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s on honeydew producing pests to become apparent. Control in homes and yards include sanitation (e.g. removal of food scraps), closing points of entry to homes, and removing landscaping features that promote favorable microclimates - especially excess water sources. Leaf-cutting Ants. These are commonly found in many New World tropical areas. In such areas, columns of these ants frequently can be seen crawling up the trunks of trees and cutting small discs from the leaves. In some areas these insects are so common that they become major agricultural pests. Leaf cutting ants carrying leaf discs. Some of these ants exhibit polymorphism (different form within a caste –in this case the workers) to an extreme. There are 4 different forms within the worker caste, namely the minima, minors, media and maxima. The minima are the smallest form of the adults and function to care for the brood (larvae and pupae) and fungal gardens. Media workers forage for and carry the leaf discs deep into their nests, where they are licked, cut into smaller pieces, dampened with an anal secretion and finally formed into a bed of moist pulp. The newly formed beds are then planted with fungi from established beds. As the fungus grows, it is harvested and fed to the larvae. Most leaf cutting ants are quite particular and typically cultivate and harvest only one species of fungus. Media workers continuously ‘weed out’ any alien species of fungi that infest their gardens. It is believed that a few species actually produce fungicidal substances from their salivary glands, which chemically aid in the weeding process. In some species, when the swarming queens leave the colony, they carry the strands of fungi with them in pouches below their heads. Once new colonies are begun, the strands are ‘planted’ to assure a new garden of the correct species of fungi. The maxima are the largest of the forms with enlarged heads and protruding mandible. These of course are the soldiers of the colony and function to protect the colony against intruders. In a few

cked, cut into smaller pieces, dampened with an anal secretion and finally formed into a bed of moist pulp. The newly formed beds are then planted with fungi from established beds. As the fungus grows, it is harvested and fed to the larvae. Most leaf cutting ants are quite particular and typically cultivate and harvest only one species of fungus. Media workers continuously ‘weed out’ any alien species of fungi that infest their gardens. It is believed that a few species actually produce fungicidal substances from their salivary glands, which chemically aid in the weeding process. In some species, when the swarming queens leave the colony, they carry the strands of fungi with them in pouches below their heads. Once new colonies are begun, the strands are ‘planted’ to assure a new garden of the correct species of fungi. The maxima are the largest of the forms with enlarged heads and protruding mandible. These of course are the soldiers of the colony and function to protect the colony against intruders. In a few species of leaf-cutting ants, the minor caste performs a rather specialized function. These smaller workers frequently accompany the larger foraging leaf-gatherers; they do not assist in leaf cutting; but ride back to the nest either on the leaf portion or on the thorax of the media. Their sole function is to protect the media by snapping their mandibles at a species of parasitic fly that attempts to lay eggs on the media’s head. Carpenter Ants. On occasion, carpenter ants are confused with termites by the homeowner. These two are easily distinguished by any of a number of characteristics. As in all ants, the abdomen is connected to the thorax by a narrow waist, or petiole, while the abdomen of a termite is broadly joined to the thorax. Also, in the winged forms, a termite’s wings extend far beyond the tip of the abdomen and their front and hind wings are of equal size and shape. In winged ants, the hind wings are much smaller than the front wings and both rarely extend beyond the tip of the abdomen. Many ca

species of leaf-cutting ants, the minor caste performs a rather specialized function. These smaller workers frequently accompany the larger foraging leaf-gatherers; they do not assist in leaf cutting; but ride back to the nest either on the leaf portion or on the thorax of the media. Their sole function is to protect the media by snapping their mandibles at a species of parasitic fly that attempts to lay eggs on the media’s head. Carpenter Ants. On occasion, carpenter ants are confused with termites by the homeowner. These two are easily distinguished by any of a number of characteristics. As in all ants, the abdomen is connected to the thorax by a narrow waist, or petiole, while the abdomen of a termite is broadly joined to the thorax. Also, in the winged forms, a termite’s wings extend far beyond the tip of the abdomen and their front and hind wings are of equal size and shape. In winged ants, the hind wings are much smaller than the front wings and both rarely extend beyond the tip of the abdomen. Many carpenter ants are large and typically black in color. Unlike termites, carpenter ants do not eat wood and rarely cause damage to structures. In California, their nests may occur inside the wooden parts of homes, but in such cases they usually have occupied abandoned drywood termite nests. Carpenter ants eat a variety of things, including other insects. A common carpenter ant. Army Ants. The most spectacular and well-known ants are the legionary, or army, ants of the humid tropical forests. These ants do not construct nests, but form temporary clusters called bivouacs in the shelter of fallen trees or in other partially exposed situations. The workers form a solid mass up to a yard wide, which consists of layer after layer of individuals hooked together by their tarsal claws. The queen, larvae, pupae, and eggs are located in the center of this mass. An army ant, not considered as dangerous to humans as commonly believed. The night is passed in a tight cluster, but at the first sign of light the cluster dissipat

rpenter ants are large and typically black in color. Unlike termites, carpenter ants do not eat wood and rarely cause damage to structures. In California, their nests may occur inside the wooden parts of homes, but in such cases they usually have occupied abandoned drywood termite nests. Carpenter ants eat a variety of things, including other insects. A common carpenter ant. Army Ants. The most spectacular and well-known ants are the legionary, or army, ants of the humid tropical forests. These ants do not construct nests, but form temporary clusters called bivouacs in the shelter of fallen trees or in other partially exposed situations. The workers form a solid mass up to a yard wide, which consists of layer after layer of individuals hooked together by their tarsal claws. The queen, larvae, pupae, and eggs are located in the center of this mass. An army ant, not considered as dangerous to humans as commonly believed. The night is passed in a tight cluster, but at the first sign of light the cluster dissipates and hoards of workers fan out from the bivouac in all directions. Soon, one or more columns form and begin to search for food. The workers lay down a pheromone trail for others to follow while the soldiers guard the perimeter of the trail. Workers form numerous columns; changing positions behind the advancing hoards of ants—flushing out large numbers of prey (arthropods, small reptiles and rodents). The prey is stung, killed and transported to the rear as food for the larvae. At the end of the day the cluster is reformed. When the food supply is depleted around the area of the bivouac, the colony relocates. Some colonies of army ants may number as high as one million individuals. Because of the spectacular size of their colonies and ‘raiding’ nature of these insects, they have been used repeatedly by the motion picture industry. Actually army ants pose no threat to humans or other large animals. The authors recently had the opportunity to observe army ant behavior in Costa Rica. One morning we were walking

es and hoards of workers fan out from the bivouac in all directions. Soon, one or more columns form and begin to search for food. The workers lay down a pheromone trail for others to follow while the soldiers guard the perimeter of the trail. Workers form numerous columns; changing positions behind the advancing hoards of ants—flushing out large numbers of prey (arthropods, small reptiles and rodents). The prey is stung, killed and transported to the rear as food for the larvae. At the end of the day the cluster is reformed. When the food supply is depleted around the area of the bivouac, the colony relocates. Some colonies of army ants may number as high as one million individuals. Because of the spectacular size of their colonies and ‘raiding’ nature of these insects, they have been used repeatedly by the motion picture industry. Actually army ants pose no threat to humans or other large animals. The authors recently had the opportunity to observe army ant behavior in Costa Rica. One morning we were walking down a dirt road with several students collecting insects. Collecting was not that good but suddenly hoards of insects, spiders and even a few scorpions and lizards started pouring out from the underbrush across the road we were on. After a few moments of excellent collecting, we decided to investigate the reason for this windfall. And, as you might suspect, there was a column of army ants moving through a gully to the side of the road. Of course all the animals in its path were attempting to flee. On the following evening a column of army ants raided the students' cabin. The students were not awakened, but the following morning they were very disappointed to see that the army ants had stolen most of the several thousand insects they had collected and mounted on pins over the past week. Shortly thereafter, I decided to test the reports that army ants pose no threat to humans. There was a column moving through our pension grounds--so I placed my foot directly in their path. They merely ignored this obstacle a

down a dirt road with several students collecting insects. Collecting was not that good but suddenly hoards of insects, spiders and even a few scorpions and lizards started pouring out from the underbrush across the road we were on. After a few moments of excellent collecting, we decided to investigate the reason for this windfall. And, as you might suspect, there was a column of army ants moving through a gully to the side of the road. Of course all the animals in its path were attempting to flee. On the following evening a column of army ants raided the students' cabin. The students were not awakened, but the following morning they were very disappointed to see that the army ants had stolen most of the several thousand insects they had collected and mounted on pins over the past week. Shortly thereafter, I decided to test the reports that army ants pose no threat to humans. There was a column moving through our pension grounds--so I placed my foot directly in their path. They merely ignored this obstacle and marched over and around it. While the army ants are primarily found in the New World tropics the driver ants are found in the tropics of Africa. Both types are very similar as far as their behavior and biology is concerned. One distinct difference is that while large colonies of army ants may number one million colonies of driver ants can reach 200 million. With such huge numbers they present more of a threat to humans and other animals. There have been human deaths recorded from the raids of these critters (mostly infants). In these cases death has typically occurred from suffocation as a result of the ants entering and filling the lungs. The mating behavior of these ants is especially strange. The males are to drawn to the foraging columns supposedly looking for a mate. Instead of finding a queen the sterile workers quickly swarm the males and immediately tear their wings off. Then they carry them off and basically imprison them until a potential new queen is available. Bullet Ants. This ant is primarily

nd marched over and around it. While the army ants are primarily found in the New World tropics the driver ants are found in the tropics of Africa. Both types are very similar as far as their behavior and biology is concerned. One distinct difference is that while large colonies of army ants may number one million colonies of driver ants can reach 200 million. With such huge numbers they present more of a threat to humans and other animals. There have been human deaths recorded from the raids of these critters (mostly infants). In these cases death has typically occurred from suffocation as a result of the ants entering and filling the lungs. The mating behavior of these ants is especially strange. The males are to drawn to the foraging columns supposedly looking for a mate. Instead of finding a queen the sterile workers quickly swarm the males and immediately tear their wings off. Then they carry them off and basically imprison them until a potential new queen is available. Bullet Ants. This ant is primarily found in rainforests ranging from Nicaragua to Paraguay and Australia. This huge (1 inch) beast is called the bullet ant because its sting feels like being shot by a bullet. On the Schmidt Sting Index bullet ants rate as the number one most painful sting found in the arthropods. When defending their nest they swarm out, release a strong odor and stridulate an audible sound (said to sound like a shriek) and then grab and impale their intruder. In Central-South America they are referred to as the 24-hour ant, referring to the pain described as “of burning, throbbing, all consuming pain” that may last a day or more. A one-inch Costa Rican bullet ant. As with many other arthropods bullet ants play a ceremonial role in some tribes of the rainforests. The Satere-Mawe people of Brazil use this ant in the right of passage of boys into manhood. In this case live bullet ants are woven into a sleeve made of leaves with the stingers pointing inward. Once the sleeve is place on the arm the goal is to leave it on for 10 m

found in rainforests ranging from Nicaragua to Paraguay and Australia. This huge (1 inch) beast is called the bullet ant because its sting feels like being shot by a bullet. On the Schmidt Sting Index bullet ants rate as the number one most painful sting found in the arthropods. When defending their nest they swarm out, release a strong odor and stridulate an audible sound (said to sound like a shriek) and then grab and impale their intruder. In Central-South America they are referred to as the 24-hour ant, referring to the pain described as “of burning, throbbing, all consuming pain” that may last a day or more. A one-inch Costa Rican bullet ant. As with many other arthropods bullet ants play a ceremonial role in some tribes of the rainforests. The Satere-Mawe people of Brazil use this ant in the right of passage of boys into manhood. In this case live bullet ants are woven into a sleeve made of leaves with the stingers pointing inward. Once the sleeve is place on the arm the goal is to leave it on for 10 minutes without crying due to the stings. When finished the boys arms are temporarily paralyzed and they may shake uncontrollably for days. To fully complete the initiation, however, the boys must go through this ordeal a total of 20 times over a several month period or years. Harvester Ants. These (Pogonomyrmex spp.) are commonly thought as the large red or black ants that form rather large nests in open fields, schoolyards, along railroad tracks, alleys or other similar situations. Of the 23 species that occur in the United States 22 occur west of the Mississippi River. Beside their large size and color these ants can be distinguished by fringes of long curved hairs on the back, underside margin of the head. These hairs are used to clean the ant’s antennae and legs, carry water and remove sand during excavation of their nests. The nests are typically quite large consisting of one or more holes surrounded by a low flat crater (up to 8 inches across). This crater in turn is surrounded by a rather large vegetat

inutes without crying due to the stings. When finished the boys arms are temporarily paralyzed and they may shake uncontrollably for days. To fully complete the initiation, however, the boys must go through this ordeal a total of 20 times over a several month period or years. Harvester Ants. These (Pogonomyrmex spp.) are commonly thought as the large red or black ants that form rather large nests in open fields, schoolyards, along railroad tracks, alleys or other similar situations. Of the 23 species that occur in the United States 22 occur west of the Mississippi River. Beside their large size and color these ants can be distinguished by fringes of long curved hairs on the back, underside margin of the head. These hairs are used to clean the ant’s antennae and legs, carry water and remove sand during excavation of their nests. The nests are typically quite large consisting of one or more holes surrounded by a low flat crater (up to 8 inches across). This crater in turn is surrounded by a rather large vegetation free area A black harvester ant. Harvester ants feed primarily on seed. In agricultural areas they are considered beneficial as they remove weed seeds from crops. The main reason they are found along railroad tracks is due the grain that is lost during transportation. Harvester ants readily sting but typically are not aggressive unless defending the nest. If disturbed they will swarm from the nest and readily sting. Their venom is extremely powerful resulting in considerable pain that may last for several days. Harvester ant venom is the most toxic venom found in arthropods although there is considerably less than in black widows and consequently the sting of the ant is much less dangerous than the bite of the spider. Fire Ants. There are many species of fire ants in the United States, but the most serious pests are 4 in the genus Solenopsis: the red imported fire ant, the black imported fire ant, the southern fire ant, and the fire ant. Distinguishing between imported and native species of fire ants is d

ion free area A black harvester ant. Harvester ants feed primarily on seed. In agricultural areas they are considered beneficial as they remove weed seeds from crops. The main reason they are found along railroad tracks is due the grain that is lost during transportation. Harvester ants readily sting but typically are not aggressive unless defending the nest. If disturbed they will swarm from the nest and readily sting. Their venom is extremely powerful resulting in considerable pain that may last for several days. Harvester ant venom is the most toxic venom found in arthropods although there is considerably less than in black widows and consequently the sting of the ant is much less dangerous than the bite of the spider. Fire Ants. There are many species of fire ants in the United States, but the most serious pests are 4 in the genus Solenopsis: the red imported fire ant, the black imported fire ant, the southern fire ant, and the fire ant. Distinguishing between imported and native species of fire ants is difficult, even for experts. Identification usually requires 40 or more randomly collected worker ants for study. Black Imported Fire Ant. The black imported fire ant, Solenopsis richteri, is very similar to the red imported fire ant. Its current distribution is limited to a small area of northern Mississippi and Alabama. It may be displaced from established habitats by the red fire ant. Scientists have long thought that the black and red fire ants were 2 distinct species. Recently it has been discovered that hybrids of these ants produce viable offspring, and some scientists now wonder whether they are simply 2 races of the same species, varying in color and perhaps behavior. Southern Fire Ant. The southern fire ant, Solenopsis xyloni, is a native species that occurs from North Carolina south to northern Florida, along the Gulf Coast and west to California. In California it occurs in the lower altitudes from Southern California up through Sacramento but is seldom found along the coast in central to northern C

ifficult, even for experts. Identification usually requires 40 or more randomly collected worker ants for study. Black Imported Fire Ant. The black imported fire ant, Solenopsis richteri, is very similar to the red imported fire ant. Its current distribution is limited to a small area of northern Mississippi and Alabama. It may be displaced from established habitats by the red fire ant. Scientists have long thought that the black and red fire ants were 2 distinct species. Recently it has been discovered that hybrids of these ants produce viable offspring, and some scientists now wonder whether they are simply 2 races of the same species, varying in color and perhaps behavior. Southern Fire Ant. The southern fire ant, Solenopsis xyloni, is a native species that occurs from North Carolina south to northern Florida, along the Gulf Coast and west to California. In California it occurs in the lower altitudes from Southern California up through Sacramento but is seldom found along the coast in central to northern California. This is probably our most common native species of ant but its distribution is greatly retarded when the Argentine ant is present. However in areas where the Argentine ant is controlled, populations of this species rapidly return. Colonies may be observed as mounds or more commonly may be constructed under the cover of stones, boards, and other objects or at the base of plants. These ants also nest in wood or the masonry of houses, especially around heat sources such as fireplaces. Nests often consist of loose soil with many craters scattered over 2 to 4 square feet. In dry areas nests may be along streams, arroyos, and other shaded locations where soil moisture is high. Southern fire ants usually swarm in late spring or summer. The workers are very sensitive to vibrations or jarring. If their nest is stepped on they will rush out and sting the feet and legs of the intruder. Individual reaction to their venom is quite variable depending on allergic reaction. There is a least one case of a human inf

