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Working on a Dream Tour

2009 concert tour by Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band

The Working on a Dream Tour was a concert tour by Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band, which began in April 2009 and ended in November 2009. It followed the late January 2009 release of the album Working on a Dream. This was the first full E Street Band tour without founding member Danny Federici, who died during the previous tour in 2008, and the final tour for founding member Clarence Clemons, who died in 2011. The tour was shorter than a typical Springsteen outing, but for the first time in his career, it placed an emphasis on performing at music festivals, especially in Europe. Even more unlike all his previous tours, the Working on a Dream Tour featured little of his new album. Instead, several trends from the latter stages of the previous year's Magic Tour were carried forward: a focus on topical content, this time the late-2000s recession; a repetition of some of the stage raps and antics; and most visibly, continuation of a 'signs' segment, in which audience members would hold up signs requesting rare Springsteen songs or decades-past oldies and the band would stage (sometimes impromptu) performances of them. The final leg of the tour often featured another first as Springsteen played one of his classic 1970s or 1980s albums all the way through. Critical reaction to the tour's shows was generally positive, although the absence of the new material was noted. Max Weinberg was not available for parts of the tour due to his bandleader obligations to The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien, which was just commencing. His 18-year-old son, Jay Weinberg, became his replacement for parts or all of a number of shows, to a mostly positive reception from the rest of the band, the audience, and critics. The tour also gave Springsteen a chance to bid farewell to two famous venues he had played many shows at – the Philadelphia Spectrum and New Jersey's Giants Stadium. The tour was a commercial success, grossing over \$167 million, being seen by over 1.9 million ticket holders, and finishing as the third-highest-grossing tour in the world for 2009 even though the tour faced some logistical issues. Ticket sales were botched by Ticketmaster, a situation further exacerbated by revelations of their holding seats back for their secondary market TicketsNow. Before long, legislatures and attorneys general of several states, as well as members of the U.S. Congress and federal regulatory agencies, were weighing in on the matter, with various lawsuits, settlements, and proposed laws as the result. ## Itinerary The tour was envisioned by the Springsteen camp as not being "a total marathon", and was thus considerably shorter than usual for Springsteen, especially in North America, where only 26 stops were planned. It did include a date in Oklahoma, where Springsteen had not played in three decades and where officials at Tulsa's BOK Center had been trying to lure Springsteen for years. On February 23, 2009, it was confirmed that Springsteen would be headlining the Saturday night at Glastonbury festival in June of the same year. Springsteen also signed up for the Pinkpop Festival in the Netherlands and the Bonnaroo Music Festival in the United States; playing such festivals was a departure from his normal routing, and challenged him with audiences that were not pre-selected with his fans. One continuing subplot with the tour's scheduling was E Street drummer Max Weinberg's availability vis à vis his job as The Max Weinberg 7 bandleader for Conan O'Brien, given that during the first half of 2009 Late Night with Conan O'Brien in New York City was ending and The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien in Los Angeles was beginning. The mid-January announcement that Late Night would continue until February 20 precluded any notion of starting the tour immediately following Springsteen's appearance at Super Bowl XLIII, in addition to the band feeling that they had just gotten off the Magic Tour and "Wait, let's stop a minute." Meanwhile, the June 1 start date of The Tonight Show posed problems for Weinberg's continued presence on the tour. O'Brien told a Variety reporter at the time of the announcement that he hoped that Weinberg would follow him to Los Angeles and that he also hoped an arrangement could be worked out to let Weinberg go on the road with Springsteen as had been done for past tours. At NBC, the coexistence between the drummer's two bosses was known as the Weinberg-Springsteen Rule, and was not typically extended to other talent at the network. In a high-profile Rolling Stone cover story interview, Springsteen was vague about the matter: "All I know is this – it's all gonna work out, one way or another. If people wanna come out and see the E Street Band, they'll be able to come out and see the E Street Band." And whether Weinberg would stay with O'Brien and move or not was a subject of conflicting news reports until O'Brien confirmed on February 18 that Weinberg and the band were indeed coming with him. A few days later, E Streeter Steven Van Zandt said of Weinberg's availability for the post-June 1, European leg: "We’re still figuring that out. We’ll see. I think Max will be there for most of it. ... I know he was very much trying to figure it out." Weinberg had not missed an E Street Band show since joining the outfit in 1974, and Van Zandt said that no amount of rehearsal by another drummer could replace Weinberg's intuitive understanding of Springsteen's performance gambits. As had been the practice since the Reunion Tour in 1999, Springsteen and the band began rehearsals at Asbury Park Convention Hall. Beginning on March 11, some of the Springsteen faithful listened outside closed doors for what songs and arrangements the tour might bring. The presence of Max Weinberg's 18-year-old son Jay, a freshman at Stevens Institute of Technology and also a drummer, at rehearsals indicated that he might be the one to replace his father for European leg shows where Tonight Show duties came into play. On one occasion on the Magic Tour, Jay Weinberg had sat in on drums for "Born to Run". This was confirmed by Springsteen on March 20, who said that Jay Weinberg would be drumming at a small number of shows during the tour. Springsteen added, "Once again, I want to express my appreciation to Conan O'Brien, and everyone on his team, for making it possible for Max to continue to do double duty for both us and for him. We promise to return him in one piece." Van Zandt said, "I’ve been avoiding this question for weeks! Thank God they finally announced it. We already did three days of rehearsals. Jay's a fantastic drummer. It's in the Weinberg DNA." By the time the American first leg was well underway, there was speculation of more American dates to come in the late summer and fall, but E Street guitarist Nils Lofgren said that Springsteen and wife Patti Scialfa would make a decision later on. On May 21, 2009, while playing at the Izod Center, Springsteen announced he would be playing three dates at next-door Giants Stadium in late September and early October, saying the band would "say goodbye to old Giants Stadium ... Before they bring the wrecking ball, the wrecking crew is coming back!" The video screens on stage showed a huge banner being hung on the stadium, which was the forerunner of heavy advertising for the shows on local television. They sold out quickly, and two more dates were added, finishing on October 9. These were scheduled to be the last concerts ever at the stadium. The final show sold out quickly but not the one before it. Subsequent U.S. tour dates in the late summer began to be announced as well, focusing on outdoor amphitheaters in the Northeast. In mid-July, a further extension to the U.S. tour was announced, adding shows in indoor arenas through November. The November 22, 2009, performance in Buffalo, New York, was slated as the tour's last. After that, the E Street Band was expected to take a one to two-year hiatus, while Springsteen worked on another project. The October 26, 2009, show in Kansas City, Missouri, was canceled an hour before its scheduled start time due to the death of Lenny Sullivan, Springsteen's cousin and assistant road manager for ten years. It was not rescheduled. ## Ticket sales Even before any official tour announcement, tickets went on sale in Norway and Sweden. The heavy demand caused a crash in the Scandinavian ticketing system. A similar situation due to heavy demand occurred in Finland with the Lippupiste ticketing system. On January 27, 2009, the day of the Working on a Dream release in the United States, the official announcement of the tour came. On February 1, 2009, Springsteen & the E Street Band performed at halftime of Super Bowl XLIII. The following day, February 2, 2009, tickets for many of the U.S. shows went on sale. Despite the ongoing global financial crisis of 2008–2009, demand was heavy in a number of areas, both due to Springsteen's continued popularity and the high visibility from the Super Bowl appearance. Other areas failed to show the ticket fervor of past outings. The pair of shows in both New Jersey and Philadelphia sold out in about an hour. East Coast online sales through Ticketmaster, including the New Jersey ones, were especially troublesome, as many customers endured long waits or were in the middle of a purchasing transaction, only to be hit with screens saying the site was down "due to routine maintenance". Ticketmaster acknowledged that the technical problem with the sales "wasn't our finest hour." Tickets for the New Jersey shows were in limited supply to begin with, as some 27 percent of them were held back from sale by the venue, the record company, Springsteen's organization, and others. Indeed, for one of the shows Springsteen's management held back all but 108 of the 1,126 seats in the four sections nearest the stage. Frustration became a public outcry when many of Ticketmaster online customers, upon being informed shows were sold out, were directed to TicketsNow, a Ticketmaster-owned site, where tickets were sold on the secondary market at extremely inflated prices. Ticketmaster even pushed fans to TicketsNow even when there were still tickets available for a given show. Bill Pascrell, the member of the U.S. House of Representatives from New Jersey's 8th congressional district, asked the Federal Trade Commission and the U.S. Department of Justice to investigate the relationship between Ticketmaster and TicketsNow, saying, "I am concerned that the business affiliation between Ticketmaster and TicketsNow may represent a conflict of interest that is detrimental to the average fan. There is a significant potential for abuse when one company is able to monopolize the primary market for a product and also directly manipulate, and profit from, the secondary market." Springsteen issued a statement on his website where he chastised Ticketmaster and made it clear that he had no affiliation with them (the venues had the affiliation). Springsteen's organization, as well as record companies and promoters, held back substantial numbers of tickets from public sales and made their supply even tighter, especially for New Jersey shows. On the same day that New Jersey State Assemblymen Gary Schaer and Wayne DeAngelo called for an inquiry, New Jersey Attorney General Anne Milgram also said that her office and the New Jersey Division of Consumer Affairs would investigate the sale of Springsteen concert tickets amidst a number of complaints. As the matter gained national attention, it became what The Washington Post described as a "public relations nightmare" for Ticketmaster. On February 5, Ticketmaster issued an "open letter of apology" to Springsteen and his fans, saying that it would no longer link to TicketsNow from Ticketmaster during high-demand sales and promising it would refund customers who inadvertently bought secondary market tickets. Pascrell, whose office received over 1,000 complaints on the matter, and Connecticut Attorney General Richard Blumenthal also used the sales tales to indicate concern with the possible merger of Ticketmaster with Live Nation. Springsteen also voiced his objection to the merger, and his comments also gained national attention. On February 23, 2009, Ticketmaster agreed to an out-of-court settlement with the New Jersey Attorney General. Ticketmaster agreed to refund payments made to TicketsNow and reduce its visibility, and made some 2,000 tickets to the New Jersey shows available to complaints via random lottery, with promises of additional reparations if Springsteen scheduled a third leg to return to the United States in the summer. The company was not fined, but did reimburse the Attorney General's office \$350,000 for investigatory expenses. Over 1,800 people qualified for the March 31 lottery, and those that got them eventually picked up their tickets at an amusingly named "Attorney General Will Call Line" before the shows. In March 2009, Springsteen manager Jon Landau emphasized that Springsteen never directly releases tickets into the secondary market, in the wake of revelations about other artists doing so. In May 2009 – and on the same day that Springsteen would perform at the local Xcel Energy Center – Governor of Minnesota Tim Pawlenty signed into law "the Bruce Springsteen bill", which forbade online ticket sellers from sending frustrated customers to resale sites that offer inflated-price secondary market tickets. Different but similar Ticketmaster drama occurred on March 20 when tickets went on sale for Springsteen's two Asbury Park Convention Hall rehearsal shows a few days hence. Dozens of fans said that the Ticketmaster automated lines gave messages that no shows were on sale, while those using the human operator lines were able to make purchases. Ticketmaster denied that anything had gone wrong. The secondary markets ticket saga re-emerged in mid-May during the first leg of the tour when TicketsNow announced they had oversold by some 300 persons the date at Washington, D.C.'s Verizon Center. TicketsNow offered double refunds and inferiorly located tickets to other Springsteen shows, but Springsteen manager Landau was quite unhappy: "We would like our audience to know that this is a problem caused entirely by Ticketmaster and its wholly owned subsidiary TicketsNow. Neither Bruce nor his management have any control whatsoever over these two troubled entities but we deeply resent the abuse of our fans." When Springsteen's autumn Giants Stadium shows were announced in late May 2009, secondary market sellers began advertising steeply marked-up tickets before they went on sale. This caused Attorney General Milgram to file suit against three such sellers for fraudulent behavior, especially given that some of the advertised seat locations did not even exist. On June 1, Congressman Pascrell announced proposed federal legislation, titled the "BOSS ACT" (Better Oversight of Secondary Sales and Accountability in Concert Ticketing), which would require primary ticket sellers to disclose how many tickets were being held back from sale, prohibit ticket brokers from buying tickets during the first 48 hours on sale, and prohibit primary ticket sellers, promoters, and artists from entering the secondary market. In February 2010, Ticketmaster reached a settlement with the Federal Trade Commission, which denounced the company's "deceptive bait-and-switch tactics" regarding phantom tickets, and made reference to an example in which the same 38 tickets to a tour show in Washington were sold and resold 1,600 times. Ticketmaster conceded no wrongdoing but agreed to stop the practice; they also agreed to \$1 million in refunds for overcharges for secondary market sales via TicketsNow. ## The show ### Planning and rehearsals One idea under early consideration was to include a mini-set at each stop, containing a full performance of one of Springsteen's classic albums. Van Zandt predicted that they would play most of Working on a Dream during the initial stages of the tour, but what the rest of the show would be was uncertain. If the full album idea did go forward, he thought his double album The River (1980) combined with outtakes from those sessions would make a full show on its own. Nothing came of the full album notion right away; it would have to wait until the tour's U.S. third leg to materialize. Per past practice, Springsteen performed a couple of public rehearsal shows at Asbury Park Convention Hall before beginning the tour proper. The eight-minute "Outlaw Pete" from Working on a Dream opened and various other selections from the album were played, but the show generally included patterns and staples of the early Magic Tour and other previous outings. Jay Weinberg did some of the drumming, and the band was augmented by Curtis King Jr. and Cindy Mizelle (both veterans of the Sessions Band Tour) as additional backing vocalists. ### North American first leg Once the first leg of the tour proper began at San Jose, California, on April 1, the consistent show opener was "Badlands" – whose ending, or false ending, was framed with a recurrence of the Magic Tour's question of "Is there anybody alive out there?" – several things became apparent. Typical shows contained only three songs from Working on a Dream: "Outlaw Pete" (initially accompanied by a fog machine), "Working on a Dream" and "Kingdom of Days". This was in stark departure from all previous Springsteen tours, when material from newly released albums was heavily featured. One other recently released Springsteen song, "The Wrestler", was also included in about half the set lists, although it did not share the new album's romantic pop style. Of the other Working on a Dream songs, a couple were never attempted in private rehearsal; some others were rehearsed privately but not publicly; "This Life" and "Surprise Surprise" did not survive past the first Asbury Park rehearsal show; "Good Eye" did not survive past the first proper show; and "My Lucky Day" was played in the first three shows before being dropped. The disappearance of "This Life" and "My Lucky Day" were especially notable, given the former had an elaborate, extended multi-part Beach Boys-style "Ba ba ba" outro section featuring King and Mizelle in its one rehearsal performance, and that the latter was the album's second single. Nor was the prior album, Magic, given any due, with only "Radio Nowhere" included. Set lists relied mostly upon Springsteen material up through Born in the U.S.A. (1984), The Rising (2002), and a few scattered selections from other periods. Commenting on the paucity of new material, The Atlanta Journal-Constitution suggested that the whole production would more accurately be named the Havin’ a Blast Tour. The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette said that "The strange thing ... is that the 'Working on a Dream' tour no longer seems to be about 'Working on a Dream'" and suggested that the album was unpopular among many fans and as a result, "Springsteen, always the savvy showman, has chosen not to shove it down anyone's throat." Springsteen fans instantly discussed and analyzed setlists as shows happened on the Backstreets.com BTX website, associated with which Twitter and other sources were used to post, or in some cases crudely broadcast, shows as they happened. E Street bassist Garry Tallent and guitarist Nils Lofgren found themselves amused that fans had complained on the previous Magic Tour of too much new material being played, and were now complaining of too little. Guitarist Steve Van Zandt said that the Working on a Dream songs that were played were "big" songs, so that made up for their lack of number. One theme that was apparent in the show was the ongoing late-2000s recession. The early part of shows contained a "recession pack" consisting of "Seeds" (brought back from the 1980s), "Johnny 99" (elongated with incongruous train "woo-whoo's"), and either "Youngstown" or "The Ghost of Tom Joad" (both featuring fiery guitar solos from Nils Lofgren). Encores began with a rendition of Stephen Foster's 1850s classic "Hard Times Come Again No More" – which provided one of the few featured spots for King and Mizelle, who otherwise played a lot of tambourine – and later included both of Springsteen's reunion-era encore epics of American struggle, survival and hope, "Land of Hope and Dreams" and "American Land". Van Zandt said that the emergence of the recession theme was in part why the concerts did not showcase the Working on a Dream album. However, one regular moment of optimism was the playing of "Waitin' on a Sunny Day" from The Rising, with Springsteen holding a microphone down to one or more young children in the front of the pit area to sing along to the chorus. One holdover from the latter stages of the Magic Tour was the "Build Me a House" stage rap, now located in "Working on a Dream". Springsteen would say: "We're not just here to rock the house tonight. We're going to build a house.... We're going to use the good news and we're going to use the bad news. We've got all the news we need – on this stage and in those seats." An even more visible holdover was the 'signs' segment. This would begin when Springsteen collected request signs from the pit audience as an extended introduction to "Raise Your Hand" was played. Once that song completed, Springsteen selected two or three numbers to play from the requests. The first was often a garage rock classic such as "Wild Thing", "96 Tears", or "Mony Mony" or a punk rock staple such as "I Wanna Be Sedated" or "London Calling". This activity was billed as "Stump the Band", and led to impromptu arrangements being worked out onstage. Springsteen would sometimes taunt the audience afterwards with declarations that the E Street Band could not be stumped, such as saying in Atlanta's Philips Arena, "...this is the greatest bar band in the land, and if they don't think we know 96 fuckin' Tears!" The immediate introduction of the signs segment surprised even E Street guitarist Nils Lofgren, who thought Springsteen would hold it off until later in the tour. The precise degree of challenge in this segment was unclear, as lyrics were often loaded into the teleprompter that Springsteen uses and in some cases the songs had been soundchecked earlier. In any case, most of the challenges were to the band's shared knowledge of British Invasion, Motown, Stax-Volt, and other 1960s material. Springsteen subsequently said, "we started to take unusual requests and do songs that we'd never played before, just depending on the common memory that the band would have from everyone's individual playing experience as teenagers. We ended up with a system where we can jump on a lot pretty quick." Other honored sign requests were usually for Springsteen songs not normally in the set list. Show lengths were generally between 2 hours 30 minutes to 2 hours 45 minutes. Springsteen scheduled his two Philadelphia shows at the soon-to-be-demolished Spectrum, commenting that "They don't make arenas like this anymore" and stating that the smaller size and lack of luxury boxes made the old venue "ideal for rock shows." The Spectrum had seen Springsteen's first headlining arena show in 1976 during the Born to Run tours, and now he said they would "fulfill our solemn vow to rock the Spectrum one more time." Accordingly, the band played local act The Dovells' 1963 hit "You Can't Sit Down" among other Philadelphia-related selections. Springsteen voiced similar sentiments about the old-but-still-going Nassau Coliseum, and selected The Soul Survivors' 1967 hit "Expressway to Your Heart" as a tribute to the nearby Long Island Expressway. Jay Weinberg appeared at a number of shows on the first, North American leg, drumming on anywhere from four songs to half the show. He had been a fan of heavy metal music for much of his life, and in playing with Springsteen he integrated a polyrhythmic approach influenced by metal bands such as Lamb of God, Mastodon and Slipknot with the E Street drumming style derived from big bands and early rock and roll. He received a very positive reaction from both audiences and reviewers as a spark plug for the band, with his vigorous, long-hair-flying style inviting comparisons to Dave Grohl and his potential for replacing his father drawing allusions to Wally Pipp. Chicago Tribune critic Greg Kot wrote, "All hail Jay Weinberg. ... With [him drumming] the band's chemistry was slightly unsettled for the better. ... His fills during 'Radio Nowhere' kicked the song, and the concert, into a higher gear, and galvanized a band that was starting to pace itself." Jay Weinberg said "it's a summer job that anybody would want," while Max Weinberg said Jay's segments allowed him a "total out-of-body experience. For the first time in – I've been with Bruce for 35 years – I've been able to go out in the audience and enjoy a Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band concert." Jay Weinberg played his first full show on May 14 at the Times Union Center in Albany, New York, as Max Weinberg was in California to prepare test runs for The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien start. Springsteen said of the occasion, "This is the first night in 35 years that somebody else sat at the drums." Overall, Modern Drummer magazine's editor said that a college freshman playing on one of the year's biggest rock tours was "certainly a unique story". For the final Meadowlands Arena shows of the first leg, Jay Weinberg did the first but his father took a red-eye flight back from Los Angeles to do the second. ### Western European second leg Once the show moved into its European second leg, more Working on a Dream songs began to sporadically appear, with "My Lucky Day" becoming a regular for a while and "Queen of the Supermarket" getting its first airing anywhere. For Scandinavian shows, as band members walked on stage, Lofgren opened with solo accordion performances of local summer-themed specialties, "Idas Sommarvisa" in Sweden and "Du skal ikkje sova bort sumarnatta" in Norway. Jay Weinberg did the first seven shows, as his father was now beginning The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien. Springsteen and the band returned to the United States to make their first-ever appearance at the Bonnaroo Music Festival, as the headlining act on June 13, 2009. Playing before festival audiences who were not guaranteed to be fans of his music was largely new to Springsteen, but after a slow start the show captured over most of the Bonnaroo audience. The following night, Springsteen joined the recently reunited and headlining Phish for three songs, "Mustang Sally", "Bobby Jean" and "Glory Days". Phish guitarist Trey Anastasio said later, "I got to play with Bruce. That's my hero." The Bonnaroo performance of "Outlaw Pete" was included on a Fuse TV show of festival highlights, and the performance of "Tenth Avenue Freeze-Out" included a bit with Triumph the Insult Comic Dog singing along that was included on a Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien segment. Springsteen subsequently reflected, "We played festivals for the very first time on this tour, and that was one of the greatest experiences of all of them. That was an eye-opener. When we played Glastonbury [...] you come out and there's like 100,000 kids in their 20s and under. It was fun playing on bills with other bands, and it's something I'd do again in the future."

