and interdependence in light of the educational and other related activities that are carried out in the Somali language within the Somali Region of our country. By creating strong relations between the two countries regarding the use of ports and rivers, commerce, culture and so on, and seeing to it that the two peoples are benefiting from this, one could be sure that the peoples would resist activities designed to harm the relations that are proving to be so beneficial to them. Ethiopia would also gain direct economic advantages from this situation; in addition, when Ethiopia’s eastern border ceases to be a source of threat, overall economic development would be enhanced. That is why, at this time, our major objective in Somalia is to see the establishment of peace and democracy, and based on that, the development of strong economic, cultural and political ties between the two countries. This may be our wi

and democratisation process gains momentum, our vulnerability to the effects of this and other similar slogans will be much reduced. Furthermore, it should be underscored that, since it has been the cause of much suffering first and foremost to the people of Somalia, this slogan of “Greater Somalia” has been discredited and its chances of revival are indeed very slim. In light of the encouraging political and economic situation in Ethiopia, the fact that Somalis live in both countries would actually ensure that they serve as a bridge that creates strong connections between the two countries, rather than as a factor of suspicion. On the contrary, if Somalia enjoys peace and democracy, we will have the opportunity to use the Somali ports extensively and continuously and this would contribute to our development significantly. Such a situation would make it possible, in alliance with the new government, to stamp out anti-peace activities originating from Somalia. Both countries can work together to jointly develop river utilization plans. The way would also be clear to promote strong educational and cultural ties and interdependence in light of the educational and other related activities that are carried out in the Somali language within the Somali Region of our country. By creating strong relations between the two countries regarding the use of ports and rivers, commerce, culture and so on, and seeing to it that the two peoples are benefiting from this, one could be sure that the peoples would resist activities designed to harm the relations that are proving to be so beneficial to them. Ethiopia would also gain direct economic advantages from this situation; in addition, when Ethiopia’s eastern border ceases to be a source of threat, overall economic development would be enhanced. That is why, at this time, our major objective in Somalia is to see the establishment of peace and democracy, and based on that, the development of strong economic, cultural and political ties between the two countries. This may be our wish and policy, but peace and democracy cannot be realised through our efforts only. Although we will do all in our power to contribute to the peace and stability of Somalia, as it is in our interest to do so, the responsibility to establish peace in that country principally rests on the Somali people and the political forces there. In addition to this, those external forces which can influence events should see to it that they use their authority to contribute to bringing about peace and democracy in Somalia. The events of the last ten years in Somalia have not been encouraging, but we should not give up hope that peace and democracy will eventually come to Somalia. The country has disintegrated into different areas, and while some are comparatively, calm others are in continuous turmoil. Those who reap benefits from the absence of authority – a number of Somali groups, some traders, religious extremists, and their foreign friends – are bent on sabotaging in one way or another any effort aimed at bringing about peace in Somalia. Although the Somali people long for peace, they have not been able to break out of the web of obstruction put in place by those who oppose peace and change. Although the international community wishes to bring about peace in Somalia, it is evidently not ready to exert all its efforts to realise this. Thus, it appears to us that the condition of instability in Somalia is likely to persist for some time. Therefore, our policy should not be limited to contributing to the emergence of peace and democracy only and, based on that, to forging strong ties; rather, it should also address what we should do if instability and turmoil persist. Our fundamental policy remains to persistently work towards the birth of a peaceful and democratic Somalia. But in light of the continuing instability, the policy we pursue should essentially be a damage-limitation policy to ensure that the instability does not further harm our country, the region and the people of Somalia. If the instability is not stopped, th

sh and policy, but peace and democracy cannot be realised through our efforts only. Although we will do all in our power to contribute to the peace and stability of Somalia, as it is in our interest to do so, the responsibility to establish peace in that country principally rests on the Somali people and the political forces there. In addition to this, those external forces which can influence events should see to it that they use their authority to contribute to bringing about peace and democracy in Somalia. The events of the last ten years in Somalia have not been encouraging, but we should not give up hope that peace and democracy will eventually come to Somalia. The country has disintegrated into different areas, and while some are comparatively, calm others are in continuous turmoil. Those who reap benefits from the absence of authority – a number of Somali groups, some traders, religious extremists, and their foreign friends – are bent on sabotaging in one way or another any effort aimed at bringing about peace in Somalia. Although the Somali people long for peace, they have not been able to break out of the web of obstruction put in place by those who oppose peace and change. Although the international community wishes to bring about peace in Somalia, it is evidently not ready to exert all its efforts to realise this. Thus, it appears to us that the condition of instability in Somalia is likely to persist for some time. Therefore, our policy should not be limited to contributing to the emergence of peace and democracy only and, based on that, to forging strong ties; rather, it should also address what we should do if instability and turmoil persist. Our fundamental policy remains to persistently work towards the birth of a peaceful and democratic Somalia. But in light of the continuing instability, the policy we pursue should essentially be a damage-limitation policy to ensure that the instability does not further harm our country, the region and the people of Somalia. If the instability is not stopped, the only option left is to limit the damage that may be caused. There are three main options to limit the damage. First, we have to try to help those regions which are comparatively stable and do not shelter extremists and terrorists in order that the relative peace they enjoy is maintained and even strengthened. Those that can be mentioned in this regard are the regions known as Somaliland and Puntland. In the spirit of damage limitation and to assist these regions maintain their stability, it is necessary that the links be strengthened in such areas as trade, transport and the like in the interest of our country and the people inhabiting the region. The question could be raised regarding the recognition of Somaliland as an independent state. Taking this initiative is not preferable to Ethiopia because it would create negative feelings on the part of Somalis living in the rest of Somalia and others would be suspicious of our intent. Therefore, our cooperation with these regions should not include recognizing the regional administrations as independent states. But we should continue to assist these regions in maintaining peace and stability, as it is to our advantage and the benefit of the peoples living in the area. Secondly, we shall certainly continue to be exposed to various dangers as long as peace and stability elude Somalia as a whole. In recognition of this, we must create the capability to defend ourselves and foil any attack by forces of extremism, terrorism and other anti-peace elements originating in Somalia. In this regard we must always be vigilant. Thirdly, we have to work in cooperation with the Somali people in the region, and the international community as a whole, to weaken and neutralize those forces coming from any part of Somalia to perpetrate attacks against our country. Obviously, the solution to all of this is the prevalence of democracy, and everything must be done to assist in reaching this solution. At the same time, however, we need to receive the understanding and support of the people

e only option left is to limit the damage that may be caused. There are three main options to limit the damage. First, we have to try to help those regions which are comparatively stable and do not shelter extremists and terrorists in order that the relative peace they enjoy is maintained and even strengthened. Those that can be mentioned in this regard are the regions known as Somaliland and Puntland. In the spirit of damage limitation and to assist these regions maintain their stability, it is necessary that the links be strengthened in such areas as trade, transport and the like in the interest of our country and the people inhabiting the region. The question could be raised regarding the recognition of Somaliland as an independent state. Taking this initiative is not preferable to Ethiopia because it would create negative feelings on the part of Somalis living in the rest of Somalia and others would be suspicious of our intent. Therefore, our cooperation with these regions should not include recognizing the regional administrations as independent states. But we should continue to assist these regions in maintaining peace and stability, as it is to our advantage and the benefit of the peoples living in the area. Secondly, we shall certainly continue to be exposed to various dangers as long as peace and stability elude Somalia as a whole. In recognition of this, we must create the capability to defend ourselves and foil any attack by forces of extremism, terrorism and other anti-peace elements originating in Somalia. In this regard we must always be vigilant. Thirdly, we have to work in cooperation with the Somali people in the region, and the international community as a whole, to weaken and neutralize those forces coming from any part of Somalia to perpetrate attacks against our country. Obviously, the solution to all of this is the prevalence of democracy, and everything must be done to assist in reaching this solution. At the same time, however, we need to receive the understanding and support of the people of Somalia and the international community regarding what we are facing. While maintaining the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of Somalia, we have to ensure our right to safeguard our peace and defend ourselves.

of Somalia and the international community regarding what we are facing. While maintaining the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of Somalia, we have to ensure our right to safeguard our peace and defend ourselves.

Acute appendicitis is one of the commonest abdominal surgical diseases, the etiology of which is only fairly well established. As shown in the experimental work of Wangensteen and Bowers,13 the two important etiologic factors are obstruction and infection, and the finding of acute appendicitis without both factors is rare. Boyd2 has stated that while concretions or fecaliths are the cause of the obstruction in about 80% of the cases, other causes may also be found. Among the commoner causes are obstruction due to lymphoid hyperplasia, fibrous bands, and masses of intraluminal parasites, primarily Oxyuris vermicularis. The occasional finding of tumor as the cause of obstruction has been reported.* Among the most important of these are carcinoids or argentaffinomas. Lee and Blain report an incidence of about 0.2% in unselected cases. Primary carcinoma of the appendix, in rare instances, may be the cause of the obstruction leading to acute

Much has been written about the dangers of consuming soft drinks because of their hidden sugars and extra calories. However, is it as simple as just extra calories from sugar or is the high fructose corn syrup used as the sweetener that is particularly harmful? It is important to understand that there are several different types of sugar. The sugar our bodies use for energy is glucose. Dextrose is the same as glucose. Our bodies eventually break all sugars down into glucose. Sucrose is our usual table sugar and is made from cane or beet sugar. This is a two-sugar molecule with one glucose and one fructose bonded together. Fructose is the sugar found in fruits and vegetables. Fructose has a low glycemic index, which means that it takes a long time for the body to it break down, resulting in a slow, steady release of sugar, rather than a sudden rush. For this reason, fructose is sometimes recommended for people with diabetes. Regular corn syrup is made from corn and is all glucose. High fructose corn syrup is a mix of glucose and fructose but with a higher percentage of fructose. The sugars in high fructose corn syrup are not bonded together. High fructose corn syrup is less expensive to make and also preserves foods and soft drinks longer than glucose can. It did not exist until 1996. It tastes sweeter and adds to food texture. Because of this, food manufacturers prefer high fructose corn syrup to other sweeteners. All popular nondiet soft drinks are sweetened with high fructose corn syrup. All sugars have the same caloric content but the effect on metabolism and hormones may be different. A recent study attempted to look how our bodies may differently metabolize some sugars: In the Journal of Clinical Investigation, Dr. Peter J. Havel, professor of nutrition at the University of California at Davis, randomly assigned 32 overweight or obese men and women to drink three daily servings — 25 percent of their daily energy requirements — of a glucose- or fructose-sweetened beverage for 10 weeks. At the end of the study period, both groups had gained similar amounts of weight, but those consuming fructose-sweetened drinks showed an increase in intra-abdominal fat, the kind that embeds itself between tissues in organs. These individuals also became less sensitive to insulin, the hormone that controls blood sugar, and they had elevated levels of fat in the blood. The fructose group also showed increased fat production in the liver, elevated “bad” cholesterol and larger increases in blood triglycerides. The group drinking glucose-sweetened beverages showed none of these changes. Americans’ obesity problem started about the same time that high fructose corn syrup came on the market. It is this association that has led some nutritionists to want to study if high fructose corn syrup is metabolized differently than regular sugar. Unfortunately there is not much funding for this type of research and therefore there are not many studies. Also, there are some studies that seem to come to the opposite conclusion, that high fructose corn syrup is no worse than other sugars. So, what can I recommend, given this controversy? First, it is inconclusive that high fructose corn syrup is inherently unhealthful. However, because it is present in so many foods and essentially all nondiet sodas, it is an important and ever-present source of extra calories. Therefore, you must look at food and drink labels and try to pick the brands that don’t contain high fructose corn syrup. It is fair to say that our intake of extra calories is a problem and that the increase in high fructose corn syrup consumption is not helping. You should avoid food with added sugar regardless of whether it is table sugar or high fructose corn syrup. A previous version of this story about high fructose corn syrup needs clarification. Author Joanmarie Pellegrini, M.D., notes that high fructose corn syrup is no sweeter than table sugar and that it originally was marketed in the 1960s but did not come into widespread use until much more recently. More information is available by g

period, both groups had gained similar amounts of weight, but those consuming fructose-sweetened drinks showed an increase in intra-abdominal fat, the kind that embeds itself between tissues in organs. These individuals also became less sensitive to insulin, the hormone that controls blood sugar, and they had elevated levels of fat in the blood. The fructose group also showed increased fat production in the liver, elevated “bad” cholesterol and larger increases in blood triglycerides. The group drinking glucose-sweetened beverages showed none of these changes. Americans’ obesity problem started about the same time that high fructose corn syrup came on the market. It is this association that has led some nutritionists to want to study if high fructose corn syrup is metabolized differently than regular sugar. Unfortunately there is not much funding for this type of research and therefore there are not many studies. Also, there are some studies that seem to come to the opposite conclusion, that high fructose corn syrup is no worse than other sugars. So, what can I recommend, given this controversy? First, it is inconclusive that high fructose corn syrup is inherently unhealthful. However, because it is present in so many foods and essentially all nondiet sodas, it is an important and ever-present source of extra calories. Therefore, you must look at food and drink labels and try to pick the brands that don’t contain high fructose corn syrup. It is fair to say that our intake of extra calories is a problem and that the increase in high fructose corn syrup consumption is not helping. You should avoid food with added sugar regardless of whether it is table sugar or high fructose corn syrup. A previous version of this story about high fructose corn syrup needs clarification. Author Joanmarie Pellegrini, M.D., notes that high fructose corn syrup is no sweeter than table sugar and that it originally was marketed in the 1960s but did not come into widespread use until much more recently. More information is available by going to www.wabi.tv and searching under “Healthy Living.”

oing to www.wabi.tv and searching under “Healthy Living.”

Did you know that mammograms do not prevent breast cancer? In truth, they actually detect cancer that already exists. And while screening mammography* is currently the best tool we have for detecting breast cancer, it misses 20% of all tumors and women younger than 50 were even more likely to have a missed tumor. Over the last 30 years, the promise of early screening to significantly reduce deaths from breast cancer has under-delivered. Nevertheless, “early detection” and debates over whether breast cancer screening does more harm than good continue to oversimplify and dominate the conversation.The truth about screening is more complicated. BCAction believes that all women should have information about the risks and benefits of breast cancer screening technologies in order to make their own decision about breast cancer screening. We are excited to present this webinar hosted by: - Tracy Weitz, BCAction Board Chair and Director, Advancing New Standards in Reproductive Health (ANSIRH), University of California, San Francisco and - H. Gilbert Welch, MD, Professor of Medicine at the Dartmouth Institute for Health Policy and Clinical Research and co-author of the study “Effect of Three Decades of Screening Mammography on Breast Cancer Incidence.” During the webinar we will: - Deconstruct the “early detection saves lives” mantra - Analyze the benefits and harms of mammography - Explain the effect three decades of screening mammography has had on breast cancer incidence - Help to translate the science around overdiagnosis and overtreatment related to mammography - Discuss what all this information means for you Join us on Tuesday March 12th 1pm (PST)/4pm (EST) or Thursday March 14th 9am (PST)/12pm (EST) for this free webinar to learn about the risks and benefits of mammography and help inform a woman’s personal decision on timing and frequency of screening. *Breast Cancer Action recognizes that mammograms have an important but fundamentally limited role and should be part of, not all of, a strategy to address the breast cancer epidemic.

The Religious Society of Friends (RSOF), aka “Quakers,” was founded in England in 1652. Though there are still about 300,000 Quakers in the world today, when I mention the religion in polite company I often get puzzled looks, “Quakers? Aren’t they mythical, like fairies?” and “How do they get by without using electricity or driving cars?” Clearly, there is need for a little education here. I believe this confusion can be blamed on the Quaker Oats Man. We’ve all seen him on those boxes of oatmeal, wearing his old-fashioned clothing and that red-cheeked superior smirk. He gives Quakers a bad name, I tell you. The Religious Society of Friends, also known simply as “Friends,” is not church as we know it. Though the religion has been around since the 17th century, it is still as unconventional today as it was seen to be then. Their services are called “meetings,” and their building is referred to as the “meeting house.” There is no clergy, in fact, nobody is in charge. They hold no creeds, no dogma; they tell no myths, have no rituals, no symbolism. Zilch. I had always thought of Quakerism as the Seinfeld of religion. It is a religion about nothing. But Friends do hold principles. They believe in simplicity. Not in the “no cars, no electricity” way but rather, in more of a “green, socially responsible, and try not to wear a lot of designer labels” manner. Quakers are perhaps best known for their staunch commitment to peace. In fact, the RSOF won the 1947 Nobel Peace Prize. They have always refused military service and, during times of war, are often granted conscientious objector status, though many have been jailed for their pacifism throughout the years. Some Quakers go so far as to be unwilling to allow their taxes to go toward military spending and they establish separate measures with the government for the allocation of this portion of their taxes. Their own literature explains more of who they are and the RSOF do like their literature. Many meeting houses boast their own library and all carry plenty of pamphlets, leaflets, and publications that explore common interests such as climate change, the progress of volunteer peace workers around the world, political and social issues, and always, always, Quaker poetry. It is a world-wide religion, practiced in nearly every country, though their numbers are dwindling. Again, I blame the Quaker Oats man. But they too are somewhat responsible for their own diminishing membership. They don’t advertise, baptize, chastise, nor proselytize. It hardly seems like a religion at all. It is easy to understand why so few would venture into a meeting house uninvited. Though they have a reputation for being puritanical, which really isn’t fair given how poorly the Puritans treated them back in the day, they are actually a very liberal group. They stress moderation in all things but they drink, they dance, and they can sin with the best of us. They do, however, frown on gambling and other than staunch pacifism, this is the only line in the sand that Quakers have drawn as far as I can see. They refuse to swear legal oaths, with the explanation that they recognize only one standard of truth. A Friend never lies. The RSOF developed as a nonconformist movement in reaction to materialism. George Fox, one of the early founders of the religion, urged his followers to follow a more simple path of Christianity, one that they felt was based on early Christian communities. And, like the early Christians, the first Quakers were also beaten, imprisoned, and sometimes killed. In fact, the term “Quaker” was initially used derisively. During a trial an early Friend faced his accusers and “bid them tremble at the word of God,” and then those nasty Puritans turned it all around and gave them the cruel epithet “Quakers.” But Friends simply appropriated the name, thus stripping it of its insult in a very Friend sort of way. Quakers were radical in their time, and still are to some extent, in that they believe that each person can experience a direct relationship with God. This is why they have no clergy or anyt

s, leaflets, and publications that explore common interests such as climate change, the progress of volunteer peace workers around the world, political and social issues, and always, always, Quaker poetry. It is a world-wide religion, practiced in nearly every country, though their numbers are dwindling. Again, I blame the Quaker Oats man. But they too are somewhat responsible for their own diminishing membership. They don’t advertise, baptize, chastise, nor proselytize. It hardly seems like a religion at all. It is easy to understand why so few would venture into a meeting house uninvited. Though they have a reputation for being puritanical, which really isn’t fair given how poorly the Puritans treated them back in the day, they are actually a very liberal group. They stress moderation in all things but they drink, they dance, and they can sin with the best of us. They do, however, frown on gambling and other than staunch pacifism, this is the only line in the sand that Quakers have drawn as far as I can see. They refuse to swear legal oaths, with the explanation that they recognize only one standard of truth. A Friend never lies. The RSOF developed as a nonconformist movement in reaction to materialism. George Fox, one of the early founders of the religion, urged his followers to follow a more simple path of Christianity, one that they felt was based on early Christian communities. And, like the early Christians, the first Quakers were also beaten, imprisoned, and sometimes killed. In fact, the term “Quaker” was initially used derisively. During a trial an early Friend faced his accusers and “bid them tremble at the word of God,” and then those nasty Puritans turned it all around and gave them the cruel epithet “Quakers.” But Friends simply appropriated the name, thus stripping it of its insult in a very Friend sort of way. Quakers were radical in their time, and still are to some extent, in that they believe that each person can experience a direct relationship with God. This is why they have no clergy or anything else that might possibly be construed as an intermediary. They do not give authority to the Bible but use it instead for guidance and inspiration. To investigate British Quakers I decided to visit the Seven Oaks Meeting House. It was once a large thriving meeting but now is down to the last determined dozen or so members. I arrived to a warm, if not somewhat surprised, welcome. The meeting room itself was nice enough and the doors of the room opened onto a beautiful garden. They explained to me that I could sit anywhere and that the chairs in a Quaker service are usually arranged in a circle, underlining their commitment to egalitarianism. There seemed to be an awful lot of women in attendance, which single men should take note of. Before we began, they asked me, very nicely I might add, not to take notes during the meeting. I was a bit taken aback. No notes? They thought it might disturb the silence. I huffed and puffed a bit. My mind is like a sieve so I rely on my notes. But as it was, not that much happened. They refer to the meetings as “a space of gathered stillness.” Actually, they sit in collective silence – for an hour. As a child, a Quaker friend of mine, a Friend friend if you will, attended meetings with his grandmother. He said that each time they entered the meeting room she would direct him to “Go in and greet the light.” The “light” is a metaphor to Quakers for one’s relationship with God. So I sat in silence and looked for the light. For an hour. There are many forms of silence. There is the popular “silent treatment,” prized by angry couples worldwide, the spiritual “vow of silence,” the evocative “moment of silence,” Simon and Garfunklel’s famous “Sound of Silence,” a parent’s desperate plea for “a little bit of silence, please!” and the cruel silence of censorship. My mind was wandering. I looked around the room and noticed that everyone, save the man with special orthopedic shoes, was wearing sandals. That says something about a religion, I thought. I was not sure what, exactly. And I wa

hing else that might possibly be construed as an intermediary. They do not give authority to the Bible but use it instead for guidance and inspiration. To investigate British Quakers I decided to visit the Seven Oaks Meeting House. It was once a large thriving meeting but now is down to the last determined dozen or so members. I arrived to a warm, if not somewhat surprised, welcome. The meeting room itself was nice enough and the doors of the room opened onto a beautiful garden. They explained to me that I could sit anywhere and that the chairs in a Quaker service are usually arranged in a circle, underlining their commitment to egalitarianism. There seemed to be an awful lot of women in attendance, which single men should take note of. Before we began, they asked me, very nicely I might add, not to take notes during the meeting. I was a bit taken aback. No notes? They thought it might disturb the silence. I huffed and puffed a bit. My mind is like a sieve so I rely on my notes. But as it was, not that much happened. They refer to the meetings as “a space of gathered stillness.” Actually, they sit in collective silence – for an hour. As a child, a Quaker friend of mine, a Friend friend if you will, attended meetings with his grandmother. He said that each time they entered the meeting room she would direct him to “Go in and greet the light.” The “light” is a metaphor to Quakers for one’s relationship with God. So I sat in silence and looked for the light. For an hour. There are many forms of silence. There is the popular “silent treatment,” prized by angry couples worldwide, the spiritual “vow of silence,” the evocative “moment of silence,” Simon and Garfunklel’s famous “Sound of Silence,” a parent’s desperate plea for “a little bit of silence, please!” and the cruel silence of censorship. My mind was wandering. I looked around the room and noticed that everyone, save the man with special orthopedic shoes, was wearing sandals. That says something about a religion, I thought. I was not sure what, exactly. And I was the only one with a pedicure. Though I couldn’t vouch for the woman wearing striped socks under her sandals, I’d be willing to bet that she didn’t have painted toenails. I wished that I could take out my notebook. I didn’t think that pencil against paper would really be that disruptive. What about the woman next to me with the dodgy stomach? That wasn’t distracting? It positively screamed. And the woman who kept flipping maniacally through the pages of the Bible. What was she looking for? I closed my eyes and tried to enter the silence, or the light, or whatever. My mind followed the sounds of a dog barking down the street, birds singing, distant traffic sounds, there goes that stomach again. What could she have eaten? And then the neighbor next door began to play the piano. Loudly, with the windows open. What Kind of Fool am I. Anthony Newly. I recognized it right away, having appeared in the play in high school. I could still remember the words as it turned out. I started to relax. To sit in silence for an hour is actually not as boring as one might think. Parents would probably find a Quaker meeting heaven. The silence of a meeting can be broken should someone be “moved by the spirit” to speak. Early Quakers were considered radical in that women had the same right to speak during meetings as men, something that might still be considered alarming in many churches. During the Seven Oaks meeting, a few people were moved to speak. One mentioned the recent death of a friend, and she asked us to “hold his family in the light.” Another spoke of her response to a work of art that she had recently seen, and the third read a very moving passage from a an essay written by that most famous of American Quakers, William Penn. It was something beautifully profound about how Quakers view death. But I can’t quote it here because I was not allowed to take notes. It did take a lot of work to sit in silence for an hour. You couldn’t just nod off. Though I have heard that people do fall asleep. And sometimes, yes, they snore. Th

s the only one with a pedicure. Though I couldn’t vouch for the woman wearing striped socks under her sandals, I’d be willing to bet that she didn’t have painted toenails. I wished that I could take out my notebook. I didn’t think that pencil against paper would really be that disruptive. What about the woman next to me with the dodgy stomach? That wasn’t distracting? It positively screamed. And the woman who kept flipping maniacally through the pages of the Bible. What was she looking for? I closed my eyes and tried to enter the silence, or the light, or whatever. My mind followed the sounds of a dog barking down the street, birds singing, distant traffic sounds, there goes that stomach again. What could she have eaten? And then the neighbor next door began to play the piano. Loudly, with the windows open. What Kind of Fool am I. Anthony Newly. I recognized it right away, having appeared in the play in high school. I could still remember the words as it turned out. I started to relax. To sit in silence for an hour is actually not as boring as one might think. Parents would probably find a Quaker meeting heaven. The silence of a meeting can be broken should someone be “moved by the spirit” to speak. Early Quakers were considered radical in that women had the same right to speak during meetings as men, something that might still be considered alarming in many churches. During the Seven Oaks meeting, a few people were moved to speak. One mentioned the recent death of a friend, and she asked us to “hold his family in the light.” Another spoke of her response to a work of art that she had recently seen, and the third read a very moving passage from a an essay written by that most famous of American Quakers, William Penn. It was something beautifully profound about how Quakers view death. But I can’t quote it here because I was not allowed to take notes. It did take a lot of work to sit in silence for an hour. You couldn’t just nod off. Though I have heard that people do fall asleep. And sometimes, yes, they snore. The rule of thumb is to simply ignore them, unless they are accompanied by a spouse, who usually takes care of the problem in their own private way. The end of the hour was signified by the assigned leader (not a priest) taking her neighbor’s hand. And then everyone joined hands for a silent moment of camaraderie. I wondered how Quakers worked as a group without a priest? Who makes the decisions? It turns out that everything is run by committee. If you have ever been on a committee or needed anything from a committee, you can appreciate just how alarmed I was. And it got worse. Business is conducted with silence. An appointed clerk records the “sense of the meeting.” Can you imagine? They don’t vote. They simply have quiet time and get a sense of what is right. So there is no debate, no arguments, no threats. Do these people really understand the meaning of the word “meeting?” When asked if they agree with a point, the positive Friend response is “I hope so” as opposed to a simple “yes,” and this is shorthand for “I hope that this is God’s will.” A decision is made when everyone in the meeting hopes that a “way forward” or “coming to unity” has occurred. If someone at the meeting disagrees the issue will not be considered resolved and they will return to silence. They maintain that every decision is determined by God’s will and, if everyone is listening to God, then the correct decision will eventually become evident. I questioned whether those who thought that Quakers belonged to another time weren’t right after all. This seemed no way to run a religion. Where did they find the time to do all of their charity service? What does the Quaker Oats man know that we don’t? The American artist James Turrell is a Friend friend. He once told me about being at an exhibition where an Italian gallerist approached him and coolly asked, “So, eez eet true that zou are a Quacker?” He never did correct him. Some other famous folk who you probably wouldn’t have guessed were Friends include singer Bonnie Raitt, Dame Judi Dench, Sir

e rule of thumb is to simply ignore them, unless they are accompanied by a spouse, who usually takes care of the problem in their own private way. The end of the hour was signified by the assigned leader (not a priest) taking her neighbor’s hand. And then everyone joined hands for a silent moment of camaraderie. I wondered how Quakers worked as a group without a priest? Who makes the decisions? It turns out that everything is run by committee. If you have ever been on a committee or needed anything from a committee, you can appreciate just how alarmed I was. And it got worse. Business is conducted with silence. An appointed clerk records the “sense of the meeting.” Can you imagine? They don’t vote. They simply have quiet time and get a sense of what is right. So there is no debate, no arguments, no threats. Do these people really understand the meaning of the word “meeting?” When asked if they agree with a point, the positive Friend response is “I hope so” as opposed to a simple “yes,” and this is shorthand for “I hope that this is God’s will.” A decision is made when everyone in the meeting hopes that a “way forward” or “coming to unity” has occurred. If someone at the meeting disagrees the issue will not be considered resolved and they will return to silence. They maintain that every decision is determined by God’s will and, if everyone is listening to God, then the correct decision will eventually become evident. I questioned whether those who thought that Quakers belonged to another time weren’t right after all. This seemed no way to run a religion. Where did they find the time to do all of their charity service? What does the Quaker Oats man know that we don’t? The American artist James Turrell is a Friend friend. He once told me about being at an exhibition where an Italian gallerist approached him and coolly asked, “So, eez eet true that zou are a Quacker?” He never did correct him. Some other famous folk who you probably wouldn’t have guessed were Friends include singer Bonnie Raitt, Dame Judi Dench, Sir Ben Kingsley, author A.S. Byatt, singer Dave Matthews, model Cheryl Tiegs, and, much to the shame of Quakers everywhere, former American President Richard M. Nixon, who really was much more of a Quacker.

Ben Kingsley, author A.S. Byatt, singer Dave Matthews, model Cheryl Tiegs, and, much to the shame of Quakers everywhere, former American President Richard M. Nixon, who really was much more of a Quacker.