alifornia. This is probably our most common native species of ant but its distribution is greatly retarded when the Argentine ant is present. However in areas where the Argentine ant is controlled, populations of this species rapidly return. Colonies may be observed as mounds or more commonly may be constructed under the cover of stones, boards, and other objects or at the base of plants. These ants also nest in wood or the masonry of houses, especially around heat sources such as fireplaces. Nests often consist of loose soil with many craters scattered over 2 to 4 square feet. In dry areas nests may be along streams, arroyos, and other shaded locations where soil moisture is high. Southern fire ants usually swarm in late spring or summer. The workers are very sensitive to vibrations or jarring. If their nest is stepped on they will rush out and sting the feet and legs of the intruder. Individual reaction to their venom is quite variable depending on allergic reaction. There is a least one case of a human infant death due to mass stinging of this species. This species is practically omnivorous feeding on a variety of materials including honeydew, meat, seeds, fruit, nuts, cereal and cereal products, grease and butter and dead and living insects. It can be quite detrimental to agriculture foraging for seeds from seed beds, girdling nursery stock, and consuming fruits and vegetables. In addition these ants will remove insulation from wiring and occasionally gnaws on a variety of fabrics. Fire Ant. The fire ant, Solenopsis geminata, is a native species sometimes called the tropical fire ant. It ranges from South Carolina to Florida and west to Texas. It is very similar to the southern fire ant except its head is much larger and the petiole node is higher and narrower. This species usually nests in mounds constructed around clumps of vegetation, but may also nest under objects or in rotting wood. Red Imported Fire Ant. The red and black imported fire ants were first reported in the United States in 1929. It is though

ant death due to mass stinging of this species. This species is practically omnivorous feeding on a variety of materials including honeydew, meat, seeds, fruit, nuts, cereal and cereal products, grease and butter and dead and living insects. It can be quite detrimental to agriculture foraging for seeds from seed beds, girdling nursery stock, and consuming fruits and vegetables. In addition these ants will remove insulation from wiring and occasionally gnaws on a variety of fabrics. Fire Ant. The fire ant, Solenopsis geminata, is a native species sometimes called the tropical fire ant. It ranges from South Carolina to Florida and west to Texas. It is very similar to the southern fire ant except its head is much larger and the petiole node is higher and narrower. This species usually nests in mounds constructed around clumps of vegetation, but may also nest under objects or in rotting wood. Red Imported Fire Ant. The red and black imported fire ants were first reported in the United States in 1929. It is thought that they came to the port in some soil used as ballast in the bottom of a cargo ship. Since this introduction the black fire ant has not spread as rapidly as the red imported species. By 1953 (first official USDA survey) the red imported fire ant had spread to over 100 counties in 10 states. Today it is prevalent throughout the southeastern US and has moved into Texas, New Mexico. Arizona and California. Natural movement of fire ants is limited to mating flight or by rafting during period of flooding. However, the rapid movement of these species across the South and westward is mainly associated with human activity. In this case the initial spread of these ants in the southeastern US was thought to be due to movement of sod and potted ornamental plants. This inadvertent movement of S. invicta and S. richteri was noted by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1953 when a direct link was established between commercial plant nurseries and the spread of imported fire ants. In response to mounting public pressu

t that they came to the port in some soil used as ballast in the bottom of a cargo ship. Since this introduction the black fire ant has not spread as rapidly as the red imported species. By 1953 (first official USDA survey) the red imported fire ant had spread to over 100 counties in 10 states. Today it is prevalent throughout the southeastern US and has moved into Texas, New Mexico. Arizona and California. Natural movement of fire ants is limited to mating flight or by rafting during period of flooding. However, the rapid movement of these species across the South and westward is mainly associated with human activity. In this case the initial spread of these ants in the southeastern US was thought to be due to movement of sod and potted ornamental plants. This inadvertent movement of S. invicta and S. richteri was noted by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1953 when a direct link was established between commercial plant nurseries and the spread of imported fire ants. In response to mounting public pressure, the U.S. Congress appropriated $2.4 million in 1957 for control and eradication efforts. As part of an overall plan quarantine was imposed to retard or prevent the artificial dissemination of these now notorious pests. On May 6th 1958, regulations governing the movement of nursery stock, grass sod and some other items were instituted through the Federal Quarantine 301.81. By that time, however, imported fire ants had moved into 8 southern states. This spread, although slowed considerably by federal regulations and climatic conditions, continues even today. In recent years, isolated infestations of imported fire ants have been found as far west as New Mexico, Arizona California and as far north as Kansas and Maryland. In the case of California it is thought that the spread of these ants into this state was due to movement of bee hives as most initial infestations were found in around orchards and other situations where bees were moved into these areas for crop pollination. Based on USDA prediction these an

re, the U.S. Congress appropriated $2.4 million in 1957 for control and eradication efforts. As part of an overall plan quarantine was imposed to retard or prevent the artificial dissemination of these now notorious pests. On May 6th 1958, regulations governing the movement of nursery stock, grass sod and some other items were instituted through the Federal Quarantine 301.81. By that time, however, imported fire ants had moved into 8 southern states. This spread, although slowed considerably by federal regulations and climatic conditions, continues even today. In recent years, isolated infestations of imported fire ants have been found as far west as New Mexico, Arizona California and as far north as Kansas and Maryland. In the case of California it is thought that the spread of these ants into this state was due to movement of bee hives as most initial infestations were found in around orchards and other situations where bees were moved into these areas for crop pollination. Based on USDA prediction these ants have a potential of even expanding the spread throughout much of the United States. Current and potential distribution of imported red fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA. Adult fire ants (Genus Solenopisis) are characterized by the presence of a ten-segmented antennae, two-segmented antennal club and two-segmented waste that joins the thorax to the abdomen which is typically darker than the rest of the body. Species identification is somewhat more difficult due to hybridization between the 2 "native" species as well as between the 2 imported species. Diagram of diagnostic characteristics of red imported fire ant. A mature colony of fire ants typically consists of 4 main stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adults. Since these are true social insect there is a caste system with different shaped and sized adults that carry out different function within the colony. These adult forms include the polymorphic workers, winged males, winged females and one or more reproductive queens. The egg, larval, and pupal stages (Fig

ts have a potential of even expanding the spread throughout much of the United States. Current and potential distribution of imported red fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA. Adult fire ants (Genus Solenopisis) are characterized by the presence of a ten-segmented antennae, two-segmented antennal club and two-segmented waste that joins the thorax to the abdomen which is typically darker than the rest of the body. Species identification is somewhat more difficult due to hybridization between the 2 "native" species as well as between the 2 imported species. Diagram of diagnostic characteristics of red imported fire ant. A mature colony of fire ants typically consists of 4 main stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adults. Since these are true social insect there is a caste system with different shaped and sized adults that carry out different function within the colony. These adult forms include the polymorphic workers, winged males, winged females and one or more reproductive queens. The egg, larval, and pupal stages (Figure 3) occur within the underground nest and are only seen when nests are disturbed or when they are being carried to a different location by workers (Figure 4). The eggs are small but can be seen with the unaided eye. They hatch into the grub-like legless larvae that are fed by the workers. Ant larvae in general are legless, carrot shaped with a well-developed unpigmented head capsule and are typically hooked at the head end. The larvae will grow and molt (shed their exoskeleton) 3 times prior to molting into the pupae, which are similar in appearance to the adults except that their legs and antennae are held tightly against the body. As with the larvae the pupae lack pigmentation, especially in the early instars. As they mature they begin to turn darker. As discussed in honeybees, the function of the polymorphic workers is determined primarily by age (and to a much lesser degree by size). Younger workers typically care for and feed the brood while middle-aged workers maintain and protect the colony. The old

ure 3) occur within the underground nest and are only seen when nests are disturbed or when they are being carried to a different location by workers (Figure 4). The eggs are small but can be seen with the unaided eye. They hatch into the grub-like legless larvae that are fed by the workers. Ant larvae in general are legless, carrot shaped with a well-developed unpigmented head capsule and are typically hooked at the head end. The larvae will grow and molt (shed their exoskeleton) 3 times prior to molting into the pupae, which are similar in appearance to the adults except that their legs and antennae are held tightly against the body. As with the larvae the pupae lack pigmentation, especially in the early instars. As they mature they begin to turn darker. As discussed in honeybees, the function of the polymorphic workers is determined primarily by age (and to a much lesser degree by size). Younger workers typically care for and feed the brood while middle-aged workers maintain and protect the colony. The oldest workers forage for food. Figure 3. Egg, larval and pupal stage of fire ants. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. Figure 4. Worker fire ants carrying larva for relocation. Image courtesy of USDA, Calif. Dept Agriculture. The alates, or winged reproductives (Figure 5), are most abundant in the late spring and early summer, but can be found at any time of the year. The males are decidedly smaller than the females, glossy black and have a smaller head. Although both winged males and females can be found in the same colony, as a general rule one form will be dominant. It is possible that this functions to increase the chances of one sex mating with another from a different colony. Most colonies in a given area typically swarm on nuptial flights at the same time. This benefits the species and insures mixing of the gene pool. It is well-documented that inbreeding is generally detrimental to a given species. Figure 5. A winged reproductive of the red imported fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. Mating flights

est workers forage for food. Figure 3. Egg, larval and pupal stage of fire ants. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. Figure 4. Worker fire ants carrying larva for relocation. Image courtesy of USDA, Calif. Dept Agriculture. The alates, or winged reproductives (Figure 5), are most abundant in the late spring and early summer, but can be found at any time of the year. The males are decidedly smaller than the females, glossy black and have a smaller head. Although both winged males and females can be found in the same colony, as a general rule one form will be dominant. It is possible that this functions to increase the chances of one sex mating with another from a different colony. Most colonies in a given area typically swarm on nuptial flights at the same time. This benefits the species and insures mixing of the gene pool. It is well-documented that inbreeding is generally detrimental to a given species. Figure 5. A winged reproductive of the red imported fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. Mating flights most often occur at mid-morning 1 or 2 days following a rainfall if the temperature is above 22°C and the wind is light. At this time a virgin female flies into a cloud of congregating males and mates in the air. The male subsequently dies while the female seeks a location to start a new colony. Once located, she breaks off her wings and excavates a brood chamber approximately 1 to 2 inches below ground. The new queen subsequently deposits a few dozen eggs which hatch in a little over a week. The queen does not forage but feeds the first generation of larvae from nutrients obtained from her fat reserves and by dissolving her no longer needed wing muscles. The larvae obtain the nutrients by trophollaxisis (exchange of alimentary fluids) or from sterile eggs she has produced for that purpose. The entire life cycle is completed in 3 to 4 weeks. The initial generation of adult worker (minims) are relatively small due to a limited amount of nutrients available from the queen. Once developed these worker open up t

most often occur at mid-morning 1 or 2 days following a rainfall if the temperature is above 22°C and the wind is light. At this time a virgin female flies into a cloud of congregating males and mates in the air. The male subsequently dies while the female seeks a location to start a new colony. Once located, she breaks off her wings and excavates a brood chamber approximately 1 to 2 inches below ground. The new queen subsequently deposits a few dozen eggs which hatch in a little over a week. The queen does not forage but feeds the first generation of larvae from nutrients obtained from her fat reserves and by dissolving her no longer needed wing muscles. The larvae obtain the nutrients by trophollaxisis (exchange of alimentary fluids) or from sterile eggs she has produced for that purpose. The entire life cycle is completed in 3 to 4 weeks. The initial generation of adult worker (minims) are relatively small due to a limited amount of nutrients available from the queen. Once developed these worker open up the brood chamber and begin to forage for available food. Soon another generation of larger adult workers has developed and the colony begins to grow. Workers start to emerge daily and within 6 months the colony population approaches several thousand and an above ground mound is visible. The polymorphic (poly in Latin means many and morph means form) nature of the worker becomes more apparent. The largest workers in the colony (majors) can be as much as 10 times the size of the smallest workers (media). The queen lives up to 7 years and produces an average of 1600 eggs per day. At maturity, a monogynous (one queen) fire ant colony can consist of over 250,000 ants. As discussed above some fire ant colonies have only one queen per nest while others can have many queens and are called polygynous colonies. The polygynous colony may be more difficult to control because all the queens must be killed to prevent the colony from surviving. Polygynous colonies frequently expand by "budding"; i.e., some of the queens and

he brood chamber and begin to forage for available food. Soon another generation of larger adult workers has developed and the colony begins to grow. Workers start to emerge daily and within 6 months the colony population approaches several thousand and an above ground mound is visible. The polymorphic (poly in Latin means many and morph means form) nature of the worker becomes more apparent. The largest workers in the colony (majors) can be as much as 10 times the size of the smallest workers (media). The queen lives up to 7 years and produces an average of 1600 eggs per day. At maturity, a monogynous (one queen) fire ant colony can consist of over 250,000 ants. As discussed above some fire ant colonies have only one queen per nest while others can have many queens and are called polygynous colonies. The polygynous colony may be more difficult to control because all the queens must be killed to prevent the colony from surviving. Polygynous colonies frequently expand by "budding"; i.e., some of the queens and workers break off from the parent colony and start a new mound nearby. This process in polygynous colonies can accounts for much higher mound density which sometimes approaching 1,000 mounds per acre. Different sized worker adults. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. One of the identifying characteristics of an imported red fire ant colony is the earthen nest or mound. This mound is a cone-shaped dome with a hard crust. They averages 1 ½ feet in diameter and 8-inches in height. In heavy clay soils they can exceed 3-feet in height and 4 1/2 feet diameter. There are usually no external openings in the mound; but tunnels a few inches below the surface tunnels radiate several feet from the mound allowing foraging workers access to the colony. These mounds serves several functions: They act as a flight platform for nuptial flights and to raise the colony above ground in excessively wet soil while protecting it above ground from intruders and rain. They also serve as a passive solar collector to supply warmth to the

workers break off from the parent colony and start a new mound nearby. This process in polygynous colonies can accounts for much higher mound density which sometimes approaching 1,000 mounds per acre. Different sized worker adults. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. One of the identifying characteristics of an imported red fire ant colony is the earthen nest or mound. This mound is a cone-shaped dome with a hard crust. They averages 1 ½ feet in diameter and 8-inches in height. In heavy clay soils they can exceed 3-feet in height and 4 1/2 feet diameter. There are usually no external openings in the mound; but tunnels a few inches below the surface tunnels radiate several feet from the mound allowing foraging workers access to the colony. These mounds serves several functions: They act as a flight platform for nuptial flights and to raise the colony above ground in excessively wet soil while protecting it above ground from intruders and rain. They also serve as a passive solar collector to supply warmth to the colony during the cold winter months. Mound of red imported fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. In areas with hot, dry summers these mounds may not be maintained or may not be formed at all. In a dark, protected site with sufficient moisture and an adequate supply of food, fire ants will nest in a wide variety of locations (e.g. rotten logs, walls of buildings, under sidewalks and roads, in automobiles, in dried cow manure). Fire ants are omnivorous, feeding on almost any plant or animal material; although dead and living insects seem to be their preferred food. In rural habitats, they have a major impact on ground nesting animals (birds, reptiles, mammals). Studies have shown that once established in a new area there is typically a minimum of a two-fold reduction in the populations of field mice, snakes, turtles and other vertebrates and a maximum of a total elimination of some species. Fire ants also feed on plants attacking young saplings and seedlings, destroying buds and developing fruits and have

colony during the cold winter months. Mound of red imported fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. In areas with hot, dry summers these mounds may not be maintained or may not be formed at all. In a dark, protected site with sufficient moisture and an adequate supply of food, fire ants will nest in a wide variety of locations (e.g. rotten logs, walls of buildings, under sidewalks and roads, in automobiles, in dried cow manure). Fire ants are omnivorous, feeding on almost any plant or animal material; although dead and living insects seem to be their preferred food. In rural habitats, they have a major impact on ground nesting animals (birds, reptiles, mammals). Studies have shown that once established in a new area there is typically a minimum of a two-fold reduction in the populations of field mice, snakes, turtles and other vertebrates and a maximum of a total elimination of some species. Fire ants also feed on plants attacking young saplings and seedlings, destroying buds and developing fruits and have been shown to feed on the seeds of over a hundred species of native wildflowers and grasses. Damage to plants is increased during periods of drought as fire ants seek alternate water sources. In fields where drip irrigation is used, these insects build their mounds over the emitters reducing or blocking the flow of water to crops. In some cases, actual physical destruction of microsprinkler assemblies has occurred. Finally, the mere presence of fire ants on plants and within the field will deter hand-harvesting of crops. As an urban pest, imported fire ants cause many of the same problems experienced in rural areas. In addition they nest within the walls of homes and offices. Colonies are established under sidewalks and roadways frequently resulting in complete collapse of sections of these structures if the nests are eventually abandoned. The presence of fire ants can deter outdoor activities in yards, parks and school grounds. Home invasions can threaten small children and the elderly. House invasions are