On June 25, Max Weinberg departed The Tonight Show temporarily for four weeks to join the band for the resumption of its Western European leg, via a comedy bit that had his drum riser turn into a float that took him outside and studio and purportedly to the airport. During this stretch, Jay Weinberg did not appear during any of the shows until reappearing during the Spanish shows at the end of the leg. While Springsteen's wife Scialfa was nowhere to be seen in Europe, their son Evan appeared and played guitar during encores of a number of shows, while Clarence Clemons' nephew Jake also made playing appearances and Springsteen's mother and aunt also took the stage. He also was the headliner of the Festival des Vieilles Charrues in Brittany, France in July, his only tour stop in France. His son Evan participated in the concert, playing guitar. Lofgren continued to open shows, playing national songs on accordion. Set lists further loosened, with many tour premieres showing up in request slots or elsewhere and shows sometimes running to 30 songs in length. After a while, the encore break was disposed with and the show ran continuously to the end without the band ever leaving the stage. Springsteen ran past local curfews at both Dublin shows and at Glastonbury. The Dublin violations resulted in a potential €50,000 fine, but Springsteen mocked the prospect by on-staging a bit: "We have to go, we have a curfew!" with Van Zandt replying, "We don't care about the curfew, this is the curfew breaking Boss and E Street Band!" "American Skin (41 Shots)" made unexpected appearances in Dublin and at several stops in Italy, while "My City of Ruins" was played at Stadio Olimpico in Rome in honor of the victims of the 2009 L'Aquila earthquake. The Western European leg ended with five shows in Spain, at more out-of-the-way locations than in the past. The last of these shows, at the Auditorio Monte do Gozo in Santiago de Compostela, was marred by disorganized security and overbooking by the promoter, leaving some of the approximately 40,000 ticket holders unable to get in. (Dozens of complaints against the promoter were filed to police, city, and consumer authorities the following day.) In any event, the band played "Rockin' All Over the World" and concluded its encore with "Born in the U.S.A." after 1 a.m. local time (the Spanish shows did not begin until 10 p.m.). Max Weinberg immediately flew back to Los Angeles and resumed his role on The Tonight Show later that same day. ### U.S. third leg The American third leg began in mid-August with shows at outdoor amphitheaters as well as indoor arenas. Shows were often scheduled for weekends, to allow Max Weinberg to play without missing any Tonight Show time; Jay Weinberg played those shows held during the week. Then on September 25, Max Weinberg took a two-month absence from the television show, to join Springsteen for the final portion of the leg. Ticket sales were slower than normal on this leg, partly due to Ticketmaster's new "paperless ticketing" system that may have come into effect due to the earlier problems with Springsteen sales. In arenas that did not sell well, management relocated the people who bought tickets behind the stage to other sections and put up the screen used for stadium and amphitheater shows behind the stage. In a hint to fans to buy up, Van Zandt said, "You never know. This could be the last tour. We do every show like it's our last show anyway." In any case, by September 2009 the tour had sold over two million tickets overall. Even some shows in Philadelphia, long a Springsteen bastion, were not sold out. During the U.S. third leg, it was reported that Born to Run would be featured in its entirety during several shows, possibly in a scheme to boost ticket sales. The full-album idea took fruition with the late September-early October set of five shows at Giants Stadium, which would be the final concerts ever in that venue in Springsteen's home state. Born to Run was played at two shows, Darkness on the Edge of Town at one show, and Born in the U.S.A. at two shows. Springsteen later said of the full album idea, "We had done so many shows and were going to come back around one more time, so we were like, 'OK, what can we do that we haven't done? Let's try to play some of the albums.' There were some people who were starting to do it, it sounded like a good idea, and my audience fundamentally experienced all my music in album form. People took Born to Run home and played it start to finish 100 times; they didn't slip on a cut in the middle. And we made albums – we took a long time, and we built them to last. ... Those records are packed with songs that have lasted 30–35 years. It simply was a way to revitalize the show and do something appealing and fun for the fans, but it ended up being a much bigger emotional experience than I thought it would be." The Giants Stadium shows were opened with a new Springsteen song written for the occasion, "Wrecking Ball", written from the point of view of the stadium itself: "I was raised out of steel here in the swamps of Jersey, some misty years ago ..." The stand featured several other new touches as well, including Springsteen crowd surfing during "Hungry Heart", evocative behind-the-stage upper-level lighting during "The Rising", and fireworks at the "E! Street! Band!" conclusion of "American Land". The final show, which drew nearly 60,000 people, concluded with the second playing on the stand of "Jersey Girl", dedicated to "all the crew and staff that's worked all these years at Giants Stadium." The full album versions continued, as well as a localized rendition of "Wrecking Ball", at Springsteen's four shows to close out the Philadelphia Spectrum as well; some 43 different songs were playing during the stand. Apart from the album playings, Springsteen kept setlists flexible during the third leg; sign requests continued, as in Springsteen's words they allowed "the fans to have input into the show in a way that just pumps the blood into everything and enlivens the evening." Born to Run remained the standard full album choice for the rest of the tour, but the two shows at New York's Madison Square Garden saw The Wild, the Innocent & the E Street Shuffle and The River, with the latter's 20-song length dominating the setlist. Springsteen felt The River show succeeded, saying "I sequenced [the album] to feel like a live show, so you have four fast songs and a couple of ballads. It played real well when we went to play it." Springsteen's show on November 13, 2009, at the Palace of Auburn Hills outside Detroit, Michigan, became well known for Springsteen's multiple statements to the crowd about being in Ohio, the first as he came on, the second during the lyric to "Wrecking Ball", and the third in the "Build me a house" rap during "Working on a Dream". (The band had played in Cleveland, Ohio, three nights earlier.) By now getting some boos from the crowd, guitarist Van Zandt, who had hoped Springsteen would stop making the mistake on his own, finally went over to Springsteen and corrected him: "‘You don’t realize it, but you’re saying Ohio and we’re in Michigan.’ He was like ‘What!?’" Springsteen then told the crowd that he had committed "every front man's nightmare," and made a show of saying "Michigan" from then on. The Spinal Tap-esque blunder attracted worldwide television and print publicity. (The show subsequently featured a rare performance of Bob Seger's "Ramblin' Gamblin' Man", appealing to Seger's fan base in Detroit.) Springsteen made joking references to being in Ohio, or made exaggerated statements as to being in the correct state, in subsequent shows. During the final stretch of the tour, the final encores of many shows presented a long, rousing, ebullient rendition of Jackie Wilson's classic "(Your Love Keeps Lifting Me) Higher and Higher". Showcasing featured vocals from Cindy Mizelle or Curtis King Jr. and trumpet solos from Curt Ramm, the song stretched to eight minutes with key changes, reprises, and walks through the pit area by Springsteen and the singers, and became recognized as one of the highpoints of the entire tour. Springsteen dispelled any notion of this being the final E Street Band show or the last for a long time; in an interview near the end of the tour he said, "We're playing to an audience now that will outlive us. But at the same time the band is very, very powerful right now. And part of the reason it's powerful is that it's carrying a lot of very strong cumulative history. You come and you see 35 years of a speeding train going down the track, and you're gonna get to be on the front end of it. We look forward to many, many more years of touring and playing and enjoying it." The tour concluded with the November 22, 2009, show at HSBC Arena in Buffalo, New York. Fans came from far away and the show dominated the feel of the city that day. The full album played was Springsteen's first, Greetings from Asbury Park, N.J., which he wryly said "was the miracle. This was the record that took everything from way below zero to ... one." The performance of it was dedicated to his first manager and producer, Mike Appel, who was present in the audience, and featured quite rare renditions of "Mary Queen of Arkansas" and (the first ever with the E Street Band) "The Angel". Other rarities peppered the 34-song, nearly 31⁄2-hour night, including Chuck Willis's "(I Don't Want to) Hang Up My Rock and Roll Shoes" and, to mark Steven Van Zandt's birthday, totally obscure outtake "Restless Nights" (supposedly Van Zandt's favorite Springsteen song) and a now-unusual second song from the current album, "Surprise Surprise". Near the end he said, "So we're gonna say goodbye, but just for a little while ... a very little while ..." The tour finished not with the emotional statement in song that some other Springsteen tours have in the 2000s, but instead with John Fogerty's "Rockin' All Over the World". ## Critical and commercial reception Newspaper reviews of the show often commented on the high level of energy and stamina the nearly 60-year-old Springsteen brought to the concerts. The Atlanta Journal-Constitution and the Chicago Tribune favorably compared Springsteen to the rest of the band in this regard, saying "Some of the guys in the band look their age" and "they lack the physicality, the sustained urgency of their prime." The Philadelphia Inquirer and the San Jose Mercury News both commented on the fundamental problem that Springsteen seemed to be facing on the tour. The former said "Bruce Springsteen may well have miscalculated earlier this year when he released Working on a Dream, one of the most hopeful and downright happy sounding albums of his career just as a cratering economy was rendering the songs of struggle and strife that are his stock in trade more resonant than they have sounded in years." The latter said, "As Don Rumsfeld might say, you don't go on tour with the album you wish you had, you go on tour with the album you've got. So Springsteen faces the tough task of hyping a new romantic pop record while simultaneously offering hope and support to a wounded nation – not an easy task." Rolling Stone voiced a similar theory. Chicago Tribune critic Greg Kot wrote that "If there was a disappointment, it was that Springsteen didn’t make a stronger case for his latest album, Working on a Dream. I’m not a fan of the album, but I always look forward to how the singer reinvents his studio work on the stage. In this case, however, he barely touched the new material ..." Views on one, the early-in-show, eight-minute "Outlaw Pete" – one of the few new material centerpieces – varied considerably. The San Jose Mercury News and the Connecticut Post both gave the show a mixed review, with the former saying it was "decidedly subpar" and latter saying "the concert itself wasn't as captivating as past visits to the state." The Atlanta Journal-Constitution and The Philadelphia Inquirer were unreserved in their praise, with the former saying Springsteen "deliver[ed] a show that proves boomer-oriented rock 'n' roll can still tear it up" and the latter saying Springsteen adapted to circumstances "with an altered game plan that wisely plays to his strengths". The Greensboro, North Carolina News & Record said that "Springsteen and the E Street Band were received like conquering heroes during an exhilarating three-hour show that repeatedly drove the adoring, near-sellout crowd into fist-thrusting, sing-along frenzies." The Globe and Mail said of the tour's sole Canadian show, "an evening with Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band still ranks as the epitome of the rock concert experience." Rolling Stone said of the first leg's concluding New Jersey shows, "Springsteen tours don’t usually hit highs like this until the end, but the band has essentially been on the road since September 2007." Of the European shows, critical reaction was generally quite favorable. The Irish Times said Springsteen showing no signs of age as he neared his 60th birthday, despite taking a spill during his stage antics in rainy Dublin, and remarked upon how "a set that features so many songs about the toughness of life ... can be delivered with such extraordinary verve that by the time you leave, you’re very glad to be alive." The Independent echoed the sentiment in reviewing the Hyde Park show, writing that he showed "the vigour of a frontman a third of his age" and that "Springsteen's intensity was staggering from first powerful vocal to final thrashed-out chord." The Bath Chronicle saluted Springsteen's performance at Glastonbury, saying "As all the tickets were sold before Springsteen was even confirmed on the bill, he must have known he was facing something very rare for him – the musical equivalent of a sporting 'away match' where not everyone was necessarily a worshipper at the altar of Bruce." They concluded that Springsteen gave "a performance of passion, exuberance, exhilaration and musical majesty" while sticking with his standard tour set list and not resorting to playing many of his better-known hits. Of the final Giants Stadium stand, the New York Daily News said that "Wrecking Ball" was "a rousing declaration of defiance in the face of destruction", and overall said that "Once again, this proved [Springsteen] to be one of the few performers charismatic enough, and anthemic enough, to use the stadium scale to his advantage." Entertainment Weekly called "Wrecking Ball" "an inspiring start to another of the marathon three-hour shows Springsteen still manages to put on night after night." The New York Times said of the full performance of Born in the U.S.A. that "Springsteen sang with deeper nuance ... the songs have not faded." Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune said that while during the first leg of the tour the band had "appeared to be running on fumes", the Born to Run album performance was "easily the best Springsteen show with the E Streeters I'd seen since the '80s." Looking back on the tour as a whole, and in combination with the preceding Magic Tour, Billboard magazine cover story stated that "Even for an artist who has largely built his career on epic shows, Springsteen and the E Streeters have managed to find yet another gear at this stage in their legendary career." Springsteen himself said, "With the end of these shows, we're coming to the end of a decade-long project that really was a tremendous renewal of the power, the strength and the service that our band hopefully provides." Springsteen also touted the quality of the shows: "I believe if you come and see us now you're seeing the best E Street Band that's ever played." Specific shows from the tour were named as among the best concerts of 2009 by Spin magazine, The Philadelphia Inquirer, the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, and the Chicago Tribune. Springsteen himself remained quite interested in his and the band's commercial fortunes. He said before the tour's start that remaining popular had been one of his motivations for the Super Bowl appearance: "I've said no for about 10 years or however long they've been asking, but, I tell you, we played on the last tour and there were some empty seats here and there and, well, there shouldn't be any empty seats at an E Street Band show. I hold pride that we remain one of the great wonders of the world ... so sometimes you got to remind people a little bit." Through September 2009, the Working on a Dream Tour was in the top five in grosses of 2009 tours worldwide, alongside the U2 360° Tour, Coldplay's Viva la Vida Tour, and AC/DC's Black Ice World Tour. For all of 2009, the Working on a Dream Tour was the third-highest-grossing tour, trailing only U2 360° and Madonna's Sticky & Sweet Tour. It grossed over \$156 million, was seen by over 1.7 million ticket holders, and sold out 42 of 72 non-festival shows. Unlike the past Magic and Devils & Dust Tours, the Working on a Dream Tour failed to win any Billboard Touring Awards. The tour completed a busy ten years on the road for Springsteen, who ranked fourth among pop artists for the decade in terms of total touring grosses. ## Broadcasts and recordings Several of the tour's festival appearances aired on television or radio during 2009. One song's worth of the June 13 Bonnaroo Music Festival appearance, "Outlaw Pete", made it into a U.S. packaged broadcast of festival highlights for television, "The Best of Bonnaroo 2009", that appeared on Fuse TV on June 20. The performance of that song subsequently appeared on a Live From Bonnaroo 2009 DVD. Portions of the June 27 Glastonbury Festival performance were aired live on BBC Two television and BBC 6 Music radio. A number of fans complained that the full set had not been shown by the BBC, which in turn said the set had been too long to broadcast in its entirety. Televised highlights were later shown on BBC Four and BBC HD. In conjunction with the Fourth of July holiday in the United States, E Street Radio featured 45 minutes from the July 3 Frankfurt Commerzbank Arena show. In the United States, the Hard Rock Calling Hyde Park appearance was included in an August 21 broadcast on the VH1, VH1 Classic and Palladia cable channels; seven Springsteen and E Street Band performances, including "London Calling" to open the program, were included in amongst other artists' performances. Several shows were filmed, but at the tour's conclusion no decisions had been made about whether to release them on DVD or other media. In June 2010, London Calling: Live in Hyde Park was released: a 163-minute, near-complete Blu-ray/DVD accounting of the named show. Several shows were released as part of the Bruce Springsteen Archives: - HSBC Arena, Buffalo, NY, 11/22/09, released December 23, 2016 - Wachovia Spectrum, Philadelphia, PA 10/20/09, released July 13, 2017 - MSG Nov 08, 2009, released June 1, 2018 - Nassau Coliseum, 05/04/09, released February 7, 2020 - ‘’MSG November 7, 2009”, released December 24, 2020. - ’’Cleveland November 10, 2009”, released March 4, 2022. ## Shows ## Cancelled shows ## Personnel The E Street Band - Bruce Springsteen – lead vocals, lead guitar, rhythm guitar, acoustic guitar, harmonica - Roy Bittan – piano, synthesizer, accordion - Clarence Clemons – tenor saxophone, baritone saxophone, percussion, pennywhistle, piccolo, harmonica, whistling, background vocals - Nils Lofgren – rhythm guitar, lead guitar, pedal steel guitar, acoustic guitar, accordion, background vocals - Patti Scialfa – background vocals, some duet vocals, acoustic guitar, occasional tambourine - Garry Tallent – bass guitar, rare background vocals, rare tuba - Steven Van Zandt – rhythm guitar, lead guitar, mandolin, acoustic guitar, background vocals, occasional featured lead vocal - Max Weinberg – drums, rare tambourine - Charles Giordano – organ, accordion, electronic glockenspiel, rare piano, occasional background vocals - Soozie Tyrell – violin, acoustic guitar, percussion, background vocals - Jay Weinberg – drums - Curtis King Jr. – background vocals and tambourine - Cindy Mizelle – background vocals and tambourine - Curt Ramm – trumpet Scialfa missed some shows on the first leg due to injuries received from falling off her horse, then due to family responsibilities, and was absent from all the shows on the European leg. She continued to miss all but a handful of shows during the U.S. third leg, including only making it to two of the five final Giants Stadium performances. As on the Magic Tour, Tyrell assumed a more prominent role when Scialfa was absent. (Despite consistently having highly visible profiles during shows, Giordano and Tyrell have not been considered full-fledged E Street Band members in official Springsteen material.) Clemons continued to have a diminished physical role on stage due to his multiple physical problems, and was scheduled for spine surgery once the tour concluded with a 12-month recovery period. (As it happened, Clemons never played with the E Street Band again, suffering a fatal stroke in June 2011.) Jay Weinberg substituted for Max Weinberg on a number of dates, and the two alternated for portions of the show on a number of other dates. Ramm, a veteran of the Sessions Band Tour, played on several songs per show during much of the U.S. third leg. ## See also - List of highest-grossing concert tours

Unit fraction

One over a whole number

A unit fraction is a positive fraction with one as its numerator, 1/n. It is the multiplicative inverse (reciprocal) of the denominator of the fraction, which must be a positive natural number. Examples are 1/1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, etc. When an object is divided into equal parts, each part is a unit fraction of the whole. Multiplying two unit fractions produces another unit fraction, but other arithmetic operations do not preserve unit fractions. In modular arithmetic, unit fractions can be converted into equivalent whole numbers, allowing modular division to be transformed into multiplication. Every rational number can be represented as a sum of distinct unit fractions; these representations are called Egyptian fractions based on their use in ancient Egyptian mathematics. Many infinite sums of unit fractions are meaningful mathematically. In geometry, unit fractions can be used to characterize the curvature of triangle groups and the tangencies of Ford circles. Unit fractions are commonly used in fair division, and this familiar application is used in mathematics education as an early step toward the understanding of other fractions. Unit fractions are common in probability theory due to the principle of indifference. They also have applications in combinatorial optimization and in analyzing the pattern of frequencies in the hydrogen spectral series. ## Arithmetic The unit fractions are the rational numbers that can be written in the form $\frac1n,$ where $n$ can be any positive natural number. They are thus the multiplicative inverses of the positive integers. When something is divided into $n$ equal parts, each part is a $1/n$ fraction of the whole. ### Elementary arithmetic Multiplying any two unit fractions results in a product that is another unit fraction: $\frac1x \times \frac1y = \frac1{xy}.$ However, adding, subtracting, or dividing two unit fractions produces a result that is generally not a unit fraction: $\frac1x + \frac1y = \frac{x+y}{xy}$ $\frac1x - \frac1y = \frac{y-x}{xy}$ $\frac1x \div \frac1y = \frac{y}{x}.$ As the last of these formulas shows, every fraction can be expressed as a quotient of two unit fractions. ### Modular arithmetic In modular arithmetic, any unit fraction can be converted into an equivalent whole number using the extended Euclidean algorithm. This conversion can be used to perform modular division: dividing by a number $x$, modulo $y$, can be performed by converting the unit fraction $1/x$ into an equivalent whole number modulo $y$, and then multiplying by that number. In more detail, suppose that $x$ is relatively prime to $y$ (otherwise, division by $x$ is not defined modulo $y$). The extended Euclidean algorithm for the greatest common divisor can be used to find integers $a$ and $b$ such that Bézout's identity is satisfied: $\displaystyle ax + by = \gcd(x,y)=1.$ In modulo-$y$ arithmetic, the term $by$ can be eliminated as it is zero modulo $y$. This leaves $\displaystyle ax \equiv 1 \pmod y.$ That is, $a$ is the modular inverse of $x$, the number that when multiplied by $x$ produces one. Equivalently, $a \equiv \frac1x \pmod y.$ Thus division by $x$ (modulo $y$) can instead be performed by multiplying by the integer $a$. ## Combinations Several constructions in mathematics involve combining multiple unit fractions together, often by adding them. ### Finite sums Any positive rational number can be written as the sum of distinct unit fractions, in multiple ways. For example, $\frac45=\frac12+\frac14+\frac1{20}=\frac13+\frac15+\frac16+\frac1{10}.$ These sums are called Egyptian fractions, because the ancient Egyptian civilisations used them as notation for more general rational numbers. There is still interest today in analyzing the methods used by the ancients to choose among the possible representations for a fractional number, and to calculate with such representations. The topic of Egyptian fractions has also seen interest in modern number theory; for instance, the Erdős–Graham conjecture and the Erdős–Straus conjecture concern sums of unit fractions, as does the definition of Ore's harmonic numbers. In geometric group theory, triangle groups are classified into Euclidean, spherical, and hyperbolic cases according to whether an associated sum of unit fractions is equal to one, greater than one, or less than one respectively. ### Infinite series Many well-known infinite series have terms that are unit fractions. These include:

- The harmonic series, the sum of all positive unit fractions. This sum diverges, and its partial sums $\frac11 + \frac12 + \frac13 + \cdots + \frac1n$ closely approximate the natural logarithm of $n$ plus the Euler–Mascheroni constant. Changing every other addition to a subtraction produces the alternating harmonic series, which sums to the natural logarithm of 2: $\sum_{n = 1}^\infty \frac{(-1)^{n + 1}}{n} = 1 - \frac{1}{2} + \frac{1}{3} - \frac{1}{4} + \frac{1}{5} - \cdots = \ln 2.$ - The Leibniz formula for π is $1 - \frac{1}{3} + \frac{1}{5} - \frac{1}{7} + \frac{1}{9} - \cdots = \frac{\pi}{4}.$ - The Basel problem concerns the sum of the square unit fractions: $1 + \frac14 + \frac19 + \frac1{16} + \cdots = \frac{\pi^2}{6}.$ Similarly, Apéry's constant is an irrational number, the sum of the cubed unit fractions. - The binary geometric series is $1 + \frac12 + \frac14 + \frac18 + \frac1{16} + \cdots = 2.$ ### Matrices A Hilbert matrix is a square matrix in which the elements on the $i$th antidiagonal all equal the unit fraction $1/i$. That is, it has elements $B_{i,j} = \frac1{i+j-1}.$ For example, the matrix $\begin{bmatrix} 1 & \frac{1}{2} & \frac{1}{3} \\ \frac{1}{2} & \frac{1}{3} & \frac{1}{4} \\ \frac{1}{3} & \frac{1}{4} & \frac{1}{5} \end{bmatrix}$ is a Hilbert matrix. It has the unusual property that all elements in its inverse matrix are integers. Similarly, defined a matrix whose elements are unit fractions whose denominators are Fibonacci numbers: $C_{i,j} = \frac1{F_{i+j-1}},$ where $F_i$ denotes the $i$th Fibonacci number. He calls this matrix the Filbert matrix and it has the same property of having an integer inverse. ### Adjacency and Ford circles Two fractions $a/b$ and $c/d$ (in lowest terms) are called adjacent if $ad-bc=\pm1,$ which implies that they differ from each other by a unit fraction: $\left|\frac{1}{a}-\frac{1}{b}\right|=\frac{|ad-bc|}{bd}=\frac{1}{bd}.$ For instance, $\tfrac12$ and $\tfrac35$ are adjacent: $1\cdot 5-2\cdot 3=-1$ and $\tfrac35-\tfrac12=\tfrac1{10}$. However, some pairs of fractions whose difference is a unit fraction are not adjacent in this sense: for instance, $\tfrac13$ and $\tfrac23$ differ by a unit fraction, but are not adjacent, because for them $ad-bc=3$. This terminology comes from the study of Ford circles. These are a system of circles that are tangent to the number line at a given fraction and have the squared denominator of the fraction as their diameter. Fractions $a/b$ and $c/d$ are adjacent if and only if their Ford circles are tangent circles. ## Applications ### Fair division and mathematics education In mathematics education, unit fractions are often introduced earlier than other kinds of fractions, because of the ease of explaining them visually as equal parts of a whole. A common practical use of unit fractions is to divide food equally among a number of people, and exercises in performing this sort of fair division are a standard classroom example in teaching students to work with unit fractions. ### Probability and statistics In a uniform distribution on a discrete space, all probabilities are equal unit fractions. Due to the principle of indifference, probabilities of this form arise frequently in statistical calculations. Unequal probabilities related to unit fractions arise in Zipf's law. This states that, for many observed phenomena involving the selection of items from an ordered sequence, the probability that the $n$th item is selected is proportional to the unit fraction $1/n$. ### Combinatorial optimization In the study of combinatorial optimization problems, bin packing problems involve an input sequence of items with fractional sizes, which must be placed into bins whose capacity (the total size of items placed into each bin) is one. Research into these problems has included the study of restricted bin packing problems where the item sizes are unit fractions. One motivation for this is as a test case for more general bin packing methods. Another involves a form of pinwheel scheduling, in which a collection of messages of equal length must each be repeatedly broadcast on a limited number of communication channels, with each message having a maximum delay between the start times of its repeated broadcasts. An item whose delay is $k$ times the length of a message must occupy a fraction of at least $1/k$ of the time slots on the channel it is assigned to, so a solution to the scheduling problem can only come from a solution to the unit fraction bin packing problem with the channels as bins and the fractions $1/k$ as item sizes. Even for bin packing problems with arbitrary item sizes, it can be helpful to round each item size up to the next larger unit fraction, and then apply a bin packing algorithm specialized for unit fraction sizes. In particular, the harmonic bin packing method does exactly this, and then packs each bin using items of only a single rounded unit fraction size. ### Physics The energy levels of photons that can be absorbed or emitted by a hydrogen atom are, according to the Rydberg formula, proportional to the differences of two unit fractions. An explanation for this phenomenon is provided by the Bohr model, according to which the energy levels of electron orbitals in a hydrogen atom are inversely proportional to square unit fractions, and the energy of a photon is quantized to the difference between two levels. Arthur Eddington argued that the fine-structure constant was a unit fraction. He initially thought it to be 1/136 and later changed his theory to 1/137. This contention has been falsified, given that current estimates of the fine structure constant are (to 6 significant digits) 1/137.036. ## See also - 17-animal inheritance puzzle, a puzzle involving fair division into unit fractions - Submultiple, a number that produces a unit fraction when used as the numerator with a given denominator - Superparticular ratio, one plus a unit fraction, important in musical harmony

Elmer Stricklett

American baseball player (1876–1964)

Elmer Griffin Stricklett (August 29, 1876 – June 7, 1964) was an American professional baseball pitcher. He pitched in Major League Baseball for the Chicago White Sox and Brooklyn Superbas from 1904 through 1907. Including his time in minor league baseball, Stricklett pitched professionally from 1897 through 1912. Stricklett is considered one of the pioneers of the spitball. He learned the pitch while playing in the minor leagues. He later taught the spitball to Ed Walsh and Jack Chesbro, both of whom were elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame. ## Career Stricklett attended Santa Clara University, where he played college baseball for the Santa Clara Broncos baseball team. He began his professional career in minor league baseball with the Topeka Colts of the Kansas State League in 1897. In 1898, he pitched for the Salina Blues and Atchison Huskers of the Kansas State League, before joining the Dallas Colts of the Class-C Texas League later that year. He pitched for the Rock Island-Moline Islanders of the Class-B Western Association and Kansas City Blues of the Class-A Western League in 1899. Despite pitching to a 14–1 win–loss record in 1899, Kansas City released Stricklett to the Wheeling Stogies of the Class-B Interstate League in 1900. Stricklett split the 1900 season with Wheeling and the Toledo Mud Hens, also of the Interstate League, pitching to a 13-8 record. In 1901, Stricklett pitched for the Toledo Swamp Angels of the Western Association and Sacramento Senators of the California League, compiling a 27-22 record. In 1902, he pitched for the Newark Sailors of the Class-A Eastern League and the Sacramento Gilt Edges of the California League, finishing the season with a 23-22 record. While pitching for Sacramento, Stricklett mastered the spitball. In 1903, Stricklett pitched for Los Angeles and the Seattle Chinooks of the Pacific National League, going 24-8. The Chicago White Sox of the American League (AL) invited Stricklett to spring training in 1904, where he roomed with Ed Walsh. Stricklett taught Walsh the spitball. After pitching in one game for the White Sox, allowing eight earned runs in seven IP, he received his release, and pitched for the Milwaukee Brewers of the Class-A American Association for the remainder of the season, where he pitched to a 24-11 record in 267 innings pitched (IP). The Boston Americans of the AL purchased the rights to Stricklett in August 1904, but allowed him to remain in Milwaukee. The Brooklyn Superbas of the National League (NL) chose Stricklett from Milwaukee after the 1904 season in the Rule 5 draft. He debuted with the Superbas in the 1905 season, pitching to a 9–18 record and a 3.34 earned run average (ERA) in 237+1⁄3 IP. His 18 losses were ninth most in the league. Among NL pitchers, only Stricklett and Deacon Phillippe allowed no home runs that season. In 1906, Stricklett went 14–18 with a 2.72 ERA in 291+2⁄3 IP, the ninth most losses and IP in the NL that season. He appeared in 41 games, tied for fifth in the NL with Vic Willis and Jake Weimer, and his 28 complete games and five shutouts were both tied for tenth most in the NL. However, he also allowed 88 earned runs, sixth most in the league. Stricklett pitched on Opening Day for the Superbas in 1907, a game the Superbas lost. That year, Stricklett had a 12–14 record and a 2.27 ERA in 229+2⁄3 IP. His 25 complete games were eighth best in the NL, while his four shutouts tied for tenth. In four MLB seasons, Stricklett went 35–51 with a 2.84 ERA and 10 shutouts. After the 1907 season, Stricklett returned to the California League to pitch for the San Jose Prune Prickers and Sacramento Sacts, and refused to report to Brooklyn in 1908 as his wife wanted him to remain closer to their California home. As the California League was not recognized in organized baseball at this time, Stricklett was banned by MLB for four years. Though he applied for reinstatement, his banishment was upheld. Stricklett continued to pitch for San Jose through 1910, pitching to a 23-12 record in 1909 and a 19-14 record in 1910.

