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ing them to the presence of the fire ant scout. Once in the nest soldiers plus many of the minors are alerted to the presence of the invader scout (by its smell on the minor worker) they subsequently rush in mass along the already establish pheromone trail leading to the enemy. Once found the soldier surrounds the fire ant and attack relentlessly and are fully capable of destroying it due to their great superiority in numbers. Of course the whole purpose is to kill the fire ant scout before it can alert other fire ants in the area as to the presence of a woodland ant colony. Once accomplished the soldiers search the general area for any other fire ant scouts. If fire ants mount a full scale attack of a woodland ant colony, the defenders have an alternate strategy. As fire ants arrive in full force the entire force of woodland soldier ants are sent into the battle. Soon the battle ground is littered with the bodies of the smaller species plus a multitude of legs and other body parts of the fire ants. As the battle continues any woodland ant minors still present retreat to the nest. As more and more fire ants arrive and the woodland ant soldiers are greatly out-numbered they retreat, close ranks to form a dense protective perimeter around their colony entrance. With the impending doom that the fire ants will soon break through the protective barrier and ravage, steal and consume the woodland ant’s eggs, larvae and pupae the activity of the minors in the colonies is frantic but well programs. They gather the young in their mandibles and sprint out though the colony entrance, through the battle field and beyond to safety. The woodland ant soldiers remain true to their programmed behavior and fight to the death. Once the fire ants leave the now ravaged colony the minors return with their cargo of eggs, larvae and pupae and reestablish colony life. Over time new soldiers develop in the colony preparing for the possibility of another raid. Such is the life of ants! Some ants survive by controlling the environment in which they live. In the Amazon rain forests there is a tremendous diversity of vegetation. If you walk through the forest no plant typically dominates and you may not see any two plants of the same species within hundreds of yards. One notable exception is the Cordia tree. On occasion you will find a large stands of these trees with no other plants in the vicinity. In addition these stands are typically encircled by large barren strips of land. The reason for this phenomenon is the presence of a small ant species that lives within the stems of these trees. They are very protective killing any plant feeding insects. They will also swarm on and attack any larger animal venturing into the stand. In addition any other species of plants that germinates with in the stand quickly shrivels and dies due to the ants stinging and injecting venom into the terminal buds. As might be expected the barren areas surrounding the stand of trees is similarly cleared by the stinging of these ants. Of course the ants benefit from this symbiotic relationship since they are provided by a safe bountiful location for their nests. And of course the trees benefit as they are provided with an endless competitively free environment in which to expand their growth. People living in the rain forest refer to the barren areas as the “devil’s garden” and refrain from planting crops there. Honey Ants. Ants vary tremendously as to their food preferences, size and colony locations. The honey ants are among some of the more interesting species. Normally they live in arid desert regions of the world; their primary diet is honeydew, which they collect from aphids and other homopterans. In such dry areas, honeydew-producing insects are common during the rainy season only when host plants prevail. Because in most areas this season only lasts a few months, honey ants have developed a means of ‘storing’ honeydew from season to season. A special form of worker called the replete, or reservoir ant, accomplishes this. These repletes are fed huge amounts of honeyd

ch they live. In the Amazon rain forests there is a tremendous diversity of vegetation. If you walk through the forest no plant typically dominates and you may not see any two plants of the same species within hundreds of yards. One notable exception is the Cordia tree. On occasion you will find a large stands of these trees with no other plants in the vicinity. In addition these stands are typically encircled by large barren strips of land. The reason for this phenomenon is the presence of a small ant species that lives within the stems of these trees. They are very protective killing any plant feeding insects. They will also swarm on and attack any larger animal venturing into the stand. In addition any other species of plants that germinates with in the stand quickly shrivels and dies due to the ants stinging and injecting venom into the terminal buds. As might be expected the barren areas surrounding the stand of trees is similarly cleared by the stinging of these ants. Of course the ants benefit from this symbiotic relationship since they are provided by a safe bountiful location for their nests. And of course the trees benefit as they are provided with an endless competitively free environment in which to expand their growth. People living in the rain forest refer to the barren areas as the “devil’s garden” and refrain from planting crops there. Honey Ants. Ants vary tremendously as to their food preferences, size and colony locations. The honey ants are among some of the more interesting species. Normally they live in arid desert regions of the world; their primary diet is honeydew, which they collect from aphids and other homopterans. In such dry areas, honeydew-producing insects are common during the rainy season only when host plants prevail. Because in most areas this season only lasts a few months, honey ants have developed a means of ‘storing’ honeydew from season to season. A special form of worker called the replete, or reservoir ant, accomplishes this. These repletes are fed huge amounts of honeydew; consequently, their abdomens stretch to many times the normal size. Once fed, reservoir ants remain inactive and store honeydew for many months. In many areas of the world, reservoir honey ants are human’s food—they are collected and their abdomens are bitten off. The stored honeydew gives them a candy-like taste. Honey Ants-Myrmecocystus Spp.. Worker media and replete castes of honey ants. Image courtesy Greg Hume at Wikepedia. Colonies of these amazing insects develop specialized workers, called repletes or honeypots, with tremendously swollen abdomens for nectar storage. Some repletes also hoard water, fats and body fluid from insect prey. The repletes ingorge on food that is collected outside the nest and brought to them by normally-proportioned worker ants. Deep in underground chambers, the repletes hang quietly in clusters, literally imprisoned by their abdomens ballooned to the size of small grapes (Figure )! Worldwide there are several very different kinds of ants that exhibit extreme repletism; all are properly called honey ants. One outstanding group; the genus Myrmecocystus, occurs exclusively in western North America. Myrmecocystus contains a diverse ensemblage of at least 28 closely related species, many of which are broadly distributed. It follows that these honey ants are very common insects. Most human residents or visitors to the American Southwest have probably strolled atop a honey ant nest completely unaware of the treasure trove hidden below. But those lucky enough to view repletes first hand can't help but want to find out more about these astonishing creatures. Honey ants are highly social insects. They live in efficiently organized colonies or groups of cooperating individuals. Their societies are matriarchal or female-dominated families. A typical honey ant colony contains a single fertile queen and thousands of sterile female workers. The queen is the mother of the colony and is specialized for egg production, while the workers, the queen's daughters and hence all sisters, are respon

ew; consequently, their abdomens stretch to many times the normal size. Once fed, reservoir ants remain inactive and store honeydew for many months. In many areas of the world, reservoir honey ants are human’s food—they are collected and their abdomens are bitten off. The stored honeydew gives them a candy-like taste. Honey Ants-Myrmecocystus Spp.. Worker media and replete castes of honey ants. Image courtesy Greg Hume at Wikepedia. Colonies of these amazing insects develop specialized workers, called repletes or honeypots, with tremendously swollen abdomens for nectar storage. Some repletes also hoard water, fats and body fluid from insect prey. The repletes ingorge on food that is collected outside the nest and brought to them by normally-proportioned worker ants. Deep in underground chambers, the repletes hang quietly in clusters, literally imprisoned by their abdomens ballooned to the size of small grapes (Figure )! Worldwide there are several very different kinds of ants that exhibit extreme repletism; all are properly called honey ants. One outstanding group; the genus Myrmecocystus, occurs exclusively in western North America. Myrmecocystus contains a diverse ensemblage of at least 28 closely related species, many of which are broadly distributed. It follows that these honey ants are very common insects. Most human residents or visitors to the American Southwest have probably strolled atop a honey ant nest completely unaware of the treasure trove hidden below. But those lucky enough to view repletes first hand can't help but want to find out more about these astonishing creatures. Honey ants are highly social insects. They live in efficiently organized colonies or groups of cooperating individuals. Their societies are matriarchal or female-dominated families. A typical honey ant colony contains a single fertile queen and thousands of sterile female workers. The queen is the mother of the colony and is specialized for egg production, while the workers, the queen's daughters and hence all sisters, are responsible for colony labor. Worker honey ants are polymorphic, meaning that they come in different sizes, ranging ten-fold or more in body weight. This variation, in turn, permits more effective task specialization. For example, the smallest workers, called minims, tend to remain in the nest as nursemaids caring for the queen, the developing brood (eggs, larvae and pupae) and the repletes. Medium and larger size workers are more apt to be involved with nest excavation, food acquisition and colony defense. The largest workers, called majors, are the individuals most likely to develop into repletes. Honey ant colonies are coordinated largely by pheromones, glandular secretions produced by the ants that function as chemical signals. Pheromones regulate complex social behavior and broadly serve to identify colony members, recruit nestmates to food sources, and elicit alarm and defensive behaviors. For example, honey ant workers instantly distinguish nestmates from intruders based on their smell (colony odor); the former might be groomed and offered food while the latter would be attacked and killed or driven from the nest. Honey ant societies may also contain numerous non-working reproductive forms, or winged males and virgin queens. Winged forms, called alates, are produced when colony populations reach an optimal size and become reproductively mature. Then, a portion of the brood raised each year is converted into individuals designed to mate, disperse and start new colonies. Mating flights typically are nocturnal or crepuscular, and generally occur only once a year following the first heavy precipitation of the summer rainy season. The reproductive forms pour out of the nest and swarm into the air, mating on the fly. Young queens take only one mating flight; they store viable sperm long-term in a special organ, called a spermatheca, which is then used for fertilizing eggs throughout the remainder of their lives. The males, their primary function completed, die shortly after mating. The inseminated queens drop to the g

sible for colony labor. Worker honey ants are polymorphic, meaning that they come in different sizes, ranging ten-fold or more in body weight. This variation, in turn, permits more effective task specialization. For example, the smallest workers, called minims, tend to remain in the nest as nursemaids caring for the queen, the developing brood (eggs, larvae and pupae) and the repletes. Medium and larger size workers are more apt to be involved with nest excavation, food acquisition and colony defense. The largest workers, called majors, are the individuals most likely to develop into repletes. Honey ant colonies are coordinated largely by pheromones, glandular secretions produced by the ants that function as chemical signals. Pheromones regulate complex social behavior and broadly serve to identify colony members, recruit nestmates to food sources, and elicit alarm and defensive behaviors. For example, honey ant workers instantly distinguish nestmates from intruders based on their smell (colony odor); the former might be groomed and offered food while the latter would be attacked and killed or driven from the nest. Honey ant societies may also contain numerous non-working reproductive forms, or winged males and virgin queens. Winged forms, called alates, are produced when colony populations reach an optimal size and become reproductively mature. Then, a portion of the brood raised each year is converted into individuals designed to mate, disperse and start new colonies. Mating flights typically are nocturnal or crepuscular, and generally occur only once a year following the first heavy precipitation of the summer rainy season. The reproductive forms pour out of the nest and swarm into the air, mating on the fly. Young queens take only one mating flight; they store viable sperm long-term in a special organ, called a spermatheca, which is then used for fertilizing eggs throughout the remainder of their lives. The males, their primary function completed, die shortly after mating. The inseminated queens drop to the ground, twist off their now useless wings, and scamper across the surface of the warm wet ground, looking for a place to burrow. The vast majority of the queens fall victim to a barrage of predators including birds, lizards, spiders and especially, other ants. Surviving queens must be well below ground before the rising sun relentlessly dries and bakes the surface. The queens seal themselves inside humid, subterranean cavities and do not forage; rather, they rear their first brood of tiny workers, called nanitics, relying solely on their stored fat reserves and metabolized flight muscles. Colony growth is slow at first, but soon rapidly accelerates as additional ants are added to the worker force. Honey ant nests almost always have only a single surface opening surrounded by a small accumulation of excavated substrate. Each species has a characteristic nest entrance. For example, M. mimicus builds a low sandy mound while M. mexicanus constructs a turret of coarse gravel. Nest openings of the latter species are very distinctive and not easily confused with those built by other kinds of ants in the area. The amount of soil surrounding a honey ant nest entrance is deceptively small, for the nest tunnels and chambers frequently extend deep into the ground, often reaching several yards or more below the surface. Nests of M. mexicanus have been studied in detail and have a surprisingly distinct and seemingly adaptive architecture. The nests typically are built in hard rocky soil, and consist of a subsurface labyrinth of tunnels and a vertical array of small domed chambers interconnected by one narrow vertical passageway. The maze of tunnels just below the surface probably serves as a staging area for foraging parties and mating flights and as a site for brood incubation. The lower chambers, deep enough to be within the level of permanent soil moisture, house the queen, much of the worker population and the majority of repletes. The lone interconnecting passage probably makes individual nest chambers easier to defend or

round, twist off their now useless wings, and scamper across the surface of the warm wet ground, looking for a place to burrow. The vast majority of the queens fall victim to a barrage of predators including birds, lizards, spiders and especially, other ants. Surviving queens must be well below ground before the rising sun relentlessly dries and bakes the surface. The queens seal themselves inside humid, subterranean cavities and do not forage; rather, they rear their first brood of tiny workers, called nanitics, relying solely on their stored fat reserves and metabolized flight muscles. Colony growth is slow at first, but soon rapidly accelerates as additional ants are added to the worker force. Honey ant nests almost always have only a single surface opening surrounded by a small accumulation of excavated substrate. Each species has a characteristic nest entrance. For example, M. mimicus builds a low sandy mound while M. mexicanus constructs a turret of coarse gravel. Nest openings of the latter species are very distinctive and not easily confused with those built by other kinds of ants in the area. The amount of soil surrounding a honey ant nest entrance is deceptively small, for the nest tunnels and chambers frequently extend deep into the ground, often reaching several yards or more below the surface. Nests of M. mexicanus have been studied in detail and have a surprisingly distinct and seemingly adaptive architecture. The nests typically are built in hard rocky soil, and consist of a subsurface labyrinth of tunnels and a vertical array of small domed chambers interconnected by one narrow vertical passageway. The maze of tunnels just below the surface probably serves as a staging area for foraging parties and mating flights and as a site for brood incubation. The lower chambers, deep enough to be within the level of permanent soil moisture, house the queen, much of the worker population and the majority of repletes. The lone interconnecting passage probably makes individual nest chambers easier to defend or seal off from enemy invaders. Honey ants are generalized scavengers and predators. Sugary carbohydrates are needed for energy. The ants visit flowers and extrafloral nectaries for the sweet rewards, and "milk" homopterans like aphids and scale insects for their sugary exudations called honeydew. Once engorged with liquid sugar, workers return to their nest to share with other colony members. Protein sources also are necessary, particularly for the growing larvae. Foraging honey ants search for live or recently dead invertebrates, predominantly arthropods; small soft-bodied insects like termites and caterpillars are especially fair game. Individual workers head homeward with pieces of food clasped within their mandibles, while groups of workers may cooperate when retrieving large or struggling prey items. Like all formicine ants, honey ants lack stingers: rather, they spray fine droplets of formic acid from their abdominal tip. The caustic acid is used, along with pinching mandibles, to help subdue uncooperative prey or to deter colony enemies. Grappling with prey or facing off against their foes, attacking honey ants spread and brace their legs, rapidly curl their abdomens underneath pointing forward, aim and fire. Their chemical weaponry is most effective against small targets; it is useful against mammals or other large animals only if sprayed into highly sensitive tissues like eyes or nostrils. Given an abundance of sweet repletes, it is not surprising that badgers and other desert creatures sometimes burrow into and plunder honey ant nests. Even some honey ant colonies will raid one another, stealing not only repletes but also brood, that when mature, is "enslaved" as part of the pirating colony's worker force. As recently as early this century, various Native American tribes and Mexicans regularly excavated honey ant colonies to obtain the savory morsels stockpiled therein. Sweet-toothed human predators typically hold a replete's head and thorax with the fingers, bite off or rupture the fragile abdomen, then

seal off from enemy invaders. Honey ants are generalized scavengers and predators. Sugary carbohydrates are needed for energy. The ants visit flowers and extrafloral nectaries for the sweet rewards, and "milk" homopterans like aphids and scale insects for their sugary exudations called honeydew. Once engorged with liquid sugar, workers return to their nest to share with other colony members. Protein sources also are necessary, particularly for the growing larvae. Foraging honey ants search for live or recently dead invertebrates, predominantly arthropods; small soft-bodied insects like termites and caterpillars are especially fair game. Individual workers head homeward with pieces of food clasped within their mandibles, while groups of workers may cooperate when retrieving large or struggling prey items. Like all formicine ants, honey ants lack stingers: rather, they spray fine droplets of formic acid from their abdominal tip. The caustic acid is used, along with pinching mandibles, to help subdue uncooperative prey or to deter colony enemies. Grappling with prey or facing off against their foes, attacking honey ants spread and brace their legs, rapidly curl their abdomens underneath pointing forward, aim and fire. Their chemical weaponry is most effective against small targets; it is useful against mammals or other large animals only if sprayed into highly sensitive tissues like eyes or nostrils. Given an abundance of sweet repletes, it is not surprising that badgers and other desert creatures sometimes burrow into and plunder honey ant nests. Even some honey ant colonies will raid one another, stealing not only repletes but also brood, that when mature, is "enslaved" as part of the pirating colony's worker force. As recently as early this century, various Native American tribes and Mexicans regularly excavated honey ant colonies to obtain the savory morsels stockpiled therein. Sweet-toothed human predators typically hold a replete's head and thorax with the fingers, bite off or rupture the fragile abdomen, then suck its contents into the mouth. The so-called "honey" tastes somewhat like molasses, while the ants' bodies, being bitter, are discarded. Perhaps fortunately for honey ants, this practice seems to have fallen by the wayside due to the advent of commercially available candies. These not only taste better but are much less work to procure. Many social insects, notably honey bees and some wasps, collect and store liquid sweets for later use. However, these insects stow their food within the confines of their nest combs. Honey ants are unique in using their own bodies as living storage vessels. But why develop repletes? In arid regions, food and water usually are obtainable only for very limited periods. But when available, as during the brief summer rainy or growing season, these resources are present in overwhelming abundance. Under favorable conditions, surplus food gathered by the colony is fed to the repletes for long-term storage. Then, in times of need, the food is regurgitated back to colony members. While the formation of food-storing repletes seems remarkable, it is merely an exaggerated form of typical ant behavior. Most ants possess expandable abdominal crops (stomachs) for temporarily carrying liquid food back to the nest. When solicited by a hungry nestmate, they regurgitate this liquid and offer a small droplet held between their mandibles. Close observation will reveal that the donor ant's abdomen shrinks as the recipient's abdomen expands. Thus, the crop serves as a "communal stomach" and repletism simply as extreme development of this expandable organ. In the presence of excess food, repletes can develop from any newly emerged worker, apparently before its exoskeleton and intersegmental membranes harden and become less flexible. In young colonies, it is not uncommon to find small workers serving as somewhat ineffective repletes, with their tiny abdomens distended to the bursting point. However, on an individual basis, major workers make the most efficient honeypots. Hundreds to a thousand or more

suck its contents into the mouth. The so-called "honey" tastes somewhat like molasses, while the ants' bodies, being bitter, are discarded. Perhaps fortunately for honey ants, this practice seems to have fallen by the wayside due to the advent of commercially available candies. These not only taste better but are much less work to procure. Many social insects, notably honey bees and some wasps, collect and store liquid sweets for later use. However, these insects stow their food within the confines of their nest combs. Honey ants are unique in using their own bodies as living storage vessels. But why develop repletes? In arid regions, food and water usually are obtainable only for very limited periods. But when available, as during the brief summer rainy or growing season, these resources are present in overwhelming abundance. Under favorable conditions, surplus food gathered by the colony is fed to the repletes for long-term storage. Then, in times of need, the food is regurgitated back to colony members. While the formation of food-storing repletes seems remarkable, it is merely an exaggerated form of typical ant behavior. Most ants possess expandable abdominal crops (stomachs) for temporarily carrying liquid food back to the nest. When solicited by a hungry nestmate, they regurgitate this liquid and offer a small droplet held between their mandibles. Close observation will reveal that the donor ant's abdomen shrinks as the recipient's abdomen expands. Thus, the crop serves as a "communal stomach" and repletism simply as extreme development of this expandable organ. In the presence of excess food, repletes can develop from any newly emerged worker, apparently before its exoskeleton and intersegmental membranes harden and become less flexible. In young colonies, it is not uncommon to find small workers serving as somewhat ineffective repletes, with their tiny abdomens distended to the bursting point. However, on an individual basis, major workers make the most efficient honeypots. Hundreds to a thousand or more large repletes can be found in mature honey ant colonies, each patiently hanging and waiting to serve up dinner when called upon by its nestmates. Argentine Ant. Linepithema humile. Argentine Ant tending soft scale for honeydew. Image courtesy Penarc. Identification. The Argentine ant is a one node, small, shiny, brown ant with only one size of worker. Workers are usually about 1/12 to 1/8 inch long. The queen ants are much larger, sometimes reaching 1/4 inch in length. They nest outdoors under logs, concrete slabs, debris and mulch. Argentine ants build very large colonies and can move rapidly. During winter months, this ant will move indoors. Biology. This ant is successful and hard to control because: · Different Argentine ant colonies in a same general locale are not enemies. Even the many queens in a single colony or separate colonies are friendly to each other. · Argentine ants are not too "picky" when choosing a suitable site to infest or colonize. They readily (as you will read about in move their nests during the changing seasons and other conditions. · These pests are omnivorous; they seem to never be in short supply of food. · Each colony of Argentine ants contains a multitude of workers. · Each worker is more courageous and harder worker than most ants. Creatures that attempt to prey on Argentine ants are confronted with an army of stubborn bugs that never runs from a fight! · The queens of most ant species are usually egg-laying machines. The queen ant of Argentines actually helps in the care, grooming and feeding of her young. · Most species of ants mate and reproduce by swarming; the Argentine mates in the colony, unexposed to the perils of birds, frogs, lizards, predator insects and extreme weather conditions. A swarmer reproductive (as seen with fireants and carpenter ants) has about 1 chance in 1,000 of surviving and successfully reproducing. The Argentine ant queen always succeeds! Distribution. Originating from Northern Argentina near the Paraná River and surrounding regions, the Argentine an

large repletes can be found in mature honey ant colonies, each patiently hanging and waiting to serve up dinner when called upon by its nestmates. Argentine Ant. Linepithema humile. Argentine Ant tending soft scale for honeydew. Image courtesy Penarc. Identification. The Argentine ant is a one node, small, shiny, brown ant with only one size of worker. Workers are usually about 1/12 to 1/8 inch long. The queen ants are much larger, sometimes reaching 1/4 inch in length. They nest outdoors under logs, concrete slabs, debris and mulch. Argentine ants build very large colonies and can move rapidly. During winter months, this ant will move indoors. Biology. This ant is successful and hard to control because: · Different Argentine ant colonies in a same general locale are not enemies. Even the many queens in a single colony or separate colonies are friendly to each other. · Argentine ants are not too "picky" when choosing a suitable site to infest or colonize. They readily (as you will read about in move their nests during the changing seasons and other conditions. · These pests are omnivorous; they seem to never be in short supply of food. · Each colony of Argentine ants contains a multitude of workers. · Each worker is more courageous and harder worker than most ants. Creatures that attempt to prey on Argentine ants are confronted with an army of stubborn bugs that never runs from a fight! · The queens of most ant species are usually egg-laying machines. The queen ant of Argentines actually helps in the care, grooming and feeding of her young. · Most species of ants mate and reproduce by swarming; the Argentine mates in the colony, unexposed to the perils of birds, frogs, lizards, predator insects and extreme weather conditions. A swarmer reproductive (as seen with fireants and carpenter ants) has about 1 chance in 1,000 of surviving and successfully reproducing. The Argentine ant queen always succeeds! Distribution. Originating from Northern Argentina near the Paraná River and surrounding regions, the Argentine ant now occurs in most regions with Mediterranean climates or with mild winters and moderate to high humidity. Argentine ants are established in at least 15 countries on six continents and many oceanic islands, including New Zealand, Japan, and Hawaii. The global distribution of Argentine ants continues to expand. Humans have been the primary factor in their spread, however, this ant can also disperse into new areas without human influence. The Argentine ant is widely distributed in California, with highest abundance in coastal areas, along rivers, and in urban settings. It was discovered by scientists two years ago that native Argentine ant (in Argentina)colonies living in close proximity were territorial and aggressive toward one another, literally tearing one another apart whenever they came into contact. The puzzling question to the researchers was, Why weren’t the introduced ants in California the same way? Why would an Argentine ant from San Diego dropped into a colony in San Francisco be welcomed, while an Argentine ant dropped into a colony two hundred meters away in its native country be torn apart? In search to the answer to that question the genetic differences among the ants in Argentina were compared with those in various parts of California, from San Diego to Ukiah. Using some of the same DNA fingerprinting techniques employed by criminologists, it was discovered that the native Argentine ants were twice as diverse as the native California ants, explaining why the California ants regard individuals up and down the coast as close kin, while those different nearby colonies in Argentina do not. They have an innate ability to recognize other members of their colony based on how genetically similar they are to themselves. Basically the genes are similar among California ants because they are descended from a relatively small founding population In essence, the super colony that we see in California is in fact one big colony. Damage. Because it does not sting or bite the Argentine ant is not a direct threat

t now occurs in most regions with Mediterranean climates or with mild winters and moderate to high humidity. Argentine ants are established in at least 15 countries on six continents and many oceanic islands, including New Zealand, Japan, and Hawaii. The global distribution of Argentine ants continues to expand. Humans have been the primary factor in their spread, however, this ant can also disperse into new areas without human influence. The Argentine ant is widely distributed in California, with highest abundance in coastal areas, along rivers, and in urban settings. It was discovered by scientists two years ago that native Argentine ant (in Argentina)colonies living in close proximity were territorial and aggressive toward one another, literally tearing one another apart whenever they came into contact. The puzzling question to the researchers was, Why weren’t the introduced ants in California the same way? Why would an Argentine ant from San Diego dropped into a colony in San Francisco be welcomed, while an Argentine ant dropped into a colony two hundred meters away in its native country be torn apart? In search to the answer to that question the genetic differences among the ants in Argentina were compared with those in various parts of California, from San Diego to Ukiah. Using some of the same DNA fingerprinting techniques employed by criminologists, it was discovered that the native Argentine ants were twice as diverse as the native California ants, explaining why the California ants regard individuals up and down the coast as close kin, while those different nearby colonies in Argentina do not. They have an innate ability to recognize other members of their colony based on how genetically similar they are to themselves. Basically the genes are similar among California ants because they are descended from a relatively small founding population In essence, the super colony that we see in California is in fact one big colony. Damage. Because it does not sting or bite the Argentine ant is not a direct threat to humans, unlike harvester ants or fire ants. However since there is little competition between opposing colonies of this species (one giant colony) this ant is the dominant species in areas where it becomes establish. It is very aggressive toward other species of ants and tends to out competes and replace other ants that are found in their same general area. As a result the Argentine ant is by a long way the major nuisance pest in urban areas, especially because of the availability of water. This ant exists in back yards at high densities associated with landscape features that provide favorable microclimates, such as potted plants and walkway bricks or stones. They enter homes through cracks and other spaces, in search of food or water. Argentine ants are also an economic threat because of their potential to tend plant pest insects, such as mealybugs, scales, and aphids. In return for sweet honeydew secretions from these plant feeding insects, ants provide protection from natural enemies. Argentine ants may even move pests to better food sources or more favorable microclimates to maximize honeydew production. This mutualism can compromise management of pest insects by otherwise effective natural enemies, through removal or intimidation of predators and parasitoid wasps, leading to higher pest densities and greater plant damage than would occur in the absence of Argentine ants. For example, parasitism rates of an important citrus pest, the California red scale (Aonidiella auranti), were reduced two- to five-fold in the presence of Argentine ants. Control. There are no known specific enemies of the Argentine ant. Therefore control is primarily via chemical and cultural means. Broadcast spraying of insecticides is of limited value because a substantial portion of Argentine ant colonies exist below ground where insecticides are unable to penetrate. Poison bait stations have proven effective at controlling Argentine ants in vineyards, though prolonged deployment may be required for natural enemy-mediated reduction

to humans, unlike harvester ants or fire ants. However since there is little competition between opposing colonies of this species (one giant colony) this ant is the dominant species in areas where it becomes establish. It is very aggressive toward other species of ants and tends to out competes and replace other ants that are found in their same general area. As a result the Argentine ant is by a long way the major nuisance pest in urban areas, especially because of the availability of water. This ant exists in back yards at high densities associated with landscape features that provide favorable microclimates, such as potted plants and walkway bricks or stones. They enter homes through cracks and other spaces, in search of food or water. Argentine ants are also an economic threat because of their potential to tend plant pest insects, such as mealybugs, scales, and aphids. In return for sweet honeydew secretions from these plant feeding insects, ants provide protection from natural enemies. Argentine ants may even move pests to better food sources or more favorable microclimates to maximize honeydew production. This mutualism can compromise management of pest insects by otherwise effective natural enemies, through removal or intimidation of predators and parasitoid wasps, leading to higher pest densities and greater plant damage than would occur in the absence of Argentine ants. For example, parasitism rates of an important citrus pest, the California red scale (Aonidiella auranti), were reduced two- to five-fold in the presence of Argentine ants. Control. There are no known specific enemies of the Argentine ant. Therefore control is primarily via chemical and cultural means. Broadcast spraying of insecticides is of limited value because a substantial portion of Argentine ant colonies exist below ground where insecticides are unable to penetrate. Poison bait stations have proven effective at controlling Argentine ants in vineyards, though prolonged deployment may be required for natural enemy-mediated reductions on honeydew producing pests to become apparent. Control in homes and yards include sanitation (e.g. removal of food scraps), closing points of entry to homes, and removing landscaping features that promote favorable microclimates - especially excess water sources. Leaf-cutting Ants. These are commonly found in many New World tropical areas. In such areas, columns of these ants frequently can be seen crawling up the trunks of trees and cutting small discs from the leaves. In some areas these insects are so common that they become major agricultural pests. Leaf cutting ants carrying leaf discs. Some of these ants exhibit polymorphism (different form within a caste –in this case the workers) to an extreme. There are 4 different forms within the worker caste, namely the minima, minors, media and maxima. The minima are the smallest form of the adults and function to care for the brood (larvae and pupae) and fungal gardens. Media workers forage for and carry the leaf discs deep into their nests, where they are licked, cut into smaller pieces, dampened with an anal secretion and finally formed into a bed of moist pulp. The newly formed beds are then planted with fungi from established beds. As the fungus grows, it is harvested and fed to the larvae. Most leaf cutting ants are quite particular and typically cultivate and harvest only one species of fungus. Media workers continuously ‘weed out’ any alien species of fungi that infest their gardens. It is believed that a few species actually produce fungicidal substances from their salivary glands, which chemically aid in the weeding process. In some species, when the swarming queens leave the colony, they carry the strands of fungi with them in pouches below their heads. Once new colonies are begun, the strands are ‘planted’ to assure a new garden of the correct species of fungi. The maxima are the largest of the forms with enlarged heads and protruding mandible. These of course are the soldiers of the colony and function to protect the colony against intruders. In a few