been shown to feed on the seeds of over a hundred species of native wildflowers and grasses. Damage to plants is increased during periods of drought as fire ants seek alternate water sources. In fields where drip irrigation is used, these insects build their mounds over the emitters reducing or blocking the flow of water to crops. In some cases, actual physical destruction of microsprinkler assemblies has occurred. Finally, the mere presence of fire ants on plants and within the field will deter hand-harvesting of crops. As an urban pest, imported fire ants cause many of the same problems experienced in rural areas. In addition they nest within the walls of homes and offices. Colonies are established under sidewalks and roadways frequently resulting in complete collapse of sections of these structures if the nests are eventually abandoned. The presence of fire ants can deter outdoor activities in yards, parks and school grounds. Home invasions can threaten small children and the elderly. House invasions are especially prevalent during periods of heavy precipitation and flooding. Fire ant colonies have been found inside automobiles, trucks and recreation vehicles resulting in traffic accidents caused by fire ants stinging the drivers. Imported fire ants are attracted by electrical currents and have caused considerable damage to heat pumps, air conditioners, telephone junction boxes, transformers, traffic lights, and gasoline pumps. Because of their reputation people fear fire ants. In some areas playgrounds, parks, and picnic areas are rarely used because of the presence of fire ants. In campsites of state and national parks in fire ant infested areas, it is often difficult to put up or take down a tent without being stung by angry ants. Stings. Fire ants are best known for their behavior of stinging, frequently in mass. If a nest is disturbed hundreds if not thousands of ants will quickly emerge and attack the intruder. This occurs so quickly and in mass that is not uncommon to have hundreds on the victim before

especially prevalent during periods of heavy precipitation and flooding. Fire ant colonies have been found inside automobiles, trucks and recreation vehicles resulting in traffic accidents caused by fire ants stinging the drivers. Imported fire ants are attracted by electrical currents and have caused considerable damage to heat pumps, air conditioners, telephone junction boxes, transformers, traffic lights, and gasoline pumps. Because of their reputation people fear fire ants. In some areas playgrounds, parks, and picnic areas are rarely used because of the presence of fire ants. In campsites of state and national parks in fire ant infested areas, it is often difficult to put up or take down a tent without being stung by angry ants. Stings. Fire ants are best known for their behavior of stinging, frequently in mass. If a nest is disturbed hundreds if not thousands of ants will quickly emerge and attack the intruder. This occurs so quickly and in mass that is not uncommon to have hundreds on the victim before the first sting is felt. To make matters even worse a single fire ant can sting repeatedly and will continue to do so even after their venom sac has been depleted. Once reaching the victim the ant will typically attach with its mandibles to the skin and then insert its stinger. Subsequently it will rotate it abdomen and repeatedly sting using the attached head as a pivot. The result is a circle of several stings from the same ant. Initially, the sting(s) result in a localized intense burning sensation (hence the name "fire" ant). Within a day or two a white pustule forms at the sting site (Figure 8). Pustule formation occurs only with the red and black imported fire ant and not the southern fire ant or fire ant. There is a possibility of secondary infection and scarring if the wounds are not kept clean or if they are continually picked at or scratched (Figure 9). As with any other hymenopterous stings, there are a few individuals who are hypersensitive to the venom and can react quite strongly and be severel

the first sting is felt. To make matters even worse a single fire ant can sting repeatedly and will continue to do so even after their venom sac has been depleted. Once reaching the victim the ant will typically attach with its mandibles to the skin and then insert its stinger. Subsequently it will rotate it abdomen and repeatedly sting using the attached head as a pivot. The result is a circle of several stings from the same ant. Initially, the sting(s) result in a localized intense burning sensation (hence the name "fire" ant). Within a day or two a white pustule forms at the sting site (Figure 8). Pustule formation occurs only with the red and black imported fire ant and not the southern fire ant or fire ant. There is a possibility of secondary infection and scarring if the wounds are not kept clean or if they are continually picked at or scratched (Figure 9). As with any other hymenopterous stings, there are a few individuals who are hypersensitive to the venom and can react quite strongly and be severely affected. Symptoms in these cases can include chest pains, nausea, dizziness, shock or, in rare cases, lapsing into coma. In cases of an allergic reaction, even a single sting can lead to a potentially serious condition called anaphylactic shock. There are recorded cases of human death resulting from fire ant stings but these are rare. Pustular formation for sting of red imported fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. Figure 9. Secondary infection of sting from red imported fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. Individuals with disabilities, reduced feeling in their feet and legs or reduced mobility, are at greater risk from serious stinging incidents and the incidence of resulting medical problems may be even greater. Large numbers of ants can sting and even overcome victims before they can safely escape. There was a recent case where fire ants entered a room of an elderly gentleman in a retirement hospital and basically stung him to death. In his case he was unable to escape their attack. Individ

y affected. Symptoms in these cases can include chest pains, nausea, dizziness, shock or, in rare cases, lapsing into coma. In cases of an allergic reaction, even a single sting can lead to a potentially serious condition called anaphylactic shock. There are recorded cases of human death resulting from fire ant stings but these are rare. Pustular formation for sting of red imported fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. Figure 9. Secondary infection of sting from red imported fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. Individuals with disabilities, reduced feeling in their feet and legs or reduced mobility, are at greater risk from serious stinging incidents and the incidence of resulting medical problems may be even greater. Large numbers of ants can sting and even overcome victims before they can safely escape. There was a recent case where fire ants entered a room of an elderly gentleman in a retirement hospital and basically stung him to death. In his case he was unable to escape their attack. Individuals who are known to be allergic to fire ant stings should seek professional advice from a physician or allergist, especially if they are in situations where they might be exposed to these pests. There are emergency treatment kits that are available (by prescription) for individuals who are sensitive to their sting. Fortunately, relatively few deaths from fire ant stings have been documented, especially when compared to deaths from bee and wasp stings. Victims stung to death by fire ants often were not able to escape, sustained large numbers of stings, and suffered allergic reactions to the venom. There are basically two methods of fire ant control, namely individual mound treatment and broadcast treatment. Before attempting either, it is advisable to check with regulatory agencies as the availability and use of different chemicals for either method may vary from state to state. In addition, in many cases free control by state governmental agencies of these pests is available. Individual Mound Treatments. Tr

uals who are known to be allergic to fire ant stings should seek professional advice from a physician or allergist, especially if they are in situations where they might be exposed to these pests. There are emergency treatment kits that are available (by prescription) for individuals who are sensitive to their sting. Fortunately, relatively few deaths from fire ant stings have been documented, especially when compared to deaths from bee and wasp stings. Victims stung to death by fire ants often were not able to escape, sustained large numbers of stings, and suffered allergic reactions to the venom. There are basically two methods of fire ant control, namely individual mound treatment and broadcast treatment. Before attempting either, it is advisable to check with regulatory agencies as the availability and use of different chemicals for either method may vary from state to state. In addition, in many cases free control by state governmental agencies of these pests is available. Individual Mound Treatments. Treating individual fire ant mounds can be time consuming, but it is generally the most effective method of control. Once treated it will take anywhere from a few hours to a few weeks before total elimination of a colony depending on the product used, time of the year and size of the mound. Treatment is usually most effective in the spring with the key being to treat all the mounds in the area. If control is not complete, reinfestation of an area can take place in less than a year. There are several different methods that can be used to treat individual mounds. Insecticides-One of the more commonly used methods is drenching mounds with a high volume of diluted contact pesticide. As with any treatment, it is extremely important to follow label directions not only to attain maximum effect, but to maximize safety of the application and avoid potential illegal consequences. In most cases the mounds and surrounding areas are wetted thoroughly but gently with the drench. Subsequently the mound is broken open and the

eating individual fire ant mounds can be time consuming, but it is generally the most effective method of control. Once treated it will take anywhere from a few hours to a few weeks before total elimination of a colony depending on the product used, time of the year and size of the mound. Treatment is usually most effective in the spring with the key being to treat all the mounds in the area. If control is not complete, reinfestation of an area can take place in less than a year. There are several different methods that can be used to treat individual mounds. Insecticides-One of the more commonly used methods is drenching mounds with a high volume of diluted contact pesticide. As with any treatment, it is extremely important to follow label directions not only to attain maximum effect, but to maximize safety of the application and avoid potential illegal consequences. In most cases the mounds and surrounding areas are wetted thoroughly but gently with the drench. Subsequently the mound is broken open and the insecticide is poured directly into the tunnels. Mound drenches are most effective after rains when the ground is wet and the ants have moved up into the drier soil in the mound. During excessively dry weather, effectiveness of the treatment may be enhanced by soaking the soil around the mound with water before treatment. One problem with this technique is that the queen may be too deep to be reached with the drench. This may be especially true if the colony is disturbed prior to an application. In this case the workers may move the queen deeper into the colony in order to avoid a potential threat. Granular formulations are also available for individual mound treatment. In this case once the recommend dose is applied to the mound it should be watered thoroughly in order to reach the worker ants and queen that occur deeper in the colony. The dissolved granules must come into direct contact with the ants to have any effect. As in mound drenches, care must be taken not to disturb the colony prior to application.

insecticide is poured directly into the tunnels. Mound drenches are most effective after rains when the ground is wet and the ants have moved up into the drier soil in the mound. During excessively dry weather, effectiveness of the treatment may be enhanced by soaking the soil around the mound with water before treatment. One problem with this technique is that the queen may be too deep to be reached with the drench. This may be especially true if the colony is disturbed prior to an application. In this case the workers may move the queen deeper into the colony in order to avoid a potential threat. Granular formulations are also available for individual mound treatment. In this case once the recommend dose is applied to the mound it should be watered thoroughly in order to reach the worker ants and queen that occur deeper in the colony. The dissolved granules must come into direct contact with the ants to have any effect. As in mound drenches, care must be taken not to disturb the colony prior to application. A few insecticides are marketed as injectants. In this case they may be injected using a "termite rig" with a soil injector tip, a standard 1-3 gallon compressed air sprayer with a fire ant injector tip, or a special aerosol soil injector system. The mound is injected in a circular pattern, usually at 3 to 10 points. A new product combines insecticide treatment with high temperature vapors to increase Fumigants are readily available in most states for fire ant control. These are usually more effective than surface applications or mound drenches but are also more expensive and can be dangerous if not handled properly. Depending on the state a number of fire ant baits are available. These can be used for treating individual mounds or for broadcast treatment of larger areas. The bait should be uniformly applied around the mound 0.3 to 1.0 meters away and not on the mound itself. Baits are much slower acting than the control methods listed above but are generally safer, cheaper and more effective in the long run

A few insecticides are marketed as injectants. In this case they may be injected using a "termite rig" with a soil injector tip, a standard 1-3 gallon compressed air sprayer with a fire ant injector tip, or a special aerosol soil injector system. The mound is injected in a circular pattern, usually at 3 to 10 points. A new product combines insecticide treatment with high temperature vapors to increase Fumigants are readily available in most states for fire ant control. These are usually more effective than surface applications or mound drenches but are also more expensive and can be dangerous if not handled properly. Depending on the state a number of fire ant baits are available. These can be used for treating individual mounds or for broadcast treatment of larger areas. The bait should be uniformly applied around the mound 0.3 to 1.0 meters away and not on the mound itself. Baits are much slower acting than the control methods listed above but are generally safer, cheaper and more effective in the long run. Water - The use of boiling water has been examined on several different occasions resulting in varying degrees of success. In one experiment over a 50% of treated mound were eliminated by pouring approximately 3 gallon of hot water directly into the mound. The use of steam produced by a steam generator produced similar results. Regardless both techniques are far less effective the use of drenches, fumigants, granular formulation or baits are cumbersome in the field are not practical when dealing with large populations of these pests. Area wide flooding with water has not proven to be effective, impractical in most situations and can led to spreading of the population due to the rafting ability of these insects. Broadcast Treatments - A number of fire ant baits (Figure 10) are commercially available for broadcast treatments (again depending on the state). Baits are composed of an inert carrier-attractant (corn carrier and soybean oil) and toxicant. The active ingredient (either a slow-acting insecticide or a

. Water - The use of boiling water has been examined on several different occasions resulting in varying degrees of success. In one experiment over a 50% of treated mound were eliminated by pouring approximately 3 gallon of hot water directly into the mound. The use of steam produced by a steam generator produced similar results. Regardless both techniques are far less effective the use of drenches, fumigants, granular formulation or baits are cumbersome in the field are not practical when dealing with large populations of these pests. Area wide flooding with water has not proven to be effective, impractical in most situations and can led to spreading of the population due to the rafting ability of these insects. Broadcast Treatments - A number of fire ant baits (Figure 10) are commercially available for broadcast treatments (again depending on the state). Baits are composed of an inert carrier-attractant (corn carrier and soybean oil) and toxicant. The active ingredient (either a slow-acting insecticide or an insect growth regulator) is incorporated into the oil. These baits can be applied either by a hand operated granular fertilizer spreader or larger equipment. Once foragers find bait they carry it back to the nest, ingest it and begin feeding other ants in the nest. Because the active ingredients are slow acting, they are spread around the nest before the desired effect. This formulation and means of application has a number of advantages. Unlike individual mound treatments, colonies need not be "located" in order for them to be treated and as a result this method is less time intensive and consequently less expensive than individual mound treatments. On the other hand broad cast treatment has the potential of affecting non-target organisms. It is also slow acting and the effectiveness of the bait is greatly reduced when they come in contact with water from rain, irrigation or other sources. Finally baits are only effective during those times of the year or temperatures when the ants are readily foraging. Ge

n insect growth regulator) is incorporated into the oil. These baits can be applied either by a hand operated granular fertilizer spreader or larger equipment. Once foragers find bait they carry it back to the nest, ingest it and begin feeding other ants in the nest. Because the active ingredients are slow acting, they are spread around the nest before the desired effect. This formulation and means of application has a number of advantages. Unlike individual mound treatments, colonies need not be "located" in order for them to be treated and as a result this method is less time intensive and consequently less expensive than individual mound treatments. On the other hand broad cast treatment has the potential of affecting non-target organisms. It is also slow acting and the effectiveness of the bait is greatly reduced when they come in contact with water from rain, irrigation or other sources. Finally baits are only effective during those times of the year or temperatures when the ants are readily foraging. Generally speaking it is advisable to only use this type of treatment in areas where there is little or no human traffic. If broadcast treatment is used in such an area, a good choice is growth regulator bait, which poses much less risks to non-target species. For example, fenoxycarb bait has been shown to be very effective for suppression of fire ant populations when applied in one application over a wide area. Figure 10. A corn- based bait used for control of the red imported fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. Figure 11. A tractor driven granular applicator. Image courtesy of USDA Archives.

nerally speaking it is advisable to only use this type of treatment in areas where there is little or no human traffic. If broadcast treatment is used in such an area, a good choice is growth regulator bait, which poses much less risks to non-target species. For example, fenoxycarb bait has been shown to be very effective for suppression of fire ant populations when applied in one application over a wide area. Figure 10. A corn- based bait used for control of the red imported fire ant. Image courtesy of USDA Archives. Figure 11. A tractor driven granular applicator. Image courtesy of USDA Archives.

Individually stereotyped vocalizations often play an important role in relocation of offspring in gregarious breeders. In phocids, mothers often alternate between foraging at sea and attending their pup. Pup calls are individually distinctive in various phocid species. However, experimental evidence for maternal recognition is rare. In this study, we recorded Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddellii) pup vocalizations at two whelping patches in Atka Bay, Antarctica, and explored individual vocal variation based on eight vocal parameters. Overall, 58% of calls were correctly classified according to individual. For males (n = 12) and females (n = 9), respectively, nine and seven individuals were correctly identified based on vocal parameters. To investigate whether mothers respond differently to calls of familiar vs. unfamiliar pups, we conducted playback experiments with 21 mothers. Maternal responses did not differ between playbacks of own, familiar, and unfamiliar pup calls. We suggest that Weddell seal pup calls may need to contain only a critical amount of individually distinct information because mothers and pups use a combination of sensory modalities for identification. However, it cannot be excluded that pup developmental factors and differing environmental factors between colonies affect pup acoustic behavior and the role of acoustic cues in the relocation process.