After the 1910 season, Stricklett he retired from baseball. However, he applied for reinstatement in 1912, which was granted by the National Baseball Commission. Stricklett was fined \$100 (\$ in current dollar terms) for playing outside organized baseball for the previous three years. The Superbas sold his rights to the Binghamton Bingoes of the New York State League, and he pitched for the team. In minor league baseball, Stricklett won 20 games in a season at least five times, compiling a 169-99 record across nine seasons. ### Spitball Stricklett denied inventing the spitball, though he claimed to be the first pitcher to master the spitball and to feature it exclusively. To achieve the pitch, he would moisten the ball with a spot the size of two of his fingers. The pitch would act "exactly the same way as reverse English does on a billiard ball". Stricklett learned the spitball from minor league teammate George Hildebrand in 1902, who learned about it from Frank Corridon. Stricklett played an important role in popularizing the spitball. Stricklett taught the spitball to Jack Chesbro, who saw him use the pitch while pitching in minor league baseball. Though Chesbro had experimented with the pitch in the minor leagues, Stricklett showed him how to master it in 1904. Stricklett taught it to Ed Walsh while they roomed together with the White Sox. ## Later life Stricklett retired to Mountain View, California, where he grew apricots on a ranch. He died in Santa Cruz, California, at the age of 87. In 2018, it was announced that he would be inducted into the Kansas Baseball Hall of Fame on Saturday, January 26, 2019. ## See also - List of Brooklyn Dodgers Opening Day starting pitchers - List of Santa Clara University people

Amir al-ʿarab

Leader of the Bedouin tribes in Syria

The amir al-ʿarab (Arabic: أمير العرب, also known as amir al-ʿurban, أمير العربان; lit. 'commander of the Bedouins') was the commander or leader of the Bedouin tribes in Syria under successive medieval Muslim states. The title was used as early as the 11th century to refer to Salih ibn Mirdas, but was formalized as a state institution by the Ayyubid Sultanate and strengthened by the latter's Mamluk successors. The office was preserved under the early Ottomans (16th–17th centuries), at least ceremonially, but its importance had declined by then. The jurisdiction of the amir al-ʿarab was generally limited to central and northern Syria, and its holder often held iqtaʿat (fiefs) in the Syrian steppe, which formed the imarat al-ʿarab (emirate of the Bedouins). The imarat al-ʿarab was created both to co-opt the often rebellious Bedouin tribes of Syria and to enlist their support as auxiliary troops. Under the Mamluks, some of the principal duties of the amir al-ʿarab were guarding the desert frontier against the Mongol Ilkhanate in Iraq and Anatolia, ensuring Bedouin loyalty to the state, gathering intelligence on enemy forces, protecting infrastructure, villages and travelers from raids and providing horses and camels to the sultan. In return, the amir al-ʿarab was given iqtaʿat, an annual salary, official titles and honorary robes. Under the Ayyubids, numerous Arab emirs held the post at any given time and were granted iqtaʿat. However, with the onset of Mamluk rule in Syria in 1260, it became a hereditary office consolidated by members of the Al Fadl dynasty, direct descendants of the Tayyid clan of Banu Jarrah. The office remained in the household of the Al Fadl emir, Isa ibn Muhanna, with occasional interruption, well into the early Ottoman era, during which Isa's descendants took over leadership of the Mawali tribe. Under the Ottomans, the role of the amir al-ʿarab centered on the provision of camels to the state and protection of the Hajj pilgrim caravan in return for annual payments. ## Administration The Ayyubids founded the imarat al-ʿarab (emirate of the Bedouins) as a formal state institution. However, due to the fractious nature of the Ayyubid political system, the appointed amir al-ʿarab (pl. umara al-ʿarab) was often unable to maintain authority over all of the Bedouin chieftains, who generally viewed the amir al-ʿarab as their equal rather than their superior. Under the Mamluks, the amir al-ʿarab was appointed by the sultan in Egypt and was considered a state official. His iqtaʿ (fief; pl. iqtaʿat) grants were given to him in a diploma delivered by the sultan's chancery or picked up by the amir al-ʿarab himself if he was visiting the sultan's court in Cairo. In the Mamluk provinces of Damascus, Aleppo and the capital, Cairo, a department called the mihmandāriyya dealt with managing Bedouin affairs and receiving the amir al-ʿarab. The amir al-ʿarab and the other Bedouin emirs were classified as arbāb al-suyūf (men of the sword), i.e. part of the military hierarchy. The rank of an amir al-ʿarab was equal to an amir miʿa muqaddam alf (emir of one hundred [mounted troops], commander of one thousand) and nāẓir al-jaysh (head of the army) of the province of Damascus and the na'ib (governor) of Homs. The early Ottomans preserved the imarat al-arab at least during the 16th century, during which the title was referred to as amir ʿarab-i Shām. However, the rights and role of the amir al-arab and his status in the Ottoman administration in Ottoman Syria are not well-defined in the contemporary sources, according to historian Muhammad Adnan Bakhit. The provincial records of Damascus Eyalet (Province of Damascus), whose jurisdiction extended throughout Syria until the mid-16th century, do not mention the emirate's function. Moreover, Bakhit asserts that it is unclear if the sultan's ratification was required for the Bedouin tribes or the provincial government to recognize the amir al-arab. ### Incorporation into iqtaʿ system Most chieftains under the Ayyubids were incorporated into the iqtaʿ system and received customary payments from the Ayyubids. The Ayyubids' Mamluk successors paid closer attention to the Bedouin tribes of Syria as they considered the region to be an important frontier in the wars with the Crusaders in the coastal areas and the Mongol Ilkhanate in Anatolia and Iraq. The Mamluks relied on the Bedouin as auxiliary troops and were wary of their unstable, but much-needed, loyalty to the state, and referred to the iqtaʿat of the amir al-ʿarab as an "iqtaʿ iʿtidād (fief of reliance). This status officially precluded the Bedouin from the military service required of iqtaʿ-holders, indicating "a special relationship" between the state and the Bedouin, according to historian Tsugato Sato. In practice, however, the Bedouin of Syria were often called on to participate as auxiliary troops in military expeditions or in emergency situations. The Bedouin iqtaʿat were small compared to those of the mamluk (manumitted slave soldier) emirs, though a number of sultans granted particularly generous iqtaʿat to the amir al-ʿarab. The distribution of iqtaʿat to the tribes was done, at least in part, to persuade them not plunder the unfortified towns and villages of the countryside as they were normally wont to do, and to induce them to cooperate with the state. The frequent rebellion of the tribes also motivated the Mamluks to incorporate them into the iqtaʿ system. The iqtaʿ of the amir al-ʿarab would often be confiscated in cases of rebellion against the sultan. In general, Salamiyah and Palmyra consistently served as iqtaʿat of the amir al-ʿarab, continuing into the early Ottoman era, when the iqtaʿ was supplanted by the timar. Besides Salamiyah and Palmyra, the Ottomans granted the amir al-ʿarab timar grants in the Hawran plain south of Damascus. ### Duties In return for iqtaʿat, annual customary payments, and honorary titles and robes, the amir al-ʿarab was expected to command his horsemen as auxiliaries in the wars against the Mongols, the Crusaders, their allies and rebellious Mamluk emirs. Another expectation of the amir al-ʿarab and the lower-ranking tribal chieftains was intelligence gathering regarding enemy movements near the frontier. Among the official duties of the amir al-ʿarab and the Syrian Bedouin tribes was the defense of the sultanate's boundaries, and maintenance and oversight of the roads, bridges and mountain passes of the desert and within their iqtaʿat. This also entailed the protection of merchant travelers and the annual Hajj pilgrim caravan, which traversed Bedouin territory to reach the Muslim holy cities of Mecca and Medina in the Hejaz. Tribesmen also served as desert guides for the army and state officials. The amir al-ʿarab was further responsible for collecting zakat (dues) on the livestock of the Bedouin tribes. During Sultan Baybar's reign (1260–1277), a barid (postal route) was created between Egypt and Syria, which enabled the sultan to remain constantly notified of developments in the provinces. It served as a major centralizing factor in the Mamluk state, and each postal station required transport horses, which the tribes provided. According to Sato, the tribes' supply of horses and camels was "indispensable for the maintenance" of the barid. Noble horses and young camels were also provided by the amir al-ʿarab to the royal stables of the Mamluk sultans on an annual basis. Under the early Ottomans, the amir al-ʿarab was required to provision the sultan's stables with 1,050 young camels and 30 young horses, the collective annual value of which was 240,000 akçe. This formed part of the sultan's revenue from the Damascus Eyalet. ## History ### Origins The Syrian Desert, which extended from Balis to Ayla, had been inhabited by Bedouin (nomadic Arab) tribes since pre-Islamic times (before mid-7th century). Throughout the 250 years following the Muslim conquest of Syria in the 630s, the Bedouin were brought under the authority of the Rashidun (632–661), Umayyad (661–750) and early Abbasid (750–861) caliphates. However, during this period, certain Bedouin tribes also participated in Umayyad dynastic struggles, the Abbasid Revolution, the rebellious Kharijite and Alid movements and isolated revolts. Following the Abbasid decline beginning in 861, state authority in the Syrian Desert receded significantly, leaving the Bedouin tribes to fill the void. The Hamdanid dynasty (890–1004), members of the Banu Taghlib tribe, represented the new-found strength of the Bedouin, and according to 14th-century historian Ibn Khaldun, they commanded the subservience of all Bedouin tribes in the Syrian steppe and Upper Mesopotamia. Other tribal dynasties that emerged in this region before or after the heyday of the Hamdanids included the Uqaylids (990–1096), Numayrids (990–1081), the Banu Asad and Banu Khafaja. By the late 10th century, the Jarrahids (970s–mid 11th century) of Banu Tayy and the Mirdasids (1024–1080) of Banu Kilab dominated southern and northern Syria, respectively, first in association with the Qarmatians, and then as nominal partners of the Fatimids, who ruled Syria between 977 and 1071. As a result of the Turkic Seljuk invasion in the latter half of the 11th century, only the Banu Rabi'ah, a cadet branch of the Jarrahids, remained as an influential Arab force in the Syrian steppe by the end of the century. There is scant information about the management of the Syrian Bedouin by the ruling Muslim states between the early 11th and mid-13th centuries. Likewise, the origins of the title of amir al-ʿarab are unclear. A number of medieval Muslim chroniclers referred to Salih ibn Mirdas (d. 1029), the founder of the Mirdasid emirate in Aleppo, as amir ʿarab al-Sham, which translates from Arabic as "commander of the Bedouin of Syria". Salih's ally Hassan ibn Mufarrij, chieftain of the Jarrahids, was also referred to as amir al-ʿarab by medieval sources. According to historian Suhayl Zakkar, the "value" of the title "is not known but at least indicates the high position of its holder". Moreover, Zakkar asserts: > It is not known whether Salih [ibn Mirdas] was the first holder of this title or whether, indeed, it had existed previously. The origin of it is obscure for whether it was created by the tribes of Syria after Islam or whether it existed in Arabia before the rise of Islam and was then carried to Syria after the Islamic conquest in the 7th century is not known. Zakkar speculates that the amir al-ʿarab title could have been a "revival or continuation" of a pre-Islamic (mid-6th century) political tradition among the Bedouin of Syria whereby the supreme phylarch (chieftain) of the Ghassanids, Arab vassals of the Byzantine Empire, had formal authority over the other Bedouin tribes of Syria. Furthermore, early Muslim chronicles often made references to sayyid ahl al-badiya (master of the desert dwellers) or sayyid Qays (master of the tribes of Qays), which Zakkar believes are possible "starting points which, in the course of time, developed to the title of Amir Arab al-Sham". ### Ayyubid era

During the Zengid period in Syria (1128–1182), some Bedouin chieftains were accorded iqtaʿat, paid ʿidād (livestock tax), and performed military duties. However, the groundwork for regulating Bedouin affairs in Syria was first laid by Saladin (r. 1171–1193), founder of the Ayyubid Sultanate; in 1182, Saladin entrusted the governor of Damascus, Ibn al-Muqaddam, as the muḥakkim (arbitrator) and overseer of "all the Arabs" who was "responsible for ... making the customary payments to them and collecting the customary dues from them". According to historian Mustafa A. Hiyari, Saladin's brother and successor, Sultan al-Adil (r. 1200–1218), founded the formal institution of the imarat al-ʿarab (emirate of the Bedouin) and appointed Haditha ibn Ghudayya as the first amir al-ʿarab. Haditha was a grandson of the Jarrahid emir Fadl ibn Rabi'ah, the progenitor of the Al Fadl clan of Banu Rabi'ah. Members of the clan were direct descendants of the Fatimid-era Jarrahid governor of Palestine, Mufarrij ibn Daghfal ibn al-Jarrah (d. 1013). By the late 12th century, the Banu Rabi'ah and its sub-clans, Al Fadl, Al Mira and Al Faraj, together with other sub-clans of its ancestral tribe, the Tayy, dominated the desert and steppe regions between Homs in the west to the eastern banks of the Euphrates River and southward to central Najd and Hejaz. However, despite their influence, the Mamluk historian al-Hamdani (d. 1300) maintains that "no member of this clan [Banu Rabi'ah] was appointed as amir al-ʿarab by diploma from the sultan" until Haditha's appointment by al-Adil. Meanwhile, leaders of the Kilab continued to hold the title of amir al-ʿarab after the Ayyubid conquest of Aleppo in 1182. As a result, Haditha's jurisdiction initially did not extend to the Aleppo region (northern Syria). However, during the latter half of az-Zahir Ghazi (r. 1193–1216) of Aleppo's reign, the Kilab were brought under Haditha's authority and were stripped of the amir al-ʿarab title. According to medieval Arab historian Ibn al-Adim (d. 1262), the Kilab's status was downgraded because of the growing power of the Tayy clans, while al-Hamdani asserts that the numerically-superior Kilab were weakened by a divided leadership. Following the extension of Haditha's jurisdiction to their traditional territory, some of the Kilab migrated north to Anatolia, while those who remained became allies of Haditha's Al Fadl clan. Following al-Adil's death in 1218 and the death of Haditha a few years later, the imarat al-ʿarab was divided by Sultan al-Kamil (r. 1218–1238) between Haditha's sons Mani and Ali, who founded the independent Al Ali branch of Al Fadl, and their kinsman, Ghannam ibn Abi Tahir of the Al Faraj clan. As Mani's position was bolstered by his cooperation with the Ayyubids in their military campaigns and keeping the Bedouin in check, al-Kamil dismissed Ghannam and Ali, leaving Mani as the sole amir al-ʿarab. When Mani died in 1232/33, he was succeeded by his son Muhanna I after an agreement between the Ayyubid emirs of Homs and Damascus, al-Mujahid Shirkuh II and al-Ashraf Musa, respectively, without input from the sultan of Egypt. From this period until 1260, only scant information is available about the imarat al-ʿarab. However, it is known that in 1240, Muhanna I was replaced by Tahir ibn Ghannam by the Ayyubid regent of Aleppo, Dayfa Khatun, for Tahir's support against her dynastic opponents. Some years later, the title was bestowed on Ali or his son Abu Bakr. ### Mamluk era The Mamluk Sultanate annexed Syria in 1260, and maintained the imarat al-ʿarab. In 1260–1261, sultans Qutuz or Baybars replaced Ali or Abu Bakr with Isa ibn Muhanna, who was granted Sarmin and half of Salamiyah as his iqtaʿ. Ahmad ibn Tahir and Zamil ibn Ali contested Isa's appointment, with the former demanding part of the emirate and the latter seeking to replace Isa. Baybars did not accord Ahmad ibn Tahir a share but gave him iqta'at elsewhere in Syria, whereas Zamil opened a rebellion against Isa. The latter called for Mamluk support and Zamil was consequently apprehended by Mamluk troops from Aleppo. He was imprisoned in Cairo but soon after released after Baybars mediated between him, Isa and other Banu Rabi'ah emirs. A further challenge to Isa came from his powerful kinsman, Ahmad ibn Hajji of Al Mira, who eventually desisted from confronting Isa when Baybars gave him virtual independence in the southern Syrian Desert. Ahmad ibn Hajji was referred to malik al-ʿarab (king of the Bedouin) in Mamluk sources and numerous tribes came under his authority. Relations between Isa and the state were generally cooperative with few exceptions, and he participated in nearly all Mamluk military campaigns against the Mongol Ilkhanate. Toward the end of his reign, in 1281, Isa received the oasis town of Palmyra as additional iqtaʿ from Sultan Qalawun. His son Muhanna ibn Isa succeeded him following his death in 1284. Muhanna and his brother Fadl ibn Isa, who served as amir al-ʿarab in between Muhanna's dismissals, vacillated between the Mamluks under Sultan an-Nasir Muhammad and the Ilkhanate between 1311 and 1330. Afterward, the Al Fadl became firmly part of the Mamluk camp. An-Nasir Muhammad particularly lavished the Al Fadl emirs with iqta'at, gifts and honors to the extent that Muhanna criticized the policy as over-indulging the Bedouin, and in the process, weakening the Muslim army. The imarat al-ʿarab remained in the hands of Isa's household, particularly the direct descendants of Muhanna (Al Muhanna), through the remainder of Mamluk rule (1260–1516) with brief interruptions during which emirs from Al Ali held the post. By 1352, Al Muhanna numbered 110, all of whom held their own emirate and iqta'at. According to Mustafa A. Hiyari: > The manipulation of the emirate [sic] by Al Muhanna for such a long time was the result of their ability to serve the interests of the Mamluk state more than any other clan. Their prestige was such that they were able to maintain peace and order among the tribes and—what was much more important—to secure the safety of the hajj and trade routes. That is why the sultans of Egypt and their provincial governors (sing. na'ib) in Damascus and Aleppo tried always to keep them under control and use every possible way to bring them back under the authority of the sultanate when they revolted, because their remaining outside Mamluk authority would lead to continuous threats to the state's interests, the outcome of which would be the attacking and looting of the trade caravans, the disruption of the hajj, and considerable damage to the countryside. Muhanna was succeeded by his son Muzaffar ad-Din Musa, who had remained loyal to an-Nasir Muhammad during his father's defection to the Ilkhanate. An-Nasir Muhammad granted him substantial iqtaʿat in return for his loyalty and the supply of noble Arabian horses, which an-Nasir Muhammad was particularly fond of. An-Nasir Muhammad's lavish treatment of Musa and his family significantly empowered the Al Fadl and created "ties of obligation" that "could not be ignored by his [an-Nasir Muhammad's] successors without provoking a Bedouin mutiny", according to historian Amalia Levanoni. This was especially so as central government control over Syria increasingly diminished during the power vacuum following an-Nasir Muhammad's death. Rivalry over the imarat al-ʿarab between the descendants of Muhanna and Fadl also intensified during this period. When Isa ibn Fadl was made amir al-ʿarab in 1342 and was transferred the Al Muhanna's iqtaʿat, the Al Muhanna responded by assaulting Fadl's offspring and plundering caravans traveling the roads of northern Syria. This included a raid on a Rahba-bound caravan from Baghdad in which Al Muhanna tribesmen looted all of its merchandise. Isa was replaced by his brother Sayf in 1343, after which Muhanna's son Fayyad defeated Sayf in battle and seized 20,000 of his camels. Ahmad ibn Muhanna, who had been imprisoned in 1342, was reappointed amir al-ʿarab in 1345, and was succeeded two years later by Fayyad. Fayyad died shortly after his appointment and replaced by his brother Hayar. For the next thirty years, Hayar rebelled and reconciled with the Mamluks and during times of rebellion he was often replaced by his brother Zamil and cousin Mu'ayqil ibn Fadl; sometimes the latter two ruled jointly. In 1380, Hayar's son Nu'ayr was appointed amir al-ʿarab. He was dismissed several times for revolting against the sultan's authority by supporting rebel governors in Syria. His last reign ended with his execution in 1406. Nu'ayr's son Ijl had sided against his father and backed Sultan an-Nasir Faraj, who appointed him in place of Nu'ayr. After Ijl was killed by a Mamluk rebel in 1412, the power of the Al Fadl largely diminished. Nonetheless, members of the clan from Hayar's line continued to fill the post of amir al-ʿarab, with Husayn ibn Nu'ayr succeeding Fadl. However, from then on, mentions of the imarat al-ʿarab "in the histories are scanty and confused", according to historian A. S. Tritton. In 1427, Nu'ayr's grandson, Adhra ibn Ali, was killed by his cousin Qirqmas and succeeded by his brother Mudlij ibn Ali, who too was killed by Qirqmas in 1429. Qirqmas died in 1436, though it is not clear if he had been appointed amir al-ʿarab. A grandson of Nu'ayr, Sayf ibn Ali, killed the amir al-ʿarab and his cousin, Sulayman ibn Assaf, in 1480, but was himself killed by Amir ibn Ijl the following year in revenge. Sayf's son was recorded as the amir al-ʿarab in 1496. ### Ottoman era The Mamluks were driven out of Syria by the Ottoman Turks after the Battle of Marj Dabiq in 1516. The Mamluk-appointed amir al-ʿarab, Mudlij ibn Zahir, a direct descendant of Hayar, was kept in his position by Ottoman sultan, Selim I, after the two met in the aftermath of Marj Dabiq. Mudlij acted as a law unto himself and fought against the Ottoman governor of Damascus, Isa Pasha al-Fanari, in 1530. Mudlij remained amir al-ʿarab until his death in 1538. He was succeeded by his son Zahir, who was killed sometime later by his kinsman Ahmad al-Uradi. The latter was challenged by Zahir's uncles, Dandan and Fayyad, but they were unsuccessful as Ahmad commanded the loyalty of most of the Bedouin tribes. Ahmad died in 1615 and was succeeded by his son Shadid until he was killed by Zahir's son, Mudlij II. The latter did not gain the imarat al-ʿarab, however, and Shadid was replaced by Fayyad, who held the post until his death in 1618. Afterward, Fayyad's son Husayn was appointed but then Mudlij II was recognized as amir al-ʿarab after he challenged Husayn. Husayn and Mudlij both sought the support of Emir Fakhr ad-Din II, a Druze chieftain of the Banu Ma'an who became a powerful semi-autonomous force in Syria. Husayn was ultimately strangled by the Ottoman governor of Aleppo in 1623, after Mudlij II bribed him. Mudlij II continued serving as amir al-ʿarab for an undetermined length of time. ## List of umara al-ʿarab ### Ayyubid emirs ### Mamluk emirs ### Ottoman emirs