s on honeydew producing pests to become apparent. Control in homes and yards include sanitation (e.g. removal of food scraps), closing points of entry to homes, and removing landscaping features that promote favorable microclimates - especially excess water sources. Leaf-cutting Ants. These are commonly found in many New World tropical areas. In such areas, columns of these ants frequently can be seen crawling up the trunks of trees and cutting small discs from the leaves. In some areas these insects are so common that they become major agricultural pests. Leaf cutting ants carrying leaf discs. Some of these ants exhibit polymorphism (different form within a caste –in this case the workers) to an extreme. There are 4 different forms within the worker caste, namely the minima, minors, media and maxima. The minima are the smallest form of the adults and function to care for the brood (larvae and pupae) and fungal gardens. Media workers forage for and carry the leaf discs deep into their nests, where they are licked, cut into smaller pieces, dampened with an anal secretion and finally formed into a bed of moist pulp. The newly formed beds are then planted with fungi from established beds. As the fungus grows, it is harvested and fed to the larvae. Most leaf cutting ants are quite particular and typically cultivate and harvest only one species of fungus. Media workers continuously ‘weed out’ any alien species of fungi that infest their gardens. It is believed that a few species actually produce fungicidal substances from their salivary glands, which chemically aid in the weeding process. In some species, when the swarming queens leave the colony, they carry the strands of fungi with them in pouches below their heads. Once new colonies are begun, the strands are ‘planted’ to assure a new garden of the correct species of fungi. The maxima are the largest of the forms with enlarged heads and protruding mandible. These of course are the soldiers of the colony and function to protect the colony against intruders. In a few species of leaf-cutting ants, the minor caste performs a rather specialized function. These smaller workers frequently accompany the larger foraging leaf-gatherers; they do not assist in leaf cutting; but ride back to the nest either on the leaf portion or on the thorax of the media. Their sole function is to protect the media by snapping their mandibles at a species of parasitic fly that attempts to lay eggs on the media’s head. Carpenter Ants. On occasion, carpenter ants are confused with termites by the homeowner. These two are easily distinguished by any of a number of characteristics. As in all ants, the abdomen is connected to the thorax by a narrow waist, or petiole, while the abdomen of a termite is broadly joined to the thorax. Also, in the winged forms, a termite’s wings extend far beyond the tip of the abdomen and their front and hind wings are of equal size and shape. In winged ants, the hind wings are much smaller than the front wings and both rarely extend beyond the tip of the abdomen. Many carpenter ants are large and typically black in color. Unlike termites, carpenter ants do not eat wood and rarely cause damage to structures. In California, their nests may occur inside the wooden parts of homes, but in such cases they usually have occupied abandoned drywood termite nests. Carpenter ants eat a variety of things, including other insects. A common carpenter ant. Army Ants. The most spectacular and well-known ants are the legionary, or army, ants of the humid tropical forests. These ants do not construct nests, but form temporary clusters called bivouacs in the shelter of fallen trees or in other partially exposed situations. The workers form a solid mass up to a yard wide, which consists of layer after layer of individuals hooked together by their tarsal claws. The queen, larvae, pupae, and eggs are located in the center of this mass. An army ant, not considered as dangerous to humans as commonly believed. The night is passed in a tight cluster, but at the first sign of light the cluster dissipat

species of leaf-cutting ants, the minor caste performs a rather specialized function. These smaller workers frequently accompany the larger foraging leaf-gatherers; they do not assist in leaf cutting; but ride back to the nest either on the leaf portion or on the thorax of the media. Their sole function is to protect the media by snapping their mandibles at a species of parasitic fly that attempts to lay eggs on the media’s head. Carpenter Ants. On occasion, carpenter ants are confused with termites by the homeowner. These two are easily distinguished by any of a number of characteristics. As in all ants, the abdomen is connected to the thorax by a narrow waist, or petiole, while the abdomen of a termite is broadly joined to the thorax. Also, in the winged forms, a termite’s wings extend far beyond the tip of the abdomen and their front and hind wings are of equal size and shape. In winged ants, the hind wings are much smaller than the front wings and both rarely extend beyond the tip of the abdomen. Many carpenter ants are large and typically black in color. Unlike termites, carpenter ants do not eat wood and rarely cause damage to structures. In California, their nests may occur inside the wooden parts of homes, but in such cases they usually have occupied abandoned drywood termite nests. Carpenter ants eat a variety of things, including other insects. A common carpenter ant. Army Ants. The most spectacular and well-known ants are the legionary, or army, ants of the humid tropical forests. These ants do not construct nests, but form temporary clusters called bivouacs in the shelter of fallen trees or in other partially exposed situations. The workers form a solid mass up to a yard wide, which consists of layer after layer of individuals hooked together by their tarsal claws. The queen, larvae, pupae, and eggs are located in the center of this mass. An army ant, not considered as dangerous to humans as commonly believed. The night is passed in a tight cluster, but at the first sign of light the cluster dissipates and hoards of workers fan out from the bivouac in all directions. Soon, one or more columns form and begin to search for food. The workers lay down a pheromone trail for others to follow while the soldiers guard the perimeter of the trail. Workers form numerous columns; changing positions behind the advancing hoards of ants—flushing out large numbers of prey (arthropods, small reptiles and rodents). The prey is stung, killed and transported to the rear as food for the larvae. At the end of the day the cluster is reformed. When the food supply is depleted around the area of the bivouac, the colony relocates. Some colonies of army ants may number as high as one million individuals. Because of the spectacular size of their colonies and ‘raiding’ nature of these insects, they have been used repeatedly by the motion picture industry. Actually army ants pose no threat to humans or other large animals. The authors recently had the opportunity to observe army ant behavior in Costa Rica. One morning we were walking down a dirt road with several students collecting insects. Collecting was not that good but suddenly hoards of insects, spiders and even a few scorpions and lizards started pouring out from the underbrush across the road we were on. After a few moments of excellent collecting, we decided to investigate the reason for this windfall. And, as you might suspect, there was a column of army ants moving through a gully to the side of the road. Of course all the animals in its path were attempting to flee. On the following evening a column of army ants raided the students' cabin. The students were not awakened, but the following morning they were very disappointed to see that the army ants had stolen most of the several thousand insects they had collected and mounted on pins over the past week. Shortly thereafter, I decided to test the reports that army ants pose no threat to humans. There was a column moving through our pension grounds--so I placed my foot directly in their path. They merely ignored this obstacle a

es and hoards of workers fan out from the bivouac in all directions. Soon, one or more columns form and begin to search for food. The workers lay down a pheromone trail for others to follow while the soldiers guard the perimeter of the trail. Workers form numerous columns; changing positions behind the advancing hoards of ants—flushing out large numbers of prey (arthropods, small reptiles and rodents). The prey is stung, killed and transported to the rear as food for the larvae. At the end of the day the cluster is reformed. When the food supply is depleted around the area of the bivouac, the colony relocates. Some colonies of army ants may number as high as one million individuals. Because of the spectacular size of their colonies and ‘raiding’ nature of these insects, they have been used repeatedly by the motion picture industry. Actually army ants pose no threat to humans or other large animals. The authors recently had the opportunity to observe army ant behavior in Costa Rica. One morning we were walking down a dirt road with several students collecting insects. Collecting was not that good but suddenly hoards of insects, spiders and even a few scorpions and lizards started pouring out from the underbrush across the road we were on. After a few moments of excellent collecting, we decided to investigate the reason for this windfall. And, as you might suspect, there was a column of army ants moving through a gully to the side of the road. Of course all the animals in its path were attempting to flee. On the following evening a column of army ants raided the students' cabin. The students were not awakened, but the following morning they were very disappointed to see that the army ants had stolen most of the several thousand insects they had collected and mounted on pins over the past week. Shortly thereafter, I decided to test the reports that army ants pose no threat to humans. There was a column moving through our pension grounds--so I placed my foot directly in their path. They merely ignored this obstacle and marched over and around it. While the army ants are primarily found in the New World tropics the driver ants are found in the tropics of Africa. Both types are very similar as far as their behavior and biology is concerned. One distinct difference is that while large colonies of army ants may number one million colonies of driver ants can reach 200 million. With such huge numbers they present more of a threat to humans and other animals. There have been human deaths recorded from the raids of these critters (mostly infants). In these cases death has typically occurred from suffocation as a result of the ants entering and filling the lungs. The mating behavior of these ants is especially strange. The males are to drawn to the foraging columns supposedly looking for a mate. Instead of finding a queen the sterile workers quickly swarm the males and immediately tear their wings off. Then they carry them off and basically imprison them until a potential new queen is available. Bullet Ants. This ant is primarily found in rainforests ranging from Nicaragua to Paraguay and Australia. This huge (1 inch) beast is called the bullet ant because its sting feels like being shot by a bullet. On the Schmidt Sting Index bullet ants rate as the number one most painful sting found in the arthropods. When defending their nest they swarm out, release a strong odor and stridulate an audible sound (said to sound like a shriek) and then grab and impale their intruder. In Central-South America they are referred to as the 24-hour ant, referring to the pain described as “of burning, throbbing, all consuming pain” that may last a day or more. A one-inch Costa Rican bullet ant. As with many other arthropods bullet ants play a ceremonial role in some tribes of the rainforests. The Satere-Mawe people of Brazil use this ant in the right of passage of boys into manhood. In this case live bullet ants are woven into a sleeve made of leaves with the stingers pointing inward. Once the sleeve is place on the arm the goal is to leave it on for 10 m

nd marched over and around it. While the army ants are primarily found in the New World tropics the driver ants are found in the tropics of Africa. Both types are very similar as far as their behavior and biology is concerned. One distinct difference is that while large colonies of army ants may number one million colonies of driver ants can reach 200 million. With such huge numbers they present more of a threat to humans and other animals. There have been human deaths recorded from the raids of these critters (mostly infants). In these cases death has typically occurred from suffocation as a result of the ants entering and filling the lungs. The mating behavior of these ants is especially strange. The males are to drawn to the foraging columns supposedly looking for a mate. Instead of finding a queen the sterile workers quickly swarm the males and immediately tear their wings off. Then they carry them off and basically imprison them until a potential new queen is available. Bullet Ants. This ant is primarily found in rainforests ranging from Nicaragua to Paraguay and Australia. This huge (1 inch) beast is called the bullet ant because its sting feels like being shot by a bullet. On the Schmidt Sting Index bullet ants rate as the number one most painful sting found in the arthropods. When defending their nest they swarm out, release a strong odor and stridulate an audible sound (said to sound like a shriek) and then grab and impale their intruder. In Central-South America they are referred to as the 24-hour ant, referring to the pain described as “of burning, throbbing, all consuming pain” that may last a day or more. A one-inch Costa Rican bullet ant. As with many other arthropods bullet ants play a ceremonial role in some tribes of the rainforests. The Satere-Mawe people of Brazil use this ant in the right of passage of boys into manhood. In this case live bullet ants are woven into a sleeve made of leaves with the stingers pointing inward. Once the sleeve is place on the arm the goal is to leave it on for 10 minutes without crying due to the stings. When finished the boys arms are temporarily paralyzed and they may shake uncontrollably for days. To fully complete the initiation, however, the boys must go through this ordeal a total of 20 times over a several month period or years. Harvester Ants. These (Pogonomyrmex spp.) are commonly thought as the large red or black ants that form rather large nests in open fields, schoolyards, along railroad tracks, alleys or other similar situations. Of the 23 species that occur in the United States 22 occur west of the Mississippi River. Beside their large size and color these ants can be distinguished by fringes of long curved hairs on the back, underside margin of the head. These hairs are used to clean the ant’s antennae and legs, carry water and remove sand during excavation of their nests. The nests are typically quite large consisting of one or more holes surrounded by a low flat crater (up to 8 inches across). This crater in turn is surrounded by a rather large vegetation free area A black harvester ant. Harvester ants feed primarily on seed. In agricultural areas they are considered beneficial as they remove weed seeds from crops. The main reason they are found along railroad tracks is due the grain that is lost during transportation. Harvester ants readily sting but typically are not aggressive unless defending the nest. If disturbed they will swarm from the nest and readily sting. Their venom is extremely powerful resulting in considerable pain that may last for several days. Harvester ant venom is the most toxic venom found in arthropods although there is considerably less than in black widows and consequently the sting of the ant is much less dangerous than the bite of the spider. Fire Ants. There are many species of fire ants in the United States, but the most serious pests are 4 in the genus Solenopsis: the red imported fire ant, the black imported fire ant, the southern fire ant, and the fire ant. Distinguishing between imported and native species of fire ants is d

inutes without crying due to the stings. When finished the boys arms are temporarily paralyzed and they may shake uncontrollably for days. To fully complete the initiation, however, the boys must go through this ordeal a total of 20 times over a several month period or years. Harvester Ants. These (Pogonomyrmex spp.) are commonly thought as the large red or black ants that form rather large nests in open fields, schoolyards, along railroad tracks, alleys or other similar situations. Of the 23 species that occur in the United States 22 occur west of the Mississippi River. Beside their large size and color these ants can be distinguished by fringes of long curved hairs on the back, underside margin of the head. These hairs are used to clean the ant’s antennae and legs, carry water and remove sand during excavation of their nests. The nests are typically quite large consisting of one or more holes surrounded by a low flat crater (up to 8 inches across). This crater in turn is surrounded by a rather large vegetation free area A black harvester ant. Harvester ants feed primarily on seed. In agricultural areas they are considered beneficial as they remove weed seeds from crops. The main reason they are found along railroad tracks is due the grain that is lost during transportation. Harvester ants readily sting but typically are not aggressive unless defending the nest. If disturbed they will swarm from the nest and readily sting. Their venom is extremely powerful resulting in considerable pain that may last for several days. Harvester ant venom is the most toxic venom found in arthropods although there is considerably less than in black widows and consequently the sting of the ant is much less dangerous than the bite of the spider. Fire Ants. There are many species of fire ants in the United States, but the most serious pests are 4 in the genus Solenopsis: the red imported fire ant, the black imported fire ant, the southern fire ant, and the fire ant. Distinguishing between imported and native species of fire ants is difficult, even for experts. Identification usually requires 40 or more randomly collected worker ants for study. Black Imported Fire Ant. The black imported fire ant, Solenopsis richteri, is very similar to the red imported fire ant. Its current distribution is limited to a small area of northern Mississippi and Alabama. It may be displaced from established habitats by the red fire ant. Scientists have long thought that the black and red fire ants were 2 distinct species. Recently it has been discovered that hybrids of these ants produce viable offspring, and some scientists now wonder whether they are simply 2 races of the same species, varying in color and perhaps behavior. Southern Fire Ant. The southern fire ant, Solenopsis xyloni, is a native species that occurs from North Carolina south to northern Florida, along the Gulf Coast and west to California. In California it occurs in the lower altitudes from Southern California up through Sacramento but is seldom found along the coast in central to northern California. This is probably our most common native species of ant but its distribution is greatly retarded when the Argentine ant is present. However in areas where the Argentine ant is controlled, populations of this species rapidly return. Colonies may be observed as mounds or more commonly may be constructed under the cover of stones, boards, and other objects or at the base of plants. These ants also nest in wood or the masonry of houses, especially around heat sources such as fireplaces. Nests often consist of loose soil with many craters scattered over 2 to 4 square feet. In dry areas nests may be along streams, arroyos, and other shaded locations where soil moisture is high. Southern fire ants usually swarm in late spring or summer. The workers are very sensitive to vibrations or jarring. If their nest is stepped on they will rush out and sting the feet and legs of the intruder. Individual reaction to their venom is quite variable depending on allergic reaction. There is a least one case of a human inf

ifficult, even for experts. Identification usually requires 40 or more randomly collected worker ants for study. Black Imported Fire Ant. The black imported fire ant, Solenopsis richteri, is very similar to the red imported fire ant. Its current distribution is limited to a small area of northern Mississippi and Alabama. It may be displaced from established habitats by the red fire ant. Scientists have long thought that the black and red fire ants were 2 distinct species. Recently it has been discovered that hybrids of these ants produce viable offspring, and some scientists now wonder whether they are simply 2 races of the same species, varying in color and perhaps behavior. Southern Fire Ant. The southern fire ant, Solenopsis xyloni, is a native species that occurs from North Carolina south to northern Florida, along the Gulf Coast and west to California. In California it occurs in the lower altitudes from Southern California up through Sacramento but is seldom found along the coast in central to northern California. This is probably our most common native species of ant but its distribution is greatly retarded when the Argentine ant is present. However in areas where the Argentine ant is controlled, populations of this species rapidly return. Colonies may be observed as mounds or more commonly may be constructed under the cover of stones, boards, and other objects or at the base of plants. These ants also nest in wood or the masonry of houses, especially around heat sources such as fireplaces. Nests often consist of loose soil with many craters scattered over 2 to 4 square feet. In dry areas nests may be along streams, arroyos, and other shaded locations where soil moisture is high. Southern fire ants usually swarm in late spring or summer. The workers are very sensitive to vibrations or jarring. If their nest is stepped on they will rush out and sting the feet and legs of the intruder. Individual reaction to their venom is quite variable depending on allergic reaction. There is a least one case of a human infant death due to mass stinging of this species. This species is practically omnivorous feeding on a variety of materials including honeydew, meat, seeds, fruit, nuts, cereal and cereal products, grease and butter and dead and living insects. It can be quite detrimental to agriculture foraging for seeds from seed beds, girdling nursery stock, and consuming fruits and vegetables. In addition these ants will remove insulation from wiring and occasionally gnaws on a variety of fabrics. Fire Ant. The fire ant, Solenopsis geminata, is a native species sometimes called the tropical fire ant. It ranges from South Carolina to Florida and west to Texas. It is very similar to the southern fire ant except its head is much larger and the petiole node is higher and narrower. This species usually nests in mounds constructed around clumps of vegetation, but may also nest under objects or in rotting wood. Red Imported Fire Ant. The red and black imported fire ants were first reported in the United States in 1929. It is thought that they came to the port in some soil used as ballast in the bottom of a cargo ship. Since this introduction the black fire ant has not spread as rapidly as the red imported species. By 1953 (first official USDA survey) the red imported fire ant had spread to over 100 counties in 10 states. Today it is prevalent throughout the southeastern US and has moved into Texas, New Mexico. Arizona and California. Natural movement of fire ants is limited to mating flight or by rafting during period of flooding. However, the rapid movement of these species across the South and westward is mainly associated with human activity. In this case the initial spread of these ants in the southeastern US was thought to be due to movement of sod and potted ornamental plants. This inadvertent movement of S. invicta and S. richteri was noted by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1953 when a direct link was established between commercial plant nurseries and the spread of imported fire ants. In response to mounting public pressu

ant death due to mass stinging of this species. This species is practically omnivorous feeding on a variety of materials including honeydew, meat, seeds, fruit, nuts, cereal and cereal products, grease and butter and dead and living insects. It can be quite detrimental to agriculture foraging for seeds from seed beds, girdling nursery stock, and consuming fruits and vegetables. In addition these ants will remove insulation from wiring and occasionally gnaws on a variety of fabrics. Fire Ant. The fire ant, Solenopsis geminata, is a native species sometimes called the tropical fire ant. It ranges from South Carolina to Florida and west to Texas. It is very similar to the southern fire ant except its head is much larger and the petiole node is higher and narrower. This species usually nests in mounds constructed around clumps of vegetation, but may also nest under objects or in rotting wood. Red Imported Fire Ant. The red and black imported fire ants were first reported in the United States in 1929. It is thought that they came to the port in some soil used as ballast in the bottom of a cargo ship. Since this introduction the black fire ant has not spread as rapidly as the red imported species. By 1953 (first official USDA survey) the red imported fire ant had spread to over 100 counties in 10 states. Today it is prevalent throughout the southeastern US and has moved into Texas, New Mexico. Arizona and California. Natural movement of fire ants is limited to mating flight or by rafting during period of flooding. However, the rapid movement of these species across the South and westward is mainly associated with human activity. In this case the initial spread of these ants in the southeastern US was thought to be due to movement of sod and potted ornamental plants. This inadvertent movement of S. invicta and S. richteri was noted by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1953 when a direct link was established between commercial plant nurseries and the spread of imported fire ants. In response to mounting public pressure, the U.S. Congress appropriated $2.4 million in 1957 for control and eradication efforts. As part of an overall plan quarantine was imposed to retard or prevent the artificial dissemination of these now notorious pests. On May 6th 1958, regulations governing the movement of nursery stock, grass sod and some other items were instituted through the Federal Quarantine 301.81. By that time, however, imported fire ants had moved into 8 southern states. This spread, although slowed considerably by federal regulations and climatic conditions, continues even today. In recent years, isolated infestations of imported fire ants have been found as far west as New Mexico, Arizona California and as far north as Kansas and Maryland. In the case of California it is thought that the spread of these ants into this state was due to movement of bee hives as most initial infestations were found in around orchards and other situations where bees were moved into these areas for crop pollination. Based on USDA prediction these ants have a potential of even expanding the spread throughout much of the United States. Current and potential distribution of imported red fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA. Adult fire ants (Genus Solenopisis) are characterized by the presence of a ten-segmented antennae, two-segmented antennal club and two-segmented waste that joins the thorax to the abdomen which is typically darker than the rest of the body. Species identification is somewhat more difficult due to hybridization between the 2 "native" species as well as between the 2 imported species. Diagram of diagnostic characteristics of red imported fire ant. A mature colony of fire ants typically consists of 4 main stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adults. Since these are true social insect there is a caste system with different shaped and sized adults that carry out different function within the colony. These adult forms include the polymorphic workers, winged males, winged females and one or more reproductive queens. The egg, larval, and pupal stages (Fig

re, the U.S. Congress appropriated $2.4 million in 1957 for control and eradication efforts. As part of an overall plan quarantine was imposed to retard or prevent the artificial dissemination of these now notorious pests. On May 6th 1958, regulations governing the movement of nursery stock, grass sod and some other items were instituted through the Federal Quarantine 301.81. By that time, however, imported fire ants had moved into 8 southern states. This spread, although slowed considerably by federal regulations and climatic conditions, continues even today. In recent years, isolated infestations of imported fire ants have been found as far west as New Mexico, Arizona California and as far north as Kansas and Maryland. In the case of California it is thought that the spread of these ants into this state was due to movement of bee hives as most initial infestations were found in around orchards and other situations where bees were moved into these areas for crop pollination. Based on USDA prediction these ants have a potential of even expanding the spread throughout much of the United States. Current and potential distribution of imported red fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA. Adult fire ants (Genus Solenopisis) are characterized by the presence of a ten-segmented antennae, two-segmented antennal club and two-segmented waste that joins the thorax to the abdomen which is typically darker than the rest of the body. Species identification is somewhat more difficult due to hybridization between the 2 "native" species as well as between the 2 imported species. Diagram of diagnostic characteristics of red imported fire ant. A mature colony of fire ants typically consists of 4 main stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adults. Since these are true social insect there is a caste system with different shaped and sized adults that carry out different function within the colony. These adult forms include the polymorphic workers, winged males, winged females and one or more reproductive queens. The egg, larval, and pupal stages (Figure 3) occur within the underground nest and are only seen when nests are disturbed or when they are being carried to a different location by workers (Figure 4). The eggs are small but can be seen with the unaided eye. They hatch into the grub-like legless larvae that are fed by the workers. Ant larvae in general are legless, carrot shaped with a well-developed unpigmented head capsule and are typically hooked at the head end. The larvae will grow and molt (shed their exoskeleton) 3 times prior to molting into the pupae, which are similar in appearance to the adults except that their legs and antennae are held tightly against the body. As with the larvae the pupae lack pigmentation, especially in the early instars. As they mature they begin to turn darker. As discussed in honeybees, the function of the polymorphic workers is determined primarily by age (and to a much lesser degree by size). Younger workers typically care for and feed the brood while middle-aged workers maintain and protect the colony. The oldest workers forage for food. Figure 3. Egg, larval and pupal stage of fire ants. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. Figure 4. Worker fire ants carrying larva for relocation. Image courtesy of USDA, Calif. Dept Agriculture. The alates, or winged reproductives (Figure 5), are most abundant in the late spring and early summer, but can be found at any time of the year. The males are decidedly smaller than the females, glossy black and have a smaller head. Although both winged males and females can be found in the same colony, as a general rule one form will be dominant. It is possible that this functions to increase the chances of one sex mating with another from a different colony. Most colonies in a given area typically swarm on nuptial flights at the same time. This benefits the species and insures mixing of the gene pool. It is well-documented that inbreeding is generally detrimental to a given species. Figure 5. A winged reproductive of the red imported fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. Mating flights

ure 3) occur within the underground nest and are only seen when nests are disturbed or when they are being carried to a different location by workers (Figure 4). The eggs are small but can be seen with the unaided eye. They hatch into the grub-like legless larvae that are fed by the workers. Ant larvae in general are legless, carrot shaped with a well-developed unpigmented head capsule and are typically hooked at the head end. The larvae will grow and molt (shed their exoskeleton) 3 times prior to molting into the pupae, which are similar in appearance to the adults except that their legs and antennae are held tightly against the body. As with the larvae the pupae lack pigmentation, especially in the early instars. As they mature they begin to turn darker. As discussed in honeybees, the function of the polymorphic workers is determined primarily by age (and to a much lesser degree by size). Younger workers typically care for and feed the brood while middle-aged workers maintain and protect the colony. The oldest workers forage for food. Figure 3. Egg, larval and pupal stage of fire ants. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. Figure 4. Worker fire ants carrying larva for relocation. Image courtesy of USDA, Calif. Dept Agriculture. The alates, or winged reproductives (Figure 5), are most abundant in the late spring and early summer, but can be found at any time of the year. The males are decidedly smaller than the females, glossy black and have a smaller head. Although both winged males and females can be found in the same colony, as a general rule one form will be dominant. It is possible that this functions to increase the chances of one sex mating with another from a different colony. Most colonies in a given area typically swarm on nuptial flights at the same time. This benefits the species and insures mixing of the gene pool. It is well-documented that inbreeding is generally detrimental to a given species. Figure 5. A winged reproductive of the red imported fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. Mating flights most often occur at mid-morning 1 or 2 days following a rainfall if the temperature is above 22°C and the wind is light. At this time a virgin female flies into a cloud of congregating males and mates in the air. The male subsequently dies while the female seeks a location to start a new colony. Once located, she breaks off her wings and excavates a brood chamber approximately 1 to 2 inches below ground. The new queen subsequently deposits a few dozen eggs which hatch in a little over a week. The queen does not forage but feeds the first generation of larvae from nutrients obtained from her fat reserves and by dissolving her no longer needed wing muscles. The larvae obtain the nutrients by trophollaxisis (exchange of alimentary fluids) or from sterile eggs she has produced for that purpose. The entire life cycle is completed in 3 to 4 weeks. The initial generation of adult worker (minims) are relatively small due to a limited amount of nutrients available from the queen. Once developed these worker open up the brood chamber and begin to forage for available food. Soon another generation of larger adult workers has developed and the colony begins to grow. Workers start to emerge daily and within 6 months the colony population approaches several thousand and an above ground mound is visible. The polymorphic (poly in Latin means many and morph means form) nature of the worker becomes more apparent. The largest workers in the colony (majors) can be as much as 10 times the size of the smallest workers (media). The queen lives up to 7 years and produces an average of 1600 eggs per day. At maturity, a monogynous (one queen) fire ant colony can consist of over 250,000 ants. As discussed above some fire ant colonies have only one queen per nest while others can have many queens and are called polygynous colonies. The polygynous colony may be more difficult to control because all the queens must be killed to prevent the colony from surviving. Polygynous colonies frequently expand by "budding"; i.e., some of the queens and

most often occur at mid-morning 1 or 2 days following a rainfall if the temperature is above 22°C and the wind is light. At this time a virgin female flies into a cloud of congregating males and mates in the air. The male subsequently dies while the female seeks a location to start a new colony. Once located, she breaks off her wings and excavates a brood chamber approximately 1 to 2 inches below ground. The new queen subsequently deposits a few dozen eggs which hatch in a little over a week. The queen does not forage but feeds the first generation of larvae from nutrients obtained from her fat reserves and by dissolving her no longer needed wing muscles. The larvae obtain the nutrients by trophollaxisis (exchange of alimentary fluids) or from sterile eggs she has produced for that purpose. The entire life cycle is completed in 3 to 4 weeks. The initial generation of adult worker (minims) are relatively small due to a limited amount of nutrients available from the queen. Once developed these worker open up the brood chamber and begin to forage for available food. Soon another generation of larger adult workers has developed and the colony begins to grow. Workers start to emerge daily and within 6 months the colony population approaches several thousand and an above ground mound is visible. The polymorphic (poly in Latin means many and morph means form) nature of the worker becomes more apparent. The largest workers in the colony (majors) can be as much as 10 times the size of the smallest workers (media). The queen lives up to 7 years and produces an average of 1600 eggs per day. At maturity, a monogynous (one queen) fire ant colony can consist of over 250,000 ants. As discussed above some fire ant colonies have only one queen per nest while others can have many queens and are called polygynous colonies. The polygynous colony may be more difficult to control because all the queens must be killed to prevent the colony from surviving. Polygynous colonies frequently expand by "budding"; i.e., some of the queens and workers break off from the parent colony and start a new mound nearby. This process in polygynous colonies can accounts for much higher mound density which sometimes approaching 1,000 mounds per acre. Different sized worker adults. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. One of the identifying characteristics of an imported red fire ant colony is the earthen nest or mound. This mound is a cone-shaped dome with a hard crust. They averages 1 ½ feet in diameter and 8-inches in height. In heavy clay soils they can exceed 3-feet in height and 4 1/2 feet diameter. There are usually no external openings in the mound; but tunnels a few inches below the surface tunnels radiate several feet from the mound allowing foraging workers access to the colony. These mounds serves several functions: They act as a flight platform for nuptial flights and to raise the colony above ground in excessively wet soil while protecting it above ground from intruders and rain. They also serve as a passive solar collector to supply warmth to the colony during the cold winter months. Mound of red imported fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. In areas with hot, dry summers these mounds may not be maintained or may not be formed at all. In a dark, protected site with sufficient moisture and an adequate supply of food, fire ants will nest in a wide variety of locations (e.g. rotten logs, walls of buildings, under sidewalks and roads, in automobiles, in dried cow manure). Fire ants are omnivorous, feeding on almost any plant or animal material; although dead and living insects seem to be their preferred food. In rural habitats, they have a major impact on ground nesting animals (birds, reptiles, mammals). Studies have shown that once established in a new area there is typically a minimum of a two-fold reduction in the populations of field mice, snakes, turtles and other vertebrates and a maximum of a total elimination of some species. Fire ants also feed on plants attacking young saplings and seedlings, destroying buds and developing fruits and have