- air raid (n.) - 1914, from air (n.1) + raid (n.); originally in reference to British attacks Sept. 22, 1914, on Zeppelin bases at Cologne and Düsseldorf in World War I. The German word is Fliegerangriff "aviator-attack," and if Old English had survived into the 20th century our word instead might be fleogendeongrype. One didn't dare to inhale for fear of breathing it in. It was the sound of eighteen hundred airplanes approaching Hamburg from the south at an unimaginable height. We had already experienced two hundred or even more air raids, among them some very heavy ones, but this was something completely new. And yet there was an immediate recognition: this was what everyone had been waiting for, what had hung for months like a shadow over everything we did, making us weary. It was the end. [Hans Erich Nossack, "Der Untergang," 1942]

Woman's Education According to Rousseau and Wollstonecraft "Give, without scruples, a woman's education to women, see to it that they love the cares of their sex, that they possess modesty, that they know how to grow old in their m�nage and keep busy in their house." Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile "The neglected education of my fellow-creatures is the grand source of the misery I deplore." Mary Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Women The salons of Jean Jacques Rousseau's day greatly admired his theories, including his advocation of breast-feeding and his concept of natural education. Today he has enormous influence on accepted educational doctrines. Rousseau describes his methods in Emile, the story of a boy's upbringing in natural state. Admiring his sentiment, Mary Wollstonecraft applauded Rousseau's scheme for Emile but deplored the neglect of Emile's perfect wife, Sophie. Her disappointment in Rousseau was a main influence on Wollstonecraft's best-known work, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Rousseau outlines his theories for the ideal education for women in Chapter V of Emile written between 1757 and 1761. These so contradict his plan for Emile that it becomes necessary to place them in the framework of his time and the particular prejudices of Rousseau. Certainly he broke no ground regarding the topic of women. Nearly a hundred years before Emile, Mrs. Makin published An Essay to Revive the Ancient Education of Gentlewomen. In her Serious Proposal to Ladies of 1694, Mary Astell advocated a convent where serious-minded women might retire for study and contemplation. In his Essay on Projects , Daniel Defoe suggests an academy for women where they might study whatever they chose. He observes as early as 1697, "We reproach the sex every day with folly and impertinence, while I am confident, had they the advantages of education equal to us, they would be guilty of less than ourselves."1 As women and their education were very popular topics among the frequenters of the salons, Rousseau was often d

n. Rousseau outlines his theories for the ideal education for women in Chapter V of Emile written between 1757 and 1761. These so contradict his plan for Emile that it becomes necessary to place them in the framework of his time and the particular prejudices of Rousseau. Certainly he broke no ground regarding the topic of women. Nearly a hundred years before Emile, Mrs. Makin published An Essay to Revive the Ancient Education of Gentlewomen. In her Serious Proposal to Ladies of 1694, Mary Astell advocated a convent where serious-minded women might retire for study and contemplation. In his Essay on Projects , Daniel Defoe suggests an academy for women where they might study whatever they chose. He observes as early as 1697, "We reproach the sex every day with folly and impertinence, while I am confident, had they the advantages of education equal to us, they would be guilty of less than ourselves."1 As women and their education were very popular topics among the frequenters of the salons, Rousseau was often drawn into their discussions as a consultant. After publication Rousseau realized some recognition as a spokesman for the rights of people, although there was a decided rise in the intensity of demands for recognition of women's state.2 Rousseau describes his passionate feelings for several women in his life in his Confessions, the first of which was the strange feelings he had as a boy when Mademoiselle Lambercier punished him. "Who would have believed that the chastisement I received at eight from a thirty-year-old girl would have determined my tastes, desires, and passions for the rest of my life?"3 Having left Protestant Switzerland for Catholic France, Rousseau began to meet the women who would support and influence his work for the rest of his life. One of his first encounters was with Madame de Warens, whom he referred to as maman, also a convert to Catholicism and an escapee from Geneva. Because of her support he was able to take part in knowledgeable conversations, philosophical discussions, and intel

rawn into their discussions as a consultant. After publication Rousseau realized some recognition as a spokesman for the rights of people, although there was a decided rise in the intensity of demands for recognition of women's state.2 Rousseau describes his passionate feelings for several women in his life in his Confessions, the first of which was the strange feelings he had as a boy when Mademoiselle Lambercier punished him. "Who would have believed that the chastisement I received at eight from a thirty-year-old girl would have determined my tastes, desires, and passions for the rest of my life?"3 Having left Protestant Switzerland for Catholic France, Rousseau began to meet the women who would support and influence his work for the rest of his life. One of his first encounters was with Madame de Warens, whom he referred to as maman, also a convert to Catholicism and an escapee from Geneva. Because of her support he was able to take part in knowledgeable conversations, philosophical discussions, and intellectual pursuits. From her privileged position he was able to observe with fraternal pity the people whose fate he might have shared. At the age of thirty, Rousseau left Madame de Warens' residence. He wished to be accepted in the intellectual circles of the salons, and to gain entrance to the Academie des Sciences. He succeeded at the Academie but failed to be accepted socially at the salons. One of his sponsors, P�re Castel, advised, "Since musicians and servants will not sing together with you, change your tactics, and try the women."4 He took this advice and made the acquaintance of several intelligent and influential women. According to Claude Fervel in Jean Jacques Rousseau et les femmes, Rousseau's feelings of inferiority among these women induced his unnatural attachment to a twenty-three year old servant girl, Th�r�se Levasseur. "She is so limited," says Hume, "that she knows neither the year, the month, nor the day of the week; she is unaware of the value of money and in spite of all that, she has o

lectual pursuits. From her privileged position he was able to observe with fraternal pity the people whose fate he might have shared. At the age of thirty, Rousseau left Madame de Warens' residence. He wished to be accepted in the intellectual circles of the salons, and to gain entrance to the Academie des Sciences. He succeeded at the Academie but failed to be accepted socially at the salons. One of his sponsors, P�re Castel, advised, "Since musicians and servants will not sing together with you, change your tactics, and try the women."4 He took this advice and made the acquaintance of several intelligent and influential women. According to Claude Fervel in Jean Jacques Rousseau et les femmes, Rousseau's feelings of inferiority among these women induced his unnatural attachment to a twenty-three year old servant girl, Th�r�se Levasseur. "She is so limited," says Hume, "that she knows neither the year, the month, nor the day of the week; she is unaware of the value of money and in spite of all that, she has on Jean Jacques the empire of a nurse over her charge."5 Certainly Levasseur had some influence in Rousseau's concept of the ideal woman. Rousseau primarily claimed that "[n]ature has created man happy and good, but society depraves him and makes him miserable."6 In the eighteenth century, morality took on a new meaning founded on the natural goodness of man. Happiness became a right supplanting the idea of duty. Sensual delights were natural and therefore rational. All of Rousseau's educational theories derive from his attempt to preserve nature's pure state. His concept of negative education allowed a child to discover for himself and to be punished by the nature he sought to defy. The tutor must not try to reason with the child or show authority. Books would not be forced on the child; at twelve Emile would hardly know what to do with a book. Positive education, or direct instruction, would only begin at approximately the age of adulthood, and then the studies would be based on the student's natural curiosi

n Jean Jacques the empire of a nurse over her charge."5 Certainly Levasseur had some influence in Rousseau's concept of the ideal woman. Rousseau primarily claimed that "[n]ature has created man happy and good, but society depraves him and makes him miserable."6 In the eighteenth century, morality took on a new meaning founded on the natural goodness of man. Happiness became a right supplanting the idea of duty. Sensual delights were natural and therefore rational. All of Rousseau's educational theories derive from his attempt to preserve nature's pure state. His concept of negative education allowed a child to discover for himself and to be punished by the nature he sought to defy. The tutor must not try to reason with the child or show authority. Books would not be forced on the child; at twelve Emile would hardly know what to do with a book. Positive education, or direct instruction, would only begin at approximately the age of adulthood, and then the studies would be based on the student's natural curiosity. Rousseau stressed utility, the need for teaching things with practical applications. This concept of negative education as applicable to women was totally inconceivable to Rousseau. He viewed women's options as entirely limited to the roles of wife and mother. What need would there be to allow her to determine for herself when nature had already physiologically dictated her destiny? His scheme for Emile was radical; his scheme for Sophie was not radical enough. Rousseau demanded a reversion to primitivism in the education of women, offering minimal vocational training while insisting on her inability to reason and her inferiority to man. "A woman's education must be planned in relation to man".[S]he will always be in subjection to a man"and she will never be free to set her own opinion above his."7 He stresses freedom of movement and physical exertion for Emile, asserting that weak bodies contain weak minds. At the same time he discourages Sophie from too much physical activity and uses her weakness as an

ty. Rousseau stressed utility, the need for teaching things with practical applications. This concept of negative education as applicable to women was totally inconceivable to Rousseau. He viewed women's options as entirely limited to the roles of wife and mother. What need would there be to allow her to determine for herself when nature had already physiologically dictated her destiny? His scheme for Emile was radical; his scheme for Sophie was not radical enough. Rousseau demanded a reversion to primitivism in the education of women, offering minimal vocational training while insisting on her inability to reason and her inferiority to man. "A woman's education must be planned in relation to man".[S]he will always be in subjection to a man"and she will never be free to set her own opinion above his."7 He stresses freedom of movement and physical exertion for Emile, asserting that weak bodies contain weak minds. At the same time he discourages Sophie from too much physical activity and uses her weakness as another proof of her inferiority. "The object of that cultivation is different. In the one sex it is the development of corporeal powers; in the other, that of personal charms," Rousseau asserts.8 Emile is not instructed in religious matters until he reaches adulthood. He has a natural sense of morality "from reason tempered by the heart."9 Presumably woman cannot reason, so she cannot maintain a state of morality, and must be guarded by men throughout her life. Rousseau proposes that Sophie must be made to love virtue, although she will never understand theological rationale for living uprightly. She must be made to feel subject to society's opinions of her. In fact, Sophie fails at this. In the fragmentary sequel to Emile, Les Solitaires, Rousseau tells of the infidelity of Sophie who had been "educated" to be Emile's ideal wife. Mary Wollstonecraft makes no mention of this book and probably never read it, but she would make the right assumptions about the likelihood of Sophie's fidelity. Helen Misenheimer po

other proof of her inferiority. "The object of that cultivation is different. In the one sex it is the development of corporeal powers; in the other, that of personal charms," Rousseau asserts.8 Emile is not instructed in religious matters until he reaches adulthood. He has a natural sense of morality "from reason tempered by the heart."9 Presumably woman cannot reason, so she cannot maintain a state of morality, and must be guarded by men throughout her life. Rousseau proposes that Sophie must be made to love virtue, although she will never understand theological rationale for living uprightly. She must be made to feel subject to society's opinions of her. In fact, Sophie fails at this. In the fragmentary sequel to Emile, Les Solitaires, Rousseau tells of the infidelity of Sophie who had been "educated" to be Emile's ideal wife. Mary Wollstonecraft makes no mention of this book and probably never read it, but she would make the right assumptions about the likelihood of Sophie's fidelity. Helen Misenheimer points out in Rousseau on the Education of Women that Rousseau leaves off the sexual education of Emile in describing Sophie. In fact, she is his sexual identity. Rousseau considers a man's union with a woman a debasement of his nature. While insisting on the importance of motherhood, he stumbles on women's role as mothers. In addressing mothers in Book I of Emile, he acknowledges their primacy in the education of youth. By denying women the ability to reason he denies them the ability to raise children, which Mary Wollstonecraft later attempts to prove. Francis Gribble proposes, "Contemporary critics contended that Jean Jacques did not mean a word that he said; the difficulty of the modern critic is to discover that he ever said anything at all which he did not immediately afterwards contradict."10 When accosted by a father who informed him he was using the Emile method to raise his son, Rousseau replied that he was sorry for him but even sorrier for his son.11 Certainly he contradicts himself in Chapter V of

ints out in Rousseau on the Education of Women that Rousseau leaves off the sexual education of Emile in describing Sophie. In fact, she is his sexual identity. Rousseau considers a man's union with a woman a debasement of his nature. While insisting on the importance of motherhood, he stumbles on women's role as mothers. In addressing mothers in Book I of Emile, he acknowledges their primacy in the education of youth. By denying women the ability to reason he denies them the ability to raise children, which Mary Wollstonecraft later attempts to prove. Francis Gribble proposes, "Contemporary critics contended that Jean Jacques did not mean a word that he said; the difficulty of the modern critic is to discover that he ever said anything at all which he did not immediately afterwards contradict."10 When accosted by a father who informed him he was using the Emile method to raise his son, Rousseau replied that he was sorry for him but even sorrier for his son.11 Certainly he contradicts himself in Chapter V of Emile. One must ask if woman is as "natural" as man, and nature is essentially good, then why should the same principles of "negative education" not apply to women? Misenheimer discusses the dichotomy of women in Rousseau's writings. She claims that Rousseau makes woman totally subservient to man, making her into a mere plaything for the superior sex. Yet by inserting Sophie in her place in his educational theories, he encourages others to give the question further thought at a moment in history when social revolution uniquely supports her. This is exactly the cause which Mary Wollstonecraft takes up. Furthermore, by speaking of all society and not just the elite, he becomes one of the first writers even to recognize the ordinary woman, giving her a foothold to independence. Rousseau certainly did not intend to liberate women; he advocated the freedom of man. Mary Wollstonecraft reputedly tried to rear one of her charges, Ann Fuseli, as a child of nature. The experiment proved disappointing when she caught he

Emile. One must ask if woman is as "natural" as man, and nature is essentially good, then why should the same principles of "negative education" not apply to women? Misenheimer discusses the dichotomy of women in Rousseau's writings. She claims that Rousseau makes woman totally subservient to man, making her into a mere plaything for the superior sex. Yet by inserting Sophie in her place in his educational theories, he encourages others to give the question further thought at a moment in history when social revolution uniquely supports her. This is exactly the cause which Mary Wollstonecraft takes up. Furthermore, by speaking of all society and not just the elite, he becomes one of the first writers even to recognize the ordinary woman, giving her a foothold to independence. Rousseau certainly did not intend to liberate women; he advocated the freedom of man. Mary Wollstonecraft reputedly tried to rear one of her charges, Ann Fuseli, as a child of nature. The experiment proved disappointing when she caught her stealing and lying.14 She considered herself a rationalist, but she greatly admired Rousseau's "pure sentiment." She did not, however, share Rousseau's admiration for primitive society, and took great exception to his views of women. In A Vindication of the Rights of Woman she asserts, "Rousseau exerts himself to prove that all was right originally: a crowd of authors that all is now right: and I, that all will be right [sic]."12 Her most famous and controversial work, Rights of Woman, was not the first work to advocate better education for women. Among Wollstonecraft's contemporaries, there were several in France who had written in behalf of women. Olympe de Gouges spoke boldly in defense of her sex in several publications, one titled A Declaration of the Rights of Woman. Condorcet advocated better education for women in Memoirs on Public Instruction. Wollstonecraft had reviewed Catherine Macaulay's Letters on Education for the Analytical, and acknowledged her debt to the work in Rights of Woman. Letters d

r stealing and lying.14 She considered herself a rationalist, but she greatly admired Rousseau's "pure sentiment." She did not, however, share Rousseau's admiration for primitive society, and took great exception to his views of women. In A Vindication of the Rights of Woman she asserts, "Rousseau exerts himself to prove that all was right originally: a crowd of authors that all is now right: and I, that all will be right [sic]."12 Her most famous and controversial work, Rights of Woman, was not the first work to advocate better education for women. Among Wollstonecraft's contemporaries, there were several in France who had written in behalf of women. Olympe de Gouges spoke boldly in defense of her sex in several publications, one titled A Declaration of the Rights of Woman. Condorcet advocated better education for women in Memoirs on Public Instruction. Wollstonecraft had reviewed Catherine Macaulay's Letters on Education for the Analytical, and acknowledged her debt to the work in Rights of Woman. Letters denies any fundamental difference in character between the sexes, attributing women's weaknesses to faulty education and social position. Wollstonecraft repeats and develops almost every point of her work. Like many English intellectuals, Wollstonecraft watched the French Revolution with interest, anticipating that the great social experiment would one day reach her shore. The Revolution "must have seemed like a happy fusion of all she had been taught to respect by her sage London friends, and all that she cherished by nature".And so she, like many of her countrymen, looked hopefully to France as the great proving-ground."13 She espouses the cause of freedom in her Vindication of the Rights of Men, written in reply to Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France. She digresses occasionally in this work, criticizing the effects of wealth and rank and chiding Burke for his fondness for waifishness and weakness in women. In her previous work, Wollstonecraft had shown an interest in women's status withou

enies any fundamental difference in character between the sexes, attributing women's weaknesses to faulty education and social position. Wollstonecraft repeats and develops almost every point of her work. Like many English intellectuals, Wollstonecraft watched the French Revolution with interest, anticipating that the great social experiment would one day reach her shore. The Revolution "must have seemed like a happy fusion of all she had been taught to respect by her sage London friends, and all that she cherished by nature".And so she, like many of her countrymen, looked hopefully to France as the great proving-ground."13 She espouses the cause of freedom in her Vindication of the Rights of Men, written in reply to Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France. She digresses occasionally in this work, criticizing the effects of wealth and rank and chiding Burke for his fondness for waifishness and weakness in women. In her previous work, Wollstonecraft had shown an interest in women's status without directly addressing the matter. According to her husband William Godwin, she spent only six weeks in actual composition, but she had been developing the ideas for Rights of Woman all her life. She found that most writers showed either outright disdain or condescending praise of women's weakness. The immediate cause of Rights of Woman was Talleyrand's Report on Public Institution, an outline of the projected plan of national education under a new French constitution. Talleyrand declared that girls should be educated with boys only until the age of eight. Wollstonecraft prefaces her book with a letter to Talleyrand which urges him and his compatriots not to deny women their rights.13 Wollstonecraft seeks to find a rational explanation for the state of her sex. She questions whether women are really created for the pleasure of men: [T]hough the cry of irreligion, or even atheism, be raised against, I will simply declare, that were an angel from heaven to tell me that Moses's beautiful, poetical cosmogony, and