By G. Wright Doyle Edited by Mark Ellis He was a polarizing figure who inspired respectful admiration or disgust and derision. He led the Republic of China during World War II, but after a bloody civil war with the communists his government was forced to retreat to Taiwan in 1949. The story of his spiritual journey reflects his turbulent life, which was often filled with contradictions. Chiang Kai-shek was born to Chiang Shu-an, a salt merchant. His mother, Wang Tsai-yu, was a devout Buddhist who sought to inculcate the tenets and practices of her faith in her son from infancy. As a child, he was known for his tendency to assume command of others, expecting obedience. The death of his father when he was very young forced his mother to work hard to support her son. As he watched her dealing with unscrupulous people, an intense rage started to burn in him, and he began to see himself as part of an exploited people. He reacted to these perceived injustices by turning in upon his own resources, spending a great deal of time alone, surrounded by mountains and streams and meditating upon his own future course. At the age of fifteen, he married nineteen-year old Mao Fu-mei, who was functionally illiterate. The couple seems to have been close for the first two months of their marriage, but Chiang’s mother rebuked him for uxoriousness. In response, Fumei dutifully distanced herself and the two drifted apart. As a young man, Chiang was known as a promiscuous womanizer, despite being married and having a son. His first marriage fell apart as his wife, who did not share Chiang’s passion for politics and revolution, complained of his frequent absences. He often beat her, and at least once dragged her by her hair down a flight of stairs. Finally, the two settled upon a relatively amicable divorce, though his wife grieved deeply. Chiang Ching-kuo was their only son. After their divorce, Chiang was reported to have several concubines, one of whom, Zhang Ah Feng, “Jennie,” he reportedly married in 1921. At that time he contracted a form of venereal disease. After graduation from a military academy in Japan, where he met Sun Yat-sen, Chiang become an enthusiastic supporter of the Chinese nationalist revolution, and joined the Tongmenghui (Sun’s organization). Return to China Chiang returned to China to participate in the Xinhai Revolution, which overthew the Qing Dynasty. He eventually became a trusted associate of Sun, who appointed him founding commandant of the Whampoa Military Academy in 1918, when Chiang also joined the Nationalist Party (KMT). He succeeded Sun in 1925 as leader of the KMT upon Sun’s early death. In 1926-1927 he unified much of the country, defeating warlords and breaking with the Communist Party, whose members he purged from the KMT. In his personal life, Chiang fell in love with Soong Meiling, the daughter of wealthy businessman and former missionary Charlie Soong. There seems to have been a political deal worked out through the mediation of Meiling’s sister Ailing, wedding the Soong family wealth and connections to Chiang’s military and political assets. When Chiang sought to marry Meiling, the strong Christian identity of the Soongs meant that their daughter could not be joined to a non-believer. Meiling’s mother asked Chiang whether he would become a Christian. He replied that he would not change his religion to marry Meiling, but he would read the Bible and pray for God to show him what he should do. Permission was granted, but Methodist church law forbade a church wedding between a Christian and an unbaptized person. It was also doubted whether Chiang had been properly divorced from his first wife, and there were persistent rumors about Jennie, whom Chiang had sent off to America without divorcing. Chiang produced proof of his divorce and discounted the stories about Jennie. Bishop Z.T. Kuang went to the Songs’ house to pray for the couple and pronounce a blessing upon them after a lavish civil ceremony on December 1, 1927.Thenceforward, Chiang read his Bible daily (starting with the Old Testament), prayed pri

a form of venereal disease. After graduation from a military academy in Japan, where he met Sun Yat-sen, Chiang become an enthusiastic supporter of the Chinese nationalist revolution, and joined the Tongmenghui (Sun’s organization). Return to China Chiang returned to China to participate in the Xinhai Revolution, which overthew the Qing Dynasty. He eventually became a trusted associate of Sun, who appointed him founding commandant of the Whampoa Military Academy in 1918, when Chiang also joined the Nationalist Party (KMT). He succeeded Sun in 1925 as leader of the KMT upon Sun’s early death. In 1926-1927 he unified much of the country, defeating warlords and breaking with the Communist Party, whose members he purged from the KMT. In his personal life, Chiang fell in love with Soong Meiling, the daughter of wealthy businessman and former missionary Charlie Soong. There seems to have been a political deal worked out through the mediation of Meiling’s sister Ailing, wedding the Soong family wealth and connections to Chiang’s military and political assets. When Chiang sought to marry Meiling, the strong Christian identity of the Soongs meant that their daughter could not be joined to a non-believer. Meiling’s mother asked Chiang whether he would become a Christian. He replied that he would not change his religion to marry Meiling, but he would read the Bible and pray for God to show him what he should do. Permission was granted, but Methodist church law forbade a church wedding between a Christian and an unbaptized person. It was also doubted whether Chiang had been properly divorced from his first wife, and there were persistent rumors about Jennie, whom Chiang had sent off to America without divorcing. Chiang produced proof of his divorce and discounted the stories about Jennie. Bishop Z.T. Kuang went to the Songs’ house to pray for the couple and pronounce a blessing upon them after a lavish civil ceremony on December 1, 1927.Thenceforward, Chiang read his Bible daily (starting with the Old Testament), prayed privately, and knelt with his wife to pray. Still, he resisted her efforts to persuade him to become a Christian, since he continued to harbor doubts. Bishop Kuang answered his many questions, but did not press him to make a premature decision to follow Christ. Chiang formed a Nationalist government inNanjingin 1928, with himself as virtual military dictator, though many democratic and modernizing reforms were undertaken during the so-called Nanjing Decade (1927-1937). A pledge to God In the midst of a military campaign against a rebellious general, Chiang found himself surrounded, with capture and death imminent. He spotted a local Christian chapel, entered it, and told God that he would become a follower of Christ if he survived. A heavy snowstorm impeded his enemy’s advance, and Chiang’s forces gained the victory. He was baptized by Bishop Kuang in 1930. When asked why he had become a Christian, he replied, “I feel the need of a God such as Jesus Christ.” In addition to his wife’s impact, he may have been influenced by the Christians in his government, since seven out of ten high officials in Nanjing were believers. Quickly, Meiling became an essential source of strength and support. She helped Chiang keep up with world news, reading and digesting English publications daily; introduced him to Western literature, music, and culture; served as personal advisor, ambassador, and interpreter. Their marriage, though outwardly harmonious, was sometimes marked by conflict and tension, aggravated by Meiling’s extravagance, domineering personality, and possible infidelity, as well as by his intense emotions, bad temper and inability — or unwillingness — to engage in marital sexual relations. Close friends and associates have borne abundant testimony to Chiang’s daily Bible reading, prayer, and open affirmation of his faith in Christ. Some contemporaries say they noticed that after his baptism he seemed to believe less in force and more in conciliation. During one notable incident, after he gained release from captors in Xi

vately, and knelt with his wife to pray. Still, he resisted her efforts to persuade him to become a Christian, since he continued to harbor doubts. Bishop Kuang answered his many questions, but did not press him to make a premature decision to follow Christ. Chiang formed a Nationalist government inNanjingin 1928, with himself as virtual military dictator, though many democratic and modernizing reforms were undertaken during the so-called Nanjing Decade (1927-1937). A pledge to God In the midst of a military campaign against a rebellious general, Chiang found himself surrounded, with capture and death imminent. He spotted a local Christian chapel, entered it, and told God that he would become a follower of Christ if he survived. A heavy snowstorm impeded his enemy’s advance, and Chiang’s forces gained the victory. He was baptized by Bishop Kuang in 1930. When asked why he had become a Christian, he replied, “I feel the need of a God such as Jesus Christ.” In addition to his wife’s impact, he may have been influenced by the Christians in his government, since seven out of ten high officials in Nanjing were believers. Quickly, Meiling became an essential source of strength and support. She helped Chiang keep up with world news, reading and digesting English publications daily; introduced him to Western literature, music, and culture; served as personal advisor, ambassador, and interpreter. Their marriage, though outwardly harmonious, was sometimes marked by conflict and tension, aggravated by Meiling’s extravagance, domineering personality, and possible infidelity, as well as by his intense emotions, bad temper and inability — or unwillingness — to engage in marital sexual relations. Close friends and associates have borne abundant testimony to Chiang’s daily Bible reading, prayer, and open affirmation of his faith in Christ. Some contemporaries say they noticed that after his baptism he seemed to believe less in force and more in conciliation. During one notable incident, after he gained release from captors in Xi’an, he stated that he had been strengthened during his ordeal by reading the Bible and entrusting himself to God’s care, so that he did not fear death and thus would not give in to their threats and demands. “The greatness and love of Christ burst upon me with new inspiration,” Chiang said, “increasing my strength to struggle against evil, to overcome temptation and to uphold righteousness…” He further claimed that he forgave the two main perpetrators because of the example of Christ on the Cross. A visitor to his house in Chongqing was stunned by a significant time of family prayer after dinner, during which the General asked God for strength and energy for his soldiers and himself, requested that God would help the Chinese people not to hate the Japanese; and calmly placed himself and his nation in God’s hands, imploring divine wisdom to know how to serve God the next day. He continued to seek to eliminate the communists, despite Japan’s increasing encroachments and domestic calls for stiff resistance to the Japanese. Finally, after the Xi’an Incident in 1936, he was forced to enter into an uneasy alliance with the communists in order to fight the Japanese. He led the Republic of China during the Second World War, and was elected President of the Republic of China in 1948, but was forced to retreat with many members of his government and army to Taiwan in 1949. Chiang’s Christian commitment found expression in his diaries, his public statements, regular church attendance, and the open support of both Chinese and foreign Christians. One of the most public manifestations of his ethical convictions in his early years was the New Life Movement, an attempt to reform Chinese civilization and morals on the basis of Confucian principles, with some admixture of Christianity. Chiang and his wife poured enormous energy, time, and resources into this campaign, for which he solicited the help and support of Christian missionaries. They generally approved of the project, and in some places it took on a Christian flavor. The

’an, he stated that he had been strengthened during his ordeal by reading the Bible and entrusting himself to God’s care, so that he did not fear death and thus would not give in to their threats and demands. “The greatness and love of Christ burst upon me with new inspiration,” Chiang said, “increasing my strength to struggle against evil, to overcome temptation and to uphold righteousness…” He further claimed that he forgave the two main perpetrators because of the example of Christ on the Cross. A visitor to his house in Chongqing was stunned by a significant time of family prayer after dinner, during which the General asked God for strength and energy for his soldiers and himself, requested that God would help the Chinese people not to hate the Japanese; and calmly placed himself and his nation in God’s hands, imploring divine wisdom to know how to serve God the next day. He continued to seek to eliminate the communists, despite Japan’s increasing encroachments and domestic calls for stiff resistance to the Japanese. Finally, after the Xi’an Incident in 1936, he was forced to enter into an uneasy alliance with the communists in order to fight the Japanese. He led the Republic of China during the Second World War, and was elected President of the Republic of China in 1948, but was forced to retreat with many members of his government and army to Taiwan in 1949. Chiang’s Christian commitment found expression in his diaries, his public statements, regular church attendance, and the open support of both Chinese and foreign Christians. One of the most public manifestations of his ethical convictions in his early years was the New Life Movement, an attempt to reform Chinese civilization and morals on the basis of Confucian principles, with some admixture of Christianity. Chiang and his wife poured enormous energy, time, and resources into this campaign, for which he solicited the help and support of Christian missionaries. They generally approved of the project, and in some places it took on a Christian flavor. The invasion of China by Japan put a virtual end to this ambitious undertaking, as it did so much else that the Nationalist government was attempting. In later years, Chiang was heavily involved in the translation and publication of “Streams in the Desert” into Chinese, and worked closely with John C.H. Wu’s translation of the New Testament, going over the draft and making suggested corrections many times. The front piece of Wu’s version of the Psalms indicates that it was produced “under the editorial supervision of Chairman Chiang.” Wu found enough material about Chiang and his faith to write a 265-page book on his spiritual life, published in 1975. His diaries reveal his constant reliance upon God for wisdom and strength. Western missionaries who knew him in Taiwan report that he seemed humble, gentle, and genuine in his faith when they saw him in church each Sunday, and had no reason to doubt the sincerity of his Christian profession. This assessment was shared by his personal chaplain. Though the general populace of Taiwan were surprised to see a large cross at the head of the funeral cortege, and to read at the opening of his will that he had been “a follower of the Three Principles of the People and of Jesus Christ from his youth,“ those who had known Chiang were struck by his personal inconsistencies. On the other hand, some of his ideas, actions and personal characteristics seem to belie the depth of his faith, or at least its impact upon his conduct. Chiang read widely in the Confucian classics and in Chinese history, and believed strongly in the value of China’s cultural heritage, especially Confucianism. His Christian sermons seemed unclear on the distinctions between personal salvation and national recovery. His long and consistent alliance with the Shanghai underworld made him complicit, at least to some degree, in their corruption and cruelty; likewise, his reliance upon his own secret police, which engaged in countless acts of brutality. Reports of corruption on a grand scale by his wife’s family cal

invasion of China by Japan put a virtual end to this ambitious undertaking, as it did so much else that the Nationalist government was attempting. In later years, Chiang was heavily involved in the translation and publication of “Streams in the Desert” into Chinese, and worked closely with John C.H. Wu’s translation of the New Testament, going over the draft and making suggested corrections many times. The front piece of Wu’s version of the Psalms indicates that it was produced “under the editorial supervision of Chairman Chiang.” Wu found enough material about Chiang and his faith to write a 265-page book on his spiritual life, published in 1975. His diaries reveal his constant reliance upon God for wisdom and strength. Western missionaries who knew him in Taiwan report that he seemed humble, gentle, and genuine in his faith when they saw him in church each Sunday, and had no reason to doubt the sincerity of his Christian profession. This assessment was shared by his personal chaplain. Though the general populace of Taiwan were surprised to see a large cross at the head of the funeral cortege, and to read at the opening of his will that he had been “a follower of the Three Principles of the People and of Jesus Christ from his youth,“ those who had known Chiang were struck by his personal inconsistencies. On the other hand, some of his ideas, actions and personal characteristics seem to belie the depth of his faith, or at least its impact upon his conduct. Chiang read widely in the Confucian classics and in Chinese history, and believed strongly in the value of China’s cultural heritage, especially Confucianism. His Christian sermons seemed unclear on the distinctions between personal salvation and national recovery. His long and consistent alliance with the Shanghai underworld made him complicit, at least to some degree, in their corruption and cruelty; likewise, his reliance upon his own secret police, which engaged in countless acts of brutality. Reports of corruption on a grand scale by his wife’s family call his own integrity into question, though he had no power to control them; still his nepotism is undeniable. His decision to breach the levees of theYellow River in order to stall the advance of the Japanese, and then again to halt the Communists, led to the deaths of thousands and deprived many more of their homes and livelihood. Though his role in the military suppression of Taiwanese dissent in the infamous February 28 incident is unclear, his active oversight of the ensuing White Terror is well established. Chiang’s positive character traits included extraordinary personal courage, a huge capacity for work, a very strong will, and immense stamina. On the other hand, he was notorious for refusing to take advice, or even to seek the counsel of advisers. He brooked no disagreement, and would fly into a rage when criticized. A mediocre military leader, he issued orders from afar without any real knowledge of battlefield conditions, and then altered his plan without notice. More than once, he ordered loyal troops to fight to the death, knowing that their resistance was fruitless. Some of his closest companions considered him to be an arrogant egotist. There is evidence that he often said one thing and did another, or said one thing to one person and something else to another. Though he projected an image of imperturbable calm in public, he could cry like a baby behind closed doors. His lifelong commitment to Confucianism makes some wonder whether his fundamental faith was more a matter of traditional Chinese ethics than Christian belief. Did his extraordinary self-control in public stem from dependence upon God, or upon the inner strength he had long learned to cultivate? In defense, many have argued that Chiang’s autocratic leadership style is simply the norm for Chinese, and can be found in some of the most outstanding Chinese church leaders even today. Also, he was surrounded by mortal enemies and spies, and could really trust no one. His murderous purge of communists in Shanghai was undertaken only after his e

l his own integrity into question, though he had no power to control them; still his nepotism is undeniable. His decision to breach the levees of theYellow River in order to stall the advance of the Japanese, and then again to halt the Communists, led to the deaths of thousands and deprived many more of their homes and livelihood. Though his role in the military suppression of Taiwanese dissent in the infamous February 28 incident is unclear, his active oversight of the ensuing White Terror is well established. Chiang’s positive character traits included extraordinary personal courage, a huge capacity for work, a very strong will, and immense stamina. On the other hand, he was notorious for refusing to take advice, or even to seek the counsel of advisers. He brooked no disagreement, and would fly into a rage when criticized. A mediocre military leader, he issued orders from afar without any real knowledge of battlefield conditions, and then altered his plan without notice. More than once, he ordered loyal troops to fight to the death, knowing that their resistance was fruitless. Some of his closest companions considered him to be an arrogant egotist. There is evidence that he often said one thing and did another, or said one thing to one person and something else to another. Though he projected an image of imperturbable calm in public, he could cry like a baby behind closed doors. His lifelong commitment to Confucianism makes some wonder whether his fundamental faith was more a matter of traditional Chinese ethics than Christian belief. Did his extraordinary self-control in public stem from dependence upon God, or upon the inner strength he had long learned to cultivate? In defense, many have argued that Chiang’s autocratic leadership style is simply the norm for Chinese, and can be found in some of the most outstanding Chinese church leaders even today. Also, he was surrounded by mortal enemies and spies, and could really trust no one. His murderous purge of communists in Shanghai was undertaken only after his enemies had formed a rival government, committed atrocities and put a price on his head. Further, war compels one to make decisions that will cost many lives in order to save more people. It is believed that he matured in Christian character as he grew older and that a Christian’s true heart can be known only to God. If his private diaries, public pronouncements, consistent support of Christian churches and foreign missionaries, and active involvement in the production of Christian literature which we have noted above mean anything, then we may perhaps say that Chiang Kai-shek’s Christian career represents the halting, stumbling, but steady pilgrimage towards the Celestial City of a sinner saved by grace. G. Wright Doyle is Director, Global China Center; General Editor, Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Christianity, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA.

nemies had formed a rival government, committed atrocities and put a price on his head. Further, war compels one to make decisions that will cost many lives in order to save more people. It is believed that he matured in Christian character as he grew older and that a Christian’s true heart can be known only to God. If his private diaries, public pronouncements, consistent support of Christian churches and foreign missionaries, and active involvement in the production of Christian literature which we have noted above mean anything, then we may perhaps say that Chiang Kai-shek’s Christian career represents the halting, stumbling, but steady pilgrimage towards the Celestial City of a sinner saved by grace. G. Wright Doyle is Director, Global China Center; General Editor, Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Christianity, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA.

A to Z of Great Parenting: first posted early March 2007 G is Goal Encourage your children to have goals and help them plan to achieve them. Celebrate when they do and help them learn when they don't. From saving for an expensive toy, to budgetting their first pocket-money allowance. From a revision schedule to an inter-rail trip. Being able to plan and achive goals is a high-level and vital skill. Be wary if your school steers away from this area as being 'elitist' or unfair on some children. If so, it is not preparing children for the competitive world of work. All children can have goals (not necessarily the same ones) and all can be successful in their own chosen area. The act of goal-setting helps this process tremendously. And be a good role model yourself: set a few goals. And make them happen.

The year was 1852 and it marked the beginning of the Second French Empire, with Napoleon Bonaparte’s nephew, Louis-Napoleon (Napoleon III) ruling as Emperor. The Second Empire would last until, following the Franco-Prussian War, there was an uprising in Paris and the government of Napoleon III was overthrown. One of the new empire’s creations of 1852 was the infamous prison in French Guiana known as “Devil’s Island.” French Guiana was brutal territory and some of the previous attempts at settlement proved disastrous in the hostile environment. In 1852, Napoleon began deporting political prisoners to the newly formed penal colony and between 1852 and 1946 when the penal camp was closed, more than 56,000 prisoners were sent there. Prisoners were forced into hard labor in horrific conditions in timber camps, so brutal that many attempted dangerous escapes. Most of the penal camps were actually on the mainland, but other than a dangerous sea escape, the only escape routes through the mainland were fraught with peril. A popular route to Dutch Guiana meant crossing the piranha-infested Moroni River and then through a dense jungle through which there was one road. Devil’s Island is perhaps best known now through the movie “Papillon,” which was based on the book by Henri Charriere, who managed to escape the prison after several attempts. In the United States, movement was decidedly westward. According to “Oregon Trail Statistics,” by William E. Hill, immigration hit an all-time high on the Oregon Trail with around 10,000 people making the overland trip. With people still flocking to California in search of gold, every available means of transportation was employed and many chose to make the trip by sea, rather than face the long trek across the United States. But the voyage by sea had its perils as well. The sea voyage could mean a trip around Cape Horn, where ships were tossed in turbulent, windy waters, and iceberg inhabited waters, often being blown near Antarctica. Skilled captains might be able to shorten the trip by traveling the Straits of Magellan, a sea passage around the tip of South America, but this too was considered a dangerous trip, because the narrowness of the passage at certain points made it difficult to navigate. The trip could take up to eight months and onboard conditions were horrid. Food spoiled quickly with the heat of the equator, and worms and rodents got into whatever supplies they had. A shorter trip took passengers to Panama where they embarked on canoes to navigate the Chagres River. From there things were more difficult as the remainder of the passage to the Pacific meant a fifty-mile hike through the Panamanian jungle where some fell prey to cholera, malaria, and yellow fever. Those who survived this leg of the journey often arrived in Panama City to find a shortage of ships, which meant that they would have to wait for sometimes weeks to obtain passage on a northbound ship to California. There was also an influx of immigrants into California from China at this time. The Chinese population of California was three (two men and a woman), but by 1852 an article in the Daily Alta California estimated the Chinese population to be at around 12,000. The Chinese weren’t welcomed in a land where the gold fields weren’t producing the riches expected and where the industrious Chinese were seen as a threat. For more on the journey westward, there are many great websites, some with narratives by those who made the trek. Here are a few I found: - Oregon Trail Diaries - 1852 Oregon Trail Emigrants - Gold Rush Chronology 1852-54 - Gold Rush Links - Chinese in California - California Gold Rush (Sacramento Bee website) 1852 also marked the publication of Harriet Beecher Stowe’s famous book, Uncle Tom’s Cabin. The book was an anti-slavery statement which she later revealed was largely based on the memoirs of Rev. Josiah Henson. Originally produced in serial format, Uncle Tom’s Cabin was a sensation and by 1857 had sold half a million copies in the United States–breaking book sales records for that time and st

by traveling the Straits of Magellan, a sea passage around the tip of South America, but this too was considered a dangerous trip, because the narrowness of the passage at certain points made it difficult to navigate. The trip could take up to eight months and onboard conditions were horrid. Food spoiled quickly with the heat of the equator, and worms and rodents got into whatever supplies they had. A shorter trip took passengers to Panama where they embarked on canoes to navigate the Chagres River. From there things were more difficult as the remainder of the passage to the Pacific meant a fifty-mile hike through the Panamanian jungle where some fell prey to cholera, malaria, and yellow fever. Those who survived this leg of the journey often arrived in Panama City to find a shortage of ships, which meant that they would have to wait for sometimes weeks to obtain passage on a northbound ship to California. There was also an influx of immigrants into California from China at this time. The Chinese population of California was three (two men and a woman), but by 1852 an article in the Daily Alta California estimated the Chinese population to be at around 12,000. The Chinese weren’t welcomed in a land where the gold fields weren’t producing the riches expected and where the industrious Chinese were seen as a threat. For more on the journey westward, there are many great websites, some with narratives by those who made the trek. Here are a few I found: - Oregon Trail Diaries - 1852 Oregon Trail Emigrants - Gold Rush Chronology 1852-54 - Gold Rush Links - Chinese in California - California Gold Rush (Sacramento Bee website) 1852 also marked the publication of Harriet Beecher Stowe’s famous book, Uncle Tom’s Cabin. The book was an anti-slavery statement which she later revealed was largely based on the memoirs of Rev. Josiah Henson. Originally produced in serial format, Uncle Tom’s Cabin was a sensation and by 1857 had sold half a million copies in the United States–breaking book sales records for that time and stirring anti-slavery sentiment. Image: The Oregon Trail in South Pass, 1852. From the Library of Congress Photo Collection at Ancestry. Click on the image to enlarge it.

irring anti-slavery sentiment. Image: The Oregon Trail in South Pass, 1852. From the Library of Congress Photo Collection at Ancestry. Click on the image to enlarge it.

The Pope shines a light on an underrated gem of Catholic architecture The Pope is about to talk at St Mary's College, Oscott, bringing to a close his extraordinarily successful state visit. Take a look at the Oscott chapel as the Pope speaks. Most of the great Catholic buildings in Britain were taken over by the Anglican Church after the Reformation, but some splendid examples have been built since then. One of them is Oscott – which got the full medievalist treatment in 1838 from the greatest of all Victorian Gothic architects, AWN Pugin, the man behind the Houses of Parliament. Walls, ceiling and chancel arch are all covered with typically Puginesque bright colours and high medieval designs. The stained glass, based on 14th century work, is designed by Pugin. Other artefacts are genuinely medieval, collected by Pugin – 15th century Flemish retables, a 17th century confessional from Louvain and an exceptional 1500 lectern, built in Maastricht; the lectern from which Newman made his Second Spring sermon in 1852. A wonderful and rare collection. Radio 3 dumbed down long ago October 24th, 2014 9:47 Sherlock Holmes on screen – the best five October 17th, 2014 11:50 How wonderful if we find King Harold's bones October 14th, 2014 8:35 Why is UKIP run by public school boys? October 12th, 2014 11:24 Russell Brand's politics are staggeringly stupid October 11th, 2014 10:39

Doctors are sending a warning to new mothers who feed their babies with breast milk purchased online. There are thousands of sellers and interested buyers on breast milk websites but a new pediatric study found high levels of bacteria and contamination in three out of four samples received from private sellers. Crouse Hospital in Syracuse is home to just one of eleven licensed milk banks in the United States. Staff screen breast milk donors using the same standards for blood donation and keep breast milk frozen to maintain safety. "We do several blood tests on the mother for say, Hepatitis C, HIV - even though they've been tested pre-natal, we do it again," said Crouse Hospital nurse practitioner Karen Juszek. Crouse's milk bank freezes breast milk as soon as possible after it is donated. In the study, 19% of private breast milk samples were shipped without any form of refrigeration. "Once that's thawed, it's only good for 48 once thawed under refrigeration. So I can't imagine it being shipped without refrigeration. It has to be full of bacteria," said Juszek. Syracuse mother Amy Lafebvre had heard of people buying and selling breast milk but says she can not believe any mother would put their children at risk by using breast milk from a complete stranger. "You don't know what she's been eating, there's drugs out there - you don't know if the mother has been doing drugs or what she's been doing. Because what you eat or whatever goes into your body goes into breast milk," said Lefebvre.The research also cites several cases in which babies did get sick from a stranger's breast milk.(Information from the Associated Press was used in this report.)

a doctrine, theory, system, etc., esp. one whose name ends in -ism: a somewhat dismissive term Origin of ism; from -ism - the act, practice, or result of: terrorism - the condition or state of being: pauperism - action, conduct, or qualities characteristic of: patriotism - the doctrine, school, theory, or principle of: cubism, socialism - devotion to: nationalism - an instance, example, or peculiarity of: Gallicism, witticism - an abnormal condition caused by: alcoholism - belief, attitudes, actions, or conduct characterized by prejudice or bigotry related to: ageism, classism, sexism Origin of -ismMiddle English -isme ; from Old French and amp; Classical Latin -isma (; from Gr) and amp; -ismus (; from Classical Greek -ismos): origin, originally suffix of action or of state, forming nouns from verbs in Classical Latin -izare, Classical Greek -izein A distinctive doctrine, system, or theory: “Formalism, by being an ‘ism,’ kills form by hugging it to death” (Peter Viereck). Origin of ismFrom –ism. - Action; process; practice: terrorism. - Characteristic behavior or quality: heroism. - a. State; condition; quality: pauperism.b. State or condition resulting from an excess of something specified: strychninism. - Distinctive or characteristic trait: Latinism. - a. Doctrine; theory; system of principles: pacifism.b. An attitude of prejudice against a given group: racism. Origin of -ismMiddle English -isme, from Old French, from Latin -ismus, from Greek -ismos, n. suff. - Abbreviation of Imperial Service Medal. - Abbreviation of Institute for Supply Management. - (astronomy) Abbreviation of interstellar medium. InitialismSee also: OISM - (sciences, medicine) Initialism of Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine. - (religion) Initialism of Orthodox Inter-Seminary Movement. ism - Computer Definition Radio frequency (RF) bands in the 902

At traditional gyms, you pay the same dues whether you visit the facility twice a day or twice a year. This makes a lot of sense for gyms, but doesn’t give you a financial incentive to actually go. But what if you had one? Behavioral economics tells us that people are more motivated by short-term effects than theoretical long-term ones. Losing money now is a better motivator than the promise of maybe losing weight in the future. Gym-Pact, an experiment run by two recent Harvard graduates, takes advantage of this. The program is intended to find out if “motivational fees” will help customers keep to their workout schedules. Groups of exercisers at two different gyms receive a free membership–if they keep to their workout schedule. If they don’t, a $25 fee applies for every week that they slip up. Harvard grads turn gym business model on its head; fitness plan members pay more if they don’t work out [Boston Globe] (Thanks, Patrick!)

Why the sudden turnaround? Research has been piling up for years supporting the NHLBI's position, according to TIME medical contributor Dr. Ian Smith. "Systolic pressure can show what's happening throughout the circulatory system, rather than only within the heart itself." For example, Smith explains, a systolic reading not only shows the force the heart is required to exert in order to push blood past resistance points, it also measures the pressure generated within vessels to keep blood moving to different organs which can pinpoint a patient's risk for stroke or general damage to blood vessels. Of course, just because your doctor or nurse may start keeping a closer eye on a new element of your blood pressure reading doesn't mean you're off the hook to keep your pressure down. According to generally accepted standards, no one should maintain a reading above 140/90, and some people may be advised to keep their pressure even lower. And that's where the work comes in: Cutting salt from your diet, losing weight and, yes, getting out there and exercising.

Follow-up though Dec 31, 2002 has been completed for a study of site-specific cancer mortality among tuberculosis (TB) patients treated with artificial lung collapse therapy in Massachusetts TB sanatoria (1930-1950). Treatment involved frequent chest fluoroscopy examinations, which delivered highly fractionated radiation doses to breast, lung, and other thoracic organs. The estimated mean doses to breast and lung for these patients are 0.74 and 0.84 Gy, respectively. In earlier analyses, breast cancer but not lung cancer was linked to cumulative radiation dose. Those results are consistent with the other cohort of tuberculosis patients exposed to chest fluoroscopy in Canada. Acquiring new cancer cases, particularly lung cancer, should allow DCEG investigators to conduct a more detailed dose-response analysis and refine risk estimates for fractionated radiation. For more information, contact Alina Brenner.

Following in Hexy’s six-legged footsteps is Sparki, which can react to light, draw its name on a sheet of paper and tote up to 10 pounds on its back, if the weight is balanced correctly. The little workhorse also can push or drag objects across surfaces with low friction. Sparki uses the open-source electronics platform Arduino and comes fully assembled, ready to operate, Bluetooth included. Drag-and-drop programming, enabled when Sparki is hooked up to a computer, makes it easy for kids to learn the basics of how human commands translate into robot actions. “Our goal is to get kids who don’t really know electronics or robotics to interact with it and get them to trust in science,” says Schlesinger. Setting a modest goal of $13,000 on Kickstarter for Hexy, Schlesinger and co-founder Connie Hu raised more than $168,000. Using the same fundraising model for Sparki, they garnered $188,786. Sparki went into production in June and was scheduled to arrive in classrooms in October. Sparki is suggested for ages 11 and up, but Hu notes it’s user-friendly enough to teach (and entertain) any school-age child. “Take Sparki out of the box, and he’s ready to go when you plug him in via the USB port on your computer,” says Hu. Sparki’s “arms” may be a mere inch long, but his reach is worldwide. Pilot programs are already set up in schools from Mexico to Norway. Tutorials and individual classroom lesson plans will be available for anyone purchasing the ‘bot.