workers break off from the parent colony and start a new mound nearby. This process in polygynous colonies can accounts for much higher mound density which sometimes approaching 1,000 mounds per acre. Different sized worker adults. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. One of the identifying characteristics of an imported red fire ant colony is the earthen nest or mound. This mound is a cone-shaped dome with a hard crust. They averages 1 ½ feet in diameter and 8-inches in height. In heavy clay soils they can exceed 3-feet in height and 4 1/2 feet diameter. There are usually no external openings in the mound; but tunnels a few inches below the surface tunnels radiate several feet from the mound allowing foraging workers access to the colony. These mounds serves several functions: They act as a flight platform for nuptial flights and to raise the colony above ground in excessively wet soil while protecting it above ground from intruders and rain. They also serve as a passive solar collector to supply warmth to the colony during the cold winter months. Mound of red imported fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. In areas with hot, dry summers these mounds may not be maintained or may not be formed at all. In a dark, protected site with sufficient moisture and an adequate supply of food, fire ants will nest in a wide variety of locations (e.g. rotten logs, walls of buildings, under sidewalks and roads, in automobiles, in dried cow manure). Fire ants are omnivorous, feeding on almost any plant or animal material; although dead and living insects seem to be their preferred food. In rural habitats, they have a major impact on ground nesting animals (birds, reptiles, mammals). Studies have shown that once established in a new area there is typically a minimum of a two-fold reduction in the populations of field mice, snakes, turtles and other vertebrates and a maximum of a total elimination of some species. Fire ants also feed on plants attacking young saplings and seedlings, destroying buds and developing fruits and have been shown to feed on the seeds of over a hundred species of native wildflowers and grasses. Damage to plants is increased during periods of drought as fire ants seek alternate water sources. In fields where drip irrigation is used, these insects build their mounds over the emitters reducing or blocking the flow of water to crops. In some cases, actual physical destruction of microsprinkler assemblies has occurred. Finally, the mere presence of fire ants on plants and within the field will deter hand-harvesting of crops. As an urban pest, imported fire ants cause many of the same problems experienced in rural areas. In addition they nest within the walls of homes and offices. Colonies are established under sidewalks and roadways frequently resulting in complete collapse of sections of these structures if the nests are eventually abandoned. The presence of fire ants can deter outdoor activities in yards, parks and school grounds. Home invasions can threaten small children and the elderly. House invasions are especially prevalent during periods of heavy precipitation and flooding. Fire ant colonies have been found inside automobiles, trucks and recreation vehicles resulting in traffic accidents caused by fire ants stinging the drivers. Imported fire ants are attracted by electrical currents and have caused considerable damage to heat pumps, air conditioners, telephone junction boxes, transformers, traffic lights, and gasoline pumps. Because of their reputation people fear fire ants. In some areas playgrounds, parks, and picnic areas are rarely used because of the presence of fire ants. In campsites of state and national parks in fire ant infested areas, it is often difficult to put up or take down a tent without being stung by angry ants. Stings. Fire ants are best known for their behavior of stinging, frequently in mass. If a nest is disturbed hundreds if not thousands of ants will quickly emerge and attack the intruder. This occurs so quickly and in mass that is not uncommon to have hundreds on the victim before

been shown to feed on the seeds of over a hundred species of native wildflowers and grasses. Damage to plants is increased during periods of drought as fire ants seek alternate water sources. In fields where drip irrigation is used, these insects build their mounds over the emitters reducing or blocking the flow of water to crops. In some cases, actual physical destruction of microsprinkler assemblies has occurred. Finally, the mere presence of fire ants on plants and within the field will deter hand-harvesting of crops. As an urban pest, imported fire ants cause many of the same problems experienced in rural areas. In addition they nest within the walls of homes and offices. Colonies are established under sidewalks and roadways frequently resulting in complete collapse of sections of these structures if the nests are eventually abandoned. The presence of fire ants can deter outdoor activities in yards, parks and school grounds. Home invasions can threaten small children and the elderly. House invasions are especially prevalent during periods of heavy precipitation and flooding. Fire ant colonies have been found inside automobiles, trucks and recreation vehicles resulting in traffic accidents caused by fire ants stinging the drivers. Imported fire ants are attracted by electrical currents and have caused considerable damage to heat pumps, air conditioners, telephone junction boxes, transformers, traffic lights, and gasoline pumps. Because of their reputation people fear fire ants. In some areas playgrounds, parks, and picnic areas are rarely used because of the presence of fire ants. In campsites of state and national parks in fire ant infested areas, it is often difficult to put up or take down a tent without being stung by angry ants. Stings. Fire ants are best known for their behavior of stinging, frequently in mass. If a nest is disturbed hundreds if not thousands of ants will quickly emerge and attack the intruder. This occurs so quickly and in mass that is not uncommon to have hundreds on the victim before the first sting is felt. To make matters even worse a single fire ant can sting repeatedly and will continue to do so even after their venom sac has been depleted. Once reaching the victim the ant will typically attach with its mandibles to the skin and then insert its stinger. Subsequently it will rotate it abdomen and repeatedly sting using the attached head as a pivot. The result is a circle of several stings from the same ant. Initially, the sting(s) result in a localized intense burning sensation (hence the name "fire" ant). Within a day or two a white pustule forms at the sting site (Figure 8). Pustule formation occurs only with the red and black imported fire ant and not the southern fire ant or fire ant. There is a possibility of secondary infection and scarring if the wounds are not kept clean or if they are continually picked at or scratched (Figure 9). As with any other hymenopterous stings, there are a few individuals who are hypersensitive to the venom and can react quite strongly and be severely affected. Symptoms in these cases can include chest pains, nausea, dizziness, shock or, in rare cases, lapsing into coma. In cases of an allergic reaction, even a single sting can lead to a potentially serious condition called anaphylactic shock. There are recorded cases of human death resulting from fire ant stings but these are rare. Pustular formation for sting of red imported fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. Figure 9. Secondary infection of sting from red imported fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. Individuals with disabilities, reduced feeling in their feet and legs or reduced mobility, are at greater risk from serious stinging incidents and the incidence of resulting medical problems may be even greater. Large numbers of ants can sting and even overcome victims before they can safely escape. There was a recent case where fire ants entered a room of an elderly gentleman in a retirement hospital and basically stung him to death. In his case he was unable to escape their attack. Individ

the first sting is felt. To make matters even worse a single fire ant can sting repeatedly and will continue to do so even after their venom sac has been depleted. Once reaching the victim the ant will typically attach with its mandibles to the skin and then insert its stinger. Subsequently it will rotate it abdomen and repeatedly sting using the attached head as a pivot. The result is a circle of several stings from the same ant. Initially, the sting(s) result in a localized intense burning sensation (hence the name "fire" ant). Within a day or two a white pustule forms at the sting site (Figure 8). Pustule formation occurs only with the red and black imported fire ant and not the southern fire ant or fire ant. There is a possibility of secondary infection and scarring if the wounds are not kept clean or if they are continually picked at or scratched (Figure 9). As with any other hymenopterous stings, there are a few individuals who are hypersensitive to the venom and can react quite strongly and be severely affected. Symptoms in these cases can include chest pains, nausea, dizziness, shock or, in rare cases, lapsing into coma. In cases of an allergic reaction, even a single sting can lead to a potentially serious condition called anaphylactic shock. There are recorded cases of human death resulting from fire ant stings but these are rare. Pustular formation for sting of red imported fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. Figure 9. Secondary infection of sting from red imported fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. Individuals with disabilities, reduced feeling in their feet and legs or reduced mobility, are at greater risk from serious stinging incidents and the incidence of resulting medical problems may be even greater. Large numbers of ants can sting and even overcome victims before they can safely escape. There was a recent case where fire ants entered a room of an elderly gentleman in a retirement hospital and basically stung him to death. In his case he was unable to escape their attack. Individuals who are known to be allergic to fire ant stings should seek professional advice from a physician or allergist, especially if they are in situations where they might be exposed to these pests. There are emergency treatment kits that are available (by prescription) for individuals who are sensitive to their sting. Fortunately, relatively few deaths from fire ant stings have been documented, especially when compared to deaths from bee and wasp stings. Victims stung to death by fire ants often were not able to escape, sustained large numbers of stings, and suffered allergic reactions to the venom. There are basically two methods of fire ant control, namely individual mound treatment and broadcast treatment. Before attempting either, it is advisable to check with regulatory agencies as the availability and use of different chemicals for either method may vary from state to state. In addition, in many cases free control by state governmental agencies of these pests is available. Individual Mound Treatments. Treating individual fire ant mounds can be time consuming, but it is generally the most effective method of control. Once treated it will take anywhere from a few hours to a few weeks before total elimination of a colony depending on the product used, time of the year and size of the mound. Treatment is usually most effective in the spring with the key being to treat all the mounds in the area. If control is not complete, reinfestation of an area can take place in less than a year. There are several different methods that can be used to treat individual mounds. Insecticides-One of the more commonly used methods is drenching mounds with a high volume of diluted contact pesticide. As with any treatment, it is extremely important to follow label directions not only to attain maximum effect, but to maximize safety of the application and avoid potential illegal consequences. In most cases the mounds and surrounding areas are wetted thoroughly but gently with the drench. Subsequently the mound is broken open and the

uals who are known to be allergic to fire ant stings should seek professional advice from a physician or allergist, especially if they are in situations where they might be exposed to these pests. There are emergency treatment kits that are available (by prescription) for individuals who are sensitive to their sting. Fortunately, relatively few deaths from fire ant stings have been documented, especially when compared to deaths from bee and wasp stings. Victims stung to death by fire ants often were not able to escape, sustained large numbers of stings, and suffered allergic reactions to the venom. There are basically two methods of fire ant control, namely individual mound treatment and broadcast treatment. Before attempting either, it is advisable to check with regulatory agencies as the availability and use of different chemicals for either method may vary from state to state. In addition, in many cases free control by state governmental agencies of these pests is available. Individual Mound Treatments. Treating individual fire ant mounds can be time consuming, but it is generally the most effective method of control. Once treated it will take anywhere from a few hours to a few weeks before total elimination of a colony depending on the product used, time of the year and size of the mound. Treatment is usually most effective in the spring with the key being to treat all the mounds in the area. If control is not complete, reinfestation of an area can take place in less than a year. There are several different methods that can be used to treat individual mounds. Insecticides-One of the more commonly used methods is drenching mounds with a high volume of diluted contact pesticide. As with any treatment, it is extremely important to follow label directions not only to attain maximum effect, but to maximize safety of the application and avoid potential illegal consequences. In most cases the mounds and surrounding areas are wetted thoroughly but gently with the drench. Subsequently the mound is broken open and the insecticide is poured directly into the tunnels. Mound drenches are most effective after rains when the ground is wet and the ants have moved up into the drier soil in the mound. During excessively dry weather, effectiveness of the treatment may be enhanced by soaking the soil around the mound with water before treatment. One problem with this technique is that the queen may be too deep to be reached with the drench. This may be especially true if the colony is disturbed prior to an application. In this case the workers may move the queen deeper into the colony in order to avoid a potential threat. Granular formulations are also available for individual mound treatment. In this case once the recommend dose is applied to the mound it should be watered thoroughly in order to reach the worker ants and queen that occur deeper in the colony. The dissolved granules must come into direct contact with the ants to have any effect. As in mound drenches, care must be taken not to disturb the colony prior to application. A few insecticides are marketed as injectants. In this case they may be injected using a "termite rig" with a soil injector tip, a standard 1-3 gallon compressed air sprayer with a fire ant injector tip, or a special aerosol soil injector system. The mound is injected in a circular pattern, usually at 3 to 10 points. A new product combines insecticide treatment with high temperature vapors to increase Fumigants are readily available in most states for fire ant control. These are usually more effective than surface applications or mound drenches but are also more expensive and can be dangerous if not handled properly. Depending on the state a number of fire ant baits are available. These can be used for treating individual mounds or for broadcast treatment of larger areas. The bait should be uniformly applied around the mound 0.3 to 1.0 meters away and not on the mound itself. Baits are much slower acting than the control methods listed above but are generally safer, cheaper and more effective in the long run

insecticide is poured directly into the tunnels. Mound drenches are most effective after rains when the ground is wet and the ants have moved up into the drier soil in the mound. During excessively dry weather, effectiveness of the treatment may be enhanced by soaking the soil around the mound with water before treatment. One problem with this technique is that the queen may be too deep to be reached with the drench. This may be especially true if the colony is disturbed prior to an application. In this case the workers may move the queen deeper into the colony in order to avoid a potential threat. Granular formulations are also available for individual mound treatment. In this case once the recommend dose is applied to the mound it should be watered thoroughly in order to reach the worker ants and queen that occur deeper in the colony. The dissolved granules must come into direct contact with the ants to have any effect. As in mound drenches, care must be taken not to disturb the colony prior to application. A few insecticides are marketed as injectants. In this case they may be injected using a "termite rig" with a soil injector tip, a standard 1-3 gallon compressed air sprayer with a fire ant injector tip, or a special aerosol soil injector system. The mound is injected in a circular pattern, usually at 3 to 10 points. A new product combines insecticide treatment with high temperature vapors to increase Fumigants are readily available in most states for fire ant control. These are usually more effective than surface applications or mound drenches but are also more expensive and can be dangerous if not handled properly. Depending on the state a number of fire ant baits are available. These can be used for treating individual mounds or for broadcast treatment of larger areas. The bait should be uniformly applied around the mound 0.3 to 1.0 meters away and not on the mound itself. Baits are much slower acting than the control methods listed above but are generally safer, cheaper and more effective in the long run. Water - The use of boiling water has been examined on several different occasions resulting in varying degrees of success. In one experiment over a 50% of treated mound were eliminated by pouring approximately 3 gallon of hot water directly into the mound. The use of steam produced by a steam generator produced similar results. Regardless both techniques are far less effective the use of drenches, fumigants, granular formulation or baits are cumbersome in the field are not practical when dealing with large populations of these pests. Area wide flooding with water has not proven to be effective, impractical in most situations and can led to spreading of the population due to the rafting ability of these insects. Broadcast Treatments - A number of fire ant baits (Figure 10) are commercially available for broadcast treatments (again depending on the state). Baits are composed of an inert carrier-attractant (corn carrier and soybean oil) and toxicant. The active ingredient (either a slow-acting insecticide or an insect growth regulator) is incorporated into the oil. These baits can be applied either by a hand operated granular fertilizer spreader or larger equipment. Once foragers find bait they carry it back to the nest, ingest it and begin feeding other ants in the nest. Because the active ingredients are slow acting, they are spread around the nest before the desired effect. This formulation and means of application has a number of advantages. Unlike individual mound treatments, colonies need not be "located" in order for them to be treated and as a result this method is less time intensive and consequently less expensive than individual mound treatments. On the other hand broad cast treatment has the potential of affecting non-target organisms. It is also slow acting and the effectiveness of the bait is greatly reduced when they come in contact with water from rain, irrigation or other sources. Finally baits are only effective during those times of the year or temperatures when the ants are readily foraging. Ge

. Water - The use of boiling water has been examined on several different occasions resulting in varying degrees of success. In one experiment over a 50% of treated mound were eliminated by pouring approximately 3 gallon of hot water directly into the mound. The use of steam produced by a steam generator produced similar results. Regardless both techniques are far less effective the use of drenches, fumigants, granular formulation or baits are cumbersome in the field are not practical when dealing with large populations of these pests. Area wide flooding with water has not proven to be effective, impractical in most situations and can led to spreading of the population due to the rafting ability of these insects. Broadcast Treatments - A number of fire ant baits (Figure 10) are commercially available for broadcast treatments (again depending on the state). Baits are composed of an inert carrier-attractant (corn carrier and soybean oil) and toxicant. The active ingredient (either a slow-acting insecticide or an insect growth regulator) is incorporated into the oil. These baits can be applied either by a hand operated granular fertilizer spreader or larger equipment. Once foragers find bait they carry it back to the nest, ingest it and begin feeding other ants in the nest. Because the active ingredients are slow acting, they are spread around the nest before the desired effect. This formulation and means of application has a number of advantages. Unlike individual mound treatments, colonies need not be "located" in order for them to be treated and as a result this method is less time intensive and consequently less expensive than individual mound treatments. On the other hand broad cast treatment has the potential of affecting non-target organisms. It is also slow acting and the effectiveness of the bait is greatly reduced when they come in contact with water from rain, irrigation or other sources. Finally baits are only effective during those times of the year or temperatures when the ants are readily foraging. Generally speaking it is advisable to only use this type of treatment in areas where there is little or no human traffic. If broadcast treatment is used in such an area, a good choice is growth regulator bait, which poses much less risks to non-target species. For example, fenoxycarb bait has been shown to be very effective for suppression of fire ant populations when applied in one application over a wide area. Figure 10. A corn- based bait used for control of the red imported fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. Figure 11. A tractor driven granular applicator. Image courtesy of USDA Archives.

nerally speaking it is advisable to only use this type of treatment in areas where there is little or no human traffic. If broadcast treatment is used in such an area, a good choice is growth regulator bait, which poses much less risks to non-target species. For example, fenoxycarb bait has been shown to be very effective for suppression of fire ant populations when applied in one application over a wide area. Figure 10. A corn- based bait used for control of the red imported fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. Figure 11. A tractor driven granular applicator. Image courtesy of USDA Archives.

Individually stereotyped vocalizations often play an important role in relocation of offspring in gregarious breeders. In phocids, mothers often alternate between foraging at sea and attending their pup. Pup calls are individually distinctive in various phocid species. However, experimental evidence for maternal recognition is rare. In this study, we recorded Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddellii) pup vocalizations at two whelping patches in Atka Bay, Antarctica, and explored individual vocal variation based on eight vocal parameters. Overall, 58% of calls were correctly classified according to individual. For males (n = 12) and females (n = 9), respectively, nine and seven individuals were correctly identified based on vocal parameters. To investigate whether mothers respond differently to calls of familiar vs. unfamiliar pups, we conducted playback experiments with 21 mothers. Maternal responses did not differ between playbacks of own, familiar, and unfamiliar pup calls. We suggest that Weddell seal pup calls may need to contain only a critical amount of individually distinct information because mothers and pups use a combination of sensory modalities for identification. However, it cannot be excluded that pup developmental factors and differing environmental factors between colonies affect pup acoustic behavior and the role of acoustic cues in the relocation process.

- air raid (n.) - 1914, from air (n.1) + raid (n.); originally in reference to British attacks Sept. 22, 1914, on Zeppelin bases at Cologne and Düsseldorf in World War I. The German word is Fliegerangriff "aviator-attack," and if Old English had survived into the 20th century our word instead might be fleogendeongrype. One didn't dare to inhale for fear of breathing it in. It was the sound of eighteen hundred airplanes approaching Hamburg from the south at an unimaginable height. We had already experienced two hundred or even more air raids, among them some very heavy ones, but this was something completely new. And yet there was an immediate recognition: this was what everyone had been waiting for, what had hung for months like a shadow over everything we did, making us weary. It was the end. [Hans Erich Nossack, "Der Untergang," 1942]

Woman's Education According to Rousseau and Wollstonecraft "Give, without scruples, a woman's education to women, see to it that they love the cares of their sex, that they possess modesty, that they know how to grow old in their m�nage and keep busy in their house." Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile "The neglected education of my fellow-creatures is the grand source of the misery I deplore." Mary Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Women The salons of Jean Jacques Rousseau's day greatly admired his theories, including his advocation of breast-feeding and his concept of natural education. Today he has enormous influence on accepted educational doctrines. Rousseau describes his methods in Emile, the story of a boy's upbringing in natural state. Admiring his sentiment, Mary Wollstonecraft applauded Rousseau's scheme for Emile but deplored the neglect of Emile's perfect wife, Sophie. Her disappointment in Rousseau was a main influence on Wollstonecraft's best-known work, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Rousseau outlines his theories for the ideal education for women in Chapter V of Emile written between 1757 and 1761. These so contradict his plan for Emile that it becomes necessary to place them in the framework of his time and the particular prejudices of Rousseau. Certainly he broke no ground regarding the topic of women. Nearly a hundred years before Emile, Mrs. Makin published An Essay to Revive the Ancient Education of Gentlewomen. In her Serious Proposal to Ladies of 1694, Mary Astell advocated a convent where serious-minded women might retire for study and contemplation. In his Essay on Projects , Daniel Defoe suggests an academy for women where they might study whatever they chose. He observes as early as 1697, "We reproach the sex every day with folly and impertinence, while I am confident, had they the advantages of education equal to us, they would be guilty of less than ourselves."1 As women and their education were very popular topics among the frequenters of the salons, Rousseau was often drawn into their discussions as a consultant. After publication Rousseau realized some recognition as a spokesman for the rights of people, although there was a decided rise in the intensity of demands for recognition of women's state.2 Rousseau describes his passionate feelings for several women in his life in his Confessions, the first of which was the strange feelings he had as a boy when Mademoiselle Lambercier punished him. "Who would have believed that the chastisement I received at eight from a thirty-year-old girl would have determined my tastes, desires, and passions for the rest of my life?"3 Having left Protestant Switzerland for Catholic France, Rousseau began to meet the women who would support and influence his work for the rest of his life. One of his first encounters was with Madame de Warens, whom he referred to as maman, also a convert to Catholicism and an escapee from Geneva. Because of her support he was able to take part in knowledgeable conversations, philosophical discussions, and intellectual pursuits. From her privileged position he was able to observe with fraternal pity the people whose fate he might have shared. At the age of thirty, Rousseau left Madame de Warens' residence. He wished to be accepted in the intellectual circles of the salons, and to gain entrance to the Academie des Sciences. He succeeded at the Academie but failed to be accepted socially at the salons. One of his sponsors, P�re Castel, advised, "Since musicians and servants will not sing together with you, change your tactics, and try the women."4 He took this advice and made the acquaintance of several intelligent and influential women. According to Claude Fervel in Jean Jacques Rousseau et les femmes, Rousseau's feelings of inferiority among these women induced his unnatural attachment to a twenty-three year old servant girl, Th�r�se Levasseur. "She is so limited," says Hume, "that she knows neither the year, the month, nor the day of the week; she is unaware of the value of money and in spite of all that, she has o

rawn into their discussions as a consultant. After publication Rousseau realized some recognition as a spokesman for the rights of people, although there was a decided rise in the intensity of demands for recognition of women's state.2 Rousseau describes his passionate feelings for several women in his life in his Confessions, the first of which was the strange feelings he had as a boy when Mademoiselle Lambercier punished him. "Who would have believed that the chastisement I received at eight from a thirty-year-old girl would have determined my tastes, desires, and passions for the rest of my life?"3 Having left Protestant Switzerland for Catholic France, Rousseau began to meet the women who would support and influence his work for the rest of his life. One of his first encounters was with Madame de Warens, whom he referred to as maman, also a convert to Catholicism and an escapee from Geneva. Because of her support he was able to take part in knowledgeable conversations, philosophical discussions, and intellectual pursuits. From her privileged position he was able to observe with fraternal pity the people whose fate he might have shared. At the age of thirty, Rousseau left Madame de Warens' residence. He wished to be accepted in the intellectual circles of the salons, and to gain entrance to the Academie des Sciences. He succeeded at the Academie but failed to be accepted socially at the salons. One of his sponsors, P�re Castel, advised, "Since musicians and servants will not sing together with you, change your tactics, and try the women."4 He took this advice and made the acquaintance of several intelligent and influential women. According to Claude Fervel in Jean Jacques Rousseau et les femmes, Rousseau's feelings of inferiority among these women induced his unnatural attachment to a twenty-three year old servant girl, Th�r�se Levasseur. "She is so limited," says Hume, "that she knows neither the year, the month, nor the day of the week; she is unaware of the value of money and in spite of all that, she has on Jean Jacques the empire of a nurse over her charge."5 Certainly Levasseur had some influence in Rousseau's concept of the ideal woman. Rousseau primarily claimed that "[n]ature has created man happy and good, but society depraves him and makes him miserable."6 In the eighteenth century, morality took on a new meaning founded on the natural goodness of man. Happiness became a right supplanting the idea of duty. Sensual delights were natural and therefore rational. All of Rousseau's educational theories derive from his attempt to preserve nature's pure state. His concept of negative education allowed a child to discover for himself and to be punished by the nature he sought to defy. The tutor must not try to reason with the child or show authority. Books would not be forced on the child; at twelve Emile would hardly know what to do with a book. Positive education, or direct instruction, would only begin at approximately the age of adulthood, and then the studies would be based on the student's natural curiosity. Rousseau stressed utility, the need for teaching things with practical applications. This concept of negative education as applicable to women was totally inconceivable to Rousseau. He viewed women's options as entirely limited to the roles of wife and mother. What need would there be to allow her to determine for herself when nature had already physiologically dictated her destiny? His scheme for Emile was radical; his scheme for Sophie was not radical enough. Rousseau demanded a reversion to primitivism in the education of women, offering minimal vocational training while insisting on her inability to reason and her inferiority to man. "A woman's education must be planned in relation to man".[S]he will always be in subjection to a man"and she will never be free to set her own opinion above his."7 He stresses freedom of movement and physical exertion for Emile, asserting that weak bodies contain weak minds. At the same time he discourages Sophie from too much physical activity and uses her weakness as an

n Jean Jacques the empire of a nurse over her charge."5 Certainly Levasseur had some influence in Rousseau's concept of the ideal woman. Rousseau primarily claimed that "[n]ature has created man happy and good, but society depraves him and makes him miserable."6 In the eighteenth century, morality took on a new meaning founded on the natural goodness of man. Happiness became a right supplanting the idea of duty. Sensual delights were natural and therefore rational. All of Rousseau's educational theories derive from his attempt to preserve nature's pure state. His concept of negative education allowed a child to discover for himself and to be punished by the nature he sought to defy. The tutor must not try to reason with the child or show authority. Books would not be forced on the child; at twelve Emile would hardly know what to do with a book. Positive education, or direct instruction, would only begin at approximately the age of adulthood, and then the studies would be based on the student's natural curiosity. Rousseau stressed utility, the need for teaching things with practical applications. This concept of negative education as applicable to women was totally inconceivable to Rousseau. He viewed women's options as entirely limited to the roles of wife and mother. What need would there be to allow her to determine for herself when nature had already physiologically dictated her destiny? His scheme for Emile was radical; his scheme for Sophie was not radical enough. Rousseau demanded a reversion to primitivism in the education of women, offering minimal vocational training while insisting on her inability to reason and her inferiority to man. "A woman's education must be planned in relation to man".[S]he will always be in subjection to a man"and she will never be free to set her own opinion above his."7 He stresses freedom of movement and physical exertion for Emile, asserting that weak bodies contain weak minds. At the same time he discourages Sophie from too much physical activity and uses her weakness as another proof of her inferiority. "The object of that cultivation is different. In the one sex it is the development of corporeal powers; in the other, that of personal charms," Rousseau asserts.8 Emile is not instructed in religious matters until he reaches adulthood. He has a natural sense of morality "from reason tempered by the heart."9 Presumably woman cannot reason, so she cannot maintain a state of morality, and must be guarded by men throughout her life. Rousseau proposes that Sophie must be made to love virtue, although she will never understand theological rationale for living uprightly. She must be made to feel subject to society's opinions of her. In fact, Sophie fails at this. In the fragmentary sequel to Emile, Les Solitaires, Rousseau tells of the infidelity of Sophie who had been "educated" to be Emile's ideal wife. Mary Wollstonecraft makes no mention of this book and probably never read it, but she would make the right assumptions about the likelihood of Sophie's fidelity. Helen Misenheimer points out in Rousseau on the Education of Women that Rousseau leaves off the sexual education of Emile in describing Sophie. In fact, she is his sexual identity. Rousseau considers a man's union with a woman a debasement of his nature. While insisting on the importance of motherhood, he stumbles on women's role as mothers. In addressing mothers in Book I of Emile, he acknowledges their primacy in the education of youth. By denying women the ability to reason he denies them the ability to raise children, which Mary Wollstonecraft later attempts to prove. Francis Gribble proposes, "Contemporary critics contended that Jean Jacques did not mean a word that he said; the difficulty of the modern critic is to discover that he ever said anything at all which he did not immediately afterwards contradict."10 When accosted by a father who informed him he was using the Emile method to raise his son, Rousseau replied that he was sorry for him but even sorrier for his son.11 Certainly he contradicts himself in Chapter V of

other proof of her inferiority. "The object of that cultivation is different. In the one sex it is the development of corporeal powers; in the other, that of personal charms," Rousseau asserts.8 Emile is not instructed in religious matters until he reaches adulthood. He has a natural sense of morality "from reason tempered by the heart."9 Presumably woman cannot reason, so she cannot maintain a state of morality, and must be guarded by men throughout her life. Rousseau proposes that Sophie must be made to love virtue, although she will never understand theological rationale for living uprightly. She must be made to feel subject to society's opinions of her. In fact, Sophie fails at this. In the fragmentary sequel to Emile, Les Solitaires, Rousseau tells of the infidelity of Sophie who had been "educated" to be Emile's ideal wife. Mary Wollstonecraft makes no mention of this book and probably never read it, but she would make the right assumptions about the likelihood of Sophie's fidelity. Helen Misenheimer points out in Rousseau on the Education of Women that Rousseau leaves off the sexual education of Emile in describing Sophie. In fact, she is his sexual identity. Rousseau considers a man's union with a woman a debasement of his nature. While insisting on the importance of motherhood, he stumbles on women's role as mothers. In addressing mothers in Book I of Emile, he acknowledges their primacy in the education of youth. By denying women the ability to reason he denies them the ability to raise children, which Mary Wollstonecraft later attempts to prove. Francis Gribble proposes, "Contemporary critics contended that Jean Jacques did not mean a word that he said; the difficulty of the modern critic is to discover that he ever said anything at all which he did not immediately afterwards contradict."10 When accosted by a father who informed him he was using the Emile method to raise his son, Rousseau replied that he was sorry for him but even sorrier for his son.11 Certainly he contradicts himself in Chapter V of Emile. One must ask if woman is as "natural" as man, and nature is essentially good, then why should the same principles of "negative education" not apply to women? Misenheimer discusses the dichotomy of women in Rousseau's writings. She claims that Rousseau makes woman totally subservient to man, making her into a mere plaything for the superior sex. Yet by inserting Sophie in her place in his educational theories, he encourages others to give the question further thought at a moment in history when social revolution uniquely supports her. This is exactly the cause which Mary Wollstonecraft takes up. Furthermore, by speaking of all society and not just the elite, he becomes one of the first writers even to recognize the ordinary woman, giving her a foothold to independence. Rousseau certainly did not intend to liberate women; he advocated the freedom of man. Mary Wollstonecraft reputedly tried to rear one of her charges, Ann Fuseli, as a child of nature. The experiment proved disappointing when she caught her stealing and lying.14 She considered herself a rationalist, but she greatly admired Rousseau's "pure sentiment." She did not, however, share Rousseau's admiration for primitive society, and took great exception to his views of women. In A Vindication of the Rights of Woman she asserts, "Rousseau exerts himself to prove that all was right originally: a crowd of authors that all is now right: and I, that all will be right [sic]."12 Her most famous and controversial work, Rights of Woman, was not the first work to advocate better education for women. Among Wollstonecraft's contemporaries, there were several in France who had written in behalf of women. Olympe de Gouges spoke boldly in defense of her sex in several publications, one titled A Declaration of the Rights of Woman. Condorcet advocated better education for women in Memoirs on Public Instruction. Wollstonecraft had reviewed Catherine Macaulay's Letters on Education for the Analytical, and acknowledged her debt to the work in Rights of Woman. Letters d