t directly addressing the matter. According to her husband William Godwin, she spent only six weeks in actual composition, but she had been developing the ideas for Rights of Woman all her life. She found that most writers showed either outright disdain or condescending praise of women's weakness. The immediate cause of Rights of Woman was Talleyrand's Report on Public Institution, an outline of the projected plan of national education under a new French constitution. Talleyrand declared that girls should be educated with boys only until the age of eight. Wollstonecraft prefaces her book with a letter to Talleyrand which urges him and his compatriots not to deny women their rights.13 Wollstonecraft seeks to find a rational explanation for the state of her sex. She questions whether women are really created for the pleasure of men: [T]hough the cry of irreligion, or even atheism, be raised against, I will simply declare, that were an angel from heaven to tell me that Moses's beautiful, poetical cosmogony, and the account of the fall of man, were literally true, I could not believe what my reason told me was derogatory to the character of the Supreme Being.14 She discovers the only reason for women's state is their lack of education. In Chapter V she attacks several writers, especially Rousseau, who had written poor accounts of women. Wollstonecraft cites and comments on long passages from Emile. She is not unaware of Rousseau's relationships with women. In her chapter "On National Education," she states: Who ever drew a more exalted female character than Rousseau? Though in the lump he constantly endeavoured to degrade the sex. And why was he thus anxious? Truly to justify to himself the affection which weakness and virtue had made him cherish for that fool Theresa. He could not raise her to the common level of her sex; and therefore he labored to bring woman down to hers. He found her a convenient humble companion, and pride made him determine to find some superiour virtues in the being whom he chose to live with

the account of the fall of man, were literally true, I could not believe what my reason told me was derogatory to the character of the Supreme Being.14 She discovers the only reason for women's state is their lack of education. In Chapter V she attacks several writers, especially Rousseau, who had written poor accounts of women. Wollstonecraft cites and comments on long passages from Emile. She is not unaware of Rousseau's relationships with women. In her chapter "On National Education," she states: Who ever drew a more exalted female character than Rousseau? Though in the lump he constantly endeavoured to degrade the sex. And why was he thus anxious? Truly to justify to himself the affection which weakness and virtue had made him cherish for that fool Theresa. He could not raise her to the common level of her sex; and therefore he labored to bring woman down to hers. He found her a convenient humble companion, and pride made him determine to find some superiour virtues in the being whom he chose to live with; but did not her conduct during his life, and after his death, clearly show how grossly he was mistaken who called her a celestial innocent.15 She treats his description of Sophie with smug indignation, as when Rousseau describes Sophie's garb, "simple as it seems, was only put in its proper order to be taken to pieces by the imagination." To this she retorts, "Is this modesty? Is this a preparation for immortality?"16 She correctly accuses Rousseau of depicting not a wife and sensible mother, but a pleasing mistress. Getting to the heart of Rousseau's error, she determines: Men have superior strength of body, but were it not for mistaken notions of beauty, women would acquire sufficient to enable them to earn their own subsistence, the true definition of independence". Let us then, by being allowed to take the same exercise as boys, not only during infancy, but youth, arrive at perfection of boys, that we may know how far the natural superiority of man extends.17 She cautions that she has no desire to breed

; but did not her conduct during his life, and after his death, clearly show how grossly he was mistaken who called her a celestial innocent.15 She treats his description of Sophie with smug indignation, as when Rousseau describes Sophie's garb, "simple as it seems, was only put in its proper order to be taken to pieces by the imagination." To this she retorts, "Is this modesty? Is this a preparation for immortality?"16 She correctly accuses Rousseau of depicting not a wife and sensible mother, but a pleasing mistress. Getting to the heart of Rousseau's error, she determines: Men have superior strength of body, but were it not for mistaken notions of beauty, women would acquire sufficient to enable them to earn their own subsistence, the true definition of independence". Let us then, by being allowed to take the same exercise as boys, not only during infancy, but youth, arrive at perfection of boys, that we may know how far the natural superiority of man extends.17 She cautions that she has no desire to breed a generation of independent and unattached women like herself, but that she seeks to develop wiser and more virtuous mothers. She believes that children's characters are formed before the age of seven, shuddering to think of the damage done by addle-headed mothers. Without stressing independence she believes that once women gain intellectual equality, they should be given political and economic equality as well. In Chapter XII, "On National Education," Wollstonecraft develops her proposal. She feels that private education is confined to the �lite, and that school-children need the company of other children. She has an aversion to boarding schools because of the interruptions of vacations. She suggests day schools where children may spend time with other children. These need to be national establishments, so that school-matters are not left to the "caprice of the parents."18 Like Rousseau, she emphasizes that children must be allowed to play freely. What is so radical about Wollstonecraft's idea is that girls

a generation of independent and unattached women like herself, but that she seeks to develop wiser and more virtuous mothers. She believes that children's characters are formed before the age of seven, shuddering to think of the damage done by addle-headed mothers. Without stressing independence she believes that once women gain intellectual equality, they should be given political and economic equality as well. In Chapter XII, "On National Education," Wollstonecraft develops her proposal. She feels that private education is confined to the �lite, and that school-children need the company of other children. She has an aversion to boarding schools because of the interruptions of vacations. She suggests day schools where children may spend time with other children. These need to be national establishments, so that school-matters are not left to the "caprice of the parents."18 Like Rousseau, she emphasizes that children must be allowed to play freely. What is so radical about Wollstonecraft's idea is that girls are not educated relative to boys, but with them. She states: If marriage be the cement of society, mankind should all be educated after the same model, or the intercourse of the sexes will never deserve the name of fellowship, nor will women ever fulfill the peculiar duties of their sex". Nay, marriage will never be held sacred till women, by being brought up with men, are prepared to be their companions rather than their mistresses.19 After the age of nine, girls and boys intended for domestic employments or mechanical trades will be removed to other schools. The two sexes will still study together in the mornings, and in the afternoons girls will learn millinery, mantua-making, and other fitting pursuits. Girls and boys still together? I hear some readers ask: yes. And I should not fear any other consequence than that some early attachment might take place". Besides, this would be a sure way to promote early marriages, and from early marriages the most salutary physical and moral effects naturally flow.20

are not educated relative to boys, but with them. She states: If marriage be the cement of society, mankind should all be educated after the same model, or the intercourse of the sexes will never deserve the name of fellowship, nor will women ever fulfill the peculiar duties of their sex". Nay, marriage will never be held sacred till women, by being brought up with men, are prepared to be their companions rather than their mistresses.19 After the age of nine, girls and boys intended for domestic employments or mechanical trades will be removed to other schools. The two sexes will still study together in the mornings, and in the afternoons girls will learn millinery, mantua-making, and other fitting pursuits. Girls and boys still together? I hear some readers ask: yes. And I should not fear any other consequence than that some early attachment might take place". Besides, this would be a sure way to promote early marriages, and from early marriages the most salutary physical and moral effects naturally flow.20 Women should be taught anatomy and medicine to make them rational nurses of their infants, parents, and husbands. At the time of its publication in 1792, A Vindication of the Rights of Women was considered radical and revolutionary. By the end of the year Joseph Johnson published a second edition. An American edition appeared in Boston and Philadelphia, and a French translation appeared in Paris and Lyons. Aaron Burr admired it and attempted to raise his own daughter according to its principles, although he complained in 1793 that he had "not yet met a single person who had discovered or would allow the merit of this book."21 Contemporary reactions ranged from shock to amusement to enthusiasm. Despite a number of mean-spirited parodies, including A Sketch of the Rights of Boys and Girls and A Vindication of the Rights of Brutes, there is no doubt her book had a tremendous impact on British and American feminism. Her argument that one must educate mothers so they may better raise their children would be echoe

Women should be taught anatomy and medicine to make them rational nurses of their infants, parents, and husbands. At the time of its publication in 1792, A Vindication of the Rights of Women was considered radical and revolutionary. By the end of the year Joseph Johnson published a second edition. An American edition appeared in Boston and Philadelphia, and a French translation appeared in Paris and Lyons. Aaron Burr admired it and attempted to raise his own daughter according to its principles, although he complained in 1793 that he had "not yet met a single person who had discovered or would allow the merit of this book."21 Contemporary reactions ranged from shock to amusement to enthusiasm. Despite a number of mean-spirited parodies, including A Sketch of the Rights of Boys and Girls and A Vindication of the Rights of Brutes, there is no doubt her book had a tremendous impact on British and American feminism. Her argument that one must educate mothers so they may better raise their children would be echoed by the advocates of "Republican Motherhood" in the first years of the new American republic.22 Mary Wollstonecraft's ideas were savagely attacked after her death, when the horrors of the French Revolution had convinced most Englishmen that all revolutionary theories were dangerous. However, there is little doubt that her ideas live on, and like Rousseau's, still have an impact on education. Public education, teaching by the exploitation of natural curiosity, practical applications, are all ideas descended from Rousseau and Wollstonecraft. Most distinctive of these is Wollstonecraft's radical notion that women and men be educated together. 1As cited in Ralph M. Wardle, Mary Wollstonecraft: A Critical Biography (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1951), p. 143. 2Helen Evans Misenheimer, Rousseau on the Education of Women (Washington, DC: University Press of America, Inc., 1981), p. 64. 3Confessions, I as cited by Misenheimer, p. 21. 4Ibid., p. 24. 5Claude Fervel, Jean-Jacques Rousseau et les femmes, as cit

d by the advocates of "Republican Motherhood" in the first years of the new American republic.22 Mary Wollstonecraft's ideas were savagely attacked after her death, when the horrors of the French Revolution had convinced most Englishmen that all revolutionary theories were dangerous. However, there is little doubt that her ideas live on, and like Rousseau's, still have an impact on education. Public education, teaching by the exploitation of natural curiosity, practical applications, are all ideas descended from Rousseau and Wollstonecraft. Most distinctive of these is Wollstonecraft's radical notion that women and men be educated together. 1As cited in Ralph M. Wardle, Mary Wollstonecraft: A Critical Biography (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1951), p. 143. 2Helen Evans Misenheimer, Rousseau on the Education of Women (Washington, DC: University Press of America, Inc., 1981), p. 64. 3Confessions, I as cited by Misenheimer, p. 21. 4Ibid., p. 24. 5Claude Fervel, Jean-Jacques Rousseau et les femmes, as cited by Misenheimer, p. 26. 6Misenheimer, p. 19. 7Rousseau, pp. 322, 325. 8Rousseau, as cited by Wollstonecraft, p. 176. 9Rousseau, as cited by Misenheimer, p. 39. 10Francis Gribble, Rousseau and the Women he Loved, as cited by Misenheimer, p. 4. 11William Boyd, The Minor Educational Writings of Jean Jacques Rousseau, as cited by Misenheimer, p. 8. 12Wardle, p. 178. 13Wollstonecraft, p. 22. 14Wollstonecraft, pp. 173-174. 15Ibid., pp. 403-404. 17Ibid., p. 189. 18Ibid., p. 379. 19Ibid., pp. 380, 381. 20Ibid., p. 389. 21Matthew L. Davis, Memoirs of Aaron Burr, as cited by Wardle, p.158. 22Linda K. Kerber, "The Republican Mother," Women's America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 87-95. Last modified 2005-01-20 03:11 PM

ed by Misenheimer, p. 26. 6Misenheimer, p. 19. 7Rousseau, pp. 322, 325. 8Rousseau, as cited by Wollstonecraft, p. 176. 9Rousseau, as cited by Misenheimer, p. 39. 10Francis Gribble, Rousseau and the Women he Loved, as cited by Misenheimer, p. 4. 11William Boyd, The Minor Educational Writings of Jean Jacques Rousseau, as cited by Misenheimer, p. 8. 12Wardle, p. 178. 13Wollstonecraft, p. 22. 14Wollstonecraft, pp. 173-174. 15Ibid., pp. 403-404. 17Ibid., p. 189. 18Ibid., p. 379. 19Ibid., pp. 380, 381. 20Ibid., p. 389. 21Matthew L. Davis, Memoirs of Aaron Burr, as cited by Wardle, p.158. 22Linda K. Kerber, "The Republican Mother," Women's America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 87-95. Last modified 2005-01-20 03:11 PM

Get Your Degree! Find schools and get information on the program that’s right for you. Powered by Campus Explorer Art School Loans The two types of loans available to college students are federal loans and private loans. Both have their strengths and weaknesses, and many students decide to utilize a mix of the two to pad their college funds. Since you're not limited to only one, it's a good idea to do some research and understand both kinds before signing the papers. Federal loans are so named because they are guaranteed by the U.S. Department of Education, either directly or through affiliated agencies. This allows for some student-friendly terms: the governments sets a bar for interest rates, the loans are available to almost every student regardless of credit score or financial history, and there is a six month grace period, which means that no payments are required until six months after graduation. There are also forms of assistance for those struggling to pay even after this grace period, including deferment and forbearance. However, the downfall of federal loans is their relatively low limit. As of June 1, 2007, freshman undergraduates are eligible for no more than $3,500, sophomore for $4,500, and juniors and seniors for $5,500. For graduate students, the limit is increased to up to $12,000, depending on the type of federal loan and the area of study. Federal loans fall under two broad categories. Subsidized loans are granted based on the financial need of the student in question, and for as long as you remain enrolled in college either full-time or half-time, no interest accrues while you study! Or rather, the federal government pays the interest for you. It's an amazing deal, because if you go start off borrowing $3000 to enter college, you owe $3000 and not a penny more by the time you graduate. In other cases where the student fails to qualify, loans are unsubsidized. Interest does accumulate during your years in college; you are, however, still eligible for the six month grace period. Federal loans c

rment and forbearance. However, the downfall of federal loans is their relatively low limit. As of June 1, 2007, freshman undergraduates are eligible for no more than $3,500, sophomore for $4,500, and juniors and seniors for $5,500. For graduate students, the limit is increased to up to $12,000, depending on the type of federal loan and the area of study. Federal loans fall under two broad categories. Subsidized loans are granted based on the financial need of the student in question, and for as long as you remain enrolled in college either full-time or half-time, no interest accrues while you study! Or rather, the federal government pays the interest for you. It's an amazing deal, because if you go start off borrowing $3000 to enter college, you owe $3000 and not a penny more by the time you graduate. In other cases where the student fails to qualify, loans are unsubsidized. Interest does accumulate during your years in college; you are, however, still eligible for the six month grace period. Federal loans come in many guises: Stafford loans, Perkins loans, Federal Family Education Loans, Ford Direct Student Loans. Each one is a bit different and targeted towards a different type of student, so it's a good idea to do some research and find out which one is the most beneficial to you. Private students address the weakness of federal loans by offering higher limits, but also higher interest rates rates. While more significant than the interest rates charged by federal loans, they are nonetheless still lower than a nonspecific loan. Unlike federal loans, credit history does matter, and many private loans will require the student to fill out a FAFSA or some other application that provides the lender with financial information. Because of this reliance on the borrower's financial situation, many students who choose to take out a private loan will cosign with their parents in order to reap the benefits of their credit score and the subsequent lower interest rate. Depending on your family's situation, this could be a g

ome in many guises: Stafford loans, Perkins loans, Federal Family Education Loans, Ford Direct Student Loans. Each one is a bit different and targeted towards a different type of student, so it's a good idea to do some research and find out which one is the most beneficial to you. Private students address the weakness of federal loans by offering higher limits, but also higher interest rates rates. While more significant than the interest rates charged by federal loans, they are nonetheless still lower than a nonspecific loan. Unlike federal loans, credit history does matter, and many private loans will require the student to fill out a FAFSA or some other application that provides the lender with financial information. Because of this reliance on the borrower's financial situation, many students who choose to take out a private loan will cosign with their parents in order to reap the benefits of their credit score and the subsequent lower interest rate. Depending on your family's situation, this could be a good option to consider! Following in the footsteps of federal student loans, many private loans also offer a similar grace period, which can extend to up to twelve months in some cases (though six is far more common). Because they don't carry the federal government's guarantee, there are far more private student loans out there than federal ones. Each lender will have their own qualifications, rates, terms, and schedules. If you plan on applying for private loans, watch out for hidden fees and terms that can trip you. Choose carefully, and the best private loans will provide you with a significant monetary boost so that you can study in your dream art school without worrying about funds. LOAN RESOURCE SITES Loans are a great, solid source of educational funding. They are available to almost everyone and are a time-proven asset to any student who won't allow financial difficulties become an obstacle to attaining a good education in the arts. Though we've listed pros and cons to both federal and private loans h

ood option to consider! Following in the footsteps of federal student loans, many private loans also offer a similar grace period, which can extend to up to twelve months in some cases (though six is far more common). Because they don't carry the federal government's guarantee, there are far more private student loans out there than federal ones. Each lender will have their own qualifications, rates, terms, and schedules. If you plan on applying for private loans, watch out for hidden fees and terms that can trip you. Choose carefully, and the best private loans will provide you with a significant monetary boost so that you can study in your dream art school without worrying about funds. LOAN RESOURCE SITES Loans are a great, solid source of educational funding. They are available to almost everyone and are a time-proven asset to any student who won't allow financial difficulties become an obstacle to attaining a good education in the arts. Though we've listed pros and cons to both federal and private loans here, we reiterate again that a mix of both types can create a strong, balanced aid plan.

ere, we reiterate again that a mix of both types can create a strong, balanced aid plan.