By M. Scott Morris/Daily Journal You’ll find three floors filled with Mississippi history at the intersection of Capitol and South State streets. The Old Capitol Museum in Jackson is a 173-year-old Greek Revival time machine. In its chambers, universities were created, and civil rights abuses were written into law. “How did Mississippi get to where it is today?” said Clay Williams, museum director. “This building can explain that.” The “new” Capitol opened in 1903. That’s where the modern-day business of Mississippi government happens. But you’ll find that some of today’s controversial issues are continuations of debates that took place at the Old Capitol from 1839 to 1903. “Mississippians did not begin funding public education until 1868. Until then, you had the county schools, or you had to have a private tutor,” Williams said. “Obviously, we’re still dealing with how to educate our children. They’re debating that now.” Winds of change The Old Capitol has operated as a museum since 1961. In 2005, Hurricane Katrina made a direct impact on the building and its mission. Heavy winds blew the copper roof off and caused other damage. That created an opportunity. “After the hurricane, we decided to focus on the building and on the building’s history,” Williams said. The House Chamber got period carpeting, and each window has a set of three arrows at the top of the drapes. A reporter mentioned the arrows in his coverage of the 1861 debate over secession, when Mississippi left the United States. “We tried to recreate it as best we could,” Williams said. “Obviously, there aren’t many pictures of the inside of the building.” He said the House Chamber is his favorite room because so many far-reaching decisions were made there. “All of the colleges and universities that you know of, the legislation forming them came out of this room,” he said. Some of Mississippi’s troubles grew out of the same room. There were 142,000 black registered voters in 1890. The number was down to 8,615 in 1896. The drop is directly attributable to the poll tax and literacy test in the 1890 Constitution, which was hammered out in the House Chamber. “If you were a black person and you read the literacy test perfectly and explained it, the registrar could still say ‘Nah,’” Williams said. “If you were a sharecropper in Mississippi and you had to pay $2 to vote and you made $88 a year, you might say, ‘I won’t vote.’” The effect on black voters was devastating, and poor whites also were affected. There were 110,000 registered white voters in 1890. The number was 68,117 in 1892. “We’re not glossing over anything,” Williams said. “We’re telling the truth here. We’re telling the truth about where we’ve been and where we’re going.” In addition to being a storehouse of state history, the Old Capitol Museum is a monument to what human beings can accomplish. It’s an impressive structure with its elegant rotunda and dome, as well as Doric, Ionic and Corinthian columns. Rosettes decorate the Governor’s Office and the House Chamber. Builders and craftsmen dedicated themselves to turning the building into something special. In the 19th century, there were calls to move the capital to Vicksburg or Clinton. The building opened in 1839, and that probably cemented Jackson as the state capital, Williams said. “Back then, this would have been amazing compared to the other shacks and cabins in Jackson,” he said. “They weren’t going to abandon this building.” It was originally brick and covered in stucco that was scored to resemble stone. The stucco didn’t make it through a renovation in the 1960s, but it returned during the Katrina-inspired changes. The stucco isn’t on the back of the building, which used to face a Pearl River swamp. “When it was originally built, no one would have approached it from the back, so they didn’t put stucco on that part,” Williams said. “We didn’t either.” A set of displays detail the many renovations and changes over the years. One case is filled with items that were discarded in the most recent update. “There’s a little bit of everything in there,

o the poll tax and literacy test in the 1890 Constitution, which was hammered out in the House Chamber. “If you were a black person and you read the literacy test perfectly and explained it, the registrar could still say ‘Nah,’” Williams said. “If you were a sharecropper in Mississippi and you had to pay $2 to vote and you made $88 a year, you might say, ‘I won’t vote.’” The effect on black voters was devastating, and poor whites also were affected. There were 110,000 registered white voters in 1890. The number was 68,117 in 1892. “We’re not glossing over anything,” Williams said. “We’re telling the truth here. We’re telling the truth about where we’ve been and where we’re going.” In addition to being a storehouse of state history, the Old Capitol Museum is a monument to what human beings can accomplish. It’s an impressive structure with its elegant rotunda and dome, as well as Doric, Ionic and Corinthian columns. Rosettes decorate the Governor’s Office and the House Chamber. Builders and craftsmen dedicated themselves to turning the building into something special. In the 19th century, there were calls to move the capital to Vicksburg or Clinton. The building opened in 1839, and that probably cemented Jackson as the state capital, Williams said. “Back then, this would have been amazing compared to the other shacks and cabins in Jackson,” he said. “They weren’t going to abandon this building.” It was originally brick and covered in stucco that was scored to resemble stone. The stucco didn’t make it through a renovation in the 1960s, but it returned during the Katrina-inspired changes. The stucco isn’t on the back of the building, which used to face a Pearl River swamp. “When it was originally built, no one would have approached it from the back, so they didn’t put stucco on that part,” Williams said. “We didn’t either.” A set of displays detail the many renovations and changes over the years. One case is filled with items that were discarded in the most recent update. “There’s a little bit of everything in there, from an 1840s brick to a 1960s kitchen sink,” Williams said. The Old Capitol Museum regularly hosts visitors from Mississippi and other states, as well as people from Europe and Asia who come to see the state’s many blues sites and maybe check out the Elvis Presley Birthplace. “They’ll kind of hit us in the middle,” Williams said. School children once roamed the halls in large numbers, but that’s changed. School budget cuts in recent years have reduced field trips, and Williams called that a shame. The doors are open every day but Monday for anyone interested in visiting the National Historic Landmark, which also happens to be Mississippi’s own Greek Revival time machine. “This is Mississippi history. This is our culture,” Williams said. “This is an important place. We want people to understand that.”

from an 1840s brick to a 1960s kitchen sink,” Williams said. The Old Capitol Museum regularly hosts visitors from Mississippi and other states, as well as people from Europe and Asia who come to see the state’s many blues sites and maybe check out the Elvis Presley Birthplace. “They’ll kind of hit us in the middle,” Williams said. School children once roamed the halls in large numbers, but that’s changed. School budget cuts in recent years have reduced field trips, and Williams called that a shame. The doors are open every day but Monday for anyone interested in visiting the National Historic Landmark, which also happens to be Mississippi’s own Greek Revival time machine. “This is Mississippi history. This is our culture,” Williams said. “This is an important place. We want people to understand that.”

Kendo, is composed of two kanji: "ken", meaning sword, and "Do", meaning 'the way/path of'. Together the term is literally the "way of the sword". It is a martial arts tradition spawned by the traditional school of swordsmanship (ryu) of ancient Japan, and was practiced by and large by the bushi, or samurai class of the era. As practice with real blades is inherently dangerous, the schools developed a dummy sword called a shinai, and a set of protective equipment called bogu which protects the head (men), wrists (kote), chest (do), and groin (tare). Kendo training is based on a variety of movements of attack and defense know as waza. Most fundamental are stance, footwork, cuts, thrusts, feints, and parries. Though is it a highly strenuous activity, kendo is also a means to strengthen the mind and the will to to improve oneself. It is this aspect of kendo that attracts many of its most devoted practitioners. A Kendo bout with skilled opponent is an intense experience. For a moment in time concentration is absolute, conscious thought is suppressed, and action is instinctive. Such training develops in the serious student powers of resolution and endurance under pressure which frequently affects his or her life beyond the confines of the training hall. Iaido, In the beginning Iai-jutsu was a part of Ken-jutsu. When time passed and as a result of the relatively peaceful Tokugawa period many masters saw in Iaido an excellent way of developing spiritual, mental and physical discipline. Iaido was born. Iaido does not actually mean overcoming an enemy, but overcoming one's own self. The only and the most dangerous opponent in Iaido is the iaidoka themself.

Bees, Wasps and Ants Hornets, Yellow Jackets, Paper Wasps. Being true social insects, these critters have a well-developed caste system. In a typical mature wasp nest there are many workers and one or more kings and queens. Unlike some of the other social insects discussed in this CD, there are fewer differences in the appearance of each caste. Hornets, yellow jackets and paper wasps all exhibit the same general life cycle. Their nesting cycle is annual, with only mated queens surviving the winter in a variety of protected locations--including under bark and in attics. In early spring the queen emerges and may reoccupy an old nest, or construct a new one. Regardless of which condition prevails, the queen initially deposits a few single eggs-one to each cell. Upon hatching, the larvae are fed a variety of insect larvae (mainly caterpillars) that are captured and brought back to the nest by the adult queen wasp. The adult wasps feed primarily on nectar, ripe fruit and other substances that are high in sugar. They do require a certain amount of protein in their diet which is typically acquired from the larvae. As adults wasps are feeding their larvae, the larvae exude a proteinaceous material from their mouth that is quickly consumed by the adult. The majority of these larvae will develop into adult workers, which take over the duties of expanding the nest, collecting food and feeding the young (Figure 18A). The queen continues to lay more eggs; this results in several generations with the colony continuing to increase in size into the fall. In the late fall, new kings and queens are produced, mating occurs, and the newly mated queens overwinter, completing the annual cycle. Left. Mating yellow jackets. Right. Paper wasp. Some consider these wasps beneficial, as they are predatory on different pest species. Besides feeding on caterpillars and other insects and spiders, these insects are attracted to any meat source, a phenomenon, which is frequently observed much to the displeasure of campers, clients of or participants in restaurants, snack bars and backyard barbecues The nests of hornets, yellow jackets and paper wasps are constructed out of cellulose, which is collected by the adult workers from a variety of sources, including old newspapers, cardboard, weathered wood, and bark. Once collected, these materials are chewed, saliva is added and they are formed into cells basically appearing like those in honey bee comb. With paper wasps the nest is a single layer that is suspended upside down by a short stalk. Around the home, paper wasp nests typically are found under eaves, along fences, or can be found attached to trees and plants. Hornet and yellow jacket nests may exist above or below ground; their nests are much larger than those of paper wasps, and are constructed of many layers of cells that are surrounded by a capsule-like structure. Left. A paper wasp nest with a dozen or so workers. Right. A large hornet nest. Image courtesy CDC Healthwise Photo Library-Dr Gary Alpert. Since paper wasp nest are single-layered it follows that mature colonies of these insects are much smaller than those of the multiplayer nests of hornets and yellow jackets. The nest of a paper wasp typically contains a few dozen adults while the nests of hornets and yellow jackets may number in the thousands. Paper wasp colonies although common under the eaves of houses do not typically pose a threat to the homeowner unless the nest is disturbed. If disturbed they will readily defend the nest and sting is similar to that of a bee although unlike that of a honey bee these insects can sting repeatedly. I was once asked in class how to remove a paper wasp nest from the eves of a home. Although not in the position to recommend such a task there are sprays available at garden centers that provide an instant knock down an subsequent kill of wasps and bees. One of the students in the class said she used hair spray which upon drying prevented the wasps from flying. Another student immediately added that she uses hair spray but lights it! Both seem quite u

ants in restaurants, snack bars and backyard barbecues The nests of hornets, yellow jackets and paper wasps are constructed out of cellulose, which is collected by the adult workers from a variety of sources, including old newspapers, cardboard, weathered wood, and bark. Once collected, these materials are chewed, saliva is added and they are formed into cells basically appearing like those in honey bee comb. With paper wasps the nest is a single layer that is suspended upside down by a short stalk. Around the home, paper wasp nests typically are found under eaves, along fences, or can be found attached to trees and plants. Hornet and yellow jacket nests may exist above or below ground; their nests are much larger than those of paper wasps, and are constructed of many layers of cells that are surrounded by a capsule-like structure. Left. A paper wasp nest with a dozen or so workers. Right. A large hornet nest. Image courtesy CDC Healthwise Photo Library-Dr Gary Alpert. Since paper wasp nest are single-layered it follows that mature colonies of these insects are much smaller than those of the multiplayer nests of hornets and yellow jackets. The nest of a paper wasp typically contains a few dozen adults while the nests of hornets and yellow jackets may number in the thousands. Paper wasp colonies although common under the eaves of houses do not typically pose a threat to the homeowner unless the nest is disturbed. If disturbed they will readily defend the nest and sting is similar to that of a bee although unlike that of a honey bee these insects can sting repeatedly. I was once asked in class how to remove a paper wasp nest from the eves of a home. Although not in the position to recommend such a task there are sprays available at garden centers that provide an instant knock down an subsequent kill of wasps and bees. One of the students in the class said she used hair spray which upon drying prevented the wasps from flying. Another student immediately added that she uses hair spray but lights it! Both seem quite unacceptable and possibly dangerous! The most common social wasp found in the Western United States is the western yellow jacket. This species typically nests underground, but occasionally is found in wall voids and other protected locations. As with other members of this group these insects are predatory in nature but when their natural food is scarce they are attracted to any type of meat or sweets. Certain years these insects become extremely common and are major pests around campgrounds, restaurants and even backyards. One major factor relating to larger numbers during certain years is previous mild winters. Under these conditions the nests may not totally die out during the winter months. An official from Catalina Island recently contacted me. The yellow jackets had become a major concern over the entire several-mile long island. In Avalon when customers ordered a hamburger and a coke at one of the restaurants it was a matter of whom or what got to the food first. One year on 3 separate occasions children had to Medi-vaced by helicopter out of the Boy Scout camps due to massive number of stings from these wasps. Students frequently ask me what is the worst sting-bite that I personally have experienced. I have been stung by many scorpions, many species of ants, exotic caterpillars and hundreds of bees at one time and bitten by large beetles, giant waterbugs, assassin bugs, various tarantulas and black widows but the worst encounter was by a colony of yellow jackets. The sting of a yellow jacket or hornet is considerably worse than that of a honeybee. I was once called to remove a honeybee nest from a property. When I got there it was a yellow jacket nest in the ground. Even though, I was only prepared for honeybees (a veil and hat) I decided to continue. After about 15 stings (over a period of 20 minutes) I decided to retreat and get some better protective clothing. By the time I got back to my vehicle most of my body had turned bright red with hives and large red welts. Besides the initial pain I itched for s

nacceptable and possibly dangerous! The most common social wasp found in the Western United States is the western yellow jacket. This species typically nests underground, but occasionally is found in wall voids and other protected locations. As with other members of this group these insects are predatory in nature but when their natural food is scarce they are attracted to any type of meat or sweets. Certain years these insects become extremely common and are major pests around campgrounds, restaurants and even backyards. One major factor relating to larger numbers during certain years is previous mild winters. Under these conditions the nests may not totally die out during the winter months. An official from Catalina Island recently contacted me. The yellow jackets had become a major concern over the entire several-mile long island. In Avalon when customers ordered a hamburger and a coke at one of the restaurants it was a matter of whom or what got to the food first. One year on 3 separate occasions children had to Medi-vaced by helicopter out of the Boy Scout camps due to massive number of stings from these wasps. Students frequently ask me what is the worst sting-bite that I personally have experienced. I have been stung by many scorpions, many species of ants, exotic caterpillars and hundreds of bees at one time and bitten by large beetles, giant waterbugs, assassin bugs, various tarantulas and black widows but the worst encounter was by a colony of yellow jackets. The sting of a yellow jacket or hornet is considerably worse than that of a honeybee. I was once called to remove a honeybee nest from a property. When I got there it was a yellow jacket nest in the ground. Even though, I was only prepared for honeybees (a veil and hat) I decided to continue. After about 15 stings (over a period of 20 minutes) I decided to retreat and get some better protective clothing. By the time I got back to my vehicle most of my body had turned bright red with hives and large red welts. Besides the initial pain I itched for several days. I once received a single sting from a large hornet in Mexico. The initial pain was much worse than that of a honeybee and within less than one minute I had such a severe headache that I could not stand up for several minutes. Bald Face Hornet-Dolichovespula maculata. This is a North American insect commonly called the bald-faced hornet (or white-faced hornet or white-tailed hornet). Its well-known features include its hanging paper nests and the females' habit of defending them with repeated stings. Bald Face Hornet. Image Courtesy of PiccoloNamek. It belongs to a genus of wasps called yellow jackets in North America, but is not called that because it lacks yellow coloring. Instead, it is called a hornet in the American sense of a wasp that builds paper nests, especially one of the subfamily Vespinae. It is not a "true hornet" in the British sense, that is, a member of the genus Vespa in the same subfamily, such as the Asian giant hornet or the European hornet. The bald-faced hornet lives throughout North America, including southern Canada, the Rocky Mountains, the western coast of the United States, and most of the eastern US. They are most common in the southeastern United States. They are best known for their large football-shaped paper nest, which they build in the spring for raising their young. These nests can sometimes reach 3 feet tall. Like the median wasp (Dolichovespula media) in Europe, bald-faced hornets are extremely protective of their nests and will sting repeatedly if disturbed. Every year, queens that were born and fertilized at the end of the previous season begin a new colony. The queen selects a location for its nest, begins building it, lays a first batch of eggs and feeds this first group of larvae. These become workers and will assume the chore of expanding the nest — done by chewing up wood which is mixed with a starch in their saliva. This mixture is then spread with their mandibles and legs, drying into the paper-like substance that makes up the nest. The workers also guard

everal days. I once received a single sting from a large hornet in Mexico. The initial pain was much worse than that of a honeybee and within less than one minute I had such a severe headache that I could not stand up for several minutes. Bald Face Hornet-Dolichovespula maculata. This is a North American insect commonly called the bald-faced hornet (or white-faced hornet or white-tailed hornet). Its well-known features include its hanging paper nests and the females' habit of defending them with repeated stings. Bald Face Hornet. Image Courtesy of PiccoloNamek. It belongs to a genus of wasps called yellow jackets in North America, but is not called that because it lacks yellow coloring. Instead, it is called a hornet in the American sense of a wasp that builds paper nests, especially one of the subfamily Vespinae. It is not a "true hornet" in the British sense, that is, a member of the genus Vespa in the same subfamily, such as the Asian giant hornet or the European hornet. The bald-faced hornet lives throughout North America, including southern Canada, the Rocky Mountains, the western coast of the United States, and most of the eastern US. They are most common in the southeastern United States. They are best known for their large football-shaped paper nest, which they build in the spring for raising their young. These nests can sometimes reach 3 feet tall. Like the median wasp (Dolichovespula media) in Europe, bald-faced hornets are extremely protective of their nests and will sting repeatedly if disturbed. Every year, queens that were born and fertilized at the end of the previous season begin a new colony. The queen selects a location for its nest, begins building it, lays a first batch of eggs and feeds this first group of larvae. These become workers and will assume the chore of expanding the nest — done by chewing up wood which is mixed with a starch in their saliva. This mixture is then spread with their mandibles and legs, drying into the paper-like substance that makes up the nest. The workers also guard the nest and feed on nectar, tree sap and fruit pulp. They also capture insects and arthropods, which are chewed up to be fed to the larvae. This continues through summer and into fall. Near the end of summer, or early in the fall, the queen begins to lay eggs which will become drones and new queens. After pupation, these fertile males and females will mate, setting up next year's cycle of growth. Remains of Bald Faced Hornet Nest. Image Courtesy of Makuabob. As winter approaches, the wasps die — except any just-fertilized queens. These hibernate underground, on hollow trees until spring or other protected locations. The nest itself is generally abandoned by winter, and will most likely not be reused. When spring arrives, the young queens emerge and the cycle begins again. Bald-faced hornets visit flowers for nectar, especially in late summer, and can be minor pollinators. Like other social wasps, bald-faced hornets have a caste system made up, in one nest, of the following: Queen — the fertile female which starts the colony and lays eggs; Workers — infertile females which do all work except laying eggs; Drones — males, which have no stingers, and are born from unfertilized eggs; New queens — fertile females, each of which, once fertilized, may start its own nest in the spring. Bald-face hornets will sting repeatedly if disturbed. Like other stinging wasps, they can sting repeatedly because the stinger does not become stuck in the skin. Some suggest putting baking soda or meat tenderizer on the area of the sting, but others say such treatments do not work. European Hornet-Vespa crabro. This species is commonly known simply as the "hornet", is the largest European true social wasp. The queen measures 21–1.4 inches long; males and workers are smaller. The antennae have 13 segments, while in females there are only 12 This species is not particularly aggressive except when defending the nest, and care must be taken when in its proximity, as the stings are quite painful. As with most stinging insects, European hornet

the nest and feed on nectar, tree sap and fruit pulp. They also capture insects and arthropods, which are chewed up to be fed to the larvae. This continues through summer and into fall. Near the end of summer, or early in the fall, the queen begins to lay eggs which will become drones and new queens. After pupation, these fertile males and females will mate, setting up next year's cycle of growth. Remains of Bald Faced Hornet Nest. Image Courtesy of Makuabob. As winter approaches, the wasps die — except any just-fertilized queens. These hibernate underground, on hollow trees until spring or other protected locations. The nest itself is generally abandoned by winter, and will most likely not be reused. When spring arrives, the young queens emerge and the cycle begins again. Bald-faced hornets visit flowers for nectar, especially in late summer, and can be minor pollinators. Like other social wasps, bald-faced hornets have a caste system made up, in one nest, of the following: Queen — the fertile female which starts the colony and lays eggs; Workers — infertile females which do all work except laying eggs; Drones — males, which have no stingers, and are born from unfertilized eggs; New queens — fertile females, each of which, once fertilized, may start its own nest in the spring. Bald-face hornets will sting repeatedly if disturbed. Like other stinging wasps, they can sting repeatedly because the stinger does not become stuck in the skin. Some suggest putting baking soda or meat tenderizer on the area of the sting, but others say such treatments do not work. European Hornet-Vespa crabro. This species is commonly known simply as the "hornet", is the largest European true social wasp. The queen measures 21–1.4 inches long; males and workers are smaller. The antennae have 13 segments, while in females there are only 12 This species is not particularly aggressive except when defending the nest, and care must be taken when in its proximity, as the stings are quite painful. As with most stinging insects, European hornets will sting in self-defense when grabbed or stepped on. Eyes are deeply indented, shaped like C. Wings are reddish-orange, the petiolate abdomen is brown striped with yellow. The European hornet is larger than common wasp, but smaller than some Asian hornet species. It has hair on the thorax and abdomen, although the European hornet is not so hairy as most bees. European hornets are often mischaracterized as very aggressive and dangerous, and are greatly feared by some people. Some people believe that "three stings from the European hornet can kill an adult human, and that seven can kill a horse". These are common myths - a sting from a European hornet isn't any more dangerous than any other wasp sting, and European hornets are less aggressive than other wasps. In contrast, multiple Asian giant hornets stings are, in fact, more dangerous. While impressive due to their size and loud sound, European hornets are in fact much less aggressive than some of their smaller relatives, such as the German wasp and the common wasp. When approached, European hornets can actually be seen to slowly crawl backwards and eventually flee, rather than attack. This can make it hard to remove hornets from indoors, if they happen to come in through an open window or door. While not aggressive when encountered far from the nest, multiple workers will vigorously defend the nest if provoked. Nests can be approached without provocation (by moving slowly and not breathing towards the nest) to about 20 inches. Nests are usually not a problem outside buildings, but because they drip feces, a bad smelling black liquid, nests inside sheds or walls can be a problem. Unwarranted fear has often led to the destruction of nests, leading to the decline of the species, which is often locally threatened or even endangered. European hornets benefit from legal protection in some countries, notably Germany, where it has been illegal to kill a European hornet or nest since 1 January 1987, with a fine up to 50,000 Euros. European hornets are attracted to li

s will sting in self-defense when grabbed or stepped on. Eyes are deeply indented, shaped like C. Wings are reddish-orange, the petiolate abdomen is brown striped with yellow. The European hornet is larger than common wasp, but smaller than some Asian hornet species. It has hair on the thorax and abdomen, although the European hornet is not so hairy as most bees. European hornets are often mischaracterized as very aggressive and dangerous, and are greatly feared by some people. Some people believe that "three stings from the European hornet can kill an adult human, and that seven can kill a horse". These are common myths - a sting from a European hornet isn't any more dangerous than any other wasp sting, and European hornets are less aggressive than other wasps. In contrast, multiple Asian giant hornets stings are, in fact, more dangerous. While impressive due to their size and loud sound, European hornets are in fact much less aggressive than some of their smaller relatives, such as the German wasp and the common wasp. When approached, European hornets can actually be seen to slowly crawl backwards and eventually flee, rather than attack. This can make it hard to remove hornets from indoors, if they happen to come in through an open window or door. While not aggressive when encountered far from the nest, multiple workers will vigorously defend the nest if provoked. Nests can be approached without provocation (by moving slowly and not breathing towards the nest) to about 20 inches. Nests are usually not a problem outside buildings, but because they drip feces, a bad smelling black liquid, nests inside sheds or walls can be a problem. Unwarranted fear has often led to the destruction of nests, leading to the decline of the species, which is often locally threatened or even endangered. European hornets benefit from legal protection in some countries, notably Germany, where it has been illegal to kill a European hornet or nest since 1 January 1987, with a fine up to 50,000 Euros. European hornets are attracted to lights at night, but are not attracted to human foods and food wastes. However, they can totally destroy fruits, such as apples, while the fruit is still on the tree. This is quite unlike the bald-faced hornet or other social wasps. The Japanese Hornet. I have saved this beast for last since it is probably the most frightening of all the Hymenoptera. As its name implies it occurs mainly in Japan which is of course good for us since it is a treacherous and dangerous insect. It is quite large approaching the size of a thumb and by the way its sting, besides feeling like a hot nail driven into you, can also dissolve tissues of your thumb, actually any part of your body-ouch! Well it is gets worse. The sting-venom also contains an alarm pheromone that will incite mass attack from nearby hornets-hopefully not to a human. Unfortunately in many cases it is us as 40 to 70 people a year in Japan die from attack of these critters. A Japanese Hornet. As bad as this is for humans it is much worse for the European honeybee, Apis mellifera, the most common honeybee found around the world. These wasps will fly many miles looking for beehives to raid. They can fly as far as 60 miles in a day at 25 miles per hour. A searching hornet may actually follow a foraging bee back to its hive. Once finding the hive it attacks giving off the alarm pheromone attracting other hornet in the vicinity. Ultimately they typically attack in force with a relatively small but very effective army of 30 or more. You wouldn’t think such a small army would be that successful since a beehive can have upwards of 80,000 bees. However, one hornet can kill 40 bees a minute. Unfortunately honeybees possess relatively small stingers that are of minimal use in penetrating the thick exocutile of the invading hornets nor do they defend in mass. The hornets descend on the hive and systematically one by one cut the bees in half. In the interest of efficiency they typically cut off the defending bees heads. After a few hours the hive contains few if any adult bees but

ghts at night, but are not attracted to human foods and food wastes. However, they can totally destroy fruits, such as apples, while the fruit is still on the tree. This is quite unlike the bald-faced hornet or other social wasps. The Japanese Hornet. I have saved this beast for last since it is probably the most frightening of all the Hymenoptera. As its name implies it occurs mainly in Japan which is of course good for us since it is a treacherous and dangerous insect. It is quite large approaching the size of a thumb and by the way its sting, besides feeling like a hot nail driven into you, can also dissolve tissues of your thumb, actually any part of your body-ouch! Well it is gets worse. The sting-venom also contains an alarm pheromone that will incite mass attack from nearby hornets-hopefully not to a human. Unfortunately in many cases it is us as 40 to 70 people a year in Japan die from attack of these critters. A Japanese Hornet. As bad as this is for humans it is much worse for the European honeybee, Apis mellifera, the most common honeybee found around the world. These wasps will fly many miles looking for beehives to raid. They can fly as far as 60 miles in a day at 25 miles per hour. A searching hornet may actually follow a foraging bee back to its hive. Once finding the hive it attacks giving off the alarm pheromone attracting other hornet in the vicinity. Ultimately they typically attack in force with a relatively small but very effective army of 30 or more. You wouldn’t think such a small army would be that successful since a beehive can have upwards of 80,000 bees. However, one hornet can kill 40 bees a minute. Unfortunately honeybees possess relatively small stingers that are of minimal use in penetrating the thick exocutile of the invading hornets nor do they defend in mass. The hornets descend on the hive and systematically one by one cut the bees in half. In the interest of efficiency they typically cut off the defending bees heads. After a few hours the hive contains few if any adult bees but there are piles of heads, limbs and various other body parts. At that point the hornets gorge on the honey and rip the bee larvae (young) and pupae from their cells and carry them back to their nest to feed to their young. However all is not totally lost. There is different species of honeybee which naturally occurs in Japan that has a defensive tactic it uses against these invaders. When a single hornet in search a beehive is detected, hundreds of the worker bees gather at the hive entrance but readily allow the hornet to enter. Once in the hive the bees immediately surround and totally cover the hornet with a ball-like mass of up to 500 individuals. They prevent the hornet from moving and begin to vibrate their wings muscles. This action produces heat raising the temperature in the center of the mass (where the hornet occurs) to around 117 F. This temperature is not lethal to the bees but the hornet cannot tolerate temperatures above 113 F and subsequently dies. Of course action prevents the “scout” hornet from releasing its pheromones which would normally attract other hornets in the vicinity to mass attack the hive. In the mountains of Japan where these hornets are commonly encountered villagers eat them deep fried. Also a number of companies in Europe and Japan have begun to manufacture diet supplements and energy drinks which contain synthetic versions of secretions which the larval hornets feed to adults. The product sold as “hornet juice” is said to greatly enhance human endurance. Parasitic (Parasitoids) Hymenoptera There are many families of Hymenoptera that are parasitic. In strict entomological terms they are referred to as parasitoids. In the world of bugs parasite refers to an insect or one of its relatives (e.g. mites) that feeds on a host from a different groups animals (e.g. humans) but does not generally kill it in doing so. Example of this would include fleas, mites, lice and many others. A parasitoid is an insect or relative that typically lays its egg or eggs on or in its host which typicall