Emile. One must ask if woman is as "natural" as man, and nature is essentially good, then why should the same principles of "negative education" not apply to women? Misenheimer discusses the dichotomy of women in Rousseau's writings. She claims that Rousseau makes woman totally subservient to man, making her into a mere plaything for the superior sex. Yet by inserting Sophie in her place in his educational theories, he encourages others to give the question further thought at a moment in history when social revolution uniquely supports her. This is exactly the cause which Mary Wollstonecraft takes up. Furthermore, by speaking of all society and not just the elite, he becomes one of the first writers even to recognize the ordinary woman, giving her a foothold to independence. Rousseau certainly did not intend to liberate women; he advocated the freedom of man. Mary Wollstonecraft reputedly tried to rear one of her charges, Ann Fuseli, as a child of nature. The experiment proved disappointing when she caught her stealing and lying.14 She considered herself a rationalist, but she greatly admired Rousseau's "pure sentiment." She did not, however, share Rousseau's admiration for primitive society, and took great exception to his views of women. In A Vindication of the Rights of Woman she asserts, "Rousseau exerts himself to prove that all was right originally: a crowd of authors that all is now right: and I, that all will be right [sic]."12 Her most famous and controversial work, Rights of Woman, was not the first work to advocate better education for women. Among Wollstonecraft's contemporaries, there were several in France who had written in behalf of women. Olympe de Gouges spoke boldly in defense of her sex in several publications, one titled A Declaration of the Rights of Woman. Condorcet advocated better education for women in Memoirs on Public Instruction. Wollstonecraft had reviewed Catherine Macaulay's Letters on Education for the Analytical, and acknowledged her debt to the work in Rights of Woman. Letters denies any fundamental difference in character between the sexes, attributing women's weaknesses to faulty education and social position. Wollstonecraft repeats and develops almost every point of her work. Like many English intellectuals, Wollstonecraft watched the French Revolution with interest, anticipating that the great social experiment would one day reach her shore. The Revolution "must have seemed like a happy fusion of all she had been taught to respect by her sage London friends, and all that she cherished by nature".And so she, like many of her countrymen, looked hopefully to France as the great proving-ground."13 She espouses the cause of freedom in her Vindication of the Rights of Men, written in reply to Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France. She digresses occasionally in this work, criticizing the effects of wealth and rank and chiding Burke for his fondness for waifishness and weakness in women. In her previous work, Wollstonecraft had shown an interest in women's status without directly addressing the matter. According to her husband William Godwin, she spent only six weeks in actual composition, but she had been developing the ideas for Rights of Woman all her life. She found that most writers showed either outright disdain or condescending praise of women's weakness. The immediate cause of Rights of Woman was Talleyrand's Report on Public Institution, an outline of the projected plan of national education under a new French constitution. Talleyrand declared that girls should be educated with boys only until the age of eight. Wollstonecraft prefaces her book with a letter to Talleyrand which urges him and his compatriots not to deny women their rights.13 Wollstonecraft seeks to find a rational explanation for the state of her sex. She questions whether women are really created for the pleasure of men: [T]hough the cry of irreligion, or even atheism, be raised against, I will simply declare, that were an angel from heaven to tell me that Moses's beautiful, poetical cosmogony, and

enies any fundamental difference in character between the sexes, attributing women's weaknesses to faulty education and social position. Wollstonecraft repeats and develops almost every point of her work. Like many English intellectuals, Wollstonecraft watched the French Revolution with interest, anticipating that the great social experiment would one day reach her shore. The Revolution "must have seemed like a happy fusion of all she had been taught to respect by her sage London friends, and all that she cherished by nature".And so she, like many of her countrymen, looked hopefully to France as the great proving-ground."13 She espouses the cause of freedom in her Vindication of the Rights of Men, written in reply to Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France. She digresses occasionally in this work, criticizing the effects of wealth and rank and chiding Burke for his fondness for waifishness and weakness in women. In her previous work, Wollstonecraft had shown an interest in women's status without directly addressing the matter. According to her husband William Godwin, she spent only six weeks in actual composition, but she had been developing the ideas for Rights of Woman all her life. She found that most writers showed either outright disdain or condescending praise of women's weakness. The immediate cause of Rights of Woman was Talleyrand's Report on Public Institution, an outline of the projected plan of national education under a new French constitution. Talleyrand declared that girls should be educated with boys only until the age of eight. Wollstonecraft prefaces her book with a letter to Talleyrand which urges him and his compatriots not to deny women their rights.13 Wollstonecraft seeks to find a rational explanation for the state of her sex. She questions whether women are really created for the pleasure of men: [T]hough the cry of irreligion, or even atheism, be raised against, I will simply declare, that were an angel from heaven to tell me that Moses's beautiful, poetical cosmogony, and the account of the fall of man, were literally true, I could not believe what my reason told me was derogatory to the character of the Supreme Being.14 She discovers the only reason for women's state is their lack of education. In Chapter V she attacks several writers, especially Rousseau, who had written poor accounts of women. Wollstonecraft cites and comments on long passages from Emile. She is not unaware of Rousseau's relationships with women. In her chapter "On National Education," she states: Who ever drew a more exalted female character than Rousseau? Though in the lump he constantly endeavoured to degrade the sex. And why was he thus anxious? Truly to justify to himself the affection which weakness and virtue had made him cherish for that fool Theresa. He could not raise her to the common level of her sex; and therefore he labored to bring woman down to hers. He found her a convenient humble companion, and pride made him determine to find some superiour virtues in the being whom he chose to live with; but did not her conduct during his life, and after his death, clearly show how grossly he was mistaken who called her a celestial innocent.15 She treats his description of Sophie with smug indignation, as when Rousseau describes Sophie's garb, "simple as it seems, was only put in its proper order to be taken to pieces by the imagination." To this she retorts, "Is this modesty? Is this a preparation for immortality?"16 She correctly accuses Rousseau of depicting not a wife and sensible mother, but a pleasing mistress. Getting to the heart of Rousseau's error, she determines: Men have superior strength of body, but were it not for mistaken notions of beauty, women would acquire sufficient to enable them to earn their own subsistence, the true definition of independence". Let us then, by being allowed to take the same exercise as boys, not only during infancy, but youth, arrive at perfection of boys, that we may know how far the natural superiority of man extends.17 She cautions that she has no desire to breed

the account of the fall of man, were literally true, I could not believe what my reason told me was derogatory to the character of the Supreme Being.14 She discovers the only reason for women's state is their lack of education. In Chapter V she attacks several writers, especially Rousseau, who had written poor accounts of women. Wollstonecraft cites and comments on long passages from Emile. She is not unaware of Rousseau's relationships with women. In her chapter "On National Education," she states: Who ever drew a more exalted female character than Rousseau? Though in the lump he constantly endeavoured to degrade the sex. And why was he thus anxious? Truly to justify to himself the affection which weakness and virtue had made him cherish for that fool Theresa. He could not raise her to the common level of her sex; and therefore he labored to bring woman down to hers. He found her a convenient humble companion, and pride made him determine to find some superiour virtues in the being whom he chose to live with; but did not her conduct during his life, and after his death, clearly show how grossly he was mistaken who called her a celestial innocent.15 She treats his description of Sophie with smug indignation, as when Rousseau describes Sophie's garb, "simple as it seems, was only put in its proper order to be taken to pieces by the imagination." To this she retorts, "Is this modesty? Is this a preparation for immortality?"16 She correctly accuses Rousseau of depicting not a wife and sensible mother, but a pleasing mistress. Getting to the heart of Rousseau's error, she determines: Men have superior strength of body, but were it not for mistaken notions of beauty, women would acquire sufficient to enable them to earn their own subsistence, the true definition of independence". Let us then, by being allowed to take the same exercise as boys, not only during infancy, but youth, arrive at perfection of boys, that we may know how far the natural superiority of man extends.17 She cautions that she has no desire to breed a generation of independent and unattached women like herself, but that she seeks to develop wiser and more virtuous mothers. She believes that children's characters are formed before the age of seven, shuddering to think of the damage done by addle-headed mothers. Without stressing independence she believes that once women gain intellectual equality, they should be given political and economic equality as well. In Chapter XII, "On National Education," Wollstonecraft develops her proposal. She feels that private education is confined to the �lite, and that school-children need the company of other children. She has an aversion to boarding schools because of the interruptions of vacations. She suggests day schools where children may spend time with other children. These need to be national establishments, so that school-matters are not left to the "caprice of the parents."18 Like Rousseau, she emphasizes that children must be allowed to play freely. What is so radical about Wollstonecraft's idea is that girls are not educated relative to boys, but with them. She states: If marriage be the cement of society, mankind should all be educated after the same model, or the intercourse of the sexes will never deserve the name of fellowship, nor will women ever fulfill the peculiar duties of their sex". Nay, marriage will never be held sacred till women, by being brought up with men, are prepared to be their companions rather than their mistresses.19 After the age of nine, girls and boys intended for domestic employments or mechanical trades will be removed to other schools. The two sexes will still study together in the mornings, and in the afternoons girls will learn millinery, mantua-making, and other fitting pursuits. Girls and boys still together? I hear some readers ask: yes. And I should not fear any other consequence than that some early attachment might take place". Besides, this would be a sure way to promote early marriages, and from early marriages the most salutary physical and moral effects naturally flow.20

a generation of independent and unattached women like herself, but that she seeks to develop wiser and more virtuous mothers. She believes that children's characters are formed before the age of seven, shuddering to think of the damage done by addle-headed mothers. Without stressing independence she believes that once women gain intellectual equality, they should be given political and economic equality as well. In Chapter XII, "On National Education," Wollstonecraft develops her proposal. She feels that private education is confined to the �lite, and that school-children need the company of other children. She has an aversion to boarding schools because of the interruptions of vacations. She suggests day schools where children may spend time with other children. These need to be national establishments, so that school-matters are not left to the "caprice of the parents."18 Like Rousseau, she emphasizes that children must be allowed to play freely. What is so radical about Wollstonecraft's idea is that girls are not educated relative to boys, but with them. She states: If marriage be the cement of society, mankind should all be educated after the same model, or the intercourse of the sexes will never deserve the name of fellowship, nor will women ever fulfill the peculiar duties of their sex". Nay, marriage will never be held sacred till women, by being brought up with men, are prepared to be their companions rather than their mistresses.19 After the age of nine, girls and boys intended for domestic employments or mechanical trades will be removed to other schools. The two sexes will still study together in the mornings, and in the afternoons girls will learn millinery, mantua-making, and other fitting pursuits. Girls and boys still together? I hear some readers ask: yes. And I should not fear any other consequence than that some early attachment might take place". Besides, this would be a sure way to promote early marriages, and from early marriages the most salutary physical and moral effects naturally flow.20 Women should be taught anatomy and medicine to make them rational nurses of their infants, parents, and husbands. At the time of its publication in 1792, A Vindication of the Rights of Women was considered radical and revolutionary. By the end of the year Joseph Johnson published a second edition. An American edition appeared in Boston and Philadelphia, and a French translation appeared in Paris and Lyons. Aaron Burr admired it and attempted to raise his own daughter according to its principles, although he complained in 1793 that he had "not yet met a single person who had discovered or would allow the merit of this book."21 Contemporary reactions ranged from shock to amusement to enthusiasm. Despite a number of mean-spirited parodies, including A Sketch of the Rights of Boys and Girls and A Vindication of the Rights of Brutes, there is no doubt her book had a tremendous impact on British and American feminism. Her argument that one must educate mothers so they may better raise their children would be echoed by the advocates of "Republican Motherhood" in the first years of the new American republic.22 Mary Wollstonecraft's ideas were savagely attacked after her death, when the horrors of the French Revolution had convinced most Englishmen that all revolutionary theories were dangerous. However, there is little doubt that her ideas live on, and like Rousseau's, still have an impact on education. Public education, teaching by the exploitation of natural curiosity, practical applications, are all ideas descended from Rousseau and Wollstonecraft. Most distinctive of these is Wollstonecraft's radical notion that women and men be educated together. 1As cited in Ralph M. Wardle, Mary Wollstonecraft: A Critical Biography (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1951), p. 143. 2Helen Evans Misenheimer, Rousseau on the Education of Women (Washington, DC: University Press of America, Inc., 1981), p. 64. 3Confessions, I as cited by Misenheimer, p. 21. 4Ibid., p. 24. 5Claude Fervel, Jean-Jacques Rousseau et les femmes, as cit

Women should be taught anatomy and medicine to make them rational nurses of their infants, parents, and husbands. At the time of its publication in 1792, A Vindication of the Rights of Women was considered radical and revolutionary. By the end of the year Joseph Johnson published a second edition. An American edition appeared in Boston and Philadelphia, and a French translation appeared in Paris and Lyons. Aaron Burr admired it and attempted to raise his own daughter according to its principles, although he complained in 1793 that he had "not yet met a single person who had discovered or would allow the merit of this book."21 Contemporary reactions ranged from shock to amusement to enthusiasm. Despite a number of mean-spirited parodies, including A Sketch of the Rights of Boys and Girls and A Vindication of the Rights of Brutes, there is no doubt her book had a tremendous impact on British and American feminism. Her argument that one must educate mothers so they may better raise their children would be echoed by the advocates of "Republican Motherhood" in the first years of the new American republic.22 Mary Wollstonecraft's ideas were savagely attacked after her death, when the horrors of the French Revolution had convinced most Englishmen that all revolutionary theories were dangerous. However, there is little doubt that her ideas live on, and like Rousseau's, still have an impact on education. Public education, teaching by the exploitation of natural curiosity, practical applications, are all ideas descended from Rousseau and Wollstonecraft. Most distinctive of these is Wollstonecraft's radical notion that women and men be educated together. 1As cited in Ralph M. Wardle, Mary Wollstonecraft: A Critical Biography (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1951), p. 143. 2Helen Evans Misenheimer, Rousseau on the Education of Women (Washington, DC: University Press of America, Inc., 1981), p. 64. 3Confessions, I as cited by Misenheimer, p. 21. 4Ibid., p. 24. 5Claude Fervel, Jean-Jacques Rousseau et les femmes, as cited by Misenheimer, p. 26. 6Misenheimer, p. 19. 7Rousseau, pp. 322, 325. 8Rousseau, as cited by Wollstonecraft, p. 176. 9Rousseau, as cited by Misenheimer, p. 39. 10Francis Gribble, Rousseau and the Women he Loved, as cited by Misenheimer, p. 4. 11William Boyd, The Minor Educational Writings of Jean Jacques Rousseau, as cited by Misenheimer, p. 8. 12Wardle, p. 178. 13Wollstonecraft, p. 22. 14Wollstonecraft, pp. 173-174. 15Ibid., pp. 403-404. 17Ibid., p. 189. 18Ibid., p. 379. 19Ibid., pp. 380, 381. 20Ibid., p. 389. 21Matthew L. Davis, Memoirs of Aaron Burr, as cited by Wardle, p.158. 22Linda K. Kerber, "The Republican Mother," Women's America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 87-95. Last modified 2005-01-20 03:11 PM

ed by Misenheimer, p. 26. 6Misenheimer, p. 19. 7Rousseau, pp. 322, 325. 8Rousseau, as cited by Wollstonecraft, p. 176. 9Rousseau, as cited by Misenheimer, p. 39. 10Francis Gribble, Rousseau and the Women he Loved, as cited by Misenheimer, p. 4. 11William Boyd, The Minor Educational Writings of Jean Jacques Rousseau, as cited by Misenheimer, p. 8. 12Wardle, p. 178. 13Wollstonecraft, p. 22. 14Wollstonecraft, pp. 173-174. 15Ibid., pp. 403-404. 17Ibid., p. 189. 18Ibid., p. 379. 19Ibid., pp. 380, 381. 20Ibid., p. 389. 21Matthew L. Davis, Memoirs of Aaron Burr, as cited by Wardle, p.158. 22Linda K. Kerber, "The Republican Mother," Women's America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 87-95. Last modified 2005-01-20 03:11 PM

Get Your Degree! Find schools and get information on the program that’s right for you. Powered by Campus Explorer Art School Loans The two types of loans available to college students are federal loans and private loans. Both have their strengths and weaknesses, and many students decide to utilize a mix of the two to pad their college funds. Since you're not limited to only one, it's a good idea to do some research and understand both kinds before signing the papers. Federal loans are so named because they are guaranteed by the U.S. Department of Education, either directly or through affiliated agencies. This allows for some student-friendly terms: the governments sets a bar for interest rates, the loans are available to almost every student regardless of credit score or financial history, and there is a six month grace period, which means that no payments are required until six months after graduation. There are also forms of assistance for those struggling to pay even after this grace period, including deferment and forbearance. However, the downfall of federal loans is their relatively low limit. As of June 1, 2007, freshman undergraduates are eligible for no more than $3,500, sophomore for $4,500, and juniors and seniors for $5,500. For graduate students, the limit is increased to up to $12,000, depending on the type of federal loan and the area of study. Federal loans fall under two broad categories. Subsidized loans are granted based on the financial need of the student in question, and for as long as you remain enrolled in college either full-time or half-time, no interest accrues while you study! Or rather, the federal government pays the interest for you. It's an amazing deal, because if you go start off borrowing $3000 to enter college, you owe $3000 and not a penny more by the time you graduate. In other cases where the student fails to qualify, loans are unsubsidized. Interest does accumulate during your years in college; you are, however, still eligible for the six month grace period. Federal loans come in many guises: Stafford loans, Perkins loans, Federal Family Education Loans, Ford Direct Student Loans. Each one is a bit different and targeted towards a different type of student, so it's a good idea to do some research and find out which one is the most beneficial to you. Private students address the weakness of federal loans by offering higher limits, but also higher interest rates rates. While more significant than the interest rates charged by federal loans, they are nonetheless still lower than a nonspecific loan. Unlike federal loans, credit history does matter, and many private loans will require the student to fill out a FAFSA or some other application that provides the lender with financial information. Because of this reliance on the borrower's financial situation, many students who choose to take out a private loan will cosign with their parents in order to reap the benefits of their credit score and the subsequent lower interest rate. Depending on your family's situation, this could be a good option to consider! Following in the footsteps of federal student loans, many private loans also offer a similar grace period, which can extend to up to twelve months in some cases (though six is far more common). Because they don't carry the federal government's guarantee, there are far more private student loans out there than federal ones. Each lender will have their own qualifications, rates, terms, and schedules. If you plan on applying for private loans, watch out for hidden fees and terms that can trip you. Choose carefully, and the best private loans will provide you with a significant monetary boost so that you can study in your dream art school without worrying about funds. LOAN RESOURCE SITES Loans are a great, solid source of educational funding. They are available to almost everyone and are a time-proven asset to any student who won't allow financial difficulties become an obstacle to attaining a good education in the arts. Though we've listed pros and cons to both federal and private loans h

ome in many guises: Stafford loans, Perkins loans, Federal Family Education Loans, Ford Direct Student Loans. Each one is a bit different and targeted towards a different type of student, so it's a good idea to do some research and find out which one is the most beneficial to you. Private students address the weakness of federal loans by offering higher limits, but also higher interest rates rates. While more significant than the interest rates charged by federal loans, they are nonetheless still lower than a nonspecific loan. Unlike federal loans, credit history does matter, and many private loans will require the student to fill out a FAFSA or some other application that provides the lender with financial information. Because of this reliance on the borrower's financial situation, many students who choose to take out a private loan will cosign with their parents in order to reap the benefits of their credit score and the subsequent lower interest rate. Depending on your family's situation, this could be a good option to consider! Following in the footsteps of federal student loans, many private loans also offer a similar grace period, which can extend to up to twelve months in some cases (though six is far more common). Because they don't carry the federal government's guarantee, there are far more private student loans out there than federal ones. Each lender will have their own qualifications, rates, terms, and schedules. If you plan on applying for private loans, watch out for hidden fees and terms that can trip you. Choose carefully, and the best private loans will provide you with a significant monetary boost so that you can study in your dream art school without worrying about funds. LOAN RESOURCE SITES Loans are a great, solid source of educational funding. They are available to almost everyone and are a time-proven asset to any student who won't allow financial difficulties become an obstacle to attaining a good education in the arts. Though we've listed pros and cons to both federal and private loans here, we reiterate again that a mix of both types can create a strong, balanced aid plan.

ere, we reiterate again that a mix of both types can create a strong, balanced aid plan.

Considerations Regarding a Behind-the-Counter Drug Class GAO-09-245: Published: Feb 20, 2009. Publicly Released: Mar 23, 2009. In the United States, most nonprescription drugs are available over-the-counter (OTC) in pharmacies and other stores. Experts have suggested that drug availability could be increased by establishing an additional class of nonprescription drugs that would be held behind the counter (BTC) but would require the intervention of a pharmacist before being dispensed; a similar class of drugs exists in many other countries. Although the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has not developed a detailed proposal for a BTC drug class, it held a public meeting in 2007 to explore the public health implications of BTC drug availability. GAO was asked to update its 1995 report, Nonprescription Drugs: Value of a Pharmacist-Controlled Class Has Yet to Be Demonstrated (GAO/PEMD-95-12). Specifically, GAO is reporting on (1) arguments supporting and opposing a U.S. BTC drug class, (2) changes in drug availability in five countries since 1995 and the impact of restricted nonprescription classes on availability, and (3) issues important to the establishment of a BTC drug class. GAO reviewed documents and consulted with pharmaceutical experts. To examine drug availability across countries, GAO studied five countries it had reported on in 1995 (Australia, Italy, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States) and determined how 86 drugs available in all five countries were classified in each country. Arguments supporting and opposing a BTC drug class in the United States have been based on public health and health care cost considerations, and reflect general disagreement on the likely consequences of establishing such a class. Proponents of a BTC drug class suggest it would lead to improved public health through increased availability of nonprescription drugs and greater use of pharmacists' expertise. Opponents are concerned that a BTC drug class might become the default for drugs switching from prescription to nonprescription status, thus reducing consumers' access to drugs that would otherwise have become available OTC, and argue that pharmacists might not be able to provide high quality BTC services. Proponents of a BTC drug class point to potentially reduced costs through a decrease in the number of physician visits and a decline in drug prices that might result from switches of drugs from prescription to nonprescription status. However, opponents argue that out-of-pocket costs for many consumers could rise if third-party payers elect not to cover BTC drugs. All five countries GAO studied have increased nonprescription drug availability since 1995 by altering nonprescription classes or reclassifying some drugs into less restrictive classes. Italy and the Netherlands, which previously allowed nonprescription drugs to be sold only at specialized drug outlets, made some or all of these drugs available for OTC sale. Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States switched certain drugs from more restrictive to less restrictive drug classes, increasing these drugs' availability. However, the impact of restricted nonprescription drug classes on availability is unclear. When we examined the classification of 86 selected drugs in the five countries, we found that the United States required a prescription for more of those drugs than did Australia or the United Kingdom--the study countries using a BTC drug class. However, the United States classified more of the 86 drugs as OTC--the option that provides greatest access to these drugs for consumers--than all four of the other study countries. Pharmacist-, infrastructure-, and cost-related issues would have to be addressed before a BTC drug class could be established in the United States. For example, ensuring that pharmacists provide BTC counseling and that pharmacies have the infrastructure to protect consumer privacy would be important. Issues related to the cost of BTC drugs would also require consideration. For example, the availability of third-party cove

ription to nonprescription status, thus reducing consumers' access to drugs that would otherwise have become available OTC, and argue that pharmacists might not be able to provide high quality BTC services. Proponents of a BTC drug class point to potentially reduced costs through a decrease in the number of physician visits and a decline in drug prices that might result from switches of drugs from prescription to nonprescription status. However, opponents argue that out-of-pocket costs for many consumers could rise if third-party payers elect not to cover BTC drugs. All five countries GAO studied have increased nonprescription drug availability since 1995 by altering nonprescription classes or reclassifying some drugs into less restrictive classes. Italy and the Netherlands, which previously allowed nonprescription drugs to be sold only at specialized drug outlets, made some or all of these drugs available for OTC sale. Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States switched certain drugs from more restrictive to less restrictive drug classes, increasing these drugs' availability. However, the impact of restricted nonprescription drug classes on availability is unclear. When we examined the classification of 86 selected drugs in the five countries, we found that the United States required a prescription for more of those drugs than did Australia or the United Kingdom--the study countries using a BTC drug class. However, the United States classified more of the 86 drugs as OTC--the option that provides greatest access to these drugs for consumers--than all four of the other study countries. Pharmacist-, infrastructure-, and cost-related issues would have to be addressed before a BTC drug class could be established in the United States. For example, ensuring that pharmacists provide BTC counseling and that pharmacies have the infrastructure to protect consumer privacy would be important. Issues related to the cost of BTC drugs would also require consideration. For example, the availability of third-party coverage for BTC drugs would affect consumers' out-of-pocket expenditures and pharmacists' compensation for providing BTC services would need to be examined. In commenting on a draft of this report, the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) agreed that cost-related issues would have to be addressed before implementing a BTC drug class and also provided technical comments. The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) also reviewed the report and provided technical comments. We have incorporated HHS and VA technical comments as appropriate.

rage for BTC drugs would affect consumers' out-of-pocket expenditures and pharmacists' compensation for providing BTC services would need to be examined. In commenting on a draft of this report, the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) agreed that cost-related issues would have to be addressed before implementing a BTC drug class and also provided technical comments. The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) also reviewed the report and provided technical comments. We have incorporated HHS and VA technical comments as appropriate.