Nature

Natural, physical, or material world and its phenomena

Nature, in the broadest sense, is the physical world or universe. "Nature" can refer to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. The study of nature is a large, if not the only, part of science. Although humans are part of nature, human activity is often understood as a separate category from other natural phenomena. The word nature is borrowed from the Old French nature and is derived from the Latin word natura, or "essential qualities, innate disposition", and in ancient times, literally meant "birth". In ancient philosophy, natura is mostly used as the Latin translation of the Greek word physis (φύσις), which originally related to the intrinsic characteristics of plants, animals, and other features of the world to develop of their own accord. The concept of nature as a whole, the physical universe, is one of several expansions of the original notion; it began with certain core applications of the word φύσις by pre-Socratic philosophers (though this word had a dynamic dimension then, especially for Heraclitus), and has steadily gained currency ever since. During the advent of modern scientific method in the last several centuries, nature became the passive reality, organized and moved by divine laws. With the Industrial revolution, nature increasingly became seen as the part of reality deprived from intentional intervention: it was hence considered as sacred by some traditions (Rousseau, American transcendentalism) or a mere decorum for divine providence or human history (Hegel, Marx). However, a vitalist vision of nature, closer to the pre-Socratic one, got reborn at the same time, especially after Charles Darwin. Within the various uses of the word today, "nature" often refers to geology and wildlife. Nature can refer to the general realm of living plants and animals, and in some cases to the processes associated with inanimate objects—the way that particular types of things exist and change of their own accord, such as the weather and geology of the Earth. It is often taken to mean the "natural environment" or wilderness—wild animals, rocks, forest, and in general those things that have not been substantially altered by human intervention, or which persist despite human intervention. For example, manufactured objects and human interaction generally are not considered part of nature, unless qualified as, for example, "human nature" or "the whole of nature". This more traditional concept of natural things that can still be found today implies a distinction between the natural and the artificial, with the artificial being understood as that which has been brought into being by a human consciousness or a human mind. Depending on the particular context, the term "natural" might also be distinguished from the unnatural or the supernatural. ## Earth Earth is the only planet known to support life, and its natural features are the subject of many fields of scientific research. Within the Solar System, it is third closest to the Sun; it is the largest terrestrial planet and the fifth largest overall. Its most prominent climatic features are its two large polar regions, two relatively narrow temperate zones, and a wide equatorial tropical to subtropical region. Precipitation varies widely with location, from several metres of water per year to less than a millimetre. 71 percent of the Earth's surface is covered by salt-water oceans. The remainder consists of continents and islands, with most of the inhabited land in the Northern Hemisphere. Earth has evolved through geological and biological processes that have left traces of the original conditions. The outer surface is divided into several gradually migrating tectonic plates. The interior remains active, with a thick layer of plastic mantle and an iron-filled core that generates a magnetic field. This iron core is composed of a solid inner phase, and a fluid outer phase. Convective motion in the core generates electric currents through dynamo action, and these, in turn, generate the geomagnetic field. The atmospheric conditions have been significantly altered from the original conditions by the presence of life-forms, which create an ecological balance that stabilizes the surface conditions. Despite the wide regional variations in climate by latitude and other geographic factors, the long-term average global climate is quite stable during interglacial periods, and variations of a degree or two of average global temperature have historically had major effects on the ecological balance, and on the actual geography of the Earth. ### Geology Geology is the science and study of the solid and liquid matter that constitutes the Earth. The field of geology encompasses the study of the composition, structure, physical properties, dynamics, and history of Earth materials, and the processes by which they are formed, moved, and changed. The field is a major academic discipline, and is also important for mineral and hydrocarbon extraction, knowledge about and mitigation of natural hazards, some Geotechnical engineering fields, and understanding past climates and environments. #### Geological evolution The geology of an area evolves through time as rock units are deposited and inserted and deformational processes change their shapes and locations. Rock units are first emplaced either by deposition onto the surface or intrude into the overlying rock. Deposition can occur when sediments settle onto the surface of the Earth and later lithify into sedimentary rock, or when as volcanic material such as volcanic ash or lava flows, blanket the surface. Igneous intrusions such as batholiths, laccoliths, dikes, and sills, push upwards into the overlying rock, and crystallize as they intrude. After the initial sequence of rocks has been deposited, the rock units can be deformed and/or metamorphosed. Deformation typically occurs as a result of horizontal shortening, horizontal extension, or side-to-side (strike-slip) motion. These structural regimes broadly relate to convergent boundaries, divergent boundaries, and transform boundaries, respectively, between tectonic plates. ### Historical perspective Earth is estimated to have formed 4.54 billion years ago from the solar nebula, along with the Sun and other planets. The Moon formed roughly 20 million years later. Initially molten, the outer layer of the Earth cooled, resulting in the solid crust. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, most or all of which came from ice delivered by comets, produced the oceans and other water sources. The highly energetic chemistry is believed to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago. Continents formed, then broke up and reformed as the surface of Earth reshaped over hundreds of millions of years, occasionally combining to make a supercontinent. Roughly 750 million years ago, the earliest known supercontinent Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia which broke apart about 540 million years ago, then finally Pangaea, which broke apart about 180 million years ago. During the Neoproterozoic era, freezing temperatures covered much of the Earth in glaciers and ice sheets. This hypothesis has been termed the "Snowball Earth", and it is of particular interest as it precedes the Cambrian explosion in which multicellular life forms began to proliferate about 530–540 million years ago. Since the Cambrian explosion there have been five distinctly identifiable mass extinctions. The last mass extinction occurred some 66 million years ago, when a meteorite collision probably triggered the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs and other large reptiles, but spared small animals such as mammals. Over the past 66 million years, mammalian life diversified. Several million years ago, a species of small African ape gained the ability to stand upright. The subsequent advent of human life, and the development of agriculture and further civilization allowed humans to affect the Earth more rapidly than any previous life form, affecting both the nature and quantity of other organisms as well as global climate. By comparison, the Great Oxygenation Event, produced by the proliferation of algae during the Siderian period, required about 300 million years to culminate. The present era is classified as part of a mass extinction event, the Holocene extinction event, the fastest ever to have occurred. Some, such as E. O. Wilson of Harvard University, predict that human destruction of the biosphere could cause the extinction of one-half of all species in the next 100 years. The extent of the current extinction event is still being researched, debated and calculated by biologists. ## Atmosphere, climate, and weather The Earth's atmosphere is a key factor in sustaining the ecosystem. The thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by gravity. Air is mostly nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, with much smaller amounts of carbon dioxide, argon, etc. The atmospheric pressure declines steadily with altitude. The ozone layer plays an important role in depleting the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface. As DNA is readily damaged by UV light, this serves to protect life at the surface. The atmosphere also retains heat during the night, thereby reducing the daily temperature extremes. Terrestrial weather occurs almost exclusively in the lower part of the atmosphere, and serves as a convective system for redistributing heat. Ocean currents are another important factor in determining climate, particularly the major underwater thermohaline circulation which distributes heat energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions. These currents help to moderate the differences in temperature between winter and summer in the temperate zones. Also, without the redistributions of heat energy by the ocean currents and atmosphere, the tropics would be much hotter, and the polar regions much colder. Weather can have both beneficial and harmful effects. Extremes in weather, such as tornadoes or hurricanes and cyclones, can expend large amounts of energy along their paths, and produce devastation. Surface vegetation has evolved a dependence on the seasonal variation of the weather, and sudden changes lasting only a few years can have a dramatic effect, both on the vegetation and on the animals which depend on its growth for their food. Climate is a measure of the long-term trends in the weather. Various factors are known to influence the climate, including ocean currents, surface albedo, greenhouse gases, variations in the solar luminosity, and changes to the Earth's orbit. Based on historical and geological records, the Earth is known to have undergone drastic climate changes in the past, including ice ages. The climate of a region depends on a number of factors, especially latitude. A latitudinal band of the surface with similar climatic attributes forms a climate region. There are a number of such regions, ranging from the tropical climate at the equator to the polar climate in the northern and southern extremes. Weather is also influenced by the seasons, which result from the Earth's axis being tilted relative to its orbital plane. Thus, at any given time during the summer or winter, one part of the Earth is more directly exposed to the rays of the sun. This exposure alternates as the Earth revolves in its orbit. At any given time, regardless of season, the Northern and Southern Hemispheres experience opposite seasons. Weather is a chaotic system that is readily modified by small changes to the environment, so accurate weather forecasting is limited to only a few days. Overall, two things are happening worldwide: (1) temperature is increasing on the average; and (2) regional climates have been undergoing noticeable changes. ## Water on the Earth Water is a chemical substance that is composed of hydrogen and oxygen (H2O) and is vital for all known forms of life. In typical usage, water refers only to its liquid form or state, but the substance also has a solid state, ice, and a gaseous state, water vapor, or steam. Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. On Earth, it is found mostly in oceans and other large bodies of water, with 1.6% of water below ground in aquifers and 0.001% in the air as vapor, clouds, and precipitation. Oceans hold 97% of surface water, glaciers, and polar ice caps 2.4%, and other land surface water such as rivers, lakes, and ponds 0.6%. Additionally, a minute amount of the Earth's water is contained within biological bodies and manufactured products. ### Oceans An ocean is a major body of saline water, and a principal component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Earth's surface (an area of some 361 million square kilometers) is covered by ocean, a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas. More than half of this area is over 3,000 meters (9,800 feet) deep. Average oceanic salinity is around 35 parts per thousand (ppt) (3.5%), and nearly all seawater has a salinity in the range of 30 to 38 ppt. Though generally recognized as several 'separate' oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water often referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean. This concept of a global ocean as a continuous body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography. The major oceanic divisions are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, and other criteria: these divisions are (in descending order of size) the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean, and the Arctic Ocean. Smaller regions of the oceans are called seas, gulfs, bays and other names. There are also salt lakes, which are smaller bodies of landlocked saltwater that are not interconnected with the World Ocean. Two notable examples of salt lakes are the Aral Sea and the Great Salt Lake. ### Lakes A lake (from Latin word lacus) is a terrain feature (or physical feature), a body of liquid on the surface of a world that is localized to the bottom of basin (another type of landform or terrain feature; that is, it is not global) and moves slowly if it moves at all. On Earth, a body of water is considered a lake when it is inland, not part of the ocean, is larger and deeper than a pond, and is fed by a river. The only world other than Earth known to harbor lakes is Titan, Saturn's largest moon, which has lakes of ethane, most likely mixed with methane. It is not known if Titan's lakes are fed by rivers, though Titan's surface is carved by numerous river beds. Natural lakes on Earth are generally found in mountainous areas, rift zones, and areas with ongoing or recent glaciation. Other lakes are found in endorheic basins or along the courses of mature rivers. In some parts of the world, there are many lakes because of chaotic drainage patterns left over from the last ice age. All lakes are temporary over geologic time scales, as they will slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them. #### Ponds A pond is a body of standing water, either natural or human-made, that is usually smaller than a lake. A wide variety of human-made bodies of water are classified as ponds, including water gardens designed for aesthetic ornamentation, fish ponds designed for commercial fish breeding, and solar ponds designed to store thermal energy. Ponds and lakes are distinguished from streams via current speed. While currents in streams are easily observed, ponds and lakes possess thermally driven micro-currents and moderate wind driven currents. These features distinguish a pond from many other aquatic terrain features, such as stream pools and tide pools. ### Rivers A river is a natural watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, a lake, a sea or another river. In a few cases, a river simply flows into the ground or dries up completely before reaching another body of water. Small rivers may also be called by several other names, including stream, creek, brook, rivulet, and rill; there is no general rule that defines what can be called a river. Many names for small rivers are specific to geographic location; one example is Burn in Scotland and North-east England. Sometimes a river is said to be larger than a creek, but this is not always the case, due to vagueness in the language. A river is part of the hydrological cycle. Water within a river is generally collected from precipitation through surface runoff, groundwater recharge, springs, and the release of stored water in natural ice and snowpacks (i.e., from glaciers). ### Streams A stream is a flowing body of water with a current, confined within a bed and stream banks. In the United States, a stream is classified as a watercourse less than 60 feet (18 metres) wide. Streams are important as conduits in the water cycle, instruments in groundwater recharge, and they serve as corridors for fish and wildlife migration. The biological habitat in the immediate vicinity of a stream is called a riparian zone. Given the status of the ongoing Holocene extinction, streams play an important corridor role in connecting fragmented habitats and thus in conserving biodiversity. The study of streams and waterways in general involves many branches of inter-disciplinary natural science and engineering, including hydrology, fluvial geomorphology, aquatic ecology, fish biology, riparian ecology, and others. ## Ecosystems Ecosystems are composed of a variety of biotic and abiotic components that function in an interrelated way. The structure and composition is determined by various environmental factors that are interrelated. Variations of these factors will initiate dynamic modifications to the ecosystem. Some of the more important components are soil, atmosphere, radiation from the sun, water, and living organisms. Central to the ecosystem concept is the idea that living organisms interact with every other element in their local environment. Eugene Odum, a founder of ecology, stated: "Any unit that includes all of the organisms (ie: the "community") in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (i.e.: exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) within the system is an ecosystem." Within the ecosystem, species are connected and dependent upon one another in the food chain, and exchange energy and matter between themselves as well as with their environment. The human ecosystem concept is based on the human/nature dichotomy and the idea that all species are ecologically dependent on each other, as well as with the abiotic constituents of their biotope. A smaller unit of size is called a microecosystem. For example, a microsystem can be a stone and all the life under it. A macroecosystem might involve a whole ecoregion, with its drainage basin.

### Wilderness Wilderness is generally defined as areas that have not been significantly modified by human activity. Wilderness areas can be found in preserves, estates, farms, conservation preserves, ranches, national forests, national parks, and even in urban areas along rivers, gulches, or otherwise undeveloped areas. Wilderness areas and protected parks are considered important for the survival of certain species, ecological studies, conservation, and solitude. Some nature writers believe wilderness areas are vital for the human spirit and creativity, and some ecologists consider wilderness areas to be an integral part of the Earth's self-sustaining natural ecosystem (the biosphere). They may also preserve historic genetic traits and that they provide habitat for wild flora and fauna that may be difficult or impossible to recreate in zoos, arboretums, or laboratories. ## Life Although there is no universal agreement on the definition of life, scientists generally accept that the biological manifestation of life is characterized by organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli, and reproduction. Life may also be said to be simply the characteristic state of organisms. Properties common to terrestrial organisms (plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria) are that they are cellular, carbon-and-water-based with complex organization, having a metabolism, a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli, and reproduce. An entity with these properties is generally considered life. However, not every definition of life considers all of these properties to be essential. Human-made analogs of life may also be considered to be life. The biosphere is the part of Earth's outer shell—including land, surface rocks, water, air and the atmosphere—within which life occurs, and which biotic processes in turn alter or transform. From the broadest geophysiological point of view, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere (rocks), hydrosphere (water), and atmosphere (air). The entire Earth contains over 75 billion tons (150 trillion pounds or about 6.8×10¹³ kilograms) of biomass (life), which lives within various environments within the biosphere. Over nine-tenths of the total biomass on Earth is plant life, on which animal life depends very heavily for its existence. More than 2 million species of plant and animal life have been identified to date, and estimates of the actual number of existing species range from several million to well over 50 million. The number of individual species of life is constantly in some degree of flux, with new species appearing and others ceasing to exist on a continual basis. The total number of species is in rapid decline. ### Evolution The origin of life on Earth is not well understood, but it is known to have occurred at least 3.5 billion years ago, during the hadean or archean eons on a primordial Earth that had a substantially different environment than is found at present. These life forms possessed the basic traits of self-replication and inheritable traits. Once life had appeared, the process of evolution by natural selection resulted in the development of ever-more diverse life forms. Species that were unable to adapt to the changing environment and competition from other life forms became extinct. However, the fossil record retains evidence of many of these older species. Current fossil and DNA evidence shows that all existing species can trace a continual ancestry back to the first primitive life forms. When basic forms of plant life developed the process of photosynthesis the sun's energy could be harvested to create conditions which allowed for more complex life forms. The resultant oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere and gave rise to the ozone layer. The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of yet more complex cells called eukaryotes. Cells within colonies became increasingly specialized, resulting in true multicellular organisms. With the ozone layer absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation, life colonized the surface of Earth. ### Microbes The first form of life to develop on the Earth were microbes, and they remained the only form of life until about a billion years ago when multi-cellular organisms began to appear. Microorganisms are single-celled organisms that are generally microscopic, and smaller than the human eye can see. They include Bacteria, Fungi, Archaea, and Protista. These life forms are found in almost every location on the Earth where there is liquid water, including in the Earth's interior. Their reproduction is both rapid and profuse. The combination of a high mutation rate and a horizontal gene transfer ability makes them highly adaptable, and able to survive in new environments, including outer space. They form an essential part of the planetary ecosystem. However, some microorganisms are pathogenic and can post health risk to other organisms. ### Plants and animals Originally Aristotle divided all living things between plants, which generally do not move fast enough for humans to notice, and animals. In Linnaeus' system, these became the kingdoms Vegetabilia (later Plantae) and Animalia. Since then, it has become clear that the Plantae as originally defined included several unrelated groups, and the fungi and several groups of algae were removed to new kingdoms. However, these are still often considered plants in many contexts. Bacterial life is sometimes included in flora, and some classifications use the term bacterial flora separately from plant flora. Among the many ways of classifying plants are by regional floras, which, depending on the purpose of study, can also include fossil flora, remnants of plant life from a previous era. People in many regions and countries take great pride in their individual arrays of characteristic flora, which can vary widely across the globe due to differences in climate and terrain. Regional floras commonly are divided into categories such as native flora and agricultural and garden flora, the lastly mentioned of which are intentionally grown and cultivated. Some types of "native flora" actually have been introduced centuries ago by people migrating from one region or continent to another, and become an integral part of the native, or natural flora of the place to which they were introduced. This is an example of how human interaction with nature can blur the boundary of what is considered nature. Another category of plant has historically been carved out for weeds. Though the term has fallen into disfavor among botanists as a formal way to categorize "useless" plants, the informal use of the word "weeds" to describe those plants that are deemed worthy of elimination is illustrative of the general tendency of people and societies to seek to alter or shape the course of nature. Similarly, animals are often categorized in ways such as domestic, farm animals, wild animals, pests, etc. according to their relationship to human life. Animals as a category have several characteristics that generally set them apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and usually multicellular (although see Myxozoa), which separates them from bacteria, archaea, and most protists. They are heterotrophic, generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae. They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls. With a few exceptions—most notably the two phyla consisting of sponges and placozoans—animals have bodies that are differentiated into tissues. These include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and a nervous system, which sends and processes signals. There is also typically an internal digestive chamber. The eukaryotic cells possessed by all animals are surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed of collagen and elastic glycoproteins. This may be calcified to form structures like shells, bones, and spicules, a framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganized during development and maturation, and which supports the complex anatomy required for mobility. ## Human interrelationship ### Human impact Although humans comprise only a minuscule proportion of the total living biomass on Earth, the human effect on nature is disproportionately large. Because of the extent of human influence, the boundaries between what humans regard as nature and "made environments" is not clear cut except at the extremes. Even at the extremes, the amount of natural environment that is free of discernible human influence is diminishing at an increasingly rapid pace. A 2020 study published in Nature found that anthropogenic mass (human-made materials) outweighs all living biomass on earth, with plastic alone exceeding the mass of all land and marine animals combined. And according to a 2021 study published in Frontiers in Forests and Global Change, only about 3% of the planet's terrestrial surface is ecologically and faunally intact, with a low human footprint and healthy populations of native animal species. Philip Cafaro, professor of philosophy at the School of Global Environmental Sustainability at Colorado State University, wrote in 2022 that "the cause of global biodiversity loss is clear: other species are being displaced by a rapidly growing human economy." The development of technology by the human race has allowed the greater exploitation of natural resources and has helped to alleviate some of the risk from natural hazards. In spite of this progress, however, the fate of human civilization remains closely linked to changes in the environment. There exists a highly complex feedback loop between the use of advanced technology and changes to the environment that are only slowly becoming understood. Human-made threats to the Earth's natural environment include pollution, deforestation, and disasters such as oil spills. Humans have contributed to the extinction of many plants and animals, with roughly 1 million species threatened with extinction within decades. The loss of biodiversity and ecosystem functions over the last half century have impacted the extent that nature can contribute to human quality of life, and continued declines could pose a major threat to the continued existence of human civilization, unless a rapid course correction is made. The value of natural resources to human society is not reflected in market prices because mostly natural resources are available free of charge. This distorts market pricing of natural resources and at the same time leads to underinvestment in our natural assets. The annual global cost of public subsidies that damage nature is conservatively estimated at \$4–6 trillion (million million). Institutional protections of these natural goods, such as the oceans and rainforests, are lacking. Governments have not prevented these economic externalities. Humans employ nature for both leisure and economic activities. The acquisition of natural resources for industrial use remains a sizable component of the world's economic system. Some activities, such as hunting and fishing, are used for both sustenance and leisure, often by different people. Agriculture was first adopted around the 9th millennium BCE. Ranging from food production to energy, nature influences economic wealth. Although early humans gathered uncultivated plant materials for food and employed the medicinal properties of vegetation for healing, most modern human use of plants is through agriculture. The clearance of large tracts of land for crop growth has led to a significant reduction in the amount available of forestation and wetlands, resulting in the loss of habitat for many plant and animal species as well as increased erosion. ### Aesthetics and beauty Beauty in nature has historically been a prevalent theme in art and books, filling large sections of libraries and bookstores. That nature has been depicted and celebrated by so much art, photography, poetry, and other literature shows the strength with which many people associate nature and beauty. Reasons why this association exists, and what the association consists of, are studied by the branch of philosophy called aesthetics. Beyond certain basic characteristics that many philosophers agree about to explain what is seen as beautiful, the opinions are virtually endless. Nature and wildness have been important subjects in various eras of world history. An early tradition of landscape art began in China during the Tang Dynasty (618–907). The tradition of representing nature as it is became one of the aims of Chinese painting and was a significant influence in Asian art. Although natural wonders are celebrated in the Psalms and the Book of Job, wilderness portrayals in art became more prevalent in the 1800s, especially in the works of the Romantic movement. British artists John Constable and J. M. W. Turner turned their attention to capturing the beauty of the natural world in their paintings. Before that, paintings had been primarily of religious scenes or of human beings. William Wordsworth's poetry described the wonder of the natural world, which had formerly been viewed as a threatening place. Increasingly the valuing of nature became an aspect of Western culture. This artistic movement also coincided with the Transcendentalist movement in the Western world. A common classical idea of beautiful art involves the word mimesis, the imitation of nature. Also in the realm of ideas about beauty in nature is that the perfect is implied through perfect mathematical forms and more generally by patterns in nature. As David Rothenburg writes, "The beautiful is the root of science and the goal of art, the highest possibility that humanity can ever hope to see". ## Matter and energy Some fields of science see nature as matter in motion, obeying certain laws of nature which science seeks to understand. For this reason the most fundamental science is generally understood to be "physics"—the name for which is still recognizable as meaning that it is the "study of nature". Matter is commonly defined as the substance of which physical objects are composed. It constitutes the observable universe. The visible components of the universe are now believed to compose only 4.9 percent of the total mass. The remainder is believed to consist of 26.8 percent cold dark matter and 68.3 percent dark energy. The exact arrangement of these components is still unknown and is under intensive investigation by physicists. The behaviour of matter and energy throughout the observable universe appears to follow well-defined physical laws. These laws have been employed to produce cosmological models that successfully explain the structure and the evolution of the universe we can observe. The mathematical expressions of the laws of physics employ a set of twenty physical constants that appear to be static across the observable universe. The values of these constants have been carefully measured, but the reason for their specific values remains a mystery. ## Beyond Earth Outer space, also simply called space, refers to the relatively empty regions of the Universe outside the atmospheres of celestial bodies. Outer space is used to distinguish it from airspace (and terrestrial locations). There is no discrete boundary between Earth's atmosphere and space, as the atmosphere gradually attenuates with increasing altitude. Outer space within the Solar System is called interplanetary space, which passes over into interstellar space at what is known as the heliopause. Outer space is sparsely filled with several dozen types of organic molecules discovered to date by microwave spectroscopy, blackbody radiation left over from the Big Bang and the origin of the universe, and cosmic rays, which include ionized atomic nuclei and various subatomic particles. There is also some gas, plasma and dust, and small meteors. Additionally, there are signs of human life in outer space today, such as material left over from previous crewed and uncrewed launches which are a potential hazard to spacecraft. Some of this debris re-enters the atmosphere periodically. Although Earth is the only body within the Solar System known to support life, evidence suggests that in the distant past the planet Mars possessed bodies of liquid water on the surface. For a brief period in Mars' history, it may have also been capable of forming life. At present though, most of the water remaining on Mars is frozen. If life exists at all on Mars, it is most likely to be located underground where liquid water can still exist. Conditions on the other terrestrial planets, Mercury and Venus, appear to be too harsh to support life as we know it. But it has been conjectured that Europa, the fourth-largest moon of Jupiter, may possess a sub-surface ocean of liquid water and could potentially host life. Astronomers have started to discover extrasolar Earth analogs – planets that lie in the habitable zone of space surrounding a star, and therefore could possibly host life as we know it. ## See also - Force of nature - Human nature - Natural history - Naturalism - Natural landscape - Natural law - Natural resource - Natural science - Natural theology - Nature reserve - Nature versus nurture - Nature worship - Naturism - Rewilding Media: - National Wildlife, a publication of the National Wildlife Federation - Natural History, by Pliny the Elder - Natural World (TV series) - Nature, by Ralph Waldo Emerson - Nature, a prominent scientific journal - Nature (TV series) - The World We Live In (Life magazine) Organizations: - Nature Detectives - The Nature Conservancy Philosophy: - Balance of nature (biological fallacy), a discredited concept of natural equilibrium in predator–prey dynamics - Mother Nature - Naturalism, any of several philosophical stances, typically those descended from materialism and pragmatism that do not distinguish the supernatural from nature; this includes the methodological naturalism of natural science, which makes the methodological assumption that observable events in nature are explained only by natural causes, without assuming either the existence or non-existence of the supernatural - Nature (philosophy)

Russian cruiser Vladimir Monomakh

Russian armoured cruiser

Vladimir Monomakh (Russian: Владимир Мономах) was an armoured cruiser built for the Imperial Russian Navy during the 1880s. The vessel was named after Vladimir II Monomakh, Grand Prince of Kiev. She spent most of her career in the Far East, although the ship was in the Baltic Sea when the Russo-Japanese War began in 1904. Vladimir Monomakh was assigned to the Third Pacific Squadron and participated in the Battle of Tsushima in May 1905. She was tasked to protect the Russian transports and was not heavily engaged during the daylight portion of the battle. The ship was torpedoed during the night and was scuttled the following morning by her captain to prevent her capture by the Japanese. ## Design and description Vladimir Monomakh was classified as a semi-armored frigate and was an improved version of the preceding Minin. The ship was designed with high endurance and high speed to facilitate her role as a commerce raider able to outrun enemy battleships. She was laid out as a central battery ironclad with the armament concentrated amidships. The iron-hulled ship was fitted with a ram and was sheathed in wood and copper to reduce fouling. The ship's hull was subdivided by ten transverse bulkheads and she had a double bottom 1.73 metres (5 ft 8 in) deep. Her crew numbered approximately 550 officers and men. Vladimir Monomakh was 307 feet 9 inches (93.8 m) long overall. She had a beam of 51 feet 10 inches (15.8 m) and a draft of 25 feet (7.6 m). The ship displaced 5,593 long tons (5,683 t) at deep load. The ship had two vertical compound steam engines, each driving a four-bladed, manganese-bronze 18-foot (5.5 m) propeller. Steam was provided by six cylindrical boilers at a pressure of 70 psi (483 kPa; 5 kgf/cm²). The engines produced 7,044 indicated horsepower (5,253 kW) during sea trials which gave the ship a maximum speed around 15.8 knots (29.3 km/h; 18.2 mph). Vladimir Monomakh carried 900 long tons (910 t) of coal which gave her an economical range of 6,200 nautical miles (11,500 km; 7,100 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). She was ship rigged with three masts and had a total sail area of 26,000 square feet (2,400 m²). To reduce drag while under sail, her funnels were retractable. Vladimir Monomakh was armed with four 8-inch (203 mm) guns, one at each corner of the battery that were sponsoned out over the sides of the hull. Eight of the dozen 6-inch (152 mm) guns were mounted between the eight-inch guns in the central battery and the remaining four were outside the battery at the ends of the ship. Anti-torpedo boat defence was provided by four 9-pounder and ten Hotchkiss guns. The ship was also equipped with three above-water 15-inch (381 mm) torpedo tubes. The ship's waterline belt was composed of compound armour and extended the full length of the ship. It was six inches thick amidships, but reduced to 4.5 inches (114 mm) at the ship's ends. It extended 2 feet (0.6 m) above the waterline and 4 feet (1.2 m) below. Transverse bulkheads 3–4 inches (76–102 mm) thick protected the guns in the battery from raking fire. The sponsons of the 8-inch guns were equally thick. The protective deck was 0.5-inch (13 mm) thick. ## Career