there are piles of heads, limbs and various other body parts. At that point the hornets gorge on the honey and rip the bee larvae (young) and pupae from their cells and carry them back to their nest to feed to their young. However all is not totally lost. There is different species of honeybee which naturally occurs in Japan that has a defensive tactic it uses against these invaders. When a single hornet in search a beehive is detected, hundreds of the worker bees gather at the hive entrance but readily allow the hornet to enter. Once in the hive the bees immediately surround and totally cover the hornet with a ball-like mass of up to 500 individuals. They prevent the hornet from moving and begin to vibrate their wings muscles. This action produces heat raising the temperature in the center of the mass (where the hornet occurs) to around 117 F. This temperature is not lethal to the bees but the hornet cannot tolerate temperatures above 113 F and subsequently dies. Of course action prevents the “scout” hornet from releasing its pheromones which would normally attract other hornets in the vicinity to mass attack the hive. In the mountains of Japan where these hornets are commonly encountered villagers eat them deep fried. Also a number of companies in Europe and Japan have begun to manufacture diet supplements and energy drinks which contain synthetic versions of secretions which the larval hornets feed to adults. The product sold as “hornet juice” is said to greatly enhance human endurance. Parasitic (Parasitoids) Hymenoptera There are many families of Hymenoptera that are parasitic. In strict entomological terms they are referred to as parasitoids. In the world of bugs parasite refers to an insect or one of its relatives (e.g. mites) that feeds on a host from a different groups animals (e.g. humans) but does not generally kill it in doing so. Example of this would include fleas, mites, lice and many others. A parasitoid is an insect or relative that typically lays its egg or eggs on or in its host which typically belong to the same group or animals (e.g. insect laying its eggs on another insect). Once the eggs hatch the larvae feed and develop internally or externally on that host and in doing so kill it. Thread Waisted Wasps. As a group most thread waisted wasps are characterized by an elongated waist or petiole that joins the thorax to the abdomen. These are commonly found around the home. However some species have a narrow waist. In this case they can be separated from Vespidae by the front wing not bring folded longitudinally. These wasps can easily be distinguished from other similarly appearing wasps by the elongated stalk or petiole that connects the thorax to the abdomen; hence another common name is the thread-waisted wasps. The black and yellow mud dauber, Even though these are solitary insects a single nest may be composed of several elongated cylindrical cells made of mud and placed side by side until the make a mass about the size of a fist. The entire structure is then plastered over to make a smooth and even outer surface. Each inner cell is provided with several insect larvae or paralyzed spiders that the adult female has collected. A single egg is then deposited in each cell and the hatching wasp larvae complete their development on the provided prey. These wasps are much less aggressive than solitary forms, as they do not protect their nest. About the only way someone could be stung by one of these wasps is by accidentally stepping on or carelessly handling one, which seem very unlikely. Black and Yellow Mud Dauber- Sceliphron caementarium. This is solitary insects that build nests out of mud in sheltered locations, frequently on man-made structures such as bridges, barns, open porches or under the eaves of houses. These nests are not aggressively defended, and stings are rare. Black and Yellow Mud Dauber. The black and yellow mud dauber's nest comprises a series of cylindrical cells that are plastered over to form a smooth nest that may attain nearly the size of a human fist. After building a cell, th

y belong to the same group or animals (e.g. insect laying its eggs on another insect). Once the eggs hatch the larvae feed and develop internally or externally on that host and in doing so kill it. Thread Waisted Wasps. As a group most thread waisted wasps are characterized by an elongated waist or petiole that joins the thorax to the abdomen. These are commonly found around the home. However some species have a narrow waist. In this case they can be separated from Vespidae by the front wing not bring folded longitudinally. These wasps can easily be distinguished from other similarly appearing wasps by the elongated stalk or petiole that connects the thorax to the abdomen; hence another common name is the thread-waisted wasps. The black and yellow mud dauber, Even though these are solitary insects a single nest may be composed of several elongated cylindrical cells made of mud and placed side by side until the make a mass about the size of a fist. The entire structure is then plastered over to make a smooth and even outer surface. Each inner cell is provided with several insect larvae or paralyzed spiders that the adult female has collected. A single egg is then deposited in each cell and the hatching wasp larvae complete their development on the provided prey. These wasps are much less aggressive than solitary forms, as they do not protect their nest. About the only way someone could be stung by one of these wasps is by accidentally stepping on or carelessly handling one, which seem very unlikely. Black and Yellow Mud Dauber- Sceliphron caementarium. This is solitary insects that build nests out of mud in sheltered locations, frequently on man-made structures such as bridges, barns, open porches or under the eaves of houses. These nests are not aggressively defended, and stings are rare. Black and Yellow Mud Dauber. The black and yellow mud dauber's nest comprises a series of cylindrical cells that are plastered over to form a smooth nest that may attain nearly the size of a human fist. After building a cell, the female wasp captures several spiders. The captured prey are stung and paralyzed before being placed in the nest, and then a single egg is deposited on the prey within each cell. The wasp then seals the cell with mud. After finishing a series of cells, she leaves and does not return. Eventually, the hatching larva will eat the prey and emerge from the nest. A common species of cuckoo wasp, Chrysis angolensis, is frequently a cleptoparasite (steals they prey by laying its eggs on it)in Sceliphron nests, and is only one of many different insects that parasitize these mud daubers. There are some 30 other species of Sceliphron that occur throughout the world, though in appearance and habits they are quite similar to S. caementarium. S. caementarium is widespread in Canada, the United States, Central America, South Africa and the West Indies, and has been introduced to many Pacific Islands (including Australia, Hawaii andJapan), Peru and Europe , where it has become established in the western Mediterranean Basin. Organ Pipe Mud Dauber-Trypoxylon politum. These are fairly large wasps, shiny black with pale hind tarsi. Male organ pipe mud daubers are among the few male wasps of any species to stay at the nest. A male "stands guard" (to prevent theft of prey or nest materials, as well as to ward off parasites while a female is away collecting spiders. Mating typically occurs on her visits to the nest. They typically build their nests in sheltered locations, and large aggregations may form with dozens to hundreds of nests in a small area. The shape of their nest is the derivation of their common name. Organ Pipe Mud Dauber, Nests and Parasitized Spiders M0ved from Nest. Images Courtesy or Pollinator. Organ pipe mud daubers are also an exceedingly docile species of wasp, and generally pleasant to have around, as they serve to keep spider populations down. Stings to humans are very rare, bordering on non-existent, although if squeezed, they will sting in self-defense. There are a great many other species in the genus Trypo

e female wasp captures several spiders. The captured prey are stung and paralyzed before being placed in the nest, and then a single egg is deposited on the prey within each cell. The wasp then seals the cell with mud. After finishing a series of cells, she leaves and does not return. Eventually, the hatching larva will eat the prey and emerge from the nest. A common species of cuckoo wasp, Chrysis angolensis, is frequently a cleptoparasite (steals they prey by laying its eggs on it)in Sceliphron nests, and is only one of many different insects that parasitize these mud daubers. There are some 30 other species of Sceliphron that occur throughout the world, though in appearance and habits they are quite similar to S. caementarium. S. caementarium is widespread in Canada, the United States, Central America, South Africa and the West Indies, and has been introduced to many Pacific Islands (including Australia, Hawaii andJapan), Peru and Europe , where it has become established in the western Mediterranean Basin. Organ Pipe Mud Dauber-Trypoxylon politum. These are fairly large wasps, shiny black with pale hind tarsi. Male organ pipe mud daubers are among the few male wasps of any species to stay at the nest. A male "stands guard" (to prevent theft of prey or nest materials, as well as to ward off parasites while a female is away collecting spiders. Mating typically occurs on her visits to the nest. They typically build their nests in sheltered locations, and large aggregations may form with dozens to hundreds of nests in a small area. The shape of their nest is the derivation of their common name. Organ Pipe Mud Dauber, Nests and Parasitized Spiders M0ved from Nest. Images Courtesy or Pollinator. Organ pipe mud daubers are also an exceedingly docile species of wasp, and generally pleasant to have around, as they serve to keep spider populations down. Stings to humans are very rare, bordering on non-existent, although if squeezed, they will sting in self-defense. There are a great many other species in the genus Trypoxylon (over 700 of them worldwide), mostly smaller in size and less abundant. Sphecius speciosus-Cicada Killer. Cicada killer wasps are large, solitary wasps. The name may be applied to any species which uses cicadas as prey, though in North America it is typically applied to a single species, Sphecius speciosus, often simply referred to as "The cicada killer". However, since there are multiple species of related wasps, it is more appropriate to call it the Eastern pr Western cicada killers. These species occurs in the eastern, western and Midwest U.S. and southwards into Mexico and Central America. They are so named because they hunt cicadas and provision their nests with them. In North America they are sometimes called sand hornets, although they are not hornets, which belong to the family Vespidae. Adult Eastern and Western cicada killer wasps are large, 1.5 to 5 cm (2/3 to 2 inches) long, robust wasps with hairy, reddish and black areas on the thorax (middle part), and are black to reddish brown marked with light yellow stripes on the abdominal (rear) segments. The wings are brownish. Coloration may superficially resemble that of yellow jackets or hornets. The females are somewhat larger than the males, and both are among the largest wasps seen in the Eastern United States, their unusual size giving them a uniquely fearsome appearance. European hornets (Vespa crabro) are often mistaken for Eastern cicada killers. Solitary wasps (such as the Eastern cicada killer) are very different in their behavior from the social wasps such as hornets, yellow jackets, and paper wasps. Cicada killer females use their sting to paralyze their prey (cicadas) rather than to defend their nests. Adults feed on flower nectar and other plant sap exudates. Adults emerge in summer, typically beginning around late June or early July and continuing throughout the summer months. They are present in a given area for 60 to 75 days, until mid-September. The large females are commonly seen in mid-to-late summer skimming around lawns seeking

xylon (over 700 of them worldwide), mostly smaller in size and less abundant. Sphecius speciosus-Cicada Killer. Cicada killer wasps are large, solitary wasps. The name may be applied to any species which uses cicadas as prey, though in North America it is typically applied to a single species, Sphecius speciosus, often simply referred to as "The cicada killer". However, since there are multiple species of related wasps, it is more appropriate to call it the Eastern pr Western cicada killers. These species occurs in the eastern, western and Midwest U.S. and southwards into Mexico and Central America. They are so named because they hunt cicadas and provision their nests with them. In North America they are sometimes called sand hornets, although they are not hornets, which belong to the family Vespidae. Adult Eastern and Western cicada killer wasps are large, 1.5 to 5 cm (2/3 to 2 inches) long, robust wasps with hairy, reddish and black areas on the thorax (middle part), and are black to reddish brown marked with light yellow stripes on the abdominal (rear) segments. The wings are brownish. Coloration may superficially resemble that of yellow jackets or hornets. The females are somewhat larger than the males, and both are among the largest wasps seen in the Eastern United States, their unusual size giving them a uniquely fearsome appearance. European hornets (Vespa crabro) are often mistaken for Eastern cicada killers. Solitary wasps (such as the Eastern cicada killer) are very different in their behavior from the social wasps such as hornets, yellow jackets, and paper wasps. Cicada killer females use their sting to paralyze their prey (cicadas) rather than to defend their nests. Adults feed on flower nectar and other plant sap exudates. Adults emerge in summer, typically beginning around late June or early July and continuing throughout the summer months. They are present in a given area for 60 to 75 days, until mid-September. The large females are commonly seen in mid-to-late summer skimming around lawns seeking good sites to dig burrows and searching shrubs and trees for cicadas. The males are more often seen in groups, vigorously challenging one another for position on the breeding aggregation from which they emerged, and generally pursuing anything that moves or flies within close proximity. It is not unusual to see two or three male wasps locked together in midair combat, the aggregate adopting an erratic and uncontrolled flight path until one of the wasps breaks away. The male wasp's aggressive behavior is extremely similar to that of another robust insect of the area, the male carpenter bee. In both cases, while the males' vigorous territorial defense can be extremely frightening and intimidating to human passersby, the males pose no danger whatsoever. They will only grapple with other insects, and cannot sting. This ground-burrowing wasp may be found in well-drained, sandy soils to loose clay in bare or grass-covered banks, berms and hills as well as next to raised sidewalks, driveways and patio slabs. Females may share a burrow, digging their own nest cells off the main tunnel. A burrow is 15 to 25 cm (6 - 10 in.) deep and about 3 cm (1.5 in.) wide. The female dislodges the soil with her jaws and pushes loose soil behind her as she backs out of the burrow using her hind legs, which are equipped with special spines that help her push the dirt behind her. The excess soil pushed out of the burrow forms a mound with a trench through it at the burrow entrance. Cicada killers may nest in planters, window boxes, and flower beds or under shrubs, ground cover, etc. Nests often are made in the full sun where vegetation is sparse. Nest of Cicada Killer. Image Courtesy of Chuck Holliday. After digging a nest chamber in the burrow, female cicada killers capture cicadas, paralyzing them with a sting; the cicadas then serve as food to rear their young. After paralyzing a cicada, the female wasp straddles it and takes off toward her burrow; this return flight to the burrow is difficult for the wasp because the cicada is often mo

good sites to dig burrows and searching shrubs and trees for cicadas. The males are more often seen in groups, vigorously challenging one another for position on the breeding aggregation from which they emerged, and generally pursuing anything that moves or flies within close proximity. It is not unusual to see two or three male wasps locked together in midair combat, the aggregate adopting an erratic and uncontrolled flight path until one of the wasps breaks away. The male wasp's aggressive behavior is extremely similar to that of another robust insect of the area, the male carpenter bee. In both cases, while the males' vigorous territorial defense can be extremely frightening and intimidating to human passersby, the males pose no danger whatsoever. They will only grapple with other insects, and cannot sting. This ground-burrowing wasp may be found in well-drained, sandy soils to loose clay in bare or grass-covered banks, berms and hills as well as next to raised sidewalks, driveways and patio slabs. Females may share a burrow, digging their own nest cells off the main tunnel. A burrow is 15 to 25 cm (6 - 10 in.) deep and about 3 cm (1.5 in.) wide. The female dislodges the soil with her jaws and pushes loose soil behind her as she backs out of the burrow using her hind legs, which are equipped with special spines that help her push the dirt behind her. The excess soil pushed out of the burrow forms a mound with a trench through it at the burrow entrance. Cicada killers may nest in planters, window boxes, and flower beds or under shrubs, ground cover, etc. Nests often are made in the full sun where vegetation is sparse. Nest of Cicada Killer. Image Courtesy of Chuck Holliday. After digging a nest chamber in the burrow, female cicada killers capture cicadas, paralyzing them with a sting; the cicadas then serve as food to rear their young. After paralyzing a cicada, the female wasp straddles it and takes off toward her burrow; this return flight to the burrow is difficult for the wasp because the cicada is often more than twice her weight. After putting the cicada in the nest cell, the female deposits an egg on the cicada and closes the cell with dirt. Male eggs are laid on a single cicada but female eggs are given two or sometimes three cicadas; this is because the female wasp is twice as large as the male and must have more food. New nest cells are dug as necessary off the main burrow tunnel and a single burrow may eventually have 10 to 20 cells. The egg hatches in one or two days, and the cicadas serve as food for the grub. The larvae complete their development in about 2 weeks. Overwintering occurs as a mature larva within an earth-coated cocoon. Pupation occurs in the nest cell in the spring and lasts 25 to 30 days. There is only one generation per year and no adults overwinter. Although cicada killers are large, female cicada killer wasps are not aggressive and rarely sting unless they are grasped roughly, stepped upon with bare feet, or caught in clothing, etc. One author who has been stung indicates that, for him, the stings are not much more than a "pinprick". Males aggressively defend their perching areas on nesting sites against rival males but they have no sting. Although they appear to attack anything which moves near their territories, male cicada killers are actually investigating anything which might be a female cicada killer ready to mate. Such close inspection appears to many people to be an attack, but male and female cicada killers don't land on people and attempt to sting. If handled roughly females will sting, and males will jab with a sharp spine on the tip of their abdomen. Both sexes are well equipped to bite, as they have large jaws; however, they don't appear to grasp human skin and bite. They are non-aggressive towards humans and usually fly away when swatted at, instead of attacking. Cicada killers exert a natural control on cicada populations and thus may directly benefit the deciduous trees upon which their cicada prey feeds. Chrysisid Wasps. These tiny wasps are characterized by their shinin

re than twice her weight. After putting the cicada in the nest cell, the female deposits an egg on the cicada and closes the cell with dirt. Male eggs are laid on a single cicada but female eggs are given two or sometimes three cicadas; this is because the female wasp is twice as large as the male and must have more food. New nest cells are dug as necessary off the main burrow tunnel and a single burrow may eventually have 10 to 20 cells. The egg hatches in one or two days, and the cicadas serve as food for the grub. The larvae complete their development in about 2 weeks. Overwintering occurs as a mature larva within an earth-coated cocoon. Pupation occurs in the nest cell in the spring and lasts 25 to 30 days. There is only one generation per year and no adults overwinter. Although cicada killers are large, female cicada killer wasps are not aggressive and rarely sting unless they are grasped roughly, stepped upon with bare feet, or caught in clothing, etc. One author who has been stung indicates that, for him, the stings are not much more than a "pinprick". Males aggressively defend their perching areas on nesting sites against rival males but they have no sting. Although they appear to attack anything which moves near their territories, male cicada killers are actually investigating anything which might be a female cicada killer ready to mate. Such close inspection appears to many people to be an attack, but male and female cicada killers don't land on people and attempt to sting. If handled roughly females will sting, and males will jab with a sharp spine on the tip of their abdomen. Both sexes are well equipped to bite, as they have large jaws; however, they don't appear to grasp human skin and bite. They are non-aggressive towards humans and usually fly away when swatted at, instead of attacking. Cicada killers exert a natural control on cicada populations and thus may directly benefit the deciduous trees upon which their cicada prey feeds. Chrysisid Wasps. These tiny wasps are characterized by their shining coloration made of iridescent blue, green, purple which are true pigments (red, brown and white) and are very rare in insects. The typical brilliance is emphasized by the exoskeleton sculpture, which is carved by a complex punctuation and by projections, crests and holes. In addition there is a reduction of the number of the external abdominal segments, the presence of 11 antennal segments and for the wing veins with 5 closed cells. Some tropical species have apterous females and a body without metallic reflections. Cuckoo Wasps. Images Courtsey of (left) Pollinator and (right) Alvesgaspar. Currently about 3,000 species have been described worldwide. Chrysidids are parasitoids with some species being cleptoparasites meaning they lay their eggs on host that are already parasitized by other wasps. In addition it is not uncommon for the newly hatched cleptoparasitic larvae to attack and kill the other parasitic larvae thus leaving more food for themselves Velvet Ants. Their common name velvet ants refers to their dense hair which may be red, black, white, silver, or gold. They are known for their extremely painful sting, facetiously said to be strong enough to kill a cow, hence the common name cow killer or cow ant. They invade the nests of wasps and bees as their exoskeleton is very tough and roughly textured to protect against stings. Like related families in the Vespoidea, males have wings but females are wingless. They exhibit extreme sexual dimorphism; the males and females are so different that it is almost impossible to associate the two sexes of a species unless they are captured while mating. In a few species the male is so much larger than the female that he carries her aloft while mating, a characteristic that is also seen in the closely related family Tiphiidae. In all Hymenoptera only the females sting because the stinger is a modified ovipositor. Like all wasps they can sting multiple times. A structure called a stridulitrum on the metasoma is used to produce a squeaking, chirping, or humming warning

g coloration made of iridescent blue, green, purple which are true pigments (red, brown and white) and are very rare in insects. The typical brilliance is emphasized by the exoskeleton sculpture, which is carved by a complex punctuation and by projections, crests and holes. In addition there is a reduction of the number of the external abdominal segments, the presence of 11 antennal segments and for the wing veins with 5 closed cells. Some tropical species have apterous females and a body without metallic reflections. Cuckoo Wasps. Images Courtsey of (left) Pollinator and (right) Alvesgaspar. Currently about 3,000 species have been described worldwide. Chrysidids are parasitoids with some species being cleptoparasites meaning they lay their eggs on host that are already parasitized by other wasps. In addition it is not uncommon for the newly hatched cleptoparasitic larvae to attack and kill the other parasitic larvae thus leaving more food for themselves Velvet Ants. Their common name velvet ants refers to their dense hair which may be red, black, white, silver, or gold. They are known for their extremely painful sting, facetiously said to be strong enough to kill a cow, hence the common name cow killer or cow ant. They invade the nests of wasps and bees as their exoskeleton is very tough and roughly textured to protect against stings. Like related families in the Vespoidea, males have wings but females are wingless. They exhibit extreme sexual dimorphism; the males and females are so different that it is almost impossible to associate the two sexes of a species unless they are captured while mating. In a few species the male is so much larger than the female that he carries her aloft while mating, a characteristic that is also seen in the closely related family Tiphiidae. In all Hymenoptera only the females sting because the stinger is a modified ovipositor. Like all wasps they can sting multiple times. A structure called a stridulitrum on the metasoma is used to produce a squeaking, chirping, or humming warning sound when handled. Female (left) and Winged Male Velvet Ants. Mature velvet ants feed on nectar. Although most species are strictly nocturnal, females some species are sometimes active up to two hours before sunset. It is thought they may not avoid light but rather are active during temperatures which usually occur only after sunset but on cool overcast days could occur earlier. The male locates a female on the wing and mates. The female then enters an insect nest, typically a ground-nesting bee or wasp nest, and deposits eggs near the larvae or pupae. Her young develops as an ectoparasitoid, eventually killing and eating its immobile host. A few European species have been known to invade and raid bee or wasp nests. Velvet ants occur worldwide, with some 5000 species, mainly in the tropics. They are especially common in desert and sandy areas, with most of the over 400 North American species found in the Southwestern United States and adjacent parts of Mexico, with others found in generally sandy regions throughout the United States and Canada; the same habitat where their hosts are most diverse. Spider Wasps. These are one of the better know groups of large Hymenoptera. Most of the Spider Warps are orange and black, black and grey/white markings or just black, i.e., the very strong warning colors. They usually have tinted wings, smooth and shiny body. Their hind-legs are long and always have two prominent spurs. They tend to coil their antennae. Spider wasps are best distinguished from other similar wasps in having (in most species) a transverse groove dividing the mesopleuron (the mesepisternal sclerite, a region on the side of middle segment of the thorax above the point where the legs join) into halves. Spider Wasp with Coiled Antennae and Mesoplural Transverse Groove Dividing Segment above Attachment of Second Pair of Legs In South America spider wasp species may be referred to colloquially as marabunta or marimbondo, though these names can be generally applied to any very large stinging wasps). The family

sound when handled. Female (left) and Winged Male Velvet Ants. Mature velvet ants feed on nectar. Although most species are strictly nocturnal, females some species are sometimes active up to two hours before sunset. It is thought they may not avoid light but rather are active during temperatures which usually occur only after sunset but on cool overcast days could occur earlier. The male locates a female on the wing and mates. The female then enters an insect nest, typically a ground-nesting bee or wasp nest, and deposits eggs near the larvae or pupae. Her young develops as an ectoparasitoid, eventually killing and eating its immobile host. A few European species have been known to invade and raid bee or wasp nests. Velvet ants occur worldwide, with some 5000 species, mainly in the tropics. They are especially common in desert and sandy areas, with most of the over 400 North American species found in the Southwestern United States and adjacent parts of Mexico, with others found in generally sandy regions throughout the United States and Canada; the same habitat where their hosts are most diverse. Spider Wasps. These are one of the better know groups of large Hymenoptera. Most of the Spider Warps are orange and black, black and grey/white markings or just black, i.e., the very strong warning colors. They usually have tinted wings, smooth and shiny body. Their hind-legs are long and always have two prominent spurs. They tend to coil their antennae. Spider wasps are best distinguished from other similar wasps in having (in most species) a transverse groove dividing the mesopleuron (the mesepisternal sclerite, a region on the side of middle segment of the thorax above the point where the legs join) into halves. Spider Wasp with Coiled Antennae and Mesoplural Transverse Groove Dividing Segment above Attachment of Second Pair of Legs In South America spider wasp species may be referred to colloquially as marabunta or marimbondo, though these names can be generally applied to any very large stinging wasps). The family is cosmopolitan, with some 4,200 species in 4 subfamilies. All species are solitary, and most capture and paralyze prey, although some species are cleptoparasites of other pompilids, or ectoparasitoids of living spiders. Sexual dimorphism is not marked although females are often larger than the males. Spider wasps are long-legged, solitary wasps that use a single spider as a host for feeding their larvae. They paralyze the spider with a venomous stinger. Once paralyzed, the spider is dragged to where a nest will be built – some wasps having already made a nest. A single egg is laid on the abdomen of the spider, and the nest – or burrow – is closed. Spider Wasps Collecting Prey. Images Courtewy Tony Willis. The size of the host can influence whether the wasp will lay an egg that will develop as a male, or an egg that will develop into a female – larger prey yielding the (larger) females. A complex set of adult behavior can then occur, such as spreading dirt or inspecting the area, leaving the nest site inconspicuous. When the wasp larva hatches it begins to feed on the still-living spider. After consuming the edible parts of the spider, the larva spins a silk cocoon and pupates – usually emerging as an adult the next summer. Some species lay the egg on a still-active spider, where it feeds externally on hemolymph (spider blood). In time, that spider will die, and the mature wasp larva will then pupate. They usually hunt on ground with the characteristic wing flicking movement. The tarantula hawk is only one of a number of related species of wasps that mainly parasitize spiders and in entomological terms are referred to as parasitoids. They typically hunt out their prey, sting and paralyzed them and carry them back to their nest. The nest is typically a hole in the ground into which they insert one or more spiders upon which they subsequently lay a single egg. After hatching the wasp larva feed on the paralyzed prey until completing development. Tarantula Hawk-Pepsis spp. This is a species of spider wasp which hun

is cosmopolitan, with some 4,200 species in 4 subfamilies. All species are solitary, and most capture and paralyze prey, although some species are cleptoparasites of other pompilids, or ectoparasitoids of living spiders. Sexual dimorphism is not marked although females are often larger than the males. Spider wasps are long-legged, solitary wasps that use a single spider as a host for feeding their larvae. They paralyze the spider with a venomous stinger. Once paralyzed, the spider is dragged to where a nest will be built – some wasps having already made a nest. A single egg is laid on the abdomen of the spider, and the nest – or burrow – is closed. Spider Wasps Collecting Prey. Images Courtewy Tony Willis. The size of the host can influence whether the wasp will lay an egg that will develop as a male, or an egg that will develop into a female – larger prey yielding the (larger) females. A complex set of adult behavior can then occur, such as spreading dirt or inspecting the area, leaving the nest site inconspicuous. When the wasp larva hatches it begins to feed on the still-living spider. After consuming the edible parts of the spider, the larva spins a silk cocoon and pupates – usually emerging as an adult the next summer. Some species lay the egg on a still-active spider, where it feeds externally on hemolymph (spider blood). In time, that spider will die, and the mature wasp larva will then pupate. They usually hunt on ground with the characteristic wing flicking movement. The tarantula hawk is only one of a number of related species of wasps that mainly parasitize spiders and in entomological terms are referred to as parasitoids. They typically hunt out their prey, sting and paralyzed them and carry them back to their nest. The nest is typically a hole in the ground into which they insert one or more spiders upon which they subsequently lay a single egg. After hatching the wasp larva feed on the paralyzed prey until completing development. Tarantula Hawk-Pepsis spp. This is a species of spider wasp which hunts tarantulas as food for it larvae. Up to two inches long with a blue-black body and bright rust-colored wings, tarantula hawks are among the largest of wasps. The coloring on their wings warns potential predators that they are dangerous (Aposematism). Their long legs have hooked claws for grappling with their victims. The stinger of a female tarantula hawk can be up to 1/3 inch long, and delivers a sting which is rated among the most painful in the insect world. During the spiders’ reproductive season male tarantulas are usually emaciated from ignoring food while searching for females. The tarantula hawks thus prefer female tarantulas and seek them in their burrows. The females capture, sting, and paralyze the spider, Then they either drag the spider back into her own burrow or transport their prey to a specially prepared nest where a single egg is deposited on the spider’s body, and the entrance is covered. The wasp larva, upon hatching, begins to suck the juices from the still-living spider. After the larva grows a bit, it plunges into the spider's body and feeds voraciously, avoiding vital organs for as long as possible to keep it fresh. After completing pupation the adult wasp emerges from the nest. Tarantula wasps feed primarily on nectar and other natural sugary materials. The consumption of fermented fruit sometimes intoxicates them to the point that flight becomes difficult. While the wasps tend to be most active in daytime summer months, they avoid the very highest temperatures. The male tarantula hawk does not hunt; instead, it feeds off the flowers of milkweeds, western soapberry trees, or mesquite trees. The male tarantula hawk has a behavior called "hill-topping", where he sits atop tall plants and watches for females that are ready to reproduce. Tarantula Hawk Dragging Prey to Nest and Feeding on Milkweed Nectar. Image Courtesy of Astrobradley (left) and Davehood (right). The tarantula hawk is relatively docile and rarely stings without provocation. The sting, particularly of Pepsis formosa, is am

ts tarantulas as food for it larvae. Up to two inches long with a blue-black body and bright rust-colored wings, tarantula hawks are among the largest of wasps. The coloring on their wings warns potential predators that they are dangerous (Aposematism). Their long legs have hooked claws for grappling with their victims. The stinger of a female tarantula hawk can be up to 1/3 inch long, and delivers a sting which is rated among the most painful in the insect world. During the spiders’ reproductive season male tarantulas are usually emaciated from ignoring food while searching for females. The tarantula hawks thus prefer female tarantulas and seek them in their burrows. The females capture, sting, and paralyze the spider, Then they either drag the spider back into her own burrow or transport their prey to a specially prepared nest where a single egg is deposited on the spider’s body, and the entrance is covered. The wasp larva, upon hatching, begins to suck the juices from the still-living spider. After the larva grows a bit, it plunges into the spider's body and feeds voraciously, avoiding vital organs for as long as possible to keep it fresh. After completing pupation the adult wasp emerges from the nest. Tarantula wasps feed primarily on nectar and other natural sugary materials. The consumption of fermented fruit sometimes intoxicates them to the point that flight becomes difficult. While the wasps tend to be most active in daytime summer months, they avoid the very highest temperatures. The male tarantula hawk does not hunt; instead, it feeds off the flowers of milkweeds, western soapberry trees, or mesquite trees. The male tarantula hawk has a behavior called "hill-topping", where he sits atop tall plants and watches for females that are ready to reproduce. Tarantula Hawk Dragging Prey to Nest and Feeding on Milkweed Nectar. Image Courtesy of Astrobradley (left) and Davehood (right). The tarantula hawk is relatively docile and rarely stings without provocation. The sting, particularly of Pepsis formosa, is among the most painful of any insect, but the intense pain only lasts for about 3 minutes.[ Commenting on his own experience, one researcher described the pain as "…immediate, excruciating pain that simply shuts down one's ability to do anything, except, perhaps, scream. Mental discipline simply does not work in these situations”. In terms of scale, the wasp's sting is rated near the top of the Schmidt Sting Pain Index, second only to that of the bullet ant and is described by Schmidt as "blinding, fierce [and] shockingly electric". Because of their extremely large stingers, very few animals are able to eat them; one of the few animals that can is the roadrunner. The U.S. State of New Mexico chose the insect in 1989 to become its official state insect. The selection of the insect was prompted by a group of Edgewood, New Mexico, elementary school children doing research on states which had adopted state insects. They selected three insects as candidates, and mailed ballots to all schools for a state wide election. The winner was the Tarantula Hawk Wasp (specifically, Pepsis formosa). The RQ-16 T-Hawk unmanned aerial vehicle has been named after the Tarantula Hawk. Gall Wasps-Cynipidae. These tiny wasps are also called gallflies with about 1300 species worldwide. As indicated they are generally very small creature (1-8 millimeters). The reproduction of the gall wasp is partly pure two-sex propagation and partly pure parthenogenesis, in which a male is completely unnecessary. With most species, however, there is an alternation of generations with one two-sex generation and one parthenogenic generation annually. The plant galls mostly develop directly after the female insect lays the eggs. The reason for gall formation is largely unknown but is a result of the present of the developing gall insect; it is speculated that chemical, mechanical and viruses triggers the process. The hatching larvae feed within the tissue of the galls and are also well-protected from external environmental effects. The host plants and the si