The red flowering gum, Corymbia ficifolia (formerly Eucalyptus ficifolia) is one of those trees that really grabs your attention when it’s in full flower, like very few other flowering trees can, perhaps with the exception of the jacaranda or the Illawarra flame tree. However, one of the ongoing problems with the red flowering gum has been that it’s always been grown from seed in the nursery industry in the past. When it did flower, after 5 to 10 years, the colour varied enormously as there is a great deal of genetic variability within this species. Not only does the colour vary, but the height of the tree can vary from a 10-15 metre substantial tree to a mallee form that’s no more than a couple of metres in height – a form which does have its advantages in the smaller gardens of today. One of the exciting developments in horticulture in recent years has been the development of the red flowering gum to make it more predictable and amenable to garden culture. Before I talk about that, though, I’d like to talk about the botany and the name change from Eucalyptus ficifolia to Corymbia ficifolia. The reason why the group of gums that include the red flowering gum were separated from Eucalyptus were that there are considerable differences. Corymbia are generally known as the bloodwoods and they have a special characteristic of being terminal flowering, with all those big sprays of flowers held on the end of the branches, which can be seen from a very long distance away. Many of what have remained as Eucalyptus flower way back inside the canopy on the axillary buds, unlike the terminal buds of Corymbia. Indeed, many people are surprised to hear that all gums are ‘flowering gums’; the red flowering gum just holds its flowers where they can be easily seen. Corymbia shares this terminal flowering with Angophora, sometimes known as the apple gums, of which the Sydney red gum, Angophora costata is probably the best known in cultivation. The botanists faced the dilemma that Corymbia gums were more closely related to Angophora, both being terminal flowering and sharing some other characteristics. Being closer to Angophora, it was either include everything within the one genus of Eucalyptus, or split off the bloodwoods and create a separate group for them sitting in between Angophora and Eucalyptus. Which brings me to the genetic improvement of the red flowering gum, a brilliant but unreliable species, in the genetic sense that you don’t know what you’re getting! One of the more amazing projects that I’ve seen in my career as a plant breeder happened up in Queensland. A fellow by the name of Stan Henry, a retired horticulturist, wanted to grow a red flowering gum in his home garden but he was in the humid climate of coastal central Queensland. He watched a number of his Corymbia ficifolia die from the heat and humidity, and from the leaf spot that they tend to get when they’re grown in Sydney and further north (you can grow them but they look very ratty and not a good garden specimen). The strategy that he then chose was to hybridise Corymbia ficifolia, the red flowering gum from around Albany in south-west Western Australia with the swamp bloodwood, Corymbia ptychocarpa from northern Australia, which has the same spectacular terminal flowers common to all the Corymbias, but is obviously much better equipped to cope with the humidity and heat of northern Australia. By crossing those two species together, we get a group of hybrids which has been marketed as the Summer series – ‘Summer Red’, ‘Summer Beauty’ and ‘Summer Snow’, a white variety. By and large it’s been quite a successful series when planted in gardens up and down the east coast, from Melbourne through to Queensland. Hybridisation is one way to go, and I like to think of what he’s done as a wonderful reconciliation, a sort of ‘east meets west’, between the swamp bloodwood from the east and north east and, from the other corner of the continent right down in the south-west, the red flowering gum. That’s where I think plant breeding really does have a place in modern horticult

a, both being terminal flowering and sharing some other characteristics. Being closer to Angophora, it was either include everything within the one genus of Eucalyptus, or split off the bloodwoods and create a separate group for them sitting in between Angophora and Eucalyptus. Which brings me to the genetic improvement of the red flowering gum, a brilliant but unreliable species, in the genetic sense that you don’t know what you’re getting! One of the more amazing projects that I’ve seen in my career as a plant breeder happened up in Queensland. A fellow by the name of Stan Henry, a retired horticulturist, wanted to grow a red flowering gum in his home garden but he was in the humid climate of coastal central Queensland. He watched a number of his Corymbia ficifolia die from the heat and humidity, and from the leaf spot that they tend to get when they’re grown in Sydney and further north (you can grow them but they look very ratty and not a good garden specimen). The strategy that he then chose was to hybridise Corymbia ficifolia, the red flowering gum from around Albany in south-west Western Australia with the swamp bloodwood, Corymbia ptychocarpa from northern Australia, which has the same spectacular terminal flowers common to all the Corymbias, but is obviously much better equipped to cope with the humidity and heat of northern Australia. By crossing those two species together, we get a group of hybrids which has been marketed as the Summer series – ‘Summer Red’, ‘Summer Beauty’ and ‘Summer Snow’, a white variety. By and large it’s been quite a successful series when planted in gardens up and down the east coast, from Melbourne through to Queensland. Hybridisation is one way to go, and I like to think of what he’s done as a wonderful reconciliation, a sort of ‘east meets west’, between the swamp bloodwood from the east and north east and, from the other corner of the continent right down in the south-west, the red flowering gum. That’s where I think plant breeding really does have a place in modern horticulture; to combine the outstanding features of two different species to come up with a plant that has all the right attributes to be a successful garden plant. One of the issues with all the selections, whether they’re straight selections of Corymbia ficifolia or hybrids like the Summer series, is that they are difficult to propagate by cuttings – too difficult for commercial production. The way that they’re propagated now is by grafting onto the rootstock of a hardy member of the Corymbia group, such as the spotted gum, Corymbia maculata, or the red bloodwood, Corymbia gummifera. Finding the right species to use as a rootstock for different areas has become one of the key challenges for the selection and improvement of the Corymbia group, and in particular the flowering gums. The second wave of improvement of the red flowering gum has come about through the selection of different clones of the red flowering gum though the hundred years or so that this plant has been in cultivation. In southern Australia, from Perth across to Melbourne and up the southern coast of NSW, Corymbia ficifolia is quite a reliable species in its own right. Having been grown from seed, there’s all sorts of variation, so various nurseries have selected their outstanding forms of Corymbia ficifolia and we’re now seeing some interesting new cultivars emerge from that work. ‘Wildfire’ is one the oldest selections, and there are new ones called ‘Baby Red’, ‘Baby Orange’ and ‘Calypso’. They’re all slightly different in both flower colour and plant height, so it’s a matter of going out and finding out what is available from your local garden retailer. There will be a continuing series of new selections in the future as we get more confident with the grafting of red flowering gums in its various colour selections and finding the right rootstock partner. The red flowering gum is one of our most iconic Australian species in cultivation, and through some judicious genetic selection and breeding work, we’re now starting to see cultivars emerge which ar

ure; to combine the outstanding features of two different species to come up with a plant that has all the right attributes to be a successful garden plant. One of the issues with all the selections, whether they’re straight selections of Corymbia ficifolia or hybrids like the Summer series, is that they are difficult to propagate by cuttings – too difficult for commercial production. The way that they’re propagated now is by grafting onto the rootstock of a hardy member of the Corymbia group, such as the spotted gum, Corymbia maculata, or the red bloodwood, Corymbia gummifera. Finding the right species to use as a rootstock for different areas has become one of the key challenges for the selection and improvement of the Corymbia group, and in particular the flowering gums. The second wave of improvement of the red flowering gum has come about through the selection of different clones of the red flowering gum though the hundred years or so that this plant has been in cultivation. In southern Australia, from Perth across to Melbourne and up the southern coast of NSW, Corymbia ficifolia is quite a reliable species in its own right. Having been grown from seed, there’s all sorts of variation, so various nurseries have selected their outstanding forms of Corymbia ficifolia and we’re now seeing some interesting new cultivars emerge from that work. ‘Wildfire’ is one the oldest selections, and there are new ones called ‘Baby Red’, ‘Baby Orange’ and ‘Calypso’. They’re all slightly different in both flower colour and plant height, so it’s a matter of going out and finding out what is available from your local garden retailer. There will be a continuing series of new selections in the future as we get more confident with the grafting of red flowering gums in its various colour selections and finding the right rootstock partner. The red flowering gum is one of our most iconic Australian species in cultivation, and through some judicious genetic selection and breeding work, we’re now starting to see cultivars emerge which are going to be more reliable – as far as knowing what flower colour and height you’re going to get. Hopefully in the future, you’ll be able to find anything from a 2 metre shrub to a 15m tree to match your garden requirements. So if you’ve ever planted a seedling tree and been disappointed, have another look as more new colours and forms emerge. [You can now see how to prune your flowering gum in the new post by Angus How to prune a flowering gum]

e going to be more reliable – as far as knowing what flower colour and height you’re going to get. Hopefully in the future, you’ll be able to find anything from a 2 metre shrub to a 15m tree to match your garden requirements. So if you’ve ever planted a seedling tree and been disappointed, have another look as more new colours and forms emerge. [You can now see how to prune your flowering gum in the new post by Angus How to prune a flowering gum]

|A service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine®| Progressive osseous heteroplasia On this page: Reviewed January 2009 What is progressive osseous heteroplasia? Progressive osseous heteroplasia is a disorder in which bone forms within skin and muscle tissue. Bone that forms outside the skeleton is called heterotopic or ectopic bone. In progressive osseous heteroplasia, ectopic bone formation begins in the deep layers of the skin (dermis and subcutaneous fat) and gradually moves into other tissues such as skeletal muscle and tendons. The bony lesions within the skin may be painful and may develop into open sores (ulcers). Over time, joints can become involved, resulting in impaired mobility. Signs and symptoms of progressive osseous heteroplasia usually become noticeable during infancy. In some affected individuals, however, this may not occur until later in childhood or in early adulthood. How common is progressive osseous heteroplasia? Progressive osseous heteroplasia is a rare condition. Its exact incidence is unknown. What genes are related to progressive osseous heteroplasia? Progressive osseous heteroplasia is caused by a mutation in the GNAS gene. The GNAS gene provides instructions for making one part of a protein complex called a guanine nucleotide-binding protein, or a G protein. In a process called signal transduction, G proteins trigger a complex network of signaling pathways that ultimately influence many cell functions. The protein produced from the GNAS gene is believed to play a key role in signaling pathways that help regulate the development of bone (osteogenesis), preventing bony tissue from being produced outside the skeleton. The GNAS gene mutations that cause progressive osseous heteroplasia disrupt the function of the G protein and impair its ability to regulate osteogenesis. As a result, bony tissue grows outside the skeleton and causes the complications associated with this disorder. Read more about the GNAS gene. How do people inherit progressive osseous heteroplasia? This condition is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, which means one copy of the altered gene in each cell is sufficient to cause the disorder. People normally inherit one copy of each gene from their mother and one copy from their father. For most genes, both copies are active, or "turned on," in all cells. For a small subset of genes, however, only one of the two copies is active. For some of these genes, only the copy inherited from a person's father (the paternal copy) is active, while for other genes, only the copy inherited from a person's mother (the maternal copy) is active. These differences in gene activation based on the gene's parent of origin are caused by a phenomenon called genomic imprinting. The GNAS gene has a complex genomic imprinting pattern. In some cells of the body the maternal copy of the gene is active, while in others the paternal copy is active. Progressive osseous heteroplasia occurs when mutations affect the paternal copy of the gene. Where can I find information about diagnosis or management of progressive osseous heteroplasia? These resources address the diagnosis or management of progressive osseous heteroplasia and may include treatment providers. General information about the diagnosis and management of genetic conditions is available in the Handbook. Read more about genetic testing, particularly the difference between clinical tests and research tests. To locate a healthcare provider, see How can I find a genetics professional in my area? in the Handbook. Where can I find additional information about progressive osseous heteroplasia? You may find the following resources about progressive osseous heteroplasia helpful. These materials are written for the general public. You may also be interested in these resources, which are designed for healthcare professionals and researchers. What other names do people use for progressive osseous heteroplasia? What if I still have specific questions about progressive osseous heteroplasia? Where can I find general information about genetic conditions

s inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, which means one copy of the altered gene in each cell is sufficient to cause the disorder. People normally inherit one copy of each gene from their mother and one copy from their father. For most genes, both copies are active, or "turned on," in all cells. For a small subset of genes, however, only one of the two copies is active. For some of these genes, only the copy inherited from a person's father (the paternal copy) is active, while for other genes, only the copy inherited from a person's mother (the maternal copy) is active. These differences in gene activation based on the gene's parent of origin are caused by a phenomenon called genomic imprinting. The GNAS gene has a complex genomic imprinting pattern. In some cells of the body the maternal copy of the gene is active, while in others the paternal copy is active. Progressive osseous heteroplasia occurs when mutations affect the paternal copy of the gene. Where can I find information about diagnosis or management of progressive osseous heteroplasia? These resources address the diagnosis or management of progressive osseous heteroplasia and may include treatment providers. General information about the diagnosis and management of genetic conditions is available in the Handbook. Read more about genetic testing, particularly the difference between clinical tests and research tests. To locate a healthcare provider, see How can I find a genetics professional in my area? in the Handbook. Where can I find additional information about progressive osseous heteroplasia? You may find the following resources about progressive osseous heteroplasia helpful. These materials are written for the general public. You may also be interested in these resources, which are designed for healthcare professionals and researchers. What other names do people use for progressive osseous heteroplasia? What if I still have specific questions about progressive osseous heteroplasia? Where can I find general information about genetic conditions? The Handbook provides basic information about genetics in clear language. These links provide additional genetics resources that may be useful. What glossary definitions help with understanding progressive osseous heteroplasia? autosomal ; autosomal dominant ; bone formation ; cell ; cutaneous ; ectopic ; gene ; guanine ; imprinting ; incidence ; inherit ; inherited ; maternal ; mutation ; nucleotide ; ossification ; osteogenesis ; osteoma ; protein ; signal transduction ; skeletal muscle ; tissue ; transduction You may find definitions for these and many other terms in the Genetics Home Reference Glossary. See also Understanding Medical Terminology. References (6 links) The resources on this site should not be used as a substitute for professional medical care or advice. Users seeking information about a personal genetic disease, syndrome, or condition should consult with a qualified healthcare professional. See How can I find a genetics professional in my area? in the Handbook.

? The Handbook provides basic information about genetics in clear language. These links provide additional genetics resources that may be useful. What glossary definitions help with understanding progressive osseous heteroplasia? autosomal ; autosomal dominant ; bone formation ; cell ; cutaneous ; ectopic ; gene ; guanine ; imprinting ; incidence ; inherit ; inherited ; maternal ; mutation ; nucleotide ; ossification ; osteogenesis ; osteoma ; protein ; signal transduction ; skeletal muscle ; tissue ; transduction You may find definitions for these and many other terms in the Genetics Home Reference Glossary. See also Understanding Medical Terminology. References (6 links) The resources on this site should not be used as a substitute for professional medical care or advice. Users seeking information about a personal genetic disease, syndrome, or condition should consult with a qualified healthcare professional. See How can I find a genetics professional in my area? in the Handbook.

Concentrating solar photovoltaics are a type of technology that uses optics to concentrate sunlight onto solar cells to boost energy production. While the tech is still in an early stage, some startups are looking to ramp up, and Fremont, Calif.-based Solaria just raised $30 million in equity in its march to win over converts for its own brand of concentrating photovoltaic technology. The funding came more than a year after it raised about $65 million in a round, some of which went into setting up a new factory and headquarters in Fremont. Solaria develops solar panels that use lenses to concentrate the sunlight onto silicon solar cells, a process the company says reduces the need of silicon cells by roughly half. The optics are made of a glass sheet, under which are solar cells that have gone through slicing and other steps to become strips. Solaria has also designed trackers to go with its solar panels and is selling the equipment separately or as part of the package. Trackers tilt the solar panels to follow the sun’s movement throughout the day, and they are used in larger scale projects built for utilities or other businesses. Solaria has built various configurations with its products at its headquarters to show off different solar array designs (see our slide show). Using trackers adds costs, but it also boosts power generation, a benefit that could be well worth the investment, particularly in markets with incentives based on power production. But Solaria is pushing its relatively new technology at a time when the global market is beset by a glut of solar panels. Prices for solar panels have fallen so quickly – by 30 to 40 percent – that many manufacturers have posted losses and expect tough times to continue in 2012. Solar panel makers are boosting their research and development work to create more efficient solar panels in order to set themselves apart and command higher prices for their products. The company is among a breed of developers who sought to create alternatives to conventional silicon solar panels. The solar industry experienced a shortage of silicon around 2005 when it was growing and competing against the chip industry for the same raw material, which fetched hundreds of dollars per kilogram. Some companies turned to materials such as copper-indium-gallium-selenide (CIGS). The price of silicon has plummeted in recent years to around $30 per kilogram now on the spot market. Others began to experiment with materials such as germanium and gallium-arsenide, which are more expensive than silicon but can squeeze far more electricity from sunlight. To use these highly efficient materials, developers rely on mirrors and lenses to concentrate sunlight, so they can get the same amount of energy while using a smaller amount of materials. Solaria has opted to stick with the cheaper silicon but still adds the concentrating optics. The company was founded in 1999, but didn’t start working on concentrating technology until much later. Its engineers first used acrylic for lenses and placed them under a protective glass layer in the panel. They then decided to ditch acrylic and use only glass for the optics and spent 2009 finalizing a commercial design. Dan Shugar, who was president of PowerLight and then head of SunPower’s project development business (SunPower bought PowerLight in 2006), came to Solaria as CEO in early 2010.

There are, however, electric fish: eight-foot long, 600 volt, mouth breathing, alligator-killing fish. Although there are a number of fish that produce an electric charge, the species that is called "electric eel," E. electricus, is a member of the fish order, ostariophysian. Mistaken for an eel due to its shape and lack of pelvic, caudal and dorsal fins, E. electricus has a long (up to 8 feet), cylindrical body with a flat head. Its vital organs are found in the front fifth of its body (near the head), while the rest of its long body contains three electric organs, together filled with nearly 6,000 specialized electrocyte cells that, as the name suggests, produce, store and discharge electricity. The electric organs begin to develop early in the fish's lifetime. The Sachs, which produces only a weak electric charge and is used for echolocation, begins to develop very soon after birth. The other two electric organs, known as the main and the Hunter's, produce much higher voltages of around 600 volts and about 1 amp, so about 600 watts for approximately 2 milliseconds. Although the fish has gills, it takes in most of its oxygen through its "highly vascular mouth," and, therefore, often comes to the water's surface to breathe. The fish is also covered with a thick, gray to brownish/black skin. It is presumed that this tough layer protects it from its own electrical current. To reproduce, the female of the species deposits up to 17,000 eggs in a spit-nest made by the male during the dry season, and, on average, 1,200 of those eggs hatch. In captivity, male electric fish live up to 15 years and females up to 22. E. electricus Habitat The electric fish is native to the South America, particularly the Orinoco and Guyanas rivers, as well as large portions of the Amazon river basin. It lives on river bottoms and in swamps, and thrives in relatively low-oxygen waters because of its propensity to mouth breathe. E. electricus uses its electric organs for orientation, hunting and defense. While swimming through its murky habitat at night (it's nocturnal), the electric fish orients itself by periodically emitting a weak electrical discharge: This lower voltage can be used to "see" surrounding objects. Objects with a different conductivity will distort the electric field that the eel produces, thus making the eel aware of the object's presence. After locating its prey with weak electrical pulses, E. electricus kicks it up a notch: Once prey is found the electric eel will use a much larger electrical current to stun the fish. Toothless, electric fish eat their prey by "open[ing] their mouths to create a suction," and swallowing the meal whole. Able to produce a voltage as high as 650 volts and about 1 amp, the electric fish emits a strong, brief (2 milliseconds or less) shock when it is attacked by a predator. Although experts say the shock is rarely fatal by itself, it can kill some animals. How Does it Produce Electricity? E. electricus' nervous system controls its production of electricity: Each electrogenic cell [electrocyte] carries a negative charge of a little less than 100 millivolts on its outside compared to its inside. When the command signal arrives [from a "command nucleus" in the nervous system], the nerve terminal releases a minute puff of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter. Through nerves on one side of the cell, causing ion channels to open on that side. Sodium ions are able to rapidly enter the cell via these channels . . . [which] alters the equilibrium of the cell. To re-establish [it], potassium ions leave the cell on the other side,. . . . A transient path with low electrical resistance connecting the inside and outside of the cell. Thus, each cell behaves like a battery with the activated side carrying a negative charge and the opposite side a positive one. Because the cells are oriented inside the electric organ like a series of batteries piled into a flashlight, the current . . . set[s] off an avalanche of activation that runs its course in just two milliseconds. . . [and] creates a short-lived current flowing a

itat at night (it's nocturnal), the electric fish orients itself by periodically emitting a weak electrical discharge: This lower voltage can be used to "see" surrounding objects. Objects with a different conductivity will distort the electric field that the eel produces, thus making the eel aware of the object's presence. After locating its prey with weak electrical pulses, E. electricus kicks it up a notch: Once prey is found the electric eel will use a much larger electrical current to stun the fish. Toothless, electric fish eat their prey by "open[ing] their mouths to create a suction," and swallowing the meal whole. Able to produce a voltage as high as 650 volts and about 1 amp, the electric fish emits a strong, brief (2 milliseconds or less) shock when it is attacked by a predator. Although experts say the shock is rarely fatal by itself, it can kill some animals. How Does it Produce Electricity? E. electricus' nervous system controls its production of electricity: Each electrogenic cell [electrocyte] carries a negative charge of a little less than 100 millivolts on its outside compared to its inside. When the command signal arrives [from a "command nucleus" in the nervous system], the nerve terminal releases a minute puff of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter. Through nerves on one side of the cell, causing ion channels to open on that side. Sodium ions are able to rapidly enter the cell via these channels . . . [which] alters the equilibrium of the cell. To re-establish [it], potassium ions leave the cell on the other side,. . . . A transient path with low electrical resistance connecting the inside and outside of the cell. Thus, each cell behaves like a battery with the activated side carrying a negative charge and the opposite side a positive one. Because the cells are oriented inside the electric organ like a series of batteries piled into a flashlight, the current . . . set[s] off an avalanche of activation that runs its course in just two milliseconds. . . [and] creates a short-lived current flowing along the eel's body. Can Its Energy Be Harnessed? Scientists have long been impressed with the electrical generating ability of E. electricus, and recent research is leading to uses that may benefit people. Since 2009, scientists at the Living Planet Aquarium in Sandy, Utah, have been harnessing the power of their resident electric tree to power the lights on the aquarium's Christmas tree. Essentially, two stainless steel electrodes are attached to Sparky's (the electric fish) tank, and each time Sparky sends out a pulse, which is part of "his natural, normal activity," currents of electricity travel through the electrodes to sequencers that make the lights on the tree flash. Living Planet's marketing director loves the display because it "helps give a visual idea of what an animal really does on a daily basis." Some medical implants and devices require batteries to power their complex functions. In recent years, scientists have been looking for ways to create "bio-batteries," that "would be just like any other cell in your body," except they also produce electricity. A few researchers have been investigating whether E. electricus' electrocytes might make a goodblueprint, and are: Designing an artificial cell that could replicate the electrocyte's energy production. . . . [They] found that an artificial cell could actually out perform a natural cell. One hurdle to producing a viable bio-battery is finding a human-safe power source, although "bacteria cold be employed to recycle ATP – responsible for transferring energy within the cell – using glucose." Researchers remain hopeful, particularly since the bio-battery has many advantages including: "if it breaks, there are no toxins released into your system." If you liked this article, you might also enjoy: - Clownfish are All Born Male, a Dominant Male Will Turn Female When the Current Female of the Group Dies - There is a Species of Jellyfish That can Age Backwards - The Candirú Fish Can't Swim Up a Stream of Your Urine - Sushi is Not Raw Fish - How to Treat a Jel

long the eel's body. Can Its Energy Be Harnessed? Scientists have long been impressed with the electrical generating ability of E. electricus, and recent research is leading to uses that may benefit people. Since 2009, scientists at the Living Planet Aquarium in Sandy, Utah, have been harnessing the power of their resident electric tree to power the lights on the aquarium's Christmas tree. Essentially, two stainless steel electrodes are attached to Sparky's (the electric fish) tank, and each time Sparky sends out a pulse, which is part of "his natural, normal activity," currents of electricity travel through the electrodes to sequencers that make the lights on the tree flash. Living Planet's marketing director loves the display because it "helps give a visual idea of what an animal really does on a daily basis." Some medical implants and devices require batteries to power their complex functions. In recent years, scientists have been looking for ways to create "bio-batteries," that "would be just like any other cell in your body," except they also produce electricity. A few researchers have been investigating whether E. electricus' electrocytes might make a goodblueprint, and are: Designing an artificial cell that could replicate the electrocyte's energy production. . . . [They] found that an artificial cell could actually out perform a natural cell. One hurdle to producing a viable bio-battery is finding a human-safe power source, although "bacteria cold be employed to recycle ATP – responsible for transferring energy within the cell – using glucose." Researchers remain hopeful, particularly since the bio-battery has many advantages including: "if it breaks, there are no toxins released into your system." If you liked this article, you might also enjoy: - Clownfish are All Born Male, a Dominant Male Will Turn Female When the Current Female of the Group Dies - There is a Species of Jellyfish That can Age Backwards - The Candirú Fish Can't Swim Up a Stream of Your Urine - Sushi is Not Raw Fish - How to Treat a Jellyfish Sting This post has been republished with permission from TodayIFoundOut.com.

lyfish Sting This post has been republished with permission from TodayIFoundOut.com.

Derieving interesting data is always tied to a time period. We may want to extract interesting information from the whole life time of the data or we want to perform the same on a given time period say the last month or week. To specify such options, we have user defined functions in pig. This allows us to write filters and operations that we want pig to perform on each entry of the data set. This gives more control on the data filtering, flow. Some of the nuances of pig udf are explained in the example below. Pig Version of this example: Apache Pig version 0.10.0 (r1328203) Objective: You want to write a filter function in PIG to filter data rows according to a date range that you are interested in. You want to invoke the script from a scheduler which passes in the date range as command line parameters. A pig script is shown in the image below. 1) Passing command line parameters to pig script: You need to pass command line arguments like this pig -param datefrom='2012-10-20 00:00:00' -param dateto='2012-10-23 00:00:00' -x mapreduce user-based-analytics.pig. (I am actually calling the script from Python, which we will see in the next post). Here I am using these two date parameters to build my Java UDF. If you are passing parameters with space character, it has to be like this otherwise pig will throw an error saying that, it cannot create your UDF java class. 2) With in the pig script: You refer to the command line parameters using the format '$ 3) Defining your UDF reference using DEFINE pig keyword: This allows you to create a reference to your UDF which you can call using an alias. For example, the script defines a reference to the UDF as follows, define date-based-filter com.home.pig.udfs.TimeStampFilter('$datefrom', '$dateto') where date-based-filter is the alias that I will use to call my UDF com.home.pig.udfs.TimeStampFilter java class. 4) Calling your UDF filter in a pig script using FILTER keyword: Pig does not have a boolean data type. But, expressions are evaluated to boolean true or false. You need to call your UDF as follows, with the alias for your UDF. Here we are checking for datebasedfilter(ts) == TRUE i.e does my UDF 'com.home.pig.udfs.TimeStampFilter' acting on the current row with 'dateto' and 'datefrom' return Java Boolean true or false. filter-by-date = filter site-data by date-based-filter(ts) == TRUE; 5) Now the Java Class that does the filtering. b) Override the public Boolean exec(Tuple arg0) member function to define how this filter will handle tuples from the script. Here I just get the date from the string and check if it is within the range. Why use Pig and UDFs? Writing UDFs can be easy and saves a lot of time compared to writing a MapReduce Java program or any other option. Plus, if you have a ton of data or will end up with one this is better option since Hadoop will scale and Pig will do the jobs like data groupings, filtering for you.

We have had two indications recently that typhoid fever, for all the vaunted control of the disease which we have claimed, is still alive. The newspapers carried the report of an epidemic in Minneapolis and the U. S. Public Health Service has published a final report of its investigation of the epidemic of typhoid fever that occurred in the Ringling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey’s circus in the summer of 1934. These evidences of return to the Middle Ages teach us that we can never relax the vigilance which is needed to keep the infectious diseases in subjugation. Boards of health everywhere are constantly working on the control of the water supply and milk supply, and food handlers, yet somehow or other the disease manages to break through the barriers and cause death as well as economic loss. In the case of the circus, typhoid broke out in Detroit and 68 employees were hospitalized. In the course of time 141 persons were left in hospitals in various cities. Seventy-four of them proved to have typhoid. From the fact that everybody in the circus was infected except train men, porters and elephant men, whose water supply was separate from the rest of the circus, the indications are that the epidemic was water-borne, although in what city enroute or under what circumstances, has not been proved. The epidemic itself certainly teaches us that the only sure way of protection against typhoid is individual inoculation or vaccination by the hypodermic injection of typhoid vaccine. As an indication of the vigilance with which boards of health work on the problem of water supply, I find in the report of the Indiana Division of Public Health for one month that the Board investigated 32 public water supplies in such cities as Aurora, Elkhart, Fort Wayne, Lafayette Heights, Vincennes, Winslow, etc. It made 999 examinations of drinking water, 93 examinations of bottled water and 49 examinations of swimming water. It made 825 examinations of dairies and 966 examinations of other food stations. In spite of this staggering amount of work typhoid fever will slip through because none of us have any natural immunity to it. Today the only safe thing to do is to have vaccination of each individual against typhoid. This should be done before the age of 5 years. Parents often balk at the idea of vaccination at early agesvaccination against smallpox and diphtheria as well as typhoid. But this attitude is unwarranted. First, because these diseases strike particularly the young. To make prevention effective, we must begin early. And second because children, as a rule, react less than adults. This is really true. A one-year-old baby will not have as much trouble with a smallpox vaccination as a man of twenty-five. Just as a baby will not have as rough a trip with measles as an adult.

Marketus Presswood: On Being Black in ChinaRoundup: Historians' Take tags: China, The Atlantic, African American, Marketus Presswood Marketus Presswood is currently pursuing his Ph.D. in Modern Chinese History with an emphasis on both the Republican Era (1912-1949) and the post-1949 era. In the 1996 China edition of the Lonely Planet's Guidebook, a text box aside comment from a street interview provided some interesting conversation fodder, "... there is no racism in China because there are no black people," a Chinese woman was reported to have said. This became a little running joke in my small study abroad circle, since I was the only black student in my program of fifty students. It was 1997, and I was in Beijing studying Chinese. "There is no way you could be experiencing any racism in China," one classmate sardonically told me, "because you are the only black person here." We all laughed. While China is officially home to 55 ethnic minority groups, the Middle Kingdom is far more ethnically homogeneous than the United States. Han Chinese make up 91.59 percent of the population, and the majority of the remaining 8.41 percent are visually indistinguishable from their Han counterparts. In part due to this difference, race and nationality are often conflated in China. A white foreigner is likely to be called laowai, or "old foreigner," while a black foreigner is more likely to be described as heiren, or "black person." White Americans face no barriers to claiming their nationality, but blacks are often assumed to hail from Africa, a place thought to be more backwards and poorer than China, and one more than likely receiving Chinese government economic aid in the form of loans and infrastructure projects. This leads to either resentment or denigration on the part of some Chinese. The Chinese media tends to focus on the generosity of the Chinese government toward Africa -- a sore point among Chinese who feel their government is not doing enough for the Chinese themselves -- and not on the valuable natural resources gained or access to lucrative growth markets for cheap Chinese goods.... comments powered by Disqus - At Brandis the Afro-American studies faculty is siding with student protesters - NYT's Notable Books of 2015: These are the history books that made the cut - Petition signed by 44,000 to add more female thinkers to the Politics A Level syllabus in the UK - Most Students Have No Clue What Accurate Native American History Looks Like - Historians Re-Enter Presidential Studies

Appeal for war stories to create biggest ever digital history archiveBreaking News tags: World War I, digital history, Imperial War Museum The Imperial War Museum is to use the centenary of the first world war to launch an international appeal for private letters, diaries and photographs held by the families of those who served, with the aim of putting eight million personal stories online by the end of 2018. The museum's aim is to collect a mass of personal information, much of which will have been stored away in people's cupboards and attics, and make it available to the public at the press of a button. The information submitted and the individual stories of family members will become part of a giant online library for use by historians and people interested in researching their own relatives' roles in the conflict. The project – called Lives of the First World War and launching next February – will see the museum returning to its founding purpose but adapting to the internet age, in what is believed to be the biggest trawl for historical information ever undertaken. The museum was founded on 5 March 1917, when the War Cabinet approved a proposal by Sir Alfred Mond MP for the creation of a national war museum to record the events still taking place during the Great War and to honour those who had lost their lives and those who survived.... comments powered by Disqus - At Brandis the Afro-American studies faculty is siding with student protesters - NYT's Notable Books of 2015: These are the history books that made the cut - Petition signed by 44,000 to add more female thinkers to the Politics A Level syllabus in the UK - Most Students Have No Clue What Accurate Native American History Looks Like - Historians Re-Enter Presidential Studies

Most conifers are not shade tolerant, but yews are a major exception. Their dark green needles add a bit of color to the otherwise barren shade garden from fall through early spring. Description of Japanese yew: In its original form, the Japanese yew is a single-trunked tree reaching 50 feet in height. The species is rarely grown in cultivation, having been replaced by the numerous dense, slow-growing varieties that may be globular, vase-shaped, pyramidal, or spreading, depending on the selection. Although they are labeled dwarf plants, most eventually become quite high: 20 feet or more. The dark green needles have rounded tips and are not "scratchy" like most other conifers. Female plants bear bright red berries. Ease of care of Japanese Yew: Easy. Growing Japanese yew: Yews are perfectly tolerant of moderate shade, and even deep shade, as long as they get some spring sunlight. In dense shade, the shrubs need harsher pruning to help fill in the gaps formed by a more open growth pattern. Yews need fertile soil and ample moisture. They will not tolerate root competition from shallow-rooted trees. Protect them from strong, drying winds. Propagating Japanese yew: By cuttings, usually carried out by professionals, or seed. Uses of Japanese yew: The Japanese yew is widely used as a foundation plant, especially on the north or east sides of the home. It makes an excellent formal or natural hedge, and dwarf varieties -- of which there are many in different sizes, shapes, and colors -- are popularly used in rock gardens. Related species of Japanese Yew: English yew (Taxus baccata) and the hybrid yew (T. x media) are similar to the Japanese yew, although the English yew is less hardy (USDA zone 6). Scientific name of Japanese yew: Taxus cuspidata If you love the Japanese yew's berries but don't have an outdoor garden, consider growing it as a house plant. We'll show you how in the next section.Want more information on gardening and great plants you can grow? Try: - Shade Gardens: You don't need loads of direct sunlight to create a lush retreat in your yard, garden, or patio space. Learn how to plant a vital shade garden. - Shade Garden Plants: Find out about stunning options for planting that will make your shade garden unique and lovely. - Garden Types: There are many ways to cultivate a lush oasis around your home. Read about all the different types of gardens you can create. - Gardening: Get great tips on how to keep your garden healthy and thriving.