Construction began on Vladimir Monomakh on 22 February 1881 at the Baltic Shipyard in St. Petersburg, although the formal keel-laying ceremony was not held until 21 May. She was launched on 22 October 1882 and completed on 13 July 1883. The ship's total cost was 3,348,847 rubles. Although the second vessel to be laid down in the Dmitri Donskoy class, Vladimir Monomakh was completed first. Due to constant changes during construction, the design of both vessels diverged considerably by the time of completion. The ship was named after Vladimir II Monomakh, Grand Prince of Kiev. On 11 October 1884, Vladimir Monomakh began a leisurely voyage from the Baltic Sea to the Far East. She made port visits in Kristiansand, Norway and Portland Harbour, England before reaching Malta on 25 November. The ship spent most of the next six weeks in Greek waters before arriving at Port Said, Egypt on 12 January 1885 to transit the Suez Canal. Vladimir Monomakh encountered the British ironclad battleship HMS Agamemnon there and was followed by her all the way to Japan as tensions were rising between Great Britain and Russia in early 1885. The ship arrived in Nagasaki in March 1885 and was appointed flagship of the Russian Pacific Fleet under Rear Admiral A.E. Kroun. Based out of Vladivostok, she normally wintered in warmer waters. For example, Vladimir Monomakh visited Manila, Singapore, Hong Kong, Batavia, Dutch East Indies and Penang Island between November 1885 and March 1886. She returned to Kronstadt in 1887 and was refitted in 1888. Vladimir Monomakh departed Kronstadt for the Mediterranean on 6 November 1889 where she remained for the next year. She joined the official escort for the Tsarevich Nicholas II's visit to the Far East. The Tsarevich travelled aboard the Pamiat Azova and Vladimir Monomakh provided protection. The two ships reached Singapore on 2 March 1891, and reached Vladivostok on 23 May. Once at Vladivostok, Captain Oskar Stark was appointed commander of the ship and Vladimir Monomakh was overhauled through August. She wintered over again at Nagasaki, departing for Europe on 23 April 1892 and reached Kronstadt in August, where the ship was given a thorough refit beginning on 22 September. The heavy sailing rig was replaced by three signal masts, her funnels were fixed in place, and her boilers were also upgraded. Vladimir Monomakh was reclassified as a 1st Class Cruiser on 13 February 1892. On 2 October 1894 the ship, now under the command of Captain Zinovy Rozhestvensky, was ordered back to the Mediterranean. In view of the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–95, the Council of Ministers ordered on 1 February 1895 that the Mediterranean Squadron reinforce the 2nd Pacific Squadron. She reached the Chinese treaty port of Chefoo on 16 April and became the flagship of Rear Admiral Yevgeni Ivanovich Alekseyev, 2nd in command of the Pacific Fleet, on 13 May. Vladimir Monomakh remained at Chefoo until late in the year before sailing to Vladivostok and then to Kobe, Japan in January 1896. The ship only remained there for a short time before she was ordered back to Kronstadt for a major modernization. Her obsolete 8-inch and 6-inch guns were replaced with five new 45-calibre 6-inch and six 120-millimetre (4.7 in) Canet guns. The ship's six original boilers were replaced by a dozen cylindrical boilers. Vladimir Monomakh was transferred back to the Pacific Fleet in November 1897 and reached Nagasaki in February 1898. After the Triple Intervention expelled the Japanese from Port Arthur, Vladimir Monomakh was part of the Russian force which subsequently occupied that strategic harbor. In June 1900, she transported troops involved in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion. In September 1900, on her return to Port Arthur, she accidentally rammed and sank the merchant vessel Crown of Aragon. In December 1901, she rendezvoused with Dmitri Donskoy at Hong Kong, and the two ships returned to the Mediterranean via the Suez Canal. Vladimir Monomakh remained in the Mediterranean until August 1902, and reached Kronstadt in October. In 1903–04 some of her 47-millimetre (1.9 in) Hotchkiss guns were replaced by 75-millimetre (3.0 in). ### Russo-Japanese War In February 1905, Vladimir Monomakh was assigned to the Third Pacific Squadron, which was sent to reinforce Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky's Second Pacific Squadron. The Third Pacific Squadron transited the Suez Canal and joined the 2nd Pacific Squadron at Cam Ranh Bay in French Indochina on 14 May 1905 where she was assigned to the Cruiser Division commanded by Rear Admiral Oskar Enkvist. At the decisive Battle of Tsushima on 27 May 1905, Vladimir Monomakh was positioned to the right side of the Russian line of battle, guarding the transports and so avoided the pounding that the other vessels of Second Pacific Squadron received, although she engaged the Japanese cruiser Izumi. The Japanese ship was hit several times and driven off, but only three crewmen were killed and seven wounded. Vladimir Monomakh was hit several times itself and had one 120 mm gun destroyed and its crew killed. The most dangerous hit was a shell that burst over a 6-inch shell hoist and started an ammunition fire. The prompt flooding of the magazine averted an explosion. At nightfall, the Japanese torpedo boats engaged the surviving Russian warships and the cruiser claimed to have sunk one of her attackers at 8:25 p.m. Vladimir Monomakh, mistaking one of her attackers for a Russian destroyer, was hit around 8:40 by a single torpedo which ruptured her hull near the No. 2 coal bunker, but sank the torpedo boat. The damage was severe but her crew kept her afloat and her engines operational, although she continued to take on water. The next morning, however, Vladimir Monomakh headed towards Tsushima Island and began to unload her wounded into her surviving boats. Captain Vladimir Aleksandrovich Popov gave the order to abandon ship, and ordered the seacocks to be opened to scuttle the vessel rather than surrender it to the Japanese. The ship sank at 10:20 a.m. and the crew was captured by the Japanese auxiliary cruisers IJN Sado Maru and IJN Manshū. Vladimir Monomakh was officially removed from the navy list on 28 September 1905.

Booker T. Washington State Park (West Virginia)

Former state park in West Virginia

Booker T. Washington State Park is a former state park near the community of Institute in the U.S. state of West Virginia. The park was operated by the West Virginia Conservation Commission, Division of State Parks, from 1949 until the late 1950s. The park was a day-use picnic area located on 7.43 acres (3 ha) of secondary forest outside Institute, approximately 0.86 miles (1.4 km) east of the West Virginia State College (now University) campus. The park was integrated shortly after the Brown v. Board of Education decision by the United States Supreme Court in May 1954. The land and the vicinity of this park were once part of a dense concentration of Late Adena Native American mounds and earthworks along the Kanawha River, including the nearby Shawnee Reservation Mound. In the 18th century, the area became a part of a large land tract owned by George Washington. In 1853 Samuel I. Cabell purchased 967 acres (391 ha) of the valley. He and his wife Mary Barnes Cabell (a freedwoman) operated a plantation near the park's location, and following the American Civil War his children and the plantation's freed slaves settled the community of Piney Grove. Under the provisions of the Morrill Land-Grant Act of 1890, the West Virginia Legislature established the West Virginia Colored Institute for the education of African Americans in 1891. The institute opened at Piney Grove in 1892, and the town's name was changed to Institute. In 1949 the West Virginia Conservation Commission, Division of State Parks, opened Booker T. Washington State Park, which was named for African American educator and West Virginia native Booker T. Washington. Following the park's integration in 1954, it remained open as a day-use picnic area until the late 1950s. By 1959 Booker T. Washington State Park was no longer listed in that year's West Virginia Blue Book listing of state parks. ## Geography and setting Booker T. Washington State Park was just outside the unincorporated community of Institute, Kanawha County, West Virginia, approximately 0.86 miles (1.4 km) east of the West Virginia State College (now University) campus. The Shawnee Reservation Mound, a Late Adena Native American mound within present-day Shawnee Regional Park in Institute, is located 0.70 miles (1 km) southwest of the former park site. The park was situated on 7.43 acres (3 ha) at an elevation of 732 feet (223 m) on the northern edge of the Kanawha River valley. It was bound by forested hills to its west and east, the confluence of Finney Branch and an unnamed stream in a hollow to its north, and the northern end of Pinewood Drive to its south. Finney Branch is a tributary stream of the Kanawha River, which flows 1.22 miles (2 km) southwest of the park's location. Dutch Hollow, formed by a Finney Branch tributary, is approximately 0.59 miles (1 km) east of the park's location and is the site of the Dutch Hollow Wine Cellars, presently located within Dunbar's Wine Cellar Park. The former park land is covered in secondary forest consisting of tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), several species of oak (Quercus), American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), several species of pine (Pinus), and other deciduous species. ## Background ### Area history The 10-mile (16 km) section of the Kanawha River valley between present-day Charleston and St. Albans was once the site of a dense concentration of Late Adena Native American mounds and earthworks, including Institute's Shawnee Reservation Mound. The Shawnee Reservation Mound is one of only three mounds that remain from this original complex of mounds and earthworks. This region of the Kanawha River valley was granted to George Washington, recently returned from fighting in the French and Indian War, following Virginia Lieutenant Governor Robert Dinwiddie's Proclamation of 1754. The Proclamation of 1754 encouraged enlistment for the Monongahela expedition in exchange for a reward of land from a 200,000-acre (80,937 ha) reservation in western Virginia. Between 1772 and 1774, Washington claimed four large land tracts in the Kanawha River valley totaling 23,216 acres (9,395 ha). Washington leased the four tracts to James Welch in 1797, and following Welch's death the tracts reverted to Washington's estate. These tracts were divided and sold into the 19th century by Washington's heirs. In Dutch Hollow, to the east of the Cabell property and the state park land, a vineyard and the Dutch Hollow Wine Cellars were established by Tom Friend around 1860 and operated for about three years. The area's wine industry shuttered following the American Civil War possibly due to high labor costs, unreliable grape crops, and competition from out-of-state wineries. In 1853 Samuel I. Cabell purchased 967 acres (391 ha) encompassing the Kanawha River valley bottomlands between Sattes and the western area of present-day Dunbar. Cabell, his wife Mary Barnes Cabell (a freedwoman), their family, and their slaves relocated to this property where Cabell operated a plantation. In 1870 the Kanawha County Commissioners divided the former Cabell plantation land tract among his widow and his children, providing each with a strip of land extending between the hills to the north (where the park would later be located) and the Kanawha River bank to the south. The present-day community of Institute is situated on land that was once part of Cabell's plantation. Cabell's descendants and his former slaves remained in the vicinity of his plantation and settled a community known variously as Cabell Farm and Piney Grove. A post office opened at Piney Grove in 1876, and Cabell's daughter Marina Cabell Hurt served as its postmaster. Hurt is thought to have been the first African American female postmaster in the United States. Piney Grove was renamed Cabell, then renamed Institute after the West Virginia Colored Institute.

Under the provisions of the Morrill Land-Grant Act of 1890, the West Virginia Legislature established the West Virginia Colored Institute for the education of African Americans in 1891. The state purchased a 30-acre (12 ha) tract of land from Elijah and Marina Cabell Hurt, and commenced construction of the institute's campus. The state gradually acquired adjacent lots until the campus consisted of approximately 80 acres (32 ha). The co-educational West Virginia Colored Institute opened in 1892 and added a military education program in 1899. African American educator Booker T. Washington, a former Kanawha River valley resident from nearby Malden, frequently visited the institute's campus as a guest lecturer. The institute's first president, Byrd Prillerman, was a friend of Washington, who had recommended Prillerman for the position in 1909. The West Virginia Colored Institute gradually became the center of African American intellectual and academic life in West Virginia, and in 1915 it became known as the West Virginia Collegiate Institute to reflect its authority to grant college degrees as a post-secondary educational institution. In 1929 the institution's name was changed to West Virginia State College. ### Development of state recreational facilities for African Americans In response to the tremendous damage to West Virginia's natural environment from mineral and lumber exploitation, the state began the development of its state park system in the 1920s. The state recognized the need to designate and protect lands worthy of conservation, and in 1925 the Legislature established the West Virginia State Forest, Park and Conservation Commission to assess the state's opportunities and needs for forests, parks, game preserves, and recreational areas. The Legislature established the West Virginia Conservation Commission, Division of State Parks, in 1933 to manage the state's growing park system, and to leverage the resources and expertise of the New Deal-era programs for park development. The park system continued to expand and consisted of approximately 30,000 acres (12,141 ha) by the mid-1930s. Despite West Virginia's growth in state parks, in both acreage and in number of locations, its state park system was not accessible by African Americans. During the 1930s, West Virginia's historically black colleges (Bluefield State Teachers College, Storer College, and, primarily, West Virginia State College and its extension service) became the center of a movement to provide educational outdoor and recreational activities for West Virginia's African American youth. The movement succeeded in taking advantage of available West Virginia Board of Control funding from the Works Progress Administration (WPA) when the Legislature established Camp Washington-Carver in 1937 near Clifftop in Fayette County. The 583-acre (236 ha) African American 4-H camp was constructed by the WPA between 1939 and 1942 and was transferred from the West Virginia Board of Control to the West Virginia State College extension service, which offered instruction to African American children and adolescents in the subjects of agricultural education, soil conservation, home economics, and 4-H values. West Virginia State named the 4-H camp complex after African American educators Booker T. Washington (a Kanawha River valley native) and George Washington Carver. Its Great Chestnut Lodge is notable as being the largest log structure in West Virginia built entirely of chestnut. Camp Washington-Carver was formally dedicated on July 26, 1942. ## Park establishment and operation The West Virginia Conservation Commission, Division of State Parks, had expanded to 13 state parks by 1945; however, West Virginia still restricted the access of African Americans to its state parks. In 1940 the NAACP contacted the Division of State Parks and inquired about the accessibility of African Americans to West Virginia state parks. The Division of State Parks responded by stating: "Negro citizens would feel ill at ease" at visiting state parks alongside white residents, and that the division was deliberating the construction of a state park for African Americans. By 1949 private citizens had donated 7.43 acres (3 ha) of deciduous forest land outside the largely African American community of Institute to the Division of State Parks for the construction of an African American recreational area. On August 5, 1949, West Virginia Conservation Commission Director C. F. McClintic formally announced that a public day-use recreational area for African Americans was being developed in Institute, and would be named for Booker T. Washington. At the time of the announcement, a water well was being drilled and picnic and sanitary facilities were being installed. Present-day Pinewood Drive had already been constructed from West Virginia Route 25 to provide access to the park location, and a parking area for 15 cars had already been completed. According to McClintic, the park's name was selected by the West Virginia Conservation Commission following consultation with West Virginia State College President Dr. John Warren Davis. Booker T. Washington State Park opened in 1949 as the only state park accessible to African Americans. Following the park's completion, its limited facilities included the water well, ten picnic tables, fireplaces, toilets, and the parking area. According to National Park Service (NPS) surveys of state parks in 1950 and 1955, Booker T. Washington State Park lacked swimming facilities, cabins, campsites, and refreshment stands. Unlike other West Virginia state parks, Booker T. Washington also lacked scenic views and hiking trails. Also unlike other state parks, the Division of State Parks did not keep statistics on its visitors. By 1954, West Virginia's state park system consisted of 40,355 acres (16,331 ha), with only the 7.43-acre (3 ha) Booker T. Washington State Park explicitly open to African Americans. Following the Brown v. Board of Education decision by the United States Supreme Court in May 1954, West Virginia Conservation Commission Director Carl J. Johnson announced the integration of Booker T. Washington State Park, thus allowing whites to utilize the park's facilities. Johnson also stated that Booker T. Washington was the only state park operated on the basis of segregation and that no further changes would be made to state park policies following the Brown v. Board of Education ruling. Booker T. Washington remained a day-use state park with picnic facilities; however, by 1957 it was without a supervisor. The park was no longer in operation by 1959 when it was omitted from the listing of state parks in the West Virginia Blue Book and the park was also omitted when the NPS released its 1960 survey of U.S. state parks. The 1958 West Virginia Blue Book did not include a listing of West Virginia state parks. ## Significance and legacy Booker T. Washington State Park was the only state park ever to operate in Kanawha County. When the West Virginia State Park History Committee and former Division of State Parks chief Kermit McKeever published their book Where People and Nature Meet: A History of the West Virginia State Parks in 1988, there was no mention of Booker T. Washington State Park. ## See also - List of things named after Booker T. Washington - List of African-American historic places in West Virginia - List of West Virginia state parks

The Homosexual Matrix

1975 book by Clarence Arthur Tripp

The Homosexual Matrix is a book by American psychologist Clarence Arthur Tripp, in which the author discusses the biological and sociological implications of homosexuality, and also attempts to explain heterosexuality and bisexuality. The book was first published in 1975 by McGraw-Hill Book Company; it was republished in a revised edition in 1987. Based on his review of the evidence, Tripp argues that people do not become homosexual due to factors such as hormone levels, fear of the opposite sex, or the influence of dominant and close-binding mothers, and that the amount of attention fathers give to their sons has no effect on the development of homosexuality. He criticizes Sigmund Freud and argues that psychoanalytic theories of the development of homosexuality are untenable and based on false assumptions. He maintains that sexual orientation is not innate and depends on learning, that early puberty and early masturbation are important factors in the development of male homosexuality, and that a majority of adults are heterosexual because their socialization has made them want to be heterosexual. He criticizes psychotherapeutic attempts to convert homosexuals to heterosexuality and argues in favor of social tolerance of homosexuality and non-conformist behavior in general. The book was controversial and received many negative reviews. It was criticized for Tripp's rambling style, sexism, views about the biological basis of male and female sexual behavior, focus on male homosexuality and neglect of lesbianism, and failure to discuss the gay liberation movement. The book drew a negative reaction from psychoanalysts, who criticized Tripp's dismissive treatment of psychoanalytic theories, accused him of being biased in favor of homosexuality, charged that he mistakenly claimed that gay men tend to have a larger than average penis size, and objected to his discussion of attempts to change homosexuality through psychotherapy. Tripp himself believed that The Homosexual Matrix had received a negative reaction from the gay media and from some gay people. Nevertheless, the book was influential and has received praise as an important work on homosexuality. Some commentators complimented Tripp's criticism of psychotherapy and supported his view that erotic feeling depends on resistances to its satisfaction. ## Publication history The Homosexual Matrix was first published by McGraw-Hill Book Company in 1975. A revised edition with a new preface was published by New American Library in 1987. ## Reception The Homosexual Matrix was influential and widely read, reportedly selling nearly half a million copies. The book has received praise from gay authors such as the historian Martin Duberman, the scholar John Lauritsen, the playwright Larry Kramer, the historian Jonathan Ned Katz, the novelist Lewis Gannett, the novelist Gore Vidal, and the journalist Paul Varnell. Kramer called the work the first book from a "reputable source" that "dared to openly speak of homosexuality as a healthy occurrence", Katz commented that prior to its publication "you could count on one hand the books on the subject that had any intellectual substance", Gannett called it "the first work to explain in cogent psychological terms why homosexuality is not a developmental failure to achieve heterosexuality" and wrote that Pomeroy considered it the best book on homosexuality he had ever read, Vidal described it as "ground-breaking", and Varnell described it as one of the ten best non-fiction books relating to homosexuality. However, the book was controversial. According to Gannett, Tripp's view that "gay people and straight people develop their orientations in exactly the same ways" appalled "many clinicians and much of the general public". In 1987, Tripp wrote that no sentence in the book stirred such a "hateful reaction" as Tripp's comment that, "When two men are excited and unrestrained in their sexual interaction, the fire that is fed from both sides often does whip up levels of eroticism that are very rarely reached elsewhere." Tripp wrote that it had been used to wrongly portray him as maintaining that homosexuality is an inherently superior form of sexual expression. In 1996, Duberman criticized the book's "misogynistic passages". According to the writer Paul Moor, the psychoanalyst Irving Bieber filed an ethics complaint against Tripp with the American Psychological Association. Bieber accused Tripp, in a passage of The Homosexual Matrix in which Tripp alluded to Bieber and his work Homosexuality: A Psychoanalytic Study of Male Homosexuals (1962), of impugning his scientific honesty and credibility by claiming that he knew of only one patient whom he had helped to become heterosexual and was on such poor terms with him that he could not contact him so that he could validate Bieber's claim to have changed his sexual orientation. However, the APA concluded that there was no evidence of unethical behavior on Tripp's part. Authors who have complimented aspects of The Homosexual Matrix include the anthropologist Donald Symons, the philosopher Timothy F. Murphy, the queer theorist David M. Halperin, and the journalist Philip Nobile. Symons considered Tripp's hypothesis that erotic feeling depends on "resistance" plausible. He endorsed his view that sexual encounters between men often involve intense levels of eroticism seldom reached elsewhere. Murphy endorsed Tripp's criticism of conversion therapy. Halperin credited Tripp with significantly expanding on Kinsey's discussion of inversion, while Nobile believed that The Homosexual Matrix "completed Kinsey's work" on homosexuality. However, the historian of science Brian Easlea considered it regrettable that Tripp did not further explore the way in which male sexual attraction depends on motifs of dominance. Some of Tripp's claims have been criticized as inaccurate or misleading. The psychiatrist Ruth Tiffany Barnhouse maintained that while The Homosexual Matrix had been praised for its avoidance of bias, it contains multiple misrepresentations. She noted that while Tripp cited an article by Beach as evidence that homosexual behavior is common throughout the animal kingdom, his bibliography included a subsequent article by Beach rejecting his earlier claim on the basis of further research. She criticized Tripp's understanding of masculinity, relations between the sexes, and sexual attraction, as well as his use of the term "inversion", noting that it differs from that originally employed by psychiatrists. She also wrote that Tripp was incorrect to claim that no cures of homosexuality have ever been reported, that his discussion of therapeutic treatment of homosexuality was confused, and that many of her colleagues considered his "slipshod methods and lack of scholarship beneath intellectual contempt and have refused to even dignify his work with a reply." The social theorist Jonathan Dollimore described Tripp's account of psychoanalytic theories of homosexuality as an over-simplification bordering on parody.

Tripp's views about the causes of homosexuality have been criticized. The economist Richard Posner wrote that Tripp revives the psychiatrist Richard von Krafft-Ebing's theory that masturbation helps to cause homosexuality by fixating a boy on the male genitals, based on evidence that homosexuals begin masturbating earlier than heterosexuals. He criticized the theory on the grounds that homosexuality and early masturbation could both be effects of whatever factor might be responsible for causing homosexuality. The geneticist Dean Hamer credited Tripp with providing the clearest articulation of the social learning theory of sexual orientation. However, he found the theory itself implausible, and rejected it on numerous grounds, arguing that it is inconsistent with anthropological evidence and human evolutionary history, and fails to explain the existence of homosexuality. The psychologist Alan P. Bell and the sociologists Martin S. Weinberg and Sue Kiefer Hammersmith considered Tripp correct to caution against speculation about the role of maternal relationships in the development of male homosexuality, but noted that some studies suggest that "prehomosexual" boys have atypical relationships with their mothers. The Homosexual Matrix received positive reviews from the novelist George Whitmore in The Advocate and Fritz A. Fluckiger in the Journal of Homosexuality, as well as from the Atlantic Monthly. The book received a mixed review from David A. Begelman in the Journal of Homosexuality. The book received negative reviews from Robb McKenzie in Library Journal, the author J. M. Cameron in The New York Review of Books, Michael Lynch in The Body Politic, Phil Derbyshire in Gay Left, and Harriet Whitehead in Signs. Negative reviews from psychoanalysts included those from Herbert Hendin in The New York Times, Arno Karlen in the Journal of Sex Research, and Charles W. Socarides in the American Journal of Psychiatry. Whitmore considered the book "the second great contemporary landmark in the study of homosexuality", following the Kinsey Reports. He described it as a "revolutionary work" that would elicit outrage from psychiatrists. He credited Tripp with showing the "diversity and fluidity of sexual identity" and the way in which "inversion and effeminacy" relate to other forms of human behavior, and with making the most "devastating attack" on therapeutic attempts to convert homosexuals to heterosexuality since George Weinberg's Society and the Healthy Homosexual (1972). He praised Tripp's discussions of "gay sexual response" and the politics of homosexuality. However, he observed that Tripp did not discuss the gay movement and that his "centrist" political views did not necessarily correspond to those of the gay liberation movement, and suggested that feminists, and some gay people, would dislike the book. He stated that it had been seen by two publishers before it was published by McGraw-Hill, and its publication had at one stage been in doubt because of the contents of its "chapters on politics and psychiatry". He attributed the problems involved in publishing the book, along with the negative review by Hendin, to prejudice. Fluckiger called the book "easily the most provocative work on sexuality to have appeared in a long time" and credited Tripp with offering a powerful challenge to established views about homosexuality and showing command of a range of data from many fields. He maintained that Tripp offered the most novel account of the way in which behavioral expression communicates internal states since the naturalist Charles Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872), but considered his most original contribution to be his explanation of how erotic feeling depends on "resistance". The Atlantic Monthly described the book as "well-written", "authoritative", and "indispensable" for readers with a serious interest in homosexuality. It stated that Tripp contradicted most generally held beliefs about the origins of homosexuality with "an impressive mass of evidence". Begelman called Tripp a skillful writer who was learned on the subject of homosexuality, but whose objectivity was nevertheless open to question. McKenzie wrote that Tripp only partially succeeded in his goal of describing homosexuality, that his bibliography omitted basic works and included some dubious sources, and that while some of Tripp's observations were thought-provoking, others were ludicrous. He also described the book as a rambling, awkwardly written, and poorly organized anecdotal survey. Cameron called Tripp "vulgar" and prejudiced and characterized Tripp's evidence as "largely literary." He criticized Tripp for treating the Kinsey Reports as authoritative, writing that they were out of date. He also criticized Tripp for being careless in his discussion of history and for focusing mainly on male homosexuality and neglecting lesbianism. He was convinced by Tripp's argument that strains and tensions are necessary in a relationship to keep the partners interested in each other, and found his discussion of psychotherapy insightful. Lynch wrote that while initially delighted by the work, he later concluded that it was a "deceptive book inadequate to its task" that the gay movement should not endorse. In his view, Tripp made many claims without empirical evidence and neglected lesbianism and female sexuality in general. He argued that Tripp's understanding of sexual relations between men and women, and his account of how tension between the sexes creates erotic excitement, were influenced by biological determinism. He found Tripp's discussion of why societies have increased divisions between the sexes interesting, but also poorly worked out. He accepted Tripp's view that sexual orientation depends on learning, but disagreed with the details of Tripp's account. He agreed with Tripp's criticisms of psychotherapy, but argued that Tripp's theories were "linked to psychoanalytic assumptions." He accused Tripp of seeking to legitimize homosexuality "by making it bland". He also criticized Whitmore for defending Tripp and expressed partial agreement with Hendin's review of the book. Lynch subsequently wrote that the book had been criticized for Tripp's failure to discuss the gay rights movement and negative view of women. According to Lynch, Tripp stated in an interview that he had not written about the gay liberation movement because he did not know enough about it, that he was amazed at the accusation of sexism made against the book, and that he believed the "gay press" had reacted with embarrassment to it, while the interviewer suggested that Tripp was hurt by such negative reactions. Derbyshire dismissed the book, arguing that it was based in "bourgeois social science" and that Tripp did not appreciate the role of sexism in supporting taboos against homosexuality, which he viewed through "the ideological forms of advanced capitalism" and therefore misunderstood as a "unitary and trans-historical category". He also argued that Tripp had a sexist focus on gay men and mostly ignored lesbians, that he viewed male and female sexuality as "biological givens", and ignored alternative feminist and Marxist accounts of the oppression of gay men and lesbians. He contrasted Tripp's work unfavorably with that of the French philosophers Gilles Deleuze and Michel Foucault. Whitehead called the book a "rambling mixture of personal observation and popularized social science". She wrote that despite some "more promising kernels of thought", Tripp wrongly maintained that "the various forms of human sexual behavior as well as the various human reactions to these forms are reducible to a simple set of psychological imperatives." She described Tripp's model of heterosexual relations as sexist, criticized him for focusing only on male homosexuality, and noted that he barely mentioned the gay liberation movement. Hendin called The Homosexual Matrix pseudoscience and Tripp an "erudite con man" who lacked impartiality and had a "bias toward homosexuality". He argued that Tripp saw homosexuality as superior to heterosexuality and sexual passion as dependent upon anger, mistakenly drew conclusions about heterosexuality from observations about homosexual behavior, and had a distorted view of sexual history and a negative view of women. He wrote that Tripp's conclusion that homosexuality is not related to fear or anger toward women, family relationships, or a reflection of confusion over sexual identity, was baseless. His review was followed by letters of protest from the historian Martin Duberman, Pomeroy, George Weinberg, and others, to which Hendin replied with a rebuttal. Karlen wrote that Tripp made numerous unjustified claims, such as that homosexual men tend to have a larger than average penis size and that there are no confirmed cases of homosexuals being converted to heterosexuality through therapy. He accused Tripp of trying to normalize or exalt homosexuality and denigrate heterosexuality and women, and those who endorsed his work of politicizing sex research. Socarides criticized Tripp for arguing that homosexuality is not pathological, presenting it as preferable to heterosexuality, incorrectly claiming that homosexual men tend to undergo puberty early and to have a larger than average penis size, making "slurs" against therapists who attempted to convert homosexuals to heterosexuality, and encouraging homosexuals not to undergo treatment. ## See also Books - Gay Science - Sexual Dissidence - Sexual Preference - The Evolution of Human Sexuality - The Science of Desire Topics - Biology and sexual orientation - Environment and sexual orientation - Homosexual behavior in animals - Homosexuality and psychology — DSM-III (1980) and DSM-III-R (1987)