ong the most painful of any insect, but the intense pain only lasts for about 3 minutes.[ Commenting on his own experience, one researcher described the pain as "…immediate, excruciating pain that simply shuts down one's ability to do anything, except, perhaps, scream. Mental discipline simply does not work in these situations”. In terms of scale, the wasp's sting is rated near the top of the Schmidt Sting Pain Index, second only to that of the bullet ant and is described by Schmidt as "blinding, fierce [and] shockingly electric". Because of their extremely large stingers, very few animals are able to eat them; one of the few animals that can is the roadrunner. The U.S. State of New Mexico chose the insect in 1989 to become its official state insect. The selection of the insect was prompted by a group of Edgewood, New Mexico, elementary school children doing research on states which had adopted state insects. They selected three insects as candidates, and mailed ballots to all schools for a state wide election. The winner was the Tarantula Hawk Wasp (specifically, Pepsis formosa). The RQ-16 T-Hawk unmanned aerial vehicle has been named after the Tarantula Hawk. Gall Wasps-Cynipidae. These tiny wasps are also called gallflies with about 1300 species worldwide. As indicated they are generally very small creature (1-8 millimeters). The reproduction of the gall wasp is partly pure two-sex propagation and partly pure parthenogenesis, in which a male is completely unnecessary. With most species, however, there is an alternation of generations with one two-sex generation and one parthenogenic generation annually. The plant galls mostly develop directly after the female insect lays the eggs. The reason for gall formation is largely unknown but is a result of the present of the developing gall insect; it is speculated that chemical, mechanical and viruses triggers the process. The hatching larvae feed within the tissue of the galls and are also well-protected from external environmental effects. The host plants and the size and shape of the galls are specific to the majority of gall wasps with about 70% of the known species living in various types of oak trees. Galls occur on nearly all parts of trees including leaves, buds, branches, and roots. Other species of plant where galls are commonly found include eucalyptus, rose or maple trees, as well as many herbs. Frequently, identification a of species of gall forming insect is easier by the shape of the galls produced rather than the insect itself. Some of the more common types of galls caused by the feeding of these insects are discussed below. Oak artichoke galls develop as a chemically induced distortion of leaf axillary or terminal buds on Pedunculate Oak (Quercus robur) or Sessile Oak (Quercus petraea) trees, caused by the parthenogenetic gall wasp Andricus fecundatrix which lays single eggs within leaf buds using their ovipositor. The larva lives inside a smaller hard casing inside the artichoke and this is released in autumn. Oak Artichoke Galls. Image Courtesy Rasbak The galls of the rose gall wasp (Diplolepis rosae) are also distinctive and are known as bedeguars or robin's pincushions. These are found on the shoots of dog roses and have a length of up to five centimeters with red long-haired outgrowths. Inside the galls are several chambers, which may be occupied by larvae. Robin’s Pincushion on Rose. Image Courtesy of Bjorn Appel Knopper galls develop as a chemically induced distortion of growing acorns on Pedunculate Oak (Quercus robur (L.)) trees, caused by gall wasps which lay eggs within buds using their ovipositor. The gall thus produced can greatly reduce the fecundity of the oak host, making the gall a potentially more serious threat than those which develop upon leaves, buds, and stems. The large one inch gall growth appears as a mass of green to yellowish-green, ridged, and at first sticky plant tissue on the bud of the oak, that breaks out as the gall between the cup and the acorn. If only a few grubs are developing within, then it may appear only as a group o

ze and shape of the galls are specific to the majority of gall wasps with about 70% of the known species living in various types of oak trees. Galls occur on nearly all parts of trees including leaves, buds, branches, and roots. Other species of plant where galls are commonly found include eucalyptus, rose or maple trees, as well as many herbs. Frequently, identification a of species of gall forming insect is easier by the shape of the galls produced rather than the insect itself. Some of the more common types of galls caused by the feeding of these insects are discussed below. Oak artichoke galls develop as a chemically induced distortion of leaf axillary or terminal buds on Pedunculate Oak (Quercus robur) or Sessile Oak (Quercus petraea) trees, caused by the parthenogenetic gall wasp Andricus fecundatrix which lays single eggs within leaf buds using their ovipositor. The larva lives inside a smaller hard casing inside the artichoke and this is released in autumn. Oak Artichoke Galls. Image Courtesy Rasbak The galls of the rose gall wasp (Diplolepis rosae) are also distinctive and are known as bedeguars or robin's pincushions. These are found on the shoots of dog roses and have a length of up to five centimeters with red long-haired outgrowths. Inside the galls are several chambers, which may be occupied by larvae. Robin’s Pincushion on Rose. Image Courtesy of Bjorn Appel Knopper galls develop as a chemically induced distortion of growing acorns on Pedunculate Oak (Quercus robur (L.)) trees, caused by gall wasps which lay eggs within buds using their ovipositor. The gall thus produced can greatly reduce the fecundity of the oak host, making the gall a potentially more serious threat than those which develop upon leaves, buds, and stems. The large one inch gall growth appears as a mass of green to yellowish-green, ridged, and at first sticky plant tissue on the bud of the oak, that breaks out as the gall between the cup and the acorn. If only a few grubs are developing within, then it may appear only as a group of bland folds. Where several grubs are competing for space the shape may become much more contorted, with several tightly bunched galls. Kopper Galls. Image Courtesy of saharadesertfox. Neuroterus numismalis is a gall wasp that forms chemically induced leaf galls on oak trees. It has both bisexual and agamic (parthenogenetic) generations and forms two distinct galls on oak leaves, the Silk button gall and Blister gall. The galls can be very numerous with more than a thousand per leaf. his Silk button spangle gall has a cover of golden hairs that give the impression of silk thread. The 0.3 cm button-shaped galls have a pronounced concavity and sit tightly against the leaf lamina. Silk Button Galls on Oak. Image Courtesy of Image Courtesy of Beentree. Neuroterus albipes is a gall wasp that forms chemically induced leaf galls on oak trees which has both bisexual and agamic generations and therefore forms two distinct galls, the Smooth Spangle gall and Schenck's gall. The normally cream colored saucer of the Smooth Spangle gall has a small cone elevated in its centre, a pronounced rim and they are sometimes found almost folded in two. The gall may have steaks of purple, red or other colors through it. Typically found on the lower surface, this gall is found more often on the upper surface than other spangle galls and although often grouped together, the numbers on each leaf are far fewer than in species such as Neuroterus quercusbaccarum. The gall is observed to swell appreciably once it has detached and fallen in late autumn. The gall has also been recorded as green, purple, red or pink. Smooth Spangle Gall. Image Courtesy of Rosser1954 All bees collect nectar and pollen as their main source of food. One of the distinguishing characteristics of all these families is that their body hairs are profusely branched. This adaptation serves to capture and carry pollen. Worldwide, there are an estimated 20,000 species of bees (Michener, 2000), with approximately 4,000 species native to the United State. The non-native Europ

f bland folds. Where several grubs are competing for space the shape may become much more contorted, with several tightly bunched galls. Kopper Galls. Image Courtesy of saharadesertfox. Neuroterus numismalis is a gall wasp that forms chemically induced leaf galls on oak trees. It has both bisexual and agamic (parthenogenetic) generations and forms two distinct galls on oak leaves, the Silk button gall and Blister gall. The galls can be very numerous with more than a thousand per leaf. his Silk button spangle gall has a cover of golden hairs that give the impression of silk thread. The 0.3 cm button-shaped galls have a pronounced concavity and sit tightly against the leaf lamina. Silk Button Galls on Oak. Image Courtesy of Image Courtesy of Beentree. Neuroterus albipes is a gall wasp that forms chemically induced leaf galls on oak trees which has both bisexual and agamic generations and therefore forms two distinct galls, the Smooth Spangle gall and Schenck's gall. The normally cream colored saucer of the Smooth Spangle gall has a small cone elevated in its centre, a pronounced rim and they are sometimes found almost folded in two. The gall may have steaks of purple, red or other colors through it. Typically found on the lower surface, this gall is found more often on the upper surface than other spangle galls and although often grouped together, the numbers on each leaf are far fewer than in species such as Neuroterus quercusbaccarum. The gall is observed to swell appreciably once it has detached and fallen in late autumn. The gall has also been recorded as green, purple, red or pink. Smooth Spangle Gall. Image Courtesy of Rosser1954 All bees collect nectar and pollen as their main source of food. One of the distinguishing characteristics of all these families is that their body hairs are profusely branched. This adaptation serves to capture and carry pollen. Worldwide, there are an estimated 20,000 species of bees (Michener, 2000), with approximately 4,000 species native to the United State. The non-native European honey bee (Apis mellifera) is the most important crop pollinator in the United States. However, because of disease and other factors the number of managed honey bee hives in the United States has declined by 50 percent since. During this same period, the amount of crop acreage requiring bee pollination has continued to grow. This makes native pollinators even more important to the future of agriculture. Native bees provide free pollination services (as opposed to honey bee which are typically rented) and are often specialized for foraging on particular flowers, such as squash, berries or orchard crops. This specialization results in more efficient pollination and the production of larger and more abundant fruit from certain crops. The pollination done by native bees contributes an estimated $3 billion worth of crop production annually to the U.S. economy. Native bees come in a wide range of colors and sizes, from tiny sweat bees less than a quarter of an inch long to bumble bees over an inch in length. Most are solitary, with each female creating and provisioning her nest without the support of a caste system of workers. About 70 percent of native bees excavate underground nests while 30 percent of bees nest in wood tunnels, usually pre-existing holes such as those made by wood-boring beetles, but some will chew out the center of pithy twigs. In the case of both ground-nesting and wood-nesting bees, once the nest is complete, the mother bee generally dies. Her offspring will remain in the nest, passing through the egg, larva and pupa stages before emerging as an adult to renew the cycle. For some species this life cycle may progress over a matter of weeks, resulting in a second generation of bees in a single season. A few species may remain dormant for over a year. Most solitary bees however complete this life cycle over the course of a full year. Native bees often only live for a few weeks as actively flying adults. They mate immediately upon emergence and the females begin nesting. They lay relatively few e

ean honey bee (Apis mellifera) is the most important crop pollinator in the United States. However, because of disease and other factors the number of managed honey bee hives in the United States has declined by 50 percent since. During this same period, the amount of crop acreage requiring bee pollination has continued to grow. This makes native pollinators even more important to the future of agriculture. Native bees provide free pollination services (as opposed to honey bee which are typically rented) and are often specialized for foraging on particular flowers, such as squash, berries or orchard crops. This specialization results in more efficient pollination and the production of larger and more abundant fruit from certain crops. The pollination done by native bees contributes an estimated $3 billion worth of crop production annually to the U.S. economy. Native bees come in a wide range of colors and sizes, from tiny sweat bees less than a quarter of an inch long to bumble bees over an inch in length. Most are solitary, with each female creating and provisioning her nest without the support of a caste system of workers. About 70 percent of native bees excavate underground nests while 30 percent of bees nest in wood tunnels, usually pre-existing holes such as those made by wood-boring beetles, but some will chew out the center of pithy twigs. In the case of both ground-nesting and wood-nesting bees, once the nest is complete, the mother bee generally dies. Her offspring will remain in the nest, passing through the egg, larva and pupa stages before emerging as an adult to renew the cycle. For some species this life cycle may progress over a matter of weeks, resulting in a second generation of bees in a single season. A few species may remain dormant for over a year. Most solitary bees however complete this life cycle over the course of a full year. Native bees often only live for a few weeks as actively flying adults. They mate immediately upon emergence and the females begin nesting. They lay relatively few eggs compared to other insects, with a single female often laying less than 50 eggs before she dies. Male bees do not live long beyond mating, they do not collect pollen and have little value as pollinators. While most of these wood-nesting and ground-nesting bees are solitary, some are gregarious, preferring to nest near others, a behavior that allows large aggregations to develop in favorable locations. Only a few tunnel and ground-nesting bee species ever develop truly social colonies, and often such behavior is environmentally dependent with some bees being social in one situation and being solitary in another. The one group of strictly social bees native to the United States is the group of approximately 45 bumble bee species. The two habitat components need to be close enough together so that the bees can fly between them. The flight distance of a bee varies with the size of the bee. Small sweat bees and mining bees may not fly more than 200 or 300 yards from nest to forage area. Large bees (bumble bees, for example) can cross a mile or more of inhospitable, flower-less landscape to forage. But however large the bee, if it has to fly too far the effort begins to outweigh the benefits and the bee may either find somewhere else to nest or not survive in the landscape. A third factor that influences habitat is insecticide exposure. To thrive, bees need minimal exposure to pesticides. The Apidae are a large family of bees, comprising the common honey bees, stingless bees (which are also cultured for honey), carpenter bees, orchid bees, cuckoo bees, bumblebees, and various other less well-known groups. The family Apidae presently includes all the genera that were previously classified in the families Anthophoridae and Ctenoplectridae, and most of these are solitary species, though a few are also cleptoparasites. The four groups that were subfamilies in the old family Apidae are presently ranked as tribes within the subfamily Apinae. This trend has been taken to its extreme in a few recent classifications that pla

ggs compared to other insects, with a single female often laying less than 50 eggs before she dies. Male bees do not live long beyond mating, they do not collect pollen and have little value as pollinators. While most of these wood-nesting and ground-nesting bees are solitary, some are gregarious, preferring to nest near others, a behavior that allows large aggregations to develop in favorable locations. Only a few tunnel and ground-nesting bee species ever develop truly social colonies, and often such behavior is environmentally dependent with some bees being social in one situation and being solitary in another. The one group of strictly social bees native to the United States is the group of approximately 45 bumble bee species. The two habitat components need to be close enough together so that the bees can fly between them. The flight distance of a bee varies with the size of the bee. Small sweat bees and mining bees may not fly more than 200 or 300 yards from nest to forage area. Large bees (bumble bees, for example) can cross a mile or more of inhospitable, flower-less landscape to forage. But however large the bee, if it has to fly too far the effort begins to outweigh the benefits and the bee may either find somewhere else to nest or not survive in the landscape. A third factor that influences habitat is insecticide exposure. To thrive, bees need minimal exposure to pesticides. The Apidae are a large family of bees, comprising the common honey bees, stingless bees (which are also cultured for honey), carpenter bees, orchid bees, cuckoo bees, bumblebees, and various other less well-known groups. The family Apidae presently includes all the genera that were previously classified in the families Anthophoridae and Ctenoplectridae, and most of these are solitary species, though a few are also cleptoparasites. The four groups that were subfamilies in the old family Apidae are presently ranked as tribes within the subfamily Apinae. This trend has been taken to its extreme in a few recent classifications that place all the existing bee families together under the name "Apidae" (or, alternatively, the non-Linnaean clade "Anthophila"), but this is not a widely-accepted practice. Stingless Bees. These can be found in most tropical or subtropical regions of the world, such as Australia, Africa, Southeast Asia, Central America and parts of Mexico and Brazil. The majority of native social bees of Central and South America are stingless bees, although only a few of them produce honey on a scale such that they are farmed by humans. They are also quite diverse in Africa and are farmed there also; meliponine honey is prized as a medicine in many African communities. Being tropical, stingless bees are active all year round, although they are less active in cooler weather. Unlike other eusocial bees, they do not sting but will defend by biting if their nest is disturbed. In addition, a few have mandibular secretions that cause painful blisters. Despite their lack of a sting, stingless bees, being social, may have very large colonies made formidable by way of numerous defenders. Stingless bees usually nest in hollow trunks, tree branches, underground cavities, or rock crevices but they have also been encountered in wall cavities, old rubbish bins, water meters, and storage drums. Many beekeepers keep the bees in their original log hive or transfer them to a wooden box, as this makes it easier to control the hive. The bees store pollen and honey in large egg-shaped pots made of beeswax, typically mixed with various types of plant resin (sometimes called "propolis"). These pots are often arranged around a central set of horizontal brood combs, where the larval bees are raised. When the young worker bees emerge from their cells, they tend to remain inside the hive (much like honey bees, performing different jobs. As workers age, they become guards or foragers. Unlike the larvae of honey bees, stingless bee larvae are not fed directly by worker adults. The pollen and nectar are placed in a cell, an egg is laid, and the cell is sealed unt

ce all the existing bee families together under the name "Apidae" (or, alternatively, the non-Linnaean clade "Anthophila"), but this is not a widely-accepted practice. Stingless Bees. These can be found in most tropical or subtropical regions of the world, such as Australia, Africa, Southeast Asia, Central America and parts of Mexico and Brazil. The majority of native social bees of Central and South America are stingless bees, although only a few of them produce honey on a scale such that they are farmed by humans. They are also quite diverse in Africa and are farmed there also; meliponine honey is prized as a medicine in many African communities. Being tropical, stingless bees are active all year round, although they are less active in cooler weather. Unlike other eusocial bees, they do not sting but will defend by biting if their nest is disturbed. In addition, a few have mandibular secretions that cause painful blisters. Despite their lack of a sting, stingless bees, being social, may have very large colonies made formidable by way of numerous defenders. Stingless bees usually nest in hollow trunks, tree branches, underground cavities, or rock crevices but they have also been encountered in wall cavities, old rubbish bins, water meters, and storage drums. Many beekeepers keep the bees in their original log hive or transfer them to a wooden box, as this makes it easier to control the hive. The bees store pollen and honey in large egg-shaped pots made of beeswax, typically mixed with various types of plant resin (sometimes called "propolis"). These pots are often arranged around a central set of horizontal brood combs, where the larval bees are raised. When the young worker bees emerge from their cells, they tend to remain inside the hive (much like honey bees, performing different jobs. As workers age, they become guards or foragers. Unlike the larvae of honey bees, stingless bee larvae are not fed directly by worker adults. The pollen and nectar are placed in a cell, an egg is laid, and the cell is sealed until the adult bee emerges after pupation ("mass provisioning"). At any one time, hives can contain anywhere from 300-80,000 workers, depending on species. In a simplified sense, the sex of each bee depends on the number of chromosomes it receives. Female bees have two sets of chromosomes (diploid) - one set from the queen and another from one of the male bees or drones. Drones have only one set of chromosomes (haploid), and are the result of unfertilized eggs, though inbreeding can result in diploid drones. Unlike true honey bees, whose female bees may become workers or queens strictly depending on what kind of food they receive as larvae (queens are fed royal jelly and workers are fed pollen), the caste system in meliponines is variable, and commonly based simply on the amount of pollen consumed; larger amounts of pollen yield queens in the genus Melipona. There is also a genetic component however, and as much as 25% (typically 5-14%) of the female brood may be queens. Queen cells in the former case can be distinguished from others by their larger size, as they are stocked with more pollen, but in the latter case the cells are identical to worker cells, and scattered among the worker brood. When the new queens emerge, they typically leave to mate, and most die. New nests are not established via swarms, but by a procession of workers who gradually construct a new nest at a secondary location. The nest is then joined by a newly-mated queen, at which point many workers take up permanent residence and help the new queen raise her own workers. If a ruling queen is herself weak or dying, then a new queen can replace her. For Plebeia quadripunctata, although less than 1% of female worker cells produce dwarf queens, they comprise six out of seven queen bees, and one out of five proceed to head colonies of their own. They are reproductively active but less fecund than large queens. Myan Stingless Bees-Melipona beecheii and Meliopons. yucatanica, These are the only native bees cultured to any degree in the Americas. They w

il the adult bee emerges after pupation ("mass provisioning"). At any one time, hives can contain anywhere from 300-80,000 workers, depending on species. In a simplified sense, the sex of each bee depends on the number of chromosomes it receives. Female bees have two sets of chromosomes (diploid) - one set from the queen and another from one of the male bees or drones. Drones have only one set of chromosomes (haploid), and are the result of unfertilized eggs, though inbreeding can result in diploid drones. Unlike true honey bees, whose female bees may become workers or queens strictly depending on what kind of food they receive as larvae (queens are fed royal jelly and workers are fed pollen), the caste system in meliponines is variable, and commonly based simply on the amount of pollen consumed; larger amounts of pollen yield queens in the genus Melipona. There is also a genetic component however, and as much as 25% (typically 5-14%) of the female brood may be queens. Queen cells in the former case can be distinguished from others by their larger size, as they are stocked with more pollen, but in the latter case the cells are identical to worker cells, and scattered among the worker brood. When the new queens emerge, they typically leave to mate, and most die. New nests are not established via swarms, but by a procession of workers who gradually construct a new nest at a secondary location. The nest is then joined by a newly-mated queen, at which point many workers take up permanent residence and help the new queen raise her own workers. If a ruling queen is herself weak or dying, then a new queen can replace her. For Plebeia quadripunctata, although less than 1% of female worker cells produce dwarf queens, they comprise six out of seven queen bees, and one out of five proceed to head colonies of their own. They are reproductively active but less fecund than large queens. Myan Stingless Bees-Melipona beecheii and Meliopons. yucatanica, These are the only native bees cultured to any degree in the Americas. They were extensively cultured by the Maya for honey, and regarded as sacred. These bees are endangered due to massive deforestation, altered agricultural practices (especially insecticides), and changing beekeeping practices with the arrival of the Africanized honey bee, which produces much greater honey crops. These bees have been kept by the lowland Maya for thousands of years. The traditional Mayan name for this bee is Xunan kab, literally meaning "royal lady". The bees were once the subject of religious ceremonies and were a symbol of the bee-god Ah-Muzen-Cab, who is known from the Madrid Codex. The bees were, and still are, treated as pets. Families would have one or many log-hives hanging in and around their house. Although they are stingless, the bees do bite and can leave welts similar to a mosquito bite. The traditional way to gather bees, still favored amongst the locals, is to find a wild hive; then the branch is cut around the hive to create a portable log, enclosing the colony (Figure 37). This log is then capped on both ends with another piece of wood or pottery and sealed with mud. This clever method keeps the melipine bees from mixing their brood, pollen, and honey in the same comb as the European bees. The brood is kept in the middle of the hive, and the honey is stored in vertical "pots" on the outer edges of the hive. A temporary, replaceable cap at the end of the log allows for easy access to the honey while doing minimal damage to the hive. However, inexperienced handlers can still do irreversible damage to a hive, causing the hive to swarm and abscond from the log. On the other hand, with proper maintenance, hives have been recorded as lasting over 80 years, being passed down through generations. In the archaeological record of Mesoamerica, stone discs have been found which are generally considered to be the caps of long-disintegrated logs which once housed the beehives. Traditional Stingless Bee Hive. Image Courtesy of en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Belize37.jpg Balché, an alcohol beverage similar

ere extensively cultured by the Maya for honey, and regarded as sacred. These bees are endangered due to massive deforestation, altered agricultural practices (especially insecticides), and changing beekeeping practices with the arrival of the Africanized honey bee, which produces much greater honey crops. These bees have been kept by the lowland Maya for thousands of years. The traditional Mayan name for this bee is Xunan kab, literally meaning "royal lady". The bees were once the subject of religious ceremonies and were a symbol of the bee-god Ah-Muzen-Cab, who is known from the Madrid Codex. The bees were, and still are, treated as pets. Families would have one or many log-hives hanging in and around their house. Although they are stingless, the bees do bite and can leave welts similar to a mosquito bite. The traditional way to gather bees, still favored amongst the locals, is to find a wild hive; then the branch is cut around the hive to create a portable log, enclosing the colony (Figure 37). This log is then capped on both ends with another piece of wood or pottery and sealed with mud. This clever method keeps the melipine bees from mixing their brood, pollen, and honey in the same comb as the European bees. The brood is kept in the middle of the hive, and the honey is stored in vertical "pots" on the outer edges of the hive. A temporary, replaceable cap at the end of the log allows for easy access to the honey while doing minimal damage to the hive. However, inexperienced handlers can still do irreversible damage to a hive, causing the hive to swarm and abscond from the log. On the other hand, with proper maintenance, hives have been recorded as lasting over 80 years, being passed down through generations. In the archaeological record of Mesoamerica, stone discs have been found which are generally considered to be the caps of long-disintegrated logs which once housed the beehives. Traditional Stingless Bee Hive. Image Courtesy of en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Belize37.jpg Balché, an alcohol beverage similar to mead, was made from fermented honey and the bark of the leguminous Balché tree (Lonchocarpus violaceus), hence its name. It was traditionally brewed in a canoe. The drink was known to have entheogenic properties, that is, to produce mystical experiences, and was consumed in medicinal and ritual practices. The hallucinogenic properties come from tan alkaloid in the bark of the Balché tree, although whether the hallucinogens came from the bark or the honey, which beekeepers would harvest after placing the nests near the trees, remains uncertain. Toxic and hallucinogenic substances can be found in all honey, if bees collect nectar and pollen from certain types of vegetation. Most likely, it is a combination of the two, since balché is made from both the Melipona honey gathered from the Balché flowers, and from the bark of the tree, brewed and fermented together. Lost-wax casting, a common metalworking method which is typically found where the inhabitants keep bees, was also utilized by the Maya. The wax from Melipona is soft and easy to work, especially in the humid Mayan lowland. This allowed the Maya to create smaller works of art and jewelry that would be difficult to forge. It also makes use of the leftovers from honey extraction. If the hive was damaged beyond repair, the whole of the comb could be used, thus using the entire hive. With experienced keepers, though, only the honey pot could be removed, the honey extracted, and the wax used for casting or other purposes. The outlook for meliponines in Mesoamerica is grim. The number of active Melipona beekeepers is rapidly declining in favor of the more economical, non-indigenous Africanized Apis mellifera. The high honey yield, 100 kilograms or more annually, along with the ease of hive care and ability to create new hives from existing stock, commonly outweighs the negative consequences of "killer bee" hive maintenance. Furthermore, there are flora that the Africanized honey bees do not visit, such as those in the tomato family, and several forest trees and

to mead, was made from fermented honey and the bark of the leguminous Balché tree (Lonchocarpus violaceus), hence its name. It was traditionally brewed in a canoe. The drink was known to have entheogenic properties, that is, to produce mystical experiences, and was consumed in medicinal and ritual practices. The hallucinogenic properties come from tan alkaloid in the bark of the Balché tree, although whether the hallucinogens came from the bark or the honey, which beekeepers would harvest after placing the nests near the trees, remains uncertain. Toxic and hallucinogenic substances can be found in all honey, if bees collect nectar and pollen from certain types of vegetation. Most likely, it is a combination of the two, since balché is made from both the Melipona honey gathered from the Balché flowers, and from the bark of the tree, brewed and fermented together. Lost-wax casting, a common metalworking method which is typically found where the inhabitants keep bees, was also utilized by the Maya. The wax from Melipona is soft and easy to work, especially in the humid Mayan lowland. This allowed the Maya to create smaller works of art and jewelry that would be difficult to forge. It also makes use of the leftovers from honey extraction. If the hive was damaged beyond repair, the whole of the comb could be used, thus using the entire hive. With experienced keepers, though, only the honey pot could be removed, the honey extracted, and the wax used for casting or other purposes. The outlook for meliponines in Mesoamerica is grim. The number of active Melipona beekeepers is rapidly declining in favor of the more economical, non-indigenous Africanized Apis mellifera. The high honey yield, 100 kilograms or more annually, along with the ease of hive care and ability to create new hives from existing stock, commonly outweighs the negative consequences of "killer bee" hive maintenance. Furthermore, there are flora that the Africanized honey bees do not visit, such as those in the tomato family, and several forest trees and shrubs, which rely on the native stingless bees for pollination. There has already been a decline in populations of native flora in areas where stingless bees have been displaced by Africanized honey bees. An additional blow to the art of meliponine beekeeping is that many of the meliponine beekeepers are now elderly men and women, whose hives may not be cared for once they die. The hives are considered similar to an old family collection, to be parted out once the collector dies or to be buried in whole or part along with the beekeeper upon death. In fact, a survey of a once-popular area of the Mayan lowlands shows the rapid decline of beekeepers, down to around 70 in 2004 from thousands in the late 1980s. It is traditional in the Mayan lowlands that the hive itself or parts of the hive be buried along with the beekeeper to volar al cielo, "to fly to heaven". There are conservation efforts underway in several parts of Mesoamerica. South American Stingless Bee-Trigona spinipes. This is a species of stingless bee occurring in South America where it is called arapuá, irapuá or abelha-cachorro ("dog-bee") (Figure 38.). The species name means "spiny feet" in Latin. Trigona spinipes builds its nest on trees (or on buildings and other human structures), out of mud, resin, wax, and assorted debris, including dung. Therefore, its honey is not especially fit for consumption, even though it is reputed to be of good quality by itself, and is used in folk medicine. Colonies may have from 5000 to over 100 000 workers. Adult and Nest of South American Stingless Bees. Images Courtesy of Reynaldo and (Left) Jorge Stolfi This species will attack in swarms when they feel the nest is threatened. They cannot sting, and their bite is not very effective but quite annoying. Their main weapon against predatory animals (including people) is to get themselves entangled in the victim's hair and buzz loudly. These bees uses odor trails, sometimes extending to several hundred yards in order lead nest mates from the hive to a food source. Mor