PSim Home > York Corpus Christi Play [ Staging | Contexts | Origin | Glossary ] |Introduction Contexts Chronology||For an historical anecdote illustrating how the religious, economic, and civic life of the medieval Christian were inextricably linked, read "A Christ Taken Prisoner" The outdoor theatrical event in the medieval city of York, England, known to its performers and audiences as the "Corpus Christi Play," is a collection of brief religious plays that together represent the story of Christian salvation. The York cycle is one of four that have survived in more or less complete form. The others are known as Chester, Wakefield, (after the cities where they were performed) and N-Town (now identified with no known city, but formerly identified as Townley). The York cycle was performed nearly every year, on the feast of Corpus Christi (Latin for the Body of Christ). The plays were already an established tradition in the late 14th century, and they continued in one form or other (weakened by Protestant censorship) until the mid-to-late 16th century. Nobody knows who wrote the plays, or even how many authors there were, although the group of plays describing the Passion seems to bear the stamp of an exceptional dramatist now called "the York Realist." The plays date from the time before England's separation from the Church of Rome; as such, they emphasize the sacraments and rituals of the Catholic faith and urge people to salvation through active membership and participation in the community of worshippers. Since the plays were performed as part of a day-long celebration of Corpus Christi -- the presence of the Body of Christ in the sacrament of the Eucharist -- they upheld the authority of the Church as a theological and moral guide for living in this world and the next. To begin to understand the popularity and significance of the Corpus Christi plays, we must first recognize the significance of the feast being celebrated. During the early middle ages, as church architecture and artistry moved away from the conservatism necessitated by its beginnings as a renegade faith in a Pagan world, and as the rituals surrounding Christian worship grew more intricate, the interior design of churches evolved. As the churches grew in size, the altar grew more elaborate, and the people moved proportionately farther away from it; communion rails developed because it was inconvenient to have crowds rushing the ornate altars to receive the Host. These rails eventually developed into a screen of bars or wooden slats, behind which the priest would say the mass. In addition, the priest and the congregation both faced the tabernacle on the back wall, the end result being that the priest blocked the people's view of most of the mass. Over generations, the faithful began to associate the unseen elements of the service with an air of mystery. Only when the priest lifted the consecrated wine and bread over his head in prayer -- a gesture known as the Elevation -- did the people get a clear view of the action. In the cities people ran from church to church to see the elevated Host as often as possible, since they assumed that the more Elevations you saw, the more grace you would acquire. At the end of the twelfth century, stories began to circulate of miracles that had occurred at the moment of Elevation -- people had seen visions, the Host shone like the sun, a tiny child had appeared in the priest's hands, and so forth. In some congregations the majority of the faithful waited for the ringing of the sance-bell, which signaled the approaching consecration, before they even deigned to enter the church, and then, as soon as the Elevation was concluded rushed out again as quickly as they had come in. People started lawsuits to ensure that they obtained pews which provided a favourable view of the altar, and some priests even took bribes to protract the Elevation. (Harris 75)To address this growing problem, in 1264, Pope Urban IV suggested a new religious celebration that would bring the consecrated host out into the streets so that those who wishe

servatism necessitated by its beginnings as a renegade faith in a Pagan world, and as the rituals surrounding Christian worship grew more intricate, the interior design of churches evolved. As the churches grew in size, the altar grew more elaborate, and the people moved proportionately farther away from it; communion rails developed because it was inconvenient to have crowds rushing the ornate altars to receive the Host. These rails eventually developed into a screen of bars or wooden slats, behind which the priest would say the mass. In addition, the priest and the congregation both faced the tabernacle on the back wall, the end result being that the priest blocked the people's view of most of the mass. Over generations, the faithful began to associate the unseen elements of the service with an air of mystery. Only when the priest lifted the consecrated wine and bread over his head in prayer -- a gesture known as the Elevation -- did the people get a clear view of the action. In the cities people ran from church to church to see the elevated Host as often as possible, since they assumed that the more Elevations you saw, the more grace you would acquire. At the end of the twelfth century, stories began to circulate of miracles that had occurred at the moment of Elevation -- people had seen visions, the Host shone like the sun, a tiny child had appeared in the priest's hands, and so forth. In some congregations the majority of the faithful waited for the ringing of the sance-bell, which signaled the approaching consecration, before they even deigned to enter the church, and then, as soon as the Elevation was concluded rushed out again as quickly as they had come in. People started lawsuits to ensure that they obtained pews which provided a favourable view of the altar, and some priests even took bribes to protract the Elevation. (Harris 75)To address this growing problem, in 1264, Pope Urban IV suggested a new religious celebration that would bring the consecrated host out into the streets so that those who wished to gaze and meditate upon it could have their fill without disrupting the other business of the mass. This joyful celebration, which began to establish itself about 50 years later, served as an important counterpoint to the medieval obsession with the sinful state of fallen humanity; it was an opportunity for the "good Christian" to reflect upon the promises of Christ, not merely upon the consequences of human sin. The Mass, in Urban's words, should be a "glorious act of remembrance, which fills the minds of the faithful with joy at their salvation and mingles their tears with an outburst of reverend jubilation." Medieval drama served as a religious outlet; and, in an age when most people were illiterate, took an important place alongside stained glass windows and statues in spreading the Christian message to the general public. For instance, the play depicting the birth of Christ includes a long monologue delivered by a learned man directly to the audience-- it is a sermon explaining the significance of Old Testament prophecies that point to the Nativity. The speaker ensures that the audience understands everything they need to know in order to appreciate more fully the significance of the events that the actors are about to portray. The actors then, become living icons, windows into the spiritual realm, which never seemed very far off to the medieval mind. During the early part of the Corpus Christi period, the Corpus Christi plays were part of a larger celebration on the feast of Corpus Christi. The community leaders, including the religious authorities, the elected town officials, and the masters of the guild, assembled for a pre-dawn torchlight procession in honor of the Body of Christ-- a consecrated host was carried at the head of the procession. The play wagons would follow behind. The York pageant was completely interwoven into society. Throughout the year, the elected officials -- known as the City Fathers -- used the York play as a way for the local government to regulate business. For instance, when

d to gaze and meditate upon it could have their fill without disrupting the other business of the mass. This joyful celebration, which began to establish itself about 50 years later, served as an important counterpoint to the medieval obsession with the sinful state of fallen humanity; it was an opportunity for the "good Christian" to reflect upon the promises of Christ, not merely upon the consequences of human sin. The Mass, in Urban's words, should be a "glorious act of remembrance, which fills the minds of the faithful with joy at their salvation and mingles their tears with an outburst of reverend jubilation." Medieval drama served as a religious outlet; and, in an age when most people were illiterate, took an important place alongside stained glass windows and statues in spreading the Christian message to the general public. For instance, the play depicting the birth of Christ includes a long monologue delivered by a learned man directly to the audience-- it is a sermon explaining the significance of Old Testament prophecies that point to the Nativity. The speaker ensures that the audience understands everything they need to know in order to appreciate more fully the significance of the events that the actors are about to portray. The actors then, become living icons, windows into the spiritual realm, which never seemed very far off to the medieval mind. During the early part of the Corpus Christi period, the Corpus Christi plays were part of a larger celebration on the feast of Corpus Christi. The community leaders, including the religious authorities, the elected town officials, and the masters of the guild, assembled for a pre-dawn torchlight procession in honor of the Body of Christ-- a consecrated host was carried at the head of the procession. The play wagons would follow behind. The York pageant was completely interwoven into society. Throughout the year, the elected officials -- known as the City Fathers -- used the York play as a way for the local government to regulate business. For instance, when the merchant guild imported leather, impinging on the tanners' livelihood, the merchants were ordered by the city officials to pay a fine; half of the fine went to the city, and the other half went to pay the tanners' expenses for mounting the next year's pageant. Similarly, if a guild defaulted on a play, caused delays or disorder in the procession, or if a clergyman or burgher failed to show up to take his part in the procession, fines for these infractions went to the next year's production. In the York plays the past is a direct continuation of the present: Moses swears by the cross; Pilate calls his soldiers knights; everyone wears medieval garb. No attempt was made to hide this anachronism because nobody minded -- medieval people did not think of the world of the Bible as different from their own. Because each play was produced by a guild, there was a competition among the guilds to produce the best play. The guilds were economic, social and often religious groups, tied together in that unique medieval way. Within the plays are obvious and more subtle mercantile messages. For instance, the play of the construction of Noah's ark was produced by the wainwrights, or shipbuilders; Noah was probably played by a well-known shipbuilder, employing his craft with talent on loan from God. In the play put on by the cloth dyers, Jesus is dressed in white, which one of the mockers calls the color of fools -- suggesting, in essence, the audience members are fools unless they pay to have their clothing dyed. The winesellers did the (now lost) Wedding Feast of Cana, the Bakers did the Last Supper, and the Chaundlers -- who made candles and chandeliers -- did the play with the Star of Bethlehem. The Mercer's wagon for the play "Doomsday" included special effects -- a pulley-operated platform that Christ rides up and down from heaven; smoke for a gaping hell mouth, into which the sinners were thrown; miniature angels that seemed to run around the heavens in a circle; and of course, costumes, music, and a choir of voices. Al

the merchant guild imported leather, impinging on the tanners' livelihood, the merchants were ordered by the city officials to pay a fine; half of the fine went to the city, and the other half went to pay the tanners' expenses for mounting the next year's pageant. Similarly, if a guild defaulted on a play, caused delays or disorder in the procession, or if a clergyman or burgher failed to show up to take his part in the procession, fines for these infractions went to the next year's production. In the York plays the past is a direct continuation of the present: Moses swears by the cross; Pilate calls his soldiers knights; everyone wears medieval garb. No attempt was made to hide this anachronism because nobody minded -- medieval people did not think of the world of the Bible as different from their own. Because each play was produced by a guild, there was a competition among the guilds to produce the best play. The guilds were economic, social and often religious groups, tied together in that unique medieval way. Within the plays are obvious and more subtle mercantile messages. For instance, the play of the construction of Noah's ark was produced by the wainwrights, or shipbuilders; Noah was probably played by a well-known shipbuilder, employing his craft with talent on loan from God. In the play put on by the cloth dyers, Jesus is dressed in white, which one of the mockers calls the color of fools -- suggesting, in essence, the audience members are fools unless they pay to have their clothing dyed. The winesellers did the (now lost) Wedding Feast of Cana, the Bakers did the Last Supper, and the Chaundlers -- who made candles and chandeliers -- did the play with the Star of Bethlehem. The Mercer's wagon for the play "Doomsday" included special effects -- a pulley-operated platform that Christ rides up and down from heaven; smoke for a gaping hell mouth, into which the sinners were thrown; miniature angels that seemed to run around the heavens in a circle; and of course, costumes, music, and a choir of voices. Although scholars used to think that all of society revolved around the guilds, the guild structure was largely undeveloped before the Black Death (14c). Modern Marxists imagined the guilds were labor organizations, developed by the rising working class to protect their economic and political rights. More recent research suggests that the guilds were formed by the city officials in order to organize and control various conflicting business interests. They were run not by workers but by the bosses -- master guildsmen who controlled who was hired and who got training; these masters aspired to be landlords and city officials, and moved freely in these circles. For the few at the top of the guild structure, the York Play might have been part of a class struggle being waged in the city. The working class did have its own organizations, called "Fraternities." These were similar to the modern JayCees, Knights of Columbus or Shriners; they were attached to a specific parish and focusing on charity -- an enormous amount of which was needed in the days before large-scale government social programs. To modern Christians, the term "religious theater" tends to conjure up images of terrified but cute kids wearing dishtowels on their heads at Christmas time, or silly-looking adults playing guitars and singing with puppets. Because the feast being celebrated is named for the body of Christ, the York plays emphasize the importance of that body, dwelling on its actions, its symbolic significance, and, of course, its death and resurrection. Many Protestants will be uncomfortable with the play's presentation of Christ's suffering, as well as the implied and direct significance of "the body of Christ" and its relationship to the bread and wine offered during Christian worship. A colleague of mine recently rolled his eyes and moaned in mimicry of traditional paintings of Christ's passion, calling such images "offensive" to an Evangelical Protestant mindset. During the Reformation, all artistic reminders of the medieval church, and the p

though scholars used to think that all of society revolved around the guilds, the guild structure was largely undeveloped before the Black Death (14c). Modern Marxists imagined the guilds were labor organizations, developed by the rising working class to protect their economic and political rights. More recent research suggests that the guilds were formed by the city officials in order to organize and control various conflicting business interests. They were run not by workers but by the bosses -- master guildsmen who controlled who was hired and who got training; these masters aspired to be landlords and city officials, and moved freely in these circles. For the few at the top of the guild structure, the York Play might have been part of a class struggle being waged in the city. The working class did have its own organizations, called "Fraternities." These were similar to the modern JayCees, Knights of Columbus or Shriners; they were attached to a specific parish and focusing on charity -- an enormous amount of which was needed in the days before large-scale government social programs. To modern Christians, the term "religious theater" tends to conjure up images of terrified but cute kids wearing dishtowels on their heads at Christmas time, or silly-looking adults playing guitars and singing with puppets. Because the feast being celebrated is named for the body of Christ, the York plays emphasize the importance of that body, dwelling on its actions, its symbolic significance, and, of course, its death and resurrection. Many Protestants will be uncomfortable with the play's presentation of Christ's suffering, as well as the implied and direct significance of "the body of Christ" and its relationship to the bread and wine offered during Christian worship. A colleague of mine recently rolled his eyes and moaned in mimicry of traditional paintings of Christ's passion, calling such images "offensive" to an Evangelical Protestant mindset. During the Reformation, all artistic reminders of the medieval church, and the public's lingering attachment to them, constituted grave threats to the new Protestant order, prompting Protestant reformers to act quickly to suppress them (see Eamon Duffy, The Stripping of the Altars: Traditional Religion in England c. 1400-1580). As a result, many protestant denominations have all but lost what was once a popular and powerful devotional tradition: affective piety -- a religious zeal which affects the emotions, by way of statues, images, and devotional legends which expound upon core religious messages. (See "Affective Piety," below). Every Easter in the Philippines, pious volunteers carry crosses through the streets and actually allow themselves to be temporarily crucified (with stainless steel nails sterilized in alcohol) in order to fully understand the grief and pain which Jesus underwent on the cross. Religious devotion which encourages the faithful to meditate deeply upon the physical and emotional sufferings of holy figures is called "affective piety." The Philippines example may be extreme; however, affective piety was an important part of medieval religious instruction, designed to stir the personal devotion of people living in a society that took religion for granted. In their private chambers, using a picture, a statue, or spoken prayers to feed their spiritual imagination, the devout entered into the suffering of Christ, a martyr or some other holy figure with a psychological totality that we today would probably describe as a very extreme form of method acting. Many modern Christians may be tempted to dismiss or ridicule such devotional practices, yet these same critics may have no problem with the idea of responding with powerful emotion to contemporary religious music or extemporaneous spoken prayer. Meanwhile secular culture provides many opportunities for people to cry over the imaginary troubles of soap opera characters, or to cheer or curse a televised sporting event. In the absence of television or recorded sound, the medieval faithful responded in much the same way to icons

ublic's lingering attachment to them, constituted grave threats to the new Protestant order, prompting Protestant reformers to act quickly to suppress them (see Eamon Duffy, The Stripping of the Altars: Traditional Religion in England c. 1400-1580). As a result, many protestant denominations have all but lost what was once a popular and powerful devotional tradition: affective piety -- a religious zeal which affects the emotions, by way of statues, images, and devotional legends which expound upon core religious messages. (See "Affective Piety," below). Every Easter in the Philippines, pious volunteers carry crosses through the streets and actually allow themselves to be temporarily crucified (with stainless steel nails sterilized in alcohol) in order to fully understand the grief and pain which Jesus underwent on the cross. Religious devotion which encourages the faithful to meditate deeply upon the physical and emotional sufferings of holy figures is called "affective piety." The Philippines example may be extreme; however, affective piety was an important part of medieval religious instruction, designed to stir the personal devotion of people living in a society that took religion for granted. In their private chambers, using a picture, a statue, or spoken prayers to feed their spiritual imagination, the devout entered into the suffering of Christ, a martyr or some other holy figure with a psychological totality that we today would probably describe as a very extreme form of method acting. Many modern Christians may be tempted to dismiss or ridicule such devotional practices, yet these same critics may have no problem with the idea of responding with powerful emotion to contemporary religious music or extemporaneous spoken prayer. Meanwhile secular culture provides many opportunities for people to cry over the imaginary troubles of soap opera characters, or to cheer or curse a televised sporting event. In the absence of television or recorded sound, the medieval faithful responded in much the same way to icons, statues, or music or dialogue from live performers. For more on affective piety, see "'Crucifye hem, Crucifye hem': The Subject and Affective Response in Middle English Passion Narratives", by Laurelle LeVert (a former classmate of mine). June, 1997 -- first published in (Re)Soundings 16 Jul 1999 -- updated for UWEC May 2003 -- updated for Seton Hill University PSim Home > York Corpus Christi Play [ Staging | Contexts | Origin | Glossary ]

, statues, or music or dialogue from live performers. For more on affective piety, see "'Crucifye hem, Crucifye hem': The Subject and Affective Response in Middle English Passion Narratives", by Laurelle LeVert (a former classmate of mine). June, 1997 -- first published in (Re)Soundings 16 Jul 1999 -- updated for UWEC May 2003 -- updated for Seton Hill University PSim Home > York Corpus Christi Play [ Staging | Contexts | Origin | Glossary ]

Surface plasmon polaritons are collective longitudinal oscillations of electrons near a material surface, strongly coupled to an electromagnetic wave. The existence of coherent electron oscillations bound to the surface of a conductor were first predicted by Ritchie in 1957 and demonstrated by Powell and Swan[2,3] in 1959, but have recently experienced an explosion of interest due to their ability to efficiently manipulate light on a deep sub-wavelength scale. Because the electromagnetic wave is coupled to the motion of conduction band electrons bound to the material surface, the fields are strongly localized to the surface, opening up possibilities of sub-wavelength optical detectors and waveguides; compact, sensitive chemical detectors; and enhanced light-matter interaction. |Fig. 1: Dispersion relation for bulk plasmons, free-space electromagnetic waves, and surface plasmons.| Both bulk and surface plasmons have associated electromagnetic waves, and can consequently be described by Maxwell's equations. The coherent oscillations of electron motion can be encapsulated in the dielectric constant of the material. The derivation of the electromagnetic fields which characterize bulk and surface plasmons is done below, and those interested are encouraged to work out the results. To keep things brief however, the basic form of the bulk and surface plasmon solutions are shown below, along with a plot of the dispersion relation for these modes. The dispersion diagram relates the time-variation of the wave (given by its frequency &omega) to the spatial variation of the wave (given by its wave-vector kx). Bulk plasmons are associated with purely transverse electromagnetic waves, with the electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to the direction of propagation, and can only exist for &omega > &omegap (the plasma frequency). &omegap is the resonant frequency of free electrons in response to a perturbation (such as an electromagnetic field). For &omega < &omegap, the wave-vector for bulk plasmons becomes imaginary, giving an exponentially decaying wave instead of a propagating wave. It is for this reason that most metals are highly reflective for visible light (&omega < &omegap &asymp 10eV), but transparent for ultraviolet light (&omega > &omegap) [4, pg. 275]. Surface plasmons have an associated electromagnetic wave with both transverse and longitudinal field components. Such waves can only be excited at the interface between a conductor and dielectric, and are tightly bound to the surface. The fields reach their maximum at the interface (z=0), and exponentially decay away from the surface. The wave-vector of the surface plasmon mode (kspp) always lies to the right of the free space wave-vector (ko), such that &lambdaspp < &lambdao, where &lambdaspp is the wavelength of the surface plasmon and &lambdao is the wavelength of light in free space (vacuum). Additionally, this makes it impossible to directly launch a surface plasmon wave by illumination with free-space radiation: the free-space photons simply do not have enough momentum to excite the surface plasmon. As &omega increases, kspp gets larger and larger, moving further away from ko. As kspp increases, the surface plasmon wavelngth decreases and the wave is more tightly bound to the surface. This process has an upper limit of &omegasp, the surface plasmon resonant frequency, which occurs when the dielectric constant of the metal and the dielectric have the same magnitude but opposite signs. |Fig. 2: Schematic of a Kretschmann coupling setup for launching surface plasmons optically.| Surface plasmons were first predicted by Ritchie in 1957, and were experimentally verified by Powell and Swan[2,3] in 1959 with electron energy loss spectroscopy measurements. In these measurements, high energy electrons were used to bombard a thin metallic film and launch surface plasmons. The charge of the high energy electrons couples to the plasma oscillations of electrons in the metal; by tuning the energy and angle of incidence of the electrons, the wave-vector can be tuned and surface plas

an exponentially decaying wave instead of a propagating wave. It is for this reason that most metals are highly reflective for visible light (&omega < &omegap &asymp 10eV), but transparent for ultraviolet light (&omega > &omegap) [4, pg. 275]. Surface plasmons have an associated electromagnetic wave with both transverse and longitudinal field components. Such waves can only be excited at the interface between a conductor and dielectric, and are tightly bound to the surface. The fields reach their maximum at the interface (z=0), and exponentially decay away from the surface. The wave-vector of the surface plasmon mode (kspp) always lies to the right of the free space wave-vector (ko), such that &lambdaspp < &lambdao, where &lambdaspp is the wavelength of the surface plasmon and &lambdao is the wavelength of light in free space (vacuum). Additionally, this makes it impossible to directly launch a surface plasmon wave by illumination with free-space radiation: the free-space photons simply do not have enough momentum to excite the surface plasmon. As &omega increases, kspp gets larger and larger, moving further away from ko. As kspp increases, the surface plasmon wavelngth decreases and the wave is more tightly bound to the surface. This process has an upper limit of &omegasp, the surface plasmon resonant frequency, which occurs when the dielectric constant of the metal and the dielectric have the same magnitude but opposite signs. |Fig. 2: Schematic of a Kretschmann coupling setup for launching surface plasmons optically.| Surface plasmons were first predicted by Ritchie in 1957, and were experimentally verified by Powell and Swan[2,3] in 1959 with electron energy loss spectroscopy measurements. In these measurements, high energy electrons were used to bombard a thin metallic film and launch surface plasmons. The charge of the high energy electrons couples to the plasma oscillations of electrons in the metal; by tuning the energy and angle of incidence of the electrons, the wave-vector can be tuned and surface plasmons of a whole range of wavelengths can be excited. However, due to the high energy of the electrons, they have a very large momentum and it is difficult to precisely control the coupling: even a slight spread in energy or angle will result in a very broad range of surface plasmon wavelengths being excited. Additionally, only surface plasmons far along the dispersion curve, where kspp is largest, are generally excited. A more precise method to launch surface plasmons is through coupling with an incident electromagnetic wave (photon). As mentioned previously, direct excitation of surface plasmons by free-space photons is not achievable because kspp is always greater than ko; this can be seen in figure 1, where the surface plasmon dispersion relation always lies to the right of the free space dispersion curve. This can be overcome by back-side illumination through a material with a higher index of refraction (n), where the far-field radiation has a larger wave-vector (k=nko). This type of coupling geometry is shown in figure 2, and is known as a Kretschmann-Raether coupler. A surface plasmon will be efficiently excited when k|| = nkosin(&theta) = kspp. Kretschmann couplers are commonly used in experiments, but are limited to very thin films such that the high-k photon is able to tunnel through the film and couple to a surface plasmon on the lower-index surface. A more general approach to launching surface plasmons with light is the use of structured surfaces that are able to impart momentum on the photon, enabling it to couple to the surface plasmon mode. Anything from a single sub-wavelength disk or slit, to rectangular or sinusoidal diffraction gratings are used for this type of coupling. A thorough overview of surface plasmon coupling and patterned and rough surfaces is given by Raether. Surface plasmons have many interesting applications such as optical measurements of films, chemicals, and biological agents bound to a metallic surface; confinement and guiding of light below the classical diffraction limit; an

mons of a whole range of wavelengths can be excited. However, due to the high energy of the electrons, they have a very large momentum and it is difficult to precisely control the coupling: even a slight spread in energy or angle will result in a very broad range of surface plasmon wavelengths being excited. Additionally, only surface plasmons far along the dispersion curve, where kspp is largest, are generally excited. A more precise method to launch surface plasmons is through coupling with an incident electromagnetic wave (photon). As mentioned previously, direct excitation of surface plasmons by free-space photons is not achievable because kspp is always greater than ko; this can be seen in figure 1, where the surface plasmon dispersion relation always lies to the right of the free space dispersion curve. This can be overcome by back-side illumination through a material with a higher index of refraction (n), where the far-field radiation has a larger wave-vector (k=nko). This type of coupling geometry is shown in figure 2, and is known as a Kretschmann-Raether coupler. A surface plasmon will be efficiently excited when k|| = nkosin(&theta) = kspp. Kretschmann couplers are commonly used in experiments, but are limited to very thin films such that the high-k photon is able to tunnel through the film and couple to a surface plasmon on the lower-index surface. A more general approach to launching surface plasmons with light is the use of structured surfaces that are able to impart momentum on the photon, enabling it to couple to the surface plasmon mode. Anything from a single sub-wavelength disk or slit, to rectangular or sinusoidal diffraction gratings are used for this type of coupling. A thorough overview of surface plasmon coupling and patterned and rough surfaces is given by Raether. Surface plasmons have many interesting applications such as optical measurements of films, chemicals, and biological agents bound to a metallic surface; confinement and guiding of light below the classical diffraction limit; and enhanced light-matter interaction such as surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS). A few of the more interesting applications from the literature and industry are outlined below. Surface plasmon resonance sensors based on Kretschmann couplers can be used to make precise optical measurements at a metal-dielectric interface. The basic idea behind these detectors is encapsulated in the coupling condition discussed above for the Kretschmann geometry: k|| = nkosin(&theta) = kspp. Since the surface plasmon is tightly bound to the metal-dielectric interface, any changes in that interface will translate directly into changes in the surface plasmon wave-vector kspp. This will cause a corresponding change in the optimal excitation angle for the Kretschmann coupler; by measuring this angle, the change in kspp can be deduced, allowing for the change in the refractive index to be computed. These detectors are sensitive enough that they can measure a change in film thickness of just a single monolayer, or refraction index changes (for example, due to chemical binding events on a bio-functionalized gold surface) as small as 10-6 RIU (refractive index units). For example, the commercial sensiQ detector from Nomadics is capable of measuring binding events of just one picogram of protein/mm2. More recently, there has been an explosion of interest in surface plasmons on nanoscale patterned surfaces. Using modern nanofabrication facilities, it is possible to make structures with feature sizes much smaller than the wavelength of visible light (&sim 500nm). For example, enhanced transmission through arrays of sub-wavelength slits has been experimentally demonstrated and has promising applications in photolithography and high-density optical data storage. Because surface plasmons can be launched at optical frequencies with much smaller wavelengths, it is possible to manipulate the flow of light on the scale of tens of nanometers. This has led to the coining of the term "plasmonics", where surface plasmons are used to manipulate an

d enhanced light-matter interaction such as surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS). A few of the more interesting applications from the literature and industry are outlined below. Surface plasmon resonance sensors based on Kretschmann couplers can be used to make precise optical measurements at a metal-dielectric interface. The basic idea behind these detectors is encapsulated in the coupling condition discussed above for the Kretschmann geometry: k|| = nkosin(&theta) = kspp. Since the surface plasmon is tightly bound to the metal-dielectric interface, any changes in that interface will translate directly into changes in the surface plasmon wave-vector kspp. This will cause a corresponding change in the optimal excitation angle for the Kretschmann coupler; by measuring this angle, the change in kspp can be deduced, allowing for the change in the refractive index to be computed. These detectors are sensitive enough that they can measure a change in film thickness of just a single monolayer, or refraction index changes (for example, due to chemical binding events on a bio-functionalized gold surface) as small as 10-6 RIU (refractive index units). For example, the commercial sensiQ detector from Nomadics is capable of measuring binding events of just one picogram of protein/mm2. More recently, there has been an explosion of interest in surface plasmons on nanoscale patterned surfaces. Using modern nanofabrication facilities, it is possible to make structures with feature sizes much smaller than the wavelength of visible light (&sim 500nm). For example, enhanced transmission through arrays of sub-wavelength slits has been experimentally demonstrated and has promising applications in photolithography and high-density optical data storage. Because surface plasmons can be launched at optical frequencies with much smaller wavelengths, it is possible to manipulate the flow of light on the scale of tens of nanometers. This has led to the coining of the term "plasmonics", where surface plasmons are used to manipulate and transport information, analogous to electronics and photonics. Photonics has nearly unlimited bandwidth and almost no loss or dispersion, making it invaluable for high-throughput long-haul information networks. However, photonics components are diffraction-limited to micron-scale sizes, ruling out dense integration with nanoscale electronics. Plasmonics is potentially poised to bridge the tens of nanometer scale of modern electronics to the micron scale world of photonics. Many interesting devices, such as a 50nm metal-insulator-metal (MIM) surface plasmon waveguide capable of guiding 1.5um light even around 90o corners, have been proposed and are being actively investigated. Such devices have great promise, but also must overcome the limits imposed by the lossy propagation of surface plasmons in metals. The propagation lengths of surface plasmon waves in the visible and near infrared regimes are typically on the order of hundreds of microns on unpatterned surfaces, but drop to under thirty microns in sub-wavelength MIM waveguides. The propagation length in a modern optical fiber is drastically larger, on the order of kilometers. The small propagation lengths of surface plasmons are a significant hurdle in the practical implementation of plasmonics; however, researchers throughout the world are actively pursuing geometries which take account for this loss and new designs to limit the loss as much as possible. Surface plasmons have many exciting potential applications and rich underlying physics drawing heavily from solid-state physics and electrodynamics. Although known for over 50 years, there are still many unsolved theoretical and experimental problems in the field of surface plasmons. Additionally, with the use of modern nanofabrication techniques, a whole range of new plasmonic devices have become possible. Although not without their drawbacks, surface plasmon based devices have a plethora of laboratory and commercial applications--including the potential to revolutionize photonic-electronic integration wi