Vietnamese Cambodians

Ethnic Vietnamese people in Cambodia

Vietnamese Cambodians refer to ethnic group of Vietnamese living in Cambodia or Vietnamese who are of full or partial Khmer descent. According to Cambodian sources, in 2013 there are about 15,000 Vietnamese people living in Cambodia. Vietnamese source said there are 156,000 people living in Cambodia, while the actual number could be somewhere between 400,000 and one million people, according to independent scholars. They mostly reside in southeastern parts of Cambodia bordering Vietnam or on houseboats in the Tonlé Sap lake and Mekong rivers. The first Vietnamese came to settle modern-day Cambodia from the early 19th century during the era of the Nguyễn lords and most of the Vietnamese came to Cambodia during the periods of French colonial administration and the People's Republic of Kampuchea administration. During the Khmer Republic and Khmer Rouge governments in the 1970s under the Pol Pot regime, the Vietnamese amongst others were targets of mass genocides; thousands of Vietnamese were killed and many more sought refuge in Vietnam. Ethnic relations between the Cambodians and Vietnamese are complex, where despite engagement and collaboration between the two countries of Cambodia and Vietnam, Vietnamese have been the target of xenophobic attacks by opposition political parties against Hun Sen's policies since the 1990s. Many of the stateless Vietnamese residents face difficulties in getting access to education, employment, and housing. Although xenophobic sentiments have been a continuing source of concern, they have not been a barrier towards neighbourly ties within the context of Southeast Asia and other international affairs. ## History Relations between Cambodia and Vietnam date back to when Chey Chettha II, in order to balance the influence of the Siamese forces, which had devastated the previous capital at Longvek during the reign of his father, had struck an alliance with Vietnam and married Princess Nguyễn Phúc Ngọc Vạn, a daughter of Lord Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên, in 1618. In return, the king had granted the Vietnamese the right to establish settlements in Mô Xoài (now Bà Rịa), in the region of Prey Nokor—which they colloquially referred to as Sài Gòn, and which later became Ho Chi Minh City. Vietnamese settlers first entered the Mekong and the Prey Nokor area (later Saigon) from the 1620s onwards. The region then as now is known to the Cambodians as Kampuchea Krom but by cession and conquest (Vietnamese expansion to the South, dubbed Nam Tiến), the area came under Vietnamese control. Under the reign of Chey Chettha II, Cambodia formally ceded the eastern portion to the Nguyễn lords. With the unification Vietnam under Emperor Gia Long, the Court of Huế asserted its hegemony in 1813 and sent 10,000 troops to Phnom Penh. The Cambodian court was split into rival factions vying for power and some members of the Cambodian royal sought the support of the Vietnamese, thus implanting Vietnamese power within the kingdom. Favors were granted to allow more Vietnamese settlers and by the reign of Emperor Minh Mạng, Vietnam chose to impose its rule directly, relegating the Cambodian court to a minor role. Administrative renaming of town and provinces was carried out while Vietnamese customs were forced upon the Cambodian populace. The heavy-handed policies stirred resentment among the Cambodian populace, provoking protracted insurgency and unrest. Vietnam was forced to withdraw, accepting the restoration of the royal candidate Ang Duong as the Cambodian king. Vietnam nonetheless joined Siam to hold Cambodia in joint vassalage. In 1880 with the establishment of the French colonial administration, Cambodia joined Vietnam as part of French Indochina, the status to Vietnamese residents in Cambodia was formally legalized. Over the next fifty years, large numbers of Vietnamese migrated to Cambodia. Population censuses conducted by the French recorded an increase in the Vietnamese population from about 4,500 in the 1860s to almost 200,000 at the end of the 1930s. When the Japanese invaded Indochina in 1940, Vietnamese nationalists in Cambodia launched a brief but unsuccessful attempt to attack the French colonial administrators. With independence in 1954, Cambodia legislated a citizenship law based on knowledge in the Khmer language and national origin; this effectively excluded most Vietnamese and Chinese Cambodians. At the grassroot level, Vietnamese also faced occasional cases of violent intimidation from the Cambodians. During a Sangkum congress in 1962, politicians debated on the issue of citizenship on Cambodia's ethnic minorities and a resolution was passed not to grant naturalization of Vietnamese residents. When Lon Nol assumed power in 1970, the Khmer Republic government launched a propaganda campaign to portray the ethnic Vietnamese as agents of the Vietcong. About 30,000 Vietnamese were arrested and killed in prison, while an additional tens of thousands fled to Vietnam. Five years later in 1975 when the Khmer republic met its demise at the hands of the Khmer Rouge, fewer than 80,000 Vietnamese remained in Cambodia. The Khmer Rouge proceeded to expel close to three quarters back to Vietnam; the remaining 20,000 were classified as mixed Vietnamese and Khmer descent and were killed by the regime. By the time Vietnamese troops entered Cambodia in 1979, virtually all of Cambodia's Vietnamese population were either displaced or killed. Vietnam established a new regime known as the People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK), and Vietnamese advisers were appointed in the new government administration. In 1983, the PRK government formulated an official policy to encourage former Vietnamese residents to return and settle in Cambodia. Even Vietnamese immigrants who had no family ties to Cambodia came to settle in the country, as there was little border control to limit Vietnamese migrants from entering the country. The Vietnamese were recognised as an official minority under the PRK regime, and Overseas Vietnamese Associations were established in parts of Cambodia with sizeable Vietnamese populations. The PRK government also identity cards were issued to them until the withdrawal of Vietnamese troops in 1990. Vietnamese migrant workers started to arrive from 1992 onwards due to the creation of new job opportunities by the UNTAC administration. At the same time, the UNTAC administration allowed the opening of political offices and political parties such as FUNCINPEC and the BLDP began to propagate anti-Vietnamese sentiments among the populace to shore up electorate support in the 1993 general elections. In November 1992, the Khmer Rouge which controlled northwestern parts of Cambodia, passed a resolution to target systematic killings of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians. The first guerrilla-style attacks by the Khmer Rouge on Vietnamese civilians started in December 1992, and Khmer Rouge soldiers justified the killings by claiming that some of the civilians were Vietnamese soldiers in disguise. The spate of killings by Khmer Rouge prompted some 21,000 ethnic Vietnamese to flee to Vietnam in March 1993. In August 1994, the National Assembly of Cambodia introduced an immigration law which authorised the deportation of illegal immigrants. The UNHCR assessed the law as singling out and targeting Vietnamese migrants in Cambodia; the Cambodian government had to reassure the international community that no mass deportations of Vietnamese refugees would be implemented. Meanwhile in the remote northwest, he Khmer Rouge continued to carry out sporadic attacks on Vietnamese civilians. The Khmer Rouge formally surrendered to the government in 1999 but ethnic Vietnamese continue to face discrimination in Cambodia, both as physical intimidation from the general population and administrative threats by local authorities. Anti-Vietnamese are familiar rallying cries from politicians in campaigns during the general elections and become even more acute when disputes flared in the news between the two countries. ## Demographics ### Population The Vietnamese are generally concentrated along the river banks of the Tonlé Sap lake and Mekong river which encompass the provinces of Siem Reap, Kampong Chhnang and Pursat. Smaller populations may be found in Phnom Penh as well as southeastern provinces bordering Vietnam, namely Prey Veng, Svay Rieng, Kampot, Kandal, Kratié and Takéo. The Vietnamese population was at its largest in 1962 when the government census showed that they were the country's largest minority and reflected 3.8% of the country's population. Demographic researchers returned higher estimated numbers of Vietnamese than government censuses reflect. For example, in the 1960s, the number of resident Vietnamese may be as high as 400,000, while another Cambodian-based researcher, Michael Vickery had estimated the Vietnamese resident population to be between 200,000 and 300,000 in 1986. On the other hand, government censuses conducted during the 1980s put the figures to be no more than 60,000. The following population figures shows population figures of ethnic Vietnamese based on figures derived from government censuses: ### Religion The Vietnamese identify themselves as adherents of Mahayana Buddhism, Cao Đài or Roman Catholicism. Vietnamese Buddhists are mainly found among impoverished communities living in the Tonle Sap or the rural parts of Cambodia. As Vietnamese Buddhists derive their religious doctrines and beliefs from Chinese folk religion, they participate in religious rituals organised by Chinese Cambodians during festive seasons. Vietnamese communities that have settled down in Cambodia have adopted Khmer Theravada Buddhist practices to some extent. Vietnamese adherents of Roman Catholicism consist of descendants of refugees that fled the religious persecution during the reign of Tự Đức. They are split between city dwellers based in Phnom Penh and fishing communities that are based in Tonle Sap. Vietnamese Catholics make up about 90% of Cambodia's Roman Catholic community, and in the 1960s they had about 65,000 adherents in the country. Most of the Vietnamese Catholics were either deported to Vietnam or killed in March 1970, and it was only in 1990 that the Catholic church was allowed to re-establish itself in Cambodia. In 2005, there were about 25,000 Catholics in the country.

A minority of Vietnamese are also followers of the Cao Đài faith which was introduced in 1927. The Cao Đài faith attracted both Vietnamese and Cambodian adherents within the first few years of its founding, but a royal decree which outlawed the religion and efforts by Cambodian nationalists to prosecute Khmer adherents led to Cao Dai being observed solely by Vietnamese from the 1930s onwards. A Cao Đài temple was built in Mao Tse Tung Boulevard in 1937, and in the 1960s there were about 70,000 adherents in Cambodia. Cao Đài was outlawed during the Khmer Republic and Khmer Rouge regimes, but regained official recognition in 1985 and has about 2,000 adherents in 2000. ### Language The Vietnamese as a whole exhibit varying levels of fluency in the Khmer and Vietnamese languages. Vietnamese that live in self-contained fishing communities along the Tonle Sap use Vietnamese in their day-to-day conversations and have individuals that have limited Khmer language skills and those that are bilingual in both languages. On the other hand, Vietnamese that live in predominantly Khmer-speaking neighbourhoods send their children to public schools, and as a result the children are able to speak Khmer fluently but show very limited understanding of Vietnamese. ### Education Field research carried out by ethnologists such as Stefan Ehrentraut shows that only a minority of Vietnamese children attend public schools, with figures varying across different provinces. In Kampong Chhnang and Siem Reap where the Vietnamese live along the river banks, enrolment into public schools fare below 10%, whereas in other provinces such as Kampot and Kratie the proportion are higher. As the majority of Vietnamese do not carry citizenship papers, they were unable to enrol their children into public schools. For those who send their children to schools, most of them only attend school for a few years and seldom complete Grade 12 as Vietnamese parents were unable to afford school fees. Vietnamese students also faced difficulties in academic work, as classes are taught exclusively in the Khmer language, and Vietnamese children that grew up speaking Vietnamese at home have limited competency in Khmer. In some Vietnamese communities based in the Tonle Sap and Mekong rivers, there are private schools that are run by Vietnamese community associations and Christian organisations. The private schools cater the teaching of the Vietnamese language, and are mostly attended by children of impoverished families. ## Economy During the French colonial administration, educated Vietnamese were employed in the civil service administration as secretaries, clerks and bureaucrats. When Cambodia gained independence in 1953, the Sihanouk-led government phased out most of the Vietnamese civil servants with Cambodians, and they sought employment in banks and commercial enterprises as secretaries and other office-based positions. In the 1960s, urban-dwelling Vietnamese with lower education backgrounds also worked as mechanics in car repair and machine shops owned by Chinese businessmen. Vietnamese immigrants that settled in the countryside worked as fishermen along the Tonle Sap lake and Mekong river, and also as rubber plantation workers in Kampong Cham and Kratie provinces. As most Vietnamese are stateless residents, they seek a living through ad-hoc various industries such as the construction, recycling and prostitution industries or as street pedlars. Vietnamese that live along the Tonle Sap lake and Mekong rivers are subsistence fishermen. A sizeable number of these stateless Vietnamese consisted of migrants that came to Cambodia between 1992 and 1993 during the UNTAC administration. The majority of Vietnamese still live below the poverty line, although a very small number of Vietnamese are represented in the Cambodian business sector. One example is Sok Kong, the head of the business conglomerate Sokimex which owns state concessionaires in the country's petroleum, tourism and entrepot industries. ## Relations with community and society ### Government Almost 90% of ethnic Vietnamese are stateless residents of Cambodia, and do not carry citizenship papers such as identity cards or birth certificates. The 1996 Cambodian law on nationality technically permits Vietnamese residents born in Cambodia to take up citizenship, but faced resistance from mid-ranking interior ministry officials who generally refrain from registering Vietnamese residents due to concerns of political implications from opposition parties if citizenship were to be granted. A minority of Vietnamese residents were able to obtain citizenship only after paying bribes to interior ministry officials, or were married to Khmer spouses. The minority of Vietnamese residents who hold citizenship reported of interior ministry officials confiscating their citizenship papers. As a result, the Vietnamese faced legal restrictions from getting access to public healthcare, education, employment and buying land for housing as the majority do not carry Cambodian citizenship. Stateless Vietnamese built floating settlements in-lieu of buying land-based dwellings which require citizenship papers. According to field research carried out by Cambodia's Minority Rights Organisation, interior ministry officials would confront Vietnamese fishermen in the Tonle Sap and demand bribes in order to allow them to carry out fishing. ### Inter-ethnic relations Ethnic Khmers have a poor perception of the Vietnamese community, due to persistent feelings of communal animosity from the past history of Vietnamese rule over Cambodia. In 1958, a survey conducted by William Willmott upon high school students in Phnom Penh showed that relations with Chinese were generally rated as friendly, whereas Khmer students viewed their Vietnamese classmates with suspicion. Relations between the Vietnamese and Chinese are considerably better, as both ethnic groups share a close cultural affinity. In recent years, field research carried out by Ehrentraut in 2013 suggested that ethnic relations between Vietnamese have deteriorated not only with the ethnic Khmer, but also with the Cham and Chinese Cambodians. Most Vietnamese are unrepresented in the Cambodian commune councils as they lack Cambodian citizenship. According to respondents from Ehrentraut's field research, the majority of Cambodian commune chiefs and officials express support in excluding Vietnamese representatives from getting citizenship and participating in commune elections and meetings due to contempt. The Vietnamese appoint their own village heads, and convey community concerns Vietnamese community associations (Vietnamese: Tổng hội người Campuchia gốc Việt) that was first established in 2003. The community associations own limited assets and obtains funding from membership fees, donations from the Vietnamese embassy in Cambodia and sale of cemetery land from the Vietnamese communities. The funds are subsequently used to address Vietnamese communal concerns which includes supporting religious places of worship and teaching of the Vietnamese language, as well as providing assistance to disadvantaged families. While the community associations have the tacit support of the Vietnamese community, the majority do not accept membership for fear of getting social stigma from mainstream Cambodian society. As of 2013, branches of these associations are established in 19 out of 23 provinces across Cambodia. ### Politics The issue of Vietnamese presence in Cambodia has been used as a topic by political parties to shore up electorate support since the 1993 general elections. Mainstream political parties that participated in the 1993 election included FUNCINPEC, BLDP and MOLINAKA, and they broached on topics concerning the presence of Cambodia's Vietnamese population and perceived Vietnamese interference in the government during campaign trails. These political parties also charged that the presence of Vietnamese in the country were the cause of economic failures, and promises were made to expel the Vietnamese in the situation that they win the elections. During this same period of time, the Khmer Rouge which has earlier refused to participate in the elections also espoused similar anti-Vietnamese sentiments with mainstream political parties albeit on a more extreme form. The Khmer Rouge would issue statements and radio broadcasts accusing UNTAC of collaborating with Vietnam, and called for expulsion of the Vietnamese population through force. They would follow up with attacks upon Vietnamese civilians, which continued even after the end of the 1993 elections. When the 1998 general elections were held, FUNCINPEC and the then-newly formed Sam Rainsy Party repeated the use of anti-Vietnamese rhetoric in their campaigns. The leaders of these two parties, Norodom Ranariddh and Sam Rainsy charged that some stateless Vietnamese had bribed state officials to obtain citizenship and the Vietnamese government still maintained political influence over the ruling party, the Cambodian People's Party. At the same time, number of incidences of violent attacks against Vietnamese civilians rose, which are carried out by both the Khmer Rouge remnants and Cambodian civilians alike. The number of politically motivated acts of violence against Vietnamese civilians reduced after 2000, and in the subsequent 2003 and 2008 general elections opposition political parties the use of anti-Vietnamese rhetoric was also reduced. In October 2009, Sam Rainsy charged Vietnam of encroaching into Cambodian territory in their border demarcation exercise, and led a group of activists to uproot Cambodian-Vietnamese border posts in Svay Rieng. Although Sam Rainsy was sentenced to imprisonment in absentia over this incident, the incident became a major focus in electoral campaigns by the Cambodia National Rescue Party (CNRP) for the 2013 general elections. CNRP leaders also stoked claims on historical ties of Kampuchea Krom, and led to more anti-Vietnamese sentiments among CNRP supporters. When the CNRP narrowly lost the 2013 elections, they launched a series of anti-government protests between 2013-2014 which resulted in incidents of Vietnamese shops in Phnom Penh being ransacked. The vast majority of the Vietnamese support the CPP, and those who carry Cambodian citizenship would vote for the party. Vietnamese support for the CPP has mostly driven by strong anti-Vietnamese sentiments from other political parties. Although many members within the rank and file of the CPP share anti-Vietnamese sentiments with other political parties, the CPP maintained an openly neutral stance towards the Vietnamese community. According to Ehrentraut, the CPP's neutral stance was a balance between not providing open support for the Vietnamese community, which would have the potential effect of losing electoral votes to other political parties, while at the same time maintaining close ties with the Vietnamese government which the CPP had historical ties dating back to 1979. Vietnamese who hold Cambodian citizenship have also expressed fear over physical insecurity during election periods, which is most apparent during the 1993 and 2013 elections when Vietnamese civilians faced physical intimidation from the Khmer Rouge and CNRP supporters respectively and have abstained from participating in elections.

Give Me Your Eyes

"Give Me Your Eyes" is a song by contemporary Christian musician Brandon Heath from his second album, What If We. It was released in July 2008 as the album's lead single and quickly gained success. It sold nearly 6,000 downloads in the first week, and became 2008's highest-debuting Christian track at the time. It soon placed at No. 1 on Christian radio charts, and held the position for multiple consecutive weeks. At the end of 2008, it was the second most-played song of the year on Christian contemporary hit radio. The song is about wanting to see the world as God would, and having a desire to view people with more compassion. "Give Me Your Eyes" was written by Heath and songwriter Jason Ingram, and was generally well received by critics. The song received two GMA Dove Awards in April 2009, including the Song of the Year title. It was also Grammy Award-nominated in the Best Gospel Song category for 2009. ## Background The song's meaning originated with a discussion between Brandon Heath and friend and songwriter Jason Ingram. "We had a conversation over Chinese food that we wished we could have God's perspective on things", Heath said. "If we did have His perspective, we'd wish we could have it for long periods of time, rather than just for a few seconds. That was the beginning." He soon began to pen a song about the idea, co-writing "Give Me Your Eyes" with Ingram. Prior to recording What If We, Heath had written 40 possible tracks for the album, and although the song was not his top favorite, he noted that "Give Me Your Eyes" was "one of the first that really stuck out." ## Music and lyrics The song's genre is represented by pop, and includes acoustic and mild hip hop influences. It is a mid-tempo song based upon a strummed acoustic guitar, background piano, and occasional strings. The song's continuous clap-sounding beat was described as a "hip-hop shuffle", drawing comparisons to Christian musician Mat Kearney. Lyrically, the song is about a desire to view people as God would, and was "inspired by people-watching at an airport". Heath has said, "[it's] a song about my own convictions for wanting to see the world with compassionate eyes." ## Release "Give Me Your Eyes" was digitally released as the lead single from What If We on July 23, 2008. Upon its release, the single was commercially successful and soon began to place on Christian radio charts. It made nearly 6,000 downloads in the first week, which was the highest-debuting Christian track of 2008 at the time. By the second week, another 6,700 copies were sold. It placed at No. 1 on Billboards Hot Christian Songs chart beginning in September, and spent an end total of 14 consecutive weeks at the top by December. It also held the No. 1 position on the Radio & Records (R&R) Christian CHR chart for 13 consecutive weeks from the last week of August through the start of December. For the week of November 1, 2008, "Give Me Your Eyes" debuted on ''Billboards Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart at No. 22, which is equivalent to placing at No. 122 on the Hot 100. By mid-September, it had sold 70,000 digital downloads. The song placed at No. 1 on the iTunes top Christian songs chart and held the position from July through February for seven consecutive months, receiving 100,000 downloads on iTunes by late October. It ended 2008 as the second most-played song on R&R's Christian CHR format; the song also placed at No. 9 for the year's top-played Christian AC songs. ## Compilation

This song was also by the appearances by the compilation album WOW Hits 2009 and Now That's What I Call Faith. ## Reception The song was generally received well by critics. The New York Times highlighted Heath's Grammy Award-nominated What If We album as one of the best Grammy nominees in Christian music that year, saying; "Mr. Heath's sense of wonder is firmly intact – 'Give Me Your Eyes,' which is nominated for best gospel song, is a breezy statement of humble devotion." The song was featured on USA Today'''s top ten "pick of the week" playlist in the beginning of March 2009; the magazine's editor and music critic Brian Mansfield said, "Grammy and Dove Award nominations are attracting a second look for Heath's song about seeing life's big picture." Jesus Freak Hideout's Matthew Watson said of Heath's future music efforts: "it could be really outstanding if he sticks to more upbeat songs like 'Give Me Your Eyes'." The song was Grammy Award-nominated in the Best Gospel Song category for the 51st Grammy Awards of 2009. It received two awards at the 40th GMA Dove Awards in April 2009: Song of the Year and Pop/Contemporary Song of the Year. On January 30, 2010, the song won an Emmy for the Nashville Rescue Mission: Hunger to Hope public service announcement campaign from the Midsouth Chapter of the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences. ## Music video A music video for "Give Me Your Eyes" was filmed over the night of July 23–24, 2008 at the Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport in Birmingham, Alabama after most flights had landed for the night. It was directed by the Erwin Brothers and premiered on the Gospel Music Channel on August 23, 2008. The video is mainly set in an airport as Brandon Heath walks among travelers, with interspersed shots of Heath sitting on steps and singing. The scenes of Heath alone sitting on stairs and in a chair were filmed in the 1962 Birmingham Air Terminal that was demolished in 2011 to make room for terminal expansion. Filming of crowd scenes took place in the lower level baggage claim 2 and 3 areas of the main terminal and the arrivals level roadway curbside; this terminal was completely renovated in 2011 and no longer resembles the appearance shown in the video. In the bridge of the song, a portion of the video is played backwards as he sings the lines "I want a second glance/So give me a second chance/To see the way You see the people all alone". In the last chorus, a few of the previous scenes are replayed as Heath now helps with people's individual situations. In one of the early shots, a woman steps in front of an approaching car; it is replayed as Heath intervenes and stops her from being hit by the car. The video's airport scene included about 100 extras. ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ### Decade-end charts ## Certifications

Free Speech Flag

Banner symbolizing free expression

The Free Speech Flag is a symbol of personal liberty used to promote freedom of speech. Designed by artist John Marcotte, the flag and its colors correspond to a cryptographic key which enabled users to copy HD DVDs and Blu-ray Discs. It was created on May 1, 2007, during the AACS encryption key controversy. Marcotte was motivated to create the flag after the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) and the Advanced Access Content System Licensing Administrator (AACS LA) began issuing cease and desist letters to websites publishing the key `09 F9 11 02 9D 74 E3 5B D8 41 56 C5 63 56 88 C0` (commonly referred to as 09-F9). In response to attempts to remove the key from the Internet, netizens publicized the cryptographic key on the news aggregator website Digg. ## History On April 30, 2007, a blogger named "Rudd-O" published the encryption key for HD DVDs and asked readers to share it widely. Knowledge of this numeric key value allowed users to bypass digital rights management (DRM) and copy HD DVDs that previously could not be duplicated. News media reported, and Digg, a news aggregator and social media website, provided a way for users to vote on stories they felt were most newsworthy. Votes by 15,000 Digg users drove an article about the encryption key to the front page of the site. The Advanced Access Content System (AACS), the organization which controlled access to the HD DVD encryption key, sent a cease and desist letter to Digg on May 1, 2007. In its letter, AACS claimed that by publishing news articles on its website that reported on the encryption key, the website was engaging in illegal activity. Articles by numerous journalists reporting on the news story were posted to Digg. Jay Adelson, the CEO of Digg, announced that the website would abide by the AACS' requests and self-censor articles reporting on the encryption key. Adelson's decision to self-censor his website caused a backlash from the Digg community. "In trying to make the cracked issue go away", notes Jeremy Goldman in his 2012 book Going Social, "the AACS's letter (and Digg's response) succeeded only in making the story bigger." Digg users made sure, by their votes and online participation, that all front-page stories on Digg were about the encryption key. Digg founder Kevin Rose observed: "The Digg community is one that loves to have their voice heard, and this has been something that struck a chord with them." After listening to complaints from Digg's community about Adelson's decision to self-censor news stories about the encryption key, Rose wrote a message to his users reversing this decision. He announced that Digg would stop self-censorship and he acknowledged that he understood the message from Digg's members: "After seeing hundreds of stories and reading thousands of comments, you've made it clear ... you'd rather see Digg go down fighting than bow to a bigger company. Effective immediately, we won't delete stories or comments containing the code, and we will deal with whatever the consequences might be." ## Design and message John Marcotte, a writer and editor at the website Badmouth, created the Free Speech Flag with the intent of disseminating the secret HD DVD code on the Internet, publishing it on the website on May 1, 2007. In his initial post announcing his flag, Marcotte criticized how the mere use of numbers had become intellectual property. "We want to start a movement", Marcotte wrote. "A movement to reclaim personal liberties and decorporatize the laws of our nation." He encouraged online viewers of his work to spread his message throughout the Internet and to freely publicize his work. "To that end we have made a flag, a symbol to show support for personal freedoms. Spread it as far and wide as you can."