shrubs, which rely on the native stingless bees for pollination. There has already been a decline in populations of native flora in areas where stingless bees have been displaced by Africanized honey bees. An additional blow to the art of meliponine beekeeping is that many of the meliponine beekeepers are now elderly men and women, whose hives may not be cared for once they die. The hives are considered similar to an old family collection, to be parted out once the collector dies or to be buried in whole or part along with the beekeeper upon death. In fact, a survey of a once-popular area of the Mayan lowlands shows the rapid decline of beekeepers, down to around 70 in 2004 from thousands in the late 1980s. It is traditional in the Mayan lowlands that the hive itself or parts of the hive be buried along with the beekeeper to volar al cielo, "to fly to heaven". There are conservation efforts underway in several parts of Mesoamerica. South American Stingless Bee-Trigona spinipes. This is a species of stingless bee occurring in South America where it is called arapuá, irapuá or abelha-cachorro ("dog-bee") (Figure 38.). The species name means "spiny feet" in Latin. Trigona spinipes builds its nest on trees (or on buildings and other human structures), out of mud, resin, wax, and assorted debris, including dung. Therefore, its honey is not especially fit for consumption, even though it is reputed to be of good quality by itself, and is used in folk medicine. Colonies may have from 5000 to over 100 000 workers. Adult and Nest of South American Stingless Bees. Images Courtesy of Reynaldo and (Left) Jorge Stolfi This species will attack in swarms when they feel the nest is threatened. They cannot sting, and their bite is not very effective but quite annoying. Their main weapon against predatory animals (including people) is to get themselves entangled in the victim's hair and buzz loudly. These bees uses odor trails, sometimes extending to several hundred yards in order lead nest mates from the hive to a food source. Moreover they will frequently follow trail similar chemicals used by other bee (such as carpenter bees, Africanized honeybees and other stingless bees) for the same purpose, frequently killing or driving them away and taking over their food source. This bee has been considered an agricultural pest for some cultures, such as passion fruit, because it damages leaves and flowers while collecting nest materials, and tunnels through the unopened flowers to collect the nectar (thus frustrating their normal pollinators).[ On the other hand, they are significant pollinators on their own, e.g. for onions. Attack by stingless bee although not considered dangerous to humans can be very annoying if not scary, especially if the victim is not expecting it. On one occasion Pat (my wife) and I were collecting insects in Monte Verde Costa Rica. Without any warning there were hundreds of bees on us. As indicated above they got into our clothing and hair. As indicated their bite was not especially painful but when hundreds of bees are biting you especially around the face neck and other areas of the face it can be disconcerting to say the least. She still talks about it today (30 years ago). Carpenter Bees. Carpenter bees are large, hairy bees with over 500 species distributed worldwide. Their name comes from the fact that nearly all species build their nests in burrows in dead wood, bamboo, or structural timbers. In the United States, there are two eastern species, Xylocopa virginica, and Xylocopa micans, and three other species that are primarily western in distribution, Xylocopa varipuncta, Xylocopa tabaniformis orpifex and Xylocopa californica. X. virginica is by far the more widely distributed species. Some are often mistaken for a bumblebee species, as they can be similar in size and coloration, though most carpenter bees have a shiny abdomen, while in bumblebees the abdomen is completely clothed with dense hair. Males of some species have a white or yellow face, where the females do not; males also often have much larger eyes t

eover they will frequently follow trail similar chemicals used by other bee (such as carpenter bees, Africanized honeybees and other stingless bees) for the same purpose, frequently killing or driving them away and taking over their food source. This bee has been considered an agricultural pest for some cultures, such as passion fruit, because it damages leaves and flowers while collecting nest materials, and tunnels through the unopened flowers to collect the nectar (thus frustrating their normal pollinators).[ On the other hand, they are significant pollinators on their own, e.g. for onions. Attack by stingless bee although not considered dangerous to humans can be very annoying if not scary, especially if the victim is not expecting it. On one occasion Pat (my wife) and I were collecting insects in Monte Verde Costa Rica. Without any warning there were hundreds of bees on us. As indicated above they got into our clothing and hair. As indicated their bite was not especially painful but when hundreds of bees are biting you especially around the face neck and other areas of the face it can be disconcerting to say the least. She still talks about it today (30 years ago). Carpenter Bees. Carpenter bees are large, hairy bees with over 500 species distributed worldwide. Their name comes from the fact that nearly all species build their nests in burrows in dead wood, bamboo, or structural timbers. In the United States, there are two eastern species, Xylocopa virginica, and Xylocopa micans, and three other species that are primarily western in distribution, Xylocopa varipuncta, Xylocopa tabaniformis orpifex and Xylocopa californica. X. virginica is by far the more widely distributed species. Some are often mistaken for a bumblebee species, as they can be similar in size and coloration, though most carpenter bees have a shiny abdomen, while in bumblebees the abdomen is completely clothed with dense hair. Males of some species have a white or yellow face, where the females do not; males also often have much larger eyes than the females, which relates to their mating behavior. Male bees are often seen hovering near nests, and will approach nearby animals. However, males are harmless since they do not have a stinger. Female carpenter bees are capable of stinging, but they are docile and rarely sting unless caught in the hand or otherwise directly provoked. Many Old World carpenter bees have a special pouch-like structure on the inside of their thorax called the acarinarium where certain species of mites (Dinogamasus spp.) reside. The exact nature of the relationship is not fully understood, though in other bees that carry mites where the mites are beneficial, feeding either on fungi in the nest, or on other, harmful mites. Carpenter bees are traditionally considered solitary bees, though some species have simple social nests in which mothers and daughters may cohabit. However, even solitary species tend to be gregarious. There are two very different mating systems that appear to be common in carpenter bees, and often this can be determined simply by examining specimens of the males of any given species. Species in which the males have large eyes are characterized by a mating system where the males either search for females by patrolling, or by hovering and waiting for passing females, whom they then pursue. In the other type of mating system, the males often have very small heads, but there is a large, hypertrophied glandular reservoir in the mesosoma, which releases pheromones into the airstream behind the male while it flies or hovers. The pheromone advertises the presence of the male to females.[ These bees come in a variety of sizes although most are slightly larger than a honey bee. One of the most common species is the valley carpenter bee that is characterized by solid black females and golden males. They are as large as or larger than bumblebees. Female and Male Valley Carpenter Bees. As previous indicated these bees nest in wood. Their colonies consist of a series of tunnel-shaped burrows. As do other bees, carpenter bees

han the females, which relates to their mating behavior. Male bees are often seen hovering near nests, and will approach nearby animals. However, males are harmless since they do not have a stinger. Female carpenter bees are capable of stinging, but they are docile and rarely sting unless caught in the hand or otherwise directly provoked. Many Old World carpenter bees have a special pouch-like structure on the inside of their thorax called the acarinarium where certain species of mites (Dinogamasus spp.) reside. The exact nature of the relationship is not fully understood, though in other bees that carry mites where the mites are beneficial, feeding either on fungi in the nest, or on other, harmful mites. Carpenter bees are traditionally considered solitary bees, though some species have simple social nests in which mothers and daughters may cohabit. However, even solitary species tend to be gregarious. There are two very different mating systems that appear to be common in carpenter bees, and often this can be determined simply by examining specimens of the males of any given species. Species in which the males have large eyes are characterized by a mating system where the males either search for females by patrolling, or by hovering and waiting for passing females, whom they then pursue. In the other type of mating system, the males often have very small heads, but there is a large, hypertrophied glandular reservoir in the mesosoma, which releases pheromones into the airstream behind the male while it flies or hovers. The pheromone advertises the presence of the male to females.[ These bees come in a variety of sizes although most are slightly larger than a honey bee. One of the most common species is the valley carpenter bee that is characterized by solid black females and golden males. They are as large as or larger than bumblebees. Female and Male Valley Carpenter Bees. As previous indicated these bees nest in wood. Their colonies consist of a series of tunnel-shaped burrows. As do other bees, carpenter bees collect pollen to feed to their young. Once collected, the pollen is formed into a ball about the size of a small marble. A single egg is then deposited on each ball, which subsequently is compartmentalized within the burrows (Figure 40). Their life cycle is completed in a few months as the larvae develop on the pollen balls. A Tunnel of a Carpenter Bee with Developing Larva and Pupa. Image Courtesy Univar Corporation. Carpenter bees are not true social insects as there is no division of labor, but many bees may occupy the same nesting burrow. The burrows typically are used year after year and can become rather extensive. Even though these are wood infesting insects, rarely do they do any significant damage to homes. Occasionally they can be bothersome to the homeowner because the males are especially aggressive and will fly up to and buzz in a person’s face; however, they are totally harmless, as male Hymenoptera do not have stingers. The sting of the female is quite painful, but she is much less aggressive. In the telephone industry these bees are referred to as pole bees because they frequently nests in telephone poles. Even though they typically do not sting, they buzz linemen and in some cases this has resulted in injuries as a result of the workers’ attempts to avoid their harassment. I am aware of more than one case where linemen have fallen from poles due to “bee attack”. Bumble Bees. A bumblebee (or bumble bee) is any member of the bee genus Bombus, in the family Apidae. There are over 250 known species, existing primarily in the Northern Hemisphere although they are common in New Zealand and Tasmania. Bumblebees are social insects that are characterized by black and yellow body hairs, often in bands. However, some species have orange or red on their bodies, or may be entirely black (Figure 41). Another obvious (but not unique) characteristic is the soft nature of the hair (long, branched setae), called pile, that covers their entire body, making them appear and feel fuzzy. They are best distinguished f

collect pollen to feed to their young. Once collected, the pollen is formed into a ball about the size of a small marble. A single egg is then deposited on each ball, which subsequently is compartmentalized within the burrows (Figure 40). Their life cycle is completed in a few months as the larvae develop on the pollen balls. A Tunnel of a Carpenter Bee with Developing Larva and Pupa. Image Courtesy Univar Corporation. Carpenter bees are not true social insects as there is no division of labor, but many bees may occupy the same nesting burrow. The burrows typically are used year after year and can become rather extensive. Even though these are wood infesting insects, rarely do they do any significant damage to homes. Occasionally they can be bothersome to the homeowner because the males are especially aggressive and will fly up to and buzz in a person’s face; however, they are totally harmless, as male Hymenoptera do not have stingers. The sting of the female is quite painful, but she is much less aggressive. In the telephone industry these bees are referred to as pole bees because they frequently nests in telephone poles. Even though they typically do not sting, they buzz linemen and in some cases this has resulted in injuries as a result of the workers’ attempts to avoid their harassment. I am aware of more than one case where linemen have fallen from poles due to “bee attack”. Bumble Bees. A bumblebee (or bumble bee) is any member of the bee genus Bombus, in the family Apidae. There are over 250 known species, existing primarily in the Northern Hemisphere although they are common in New Zealand and Tasmania. Bumblebees are social insects that are characterized by black and yellow body hairs, often in bands. However, some species have orange or red on their bodies, or may be entirely black (Figure 41). Another obvious (but not unique) characteristic is the soft nature of the hair (long, branched setae), called pile, that covers their entire body, making them appear and feel fuzzy. They are best distinguished from similarly large, fuzzy bees by the form of the female hind leg, which is modified to form a shiny concave surface that is bare, but surrounded by a fringe of hairs used to transport pollen (in similar bees, the hind leg is completely hairy, and pollen grains are wedged into the hairs for transport). Like their relatives the honey bees, bumblebees feed on nectar and gather pollen to feed their young. One characteristic of bees in general is that the body hairs are profusely branched making them more efficient in trapping pollen. Their mouthparts consist of a tube-like proboscis for siphoning the nectar from pants. It is coiled up when not in use. A Bumbles Bee with Uncoiled Proboscis in Preparation for Removal of Nectar. Image Courtesy FFubs. Right. Bumblebee with Pollen Trapped on Hairs. Image Courtesy of Jesse Hickman The brightly-colored pile of the bumble bee is a form of aposematic signal, meaning the bright coloration is a sign that I am bad-don’t mess with me (Figure 42). Depending on the species these colors can range from entirely black, to bright yellow, red, orange, white, and pink. Thick pile can also act as insulation to keep the bee warm in cold weather. Further, when flying a bee builds up an electrostatic charge, and as flowers are usually well grounded, pollen is attracted to the bee's pile when it lands. When a pollen covered bee enters a flower, the charged pollen is preferentially attracted to the stigma (female part of plant-thus fertilization occurs) because it is better grounded than the other parts of the flower. Brightly Colored Bumble Bee. Image Courtesy Christian Sand. Bumblebees are typically found in higher latitudes and or high altitudes; though exceptions exist (there are a few lowland tropical species). A few species range into very cold climates where other bees might not be found; Bombus. polaris can be found in northern Ellesmere Island (west of Greenland)—the northern most occurrence of any true social insect. One reason for this is that bumblebees can regulate their body te

rom similarly large, fuzzy bees by the form of the female hind leg, which is modified to form a shiny concave surface that is bare, but surrounded by a fringe of hairs used to transport pollen (in similar bees, the hind leg is completely hairy, and pollen grains are wedged into the hairs for transport). Like their relatives the honey bees, bumblebees feed on nectar and gather pollen to feed their young. One characteristic of bees in general is that the body hairs are profusely branched making them more efficient in trapping pollen. Their mouthparts consist of a tube-like proboscis for siphoning the nectar from pants. It is coiled up when not in use. A Bumbles Bee with Uncoiled Proboscis in Preparation for Removal of Nectar. Image Courtesy FFubs. Right. Bumblebee with Pollen Trapped on Hairs. Image Courtesy of Jesse Hickman The brightly-colored pile of the bumble bee is a form of aposematic signal, meaning the bright coloration is a sign that I am bad-don’t mess with me (Figure 42). Depending on the species these colors can range from entirely black, to bright yellow, red, orange, white, and pink. Thick pile can also act as insulation to keep the bee warm in cold weather. Further, when flying a bee builds up an electrostatic charge, and as flowers are usually well grounded, pollen is attracted to the bee's pile when it lands. When a pollen covered bee enters a flower, the charged pollen is preferentially attracted to the stigma (female part of plant-thus fertilization occurs) because it is better grounded than the other parts of the flower. Brightly Colored Bumble Bee. Image Courtesy Christian Sand. Bumblebees are typically found in higher latitudes and or high altitudes; though exceptions exist (there are a few lowland tropical species). A few species range into very cold climates where other bees might not be found; Bombus. polaris can be found in northern Ellesmere Island (west of Greenland)—the northern most occurrence of any true social insect. One reason for this is that bumblebees can regulate their body temperature, via solar radiation, internal mechanisms of "shivering" and cooling from the abdomen (called heterothermy). Bumblebee colonies are usually much less extensive than those of honey bees. This is due to a number of factors including: the small physical size of the nest cavity, a single female is responsible for the initial construction and reproduction that happens within the nest, and the restriction of the colony to a single season (in most species). Often, mature bumblebee nests will hold fewer than 50 individuals and are typically found below ground (Figure 43). They sometimes construct a wax canopy over the top of their nest for protection from moisture and insulation. Bumblebees do not often preserve their nests through the winter, though some tropical species live in their nests for several years (and their colonies can grow quite large, depending on the size of the nest cavity). In temperate species, the last generation of summer includes a number of queens who overwinter separately in protected spots. Bumblebees Nest in a Shed. Image Courtesy Pete Griggs. Bumblebee nests are first constructed by over-wintered queens in the spring. Upon emerging from hibernation, the queen collects pollen and nectar from flowers and searches for a suitable nest site. The characteristics of the nest site vary among species, with some preferring to nest in underground holes and others in tussock grass or directly on the ground. Once the queen has found a site, she prepares wax pots to store food and wax cells into which eggs are laid. These eggs then hatch into larvae, which cause the wax cells to expand into a clump of brood cells. These larvae need to be fed both nectar for carbohydrates and protein in order to develop. Bumblebees feed nectar to the larvae by chewing a small hole in the brood cell into which nectar is regurgitated. Larvae are fed pollen in one of two ways, depending on the species. So called "pocket-maker" bumblebees create pockets of pollen at the base of the brood cell clump from which the larva

mperature, via solar radiation, internal mechanisms of "shivering" and cooling from the abdomen (called heterothermy). Bumblebee colonies are usually much less extensive than those of honey bees. This is due to a number of factors including: the small physical size of the nest cavity, a single female is responsible for the initial construction and reproduction that happens within the nest, and the restriction of the colony to a single season (in most species). Often, mature bumblebee nests will hold fewer than 50 individuals and are typically found below ground (Figure 43). They sometimes construct a wax canopy over the top of their nest for protection from moisture and insulation. Bumblebees do not often preserve their nests through the winter, though some tropical species live in their nests for several years (and their colonies can grow quite large, depending on the size of the nest cavity). In temperate species, the last generation of summer includes a number of queens who overwinter separately in protected spots. Bumblebees Nest in a Shed. Image Courtesy Pete Griggs. Bumblebee nests are first constructed by over-wintered queens in the spring. Upon emerging from hibernation, the queen collects pollen and nectar from flowers and searches for a suitable nest site. The characteristics of the nest site vary among species, with some preferring to nest in underground holes and others in tussock grass or directly on the ground. Once the queen has found a site, she prepares wax pots to store food and wax cells into which eggs are laid. These eggs then hatch into larvae, which cause the wax cells to expand into a clump of brood cells. These larvae need to be fed both nectar for carbohydrates and protein in order to develop. Bumblebees feed nectar to the larvae by chewing a small hole in the brood cell into which nectar is regurgitated. Larvae are fed pollen in one of two ways, depending on the species. So called "pocket-maker" bumblebees create pockets of pollen at the base of the brood cell clump from which the larvae can feed themselves. Conversely, "pollen-storers" store pollen in separate wax pots and feed it to the larvae in the same fashion as nectar. Bumble bees are incapable of trophallaxis (direct transfer of food from one bee to another) which is common in other hymenoptera such as ants. After the emergence of the first or second group of workers, workers take over the task of foraging and the queen spends most of her time laying eggs and caring for larvae. The colony grows progressively larger and at some point will begin to produce males and new queens. The point at which this occurs varies among species and is heavily dependent on resource availability and environmental factors. Unlike the workers of more advanced social insects, bumblebee workers are not physically reproductively sterile and are able to lay haploid eggs that develop into viable male bumble bees. Only fertilized queens can lay diploid eggs that mature into workers and new queens. Early in the colony cycle, the queen bumblebee compensates for potential reproductive competition from workers by suppressing their egg-laying by way of physical aggression and pheromonal signals. Thus, the queen will usually be the mother of all of the first males laid. Workers eventually begin to lay males later in the season when the queen's ability to suppress their reproduction diminishes. The reproductive competition between workers and the queen is one reason that bumble bees are considered "primitively social insects". New queens and males leave the colony after maturation. Males in particular are forcibly driven out by the workers. Away from the colony, the new queens and males live off nectar and pollen and spend the night on flowers or in holes. The queens are eventually mated (often more than once) and search for a suitable location for diapause (dormancy). The following season they will form new colonies. Bumblebees generally visit flowers exhibiting the bee pollination syndrome. They can visit patches of flowers up to 1-2 kilometers from their colony. Bumbl

e can feed themselves. Conversely, "pollen-storers" store pollen in separate wax pots and feed it to the larvae in the same fashion as nectar. Bumble bees are incapable of trophallaxis (direct transfer of food from one bee to another) which is common in other hymenoptera such as ants. After the emergence of the first or second group of workers, workers take over the task of foraging and the queen spends most of her time laying eggs and caring for larvae. The colony grows progressively larger and at some point will begin to produce males and new queens. The point at which this occurs varies among species and is heavily dependent on resource availability and environmental factors. Unlike the workers of more advanced social insects, bumblebee workers are not physically reproductively sterile and are able to lay haploid eggs that develop into viable male bumble bees. Only fertilized queens can lay diploid eggs that mature into workers and new queens. Early in the colony cycle, the queen bumblebee compensates for potential reproductive competition from workers by suppressing their egg-laying by way of physical aggression and pheromonal signals. Thus, the queen will usually be the mother of all of the first males laid. Workers eventually begin to lay males later in the season when the queen's ability to suppress their reproduction diminishes. The reproductive competition between workers and the queen is one reason that bumble bees are considered "primitively social insects". New queens and males leave the colony after maturation. Males in particular are forcibly driven out by the workers. Away from the colony, the new queens and males live off nectar and pollen and spend the night on flowers or in holes. The queens are eventually mated (often more than once) and search for a suitable location for diapause (dormancy). The following season they will form new colonies. Bumblebees generally visit flowers exhibiting the bee pollination syndrome. They can visit patches of flowers up to 1-2 kilometers from their colony. Bumblebees will also tend to visit the same patches of flowers every day, as long as nectar and pollen continue to be available. While foraging, bumblebees can reach ground speeds of up to 15 m/s (54 km/h). When bumblebees arrive at a flower, they extract nectar using their long tongue. Many species of bumblebee also exhibit what is known as "nectar robbing": instead of inserting the mouthparts into the flower normally, these bees bite directly through the base of the flower to extract nectar, avoiding pollen transfer. These bees obtain pollen from other species of flowers that they “legitimately” visit. Pollen is removed from flowers deliberately or incidentally by bumblebees. Incidental removal occurs when bumblebees come in contact with the anthers of a flower while collecting nectar. The bumblebee's body hairs receive a dusting of pollen from the anthers which is then groomed into the pollen baskets. Bumblebees are also capable of pollination. With certain species of plants it I difficult to remove the pollen from the anthers. In order to release the pollen, bumblebees and some species of solitary bees are able to grab onto the flower and move their flight muscles rapidly, causing the flower and anthers to vibrate, dislodging pollen. This resonant vibration is called buzz pollination. The honeybee rarely performs buzz pollination. About 8% of the flowers of the world are primarily pollinated using buzz pollination. This behavior is very important for some plants such as blueberries, cranberries, tomatoes and peppers, all of which release pollen from pores within the anthers (similar to salt being shaken from a salt shaker). In at least a few species, once a bumblebee has visited a flower, it leaves a scent mark on the flower. This scent mark deters visitation of the flower by other bumblebees until the scent degrades wears off. It has been shown that this scent mark is a general chemical bouquet that bumblebees leave behind in different locations (e.g. nest, neutral, and food sites) and they learn to use this bouq

ebees will also tend to visit the same patches of flowers every day, as long as nectar and pollen continue to be available. While foraging, bumblebees can reach ground speeds of up to 15 m/s (54 km/h). When bumblebees arrive at a flower, they extract nectar using their long tongue. Many species of bumblebee also exhibit what is known as "nectar robbing": instead of inserting the mouthparts into the flower normally, these bees bite directly through the base of the flower to extract nectar, avoiding pollen transfer. These bees obtain pollen from other species of flowers that they “legitimately” visit. Pollen is removed from flowers deliberately or incidentally by bumblebees. Incidental removal occurs when bumblebees come in contact with the anthers of a flower while collecting nectar. The bumblebee's body hairs receive a dusting of pollen from the anthers which is then groomed into the pollen baskets. Bumblebees are also capable of pollination. With certain species of plants it I difficult to remove the pollen from the anthers. In order to release the pollen, bumblebees and some species of solitary bees are able to grab onto the flower and move their flight muscles rapidly, causing the flower and anthers to vibrate, dislodging pollen. This resonant vibration is called buzz pollination. The honeybee rarely performs buzz pollination. About 8% of the flowers of the world are primarily pollinated using buzz pollination. This behavior is very important for some plants such as blueberries, cranberries, tomatoes and peppers, all of which release pollen from pores within the anthers (similar to salt being shaken from a salt shaker). In at least a few species, once a bumblebee has visited a flower, it leaves a scent mark on the flower. This scent mark deters visitation of the flower by other bumblebees until the scent degrades wears off. It has been shown that this scent mark is a general chemical bouquet that bumblebees leave behind in different locations (e.g. nest, neutral, and food sites) and they learn to use this bouquet to identify both rewarding and unrewarding flowers. In addition, bumblebees rely on this chemical bouquet more when the flower has a high handling time (i.e. it takes a longer time for the bee to find the nectar). Once they have collected nectar and pollen, bumblebees return to the nest and deposit the harvested nectar and pollen into brood cells, or into wax cells for storage. Unlike honey bees, bumblebees only store a few days' worth of food and so are much more vulnerable to food shortages. Providing Nest Locations for Bumble Bees. Unlike solitary bees, which can be very particular about tunnel diameters, bumble bees are flexible in their nesting needs. All they want is a warm, dry cavity, roughly the size of a shoebox (Figure 44). Artificial nests can be constructed to attract bumble bees, but occupancy is typically extremely low – often far less than 25 percent. A simple wooden bumble bee box can be made from preservative-free lumber. An appropriate size will have internal dimensions of about 7 inches high by 7 inches wide and 7 inches long. Drill a few ventilation holes on the upper sides of the box (near the roof) and cover with window screen to deter ants. Also drill some drainage holes in the bottom. Make an entrance tunnel from 3/4-inch diameter plastic pipe and fill the box with soft bedding material, such as short lengths of soft unraveled string, dry straw or upholsterer's cotton (do not use cotton balls, as the fibers become tangled in the bees' legs). The box must be weather tight; if the nest gets damp, the larvae may become too cold and mold and fungus will grow. Bumble Bee Box. Place the nest in a dry, undisturbed area that has some obvious landmarks (a fence post, rock or building) to aid bee navigation; these landmarks are important to bees returning from foraging. Nesting boxes that are at ground level or slightly buried (either with soil or straw) are the most attractive to queens of many species. Boxes placed on the surface should be level and stable. If you are burying your box, extend

uet to identify both rewarding and unrewarding flowers. In addition, bumblebees rely on this chemical bouquet more when the flower has a high handling time (i.e. it takes a longer time for the bee to find the nectar). Once they have collected nectar and pollen, bumblebees return to the nest and deposit the harvested nectar and pollen into brood cells, or into wax cells for storage. Unlike honey bees, bumblebees only store a few days' worth of food and so are much more vulnerable to food shortages. Providing Nest Locations for Bumble Bees. Unlike solitary bees, which can be very particular about tunnel diameters, bumble bees are flexible in their nesting needs. All they want is a warm, dry cavity, roughly the size of a shoebox (Figure 44). Artificial nests can be constructed to attract bumble bees, but occupancy is typically extremely low – often far less than 25 percent. A simple wooden bumble bee box can be made from preservative-free lumber. An appropriate size will have internal dimensions of about 7 inches high by 7 inches wide and 7 inches long. Drill a few ventilation holes on the upper sides of the box (near the roof) and cover with window screen to deter ants. Also drill some drainage holes in the bottom. Make an entrance tunnel from 3/4-inch diameter plastic pipe and fill the box with soft bedding material, such as short lengths of soft unraveled string, dry straw or upholsterer's cotton (do not use cotton balls, as the fibers become tangled in the bees' legs). The box must be weather tight; if the nest gets damp, the larvae may become too cold and mold and fungus will grow. Bumble Bee Box. Place the nest in a dry, undisturbed area that has some obvious landmarks (a fence post, rock or building) to aid bee navigation; these landmarks are important to bees returning from foraging. Nesting boxes that are at ground level or slightly buried (either with soil or straw) are the most attractive to queens of many species. Boxes placed on the surface should be level and stable. If you are burying your box, extend the entrance pipe so it gently slopes up to the surface and clear the vegetation from an area a few inches around where the pipe surfaces. The best time to install a bumble bee nest box is in early spring, when the first queens have emerged from hibernation and are searching for a nest site; in many areas, this is when the willows first start blooming. Bumble bee nests require little maintenance. Watch your boxes through the spring and early summer. Any above-ground boxes that are unoccupied by late July can be removed, cleaned and put into storage until the following spring. This is not vital, and if you have a lot of boxes on a large site it may not be practical. In late fall or early winter inspect all the boxes that have been occupied. Remove the old nests, clean them and make any repairs. Cleaning the boxes with a bleach-water solution (1:2 ratios) will help reduce parasites and diseases in the nests. The following spring, add fresh nesting material to all the boxes. The package bumble bee industry, which provides farmers with live bumble bee colonies for crop pollination, currently only produces a single eastern bumble bee species, Bombs impatiens. This species is then shipped nationwide, in a situation similar to the blue orchard bee, often far beyond its native range. Many bumble bee scientists now believe that these commercially produced bumble bees are responsible for the introduction of one or more diseases which have decimated several bumble bee species, even causing the potential extinction of one species, Bombus franklini (Franklin's bumble bee). There is an enormous need for managed agricultural pollinators in this country, but it critical not to import non-local bees, especially near wild areas, even if the bees are represented as being the same species as local bees. The alternatives are to either develop local commercial sources of bees that are native to your region or to rear already widely established non-native species, such as honey bees or the alfalfa leafcutter bee, as managed pollinator

the entrance pipe so it gently slopes up to the surface and clear the vegetation from an area a few inches around where the pipe surfaces. The best time to install a bumble bee nest box is in early spring, when the first queens have emerged from hibernation and are searching for a nest site; in many areas, this is when the willows first start blooming. Bumble bee nests require little maintenance. Watch your boxes through the spring and early summer. Any above-ground boxes that are unoccupied by late July can be removed, cleaned and put into storage until the following spring. This is not vital, and if you have a lot of boxes on a large site it may not be practical. In late fall or early winter inspect all the boxes that have been occupied. Remove the old nests, clean them and make any repairs. Cleaning the boxes with a bleach-water solution (1:2 ratios) will help reduce parasites and diseases in the nests. The following spring, add fresh nesting material to all the boxes. The package bumble bee industry, which provides farmers with live bumble bee colonies for crop pollination, currently only produces a single eastern bumble bee species, Bombs impatiens. This species is then shipped nationwide, in a situation similar to the blue orchard bee, often far beyond its native range. Many bumble bee scientists now believe that these commercially produced bumble bees are responsible for the introduction of one or more diseases which have decimated several bumble bee species, even causing the potential extinction of one species, Bombus franklini (Franklin's bumble bee). There is an enormous need for managed agricultural pollinators in this country, but it critical not to import non-local bees, especially near wild areas, even if the bees are represented as being the same species as local bees. The alternatives are to either develop local commercial sources of bees that are native to your region or to rear already widely established non-native species, such as honey bees or the alfalfa leafcutter bee, as managed pollinators. Cuckoo bumblebees are a few species of bees which live parasitically in the colonies of other bumblebees and have lost the ability to collect pollen (Figure 45).. Before finding and invading a host colony, a Psithyrus female (there is no caste system in these species) will feed directly from flowers. Once she has infiltrated a host colony, the Psithyrus female will kill or subdue the queen of that colony and forcibly (using pheromones and/or physical attacks) "enslave" the workers of that colony to feed her and her young. This female also has a number of adaptations, such as larger mandibles and a larger venom sac that increase her chances of taking over a nest. Cuckoo Bumblebee. Image Courtesy of Alvesgaspar. Queen and worker bumblebees can sting, but unlike a honey bees, a bumblebee's stinger lacks barbs, so they can sting more than once. Bumblebee species are normally non-aggressive, but will sting in defense of their nest, or if harmed. Female cuckoo bumblebees will aggressively attack host colony members, and sting the host queen, but will ignore other animals (including humans) unless disturbed. Based on my numerous encounters the sting of the bumble bees is considerably more painful than that of a honey bee. Bumblebees are important pollinators of both crops and wildflowers. Bumblebees are increasingly cultured for agricultural use as pollinators because they can pollinate plant species that other pollinators cannot by using a technique known as buzz pollination. For example, bumblebee colonies are often emplaced in greenhouse tomato production, because the frequency of buzzing that a bumblebee exhibits effectively releases tomato pollen which is normally wind pollinated and therefore difficult to release from the anther. Bumblebees are in danger in many developed countries due to habitat destruction and collateral pesticide damage. In Britain, until relatively recently, 19 species of native true bumblebee were recognized along with six species of cuckoo bumblebees. Of these, three have become extinct,