d transport information, analogous to electronics and photonics. Photonics has nearly unlimited bandwidth and almost no loss or dispersion, making it invaluable for high-throughput long-haul information networks. However, photonics components are diffraction-limited to micron-scale sizes, ruling out dense integration with nanoscale electronics. Plasmonics is potentially poised to bridge the tens of nanometer scale of modern electronics to the micron scale world of photonics. Many interesting devices, such as a 50nm metal-insulator-metal (MIM) surface plasmon waveguide capable of guiding 1.5um light even around 90o corners, have been proposed and are being actively investigated. Such devices have great promise, but also must overcome the limits imposed by the lossy propagation of surface plasmons in metals. The propagation lengths of surface plasmon waves in the visible and near infrared regimes are typically on the order of hundreds of microns on unpatterned surfaces, but drop to under thirty microns in sub-wavelength MIM waveguides. The propagation length in a modern optical fiber is drastically larger, on the order of kilometers. The small propagation lengths of surface plasmons are a significant hurdle in the practical implementation of plasmonics; however, researchers throughout the world are actively pursuing geometries which take account for this loss and new designs to limit the loss as much as possible. Surface plasmons have many exciting potential applications and rich underlying physics drawing heavily from solid-state physics and electrodynamics. Although known for over 50 years, there are still many unsolved theoretical and experimental problems in the field of surface plasmons. Additionally, with the use of modern nanofabrication techniques, a whole range of new plasmonic devices have become possible. Although not without their drawbacks, surface plasmon based devices have a plethora of laboratory and commercial applications--including the potential to revolutionize photonic-electronic integration with the burgeouning field of plasmonics. Both bulk and surface plasmons have associated electromagnetic waves, and can consequently be described by Maxwell's equations. The coherent oscillations of electron motion can be encapsulated in the dielectric constant of the material. A simple model for the motion of an electron in a conductor is a free electron driven by the field of the electromagnetic wave. This electron motion can then be converted into a dielectric constant by using the definitions of the dipole moment, electric susceptibility, and dielectric constant: |Fig. A-1: Dispersion relation for bulk plasmons and free-space electromagnetic waves.| &omegap is known as the plasma frequency. This dielectric constant can then be inserted into the standard electromagnetic wave equation The wave equation allows for the standard propagating wave solution, given by This is a valid solution provided that This is the dispersion relation of bulk plasmon polaritons propagating in a metallic film. The dispersion relation gives the correspondence between the time-dependence of the electromagnetic wave (&omega), and the spatial variation (k); the wavelength of the wave is given by &lambda=2&pi/k. Figure A-1 shows a plot of the bulk plasmon dispersion relation (solid line), along with the free space dispersion relation (&omega = ck). For frequencies above the plasma frequency &omegap, the metal supports propagating modes. For frequencies below &omegap, k becomes imaginary and the fields exponentially decay inside the metal. For typical metals, h&omegap/2&pi &asymp 10eV (in the ultra-violet); for semiconductors, h&omegap/2&pi < 0.5eV (in the terahertz regime). Although bulk plasmons, which can exist even deep inside a metal, do not exist for &omega < &omegap, there is an additional solution to Maxwell's equations for these frequencies: surface plasmons. Surface plasmons are propagating waves bound to plasmon oscillations of electrons at a metal-dielectric interface. The field intensity of the wave is at a maximum at the inter

th the burgeouning field of plasmonics. Both bulk and surface plasmons have associated electromagnetic waves, and can consequently be described by Maxwell's equations. The coherent oscillations of electron motion can be encapsulated in the dielectric constant of the material. A simple model for the motion of an electron in a conductor is a free electron driven by the field of the electromagnetic wave. This electron motion can then be converted into a dielectric constant by using the definitions of the dipole moment, electric susceptibility, and dielectric constant: |Fig. A-1: Dispersion relation for bulk plasmons and free-space electromagnetic waves.| &omegap is known as the plasma frequency. This dielectric constant can then be inserted into the standard electromagnetic wave equation The wave equation allows for the standard propagating wave solution, given by This is a valid solution provided that This is the dispersion relation of bulk plasmon polaritons propagating in a metallic film. The dispersion relation gives the correspondence between the time-dependence of the electromagnetic wave (&omega), and the spatial variation (k); the wavelength of the wave is given by &lambda=2&pi/k. Figure A-1 shows a plot of the bulk plasmon dispersion relation (solid line), along with the free space dispersion relation (&omega = ck). For frequencies above the plasma frequency &omegap, the metal supports propagating modes. For frequencies below &omegap, k becomes imaginary and the fields exponentially decay inside the metal. For typical metals, h&omegap/2&pi &asymp 10eV (in the ultra-violet); for semiconductors, h&omegap/2&pi < 0.5eV (in the terahertz regime). Although bulk plasmons, which can exist even deep inside a metal, do not exist for &omega < &omegap, there is an additional solution to Maxwell's equations for these frequencies: surface plasmons. Surface plasmons are propagating waves bound to plasmon oscillations of electrons at a metal-dielectric interface. The field intensity of the wave is at a maximum at the interface and exponentially decays away from the interface. The mathematical form of surface plasmons can be obtained by solving Maxwell's equations at a metal-dielectric interface: Assuming the metal-dielectric interface lies in the xy plane at z = 0, it can be shown that x-propagating surface waves of the following form are solutions to Maxwell's equations: with Ex,m = Ex,d (E|| continuous), &epsilonmEz,m = &epsilondEz,d (D&perp continuous), and Hy,m = Hy,d (B|| continuous); all other field components are zero. The subscript j is used to denote fields in the metal or dielectric. The dispersion relation for surface plasmons can be obtained by inserting the equations for E and H into Maxwell's equations and enforcing the boundary conditions: The dispersion relation, assuming &epsilonm = 1 - (&omegap/&omega)2, is shown in Fig. 1, along with the free-space and bulk plasmon dispersion relations. The surface plasmon dispersion relation always lies to the right of the free-space dispersion relations; as a result, free-space radiation does not have enough momentum to launch surface plasmons. Additionally, the magnitude of kx for the surface plasmon asymptotically approaches &infin as &omega approaches &omegasp, where &epsilonm = -&epsilond. For &epsilonm = 1 - (&omegap/&omega)2, &omegasp = &omegap / &radic(1 + &epsilond). As kx increases, the surface plasmon wavelength decreases and &kappaz increases, resulting in a rapidly varying surface wave that is more tightly confined to the surface. For smaller values of &omega, the surface plasmon wave vector approaches the light line, the surface plasmon and free-space wavelengths become more similar, and the surface wave becomes less and less strongly confined to the surface. For the simple free-electron model considered thus far, there is no loss in the system and the surface wave will have an infinite propagation length. In real materials, however, there is loss and the wave will only propagate a finite length. The propagation length will decrease as the surface wave becomes mor

face and exponentially decays away from the interface. The mathematical form of surface plasmons can be obtained by solving Maxwell's equations at a metal-dielectric interface: Assuming the metal-dielectric interface lies in the xy plane at z = 0, it can be shown that x-propagating surface waves of the following form are solutions to Maxwell's equations: with Ex,m = Ex,d (E|| continuous), &epsilonmEz,m = &epsilondEz,d (D&perp continuous), and Hy,m = Hy,d (B|| continuous); all other field components are zero. The subscript j is used to denote fields in the metal or dielectric. The dispersion relation for surface plasmons can be obtained by inserting the equations for E and H into Maxwell's equations and enforcing the boundary conditions: The dispersion relation, assuming &epsilonm = 1 - (&omegap/&omega)2, is shown in Fig. 1, along with the free-space and bulk plasmon dispersion relations. The surface plasmon dispersion relation always lies to the right of the free-space dispersion relations; as a result, free-space radiation does not have enough momentum to launch surface plasmons. Additionally, the magnitude of kx for the surface plasmon asymptotically approaches &infin as &omega approaches &omegasp, where &epsilonm = -&epsilond. For &epsilonm = 1 - (&omegap/&omega)2, &omegasp = &omegap / &radic(1 + &epsilond). As kx increases, the surface plasmon wavelength decreases and &kappaz increases, resulting in a rapidly varying surface wave that is more tightly confined to the surface. For smaller values of &omega, the surface plasmon wave vector approaches the light line, the surface plasmon and free-space wavelengths become more similar, and the surface wave becomes less and less strongly confined to the surface. For the simple free-electron model considered thus far, there is no loss in the system and the surface wave will have an infinite propagation length. In real materials, however, there is loss and the wave will only propagate a finite length. The propagation length will decrease as the surface wave becomes more tightly bound to the interface (as &omega approaches &omegasp), as the energy of the field becomes more concentrated in the metal. Consequently, there is a trade-off between confinement and propagation distance. A final property of interest that can be obtained from the dispersion diagram shown in figure A-2 is the group velocity of the surface wave. Any information carried by the wave will propagate at the wave group velocity, vg = (&part &omega / &part k). As &omega approaches &omegasp, vg asymptotically approaches zero. The dispersion diagram plots shown above were generated using matplotlib, an open source plotting library written in Python; the source code of the python script for the plots can be downloaded here. The images of the above equations were generated using latex and latex2html; the .tex file can be downloaded here. The figure of the Kretschmann-Raether coupler was drawn in Inkscape, an open source vector graphics editor; the svg file can be downloaded here. © 2007 Justin White. The author grants permission to copy, distribute and display this work in unaltered form, with attribution to the author, for noncommercial purposes only. All other rights, including commercial rights, are reserved to the author. R. H. Ritchie, Phys. Rev. 106, 874 (1957). C. J. Powell and J. B. Swan, Phys. Rev. 115, 869 (1959). C. J. Powell and J. B. Swan, Phys. Rev. 116, 81 (1959). C. Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics, 7th ed. (Wiley, 1995). E. Kretschmann, Z. Phys. 241, 313 (1971), H. Raether, Surface Plasmons on Smooth and Rough Surfaces and on Gratings (Springer, 1988), pp 1-133. http://www.nomadics.com T.W. Ebessen et. al, Nature 391, 667 (1998). S.A. Maier et. al, Adv. Mat. 13, 1501 (2001). G. Veronis and S. Fan, Appl. Phys. Lett. 87, 131102 (2005). J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, 3rd ed. (Wiley, 1998).

e tightly bound to the interface (as &omega approaches &omegasp), as the energy of the field becomes more concentrated in the metal. Consequently, there is a trade-off between confinement and propagation distance. A final property of interest that can be obtained from the dispersion diagram shown in figure A-2 is the group velocity of the surface wave. Any information carried by the wave will propagate at the wave group velocity, vg = (&part &omega / &part k). As &omega approaches &omegasp, vg asymptotically approaches zero. The dispersion diagram plots shown above were generated using matplotlib, an open source plotting library written in Python; the source code of the python script for the plots can be downloaded here. The images of the above equations were generated using latex and latex2html; the .tex file can be downloaded here. The figure of the Kretschmann-Raether coupler was drawn in Inkscape, an open source vector graphics editor; the svg file can be downloaded here. © 2007 Justin White. The author grants permission to copy, distribute and display this work in unaltered form, with attribution to the author, for noncommercial purposes only. All other rights, including commercial rights, are reserved to the author. R. H. Ritchie, Phys. Rev. 106, 874 (1957). C. J. Powell and J. B. Swan, Phys. Rev. 115, 869 (1959). C. J. Powell and J. B. Swan, Phys. Rev. 116, 81 (1959). C. Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics, 7th ed. (Wiley, 1995). E. Kretschmann, Z. Phys. 241, 313 (1971), H. Raether, Surface Plasmons on Smooth and Rough Surfaces and on Gratings (Springer, 1988), pp 1-133. http://www.nomadics.com T.W. Ebessen et. al, Nature 391, 667 (1998). S.A. Maier et. al, Adv. Mat. 13, 1501 (2001). G. Veronis and S. Fan, Appl. Phys. Lett. 87, 131102 (2005). J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, 3rd ed. (Wiley, 1998).

The Life and Martyrdom of Polycarp (Born about 70 A.D. - Martyred about 168 A.D.) Pastor David L. Brown, Ph.D. I have an old book in my study that says on its spine "Wake's Epistles." It was printed in 1710. This book contains some of the history and letters of the post-Apostolic preachers and accounts to their suffering and martyrdom. On page 52 there is a chapter on the martyrdom of Polycarp, pastor of the Church of Smyrna. Briefly, let me share with you the story of his life and his death. Polycarp was born abound 70 A.D. He was sold as a slave in his childhood to a wealthy woman named Calisto. She reared him as her son. He came to know Christ as his Savior in those early years. As he grew older, he had the opportunity to study under the Apostle John and others who had personally sat under the teaching of Jesus Christ. Polycarp was actively involved in serving the Lord in the Church of Smyrna. Upon the death of Calisto, he became heir to all of her estate. He used his inheritance to advance the cause of Christ and to help those who were in need. When the of his church, Pastor Bucolos, died the Apostles and particularly the Apostle John appointed Polycarp to be the Pastor of the Church of Smyrna. Polycarp faithfully ministered in that church for many years. Persecution of Christians was the order of the day when Marcus Aurelius was the Emporer of Rome (161-180). For many years Polycarp was spared. But, the full forced of persecution was unleashed on Polycarp in the later years of his ministry. Three days before he was arrested the Lord revealed to him in a dream that he would be burned at the stake. When the soldiers came to get him, his friends insisted on hiding him. Polycarp made it clear that in the future, he would not all himself to be hidden. Soon the soldiers discovered where he had been taken. When he saw them coming, he went out and greeted them warmly and offered them food. As they were eating, he requested that he be allowed to pray before they took him away. His request was granted. For two hours he prayed fervently out loud and my book says, "inasmuch that many of the soldiers began to repent, that they were come out against so godly an old man." When he was done praying they set him on a donkey and took him into the city to be tried as one who was an adversary of the authorized pagan religion. When he arrived, they sat him in a chariot and began to urge him to say the Caesar was God and offer a sacrifice to him. They said, there is no harm in that is there? At first he refused to answer. Finally, after they continued to press him Polycarp said, "I shall not do what you would persuade me to." This made his judges very angry. They had confidently supposed that they would be able to easily persuade him to do what they wanted him to do. They became vicious in their words and actions. They literally threw him out of the chariot he had been sitting in, which cause serious injury to his thigh. This display of force incited the blood thirsty mob to the point that they were so loud in their curses and jeers that no one could hear. As they were dragging Polycarp to the place of execution, a voice rang out from Heaven loud and clear, above the harangue of the crowd which said, "Be strong, Polycarp, and quit thyself like a man." [The phrase "quit you" means, to carry through, or perform to the end. Hence, be strong and stand like a man to the end.] The record states that while no one saw who it was that spoke to Polycarp, many of the believers who were in the crowd clearly heard the voice also. To be sure, Polycarp stood for the Lord Jesus Christ to the end, despite all the efforts to persuade him to renounce Christ. One of the judges tried to get him to deny his faith by saying, "Reverence thy old age Swear by Casear's Fortune. Repent, and say; Take away the Wicked." The historian goes on to say, "Polycarp, looking with a stern countenance upon the whole multitude of wicked Gentiles, that was gathered together in the Lifts, and shaking his hand at them, looked up to Heaven, and groaning said, Take away the Wicked."

e prayed fervently out loud and my book says, "inasmuch that many of the soldiers began to repent, that they were come out against so godly an old man." When he was done praying they set him on a donkey and took him into the city to be tried as one who was an adversary of the authorized pagan religion. When he arrived, they sat him in a chariot and began to urge him to say the Caesar was God and offer a sacrifice to him. They said, there is no harm in that is there? At first he refused to answer. Finally, after they continued to press him Polycarp said, "I shall not do what you would persuade me to." This made his judges very angry. They had confidently supposed that they would be able to easily persuade him to do what they wanted him to do. They became vicious in their words and actions. They literally threw him out of the chariot he had been sitting in, which cause serious injury to his thigh. This display of force incited the blood thirsty mob to the point that they were so loud in their curses and jeers that no one could hear. As they were dragging Polycarp to the place of execution, a voice rang out from Heaven loud and clear, above the harangue of the crowd which said, "Be strong, Polycarp, and quit thyself like a man." [The phrase "quit you" means, to carry through, or perform to the end. Hence, be strong and stand like a man to the end.] The record states that while no one saw who it was that spoke to Polycarp, many of the believers who were in the crowd clearly heard the voice also. To be sure, Polycarp stood for the Lord Jesus Christ to the end, despite all the efforts to persuade him to renounce Christ. One of the judges tried to get him to deny his faith by saying, "Reverence thy old age Swear by Casear's Fortune. Repent, and say; Take away the Wicked." The historian goes on to say, "Polycarp, looking with a stern countenance upon the whole multitude of wicked Gentiles, that was gathered together in the Lifts, and shaking his hand at them, looked up to Heaven, and groaning said, Take away the Wicked." But the judge was not satisfied with this. He said, "Sware, and I will set thee at liberty; reproach Christ." It is at this point that Polycarp gives his famous response -- "Eighty and six years have I now served Christ, and he has never done me the least wrong: How then can I blaspheme my King and my Savior?" The judge then angrily urges him to, "swear by the Genius of Caesar." Polycarp refuses, but offered to share his faith in Christ. The judge rejected the offer and threatened, "I have wild beasts ready, to those I will cast thee except thou repent." Polycarp responds calmly, "Call for them then: For we Christians are fixed in our minds not to change from good to evil; But for me it will be good to be changed from Evil, to Good." The furious judge said, "Seeing that thou dispiseth the Wild Beasts, I will cause thee to be devoured by Fire, unless thou shall repent." Polycarp answered, "Thou threatenest me with Fire which burns for an hour, and so is extinguished; but knowest not the Fire of the Future Judgment, and of that Eternal Punishment, which is reserved for the Ungodly. But why tarriest thou? Bring forth what thou wilt!" The judge loudly cried out three times, "Polycarp has confessed himself to be a Christian." The mob responded in fury, "This is the Doctor of Asia; The Father of the Christians; an the overthrower of our Gods. He that has taught so many not to sacrifice, nor pay any worship to the Gods." At first they cried out that the lions should be loosed on him and then that he should be burned alive. They took Polycarp to the stake and were going to nail him there. He spoke up and said, "Let me alone as I am: For he who has given me strength to endure the Fire, will also enable me, without your securing me by nails, to stand without moving in the pile." The merely tied him to the stake. He prayed this prayer before the fire was was kindled -- Lord God Almighty, the Father of thy Well-beloved, and Blessed Son, Jesus Christ, by whom we have received Knowledge of thee; the God of Angels and Powers,

But the judge was not satisfied with this. He said, "Sware, and I will set thee at liberty; reproach Christ." It is at this point that Polycarp gives his famous response -- "Eighty and six years have I now served Christ, and he has never done me the least wrong: How then can I blaspheme my King and my Savior?" The judge then angrily urges him to, "swear by the Genius of Caesar." Polycarp refuses, but offered to share his faith in Christ. The judge rejected the offer and threatened, "I have wild beasts ready, to those I will cast thee except thou repent." Polycarp responds calmly, "Call for them then: For we Christians are fixed in our minds not to change from good to evil; But for me it will be good to be changed from Evil, to Good." The furious judge said, "Seeing that thou dispiseth the Wild Beasts, I will cause thee to be devoured by Fire, unless thou shall repent." Polycarp answered, "Thou threatenest me with Fire which burns for an hour, and so is extinguished; but knowest not the Fire of the Future Judgment, and of that Eternal Punishment, which is reserved for the Ungodly. But why tarriest thou? Bring forth what thou wilt!" The judge loudly cried out three times, "Polycarp has confessed himself to be a Christian." The mob responded in fury, "This is the Doctor of Asia; The Father of the Christians; an the overthrower of our Gods. He that has taught so many not to sacrifice, nor pay any worship to the Gods." At first they cried out that the lions should be loosed on him and then that he should be burned alive. They took Polycarp to the stake and were going to nail him there. He spoke up and said, "Let me alone as I am: For he who has given me strength to endure the Fire, will also enable me, without your securing me by nails, to stand without moving in the pile." The merely tied him to the stake. He prayed this prayer before the fire was was kindled -- Lord God Almighty, the Father of thy Well-beloved, and Blessed Son, Jesus Christ, by whom we have received Knowledge of thee; the God of Angels and Powers, and of every Creature, and especially the whole Race of Just Men who live in thy presence! I give thee hearty thanks that thou hast vouchsafed (allowed) to bring me to this Day, and to this Hour; that I should have a part in the Number of thy Martyrs, in the Cup of thy Christ, to the Resurrection of Eternal Life, both of Soul and Body, in the Incorruption of the Holy Ghost. Among which may I be accepted this Day before thee, as a fat and acceptable Sacrifice; as thou the true God, with who is no falsehood, has both before ordained, and manifested unto me, and also hath now fulfilled it. For this, and for all things else, I praise thee, I bless thee, I glorify thee by the Eternal, and Heavenly High Priest, Jesus Christ they Beloved Son; whit whom to Thee and the Holy Ghost, be Glory both now, and to all succeeding Ages, AMEN. Upon the "AMEN" the executioner lighted the fire, but something strange happened. The flames arched around Polycarp like a sail of a ship filled with wind and he would not burn. After some time, the command was given to the executioner to stab him with a sword, so he did. The result was that so much blood flowed from the wound that it extinguished the fire. The fire was rekindled and Polycarps body was burned to ashes. Polycarp was faithful to the Lord unto death. And it is interesting to note that the congregation of the Church of Smyrna believed that the Apostle John, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, penned Revelation 2:8-10 with their pastor, Polycarp, prophetically in mind. Revelation 2:8-10 says, And unto the angel of the church in Smyrna write; These things saith the first and the last, which was dead, and is alive; 9 I know thy works, and tribulation , and poverty, (but thou art rich) and I know the blasphemy of them which say they are Jews, and are not, but are the synagogue of Satan. 10 Fear none of those things which thou shalt suffer: behold, the devil shall cast some of you into prison, that ye may be tried; and ye shall have tribulation ten days: be thou faithful unto de

and of every Creature, and especially the whole Race of Just Men who live in thy presence! I give thee hearty thanks that thou hast vouchsafed (allowed) to bring me to this Day, and to this Hour; that I should have a part in the Number of thy Martyrs, in the Cup of thy Christ, to the Resurrection of Eternal Life, both of Soul and Body, in the Incorruption of the Holy Ghost. Among which may I be accepted this Day before thee, as a fat and acceptable Sacrifice; as thou the true God, with who is no falsehood, has both before ordained, and manifested unto me, and also hath now fulfilled it. For this, and for all things else, I praise thee, I bless thee, I glorify thee by the Eternal, and Heavenly High Priest, Jesus Christ they Beloved Son; whit whom to Thee and the Holy Ghost, be Glory both now, and to all succeeding Ages, AMEN. Upon the "AMEN" the executioner lighted the fire, but something strange happened. The flames arched around Polycarp like a sail of a ship filled with wind and he would not burn. After some time, the command was given to the executioner to stab him with a sword, so he did. The result was that so much blood flowed from the wound that it extinguished the fire. The fire was rekindled and Polycarps body was burned to ashes. Polycarp was faithful to the Lord unto death. And it is interesting to note that the congregation of the Church of Smyrna believed that the Apostle John, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, penned Revelation 2:8-10 with their pastor, Polycarp, prophetically in mind. Revelation 2:8-10 says, And unto the angel of the church in Smyrna write; These things saith the first and the last, which was dead, and is alive; 9 I know thy works, and tribulation , and poverty, (but thou art rich) and I know the blasphemy of them which say they are Jews, and are not, but are the synagogue of Satan. 10 Fear none of those things which thou shalt suffer: behold, the devil shall cast some of you into prison, that ye may be tried; and ye shall have tribulation ten days: be thou faithful unto death, and I will give thee a crown of life. John wrote Revelation in about 96 A.D. and Polycarp was martyred in about 168 A.D. [Note: The Graphic of Polycarp is from Holy Transfiguration Monastery]

ath, and I will give thee a crown of life. John wrote Revelation in about 96 A.D. and Polycarp was martyred in about 168 A.D. [Note: The Graphic of Polycarp is from Holy Transfiguration Monastery]

|Up a level| This activity gives students the chance to talk about the Summer School (also The ALE), to get them talking to fellow students after the experience of Jena/ ALE. This could be used online or face2face. This activity links with the Summer School and gives students another opportunity to develop confidence before the oral. These cue cards for use either online or face2face to enable students to share tips on surviving exams. Tutorial material collection covering work, talking about the past and tourism. Materials collection covering the topic Glueck, Wege, Philosophie and Ethik. Materials collection covering definitions of Kunst and describing comics and cartoons. Materials collection to discuss topics of praktische Philosophie and Ethik. A collection of activities centred around the topic of "Wohnen" and preparation of TMA1 In this first tutorial students get to know each other and learn about some basic functionalities of their online tutorial environment (Elluminate). This activity uses the same introductory whiteboard slides as L203Unit1Act1a (to familiarize students with Elluminate) but additionally includes some PowerPoints to trigger conversations about German-speaking countries. It is aimed at groups who have already met face-to-face and don't need another tutorial introducing themselves. For this activity students will need to do some preparatory work online using web addresses of German accommodation agencies to find a house, flat or room they like. They will then describe their chosen object in the tutorial and talk about their preferences. In this activity students discuss how they go about finding information, and talk about the benefits and disadvantages of a collaborative online encyclopedia like wikipedia. In this activity students write about their dreams for the future and then check each others writing by using a checklist. In this activity students talk about their working lives and discuss their views. They describe what their dream job might be like. Students talk about working conditions in different work environments. They exchange ideas and suggestions using conditional clauses and modal verbs. In this activity students discuss ideas for an internet start-up company and then present their suggestion. In this activity students discuss cultural differences between German-speaking countries and the UK. In this activity students discuss newspapers, in particular the tabloid press. In groups, they then write some tabloid-style articles. In this activity students collect arguments and have a debate on whether or not soap operas are a waste of time. In this activity students make plans for a new radio station. They use expressions of opinion and reported speech. In this activity students discuss the influence of different mass media on their audiences. In groups, they prepare and deliver a presentation on the topic. In this activity students discuss how they think the internet might change in the future. They make suggestions for desirable developments and react to the suggestions of others. In this activity students discuss what art means to them. Students debate whether the internet is the death toll for books. Before this tutorial students should have read the story "Das Judenauto" by Franz Fühmann. They will discuss the story and find out more about its author. In this activity students talk about their own and other people's definition of "Glück". Students discuss pilgrimages and join a web tour of a traditional walk. They then devise their own route. After some preparatory steps students engage in a debate about the commercialisation of religious festivals or other traditional celebrations. Students talk about aspects of GDR history and plan a visit to the Gedenkstätte in Hohenschönhausen. A group&pair work activity in which students exchange info and look for a suitable member for their WG. Many thanks to Dr Beatriz de los Arcos - whose original idea I have adapted to produce this resource. Beatriz' resource can be found here: http://loro.open.ac.uk/969

One of my favorite books, How Many Seeds in a Pumpkin?, is perfect for this time of year. Children estimate how many pumpkin seeds are in pumpkins of varying sizes. In order to find the number of seeds, children count by 2s, 5s, and 10s, and learn that the smallest pumpkin actually has the most. Maybe you'll want to read it and do some of the "Pumpkin Problem Solving" or "Fall Math Activities" over at Mathwire...one of my FAVORITE math idea sites! ;)

Recently, I have been (re)reading Fitelson and Hawthorne's extensive and thorough discussion of "The Wason task(s) and the paradox of confirmation", which revived a puzzling little thought that I have. Wason's selection task is widely known, I guess. You have four cards as follows: Each card has a letter on one side and a number on the other. A hypothesis is at issue, i.e., H = "for any card, if there's a vowel on one side, then there's an even number on the other side". Your task is to say which of the cards you need to turn over in order to find out whether H is true or false. (I want to be very careful here with the wording - I'm closely following Johnson-Laird & Wason, 1977, via Humberstone, 1994). [Edit: By the way - I forgot to say! - people strongly tend to choose the E- and the 4-card. The point is if this makes logical sense.] Two cases have to be clearly distinguished: either (i) the domain of H is restricted to the four cards initially presented, or (ii) a larger deck is involved, from which those four cards have been sampled. If (ii) is allowed for, then very interesting issues arise (most famously tackled by Oaksford and Chater, 1994). However, Wason had (i) in mind, and everyone seems to agree that in that case the correct answer is: turn over the E- and the 7-card. Why? From Wason on, the standard answer has been more or less the same: because only by turning the E- and the 7-card you could possibly falsify H. (Wason's experimental idea was apparently inspired by his knowledge of Popper.) But the logical point seems stronger than that: if the domain is restricted, then H is logically equivalent to "there's an even number behind E and a consonant behind 7". Logically equivalent - period. Not just such that it would otherwise be falsified. The proof is easy, and it provides ultimate motivation for why the selection of E and 7 is indeed compelling (recall how the question is spelled out: which cards are needed to find out whether H is true or false). Yet I have consistently found variants of the "Popperian" argument, and never seen an overt statement of that plain logical equivalence. I'd be happy to know if anyone alse ever has. Humberstone, L. (1994), "Hempel meets Wason", Erkenntnis, 41 (1994), pp. 391–402. Johnson-Laird, P.N. & Wason, P.C. (1977), "A theoretical analysis of insight into a reasoning task", in P.N. Johnson-Laird & P.C. Wason (eds.), Thinking: Readings in Cognitive Science, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 143-157. Oaksford, M. & Chater N. (1994), "A rational analysis of the selection task as optimal data selection", Psychological Review, 101 (1994), pp. 608–631.