Considerations Regarding a Behind-the-Counter Drug Class GAO-09-245: Published: Feb 20, 2009. Publicly Released: Mar 23, 2009. In the United States, most nonprescription drugs are available over-the-counter (OTC) in pharmacies and other stores. Experts have suggested that drug availability could be increased by establishing an additional class of nonprescription drugs that would be held behind the counter (BTC) but would require the intervention of a pharmacist before being dispensed; a similar class of drugs exists in many other countries. Although the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has not developed a detailed proposal for a BTC drug class, it held a public meeting in 2007 to explore the public health implications of BTC drug availability. GAO was asked to update its 1995 report, Nonprescription Drugs: Value of a Pharmacist-Controlled Class Has Yet to Be Demonstrated (GAO/PEMD-95-12). Specifically, GAO is reporting on (1) arguments supporting and opposing a U.S. BTC drug class, (2) changes in drug availability in five countries since 1995 and the impact of restricted nonprescription classes on availability, and (3) issues important to the establishment of a BTC drug class. GAO reviewed documents and consulted with pharmaceutical experts. To examine drug availability across countries, GAO studied five countries it had reported on in 1995 (Australia, Italy, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States) and determined how 86 drugs available in all five countries were classified in each country. Arguments supporting and opposing a BTC drug class in the United States have been based on public health and health care cost considerations, and reflect general disagreement on the likely consequences of establishing such a class. Proponents of a BTC drug class suggest it would lead to improved public health through increased availability of nonprescription drugs and greater use of pharmacists' expertise. Opponents are concerned that a BTC drug class might become the default for drugs switching from presc

ability in five countries since 1995 and the impact of restricted nonprescription classes on availability, and (3) issues important to the establishment of a BTC drug class. GAO reviewed documents and consulted with pharmaceutical experts. To examine drug availability across countries, GAO studied five countries it had reported on in 1995 (Australia, Italy, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States) and determined how 86 drugs available in all five countries were classified in each country. Arguments supporting and opposing a BTC drug class in the United States have been based on public health and health care cost considerations, and reflect general disagreement on the likely consequences of establishing such a class. Proponents of a BTC drug class suggest it would lead to improved public health through increased availability of nonprescription drugs and greater use of pharmacists' expertise. Opponents are concerned that a BTC drug class might become the default for drugs switching from prescription to nonprescription status, thus reducing consumers' access to drugs that would otherwise have become available OTC, and argue that pharmacists might not be able to provide high quality BTC services. Proponents of a BTC drug class point to potentially reduced costs through a decrease in the number of physician visits and a decline in drug prices that might result from switches of drugs from prescription to nonprescription status. However, opponents argue that out-of-pocket costs for many consumers could rise if third-party payers elect not to cover BTC drugs. All five countries GAO studied have increased nonprescription drug availability since 1995 by altering nonprescription classes or reclassifying some drugs into less restrictive classes. Italy and the Netherlands, which previously allowed nonprescription drugs to be sold only at specialized drug outlets, made some or all of these drugs available for OTC sale. Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States switched certain drugs from more rest

ription to nonprescription status, thus reducing consumers' access to drugs that would otherwise have become available OTC, and argue that pharmacists might not be able to provide high quality BTC services. Proponents of a BTC drug class point to potentially reduced costs through a decrease in the number of physician visits and a decline in drug prices that might result from switches of drugs from prescription to nonprescription status. However, opponents argue that out-of-pocket costs for many consumers could rise if third-party payers elect not to cover BTC drugs. All five countries GAO studied have increased nonprescription drug availability since 1995 by altering nonprescription classes or reclassifying some drugs into less restrictive classes. Italy and the Netherlands, which previously allowed nonprescription drugs to be sold only at specialized drug outlets, made some or all of these drugs available for OTC sale. Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States switched certain drugs from more restrictive to less restrictive drug classes, increasing these drugs' availability. However, the impact of restricted nonprescription drug classes on availability is unclear. When we examined the classification of 86 selected drugs in the five countries, we found that the United States required a prescription for more of those drugs than did Australia or the United Kingdom--the study countries using a BTC drug class. However, the United States classified more of the 86 drugs as OTC--the option that provides greatest access to these drugs for consumers--than all four of the other study countries. Pharmacist-, infrastructure-, and cost-related issues would have to be addressed before a BTC drug class could be established in the United States. For example, ensuring that pharmacists provide BTC counseling and that pharmacies have the infrastructure to protect consumer privacy would be important. Issues related to the cost of BTC drugs would also require consideration. For example, the availability of third-party cove

rictive to less restrictive drug classes, increasing these drugs' availability. However, the impact of restricted nonprescription drug classes on availability is unclear. When we examined the classification of 86 selected drugs in the five countries, we found that the United States required a prescription for more of those drugs than did Australia or the United Kingdom--the study countries using a BTC drug class. However, the United States classified more of the 86 drugs as OTC--the option that provides greatest access to these drugs for consumers--than all four of the other study countries. Pharmacist-, infrastructure-, and cost-related issues would have to be addressed before a BTC drug class could be established in the United States. For example, ensuring that pharmacists provide BTC counseling and that pharmacies have the infrastructure to protect consumer privacy would be important. Issues related to the cost of BTC drugs would also require consideration. For example, the availability of third-party coverage for BTC drugs would affect consumers' out-of-pocket expenditures and pharmacists' compensation for providing BTC services would need to be examined. In commenting on a draft of this report, the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) agreed that cost-related issues would have to be addressed before implementing a BTC drug class and also provided technical comments. The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) also reviewed the report and provided technical comments. We have incorporated HHS and VA technical comments as appropriate.

rage for BTC drugs would affect consumers' out-of-pocket expenditures and pharmacists' compensation for providing BTC services would need to be examined. In commenting on a draft of this report, the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) agreed that cost-related issues would have to be addressed before implementing a BTC drug class and also provided technical comments. The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) also reviewed the report and provided technical comments. We have incorporated HHS and VA technical comments as appropriate.

The red flowering gum, Corymbia ficifolia (formerly Eucalyptus ficifolia) is one of those trees that really grabs your attention when it’s in full flower, like very few other flowering trees can, perhaps with the exception of the jacaranda or the Illawarra flame tree. However, one of the ongoing problems with the red flowering gum has been that it’s always been grown from seed in the nursery industry in the past. When it did flower, after 5 to 10 years, the colour varied enormously as there is a great deal of genetic variability within this species. Not only does the colour vary, but the height of the tree can vary from a 10-15 metre substantial tree to a mallee form that’s no more than a couple of metres in height – a form which does have its advantages in the smaller gardens of today. One of the exciting developments in horticulture in recent years has been the development of the red flowering gum to make it more predictable and amenable to garden culture. Before I talk about that, though, I’d like to talk about the botany and the name change from Eucalyptus ficifolia to Corymbia ficifolia. The reason why the group of gums that include the red flowering gum were separated from Eucalyptus were that there are considerable differences. Corymbia are generally known as the bloodwoods and they have a special characteristic of being terminal flowering, with all those big sprays of flowers held on the end of the branches, which can be seen from a very long distance away. Many of what have remained as Eucalyptus flower way back inside the canopy on the axillary buds, unlike the terminal buds of Corymbia. Indeed, many people are surprised to hear that all gums are ‘flowering gums’; the red flowering gum just holds its flowers where they can be easily seen. Corymbia shares this terminal flowering with Angophora, sometimes known as the apple gums, of which the Sydney red gum, Angophora costata is probably the best known in cultivation. The botanists faced the dilemma that Corymbia gums were more closely related to Angophor

about the botany and the name change from Eucalyptus ficifolia to Corymbia ficifolia. The reason why the group of gums that include the red flowering gum were separated from Eucalyptus were that there are considerable differences. Corymbia are generally known as the bloodwoods and they have a special characteristic of being terminal flowering, with all those big sprays of flowers held on the end of the branches, which can be seen from a very long distance away. Many of what have remained as Eucalyptus flower way back inside the canopy on the axillary buds, unlike the terminal buds of Corymbia. Indeed, many people are surprised to hear that all gums are ‘flowering gums’; the red flowering gum just holds its flowers where they can be easily seen. Corymbia shares this terminal flowering with Angophora, sometimes known as the apple gums, of which the Sydney red gum, Angophora costata is probably the best known in cultivation. The botanists faced the dilemma that Corymbia gums were more closely related to Angophora, both being terminal flowering and sharing some other characteristics. Being closer to Angophora, it was either include everything within the one genus of Eucalyptus, or split off the bloodwoods and create a separate group for them sitting in between Angophora and Eucalyptus. Which brings me to the genetic improvement of the red flowering gum, a brilliant but unreliable species, in the genetic sense that you don’t know what you’re getting! One of the more amazing projects that I’ve seen in my career as a plant breeder happened up in Queensland. A fellow by the name of Stan Henry, a retired horticulturist, wanted to grow a red flowering gum in his home garden but he was in the humid climate of coastal central Queensland. He watched a number of his Corymbia ficifolia die from the heat and humidity, and from the leaf spot that they tend to get when they’re grown in Sydney and further north (you can grow them but they look very ratty and not a good garden specimen). The strategy that he then chose was to hybrid

a, both being terminal flowering and sharing some other characteristics. Being closer to Angophora, it was either include everything within the one genus of Eucalyptus, or split off the bloodwoods and create a separate group for them sitting in between Angophora and Eucalyptus. Which brings me to the genetic improvement of the red flowering gum, a brilliant but unreliable species, in the genetic sense that you don’t know what you’re getting! One of the more amazing projects that I’ve seen in my career as a plant breeder happened up in Queensland. A fellow by the name of Stan Henry, a retired horticulturist, wanted to grow a red flowering gum in his home garden but he was in the humid climate of coastal central Queensland. He watched a number of his Corymbia ficifolia die from the heat and humidity, and from the leaf spot that they tend to get when they’re grown in Sydney and further north (you can grow them but they look very ratty and not a good garden specimen). The strategy that he then chose was to hybridise Corymbia ficifolia, the red flowering gum from around Albany in south-west Western Australia with the swamp bloodwood, Corymbia ptychocarpa from northern Australia, which has the same spectacular terminal flowers common to all the Corymbias, but is obviously much better equipped to cope with the humidity and heat of northern Australia. By crossing those two species together, we get a group of hybrids which has been marketed as the Summer series – ‘Summer Red’, ‘Summer Beauty’ and ‘Summer Snow’, a white variety. By and large it’s been quite a successful series when planted in gardens up and down the east coast, from Melbourne through to Queensland. Hybridisation is one way to go, and I like to think of what he’s done as a wonderful reconciliation, a sort of ‘east meets west’, between the swamp bloodwood from the east and north east and, from the other corner of the continent right down in the south-west, the red flowering gum. That’s where I think plant breeding really does have a place in modern horticult

ise Corymbia ficifolia, the red flowering gum from around Albany in south-west Western Australia with the swamp bloodwood, Corymbia ptychocarpa from northern Australia, which has the same spectacular terminal flowers common to all the Corymbias, but is obviously much better equipped to cope with the humidity and heat of northern Australia. By crossing those two species together, we get a group of hybrids which has been marketed as the Summer series – ‘Summer Red’, ‘Summer Beauty’ and ‘Summer Snow’, a white variety. By and large it’s been quite a successful series when planted in gardens up and down the east coast, from Melbourne through to Queensland. Hybridisation is one way to go, and I like to think of what he’s done as a wonderful reconciliation, a sort of ‘east meets west’, between the swamp bloodwood from the east and north east and, from the other corner of the continent right down in the south-west, the red flowering gum. That’s where I think plant breeding really does have a place in modern horticulture; to combine the outstanding features of two different species to come up with a plant that has all the right attributes to be a successful garden plant. One of the issues with all the selections, whether they’re straight selections of Corymbia ficifolia or hybrids like the Summer series, is that they are difficult to propagate by cuttings – too difficult for commercial production. The way that they’re propagated now is by grafting onto the rootstock of a hardy member of the Corymbia group, such as the spotted gum, Corymbia maculata, or the red bloodwood, Corymbia gummifera. Finding the right species to use as a rootstock for different areas has become one of the key challenges for the selection and improvement of the Corymbia group, and in particular the flowering gums. The second wave of improvement of the red flowering gum has come about through the selection of different clones of the red flowering gum though the hundred years or so that this plant has been in cultivation. In southern Australia, from P

ure; to combine the outstanding features of two different species to come up with a plant that has all the right attributes to be a successful garden plant. One of the issues with all the selections, whether they’re straight selections of Corymbia ficifolia or hybrids like the Summer series, is that they are difficult to propagate by cuttings – too difficult for commercial production. The way that they’re propagated now is by grafting onto the rootstock of a hardy member of the Corymbia group, such as the spotted gum, Corymbia maculata, or the red bloodwood, Corymbia gummifera. Finding the right species to use as a rootstock for different areas has become one of the key challenges for the selection and improvement of the Corymbia group, and in particular the flowering gums. The second wave of improvement of the red flowering gum has come about through the selection of different clones of the red flowering gum though the hundred years or so that this plant has been in cultivation. In southern Australia, from Perth across to Melbourne and up the southern coast of NSW, Corymbia ficifolia is quite a reliable species in its own right. Having been grown from seed, there’s all sorts of variation, so various nurseries have selected their outstanding forms of Corymbia ficifolia and we’re now seeing some interesting new cultivars emerge from that work. ‘Wildfire’ is one the oldest selections, and there are new ones called ‘Baby Red’, ‘Baby Orange’ and ‘Calypso’. They’re all slightly different in both flower colour and plant height, so it’s a matter of going out and finding out what is available from your local garden retailer. There will be a continuing series of new selections in the future as we get more confident with the grafting of red flowering gums in its various colour selections and finding the right rootstock partner. The red flowering gum is one of our most iconic Australian species in cultivation, and through some judicious genetic selection and breeding work, we’re now starting to see cultivars emerge which ar

erth across to Melbourne and up the southern coast of NSW, Corymbia ficifolia is quite a reliable species in its own right. Having been grown from seed, there’s all sorts of variation, so various nurseries have selected their outstanding forms of Corymbia ficifolia and we’re now seeing some interesting new cultivars emerge from that work. ‘Wildfire’ is one the oldest selections, and there are new ones called ‘Baby Red’, ‘Baby Orange’ and ‘Calypso’. They’re all slightly different in both flower colour and plant height, so it’s a matter of going out and finding out what is available from your local garden retailer. There will be a continuing series of new selections in the future as we get more confident with the grafting of red flowering gums in its various colour selections and finding the right rootstock partner. The red flowering gum is one of our most iconic Australian species in cultivation, and through some judicious genetic selection and breeding work, we’re now starting to see cultivars emerge which are going to be more reliable – as far as knowing what flower colour and height you’re going to get. Hopefully in the future, you’ll be able to find anything from a 2 metre shrub to a 15m tree to match your garden requirements. So if you’ve ever planted a seedling tree and been disappointed, have another look as more new colours and forms emerge. [You can now see how to prune your flowering gum in the new post by Angus How to prune a flowering gum]

e going to be more reliable – as far as knowing what flower colour and height you’re going to get. Hopefully in the future, you’ll be able to find anything from a 2 metre shrub to a 15m tree to match your garden requirements. So if you’ve ever planted a seedling tree and been disappointed, have another look as more new colours and forms emerge. [You can now see how to prune your flowering gum in the new post by Angus How to prune a flowering gum]

|A service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine®| Progressive osseous heteroplasia On this page: Reviewed January 2009 What is progressive osseous heteroplasia? Progressive osseous heteroplasia is a disorder in which bone forms within skin and muscle tissue. Bone that forms outside the skeleton is called heterotopic or ectopic bone. In progressive osseous heteroplasia, ectopic bone formation begins in the deep layers of the skin (dermis and subcutaneous fat) and gradually moves into other tissues such as skeletal muscle and tendons. The bony lesions within the skin may be painful and may develop into open sores (ulcers). Over time, joints can become involved, resulting in impaired mobility. Signs and symptoms of progressive osseous heteroplasia usually become noticeable during infancy. In some affected individuals, however, this may not occur until later in childhood or in early adulthood. How common is progressive osseous heteroplasia? Progressive osseous heteroplasia is a rare condition. Its exact incidence is unknown. What genes are related to progressive osseous heteroplasia? Progressive osseous heteroplasia is caused by a mutation in the GNAS gene. The GNAS gene provides instructions for making one part of a protein complex called a guanine nucleotide-binding protein, or a G protein. In a process called signal transduction, G proteins trigger a complex network of signaling pathways that ultimately influence many cell functions. The protein produced from the GNAS gene is believed to play a key role in signaling pathways that help regulate the development of bone (osteogenesis), preventing bony tissue from being produced outside the skeleton. The GNAS gene mutations that cause progressive osseous heteroplasia disrupt the function of the G protein and impair its ability to regulate osteogenesis. As a result, bony tissue grows outside the skeleton and causes the complications associated with this disorder. Read more about the GNAS gene. How do people inherit progressive osseous heteroplasia? This condition i