s. Cuckoo bumblebees are a few species of bees which live parasitically in the colonies of other bumblebees and have lost the ability to collect pollen (Figure 45).. Before finding and invading a host colony, a Psithyrus female (there is no caste system in these species) will feed directly from flowers. Once she has infiltrated a host colony, the Psithyrus female will kill or subdue the queen of that colony and forcibly (using pheromones and/or physical attacks) "enslave" the workers of that colony to feed her and her young. This female also has a number of adaptations, such as larger mandibles and a larger venom sac that increase her chances of taking over a nest. Cuckoo Bumblebee. Image Courtesy of Alvesgaspar. Queen and worker bumblebees can sting, but unlike a honey bees, a bumblebee's stinger lacks barbs, so they can sting more than once. Bumblebee species are normally non-aggressive, but will sting in defense of their nest, or if harmed. Female cuckoo bumblebees will aggressively attack host colony members, and sting the host queen, but will ignore other animals (including humans) unless disturbed. Based on my numerous encounters the sting of the bumble bees is considerably more painful than that of a honey bee. Bumblebees are important pollinators of both crops and wildflowers. Bumblebees are increasingly cultured for agricultural use as pollinators because they can pollinate plant species that other pollinators cannot by using a technique known as buzz pollination. For example, bumblebee colonies are often emplaced in greenhouse tomato production, because the frequency of buzzing that a bumblebee exhibits effectively releases tomato pollen which is normally wind pollinated and therefore difficult to release from the anther. Bumblebees are in danger in many developed countries due to habitat destruction and collateral pesticide damage. In Britain, until relatively recently, 19 species of native true bumblebee were recognized along with six species of cuckoo bumblebees. Of these, three have become extinct, eight are in serious decline, and only six remain widespread. Similar declines in bumblebees have been reported in Ireland, with 4 species being designated Endangered, another two species considered Vulnerable to extinction. A decline in bumblebee numbers could cause large-scale sweeping changes to the countryside, leading to inadequate pollination of certain plants. The world's first bumblebee sanctuary was established at Vane Farm in the Loch Leven National Nature Reserve in Scotland in 2008. One common, yet incorrect, assumption is that the buzzing sound of bees is caused by the beating of their wings. The sound is actually the result of the bee vibrating its flight muscles, and this can be achieved while the muscles are decoupled from the wings—a feature known in bees but not other insects. This is especially pronounced in bumblebees, as they must warm up their bodies considerably to get airborne at low ambient temperatures. Bumblebees have been known to reach an internal thoracic temperature of 30 °C (86 °F) using this method. The orchestral interlude "Flight of the Bumblebee" was composed by Rimsky Korsakov to represent the turning of Prince Guidon to visit his father, Tsar Saltan, in the opera The Tale of Tsar Saltan, however the music is considered to more accurately reflect the flight of a bluebottle fly rather than a bumblebee. The music went on to inspire Walt Disney to have a bumblebee featured in his musical Fantasia and also sound as if it was flying in all parts of the theatre - the unsuccessful experimentation led to the music being excluded from the film and the eventual invention of surround sound. Salvador Dali was inspired by the sound of a bumblebee to create one of his paintings Dream Caused by the Flight of a Bumble bee around a Pomegranate a Second before Awakening. Orchid Bees. Euglossine bees, also called orchid bees, are the only group of corbiculate bees whose non-parasitic members do not all possess eusocial behavior. Most of the species are solitary, though a few are communal, or exh

eight are in serious decline, and only six remain widespread. Similar declines in bumblebees have been reported in Ireland, with 4 species being designated Endangered, another two species considered Vulnerable to extinction. A decline in bumblebee numbers could cause large-scale sweeping changes to the countryside, leading to inadequate pollination of certain plants. The world's first bumblebee sanctuary was established at Vane Farm in the Loch Leven National Nature Reserve in Scotland in 2008. One common, yet incorrect, assumption is that the buzzing sound of bees is caused by the beating of their wings. The sound is actually the result of the bee vibrating its flight muscles, and this can be achieved while the muscles are decoupled from the wings—a feature known in bees but not other insects. This is especially pronounced in bumblebees, as they must warm up their bodies considerably to get airborne at low ambient temperatures. Bumblebees have been known to reach an internal thoracic temperature of 30 °C (86 °F) using this method. The orchestral interlude "Flight of the Bumblebee" was composed by Rimsky Korsakov to represent the turning of Prince Guidon to visit his father, Tsar Saltan, in the opera The Tale of Tsar Saltan, however the music is considered to more accurately reflect the flight of a bluebottle fly rather than a bumblebee. The music went on to inspire Walt Disney to have a bumblebee featured in his musical Fantasia and also sound as if it was flying in all parts of the theatre - the unsuccessful experimentation led to the music being excluded from the film and the eventual invention of surround sound. Salvador Dali was inspired by the sound of a bumblebee to create one of his paintings Dream Caused by the Flight of a Bumble bee around a Pomegranate a Second before Awakening. Orchid Bees. Euglossine bees, also called orchid bees, are the only group of corbiculate bees whose non-parasitic members do not all possess eusocial behavior. Most of the species are solitary, though a few are communal, or exhibit simple forms of eusociality. There are about 200 described species, distributed in five genera: Euglossa, Eulaema, Eufriesea, Exaerete and the monotypic Aglae, all exclusively occurring in South or Central America (though one species, Euglossa viridissima, has become established in the United States). The latter two genera are cleptoparasites in the nests of other orchid bees. All except Eulaema are characterized by brilliant metallic coloration, primarily green, gold, and blue (Figure 46). A Nest of Orchid Bees. Females gather pollen and nectar as food from a variety of plants, and resins, mud and other materials for nest building. Some of the same food plants are also used by the males, which however leave the nest upon hatching and do not return. Male orchid bees have uniquely modified legs which are used to collect and store different volatile compounds (often esters) throughout their lives, primarily from orchids in the subtribes Stanhopeinae and Catasetinae, where all species are exclusively pollinated by euglossine males. These orchids do not produce nectar, and hide the pollen on a single anther under an anther cap; they are not visited by females. The whole pollinarium becomes attached to the male as it leaves the flower (Figure 47). Several flowers from other plant families are also visited by the bees: Spathiphyllum and Anthurium (Araceae), Drymonia and Gloxinia (Gesneriaceae),Cyphomandra (Solanaceae), and Dalechampia (Euphorbiaceae) contain one or more species that attract male euglossines. A Male Orchid Bee with Highly Modified Legs. Image Courtesy Green Fly. The chemicals are picked up using special brushes on the forelegs, transferred from there by rubbing the brushes against combs on the middle legs, and finally these combs are pressed into grooves on the dorsal edge of the hind legs, squeezing the chemicals past the waxy hairs which block the opening of the groove, and into a sponge-like cavity inside the hind tibia. The accumulated "fragrances" are evidently released by the males at their d

ibit simple forms of eusociality. There are about 200 described species, distributed in five genera: Euglossa, Eulaema, Eufriesea, Exaerete and the monotypic Aglae, all exclusively occurring in South or Central America (though one species, Euglossa viridissima, has become established in the United States). The latter two genera are cleptoparasites in the nests of other orchid bees. All except Eulaema are characterized by brilliant metallic coloration, primarily green, gold, and blue (Figure 46). A Nest of Orchid Bees. Females gather pollen and nectar as food from a variety of plants, and resins, mud and other materials for nest building. Some of the same food plants are also used by the males, which however leave the nest upon hatching and do not return. Male orchid bees have uniquely modified legs which are used to collect and store different volatile compounds (often esters) throughout their lives, primarily from orchids in the subtribes Stanhopeinae and Catasetinae, where all species are exclusively pollinated by euglossine males. These orchids do not produce nectar, and hide the pollen on a single anther under an anther cap; they are not visited by females. The whole pollinarium becomes attached to the male as it leaves the flower (Figure 47). Several flowers from other plant families are also visited by the bees: Spathiphyllum and Anthurium (Araceae), Drymonia and Gloxinia (Gesneriaceae),Cyphomandra (Solanaceae), and Dalechampia (Euphorbiaceae) contain one or more species that attract male euglossines. A Male Orchid Bee with Highly Modified Legs. Image Courtesy Green Fly. The chemicals are picked up using special brushes on the forelegs, transferred from there by rubbing the brushes against combs on the middle legs, and finally these combs are pressed into grooves on the dorsal edge of the hind legs, squeezing the chemicals past the waxy hairs which block the opening of the groove, and into a sponge-like cavity inside the hind tibia. The accumulated "fragrances" are evidently released by the males at their display sites in the forest understory, where matings are known to take place. Although the accumulated volatiles have long been believed to serve as a signal to females, female attraction to male odors has never been demonstrated in behavioral experiments. The behavior of volatile collection is essentially unique in the animal kingdom. Single synthetic compounds are commonly used as bait to attract and collect males for study, and include many familiar flavorings and odors considered appealing to humans (e.g., methyl salicylate, eugenol, cineole, benzyl acetate, methyl benzoate, methyl cinnamate), and others which are not (e.g., skatole). Neotropical orchids themselves often exhibit elaborate adaptations involving highly specific placement of pollen packets (pollinia) on the bodies of the male orchid bees; the specificity of their placement ensures that cross-pollination only occurs between orchids of the same species. Different orchid bee males are attracted to different chemicals, so there is also some specificity regarding which orchid bees visit which types of orchid. The early description of this pollination system was by Charles Darwin, though at the time, he believed the bees were females. Not all orchids utilize euglossines as pollen vectors, of course; among the other types of insects exploited are other types of bees, wasps, flies, ants, and moths. Digger Bees. The Anthophorini is a large tribe in the family Apidae, with over 750 species worldwide that were previously classified in the family Anthophoridae; the vast majority of species are in the genera Amegilla and Anthophora. All species are solitary, though many nest in large aggregations. Nearly all species make nests in the soil, either in banks or in flat ground; the larvae develop in cells with waterproof linings and do not spin cocoons. Species in this tribe are often referred to as "digger bees", though this common name is sometimes applied to members of the tribe Centridini, as well (Figure 48). Digger Bee, Image Courtesy of entomart. The char

isplay sites in the forest understory, where matings are known to take place. Although the accumulated volatiles have long been believed to serve as a signal to females, female attraction to male odors has never been demonstrated in behavioral experiments. The behavior of volatile collection is essentially unique in the animal kingdom. Single synthetic compounds are commonly used as bait to attract and collect males for study, and include many familiar flavorings and odors considered appealing to humans (e.g., methyl salicylate, eugenol, cineole, benzyl acetate, methyl benzoate, methyl cinnamate), and others which are not (e.g., skatole). Neotropical orchids themselves often exhibit elaborate adaptations involving highly specific placement of pollen packets (pollinia) on the bodies of the male orchid bees; the specificity of their placement ensures that cross-pollination only occurs between orchids of the same species. Different orchid bee males are attracted to different chemicals, so there is also some specificity regarding which orchid bees visit which types of orchid. The early description of this pollination system was by Charles Darwin, though at the time, he believed the bees were females. Not all orchids utilize euglossines as pollen vectors, of course; among the other types of insects exploited are other types of bees, wasps, flies, ants, and moths. Digger Bees. The Anthophorini is a large tribe in the family Apidae, with over 750 species worldwide that were previously classified in the family Anthophoridae; the vast majority of species are in the genera Amegilla and Anthophora. All species are solitary, though many nest in large aggregations. Nearly all species make nests in the soil, either in banks or in flat ground; the larvae develop in cells with waterproof linings and do not spin cocoons. Species in this tribe are often referred to as "digger bees", though this common name is sometimes applied to members of the tribe Centridini, as well (Figure 48). Digger Bee, Image Courtesy of entomart. The characters used to define this group are subtle, but they are nonetheless fairly recognizable; they are generally large (up to 3 cm), very robust, hairy bees, with visibly protruding faces, and the apical portion of the wings are studded with microscopic papillae. The abdomen is often banded, and in many Old World species of Amegilla these bands are metallic blue. The wings often appear disproportionately short compared to other bees, and their "buzz" is often a high-pitched whine, as they hover and feed on flowers. Males commonly have pale white or yellow facial markings, and/or peculiarly modified leg armature and hairs. Attracting Digger Bees. Some digger bees nest in cracks or cavities in soft sandstone and dry exposed soil embankments. Some of these species will excavate tunnels in cliff sides by wetting the hard soil surface with water or nectar to soften it. To attract these species, adobe bricks can serve as the equivalent of a wooden nest block. Such bricks can sometimes be purchased, in which case you can increase their attractiveness to bees by drilling nesting holes following the size recommendations listed above for wood blocks. Adobe blocks can also be easily made where clay soils are common. To create one, half-fill a large bucket with clay soil, and then fill the bucket with water. Stir the mixture together to create muddy slurry and allow it to settle. Remove any sticks or debris floating on the surface and slowly pour off most of the water. Finally, pour the remaining sediment into a mold (such as a wooden box or small Styrofoam cooler), and allow it to dry for several days or weeks. Before it completely dries, you can make several 1-inch indentations, using the diameter guidelines above, to make it more attractive to bees. Mount the brick, either singularly or in a stack. Adobe will not hold up well in wet climates and many need sheltering from rain. You might want to supply a shallow water source near your bricks to help bees excavate their nests. Halictidae-Halictid Bees. This is a cosmopolitan f

acters used to define this group are subtle, but they are nonetheless fairly recognizable; they are generally large (up to 3 cm), very robust, hairy bees, with visibly protruding faces, and the apical portion of the wings are studded with microscopic papillae. The abdomen is often banded, and in many Old World species of Amegilla these bands are metallic blue. The wings often appear disproportionately short compared to other bees, and their "buzz" is often a high-pitched whine, as they hover and feed on flowers. Males commonly have pale white or yellow facial markings, and/or peculiarly modified leg armature and hairs. Attracting Digger Bees. Some digger bees nest in cracks or cavities in soft sandstone and dry exposed soil embankments. Some of these species will excavate tunnels in cliff sides by wetting the hard soil surface with water or nectar to soften it. To attract these species, adobe bricks can serve as the equivalent of a wooden nest block. Such bricks can sometimes be purchased, in which case you can increase their attractiveness to bees by drilling nesting holes following the size recommendations listed above for wood blocks. Adobe blocks can also be easily made where clay soils are common. To create one, half-fill a large bucket with clay soil, and then fill the bucket with water. Stir the mixture together to create muddy slurry and allow it to settle. Remove any sticks or debris floating on the surface and slowly pour off most of the water. Finally, pour the remaining sediment into a mold (such as a wooden box or small Styrofoam cooler), and allow it to dry for several days or weeks. Before it completely dries, you can make several 1-inch indentations, using the diameter guidelines above, to make it more attractive to bees. Mount the brick, either singularly or in a stack. Adobe will not hold up well in wet climates and many need sheltering from rain. You might want to supply a shallow water source near your bricks to help bees excavate their nests. Halictidae-Halictid Bees. This is a cosmopolitan family of the order Hymenoptera consisting of small (> 4 mm) to midsize (> 8 mm) bees which are usually dark-colored and often metallic in appearance. Several species are all or partly green and a few are red (Figure 49); a number of them have yellow markings, especially the males, which commonly possess yellow faces, a pattern widespread among the various families of bees. They are commonly referred to as sweat bees (especially the smaller species), as they are often attracted to perspiration; when pinched, females can give a minor sting. Common Sweat Bee. Image Courtesy of Jon Sullivan Most halictids nest in the ground, though a few nest in wood. They mass-provision their young by providing a mass of pollen and nectar formed inside a waterproof cell. Once an egg is deposited on this mass the cell is sealed off. Thus the larva is with all the food at one time that it needs for full development, as opposed to "progressive provisioning", where a larva is fed repeatedly as it grows, as in honey bees. All adult species are pollen feeders and may be important pollinators. Several genera and species of halictids are cleptoparasites of other bees (mostly other halictids). The most well-known and common are species in the genus Sphecodes, where the female enters the cell with the provision mass, eats the host egg, and lays an egg of her own in its place. Halictidae are one of the four bee families that contain some species that are crepuscular. These bees are active only at dusk or in the early evening or sometimes truly nocturnal. In these cases they have greatly enlarged ocelli or simple eyes to enhance their night vision. Megachilidae-Leaf Cutting Bees and Mason Bees. The Megachilidae are a cosmopolitan family of solitary bees (Figure 50) whose pollen-carrying structure (called a scopa) is restricted to the ventral surface of the abdomen (rather than mostly or exclusively on the hind legs as in other bee families). Leaf Cutting Bee with Pollen Trapped on Underside of Abdomen. Megachilid genera are most commonly known

amily of the order Hymenoptera consisting of small (> 4 mm) to midsize (> 8 mm) bees which are usually dark-colored and often metallic in appearance. Several species are all or partly green and a few are red (Figure 49); a number of them have yellow markings, especially the males, which commonly possess yellow faces, a pattern widespread among the various families of bees. They are commonly referred to as sweat bees (especially the smaller species), as they are often attracted to perspiration; when pinched, females can give a minor sting. Common Sweat Bee. Image Courtesy of Jon Sullivan Most halictids nest in the ground, though a few nest in wood. They mass-provision their young by providing a mass of pollen and nectar formed inside a waterproof cell. Once an egg is deposited on this mass the cell is sealed off. Thus the larva is with all the food at one time that it needs for full development, as opposed to "progressive provisioning", where a larva is fed repeatedly as it grows, as in honey bees. All adult species are pollen feeders and may be important pollinators. Several genera and species of halictids are cleptoparasites of other bees (mostly other halictids). The most well-known and common are species in the genus Sphecodes, where the female enters the cell with the provision mass, eats the host egg, and lays an egg of her own in its place. Halictidae are one of the four bee families that contain some species that are crepuscular. These bees are active only at dusk or in the early evening or sometimes truly nocturnal. In these cases they have greatly enlarged ocelli or simple eyes to enhance their night vision. Megachilidae-Leaf Cutting Bees and Mason Bees. The Megachilidae are a cosmopolitan family of solitary bees (Figure 50) whose pollen-carrying structure (called a scopa) is restricted to the ventral surface of the abdomen (rather than mostly or exclusively on the hind legs as in other bee families). Leaf Cutting Bee with Pollen Trapped on Underside of Abdomen. Megachilid genera are most commonly known as mason bees and leafcutter bees, reflecting the materials they build their nest cells from (soil or leaves, respectively); a few collect plant or animal hairs and fibers, and are called carder bees. All species feed on nectar and pollen, but a few are cleptoparasites (informally called "cuckoo bees"), feeding on pollen collected by other megachilid bees. These parasitic species do not possess scopa and are incapable of collecting their own pollen. The brightly colored scopa leads to a colloquial name used occasionally in North America - "Jelly-belly bees." Megachilid bees are among the world's most efficient pollinators because of their energetic swimming-like motion in the reproductive structures of flowers, which moves pollen, as needed for pollination. One of the reasons they are efficient pollinators is their frequency of visiting to plants. In actuality they are extremely inefficient at gathering pollen when compared to all other bee families. However, megachilids require on average nearly ten times as many trips to flowers to gather sufficient resources to provision a single brood cell. Of course with more, more pollination is accomplished. North America has many native megachilid species, but Alfalfa leafcutter bees (Megachile rotundata) are an imported species used for pollination. The most significant native species is Osmia lignaria (the "Orchard Mason Bee" or "Blue Orchard Bee"), which is sold commercially for use in orchard crop pollination, and which can be attracted to nest in wooden blocks with holes drilled in them (which are also sold commercially for this purpose). Leafcutter bees nest in soft, rotted wood; thick-stemmed, pithy plants (e.g., rose); and in similar materials that the bees can easily cut through and excavate. Nest tunnels may extend several inches deep and coarse sawdust may be deposited at the entrance. This sometimes causes confusion with other wood nesting insects such as carpenter ants. However, leafcutter bees restrict their tunneling to soft, rotted wood and do not cause da

as mason bees and leafcutter bees, reflecting the materials they build their nest cells from (soil or leaves, respectively); a few collect plant or animal hairs and fibers, and are called carder bees. All species feed on nectar and pollen, but a few are cleptoparasites (informally called "cuckoo bees"), feeding on pollen collected by other megachilid bees. These parasitic species do not possess scopa and are incapable of collecting their own pollen. The brightly colored scopa leads to a colloquial name used occasionally in North America - "Jelly-belly bees." Megachilid bees are among the world's most efficient pollinators because of their energetic swimming-like motion in the reproductive structures of flowers, which moves pollen, as needed for pollination. One of the reasons they are efficient pollinators is their frequency of visiting to plants. In actuality they are extremely inefficient at gathering pollen when compared to all other bee families. However, megachilids require on average nearly ten times as many trips to flowers to gather sufficient resources to provision a single brood cell. Of course with more, more pollination is accomplished. North America has many native megachilid species, but Alfalfa leafcutter bees (Megachile rotundata) are an imported species used for pollination. The most significant native species is Osmia lignaria (the "Orchard Mason Bee" or "Blue Orchard Bee"), which is sold commercially for use in orchard crop pollination, and which can be attracted to nest in wooden blocks with holes drilled in them (which are also sold commercially for this purpose). Leafcutter bees nest in soft, rotted wood; thick-stemmed, pithy plants (e.g., rose); and in similar materials that the bees can easily cut through and excavate. Nest tunnels may extend several inches deep and coarse sawdust may be deposited at the entrance. This sometimes causes confusion with other wood nesting insects such as carpenter ants. However, leafcutter bees restrict their tunneling to soft, rotted wood and do not cause damage to homes or other wooden structures. There also are concerns about leafcutter bee nesting in rose canes, excavating the pith of pruned canes. Leafcutter bees sometimes nest in the largest diameter rose canes but cause little damage because they restrict tunneling to the pith and rarely girdle cambium. Furthermore, other insects, including various hunting wasps (Pemphredon species) and small carpenter bees more commonly tunnel and nest in rose canes. After the nest is made, the bees collect fragments of leaves to construct individual nest cells. The bees cut leaves in a distinctive manner, making a smooth semicircular cut about 3/4 inch in diameter from the edge of leaves. Although they cut many types of leaves, leafcutter bees prefer certain types, notably rose, green ash, lilac and Virginia creeper. This injury often is only a minor curiosity. However, where leafcutter bees are abundant and concentrate on cultivated plantings, the removal of leaf tissues can be damaging. Serious damage most often occurs in isolated rural plantings. Rose Leaf with Discs Cut from Edge by Leaf Cutting Bee. Leafcutter bees do not eat the cut pieces of leaves that they remove. Instead, they carry them back to the nest and use them to fashion nest cells within the previously constructed tunnels. Then they provision each leaf-lined cell with a mixture of nectar and pollen. The female lays an egg and seals the cell, producing a finished nest cell that somewhat resembles a cigar butt. A series of closely packed cells are produced in sequence. A finished nest tunnel may contain a dozen or more cells forming a tube 4 to 8 inches long. The young bees develop and remain within the cells, emerging the next season. There are a great many parasites that act as important natural enemies of leafcutter bees. As a result, leaf cutting activity may vary widely from year to year. Parasitic bees and wasps, velvet ants and certain blister beetles are among the most important enemies of leafcutter bees and other solitary bees. Alfalfa Leafcutter Be

mage to homes or other wooden structures. There also are concerns about leafcutter bee nesting in rose canes, excavating the pith of pruned canes. Leafcutter bees sometimes nest in the largest diameter rose canes but cause little damage because they restrict tunneling to the pith and rarely girdle cambium. Furthermore, other insects, including various hunting wasps (Pemphredon species) and small carpenter bees more commonly tunnel and nest in rose canes. After the nest is made, the bees collect fragments of leaves to construct individual nest cells. The bees cut leaves in a distinctive manner, making a smooth semicircular cut about 3/4 inch in diameter from the edge of leaves. Although they cut many types of leaves, leafcutter bees prefer certain types, notably rose, green ash, lilac and Virginia creeper. This injury often is only a minor curiosity. However, where leafcutter bees are abundant and concentrate on cultivated plantings, the removal of leaf tissues can be damaging. Serious damage most often occurs in isolated rural plantings. Rose Leaf with Discs Cut from Edge by Leaf Cutting Bee. Leafcutter bees do not eat the cut pieces of leaves that they remove. Instead, they carry them back to the nest and use them to fashion nest cells within the previously constructed tunnels. Then they provision each leaf-lined cell with a mixture of nectar and pollen. The female lays an egg and seals the cell, producing a finished nest cell that somewhat resembles a cigar butt. A series of closely packed cells are produced in sequence. A finished nest tunnel may contain a dozen or more cells forming a tube 4 to 8 inches long. The young bees develop and remain within the cells, emerging the next season. There are a great many parasites that act as important natural enemies of leafcutter bees. As a result, leaf cutting activity may vary widely from year to year. Parasitic bees and wasps, velvet ants and certain blister beetles are among the most important enemies of leafcutter bees and other solitary bees. Alfalfa Leafcutter Bee-Megachile rotundata. This is a European bee that has been introduced to other regions . As a solitary bee species, it does not build colonies or store honey, but is a very efficient pollinator of alfalfa, carrots and some other vegetables. The importation of the species to North America was to assist in the pollination of food crops, and it has now widespread. The species is also found in Queensland, Australia, but not recorded in other states. The vernacular in Australia is Lucerne leafcutter bee. Female alfalfa leafcutter bees have stingers, but both sexes will use their mandibles as a defensive mechanism, usually only defending themselves when squeezed or antagonized. Therefore bee suits, such as those required with honey bees, are not really necessary when dealing with these bees. The ratio of males to females is generally one to one. Alfalfa Leaf Cutting Bee. Image Courtesy of USDA. This species of leafcutter bee is cultivated to pollinate alfalfa grown for seed, a function that it does far more efficiently than honeybees. These leafcutter bees are provided with predrilled "bee boards" that they use for nest construction. At the end of the season, the nest cells with developing bees are collected and carefully stored, to be released the subsequent season when alfalfa blooms. Figure 53. Alfalfa Leaf Cutting Bee Pollinating Alfalfa. Commercially produced bee blocks, consisting of a wood block drilled with a series of dead-end holes, are now widely available. These types of bee nests were initially developed in the 1960s by alfalfa seed producers in the western United States to attract and manage large numbers of the non-native alfalfa leafcutter bee (Megachile rotundata). Their sole purpose is to attract wild populations of these bees. Bee Block for Attracting Large Population of Alfalfa Leaf Cutting Bees. More recently they have been modified to manage the blue orchard bee (Osmia lignaria), a bee that is active only in the spring and will not pollinate later-flowering fruits and vegetables. Consequently, al

e-Megachile rotundata. This is a European bee that has been introduced to other regions . As a solitary bee species, it does not build colonies or store honey, but is a very efficient pollinator of alfalfa, carrots and some other vegetables. The importation of the species to North America was to assist in the pollination of food crops, and it has now widespread. The species is also found in Queensland, Australia, but not recorded in other states. The vernacular in Australia is Lucerne leafcutter bee. Female alfalfa leafcutter bees have stingers, but both sexes will use their mandibles as a defensive mechanism, usually only defending themselves when squeezed or antagonized. Therefore bee suits, such as those required with honey bees, are not really necessary when dealing with these bees. The ratio of males to females is generally one to one. Alfalfa Leaf Cutting Bee. Image Courtesy of USDA. This species of leafcutter bee is cultivated to pollinate alfalfa grown for seed, a function that it does far more efficiently than honeybees. These leafcutter bees are provided with predrilled "bee boards" that they use for nest construction. At the end of the season, the nest cells with developing bees are collected and carefully stored, to be released the subsequent season when alfalfa blooms. Figure 53. Alfalfa Leaf Cutting Bee Pollinating Alfalfa. Commercially produced bee blocks, consisting of a wood block drilled with a series of dead-end holes, are now widely available. These types of bee nests were initially developed in the 1960s by alfalfa seed producers in the western United States to attract and manage large numbers of the non-native alfalfa leafcutter bee (Megachile rotundata). Their sole purpose is to attract wild populations of these bees. Bee Block for Attracting Large Population of Alfalfa Leaf Cutting Bees. More recently they have been modified to manage the blue orchard bee (Osmia lignaria), a bee that is active only in the spring and will not pollinate later-flowering fruits and vegetables. Consequently, all of the nest tunnels are a uniform size and depth, which may be either too large or too small for many other species. Nest blocks with a greater diversity of hole sizes and depths are necessary to attract a variety of bees that are active throughout the year. Under the best circumstances these nests can attract large numbers of cavity-nesting bees and boost their local populations. However, because these nests concentrate bee populations in unnaturally large numbers in a small space, they can become infested with parasites and disease spores after several seasons. Without regular sanitation or the phasing out of nest materials, these parasites and diseases threaten long-term pollinator health wherever they are used. Because contaminated nest blocks left unattended in the landscape continue to attract wild bees from the surrounding area, they have the potential to do harm. Only with proper management can these nests maintain healthy bee populations indefinitely. Alfalfa flowers provide an example of native bee efficiency. The stamen (the structure holding the anthers) of alfalfa flowers is held under tension by two flower petals, and springs forward with force when released by a visiting bee. This triggering discourages many bees, including honey bees, which learn to avoid being hit by the stamen by approaching the flower from behind, where they can gather nectar but not pollen. The alkali bee (Nomia melanderi), a native ground-nesting megachilid bee, is not discouraged by this unusual flower structure and is a major pollinator of alfalfa seed in some western states. It has been used as an effective pollinator of alfalfa when grown for seed in the western United States. In this case large areas of barren soil are provided for the nesting of this bee, Mason Bees. These are a gentle beneficial insects that has potential as a pollinator of apples, cherries, and other tree fruits. It is found throughout most of North America, particularly in wooded areas but often around homes in towns and cities. Mason Bees. Image C