Euler Line Proof Date: 11/13/2001 at 23:58:00 From: Natalie Loser Subject: Euler line Prove that if the Euler line of a triangle passes through a vertex, then the triangle is either right or isosceles. Date: 11/14/2001 at 03:05:52 From: Doctor Floor Subject: Re: Euler line Hi, Natalie, Thanks for writing. If (for instance) vertex A lies on the Euler line, then the Euler line of ABC is the line through A and the centroid G = the median through A. So the midpoint of BC is on the line as well. Now if the orthocenter H lies on the median through A, this means that either: - A is not equal to H. Then the median through A is also the altitude from A, and thus ABC is an isosceles triangle with A as top. - A is equal to H. Then A is a right angle, because AB must be the altitude from B to AC, and AC must be the altitude from C to AB. This proves your statement. If you need more help, just write back. Best regards, - Doctor Floor, The Math Forum http://mathforum.org/dr.math/ Search the Dr. Math Library: Ask Dr. MathTM © 1994-2015 The Math Forum

As space exploration geared up in the 1960s, scientists were faced with a new dilemma. How could they recognize life on other planets, where it may have evolved very differently—and therefore have a different chemical signature—than it has on Earth? James Lovelock, father of the Gaia theory, gave this advice: Look for order. Every organism is a brief upwelling of structure from chaos, a self-assembled wonder that must jealously defend its order until the day it dies. Sophisticated information processing is necessary to preserve and pass down the rules for maintaining this order, yet life is built out of the messiest materials: tumbling chemicals, soft cells, and tangled polymers. Shouldn’t, therefore, information in biological systems be handled messily, and wasted? In fact, many biological computations are so perfect that they bump up against the mathematical limits of efficiency; genius is our inheritance. DNA stores information at a density per unit volume exceeding any other known medium, from hard disks to quantum holography.1 It’s so dense that all the world’s digital data could be stored in a dot of DNA the weight of eight paper clips. This remarkable storage density is paired with an equally remarkable reading mechanism. A developing embryo must self-direct the rapid division, migration, and specialization of its constituent cells based on the information stored in DNA. Cells diverge from one another to grow in different ways, depending on their position in the embryo. This means that precise control of gene expression is necessary both in space and in time. Even minor errors could spell death or deformity for the organism. The question is, how quickly and effectively can spatial information be communicated in order for development to unfold properly? Alan Turing, the father of modern computing, was fascinated by the idea that life might be reducible to mathematical laws, and tackled this question in the early 1950s. He predicted that the spatial patterning of tissues during embryonic development could be controlled through the concentration of chemical signalers, called morphogens. He derived equations showing that interactions between morphogens that activate and inhibit one another’s gene expression could set up standing waves of morphogen concentration, and control embryonic patterning. With just four variables—production and degradation rates, diffusion rate, and interaction strength—Turing could reproduce biologically plausible, self-directed pattern formation. His prediction of a chemical system of information management was proven true decades later with the first discovery of a morphogen in fruit flies, called bicoid (though his equations proved to be too simple). Cells in a fruit fly embryo with high bicoid concentration become the fly’s head, and those with lower concentration become its body. What is remarkable, however, is how quickly and accurately these cells differentiate. In 2007, a team led by Princeton biophysicist Thomas Gregor measured the concentration gradient and diffusion rate of bicoid in fruit fly embryos. They estimated that it would take around two hours for embryonic cells to measure the morphogen concentration with enough precision for adjacent cells to mature differently (measurement precision increases with measurement time). But this is nearly the entirety of the fruit fly’s developmental period, from fertilization to cellularization. The embryo was developing faster and more precisely than should have been possible. Gregor proposed that multiple cells could be sharing information with each other using a second signaling chemical: One candidate is a morphogen called hunchback. This would allow them to compute a spatial average of bicoid concentrations, rather than relying entirely on individual readings. The averaging process would be less susceptible to variation and noise, and would allow the required pattern accuracy to be achieved in about three minutes, rather than two hours. The process is not just ingenious, but efficient. To find out how efficient, physicist William Biale

controlled through the concentration of chemical signalers, called morphogens. He derived equations showing that interactions between morphogens that activate and inhibit one another’s gene expression could set up standing waves of morphogen concentration, and control embryonic patterning. With just four variables—production and degradation rates, diffusion rate, and interaction strength—Turing could reproduce biologically plausible, self-directed pattern formation. His prediction of a chemical system of information management was proven true decades later with the first discovery of a morphogen in fruit flies, called bicoid (though his equations proved to be too simple). Cells in a fruit fly embryo with high bicoid concentration become the fly’s head, and those with lower concentration become its body. What is remarkable, however, is how quickly and accurately these cells differentiate. In 2007, a team led by Princeton biophysicist Thomas Gregor measured the concentration gradient and diffusion rate of bicoid in fruit fly embryos. They estimated that it would take around two hours for embryonic cells to measure the morphogen concentration with enough precision for adjacent cells to mature differently (measurement precision increases with measurement time). But this is nearly the entirety of the fruit fly’s developmental period, from fertilization to cellularization. The embryo was developing faster and more precisely than should have been possible. Gregor proposed that multiple cells could be sharing information with each other using a second signaling chemical: One candidate is a morphogen called hunchback. This would allow them to compute a spatial average of bicoid concentrations, rather than relying entirely on individual readings. The averaging process would be less susceptible to variation and noise, and would allow the required pattern accuracy to be achieved in about three minutes, rather than two hours. The process is not just ingenious, but efficient. To find out how efficient, physicist William Bialek used nucleus-by-nucleus measurements of morphogens in fruit-fly embryos to study how closely hunchback concentrations followed changes in bicoid concentrations. He found that the fidelity of this information transfer was 90 percent of the theoretical maximum. A video interview with the author, Kelly Clancy. When an embryo develops into an adult, it confronts a new information processing challenge. Its body must learn how to sample and integrate both external and internal information. Odorant molecules signal a predator, prompting a rodent to flee. The setting sun triggers melatonin release, causing a cascade of effects throughout the body, inducing sleep. Internal chemoreceptors measure high carbon dioxide levels, causing an athlete to breathe faster. Information from microscopic measurements, sampled by disparate sensors, must be integrated and used to make macroscopic decisions that are efficiently communicated back out to relevant body parts. Here, too, nature has discovered an optimal solution, whose details can be read in the shapes of our anatomical structures. One of the earliest observations of a mathematical relation in biology was that almost every living creature in every ecosystem on the planet, spanning more than 20 orders of magnitude in size from uni- to multi-cellular, has features that scale with the mass of the organism, including heart rate, life span, aorta size, tree trunk size, and metabolic rate. This is called allometric scaling. A rule of thumb common in the halls of Intel was programmed into our bodies eons ago. Strangely, the relationship between these features and an organism’s mass usually follows a power law. That means, for example, that metabolic rate depends on the organism’s mass, raised to some constant power. Even stranger, the constant for the majority of these features is some multiple of one fourth. Physicist Geoffrey West has argued that this scaling results from the ubiquity of fractal-like networks within organisms. Fractals are structures that have similar structure at

k used nucleus-by-nucleus measurements of morphogens in fruit-fly embryos to study how closely hunchback concentrations followed changes in bicoid concentrations. He found that the fidelity of this information transfer was 90 percent of the theoretical maximum. A video interview with the author, Kelly Clancy. When an embryo develops into an adult, it confronts a new information processing challenge. Its body must learn how to sample and integrate both external and internal information. Odorant molecules signal a predator, prompting a rodent to flee. The setting sun triggers melatonin release, causing a cascade of effects throughout the body, inducing sleep. Internal chemoreceptors measure high carbon dioxide levels, causing an athlete to breathe faster. Information from microscopic measurements, sampled by disparate sensors, must be integrated and used to make macroscopic decisions that are efficiently communicated back out to relevant body parts. Here, too, nature has discovered an optimal solution, whose details can be read in the shapes of our anatomical structures. One of the earliest observations of a mathematical relation in biology was that almost every living creature in every ecosystem on the planet, spanning more than 20 orders of magnitude in size from uni- to multi-cellular, has features that scale with the mass of the organism, including heart rate, life span, aorta size, tree trunk size, and metabolic rate. This is called allometric scaling. A rule of thumb common in the halls of Intel was programmed into our bodies eons ago. Strangely, the relationship between these features and an organism’s mass usually follows a power law. That means, for example, that metabolic rate depends on the organism’s mass, raised to some constant power. Even stranger, the constant for the majority of these features is some multiple of one fourth. Physicist Geoffrey West has argued that this scaling results from the ubiquity of fractal-like networks within organisms. Fractals are structures that have similar structure at very different spatial scales—one familiar example is the vasculature of a leaf, whose branching geometry is replicated in miniature across the leaf’s surface. They can be found in a dizzying variety of systems, including our nervous system, blood vessels, capillaries in plant leaves, lung bronchioles, the calyxes of kidneys, neurons, root systems, and mitochondrial cristae. Why would nature use fractal geometry so regularly? Mathematically, fractals are interpreted as having a fractional dimension higher than the space they reside in: A fractal drawn on a two-dimensional sheet of paper, for example, has a higher dimension—say, 2.1. This is a useful feature, allowing nature to pack some part of a fourth dimension into three-dimensional space. To see why it might be useful, we can turn to a well-known result in the semiconductor industry, called Pollack’s Rule. It states that the speedup achievable by adding computing elements to a processor is proportional to the number of added elements, raised to the power of (1-1/D), where D is the dimension in which the processors are arranged. A three-dimensional arrangement of, say, 100 processors will give a greater boost than a two-dimensional arrangement of those same processors, due to reduced signal latency. The same kind of speedup can be achieved in our nervous and circulatory systems with a D of greater than three. A rule of thumb common in the halls of Intel was programmed into our bodies eons ago; the fractal arrangement of our biological sensors and the nerves that connect them are designed for speed. The brain represents the height of biological information processing and transmission. But for years, it’s been considered a noisy instrument. Neurons code information with binary electrical events called spikes, shocking one another like tiny batteries. Once a neuron receives enough input that its voltage passes a certain threshold, it will spike in turn, sending its signal to downstream neurons. Fluctuations in the summed output of the brain’s 100 billion neurons

very different spatial scales—one familiar example is the vasculature of a leaf, whose branching geometry is replicated in miniature across the leaf’s surface. They can be found in a dizzying variety of systems, including our nervous system, blood vessels, capillaries in plant leaves, lung bronchioles, the calyxes of kidneys, neurons, root systems, and mitochondrial cristae. Why would nature use fractal geometry so regularly? Mathematically, fractals are interpreted as having a fractional dimension higher than the space they reside in: A fractal drawn on a two-dimensional sheet of paper, for example, has a higher dimension—say, 2.1. This is a useful feature, allowing nature to pack some part of a fourth dimension into three-dimensional space. To see why it might be useful, we can turn to a well-known result in the semiconductor industry, called Pollack’s Rule. It states that the speedup achievable by adding computing elements to a processor is proportional to the number of added elements, raised to the power of (1-1/D), where D is the dimension in which the processors are arranged. A three-dimensional arrangement of, say, 100 processors will give a greater boost than a two-dimensional arrangement of those same processors, due to reduced signal latency. The same kind of speedup can be achieved in our nervous and circulatory systems with a D of greater than three. A rule of thumb common in the halls of Intel was programmed into our bodies eons ago; the fractal arrangement of our biological sensors and the nerves that connect them are designed for speed. The brain represents the height of biological information processing and transmission. But for years, it’s been considered a noisy instrument. Neurons code information with binary electrical events called spikes, shocking one another like tiny batteries. Once a neuron receives enough input that its voltage passes a certain threshold, it will spike in turn, sending its signal to downstream neurons. Fluctuations in the summed output of the brain’s 100 billion neurons, as measured by an electroencephalogram, or EEG, are much smaller than the amplitude of individual spikes, and were long thought to be epiphenomenal: pointers to various brain states, but not an information-carrying signal in itself. In other words, noise. Slow oscillations in the brain are coherent over large anatomical distances, in the same way you can hear the bass from your neighbor’s sound system better than the treble. Yet, as we saw with genetic expression, interactions among many discrete elements can be incredibly useful. It’s becoming clear that the so-called noise seen in an EEG is actually an important signal, and one that is crucial to neural computation. The fluctuation of the summed output of the brain’s neurons feeds back to affect the resting potential of those neurons, bringing them closer to or farther from spike threshold. Slow oscillations (as found in drowsy or sleeping animals) are coherent over large anatomical distances, in the same way you can hear the bass from your neighbor’s sound system better than the treble. This is how the brain may be facilitating communication between disparate brain areas: If an individual spike is timed with the crest of the slow amplitude fluctuation, it will have a bigger effect downstream than if it is timed with a trough. Neurons are somehow coordinating themselves to generate self-directed, global feedback that serves to adaptively boost even sub-detectable signals: No informational signal is wasted. In fact, it is an open question whether the idea of “waste” can even be properly defined in the context of the brain. Theoretical neuroscientist Tony Bell argues that the hallmark of biological computation is that information flows across multiple hierarchies of complexity, bubbling up from microscopic to macroscopic levels and back down again. Simpler structures (like neurons) communicate with more complex structures (like areas of the brain), and vice versa. Computations are occurring on and between every level, from molecules to cells to organisms as a w

, as measured by an electroencephalogram, or EEG, are much smaller than the amplitude of individual spikes, and were long thought to be epiphenomenal: pointers to various brain states, but not an information-carrying signal in itself. In other words, noise. Slow oscillations in the brain are coherent over large anatomical distances, in the same way you can hear the bass from your neighbor’s sound system better than the treble. Yet, as we saw with genetic expression, interactions among many discrete elements can be incredibly useful. It’s becoming clear that the so-called noise seen in an EEG is actually an important signal, and one that is crucial to neural computation. The fluctuation of the summed output of the brain’s neurons feeds back to affect the resting potential of those neurons, bringing them closer to or farther from spike threshold. Slow oscillations (as found in drowsy or sleeping animals) are coherent over large anatomical distances, in the same way you can hear the bass from your neighbor’s sound system better than the treble. This is how the brain may be facilitating communication between disparate brain areas: If an individual spike is timed with the crest of the slow amplitude fluctuation, it will have a bigger effect downstream than if it is timed with a trough. Neurons are somehow coordinating themselves to generate self-directed, global feedback that serves to adaptively boost even sub-detectable signals: No informational signal is wasted. In fact, it is an open question whether the idea of “waste” can even be properly defined in the context of the brain. Theoretical neuroscientist Tony Bell argues that the hallmark of biological computation is that information flows across multiple hierarchies of complexity, bubbling up from microscopic to macroscopic levels and back down again. Simpler structures (like neurons) communicate with more complex structures (like areas of the brain), and vice versa. Computations are occurring on and between every level, from molecules to cells to organisms as a whole. There is a good deal of evidence that even the subcellular compartments within neurons are doing their own computations. Most recently, a study1 published in Nature in October 2013 showed that activity within dendrites (a compartment representing a neuron’s “input”) shapes the information processed by that neuron. Given this multi-level information flow, Bell argues that noise simply cannot be defined: Deviations from expectation should be interpreted as meaningful communication at another level of the complexity hierarchy. This information flow is not restricted to the brain, and can also be observed, for example, in epigenetics. Bell says this kind of dynamic multidirectional information flow is what defines life. Artificial intelligence, when it arrives, may not be built from silicon, but repurposed biology. Before we get there, though, we will need a vastly different approach to science in order to understand the higher-order, emergent capabilities of nature’s self-organizing structures. While biomimicry holds incredible promise, perhaps in so assiduously copying the physical design of systems we are missing the point: Form is transient in Nature, cast to meet shifting needs in a given niche. Determining the rules by which biology struck upon these ingenious solutions in the first place will spark the true revolution. Kelly Clancy studied physics at MIT, then worked as an itinerant astronomer for several years before serving with the Peace Corps in Turkmenistan. She is currently a National Science Foundation fellow studying neuroscience at UC Berkeley. 1. Smith, S., et al Dendritic spikes enhance stimulus selectivity in cortical neurons in vivo. Nature 503, 115-120 (2013).

hole. There is a good deal of evidence that even the subcellular compartments within neurons are doing their own computations. Most recently, a study1 published in Nature in October 2013 showed that activity within dendrites (a compartment representing a neuron’s “input”) shapes the information processed by that neuron. Given this multi-level information flow, Bell argues that noise simply cannot be defined: Deviations from expectation should be interpreted as meaningful communication at another level of the complexity hierarchy. This information flow is not restricted to the brain, and can also be observed, for example, in epigenetics. Bell says this kind of dynamic multidirectional information flow is what defines life. Artificial intelligence, when it arrives, may not be built from silicon, but repurposed biology. Before we get there, though, we will need a vastly different approach to science in order to understand the higher-order, emergent capabilities of nature’s self-organizing structures. While biomimicry holds incredible promise, perhaps in so assiduously copying the physical design of systems we are missing the point: Form is transient in Nature, cast to meet shifting needs in a given niche. Determining the rules by which biology struck upon these ingenious solutions in the first place will spark the true revolution. Kelly Clancy studied physics at MIT, then worked as an itinerant astronomer for several years before serving with the Peace Corps in Turkmenistan. She is currently a National Science Foundation fellow studying neuroscience at UC Berkeley. 1. Smith, S., et al Dendritic spikes enhance stimulus selectivity in cortical neurons in vivo. Nature 503, 115-120 (2013).

The red backed shrike - also known as the "butcher bird" Following months of secrecy, hushed conversations, cloaks and daggers we can at last reveal that there is a new bird nesting in England. The red backed shrike last bred in the UK over in East Anglia in the early 1990s. But it has now returned to breed on Dartmoor with a hardy pair raising three youngsters. They are fascinating birds. I saw one of the last breeding pairs in the late eighties over in Suffolk. I clearly recall, even after 20 years, the male perched on a thorn bush gently flexing its silky black talons. Although they are passerines, in the same group of birds as our robins and blackbirds, they are also keen-eyed, sharp-billed predators that eagerly hunt small mammals, large insects and lizards. This is remarkable for a bird no bigger than your hand. They also have a habit that would see them at home in a 70s Hammer House of Horror flick. After catching their prey they often store it for later by impaling the hapless victim on a spike, be that a thorn or barbed wire fence. This rather gothic behaviour gave rise to their widespread title as "butcher birds". If you go back 50 years, red backed shrikes were not uncommon in England. Their general decline is something of a mystery, but the population is very much on the edge of its European range. Dartmoor - an ideal "bridgehead" for the species to re-colonise But we do know, that as they became scarcer their eventual fate was exacerbated by the unwanted attention of egg collectors who, in their fevered obsessions appeared to prize the shrikes' eggs above those of other birds. Although egg collecting has been consigned largely to a paltry footnote in the history books, there are still a small number of people willing to go to great lengths to lay their hairy palms on the eggs of rare species. And shrikes, we believe, are still near the top of their lists. The first news that the shrikes had settled came back in May 2010. Knowing they were immediately under threat, the RSPB, local birders from the Dartmoor Study Group and Forestry Commission mounted a huge operation to protect the birds. It's a good job we did, for within weeks the site received its first visit from known egg collectors. Who knows what was going through their minds, but we feel the protection we afforded the site was enough to dissuade them from satisfying their cravings. Nowadays, to be caught collecting carries a £5,000 per egg fine and possible custodial sentence. The watch, 24-hours a day, seven days a week, carried on throughout the summer. The team involved grew remarkably close to the birds, their behaviour, their favourite hunting grounds, the tree each bird preferred. When I visited back in early August I was impressed by the studied concentration of the people involved. To remain fixed on one spot for any length of time is no mean feat. Finally, after many anxious days in August, the youngsters appeared. Three in all, enthusiastically tended by their proud parents. While this was a relief, it meant no let-up in the protection operation. Being the only pair, they are hugely vulnerable and the slightest disturbance could spell disaster. And we still felt it right to maintain secrecy to give the newly fledged young the very best start. But now, with the family days away from their migration south, we decided to lift the lid on this remarkable operation, not least to share the good news and to pay thanks to all those who have willingly given up many hundreds of hours to watch over the shrikes. And next year? Well, we hope the birds fare well in their African wintering grounds and return to breed again in 2011. And we hope their young return to breed as well. Dartmoor is an ideal bridgehead for them to re-colonise. Conservation organisations and landowners have worked hard over the years to make the moor a welcoming place for wildlife, as this success bears witness. Who knows, if all goes well, give it 10 years and you might have butcher birds near you. Tony Whitehead is the RSPB press officer for the South West.

Accession Number : AD0704541 Title : BARRIER ISLANDS OF THE NORTHERN GULF OF MEXICO COAST: SEDIMENT SOURCE AND DEVELOPMENT. Descriptive Note : Technical rept., Corporate Author : LOUISIANA STATE UNIV BATON ROUGE COASTAL STUDIES INST Personal Author(s) : Kwon,Hyuck J. Report Date : 31 DEC 1969 Pagination or Media Count : 61 Abstract : The evolution of barrier islands along the northern Gulf of Mexico coast is directly related to source of sediments and littoral processes. Johnson formulated his hypothesis on barrier island formation in 1919, and his theory prevailed for several decades. Johnson's theory resulted from consideration of only two dimensions normal to the coastline; a third, longshore drift, was not regarded as critical for the initiation of barrier island development. In this study, which is confined to the northern Gulf coast, major sources of sediment supply and transportation patterns of barrier forming sand were examined, along with results of recent oceanographic investigations in the Gulf of Mexico. This study is based on a comprehensive survey of the literature, maps, and marine charts, which were correlated with field observations. To obtain a perspective, only gross forms and processes of barrier development were considered. Evidence indicates that Santa Rosa Island, Mississippi Sound, and Bolivar Peninsula barriers developed downdrift of sediment-supplying coasts of Quaternary age. These barriers evolved with the Recent rise of sea level to its present stand. Apalachicola barriers formed on the flanks of the Pleistocene deltaic plain. Coasts such as the stretch between Destin and Panama City, Florida, and the zero-energy coast of Florida do not have barrier islands. In these cases the modern shoreline is abutted against Pleistocene deposits which are the local source of sediments. (Author) Descriptors : (*COASTAL REGIONS, MEXICO GULF), (*ISLANDS, SEDIMENTATION), SOURCES, TRANSPORT PROPERTIES, SAND, DEPOSITS, ESTUARIES, GEOLOGIC AGE DETERMINATION, DELTAS, OCEAN WAVES, TIDES, FLORIDA Subject Categories : Physical and Dynamic Oceanography Distribution Statement : APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE

September 22, 2012 A new study conducted by the New York University of Medicine reports that packaged food is directly correlated to the obesity levels rising in American children because of their exposure to Bisphenol A (BPA). According to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey from 2003, 92.6 % of children 6 years and older had obviously measurable levels detected in tested urine. The study also concludes that BPA disrupts other multiple metabolic mechanisms. BPA has been identified as causation for recent early pubescent development in our children. Between the ages of 5 – 7 is the new average pubescent age, wherein this physiological change used to occur several years later just a generation ago. BPA is a highly toxic estrogen accelerator that is used in all plastic products commercially produced. The chemical mimics natural estrogen when leeched into the body. It offsets natural estrogen levels, causing the body to hasten its pubescent generation. Nearly all children are exposed to this chemical through plastic toys, pacifiers, bottles, sippy cups. Its influence on natural hormone distribution within the body has proven to be incredibly damaging. In April of this year, GlobalData surmised that manufacturers would produce 4.7 million metric tons of BPA to be used in plastics worldwide. While the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has banned its use in certain children’s products, it is widely used in packaging processed foods. In fact, the FDA claims that there is not enough convincing evidence to support the banning of BPA from use in food products, plastic packaging and personal care products. The FDA also asserted that there is insufficient scientific proof to justify restricting BPA’s use. Other chemicals linked to obesity in humans are: • Monosodium glutamate (MSG) • Pthalates (used in plastics) • PFOA (used in Teflon) also are harmful to the human immune system, liver and thyroid • Corn fed cows has higher levels of saturated fat in their beef • Arsenic (fed to pigs and chickens) affects the thyroid gland • Pharmaceuticals and medications in public water supplies negatively affect the natural chemical make-up of our bodies The claim by recent a recent study that obesity is linked to IQ, which was funded by the pharmaceutical industry serves to purvey the ideal that drugs are the answer to America’s weight problem. By determining the metabolic syndrome rate in a teenager, it is suggested that their cognitive brain function is compromised by their body mass index (BMI). The author of this study recommends using methods to develop a classification for overweight children in America so that the psychiatric industry can work together with the pharmaceutical corporations to develop drugs. Young people have been targeted as having a propensity toward becoming obese in rural areas. It was also noted that ethnicity played a part in the likelihood of becoming overweight. Blacks and Hispanics, according to the study, have a poor diet and are physically isolated, and do not necessarily have access to healthy food. The World Health Organization (WHO) have asserted that American over-consumption of food is a drain on global resources and unsustainable. Although Americans only account for 6% of the global population, more than a third of them are considered obese. WHO would like the average global body weight to be near emaciated levels to conserve food stores and reduce the human impact on the planet. Michelle Obama has remarked that the growing number of obese children in America is a threat to national security. Endocrinologist Robert Lustig of the University of California, San Francisco observes, “This epidemic of obese 6-month-olds. Since they’re eating only formula or breast milk, and never exactly got a lot of exercise, the obvious explanations for obesity don’t work for babies. You have to look beyond the obvious.” Early life exposure to traces of chemicals and hormone-mimicking pollutants, such as BPA, in the environment act on genes in the developing fetus and newborns and turn more precursor cells int

he thyroid gland • Pharmaceuticals and medications in public water supplies negatively affect the natural chemical make-up of our bodies The claim by recent a recent study that obesity is linked to IQ, which was funded by the pharmaceutical industry serves to purvey the ideal that drugs are the answer to America’s weight problem. By determining the metabolic syndrome rate in a teenager, it is suggested that their cognitive brain function is compromised by their body mass index (BMI). The author of this study recommends using methods to develop a classification for overweight children in America so that the psychiatric industry can work together with the pharmaceutical corporations to develop drugs. Young people have been targeted as having a propensity toward becoming obese in rural areas. It was also noted that ethnicity played a part in the likelihood of becoming overweight. Blacks and Hispanics, according to the study, have a poor diet and are physically isolated, and do not necessarily have access to healthy food. The World Health Organization (WHO) have asserted that American over-consumption of food is a drain on global resources and unsustainable. Although Americans only account for 6% of the global population, more than a third of them are considered obese. WHO would like the average global body weight to be near emaciated levels to conserve food stores and reduce the human impact on the planet. Michelle Obama has remarked that the growing number of obese children in America is a threat to national security. Endocrinologist Robert Lustig of the University of California, San Francisco observes, “This epidemic of obese 6-month-olds. Since they’re eating only formula or breast milk, and never exactly got a lot of exercise, the obvious explanations for obesity don’t work for babies. You have to look beyond the obvious.” Early life exposure to traces of chemicals and hormone-mimicking pollutants, such as BPA, in the environment act on genes in the developing fetus and newborns and turn more precursor cells into fat cells. These chemicals cause the cells to hoard nutrients, directly causing weight gain in infants. They may even cause severe alterations in the body’s metabolic rate.

o fat cells. These chemicals cause the cells to hoard nutrients, directly causing weight gain in infants. They may even cause severe alterations in the body’s metabolic rate.

Osteoarthritis symptoms of the hand can include difficulty bending and flexing your fingers, joint pain, and morning stiffness. Along with joint swelling and crepitus, common with finger arthritis, Heberden’s nodes can also appear. Heberden’s nodes are growths of bone on the distal interphalangeal joints (DIPs). These bumps can be a clear indication of hand osteoarthritis. Dr. William Heberden (1710 – 1801) was an english doctor who first described these bumps: “What are those little hard knobs, about the size of a small pea, which are frequently seen upon the fingers, particularly a little below the top near the joint? They have no connection with the gout, being found in persons who never had it: they con- tinue for life: and being hardly ever attended with pain, or disposed to become sore, are rather un- sightly than inconvenient, though they must be some little hindrance to the free use of the fingers.” Dr. Heberden was ahead of his time. He didn’t believe in blood-letting, sweating, and purging – all common treatment options during that day and age. He was known as the “Father of Observation”. An ice pack or finger splint can help.

(b Epsom, Surrey, 13 Dec. 1903; d Fawley Bottom, Buckinghamshire, nr. Henley-on-Thames, Oxfordshire, 28 June 1992). English painter, printmaker, draughtsman, designer, and writer. He reluctantly became an articled clerk in his father's legal firm, but took up the study of art after his father's death in 1926, first at the Richmond School of Art and then at the Royal College of Art. From 1928 to 1933 he wrote as an art critic for the Listener and the Nation and was among the first to recognize such contemporaries as William Coldstream, Ivon Hitchens, Victor Pasmore, and Ceri Richards. By the mid-1930s he was one of the leading British abstract artists, but by the end of the decade he had become disillusioned with non-representational art and reverted to naturalism. He concentrated on landscape and architectural views in an emotionally charged style that continued the English Romantic tradition (see Neo-Romanticism). Some of his finest works were done as an Official War Artist when he made pictures of bomb-damaged buildings. A similar stormy atmosphere pervades his famous views of country houses of the same period. Piper's work diversified in the 1950s and he became recognized as one of the most versatile British artists of his generation. He did much work as a designer of stage decor and of stained glass (notably at Coventry Cathedral) and was a prolific printmaker. In addition he made book illustrations and designed pottery and textiles. As a writer he is probably best known for his book British Romantic Artists (1942). He also compiled architectural guidebooks to several English counties, usually in collaboration with the poet John Betjeman.

Phlebotomy Jobs: An Overview Phlebotomy refers to the medical practice that revolves around extracting, essaying and experimenting blood. Usually, blood is extracted from human bodies for 3 main purposes. This can be for transfusion or donation and it can even be to test the presence of diseases within the human body. The technicians who get involved in extracting blood are referred to as phlebotomists. They are bound to make use of sterilized needles in order to extract the blood from the human veins. This blood drawn is further stored in vials for later essaying. Further to this extraction, the phlebotomist cleans up the area with cotton and sterile pads. A bandage is sometimes placed in the perforated area to stop bleeding. Phlebotomists who work at clinical laboratories get involved in essaying blood samples in depth. They try to understand the abnormalities present in the blood cells and further conduct experiments with it. Usually such personnel hold Bachelor’s degree in the field of medicine, anatomy and the like. To practice independently, they might also need to pass state conducted license examination and this might vary by location. Phlebotomists who work at veterinary clinics deal with blood samples of animals. They get involved in analyzing the samples of animals and defying the abnormalities in the blood of different animals in depth. Phlebotomists who work at research laboratories often get involved in blood analysis and discovery of new medications. This requires a doctoral degree in biology, chemistry or medicine. The most common advantages associated with Phlebotomy jobs are: * Getting into the entry level position is easy and requires minimal training in this arena. * The demand for Phlebotomists is usually unaffected by recession. * Growth in this arena would be easily possible provided the venture is associated with continuous education. Phlebotomy Jobs: Current Trends Currently, there is a boom for phlebotomy jobs, especially for individuals with good education, skills and training. The bulk of phlebotomy jobs seem to be occupied by the technicians at the laboratories who are associated with drawing human blood. Other phlebotomy jobs are also available at veterinary clinics and research laboratories. Individuals can get into the medical industry as phlebotomists with a high school diploma. However, there are employers who ask for certifications from differentiated medical schools or for associate degrees. Novices usually get training from either experienced phlebotomists or from nurses.