ence is unknown. What genes are related to progressive osseous heteroplasia? Progressive osseous heteroplasia is caused by a mutation in the GNAS gene. The GNAS gene provides instructions for making one part of a protein complex called a guanine nucleotide-binding protein, or a G protein. In a process called signal transduction, G proteins trigger a complex network of signaling pathways that ultimately influence many cell functions. The protein produced from the GNAS gene is believed to play a key role in signaling pathways that help regulate the development of bone (osteogenesis), preventing bony tissue from being produced outside the skeleton. The GNAS gene mutations that cause progressive osseous heteroplasia disrupt the function of the G protein and impair its ability to regulate osteogenesis. As a result, bony tissue grows outside the skeleton and causes the complications associated with this disorder. Read more about the GNAS gene. How do people inherit progressive osseous heteroplasia? This condition is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, which means one copy of the altered gene in each cell is sufficient to cause the disorder. People normally inherit one copy of each gene from their mother and one copy from their father. For most genes, both copies are active, or "turned on," in all cells. For a small subset of genes, however, only one of the two copies is active. For some of these genes, only the copy inherited from a person's father (the paternal copy) is active, while for other genes, only the copy inherited from a person's mother (the maternal copy) is active. These differences in gene activation based on the gene's parent of origin are caused by a phenomenon called genomic imprinting. The GNAS gene has a complex genomic imprinting pattern. In some cells of the body the maternal copy of the gene is active, while in others the paternal copy is active. Progressive osseous heteroplasia occurs when mutations affect the paternal copy of the gene. Where can I find information about diagnosis or mana

s inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, which means one copy of the altered gene in each cell is sufficient to cause the disorder. People normally inherit one copy of each gene from their mother and one copy from their father. For most genes, both copies are active, or "turned on," in all cells. For a small subset of genes, however, only one of the two copies is active. For some of these genes, only the copy inherited from a person's father (the paternal copy) is active, while for other genes, only the copy inherited from a person's mother (the maternal copy) is active. These differences in gene activation based on the gene's parent of origin are caused by a phenomenon called genomic imprinting. The GNAS gene has a complex genomic imprinting pattern. In some cells of the body the maternal copy of the gene is active, while in others the paternal copy is active. Progressive osseous heteroplasia occurs when mutations affect the paternal copy of the gene. Where can I find information about diagnosis or management of progressive osseous heteroplasia? These resources address the diagnosis or management of progressive osseous heteroplasia and may include treatment providers. General information about the diagnosis and management of genetic conditions is available in the Handbook. Read more about genetic testing, particularly the difference between clinical tests and research tests. To locate a healthcare provider, see How can I find a genetics professional in my area? in the Handbook. Where can I find additional information about progressive osseous heteroplasia? You may find the following resources about progressive osseous heteroplasia helpful. These materials are written for the general public. You may also be interested in these resources, which are designed for healthcare professionals and researchers. What other names do people use for progressive osseous heteroplasia? What if I still have specific questions about progressive osseous heteroplasia? Where can I find general information about genetic conditions

gement of progressive osseous heteroplasia? These resources address the diagnosis or management of progressive osseous heteroplasia and may include treatment providers. General information about the diagnosis and management of genetic conditions is available in the Handbook. Read more about genetic testing, particularly the difference between clinical tests and research tests. To locate a healthcare provider, see How can I find a genetics professional in my area? in the Handbook. Where can I find additional information about progressive osseous heteroplasia? You may find the following resources about progressive osseous heteroplasia helpful. These materials are written for the general public. You may also be interested in these resources, which are designed for healthcare professionals and researchers. What other names do people use for progressive osseous heteroplasia? What if I still have specific questions about progressive osseous heteroplasia? Where can I find general information about genetic conditions? The Handbook provides basic information about genetics in clear language. These links provide additional genetics resources that may be useful. What glossary definitions help with understanding progressive osseous heteroplasia? autosomal ; autosomal dominant ; bone formation ; cell ; cutaneous ; ectopic ; gene ; guanine ; imprinting ; incidence ; inherit ; inherited ; maternal ; mutation ; nucleotide ; ossification ; osteogenesis ; osteoma ; protein ; signal transduction ; skeletal muscle ; tissue ; transduction You may find definitions for these and many other terms in the Genetics Home Reference Glossary. See also Understanding Medical Terminology. References (6 links) The resources on this site should not be used as a substitute for professional medical care or advice. Users seeking information about a personal genetic disease, syndrome, or condition should consult with a qualified healthcare professional. See How can I find a genetics professional in my area? in the Handbook.

? The Handbook provides basic information about genetics in clear language. These links provide additional genetics resources that may be useful. What glossary definitions help with understanding progressive osseous heteroplasia? autosomal ; autosomal dominant ; bone formation ; cell ; cutaneous ; ectopic ; gene ; guanine ; imprinting ; incidence ; inherit ; inherited ; maternal ; mutation ; nucleotide ; ossification ; osteogenesis ; osteoma ; protein ; signal transduction ; skeletal muscle ; tissue ; transduction You may find definitions for these and many other terms in the Genetics Home Reference Glossary. See also Understanding Medical Terminology. References (6 links) The resources on this site should not be used as a substitute for professional medical care or advice. Users seeking information about a personal genetic disease, syndrome, or condition should consult with a qualified healthcare professional. See How can I find a genetics professional in my area? in the Handbook.

Concentrating solar photovoltaics are a type of technology that uses optics to concentrate sunlight onto solar cells to boost energy production. While the tech is still in an early stage, some startups are looking to ramp up, and Fremont, Calif.-based Solaria just raised $30 million in equity in its march to win over converts for its own brand of concentrating photovoltaic technology. The funding came more than a year after it raised about $65 million in a round, some of which went into setting up a new factory and headquarters in Fremont. Solaria develops solar panels that use lenses to concentrate the sunlight onto silicon solar cells, a process the company says reduces the need of silicon cells by roughly half. The optics are made of a glass sheet, under which are solar cells that have gone through slicing and other steps to become strips. Solaria has also designed trackers to go with its solar panels and is selling the equipment separately or as part of the package. Trackers tilt the solar panels to follow the sun’s movement throughout the day, and they are used in larger scale projects built for utilities or other businesses. Solaria has built various configurations with its products at its headquarters to show off different solar array designs (see our slide show). Using trackers adds costs, but it also boosts power generation, a benefit that could be well worth the investment, particularly in markets with incentives based on power production. But Solaria is pushing its relatively new technology at a time when the global market is beset by a glut of solar panels. Prices for solar panels have fallen so quickly – by 30 to 40 percent – that many manufacturers have posted losses and expect tough times to continue in 2012. Solar panel makers are boosting their research and development work to create more efficient solar panels in order to set themselves apart and command higher prices for their products. The company is among a breed of developers who sought to create alternatives to conventional silicon solar pa

w the sun’s movement throughout the day, and they are used in larger scale projects built for utilities or other businesses. Solaria has built various configurations with its products at its headquarters to show off different solar array designs (see our slide show). Using trackers adds costs, but it also boosts power generation, a benefit that could be well worth the investment, particularly in markets with incentives based on power production. But Solaria is pushing its relatively new technology at a time when the global market is beset by a glut of solar panels. Prices for solar panels have fallen so quickly – by 30 to 40 percent – that many manufacturers have posted losses and expect tough times to continue in 2012. Solar panel makers are boosting their research and development work to create more efficient solar panels in order to set themselves apart and command higher prices for their products. The company is among a breed of developers who sought to create alternatives to conventional silicon solar panels. The solar industry experienced a shortage of silicon around 2005 when it was growing and competing against the chip industry for the same raw material, which fetched hundreds of dollars per kilogram. Some companies turned to materials such as copper-indium-gallium-selenide (CIGS). The price of silicon has plummeted in recent years to around $30 per kilogram now on the spot market. Others began to experiment with materials such as germanium and gallium-arsenide, which are more expensive than silicon but can squeeze far more electricity from sunlight. To use these highly efficient materials, developers rely on mirrors and lenses to concentrate sunlight, so they can get the same amount of energy while using a smaller amount of materials. Solaria has opted to stick with the cheaper silicon but still adds the concentrating optics. The company was founded in 1999, but didn’t start working on concentrating technology until much later. Its engineers first used acrylic for lenses and placed them under a protecti

nels. The solar industry experienced a shortage of silicon around 2005 when it was growing and competing against the chip industry for the same raw material, which fetched hundreds of dollars per kilogram. Some companies turned to materials such as copper-indium-gallium-selenide (CIGS). The price of silicon has plummeted in recent years to around $30 per kilogram now on the spot market. Others began to experiment with materials such as germanium and gallium-arsenide, which are more expensive than silicon but can squeeze far more electricity from sunlight. To use these highly efficient materials, developers rely on mirrors and lenses to concentrate sunlight, so they can get the same amount of energy while using a smaller amount of materials. Solaria has opted to stick with the cheaper silicon but still adds the concentrating optics. The company was founded in 1999, but didn’t start working on concentrating technology until much later. Its engineers first used acrylic for lenses and placed them under a protective glass layer in the panel. They then decided to ditch acrylic and use only glass for the optics and spent 2009 finalizing a commercial design. Dan Shugar, who was president of PowerLight and then head of SunPower’s project development business (SunPower bought PowerLight in 2006), came to Solaria as CEO in early 2010.

ve glass layer in the panel. They then decided to ditch acrylic and use only glass for the optics and spent 2009 finalizing a commercial design. Dan Shugar, who was president of PowerLight and then head of SunPower’s project development business (SunPower bought PowerLight in 2006), came to Solaria as CEO in early 2010.

There are, however, electric fish: eight-foot long, 600 volt, mouth breathing, alligator-killing fish. Although there are a number of fish that produce an electric charge, the species that is called "electric eel," E. electricus, is a member of the fish order, ostariophysian. Mistaken for an eel due to its shape and lack of pelvic, caudal and dorsal fins, E. electricus has a long (up to 8 feet), cylindrical body with a flat head. Its vital organs are found in the front fifth of its body (near the head), while the rest of its long body contains three electric organs, together filled with nearly 6,000 specialized electrocyte cells that, as the name suggests, produce, store and discharge electricity. The electric organs begin to develop early in the fish's lifetime. The Sachs, which produces only a weak electric charge and is used for echolocation, begins to develop very soon after birth. The other two electric organs, known as the main and the Hunter's, produce much higher voltages of around 600 volts and about 1 amp, so about 600 watts for approximately 2 milliseconds. Although the fish has gills, it takes in most of its oxygen through its "highly vascular mouth," and, therefore, often comes to the water's surface to breathe. The fish is also covered with a thick, gray to brownish/black skin. It is presumed that this tough layer protects it from its own electrical current. To reproduce, the female of the species deposits up to 17,000 eggs in a spit-nest made by the male during the dry season, and, on average, 1,200 of those eggs hatch. In captivity, male electric fish live up to 15 years and females up to 22. E. electricus Habitat The electric fish is native to the South America, particularly the Orinoco and Guyanas rivers, as well as large portions of the Amazon river basin. It lives on river bottoms and in swamps, and thrives in relatively low-oxygen waters because of its propensity to mouth breathe. E. electricus uses its electric organs for orientation, hunting and defense. While swimming through its murky hab

1 amp, so about 600 watts for approximately 2 milliseconds. Although the fish has gills, it takes in most of its oxygen through its "highly vascular mouth," and, therefore, often comes to the water's surface to breathe. The fish is also covered with a thick, gray to brownish/black skin. It is presumed that this tough layer protects it from its own electrical current. To reproduce, the female of the species deposits up to 17,000 eggs in a spit-nest made by the male during the dry season, and, on average, 1,200 of those eggs hatch. In captivity, male electric fish live up to 15 years and females up to 22. E. electricus Habitat The electric fish is native to the South America, particularly the Orinoco and Guyanas rivers, as well as large portions of the Amazon river basin. It lives on river bottoms and in swamps, and thrives in relatively low-oxygen waters because of its propensity to mouth breathe. E. electricus uses its electric organs for orientation, hunting and defense. While swimming through its murky habitat at night (it's nocturnal), the electric fish orients itself by periodically emitting a weak electrical discharge: This lower voltage can be used to "see" surrounding objects. Objects with a different conductivity will distort the electric field that the eel produces, thus making the eel aware of the object's presence. After locating its prey with weak electrical pulses, E. electricus kicks it up a notch: Once prey is found the electric eel will use a much larger electrical current to stun the fish. Toothless, electric fish eat their prey by "open[ing] their mouths to create a suction," and swallowing the meal whole. Able to produce a voltage as high as 650 volts and about 1 amp, the electric fish emits a strong, brief (2 milliseconds or less) shock when it is attacked by a predator. Although experts say the shock is rarely fatal by itself, it can kill some animals. How Does it Produce Electricity? E. electricus' nervous system controls its production of electricity: Each electrogenic cell [electrocyte] c

itat at night (it's nocturnal), the electric fish orients itself by periodically emitting a weak electrical discharge: This lower voltage can be used to "see" surrounding objects. Objects with a different conductivity will distort the electric field that the eel produces, thus making the eel aware of the object's presence. After locating its prey with weak electrical pulses, E. electricus kicks it up a notch: Once prey is found the electric eel will use a much larger electrical current to stun the fish. Toothless, electric fish eat their prey by "open[ing] their mouths to create a suction," and swallowing the meal whole. Able to produce a voltage as high as 650 volts and about 1 amp, the electric fish emits a strong, brief (2 milliseconds or less) shock when it is attacked by a predator. Although experts say the shock is rarely fatal by itself, it can kill some animals. How Does it Produce Electricity? E. electricus' nervous system controls its production of electricity: Each electrogenic cell [electrocyte] carries a negative charge of a little less than 100 millivolts on its outside compared to its inside. When the command signal arrives [from a "command nucleus" in the nervous system], the nerve terminal releases a minute puff of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter. Through nerves on one side of the cell, causing ion channels to open on that side. Sodium ions are able to rapidly enter the cell via these channels . . . [which] alters the equilibrium of the cell. To re-establish [it], potassium ions leave the cell on the other side,. . . . A transient path with low electrical resistance connecting the inside and outside of the cell. Thus, each cell behaves like a battery with the activated side carrying a negative charge and the opposite side a positive one. Because the cells are oriented inside the electric organ like a series of batteries piled into a flashlight, the current . . . set[s] off an avalanche of activation that runs its course in just two milliseconds. . . [and] creates a short-lived current flowing a

arries a negative charge of a little less than 100 millivolts on its outside compared to its inside. When the command signal arrives [from a "command nucleus" in the nervous system], the nerve terminal releases a minute puff of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter. Through nerves on one side of the cell, causing ion channels to open on that side. Sodium ions are able to rapidly enter the cell via these channels . . . [which] alters the equilibrium of the cell. To re-establish [it], potassium ions leave the cell on the other side,. . . . A transient path with low electrical resistance connecting the inside and outside of the cell. Thus, each cell behaves like a battery with the activated side carrying a negative charge and the opposite side a positive one. Because the cells are oriented inside the electric organ like a series of batteries piled into a flashlight, the current . . . set[s] off an avalanche of activation that runs its course in just two milliseconds. . . [and] creates a short-lived current flowing along the eel's body. Can Its Energy Be Harnessed? Scientists have long been impressed with the electrical generating ability of E. electricus, and recent research is leading to uses that may benefit people. Since 2009, scientists at the Living Planet Aquarium in Sandy, Utah, have been harnessing the power of their resident electric tree to power the lights on the aquarium's Christmas tree. Essentially, two stainless steel electrodes are attached to Sparky's (the electric fish) tank, and each time Sparky sends out a pulse, which is part of "his natural, normal activity," currents of electricity travel through the electrodes to sequencers that make the lights on the tree flash. Living Planet's marketing director loves the display because it "helps give a visual idea of what an animal really does on a daily basis." Some medical implants and devices require batteries to power their complex functions. In recent years, scientists have been looking for ways to create "bio-batteries," that "would be just like any oth

long the eel's body. Can Its Energy Be Harnessed? Scientists have long been impressed with the electrical generating ability of E. electricus, and recent research is leading to uses that may benefit people. Since 2009, scientists at the Living Planet Aquarium in Sandy, Utah, have been harnessing the power of their resident electric tree to power the lights on the aquarium's Christmas tree. Essentially, two stainless steel electrodes are attached to Sparky's (the electric fish) tank, and each time Sparky sends out a pulse, which is part of "his natural, normal activity," currents of electricity travel through the electrodes to sequencers that make the lights on the tree flash. Living Planet's marketing director loves the display because it "helps give a visual idea of what an animal really does on a daily basis." Some medical implants and devices require batteries to power their complex functions. In recent years, scientists have been looking for ways to create "bio-batteries," that "would be just like any other cell in your body," except they also produce electricity. A few researchers have been investigating whether E. electricus' electrocytes might make a goodblueprint, and are: Designing an artificial cell that could replicate the electrocyte's energy production. . . . [They] found that an artificial cell could actually out perform a natural cell. One hurdle to producing a viable bio-battery is finding a human-safe power source, although "bacteria cold be employed to recycle ATP – responsible for transferring energy within the cell – using glucose." Researchers remain hopeful, particularly since the bio-battery has many advantages including: "if it breaks, there are no toxins released into your system." If you liked this article, you might also enjoy: - Clownfish are All Born Male, a Dominant Male Will Turn Female When the Current Female of the Group Dies - There is a Species of Jellyfish That can Age Backwards - The Candirú Fish Can't Swim Up a Stream of Your Urine - Sushi is Not Raw Fish - How to Treat a Jel

er cell in your body," except they also produce electricity. A few researchers have been investigating whether E. electricus' electrocytes might make a goodblueprint, and are: Designing an artificial cell that could replicate the electrocyte's energy production. . . . [They] found that an artificial cell could actually out perform a natural cell. One hurdle to producing a viable bio-battery is finding a human-safe power source, although "bacteria cold be employed to recycle ATP – responsible for transferring energy within the cell – using glucose." Researchers remain hopeful, particularly since the bio-battery has many advantages including: "if it breaks, there are no toxins released into your system." If you liked this article, you might also enjoy: - Clownfish are All Born Male, a Dominant Male Will Turn Female When the Current Female of the Group Dies - There is a Species of Jellyfish That can Age Backwards - The Candirú Fish Can't Swim Up a Stream of Your Urine - Sushi is Not Raw Fish - How to Treat a Jellyfish Sting This post has been republished with permission from TodayIFoundOut.com.

lyfish Sting This post has been republished with permission from TodayIFoundOut.com.