l of the nest tunnels are a uniform size and depth, which may be either too large or too small for many other species. Nest blocks with a greater diversity of hole sizes and depths are necessary to attract a variety of bees that are active throughout the year. Under the best circumstances these nests can attract large numbers of cavity-nesting bees and boost their local populations. However, because these nests concentrate bee populations in unnaturally large numbers in a small space, they can become infested with parasites and disease spores after several seasons. Without regular sanitation or the phasing out of nest materials, these parasites and diseases threaten long-term pollinator health wherever they are used. Because contaminated nest blocks left unattended in the landscape continue to attract wild bees from the surrounding area, they have the potential to do harm. Only with proper management can these nests maintain healthy bee populations indefinitely. Alfalfa flowers provide an example of native bee efficiency. The stamen (the structure holding the anthers) of alfalfa flowers is held under tension by two flower petals, and springs forward with force when released by a visiting bee. This triggering discourages many bees, including honey bees, which learn to avoid being hit by the stamen by approaching the flower from behind, where they can gather nectar but not pollen. The alkali bee (Nomia melanderi), a native ground-nesting megachilid bee, is not discouraged by this unusual flower structure and is a major pollinator of alfalfa seed in some western states. It has been used as an effective pollinator of alfalfa when grown for seed in the western United States. In this case large areas of barren soil are provided for the nesting of this bee, Mason Bees. These are a gentle beneficial insects that has potential as a pollinator of apples, cherries, and other tree fruits. It is found throughout most of North America, particularly in wooded areas but often around homes in towns and cities. Mason Bees. Image Courtesy of Exzellente Bilder. Homeowners sometimes become concerned when they see the bee entering cavities under shake siding or investigating nail holes or other cavities in wood during March through early June. These are not destructive insects, since they do not excavate holes in the wood, though they will clean out loose debris. No controls are recommended, since no damage is done. To prevent the bee from nesting, holes may be filled with caulking. The females use existing holes in wood for a nest. They choose holes slightly larger than their body, usually 1/4 to 3/8 inches in diameter. The bees first place a mud plug at the bottom of the hole, then brings in 15 to 20 loads of nectar and pollen which they collects from spring flowers, including apples and other fruits. If you watch the bees closely as they enter the nest, you can see the pollen on the underside of the abdomen. When the female has provided a sufficient supply of food for the larva, she lays an egg and then seals the cell with a thin mud plug. She then provisions another cell, and continues in this fashion until the hole is nearly full. Finally the bee plasters a thick mud plug at the entrance. Some wasps and leaf-cutter bees also build nests in such holes but their nests can be distinguished from the orchard mason bee nests by characteristics of the plug. The plug of the mason bee is always rough while the wasp prepares a smooth plug. Leaf-cutters seal the holes with chewed-up leaves. Mason Bee Egg in Pollen Mass. Image Courtesy of Red58bill The female mason bee lives for about a month and can produce one or two eggs each day. The larva hatches from the egg after a few days and begins to eat its provisions. When the pollen-nectar mass is completely eaten in about 10 days, the larva spins a cocoon and pupates within the cell. Near the end of the summer the bee transforms to the adult stage but remains in the cocoon throughout the winter. In the spring, when the weather has warmed up sufficiently, the males begin to emerge by chewing their way

ourtesy of Exzellente Bilder. Homeowners sometimes become concerned when they see the bee entering cavities under shake siding or investigating nail holes or other cavities in wood during March through early June. These are not destructive insects, since they do not excavate holes in the wood, though they will clean out loose debris. No controls are recommended, since no damage is done. To prevent the bee from nesting, holes may be filled with caulking. The females use existing holes in wood for a nest. They choose holes slightly larger than their body, usually 1/4 to 3/8 inches in diameter. The bees first place a mud plug at the bottom of the hole, then brings in 15 to 20 loads of nectar and pollen which they collects from spring flowers, including apples and other fruits. If you watch the bees closely as they enter the nest, you can see the pollen on the underside of the abdomen. When the female has provided a sufficient supply of food for the larva, she lays an egg and then seals the cell with a thin mud plug. She then provisions another cell, and continues in this fashion until the hole is nearly full. Finally the bee plasters a thick mud plug at the entrance. Some wasps and leaf-cutter bees also build nests in such holes but their nests can be distinguished from the orchard mason bee nests by characteristics of the plug. The plug of the mason bee is always rough while the wasp prepares a smooth plug. Leaf-cutters seal the holes with chewed-up leaves. Mason Bee Egg in Pollen Mass. Image Courtesy of Red58bill The female mason bee lives for about a month and can produce one or two eggs each day. The larva hatches from the egg after a few days and begins to eat its provisions. When the pollen-nectar mass is completely eaten in about 10 days, the larva spins a cocoon and pupates within the cell. Near the end of the summer the bee transforms to the adult stage but remains in the cocoon throughout the winter. In the spring, when the weather has warmed up sufficiently, the males begin to emerge by chewing their way out of the cocoons and through the mud plugs. The females, which are almost always in the inner cells of the tunnel, emerge several days later. One or two weeks may be required for all the bees to emerge during cool weather. Females mate soon after emerging and begin nesting in 3 to 4 days. The bees forage on a number of different flowers. In wooded areas, they seem to prefer ballhead waterleaf. In urban areas, dandelion and Oregon grape are commonly visited, in addition to cherries and apples. The mason bee is non-aggressive and will sting only if handled roughly or if it should get trapped under clothing. It is less objectionable than the honey bee as a pollinator in urban areas and should be encouraged. Efforts are being made experimentally to develop large populations of these bees to use as a supplement to honey bees for fruit pollination, much as the alfalfa leaf cutting bee was developed for alfalfa seed pollination. Populations for pollinating around a home or commercial orchard can be developed by establishing trap nests to collect the bees. Trap nests can be made by drilling holes 1/4 to 3/8 inches in diameter and 3 to 6 inches deep in pine or fir 4x4's. A "brad-point bit" leaves a nice, smooth hole. (Figure 57) Alfalfa leaf cutting bee boards with hole diameters of at least 1/4 inch can also be used. These boards are then attached to a house or other structure where bees have been seen. Some protection from rain is desirable. Boards can also be placed on dead trees or posts in wooded areas near streams where there is a good supply of mud for nest construction and wild flowers on which to forage. Predrilled Drilled Block Infested with Mason Bees. Image Courtesy of Red 58bill. Boards should be positioned where they will receive morning sunlight and started in March before the bees begin nesting and remove them in early to mid-summer when nesting is completed. If the boards are stored outdoors over winter (under cover to protect them from rain and snow) the bees will usually emerge in March and April. The

out of the cocoons and through the mud plugs. The females, which are almost always in the inner cells of the tunnel, emerge several days later. One or two weeks may be required for all the bees to emerge during cool weather. Females mate soon after emerging and begin nesting in 3 to 4 days. The bees forage on a number of different flowers. In wooded areas, they seem to prefer ballhead waterleaf. In urban areas, dandelion and Oregon grape are commonly visited, in addition to cherries and apples. The mason bee is non-aggressive and will sting only if handled roughly or if it should get trapped under clothing. It is less objectionable than the honey bee as a pollinator in urban areas and should be encouraged. Efforts are being made experimentally to develop large populations of these bees to use as a supplement to honey bees for fruit pollination, much as the alfalfa leaf cutting bee was developed for alfalfa seed pollination. Populations for pollinating around a home or commercial orchard can be developed by establishing trap nests to collect the bees. Trap nests can be made by drilling holes 1/4 to 3/8 inches in diameter and 3 to 6 inches deep in pine or fir 4x4's. A "brad-point bit" leaves a nice, smooth hole. (Figure 57) Alfalfa leaf cutting bee boards with hole diameters of at least 1/4 inch can also be used. These boards are then attached to a house or other structure where bees have been seen. Some protection from rain is desirable. Boards can also be placed on dead trees or posts in wooded areas near streams where there is a good supply of mud for nest construction and wild flowers on which to forage. Predrilled Drilled Block Infested with Mason Bees. Image Courtesy of Red 58bill. Boards should be positioned where they will receive morning sunlight and started in March before the bees begin nesting and remove them in early to mid-summer when nesting is completed. If the boards are stored outdoors over winter (under cover to protect them from rain and snow) the bees will usually emerge in March and April. They should forage for pollen during the period of cherry and apple bloom and afterwards, if sufficient other flowers are available to them. For large populations for orchard pollination, the nests should be under humid refrigeration at 35 to 40° F. This will permit control of emergence time and reduce predation and parasitism by the insect enemies of the bees. Do not place the nests in storage until September or October to assure complete development of the adults. The following spring, place the boards in the orchards in plywood shelters facing east to catch the morning sun. To hasten emergence, incubate the boards at room temperature for 24 hours before placing the bees in the orchard. The boards and some new nesting material should be in place a few days before apples begin to bloom, or earlier if other fruit bloom such as cherries, is available. Provide 500-1000 filled holes per acre. These should contain 750-1000 females, assuming an average of 1 1/2 females per hole. Males also visit flowers, but they do not live long and are not as effective as pollinators. Competing flowers such as dandelions should be mowed as soon as the fruit begins to bloom. Developing large populations of the bees may be a slow process under orchard conditions; the short duration of bloom does not allow the bees to accomplish maximum reproduction. The orchard mason bee also has a tendency to fly away rather than using or reusing nests in the near vicinity. However, relatively large populations have been developed in 2 or 3 years in urban situations. Once established, orchard bees will nest in containers filled with large-diameter drinking straws or paper tubes folded in half. Orchard Mason Bee, Osmia lignaria. This is a megachilid bee that as do other mason bee makes nests in reeds and natural holes, creating individual cells for their brood that are separated by mud dividers. They are unlike carpenter bees in that they cannot drill holes in wood. O. lignaria is a common species used for early spring fruit bloom in Japan, Canada, and t

y should forage for pollen during the period of cherry and apple bloom and afterwards, if sufficient other flowers are available to them. For large populations for orchard pollination, the nests should be under humid refrigeration at 35 to 40° F. This will permit control of emergence time and reduce predation and parasitism by the insect enemies of the bees. Do not place the nests in storage until September or October to assure complete development of the adults. The following spring, place the boards in the orchards in plywood shelters facing east to catch the morning sun. To hasten emergence, incubate the boards at room temperature for 24 hours before placing the bees in the orchard. The boards and some new nesting material should be in place a few days before apples begin to bloom, or earlier if other fruit bloom such as cherries, is available. Provide 500-1000 filled holes per acre. These should contain 750-1000 females, assuming an average of 1 1/2 females per hole. Males also visit flowers, but they do not live long and are not as effective as pollinators. Competing flowers such as dandelions should be mowed as soon as the fruit begins to bloom. Developing large populations of the bees may be a slow process under orchard conditions; the short duration of bloom does not allow the bees to accomplish maximum reproduction. The orchard mason bee also has a tendency to fly away rather than using or reusing nests in the near vicinity. However, relatively large populations have been developed in 2 or 3 years in urban situations. Once established, orchard bees will nest in containers filled with large-diameter drinking straws or paper tubes folded in half. Orchard Mason Bee, Osmia lignaria. This is a megachilid bee that as do other mason bee makes nests in reeds and natural holes, creating individual cells for their brood that are separated by mud dividers. They are unlike carpenter bees in that they cannot drill holes in wood. O. lignaria is a common species used for early spring fruit bloom in Japan, Canada, and the United States, though a number of species of other Osmia are also cultured for use in pollination. Orchard Mason Bee. Image Courtesy Red58bill. The bees begin to emerge from their cocoons in the spring when the daytime temperature reaches 14°C (57°F). The males emerge first. They remain near the nesting site and wait for the females to begin their emergence, which can be several days to weeks depending on the number of days of warm weather. The first thing the females do is mate. A female will typically mate once, maybe twice. She will be absent from the nesting site for several days while she feeds and waits for her ovaries to fully mature. When a female is ready, she seeks out a suitable nest. O. lignaria females like to nest in narrow holes or tubes, though they have been found to nest inside cedar shakes and even keyholes. Beekeepers put out pre-made nesting materials to entice the females to stay close to the orchard. Rain, wind, and free-release (the practice of putting loose cocoons out rather than letting them emerge in their natal nests) discourage females from selecting a nesting site near their natal nest. A female might inspect several potential nests before settling in. Once she has found the right nest, she flies outside of the hole and does an in-flight dance. She is orienting on major visual features in order to find her nest when she returns from foraging. O. lignaria arrange their nest as a series of partitions, with one egg per partition. She begins the process by collecting mud and building the back wall of the first partition. Then she makes trips to nearby flowers. Unlike honey bees which visit flowers that are miles away, she prefers flowers that are nearest the nest. She can visit 75 flowers per trip, and it takes 25 trips to create a complete pollen/nectar provision. She works tirelessly during the day, only stopping once the sun has gone down. When the sun rises the next morning, she will bask in its rays until she is warm enough to fly. Then she continues where ever she left off the

he United States, though a number of species of other Osmia are also cultured for use in pollination. Orchard Mason Bee. Image Courtesy Red58bill. The bees begin to emerge from their cocoons in the spring when the daytime temperature reaches 14°C (57°F). The males emerge first. They remain near the nesting site and wait for the females to begin their emergence, which can be several days to weeks depending on the number of days of warm weather. The first thing the females do is mate. A female will typically mate once, maybe twice. She will be absent from the nesting site for several days while she feeds and waits for her ovaries to fully mature. When a female is ready, she seeks out a suitable nest. O. lignaria females like to nest in narrow holes or tubes, though they have been found to nest inside cedar shakes and even keyholes. Beekeepers put out pre-made nesting materials to entice the females to stay close to the orchard. Rain, wind, and free-release (the practice of putting loose cocoons out rather than letting them emerge in their natal nests) discourage females from selecting a nesting site near their natal nest. A female might inspect several potential nests before settling in. Once she has found the right nest, she flies outside of the hole and does an in-flight dance. She is orienting on major visual features in order to find her nest when she returns from foraging. O. lignaria arrange their nest as a series of partitions, with one egg per partition. She begins the process by collecting mud and building the back wall of the first partition. Then she makes trips to nearby flowers. Unlike honey bees which visit flowers that are miles away, she prefers flowers that are nearest the nest. She can visit 75 flowers per trip, and it takes 25 trips to create a complete pollen/nectar provision. She works tirelessly during the day, only stopping once the sun has gone down. When the sun rises the next morning, she will bask in its rays until she is warm enough to fly. Then she continues where ever she left off the day before. Once the provision is complete, she backs into the hole and lays an egg on top of it. She collects more mud to seal off the partition. The new wall also doubles as the back wall of the next cell. She continues until she has filled the nest hole. O. lignara, like many insects, can select the gender of the egg they lay by fertilizing the egg, or not. Unfertilized eggs are males, while fertilized eggs are females. The adult bee lays female eggs in the back of the burrow, and the male eggs towards the front. She lays about three males to every nest hole depending on depth. When the egg hatches, the larva consumes the food provision as it goes through many changes on its way to becoming an adult. It will spend most of its life alone in this dark cell made by its mother. Once the female has finished the nest, she plugs the entrance with one thick mud wall. Then she seeks out another location for a new nest. She works tirelessly until she dies. An O. lignaria female lives for about four to eight weeks and she can complete an average of four 6-inch tubes in her lifetime, with about eight eggs per tube. That's nearly 60,000 blossom visits per female. Because of this farmers have cultivated the insect for pollination purposes in fruit orchards. By the early summer, a larva has consumed all of its provisions and begins spinning a cocoon around itself and enters the pupal stage; the adult females die off as the season progresses. The young bee is now a fully developed insect and diapauses inside its cocoon for the duration of the winter. They burn through their fat reserves to stay warm. If it stays cold for too long, the bees can die of starvation. Alternatively, if the temperature rises too fast, they may emerge before the blossom. Farmers are known to exploit their emergence cycle and time their release to coincide with the first orchard blossoms. Commercial Availability. Recently, many people have become interested in the blue orchard bee (Osmia lignaria), also called the orchard mason bee, as a garden and or

day before. Once the provision is complete, she backs into the hole and lays an egg on top of it. She collects more mud to seal off the partition. The new wall also doubles as the back wall of the next cell. She continues until she has filled the nest hole. O. lignara, like many insects, can select the gender of the egg they lay by fertilizing the egg, or not. Unfertilized eggs are males, while fertilized eggs are females. The adult bee lays female eggs in the back of the burrow, and the male eggs towards the front. She lays about three males to every nest hole depending on depth. When the egg hatches, the larva consumes the food provision as it goes through many changes on its way to becoming an adult. It will spend most of its life alone in this dark cell made by its mother. Once the female has finished the nest, she plugs the entrance with one thick mud wall. Then she seeks out another location for a new nest. She works tirelessly until she dies. An O. lignaria female lives for about four to eight weeks and she can complete an average of four 6-inch tubes in her lifetime, with about eight eggs per tube. That's nearly 60,000 blossom visits per female. Because of this farmers have cultivated the insect for pollination purposes in fruit orchards. By the early summer, a larva has consumed all of its provisions and begins spinning a cocoon around itself and enters the pupal stage; the adult females die off as the season progresses. The young bee is now a fully developed insect and diapauses inside its cocoon for the duration of the winter. They burn through their fat reserves to stay warm. If it stays cold for too long, the bees can die of starvation. Alternatively, if the temperature rises too fast, they may emerge before the blossom. Farmers are known to exploit their emergence cycle and time their release to coincide with the first orchard blossoms. Commercial Availability. Recently, many people have become interested in the blue orchard bee (Osmia lignaria), also called the orchard mason bee, as a garden and orchard pollinator. Many thousands of mason bee nesting blocks are sold each year in the United States, along with hundreds of thousands of blue orchard bees. This interest has greatly raised public awareness about the importance of pollinators; however, it is important to remember that raising large numbers of a single species (bee-ranching) is a different objective than the conservation of diverse species of wild pollinators. As mason beekeeping has increased in popularity, important questions are being asked about the risks associated with the nationwide shipment of blue orchard bees by commercial producers. In fact, there are two distinct subspecies of the blue orchard bee: Osmia lignaria propinqua in western North America and Osmia lignaria lignaria in the east. The species is rare in the Great Plains region, although some intermediate specimens have been collected. Most commercial producers of the blue orchard bee are located in the Pacific Northwest, where they rear the locally native western subspecies . Unfortunately, the bees these producers raise are then marketed nationwide, resulting in the frequent shipment of locally non-native bees to the eastern United States. The potential ecological consequences of the western blue orchard bee hybridizing with its eastern subspecies are unknown. Similarly, these shipments have the potential to introduce locally non-native parasites and diseases. For the consumer, there is another significant drawback. The western bees may not develop in sync with local conditions, resulting in poor establishment and poor performance as pollinators. The net result is that people purchasing blue orchard bees over the Internet or through garden catalogs may be doing more to harm their local pollinator populations than to help them – and not be getting the pollination they paid for. This is a family of bees that are often referred to collectively as plasterer bees, due to the method of smoothing the walls of their nest cells with secretions applied with their mouthparts; these secret

chard pollinator. Many thousands of mason bee nesting blocks are sold each year in the United States, along with hundreds of thousands of blue orchard bees. This interest has greatly raised public awareness about the importance of pollinators; however, it is important to remember that raising large numbers of a single species (bee-ranching) is a different objective than the conservation of diverse species of wild pollinators. As mason beekeeping has increased in popularity, important questions are being asked about the risks associated with the nationwide shipment of blue orchard bees by commercial producers. In fact, there are two distinct subspecies of the blue orchard bee: Osmia lignaria propinqua in western North America and Osmia lignaria lignaria in the east. The species is rare in the Great Plains region, although some intermediate specimens have been collected. Most commercial producers of the blue orchard bee are located in the Pacific Northwest, where they rear the locally native western subspecies . Unfortunately, the bees these producers raise are then marketed nationwide, resulting in the frequent shipment of locally non-native bees to the eastern United States. The potential ecological consequences of the western blue orchard bee hybridizing with its eastern subspecies are unknown. Similarly, these shipments have the potential to introduce locally non-native parasites and diseases. For the consumer, there is another significant drawback. The western bees may not develop in sync with local conditions, resulting in poor establishment and poor performance as pollinators. The net result is that people purchasing blue orchard bees over the Internet or through garden catalogs may be doing more to harm their local pollinator populations than to help them – and not be getting the pollination they paid for. This is a family of bees that are often referred to collectively as plasterer bees, due to the method of smoothing the walls of their nest cells with secretions applied with their mouthparts; these secretions dry into a cellophane-like lining. This allows the bees to nest in periodically flooded areas such as stream banks. There are over 2000species, all of them evidently solitary, though many nest in aggregations. Bees in this are highly varied in appearance and have few common features. One feature consistent to all colletid bees is that their tongue has a branched tip (Figure 59) . The two genera most frequently seen are Colletes and Hylaeus. Two of the subfamilies, Euryglossinae and Hylaeinae, lack the external pollen-carrying apparatus (the scopa) that otherwise characterizes most bees, and instead carry the pollen in their crop (enlarged portion of the foregut). These groups, and in fact most genera in this family have liquid or semi-liquid pollen masses on which the larvae develop. Colletid Bee. Image Courtesy of Michael Becker. They can be found all over the world, but the most species live in South America and Australia. Over 50% of all bee species living in Australia belong to this family. Only the genera Colletes and Hylaeuscan be found in Europe, while in North America there are, in addition to these two, the genera Caupolicana, Eulonchopria, and Ptiloglossa. Ants are among the most highly evolved of insects. The variety of lifestyles displayed by ants is amazing--perhaps because so many of their social behaviors seemingly parallel our own. All living ant species have a caste system. The main castes consist of kings, queens and workers. The kings are winged reproductive males that contribute absolutely nothing to the labor of the colony. The winged females swarm with the males, similarly to the behavior previously discussed with termites. Eventually they will become the queens of new colonies. During the establishment of a new colony, the new queen initially performs all the work tasks; but once her first brood of worker larvae is reared to adulthood, her sole duty is to lay eggs. Unlike termites, ant colonies may have many queens, in some cases, hundreds. Workers are sterile females and can be both t

ions dry into a cellophane-like lining. This allows the bees to nest in periodically flooded areas such as stream banks. There are over 2000species, all of them evidently solitary, though many nest in aggregations. Bees in this are highly varied in appearance and have few common features. One feature consistent to all colletid bees is that their tongue has a branched tip (Figure 59) . The two genera most frequently seen are Colletes and Hylaeus. Two of the subfamilies, Euryglossinae and Hylaeinae, lack the external pollen-carrying apparatus (the scopa) that otherwise characterizes most bees, and instead carry the pollen in their crop (enlarged portion of the foregut). These groups, and in fact most genera in this family have liquid or semi-liquid pollen masses on which the larvae develop. Colletid Bee. Image Courtesy of Michael Becker. They can be found all over the world, but the most species live in South America and Australia. Over 50% of all bee species living in Australia belong to this family. Only the genera Colletes and Hylaeuscan be found in Europe, while in North America there are, in addition to these two, the genera Caupolicana, Eulonchopria, and Ptiloglossa. Ants are among the most highly evolved of insects. The variety of lifestyles displayed by ants is amazing--perhaps because so many of their social behaviors seemingly parallel our own. All living ant species have a caste system. The main castes consist of kings, queens and workers. The kings are winged reproductive males that contribute absolutely nothing to the labor of the colony. The winged females swarm with the males, similarly to the behavior previously discussed with termites. Eventually they will become the queens of new colonies. During the establishment of a new colony, the new queen initially performs all the work tasks; but once her first brood of worker larvae is reared to adulthood, her sole duty is to lay eggs. Unlike termites, ant colonies may have many queens, in some cases, hundreds. Workers are sterile females and can be both the laborers and defenders of the colony. In most ant species there can be sub-castes of the workers, namely majors, media and minors. Relative head and overall body size distinguish subcastes. The majors are the largest of the three and possess a disproportionately large head and mandibles. The function of the soldiers is to protect the ant colonies. The media and minor workers are the most common individuals in an ant colony and perform the majority of the work duties. Minor worker ants also perform a variety of functions depending on the species of ant. Ant Wars, Competition and Survival. Ants are amongst the most aggressive and war-like of all animals. If ants had a policy of life it could be summarized as restless aggression, territorial conquest, and total annihilation of neighboring colonies. These insects use any of a number of strategies and weapons to reach these ultimate goals. Chemical warfare is prevalent amongst many species including spraying a variety of toxic chemicals in order to repel, confuse, immobilize or even kill their rivals. The soldiers of many species readily assume a kamikaze role in order to “win skirmishes” between rival colonies. One of the most dramatic of these sacrifices is exhibited by a carpenter ant from SE Asia. These ants act as walking bombs. There is a huge internal gland that occupies much of their body that is filled with toxic chemicals. If one of these ants is hard pressed by a rival ant or predator it contract some large abdominal muscles that bursts open the abdomen violently (like a bomb) releasing the chemicals. The availability or more significantly the limited availability of food frequently is important in colony survival. As a consequence rival colonies frequently develop strategies to maximize their collection of available food. There is a tiny fast moving ant in the deserts of Arizona that utilizes toxic secretions to intimidate and confuse much large honey ants (10 time their size) as they steal food from the larger ant colonies. In addition these tiny ants

he laborers and defenders of the colony. In most ant species there can be sub-castes of the workers, namely majors, media and minors. Relative head and overall body size distinguish subcastes. The majors are the largest of the three and possess a disproportionately large head and mandibles. The function of the soldiers is to protect the ant colonies. The media and minor workers are the most common individuals in an ant colony and perform the majority of the work duties. Minor worker ants also perform a variety of functions depending on the species of ant. Ant Wars, Competition and Survival. Ants are amongst the most aggressive and war-like of all animals. If ants had a policy of life it could be summarized as restless aggression, territorial conquest, and total annihilation of neighboring colonies. These insects use any of a number of strategies and weapons to reach these ultimate goals. Chemical warfare is prevalent amongst many species including spraying a variety of toxic chemicals in order to repel, confuse, immobilize or even kill their rivals. The soldiers of many species readily assume a kamikaze role in order to “win skirmishes” between rival colonies. One of the most dramatic of these sacrifices is exhibited by a carpenter ant from SE Asia. These ants act as walking bombs. There is a huge internal gland that occupies much of their body that is filled with toxic chemicals. If one of these ants is hard pressed by a rival ant or predator it contract some large abdominal muscles that bursts open the abdomen violently (like a bomb) releasing the chemicals. The availability or more significantly the limited availability of food frequently is important in colony survival. As a consequence rival colonies frequently develop strategies to maximize their collection of available food. There is a tiny fast moving ant in the deserts of Arizona that utilizes toxic secretions to intimidate and confuse much large honey ants (10 time their size) as they steal food from the larger ant colonies. In addition these tiny ants will frequently prevent honey ants from leaving their nests by releasing toxic chemical down the hole or nest entrance thus driving the former below ground. This of course allows the smaller species to forage without competition from the honey ants. Another form of nest entrance blocking is exhibited by a small ant species in the southwestern deserts. In this case they gather in mass around the nest entrance of their rivals and similarly release toxic chemicals down the entrance. However in addition they pick up pebbles, twigs and other small objects and drop them down the vertical shaft entrance. Possibly the most elaborate of all documented aggressive strategies in social insects occurs in battles between the tiny woodland ant and the imported fire ant. The fire ants are deadly enemies of the woodland ants with colonies 100 times larger than their tiny rivals. Even though fire ants are much more powerful than the woodland ants both successfully survive in the same area. The secret of woodland ant survival evolves around a specialized soldier (major) and a three-stage strategy to defend against fire ant attack. These soldiers are equipped with huge heads that are equipped with large sharp jaws provided with massive muscles. These do not attempt to sting or spray their enemy with poisons (common in many ants) but quite precisely use their mandible to snip off legs, heads and other body parts. Unless attacked the majors remain in the colony. However, the minors regularly forage for food but are always on the alert for scout fire ants that are looking for colonies to raid. If a woodland ant minor encounters a fire ant soldier close to its colony a violent response is triggered. Once detected the minor rushes to the fire ant in a mock attack but merely touches the potential invader in order to acquire some of its odor. She then quickly retreats toward her nest. As she retreats she lays a pheromone trail by periodically touching her abdomen to the ground. On her way back she briefly rushes up to any other minor alert

will frequently prevent honey ants from leaving their nests by releasing toxic chemical down the hole or nest entrance thus driving the former below ground. This of course allows the smaller species to forage without competition from the honey ants. Another form of nest entrance blocking is exhibited by a small ant species in the southwestern deserts. In this case they gather in mass around the nest entrance of their rivals and similarly release toxic chemicals down the entrance. However in addition they pick up pebbles, twigs and other small objects and drop them down the vertical shaft entrance. Possibly the most elaborate of all documented aggressive strategies in social insects occurs in battles between the tiny woodland ant and the imported fire ant. The fire ants are deadly enemies of the woodland ants with colonies 100 times larger than their tiny rivals. Even though fire ants are much more powerful than the woodland ants both successfully survive in the same area. The secret of woodland ant survival evolves around a specialized soldier (major) and a three-stage strategy to defend against fire ant attack. These soldiers are equipped with huge heads that are equipped with large sharp jaws provided with massive muscles. These do not attempt to sting or spray their enemy with poisons (common in many ants) but quite precisely use their mandible to snip off legs, heads and other body parts. Unless attacked the majors remain in the colony. However, the minors regularly forage for food but are always on the alert for scout fire ants that are looking for colonies to raid. If a woodland ant minor encounters a fire ant soldier close to its colony a violent response is triggered. Once detected the minor rushes to the fire ant in a mock attack but merely touches the potential invader in order to acquire some of its odor. She then quickly retreats toward her nest. As she retreats she lays a pheromone trail by periodically touching her abdomen to the ground. On her way back she briefly rushes up to any other minor alerting them to the presence of the fire ant scout. Once in the nest soldiers plus many of the minors are alerted to the presence of the invader scout (by its smell on the minor worker) they subsequently rush in mass along the already establish pheromone trail leading to the enemy. Once found the soldier surrounds the fire ant and attack relentlessly and are fully capable of destroying it due to their great superiority in numbers. Of course the whole purpose is to kill the fire ant scout before it can alert other fire ants in the area as to the presence of a woodland ant colony. Once accomplished the soldiers search the general area for any other fire ant scouts. If fire ants mount a full scale attack of a woodland ant colony, the defenders have an alternate strategy. As fire ants arrive in full force the entire force of woodland soldier ants are sent into the battle. Soon the battle ground is littered with the bodies of the smaller species plus a multitude of legs and other body parts of the fire ants. As the battle continues any woodland ant minors still present retreat to the nest. As more and more fire ants arrive and the woodland ant soldiers are greatly out-numbered they retreat, close ranks to form a dense protective perimeter around their colony entrance. With the impending doom that the fire ants will soon break through the protective barrier and ravage, steal and consume the woodland ant’s eggs, larvae and pupae the activity of the minors in the colonies is frantic but well programs. They gather the young in their mandibles and sprint out though the colony entrance, through the battle field and beyond to safety. The woodland ant soldiers remain true to their programmed behavior and fight to the death. Once the fire ants leave the now ravaged colony the minors return with their cargo of eggs, larvae and pupae and reestablish colony life. Over time new soldiers develop in the colony preparing for the possibility of another raid. Such is the life of ants! Some ants survive by controlling the environment in whi