Marcotte embedded the secret HD DVD key into the colors of the flag itself, using the flag hex code format colors \#09F911 \#029D74 \#E35BD8 \#4156C5 \#635688. By appending the byte "C0" to the bottom right corner of the flag, Marcotte implied that the act of publishing a number is "Crime Zero". He originally released the flag "freely" with "rights for people to make similar, derivative works", but later released it into the public domain. ## Impact Soon after it was first published, bloggers publicized the Free Speech Flag, increasing its popularity and disseminating the code within the flag. The flag entered popular culture as Internet users chose creative ways to spread knowledge of the HD DVD encryption key. Users wore the code emblazoned on T-shirts, added it to poems, integrated the code into the lyrics of hip hop songs, and created music utilizing its numeric values. Musician Keith Burgun composed a song using the code titled "Oh Nine, Eff Nine", and published it on YouTube. The sole lyrics to the song were the numbers of the digital code itself: "09 F9 11 02 9D 74 E3 5B D8 41 56 C5 63 56 88 C0". "I thought it was a source of comedy that they were trying so futilely to quell the spread of this number," Burgun said. "The ironic thing is, because they tried to quiet it down it’s the most famous number on the Internet." Matthew Rimmer, senior lecturer at Australian National University, commented upon the legality of the innovative ways Internet users like Marcotte chose to publicize the secret HD DVD code: "I don't think it's necessarily designed to stay within the bounds of the law. It's just a fun way to comment on what's happened. I think that it's designed to show that the law is absurd or ridiculous and should be abolished." Antonio Ceraso of Pennsylvania State University placed the flag's conception within a larger framework—"the formation of a communal ethos...the 09 F9 tribe"—and posed the question: "Would five striped colors arranged into a flag constitute an anti-circumvention device under the DMCA?" The flag inspired Jeff Thompson, assistant professor and program director of Visual Art and Technology at the Stevens Institute of Technology, to create a sound file of the AACS encryption key as a melody. After a similar encryption key was cracked for the PlayStation 3 gaming system, a new flag was created by a different user as a tribute to Marcotte's original flag. ## See also - Freedom of information - Illegal number - Internet censorship - Streisand effect

Al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi

8th-century Shi'i ghulat leader

Abū ʿAbd Allāh al-Mufaḍḍal ibn ʿUmar al-Juʿfī (Arabic: أبو عبد الله المفضل بن عمر الجعفي), died before 799, was an early Shi'i leader and the purported author of a number of religious and philosophical writings. A contemporary of the Imams Ja'far al-Sadiq (c. 700–765) and Musa al-Kazim (745–799), he belonged to those circles in Kufa whom later Twelver Shi'i authors would call ghulāt ('exaggerators') for their 'exaggerated' veneration of the Imams. As a money-changer, al-Mufaddal wielded considerable financial and political power. He was likely also responsible for managing the financial affairs of the Imams in Medina. For a time he was a follower of the famous ghulāt leader Abu al-Khattab (died 755–6), who had claimed that the Imams were divine. Early Imami heresiographers and Nusayri sources regard al-Mufaddal as a staunch supporter of Abu al-Khattab's ideas who later spawned his own ghulāt movement (the Mufaḍḍaliyya). However, Twelver Shi'i sources instead report that after Ja'far al-Sadiq's repudiated Abu al-Khattab in 748, al-Mufaddal broke with Abu al-Khattab and became a trusted companion of Ja'far's son Musa al-Kazim. A number of writings—collectively known as the Mufaddal Tradition—have been attributed to al-Mufaddal, most of which are still extant. They were likely falsely attributed to al-Mufaddal by later 9th–11th-century authors. As one of the closest confidants of Ja'far al-Sadiq, al-Mufaddal was an attractive figure for authors of various Shi'i persuasions: by attributing their own ideas to him they could invest these ideas with the authority of the Imam. The writings attributed to al-Mufaddal are very different in nature and scope, but Ja'far al-Sadiq is the main speaker in most of them. A major part of the extant writings attributed to al-Mufaddal originated among the ghulāt, an early branch of Shi'i Islam. A recurring theme in these texts is the myth of the world's creation through the fall from grace of pre-existent "shadows" or human souls, whom God punished for their disobedience by concealing himself from them and by casting them down into the seven heavens. The Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla (Book of the Seven and the Shadows, 8th to 11th centuries) develops the theme of seven primordial Adams who rule over the seven heavens and initiate the seven historical world cycles. The Kitāb al-Ṣirāṭ (Book of the Path, written c. 874–941) describes an initiatory "path" leading believers back through the seven heavens towards God. Those who grow in religious devotion and knowledge climb upwards on the chain of being, but others are reborn into human bodies, while unbelievers travel downwards and reincarnate into animal, vegetable, or mineral bodies. Those who reach the seventh heaven and attain the rank of Bāb ("Gate") enjoy a beatific vision of God and share the divine power to manifest themselves in the world of matter. Among the extant non-ghulāt texts attributed to al-Mufaddal, most of which were preserved in the Twelver Shi'i tradition, two treatises stand out for their philosophical content. These are the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal (al-Mufaddal's Tawhid) and the Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja (Book of the Myrobalan Fruit), both of which feature Ja'far al-Sadiq presenting al-Mufaddal with a proof for the existence of God. The teleological argument used in the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal is inspired by Syriac Christian literature (especially commentaries on the Hexameron), and ultimately goes back to Hellenistic models such as pseudo-Aristotle's De mundo (3rd/2nd century BCE) and Stoic theology as recorded in Cicero's (106–43 BCE) De natura deorum. The dialectical style of the Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja is more typical of early Muslim speculative theology (kalām), and the work may originally have been authored by the 8th-century scribe Muhammad ibn Layth. Both works may be regarded as part of an attempt to rehabilitate al-Mufaddal as a reliable transmitter of hadiths in the Twelver Shi'i tradition. ## Life Al-Mufaddal was a non-Arab mawlā ("client") of the Ju'fa, a tribe belonging to the South-Arabian Madhhij confederation. Apart from the fact that he was a money-changer based in Kufa (Iraq), very little is known about his life. He probably managed the financial affairs of the Shi'ite Imams Ja'far al-Sadiq (c. 700–765) and Musa al-Kazim (745–799), who resided in Medina (Arabia). Using his professional network, he actively raised funds for the Imams in Medina, thus also playing an important role as an intermediary between the Imams and the Shi'ite community. His date of death is unknown, but he died before Musa al-Kazim, who died in 799. At some point during his life, al-Mufaddal's relations with Ja'far al-Sadiq soured because of his adherence to the teachings of the Kufan ghulāt leader Abu al-Khattab (died 755–6). Abu al-Khattab had been a designated spokesman of Ja'far, but in c. 748 he was excommunicated by the Imam for his 'extremist' or 'exaggerated' (ghulāt) ideas, particularly for having declared Ja'far to be divine. However, al-Mufaddal later recanted and cut of all contact with the Khaṭṭabiyya (the followers of Abu al-Khattab), leading to a reconciliation with Ja'far. This episode was understood in widely different ways by later Shi'i authors. On the one hand, early Imami (i.e., proto-Twelver Shi'i) heresiographers report the existence of a ghulāt sect named after him, the Mufaḍḍaliyya, who would have declared Ja'far to be God and al-Mufaddal his prophet or Imam. It is not certain whether the Mufaḍḍaliyya really ever existed, and if they did, whether they really held the doctrines attributed to them by the heresiographers. Nevertheless, al-Mufaddal was also highly regarded by the members of other ghulāt sects such as the Mukhammisa, and several of the writings attributed to him contain ghulāt ideas. He was even accused in some hadith reports of having tried to contaminate Ja'far's eldest son Isma'il with the ideas of Abu al-Khattab. In addition, most works attributed to al-Mufaddal were preserved by the Nusayris, a ghulāt sect that survives to this day and that sometimes regarded al-Mufaddal as a Bāb (an official deputy of the Imam and a "gateway" to his secret knowledge). On the other hand, later Twelver Shi'i sources often insist that al-Mufaddal never gave in to heresy, and they often emphasize that it was al-Mufaddal who was appointed by Ja'far to lead the Khaṭṭabiyya back to the right path. Some of the works attributed to al-Mufaddal, like the Kitab al-Ihlīlaja and the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal, explicitly refute those who would deny the exclusive oneness (tawḥīd) of God. These works may have been written in order to rehabilitate al-Mufaddal within the Twelver tradition and to prove his reliability as a hadith transmitter. But even among Twelver scholars there was dissension. For example, while al-Shaykh al-Mufid (c. 948–1022) praised al-Mufaddal as a learned person and a trustworthy companion of the Imams, al-Najashi (c. 982–1058) and Ibn al-Ghada'iri ( half of the 11th century) denounced him as an unbelieving heretic. ## Ghulāt works ### Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla (Book of the Seven and the Shadows) #### Content The Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla (Book of the Seven and the Shadows), also known as Kitāb al-Haft al-sharīf (Noble Book of the Seven) or simply as Kitāb al-Haft (Book of the Seven), 8th–11th centuries, is perhaps the most important work attributed to al-Mufaddal. It sets out in great detail the ghulāt myth of the pre-existent "shadows" (Arabic: aẓilla) whose fall from grace led to the creation of the material world. This theme of pre-existent shadows seems to have been typical of the 8th-century Kufan ghulāt: also appearing in other early ghulāt works such as the Umm al-kitāb, it may ultimately go back to Abd Allah ibn Harb (). Great emphasis is placed throughout the work on the need to keep the knowledge received from Ja'far al-Sadiq, who is referred to as mawlānā ("our lord"), from falling into the wrong hands. This secret knowledge is entrusted by Ja'far to al-Mufaddal, but is reserved only for true believers (muʾminūn). It involves notions such as the transmigration of souls (tanāsukh or metempsychosis) and the idea that seven Adams exist in the seven heavens, each one of them presiding over one of the seven historical world cycles. This latter idea may reflect an influence from Isma'ilism, where the appearance of each new prophet (Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, Muhammad ibn Isma'il) is likewise thought to initiate a new world cycle. A central element of the Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla is the creation myth involving pre-existent "shadows", which also occurs in many other ghulāt works with slightly different details. According to this myth, the first created beings were human souls who initially dwelt in the presence of God in the form of shadows. When the shadows disobeyed God, he created a veil (ḥijāb) in which he concealed himself as a punishment. Then God created the seven heavens as a dwelling place for the disobedient souls, according to their sin. In each of the heavens God also created bodies from his own light for the souls who arrived there, and from the souls' disobedience he created the Devil. Finally, from the offspring of the Devil God created the bodies of animals and various other sublunary entities (masūkhiyya). #### Composition and legacy The Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla consists of at least eleven different textual layers which were added over time, each of them containing slightly different versions of ghulāt concepts and ideas. The earliest layers were written in 8th/9th-century Kufa, perhaps partly by al-Mufaddal himself, or by his close associates Yunus ibn Zabyan and Muhammad ibn Sinan (died 835). A possible indication for this is the fact that Muhammad ibn Sinan also wrote two works dealing with the theme of pre-existent shadows: the Kitāb al-Aẓilla (Book of the Shadows) and the Kitāb al-Anwār wa-ḥujub (Book of the Lights and the Veils). Shi'i bibliographical sources also list several other 8th/9th-century Kufan authors who wrote a Kitāb al-Aẓilla or Book of the Shadows. In total, at least three works closely related to al-Mufaddal's Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla are extant, all likely dating to the 8th or 9th century: 1. Muhammad ibn Sinan's Kitāb al-Anwār wa-ḥujub (Book of the Lights and the Veils) 2. an anonymous work called the Kitāb al-Ashbāh wa-l-aẓilla (Book of the Apparitions and the Shadows) 3. another anonymous work also called the Kitāb al-Aẓilla (Book of the Shadows). Though originating in the milieus of the early Kufan ghulāt, the Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla was considerably expanded by members of a later ghulāt sect called the Nusayris, who were active in 10th-century Syria. The Nusayris were probably also responsible for the work's final 11th-century form. However, the Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla was not preserved by the Nusayris, but by the Syrian Nizari Isma'ilis. Like the Umm al-kitāb, another ghulāt work that was transmitted by the Nizari Isma'ilis of Central Asia, it contains ideas which –despite being largely unrelated to Isma'ili doctrine– influenced various later Isma'ili authors starting from the 10th century. ### Kitāb al-Ṣirāṭ (Book of the Path) The Kitāb al-Ṣirāṭ (Book of the Path) is another purported dialogue between al-Mufaddal and Ja'far al-Sadiq, likely composed in the period between the Minor and the Major Occultation (874–941). This work deals with the concept of an initiatory "path" (Arabic: ṣirāṭ) leading the adept on a heavenly ascent towards God, with each of the seven heavens corresponding to one of seven degrees of spiritual perfection. It also contains references to typical ghulāt ideas like tajallin (the manifestation of God in human form), tanāsukh (metempsychosis or transmigration of the soul), maskh/raskh (metamorphosis or reincarnation into non-human forms), and the concept of creation through the fall from grace of pre-existent beings (as in the Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla, see above).

The philosophical background of the work is given by the late antique concept of a great chain of being linking all things together in one great cosmic hierarchy. This hierarchical system extends from the upper world of spirit and light (populated by angels and other pure souls) to the lower world of matter and darkness (populated by humans, and below them animals, plants and minerals). Humanity is perceived as taking a middle position in this hierarchy, being located at the top of the world of darkness and at the bottom of the world of light. Those human beings who lack the proper religious knowledge and belief are reborn into other human bodies, which are likened to 'shirts' (qumṣān, sing. qamīṣ) that a soul can put on and off again. This is called tanāsukh or naskh. But grave sinners are reborn instead into animal bodies (maskh), and the worst offenders are reborn into the bodies of plants or minerals (raskh). On the other hand, those believers who perform good works and advance in knowledge also travel upwards on the ladder, putting on ever more pure and luminous 'shirts' or bodies, ultimately reaching the realm of the divine. This upwards path is represented as consisting of seven stages above that of humanity, each located in one of the seven heavens: 1. al-Mumtaḥā: the Tested, first heaven 2. al-Mukhliṣ: the Devout, second heaven 3. al-Mukhtaṣṣ: the Elect, third heaven 4. al-Najīb: the Noble, fourth heaven 5. al-Naqīb: the Chief, fifth heaven 6. al-Yatīm: the Unique, sixth heaven 7. al-Bāb: the Gate, seventh heaven At every degree the initiate receives the chance to gain a new level of 'hidden' or 'occult' (bāṭin) knowledge. If the initiate succeeds at internalizing this knowledge, they may ascend to the next degree. If, however, they lose interest or start to doubt the knowledge already acquired, they may lose their pure and luminous "shirt", receiving instead a heavier and darker one, and descend down the scale of being again. Those who reach the seventh degree (that of Bāb or "Gate") are granted wondrous powers such as making themselves invisible, or seeing and hearing all things –including a beatific vision of God– without having to look or listen. Most notably, they are able to manifest themselves to ordinary beings in the world of matter (tajallin), by taking on the form of a human and appearing to anyone at will. This ability is shared between the "Gates" in the seventh heaven and God, who also manifests himself to the world by taking on a human form. The theme of a heavenly ascent through seven degrees of spiritual perfection is also explored in other ghulāt works, including the anonymous Kitāb al-Marātib wa-l-daraj (Book of Degrees and Stages), as well as various works attributed to Muhammad ibn Sinan (died 835), Ibn Nusayr (died after 868), and others. In the 9th/10th-century works attributed to the Shi'i alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, the seven degrees corresponding to the seven heavens (themselves related to the seven planets) are replaced with fifthy-five degrees carrying similar names (including al-Muʾmin al-Mumtaḥā, al-Najīb, al-Naqīb, al-Yatīm, al-Bāb). These fifthy-five degrees correspond to the fifthy-five celestial spheres alluded to by Plato in his Timaeus and mentioned by Aristotle in his Metaphysics. ### Other ghulāt works - al-Risāla al-Mufaḍḍaliyya (Mufaddali Epistle) is a brief dialogue between al-Mufaddal and Ja'far al-Sadiq of unclear date and origin. It strongly resembles the Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla and the Kitāb al-Ṣirāṭ in doctrine and terminology. Its main subject is the classical theological question of the relationship between the one transcendent God (al-maʿnā, lit. 'the meaning') on the one hand, and his many attributes (ṣiffāt) and names (asmāʾ) on the other. - Mā yakūn ʿinda ẓuhūr al-Mahdī (What Will Happen at the Appearance of the Mahdi) is a lengthy apocalyptic text about the state of the world during the end times, just before the return (rajʿa) of the Mahdi. Its earliest known version is preserved in a work by the Nusayri author al-Khasibi (died 969), but the text likely goes back to the 9th century and perhaps even to al-Mufaddal himself. Though mainly dealing with the actions that the Mahdi will undertake to render justice to the oppressed, the work also contains references to mainstream Shi'i ideas such as temporary marriage contracts (mutʿa), as well as to the ghulāt idea of world cycles. It has been argued that the conceptualization of rajʿa in this and similar 8th/9th-century ghulāt texts has influenced the 10th-century development of the Twelver Shi'i doctrine on the return of the twelfth and 'hidden' Imam Muhammad al-Mahdi. - Kitāb Mā iftaraḍa Allāh ʿalā al-jawāriḥ min al-īmān (Book on the Faith that God has Imposed on the Bodily Members), also known as the Kitāb al-Īmān wa-l-islām (Book of Faith and Submission) and perhaps identical to the Risālat al-Mayyāḥ (Epistle of the Swagger) mentioned by the Twelver Shi'i bibliographer al-Najashi (c. 982–1058), presents itself as a long letter from Ja'far al-Sadiq to al-Mufaddal. It was preserved by the Imami (i.e., proto-Twelver) scholar al-Saffar al-Qummi (died 903). Likely written as a reaction to the negative portrayals of the ghulāt by Imami heresiographers, it refutes the typical accusation of the ghulāt's purported licentiousness and sexual promiscuity. It also contains a reference to the obscure idea, likewise found in the Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla but attributed here to Abu al-Khattab (died 755–6), that religious commandments and restrictions are 'men' (rijāl), and that to know these 'men' is to know religion. ## Mu'tazili-influenced works Two of the treatises attributed to al-Mufaddal, the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal and the Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja, differ from other treatises attributed to al-Mufaddal by the absence of any content that is specifically Shi'i in nature. Though both were preserved by the 17th-century Shi'i scholar Muhammad Baqir al-Majlisi (died 1699), the only element connecting them to Shi'ism is their ascription to Ja'far al-Sadiq and al-Mufaddal. Their content appears to be influenced by Mu'tazilism, a rationalistic school of Islamic speculative theology (kalām). Often transmitted together in the manuscript tradition, they may be regarded as part of an attempt to rehabilitate al-Mufaddal among Twelver Shi'is, to whom al-Mufaddal was important as a narrator of numerous hadiths from the Imams Ja'far al-Sadiq and his son Musa al-Kazim. Both works were also known to other Twelver scholars such as al-Najashi (c. 982–1058), Ibn Shahrashub (died 1192), and Ibn Tawus (1193–1266). ### Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal (al-Mufaddal's Tawhid) The Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal (lit. 'Declaration by al-Mufaddal of the Oneness of God') sets out to prove the existence of God based on the argument from design (also called the teleological argument). The work consists of a series of lectures about the existence and oneness (tawḥīd) of God presented to al-Mufaddal by Ja'far al-Sadiq, who is answering a challenge made to him by the self-declared atheist Ibn Abi al-Awja'. In four "sessions" (majālis), Ja'far argues that the cosmic order and harmony which can be detected throughout nature necessitates the existence of a wise and providential creator. The Twelver Shi'i bibliographer al-Najashi (c. 982–1058) also refers to the work as the Kitāb Fakkir (lit. 'Book of Think'), a reference to the fact that Ja'far often begins his exhortations with the word fakkir (think!). The Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal is not an original work. Instead, it is a revised version of a work also attributed to the famous Mu'tazili litterateur al-Jahiz (died 868) under the title Kitāb al-Dalāʾil wa-l-iʿtibār ʿalā al-khalq wa-l-tadbīr (Book on the Proofs and Contemplation of Creation and Administration). The attribution of this work to al-Jahiz is probably spurious as well, although the original was likely written in the 9th century. Compared to pseudo-Jahiz's Kitāb al-Dalāʾil, the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal adds an introduction that sets up a frame story involving al-Mufaddal, Ibn Abi al-Awja', and Ja'far al-Sadiq, as well rhymed praises of God at the beginning of each chapter, and a brief concluding passage. Scholars have espoused various views on the ultimate origins of this work. According to Melhem Chokr, the versions attributed to al-Mufaddal and to al-Jahiz are both based on an unknown earlier work, with the version attributed to al-Mufaddal being more faithful to the original. In Chokr's view, at some point the work must have been translated by a Syriac author into the Arabic from a Greek original, perhaps from an unknown Hermetic work. However, both Hans Daiber and Josef van Ess identify the original work on which pseudo-Jahiz's Kitāb al-Dalāʾil was based as the Kitāb al-Fikr wa-l-iʿtibār (Book of Thought and Contemplation), written by the 9th-century Nestorian Christian Jibril ibn Nuh ibn Abi Nuh al-Nasrani al-Anbari. However this may be, Jibril ibn Nuh's Kitāb al-Fikr wa-l-iʿtibār, the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal and pseudo-Jahiz's Kitāb al-Dalāʾil are only the three earliest among many extant versions of the work: adaptations were also made by the Nestorian Christian bishop Elijah of Nisibis (died 1056), by the Sunni mystic al-Ghazali (died 1111), and by the Andalusian Jewish philosopher Bahya ibn Paquda (died first half of 12th century). The Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal/Kitāb al-Dalāʾil contains many parallels with Syriac Christian literature, especially with the commentaries on the Hexameron (the six days of creation as described in Genesis) written by Jacob of Edessa (c. 640–708) and Moses bar Kepha (c. 813–903), as well as with Job of Edessa's encyclopedic work on natural philosophy called the Book of Treasures (c. 817). Its teleological proof of the existence of God—based upon a discussion of the four elements, minerals, plants, animals, meteorology, and the human being—was likely inspired by pseudo-Aristotle's De mundo (On the Universe, 3rd/2nd century BCE), a work also used by the Syriac authors mentioned above. In particular, the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal/Kitāb al-Dalāʾil contains the same emphasis on the idea that God, who already in pseudo-Aristotle's De mundo is called "one", can only be known through the wisdom permeating his creative works, while his own essence (kunh) remains hidden for all. The idea that contemplating the works of nature leads to a knowledge of God is also found in the Quran. However, in the case of the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal/Kitāb al-Dalāʾil, the idea is set in a philosophical framework that clearly goes back on Hellenistic models. Apart from pseudo-Aristotle's De mundo (3rd/2nd century BCE), there are also many parallels with Cicero's (106–43 BCE) De natura deorum, especially with the Stoic views on teleology and divine providence outlined in Cicero's work. Some of the enemies cited in the work are Diagoras (5th century BCE) and Epicurus (341–270 BCE), both reviled since late antiquity for their alleged atheism, as well as Mani (c. 216–274 or 277 CE, the founding prophet of Manichaeism), a certain Dūsī, and all those who would deny the providence and purposefulness (ʿamd) of God. ### Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja (Book of the Myrobalan Fruit) The Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja (Book of the Myrobalan Fruit) is another work in which al-Mufaddal asks Ja'far al-Sadiq to present a proof of the existence and oneness of God in response to those who openly profess atheism. In comparison with the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal, the frame story here is less well integrated into the main text, which despite being written in the form of an epistle does not directly address al-Mufaddal's concerns about the appearance of people who would publicly deny the existence of God. In the epistle itself, the author (presumed to be Ja'far al-Sadiq) recounts his meeting with an Indian physician, who contended that the world is eternal and therefore does not need a creator. Taking the myrobalan fruit (perhaps the black myrobalan or Terminalia reticulata, a plant used in Ayurveda) that the Indian physician was grinding as a starting point for contemplation, the author of the epistle succeeds in convincing the physician of the existence of God. The dialectical style of the debate is typical of early Muslim speculative theology (kalām). Sciences like astrology and medicine are presented as originating from divine revelation. Melhem Chokr has proposed the 8th-century scribe (kātib) and speculative theologian Muhammad ibn Layth as the original author of the Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja, based on similarities with other works attributed to Ibn Layth, and on the attribution to him in Ibn al-Nadim's (c. 932 – c. 995 or 998) Fihrist of a work called Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja fī al-iʿtibār (Book of the Myrobalan Fruit on Contemplation). ## Other works Some other works attributed to, or transmitted by, al-Mufaddal are still extant: - The Waṣiyyat al-Mufaḍḍal (Testament of al-Mufaddal) is a short text purporting to be al-Mufaddal's testament to the Shi'is of Kufa. The testament itself only contains a rather generic exhortation to piety and proper religious conduct, but it is followed by a paragraph in which Ja'far al-Sadiq reproaches the Kufan Shi'is for their hostility towards al-Mufaddal, exonerating his disciple from all blame. The text may very well be authentic, though it may also have been attributed to al-Mufaddal by later authors seeking to rehabilitate him. - The Duʿāʾ samāt, also called the Duʿāʾ Shabbūr, is a prayer (duʿāʾ) attributed to Ja'far al-Sadiq, supposedly transmitted from Ja'far by al-Mufaddal and later by Muhammad ibn Uthman al-Amri (died 917 or 918), the second deputy of the Hidden Imam Muhammad al-Mahdi during the Minor Occultation (874–941). It is a revised version of an originally Talmudic invocation that was used by Jews to cast off robbers and thieves. It was apparently in use among Muslims during the time of Muhammad ibn Uthman al-Amri, who approved of this practice but claimed to possess a "fuller" version handed down from the Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq. This version is nearly identical to the version preserved in the Talmud, only adding the names of the prophet Muhammad and some of his family members. - The Riwāyat al-ruzz wa-mā fīhi min al-faḍl is treatise attributed to al-Mufaddal on the virtue of rice. - al-Ḥikam al-Jaʿfariyya (Ja'farian Aphorisms) is a collection of moral aphorisms (ḥikam) attributed to Ja'far al-Sadiq and transmitted by al-Mufaddal. There are also some works attributed to, or transmitted by, al-Mufaddal that are mentioned in other sources but are now lost: - Kitāb ʿIlal al-Sharāʾiʿ (Book of the Causes of Religious Laws) - Kitāb Yawm wa-layla (Book of Day and Night) - Kitāb (Book), a notebook containing hadiths purportedly recorded by al-Mufaddal