Derieving interesting data is always tied to a time period. We may want to extract interesting information from the whole life time of the data or we want to perform the same on a given time period say the last month or week. To specify such options, we have user defined functions in pig. This allows us to write filters and operations that we want pig to perform on each entry of the data set. This gives more control on the data filtering, flow. Some of the nuances of pig udf are explained in the example below. Pig Version of this example: Apache Pig version 0.10.0 (r1328203) Objective: You want to write a filter function in PIG to filter data rows according to a date range that you are interested in. You want to invoke the script from a scheduler which passes in the date range as command line parameters. A pig script is shown in the image below. 1) Passing command line parameters to pig script: You need to pass command line arguments like this pig -param datefrom='2012-10-20 00:00:00' -param dateto='2012-10-23 00:00:00' -x mapreduce user-based-analytics.pig. (I am actually calling the script from Python, which we will see in the next post). Here I am using these two date parameters to build my Java UDF. If you are passing parameters with space character, it has to be like this otherwise pig will throw an error saying that, it cannot create your UDF java class. 2) With in the pig script: You refer to the command line parameters using the format '$ 3) Defining your UDF reference using DEFINE pig keyword: This allows you to create a reference to your UDF which you can call using an alias. For example, the script defines a reference to the UDF as follows, define date-based-filter com.home.pig.udfs.TimeStampFilter('$datefrom', '$dateto') where date-based-filter is the alias that I will use to call my UDF com.home.pig.udfs.TimeStampFilter java class. 4) Calling your UDF filter in a pig script using FILTER keyword: Pig does not have a boolean data type. But, expressions are evaluated to boolean true or false. You need t

3 00:00:00' -x mapreduce user-based-analytics.pig. (I am actually calling the script from Python, which we will see in the next post). Here I am using these two date parameters to build my Java UDF. If you are passing parameters with space character, it has to be like this otherwise pig will throw an error saying that, it cannot create your UDF java class. 2) With in the pig script: You refer to the command line parameters using the format '$ 3) Defining your UDF reference using DEFINE pig keyword: This allows you to create a reference to your UDF which you can call using an alias. For example, the script defines a reference to the UDF as follows, define date-based-filter com.home.pig.udfs.TimeStampFilter('$datefrom', '$dateto') where date-based-filter is the alias that I will use to call my UDF com.home.pig.udfs.TimeStampFilter java class. 4) Calling your UDF filter in a pig script using FILTER keyword: Pig does not have a boolean data type. But, expressions are evaluated to boolean true or false. You need to call your UDF as follows, with the alias for your UDF. Here we are checking for datebasedfilter(ts) == TRUE i.e does my UDF 'com.home.pig.udfs.TimeStampFilter' acting on the current row with 'dateto' and 'datefrom' return Java Boolean true or false. filter-by-date = filter site-data by date-based-filter(ts) == TRUE; 5) Now the Java Class that does the filtering. b) Override the public Boolean exec(Tuple arg0) member function to define how this filter will handle tuples from the script. Here I just get the date from the string and check if it is within the range. Why use Pig and UDFs? Writing UDFs can be easy and saves a lot of time compared to writing a MapReduce Java program or any other option. Plus, if you have a ton of data or will end up with one this is better option since Hadoop will scale and Pig will do the jobs like data groupings, filtering for you.

o call your UDF as follows, with the alias for your UDF. Here we are checking for datebasedfilter(ts) == TRUE i.e does my UDF 'com.home.pig.udfs.TimeStampFilter' acting on the current row with 'dateto' and 'datefrom' return Java Boolean true or false. filter-by-date = filter site-data by date-based-filter(ts) == TRUE; 5) Now the Java Class that does the filtering. b) Override the public Boolean exec(Tuple arg0) member function to define how this filter will handle tuples from the script. Here I just get the date from the string and check if it is within the range. Why use Pig and UDFs? Writing UDFs can be easy and saves a lot of time compared to writing a MapReduce Java program or any other option. Plus, if you have a ton of data or will end up with one this is better option since Hadoop will scale and Pig will do the jobs like data groupings, filtering for you.

We have had two indications recently that typhoid fever, for all the vaunted control of the disease which we have claimed, is still alive. The newspapers carried the report of an epidemic in Minneapolis and the U. S. Public Health Service has published a final report of its investigation of the epidemic of typhoid fever that occurred in the Ringling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey’s circus in the summer of 1934. These evidences of return to the Middle Ages teach us that we can never relax the vigilance which is needed to keep the infectious diseases in subjugation. Boards of health everywhere are constantly working on the control of the water supply and milk supply, and food handlers, yet somehow or other the disease manages to break through the barriers and cause death as well as economic loss. In the case of the circus, typhoid broke out in Detroit and 68 employees were hospitalized. In the course of time 141 persons were left in hospitals in various cities. Seventy-four of them proved to have typhoid. From the fact that everybody in the circus was infected except train men, porters and elephant men, whose water supply was separate from the rest of the circus, the indications are that the epidemic was water-borne, although in what city enroute or under what circumstances, has not been proved. The epidemic itself certainly teaches us that the only sure way of protection against typhoid is individual inoculation or vaccination by the hypodermic injection of typhoid vaccine. As an indication of the vigilance with which boards of health work on the problem of water supply, I find in the report of the Indiana Division of Public Health for one month that the Board investigated 32 public water supplies in such cities as Aurora, Elkhart, Fort Wayne, Lafayette Heights, Vincennes, Winslow, etc. It made 999 examinations of drinking water, 93 examinations of bottled water and 49 examinations of swimming water. It made 825 examinations of dairies and 966 examinations of other food stations. In spite of this staggering amount

the fact that everybody in the circus was infected except train men, porters and elephant men, whose water supply was separate from the rest of the circus, the indications are that the epidemic was water-borne, although in what city enroute or under what circumstances, has not been proved. The epidemic itself certainly teaches us that the only sure way of protection against typhoid is individual inoculation or vaccination by the hypodermic injection of typhoid vaccine. As an indication of the vigilance with which boards of health work on the problem of water supply, I find in the report of the Indiana Division of Public Health for one month that the Board investigated 32 public water supplies in such cities as Aurora, Elkhart, Fort Wayne, Lafayette Heights, Vincennes, Winslow, etc. It made 999 examinations of drinking water, 93 examinations of bottled water and 49 examinations of swimming water. It made 825 examinations of dairies and 966 examinations of other food stations. In spite of this staggering amount of work typhoid fever will slip through because none of us have any natural immunity to it. Today the only safe thing to do is to have vaccination of each individual against typhoid. This should be done before the age of 5 years. Parents often balk at the idea of vaccination at early agesvaccination against smallpox and diphtheria as well as typhoid. But this attitude is unwarranted. First, because these diseases strike particularly the young. To make prevention effective, we must begin early. And second because children, as a rule, react less than adults. This is really true. A one-year-old baby will not have as much trouble with a smallpox vaccination as a man of twenty-five. Just as a baby will not have as rough a trip with measles as an adult.

of work typhoid fever will slip through because none of us have any natural immunity to it. Today the only safe thing to do is to have vaccination of each individual against typhoid. This should be done before the age of 5 years. Parents often balk at the idea of vaccination at early agesvaccination against smallpox and diphtheria as well as typhoid. But this attitude is unwarranted. First, because these diseases strike particularly the young. To make prevention effective, we must begin early. And second because children, as a rule, react less than adults. This is really true. A one-year-old baby will not have as much trouble with a smallpox vaccination as a man of twenty-five. Just as a baby will not have as rough a trip with measles as an adult.

Marketus Presswood: On Being Black in ChinaRoundup: Historians' Take tags: China, The Atlantic, African American, Marketus Presswood Marketus Presswood is currently pursuing his Ph.D. in Modern Chinese History with an emphasis on both the Republican Era (1912-1949) and the post-1949 era. In the 1996 China edition of the Lonely Planet's Guidebook, a text box aside comment from a street interview provided some interesting conversation fodder, "... there is no racism in China because there are no black people," a Chinese woman was reported to have said. This became a little running joke in my small study abroad circle, since I was the only black student in my program of fifty students. It was 1997, and I was in Beijing studying Chinese. "There is no way you could be experiencing any racism in China," one classmate sardonically told me, "because you are the only black person here." We all laughed. While China is officially home to 55 ethnic minority groups, the Middle Kingdom is far more ethnically homogeneous than the United States. Han Chinese make up 91.59 percent of the population, and the majority of the remaining 8.41 percent are visually indistinguishable from their Han counterparts. In part due to this difference, race and nationality are often conflated in China. A white foreigner is likely to be called laowai, or "old foreigner," while a black foreigner is more likely to be described as heiren, or "black person." White Americans face no barriers to claiming their nationality, but blacks are often assumed to hail from Africa, a place thought to be more backwards and poorer than China, and one more than likely receiving Chinese government economic aid in the form of loans and infrastructure projects. This leads to either resentment or denigration on the part of some Chinese. The Chinese media tends to focus on the generosity of the Chinese government toward Africa -- a sore point among Chinese who feel their government is not doing enough for the Chinese themselves -- and not on the valuable natural resources

an the United States. Han Chinese make up 91.59 percent of the population, and the majority of the remaining 8.41 percent are visually indistinguishable from their Han counterparts. In part due to this difference, race and nationality are often conflated in China. A white foreigner is likely to be called laowai, or "old foreigner," while a black foreigner is more likely to be described as heiren, or "black person." White Americans face no barriers to claiming their nationality, but blacks are often assumed to hail from Africa, a place thought to be more backwards and poorer than China, and one more than likely receiving Chinese government economic aid in the form of loans and infrastructure projects. This leads to either resentment or denigration on the part of some Chinese. The Chinese media tends to focus on the generosity of the Chinese government toward Africa -- a sore point among Chinese who feel their government is not doing enough for the Chinese themselves -- and not on the valuable natural resources gained or access to lucrative growth markets for cheap Chinese goods.... comments powered by Disqus - At Brandis the Afro-American studies faculty is siding with student protesters - NYT's Notable Books of 2015: These are the history books that made the cut - Petition signed by 44,000 to add more female thinkers to the Politics A Level syllabus in the UK - Most Students Have No Clue What Accurate Native American History Looks Like - Historians Re-Enter Presidential Studies

gained or access to lucrative growth markets for cheap Chinese goods.... comments powered by Disqus - At Brandis the Afro-American studies faculty is siding with student protesters - NYT's Notable Books of 2015: These are the history books that made the cut - Petition signed by 44,000 to add more female thinkers to the Politics A Level syllabus in the UK - Most Students Have No Clue What Accurate Native American History Looks Like - Historians Re-Enter Presidential Studies

Appeal for war stories to create biggest ever digital history archiveBreaking News tags: World War I, digital history, Imperial War Museum The Imperial War Museum is to use the centenary of the first world war to launch an international appeal for private letters, diaries and photographs held by the families of those who served, with the aim of putting eight million personal stories online by the end of 2018. The museum's aim is to collect a mass of personal information, much of which will have been stored away in people's cupboards and attics, and make it available to the public at the press of a button. The information submitted and the individual stories of family members will become part of a giant online library for use by historians and people interested in researching their own relatives' roles in the conflict. The project – called Lives of the First World War and launching next February – will see the museum returning to its founding purpose but adapting to the internet age, in what is believed to be the biggest trawl for historical information ever undertaken. The museum was founded on 5 March 1917, when the War Cabinet approved a proposal by Sir Alfred Mond MP for the creation of a national war museum to record the events still taking place during the Great War and to honour those who had lost their lives and those who survived.... comments powered by Disqus - At Brandis the Afro-American studies faculty is siding with student protesters - NYT's Notable Books of 2015: These are the history books that made the cut - Petition signed by 44,000 to add more female thinkers to the Politics A Level syllabus in the UK - Most Students Have No Clue What Accurate Native American History Looks Like - Historians Re-Enter Presidential Studies

Most conifers are not shade tolerant, but yews are a major exception. Their dark green needles add a bit of color to the otherwise barren shade garden from fall through early spring. Description of Japanese yew: In its original form, the Japanese yew is a single-trunked tree reaching 50 feet in height. The species is rarely grown in cultivation, having been replaced by the numerous dense, slow-growing varieties that may be globular, vase-shaped, pyramidal, or spreading, depending on the selection. Although they are labeled dwarf plants, most eventually become quite high: 20 feet or more. The dark green needles have rounded tips and are not "scratchy" like most other conifers. Female plants bear bright red berries. Ease of care of Japanese Yew: Easy. Growing Japanese yew: Yews are perfectly tolerant of moderate shade, and even deep shade, as long as they get some spring sunlight. In dense shade, the shrubs need harsher pruning to help fill in the gaps formed by a more open growth pattern. Yews need fertile soil and ample moisture. They will not tolerate root competition from shallow-rooted trees. Protect them from strong, drying winds. Propagating Japanese yew: By cuttings, usually carried out by professionals, or seed. Uses of Japanese yew: The Japanese yew is widely used as a foundation plant, especially on the north or east sides of the home. It makes an excellent formal or natural hedge, and dwarf varieties -- of which there are many in different sizes, shapes, and colors -- are popularly used in rock gardens. Related species of Japanese Yew: English yew (Taxus baccata) and the hybrid yew (T. x media) are similar to the Japanese yew, although the English yew is less hardy (USDA zone 6). Scientific name of Japanese yew: Taxus cuspidata If you love the Japanese yew's berries but don't have an outdoor garden, consider growing it as a house plant. We'll show you how in the next section.Want more information on gardening and great plants you can grow? Try: - Shade Gardens: You don't need loads of direct sunlight to

l and ample moisture. They will not tolerate root competition from shallow-rooted trees. Protect them from strong, drying winds. Propagating Japanese yew: By cuttings, usually carried out by professionals, or seed. Uses of Japanese yew: The Japanese yew is widely used as a foundation plant, especially on the north or east sides of the home. It makes an excellent formal or natural hedge, and dwarf varieties -- of which there are many in different sizes, shapes, and colors -- are popularly used in rock gardens. Related species of Japanese Yew: English yew (Taxus baccata) and the hybrid yew (T. x media) are similar to the Japanese yew, although the English yew is less hardy (USDA zone 6). Scientific name of Japanese yew: Taxus cuspidata If you love the Japanese yew's berries but don't have an outdoor garden, consider growing it as a house plant. We'll show you how in the next section.Want more information on gardening and great plants you can grow? Try: - Shade Gardens: You don't need loads of direct sunlight to create a lush retreat in your yard, garden, or patio space. Learn how to plant a vital shade garden. - Shade Garden Plants: Find out about stunning options for planting that will make your shade garden unique and lovely. - Garden Types: There are many ways to cultivate a lush oasis around your home. Read about all the different types of gardens you can create. - Gardening: Get great tips on how to keep your garden healthy and thriving.

create a lush retreat in your yard, garden, or patio space. Learn how to plant a vital shade garden. - Shade Garden Plants: Find out about stunning options for planting that will make your shade garden unique and lovely. - Garden Types: There are many ways to cultivate a lush oasis around your home. Read about all the different types of gardens you can create. - Gardening: Get great tips on how to keep your garden healthy and thriving.