Bx23 and Q50 buses

Bus routes in Queens and the Bronx, New York

The Bx23 and Q50 bus routes constitute a public transit corridor in New York City, running from the Flushing neighborhood in Queens to the Pelham Bay and Co-op City neighborhoods in the Bronx. The Bx23 provides local service in Pelham Bay and Co-op City, while the Q50 provides limited-stop service between Co-op City and subway hubs in Pelham Bay and Flushing. Both routes are city-operated under the MTA Bus Company brand of MTA Regional Bus Operations, and are the only two local routes in the Bronx to operate under the MTA Bus brand, rather than under the MaBSOTA brand that all other Bronx bus routes operate under. The two routes are the successor to the QBx1 route, privately operated by the Queens Surface Corporation until 2005, when the route was taken over by the MTA. This route ran several confusing service patterns between Co-op City and Pelham Bay, with only select runs continuing to Flushing. In September 2010, to simplify service in the Bronx and to provide full-time service between Queens and the Bronx, the QBx1 was split into the Bx23 and Q50. ## Route description and service ### Former QBx1 The original QBx1 service began at the Flushing–Main Street subway station in Downtown Flushing, Queens (within a section of Flushing also known as Flushing Chinatown). It ran north on Main Street to Northern Boulevard, then east to Linden Place. It then ran north on Linden Place to the Whitestone Expressway, sharing the street with the and . The QBx1 proceeded north on the Whitestone Expressway service road and then onto the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge crossing into the Bronx, and then onto the Hutchinson River Parkway service road to Lafayette Avenue. This portion of the route across the bridge to Bruckner Boulevard was shared with the , the only other local bus between the Bronx and Queens. At the Bruckner Interchange, the QBx1 turned onto Bruckner Boulevard (the Bruckner Expressway service road), traveling east then north to the Pelham Bay Park subway station. This section is shared with the Bx5. Only selected buses ran between Flushing and Pelham Bay; most QBx1 runs remained in the Bronx. North of Pelham Bay Park, the QBx1 ran several different services to different parts of Co-op City. The full route circumscribed the entire development, running (clockwise) north along the New England Thruway service road to Bartow Avenue (near the current Bay Plaza Shopping Center), through Section 1, via the Dreiser Loop, through Sections 2 and 3, via the Asch Loop in Section 4, and through Section 5 before returning to Pelham Bay. This pattern operated clockwise (sections 1-2-3-4-5) or counterclockwise (sections 5-4-3-2-1). The full Flushing−Co-op City service either ran clockwise from Flushing or counterclockwise to Flushing. The QBx1 operated a total of ten service patterns, varying on the time of day. During weekday off-peak hours and weekends, the route operated either between Flushing and all five sections of Co-op City, or as a circulatory shuttle service between Pelham Bay and the five sections. During the AM peak a total of five service patterns were used. The three primary AM patterns were Pelham Bay to Bellamy Loop, serving Section 3 via sections 1-2-3; Pelham Bay to Asch Loop, serving Section 4 only; and Pelham Bay running clockwise via Bartow Avenue, serving Sections 4 and 5 before returning to Pelham Bay. The intermittent service to and from Flushing ran via the Bellamy Loop route. The three PM peak hour services were Flushing to Pelham Bay and Bellamy Loop; Pelham Bay to Bellamy Loop; and Pelham Bay running counterclockwise to Sections 5 and 4, Asch Loop, and back to Pelham Bay. While this structure provided direct service to individual sections of Co-op City, the structure was considered confusing and inconvenient due to the many different service patterns under one route designation, and the lack of service between Queens and the Bronx. The following table shows the variants of the QBx1: ### Current bus service The Bx23 constitutes a simplified version of the former QBx1 route between Pelham Bay Park and Co-op City, running either clockwise (1-2-3-4-5) or counterclockwise (5-4-3-2-1) before returning to Pelham Bay. The Q50, meanwhile, runs primarily between Flushing and Pelham Bay Park; there is no direct Co-op City-to-Queens service except during rush hours. During rush hours, Q50 buses are extended north to Erskine Place and Earhart Lane in Section 5, traveling clockwise in Co-op City northbound and counterclockwise southbound. The Q50 employs limited-stop service, making fewer stops in Queens and bypassing the individual loops of Co-op City served by the Bx23. The routes run at all times except late nights; at these times, Co-op City service is replaced by the . At Pelham Bay Park, both directions of Bx23 and Q50 service share three adjacent bus stops on the southbound Bruckner Boulevard to the south of the subway station. The southernmost stop at the intersection of Bruckner and Amendola Place is used by Flushing-bound Q50 service. The middle stop is used by all clockwise Co-Op City service (Q50 buses to Section 5 and Bx23 buses via 1-2-3-4-5). The northernmost stop is used by Bx23 buses operating the counterclockwise loop. Because of this setup, Bronx-bound Q50 buses must U-turn at Westchester Avenue to stop at Pelham Bay, then U-turn again towards Co-op City. Prior to 2014, the Bx23 employed additional service patterns during rush hours, similar to its predecessor route. Buses would travel via 1-2-3-4 (AM rush) or 4-3-2-1 (PM rush) and return to Pelham Bay, or directly to Section 5 via Bartow Avenue/Bay Plaza/Section 4 (clockwise AM; counterclockwise PM) and return to Pelham Bay. This was eliminated to maintain one consistent service pattern at all times, and allow service between all sections of Co-op City at all times. The Bx23 and Q50 are two of the several local bus routes to serve Co-op City, which is heavily dependent on bus service. They are among five routes (along with the on weekends, , and ) to feed into Pelham Bay Park station from the neighborhood, and the only two to serve all five sections of the development (except for the late night Bx28 service).

## History The QBx1 was in operation since at least the mid-1960s under the Queens Transit Corporation, labeled the "Bx1" on Queens bus maps. The route originally operated between Flushing and Pelham Bay Park. By 1968, the QBx1 was extended to Co-op City. The bus company would become Queens-Steinway Transit Corporation in 1986, and Queens Surface Corporation in 1988. On February 27, 2005, the MTA Bus Company took over the operations of the Queens Surface routes as part of the city's takeover of all the remaining privately operated bus routes. In 2009, ten buses from the Eastchester Depot near Co-op City (the former New York Bus Service depot) began to operate on QBx1 service. Two additional stops in the Bronx were added to the route in June 2010, at Baisley Avenue (southbound) and Kearny Avenue (northbound) both at Bruckner Boulevard, to connect with a pedestrian overpass to the Country Club neighborhood. ### QBx1 split On September 12, 2010, the QBx1 was split into the Q50 Limited and Bx23 routes, simplifying the many service patterns of the former QBx1 route, but eliminating direct service between Pelham Bay and the individual sections of Co-op City. In addition, the changes were made in conjunction with controversial cuts in service to other Co-op City routes during the MTA's 2010 budget crisis, and received negative input from the community. On June 29, 2014, the rush hour service pattern of the Bx23 was eliminated, with the off-peak pattern going into effect at all times. In addition, a stop on the Bx23 was added at Adler Place in the Asch Loop. A stop for the Q50 was also added outside the Dreiser Loop. These changes were the result of a study of bus routes in Co-op City. ### Bus redesigns As part of the MTA's 2017 Fast Forward Plan to speed up mass transit service, a draft plan for a reorganization of Bronx bus routes was proposed in draft format in June 2019, with a final version published in October 2019. The Bronx draft plan called for the Bx23 to be the sole route serving Co-op City; many of the draft proposals were not included in the final version. These changes were set to take effect in mid-2020. The final Bronx bus plan did not modify the Bx23's routing or stop locations, though the frequency of the route was to be increased. Additionally, in December 2019, the MTA released a draft redesign of the Queens bus network. As part of the Queens redesign, the Q50 would have become the QT50, extended to LaGuardia Airport; the northern section in Co-op City would have been truncated. Both redesigns were delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City in 2020. The original Queens draft plan was dropped due to negative feedback, while the implementation of the Bronx redesign was postponed to mid-2022. A revised Queens draft plan was released in March 2022. The plan for the Q50 is similar to that in the 2019 redesign and would still serve LaGuardia Airport. The Bronx bus redesign took effect on June 26, 2022; as part of the Bronx redesign, the Q50 only served Co-op City during rush hours, terminating at Pelham Bay Park during all other times. ## Bike racks In April 1994, bike racks were installed onto QBx1 buses to carry bicycles over the Whitestone Bridge. This was the first bike-on-bus program in the city. The service was offered on a seasonal basis (April to September), with pick-up/drop-off points at 20th Avenue in Whitestone, Queens and Lafayette Avenue near Ferry Point Park in the Bronx. However, the bike-on-bus program was eliminated on February 27, 2005, the same day as the MTA takeover. In 2017, it was announced that bike racks would be installed on the fronts of Bx23 and Q50 buses by spring 2018. Each rack, mounted on the front of each bus, would be able to carry two bicycles. This was part of the MTA's ongoing pilot program to mount bike racks on several bus routes. In September 2015, the and routes in Staten Island had been the first routes to receive the racks. The expanded program restored bike racks on the Flushing to Co-op City bus corridor for the first time since 2005. On July 1, 2018, bike rack service was inaugurated on the Bx23 and Q50 routes.

William C. Young

American minister, educator, and academic administrator

William Clarke Young (April 23, 1842 – September 16, 1896) was an American minister, educator, and academic administrator who served as the eighth president of Centre College in Danville, Kentucky, from 1888 until his death in 1896. The son of Centre's fourth president, John C. Young, William attended Centre and the Danville Theological Seminary, graduating in 1859 and 1865, respectively. He had a 23-year career in the ministry, serving congregations in Kentucky, Indiana, and Illinois, before returning to Centre to accept the presidency following the resignation of Ormond Beatty. During Young's eight-year presidency, the college established a law school, constructed numerous buildings, and retroactively conferred degrees upon some of its first female graduates. Young also served as the moderator of the Presbyterian Church General Assembly in 1892, as his father had done some thirty-nine years earlier. ## Early life and education William C. Young was born on April 23, 1842, in Danville, Kentucky. He was the sixth child of Centre College president John C. Young and the second child he had with his second wife, Cornelia Crittendon Young. Young attended Centre during the last years of his father's presidency, which ended with John's death in 1857, and he graduated from the college in 1859. While at Centre, he was a member of the Beta Theta Pi fraternity. He was one of twenty members of his graduating class and one of only two that went on to enter the ministry. For two years after his graduation, he taught at a classical school located in Holly Springs, Mississippi, but returned to Danville in 1861. He then enrolled in the Danville Theological Seminary, and graduated with a Doctor of Divinity degree in 1865. ## Career After his graduation from seminary, Clarke served as a pastor for 23 years in numerous locations, including the Second Presbyterian Church in Covington, Kentucky, from 1866 to 1870; the First Presbyterian Church in Madison, Indiana, from 1870 to 1872; and the Fullerton Avenue Presbyterian Church in Chicago, Illinois, from 1872 to 1879. He left Chicago for Louisville, Kentucky, where he was named the first pastor of the new Central Presbyterian Church. In the intervening time between his stints in Covington and Madison, he traveled "extensively" in Europe and Palestine. On June 19, 1888, the Centre College Board of Trustees elected him to the position of president following the resignation of Ormond Beatty. After initially declining, he eventually accepted the position, becoming Centre's eighth president at the age of 46. He started in the position on September 5, 1888, and was formally inaugurated on October 9, 1889. As the expectation of the time was for the president to serve as a part of the faculty as well, Young taught moral philosophy and history during his time in office. Young took over a group of six faculty members, who taught subjects including metaphysics, moral philosophy, natural and physical sciences, Greek, and Latin. Tuition that year was (). The first class to graduate during Young's presidency did so in the spring of 1889, and consisted of seven students. That number rose to seventeen the following year, and did not return to being as small as they were during his first year for the remainder of his term. Young made an impact on the school shortly into his presidency by establishing a law school at Centre in 1890, with former Governor J. Proctor Knott selected as its first dean. The law school enrolled 20 students for its first academic year. The following year, Centre boasted 133 full-time students with an additional 101 students in its preparatory academy, the school's largest enrollment in 25 years.

Multiple buildings were also constructed on campus around this time, including the Boyle-Humphrey Gymnasium in 1891, the Breckinridge Hall dormitory (named for Robert Jefferson Breckinridge) in 1892, and a new Sayre Library in 1894. In June 1891, he made a request of the trustees that the college build an additional building for "scientific work", which would eventually be dedicated in 1909 and named Young Memorial Hall, in memory of William and his father, John. During his time at Centre, Young was supportive of the college's athletic programs. He wrote to the college's trustees in 1892 that sports would be "undoubtedly beneficial to the students" if properly controlled, but "[would] provide a nuisance and work evil to all" if not restricted by "stringent rules". Under Young's leadership, Centre awarded degrees to some of its first female graduates, albeit retroactively. All four of Young's half-sisters had studied at Centre and completed coursework (Mary and Caroline in 1849, and Jane and Frances in 1851), though none of them received degrees at the time. As a result, Mary, Caroline, and Jane, the three surviving sisters, were formally awarded Bachelor of Arts degrees by the college in 1891. Additionally, Leila McKee, one of the first two women to graduate from Centre in 1877, was awarded an honorary Ph.D. by the school the following year. Centre's endowment rose to and the school added three professorships during his presidency. In 1892, Young served as moderator of the Presbyterian Church General Assembly, held in Portland, Oregon. This was the same position to which his father was elected for the 1853 General Assembly, held in Philadelphia. Young's performance as moderator was widely praised, with compliments given to his "courage and tact and impartiality". The General Assembly was a particularly eventful one, as it included the church's formal denunciation of historical criticism and the heresy trial of Charles Augustus Briggs. ## Personal life and death Young married Lucy Waller in 1874, though Waller was in poor health for much of their marriage, which limited the amount of time they were able to spend together. Young suffered from poor health for much of the last two years of his life, and attempted to visit various resorts during this time in an attempt to find relief from his ailments, though these efforts were unsuccessful. Young died suddenly at 10:15 a.m. on September 17, 1896, just after concluding an address to Centre students in the college's chapel. He was preparing to hear the students' recitations when he retired to the office of professor Alfred B. Nelson, laid back in his chair and "gave a gasp" before dying. His cause of death was ultimately determined to be a heart attack. He was buried with his wife, who had died just months before him, in Danville's Bellevue Cemetery, adjacent to his father's grave. John C. Fales, a long-time faculty member and the professor of natural science at Centre for much of Young's presidency, became president pro tempore following Young's death and served in that capacity for a portion of the remainder of 1896. Young was formally succeeded by William C. Roberts, who assumed the presidency on June 7, 1898.

Cyclone Fay

Category 5 Australian region cyclone in 2004

Severe Tropical Cyclone Fay was an intense late-season tropical cyclone which struck Western Australia during the 2003–04 Australian region cyclone season. Forming from an area of low pressure on 12 March, Fay was the only Category 5 cyclone during the season. The system had a minimum pressure of 910 mbar (hPa; 26.87 inHg) and maximum sustained winds of 210 km/h (130 mph). Moving towards the southwest and eventually towards the south, Fay gradually strengthened as it paralleled the northwestern coast of Australia, and made landfall on the Pilbara coast on the morning of 27 March as a Category 4 cyclone. While no fatalities were reported, the cyclone brought record-breaking rainfall to Australia, which led to a sharp decrease in the country's gold output. The cyclone also caused minor damage in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. In the spring of 2005, the Australian Bureau of Meteorology retired the name Fay from use, and it will never be used again as a cyclone name. ## Meteorological history The low-pressure system that later developed into Fay formed in the Gulf of Carpentaria on 12 March 2004. Through 15 March satellite imagery indicated increasing convection and organisation of the system, as well as decreasing wind sheer aloft, adding to the favourable conditions for strengthening. On 16 March, the system was designated Tropical Cyclone 18S by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center, with winds of 30 km/h (20 mph). The system then crossed Melville and Bathurst Islands and moved into the Timor Sea, where it intensified, and was given the name Fay by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology. Fay began to turn southward on 17 March; simultaneously, the cyclone continued to intensify due to a weakening of vertical wind shear, and well-defined outflow became apparent on satellite imagery. The following day, a steering ridge to the south of the system strengthened and pushed the cyclone away from the coast and to the northwest. At the same time, the system continued to intensify due to the favourable environment in the upper atmosphere. However, hot, dry air flowing into the system from the south, combined with vertical wind sheer, kept the storm from strengthening as much at its maximum potential rate. By 19 March Fay's track had turned to the west-southwest, and over the next day it continued to strengthen in due to favourable upper-level outflow and weak vertical sheer. On 21 March, Fay became a Category 5 cyclone on the Australian Region Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale. A mid-latitude trough caused the steering ridge to weaken, and subsequently, Fay to turn to the south. Over the next two days, the environmental shear around the cyclone decreased, which would normally have led to intensification; however, as the shear decreased, the cyclone also moved over an area of dry air, weakening the system. By 23 March, Fay had moved in a loop, and the system weakened to a Category 2. Over the next day, favourable outflow counteracted the dry air that had weakened the system, and a banding eye feature was observed on satellite imagery. Fay then encountered moister air as it moved southward, leading it to re-intensify on 25 March. A weak eye of 10 nm was observed on 26 March which grew to 15 nm as the day went on. Strengthening into a Category 4 system early on 27 March, Fay made landfall on the Pilbara coast between 8 am and 9 am AWST (0000 and 0100 UTC) with winds of 170 km/h (105 mph), weakening below cyclone strength somewhere between the towns of Nullagine and Telfer.

## Preparations and impact Evacuation centres were set up in the Kimberley region of Western Australia. Schools and businesses were also closed, and flights in and out of the area were cancelled. Shelters were set up for people who could not take shelter in their own homes. Residents of the Bidyadanga Aboriginal community were warned of particularly dangerous storm tide as the centre of the cyclone passed to their west. The communities of Sandfire and Pardoo were also warned of dangerous storm tide. Cyclone warnings were issued for areas threatened by the system, and communities in the path of the system were warned of expected high rainfall, as amounts greater than 200 mm (7.9 in) were expected. Minor damage to buildings and limited tree damage were reported in the vicinity of Port Hedland. In the town of Nullagine, 120 residents were evacuated to the town's police station, as heavy rain caused flooding. Flooding of the De Grey and Oakover Rivers led to the town being segmented into 4 sections. As the system passed near the Yarrie mine 200 workers were forced to go under lockdown for 8 hours. The cyclone overturned accommodation units, "shredded" water tanks, cut power lines, and damaged the rail line connecting the mine to Port Hedland. Heavy rainfall was reported along the track of the cyclone, with a two-day total of 701 mm (27.6 in) reported at the Nifty Copper Mine and 359 mm (14.1 in) reported in Telfer. The rain from the cyclone delayed the construction of a gas pipeline at the mine for over 7 months, while the pipeline company waited for the floodwaters to dissipate. According to Newcrest Mining, the rainfall amounts at Telfer exceeded the records going back at least 100 years. The heavy rainfall from both Cyclone Monty in February and Cyclone Fay caused gold output in Australia for the quarter to be the lowest in 10 years. A survey performed by the Australian Institute of Marine Science discovered that the Scott Reef suffered "severe damage," and many coral colonies were uprooted or damaged. Because of the record-breaking rainfall produced across northwestern Australia, the Bureau of Meteorology retired the name Fay after its usage. ## See also - 2003–04 Australian region cyclone season - Cyclone Chris - Cyclone Kirsty

Osorkon IV

Egyptian pharaoh

Usermaatre Osorkon IV was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh during the late Third Intermediate Period. Traditionally considered the last king of the 22nd Dynasty, he was de facto little more than ruler in Tanis and Bubastis, in Lower Egypt. He is generally – though not universally – identified with the King Shilkanni mentioned by Assyrian sources, and with the biblical So, King of Egypt mentioned in the second Books of Kings (17:4). Osorkon ruled during one of the most chaotic and politically fragmented periods of ancient Egypt, in which the Nile Delta was dotted with small Libyan kingdoms and principalities and Meshwesh dominions; as the last heir of the Tanite rulers, he inherited the easternmost parts of these kingdoms, the most involved in all the political and military upheavals that soon would afflict the Near East. During his reign, he had to face the power of, and ultimately submit himself to, the Kushite King Piye during Piye's conquest of Egypt. Osorkon IV also had to deal with the threatening Neo-Assyrian Empire outside his eastern borders. ## Reign ### Early years Osorkon IV ascended to the throne of Tanis in c. 730 BC, at the end of the long reign of his predecessor Shoshenq V of the 22nd Dynasty, who was possibly also his father. However, this somewhat traditional collocation was first challenged in 1970 by Karl-Heinz Priese, who preferred to place Osorkon IV in a lower–Egyptian branch of the 23rd Dynasty, right after the reign of the shadowy pharaoh Pedubast II; this placement found the support of a certain number of scholars. Osorkon's mother, named on an electrum aegis of Sekhmet now in the Louvre, was Tadibast III. Osorkon IV's realm was restricted only to the district of Tanis (Rˁ-nfr) and the territory of Bubastis, both in the eastern Nile Delta. His neighbors were Libyan princes and Meshwesh chiefs who ruled their small realms outside of his authority. Around 729/28 BC, soon after his accession, Osorkon IV faced the crusade led by the Kushite pharaoh Piye of the Nubian 25th Dynasty. Along with other rulers of Lower and Middle Egypt – mainly Nimlot of Hermopolis and Iuput II of Leontopolis – Osorkon IV joined the coalition led by the Chief of the West Tefnakht in order to oppose the Nubian. However, Piye's advance was unstoppable and the opposing rulers surrendered one after another: Osorkon IV found it wise to reach the Temple of Ra at Heliopolis and pay homage to his new overlord Piye personally— an action which was soon imitated by the other rulers. As reported on his Victory Stela, Piye accepted their submission, but Osorkon and most of the rulers were not allowed to enter the royal enclosure because they were not circumcised and had eaten fish, both abominations in the eyes of the Nubian. Nevertheless, Osorkon IV and the others were allowed to keep their former domains and authority. ### The Assyrian threat In 726/25 BC Hoshea, the last King of Israel, rebelled against the Assyrian King Shalmaneser V who demanded an annual tribute, and, according to the second Book of Kings, sought the support of So, King of Egypt (2 Kings 17:4) who, as already mentioned, was most likely Osorkon IV (see below). For reasons which remained unknown – possibly in order to remain neutral towards the powerful Neo-Assyrian Empire, or simply because he did not have enough power or resources – King So did not help Hoshea, who was subsequently defeated and deposed by Shalmaneser V. The Kingdom of Israel ceased to exist, many Israelites were brought to Assyria as exiles, and Assyrian and Babylonian settlers occupied Israel. In 720 BC, a revolt occurred in Palestine against the new Assyrian King Sargon II, led by King Hanno (also Hanun and Hanuna) of Gaza who sought the help of "Pirʾu of Musri", a term most probably meaning "Pharaoh of Egypt" and referring to Osorkon IV. Assyrian sources claim that this time the Egyptian king did send a turtanu (an army–commander) called Reʾe or Reʾu (his Egyptian name was Raia, though in the past it was read Sibʾe) as well as troops in order to support his neighboring ally. However, the coalition was defeated in battle at Raphia. Reʾe fled back to Egypt, Raphia and Gaza were looted and Hanno was burnt alive by the Assyrians. In 716 BC, Sargon II almost reached Egypt's boundaries. Feeling directly threatened this time, Osorkon IV (here called Shilkanni by Assyrian sources, see below) was carefully diplomatic: he personally met the Assyrian king at the "Brook of Egypt" (most likely el-Arish) and tributed him with a present which Sargon personally described as "twelve large horses of Egypt without equals in Assyria". The Assyrian king appreciated his gifts and did not take action against Osorkon IV. ### End

No mention of Osorkon IV is known after 716 BC. Some archaeological findings suggest that shortly after this date, Bocchoris (Bakenrenef) of the 24th Dynasty may have expanded his realm eastward, supplanting Osorkon at Tanis. In 712 BC, Piye's successor Shebitku marched northward and defeated Bocchoris. When around the same year King Iamani of Ashdod sought refuge from Sargon II in Egypt, Shebitku was in fact the sole ruler of Egypt, and returned Iamani to the Assyrians in chains. In any case, Osorkon IV was seemingly dead before that year. A few years later a man called Gemenefkhonsbak, possibly a descendant of the now-defunct 22nd Dynasty, claimed for himself the pharaonic royal titles and ruled in Tanis as its prince. ## Identification with Shilkanni and So It is believed that Shilkanni is a rendering of (U)shilkan, which in turn is derived from (O)sorkon – hence Osorkon IV – as first proposed by William F. Albright in 1956. This identification is accepted by several scholars while others remain uncertain or even skeptical. Shilkanni is reported by Assyrians as "King of Musri": this location, once believed to be a country in northern Arabia by the Orientalist Hans Alexander Winckler, is certainly to be identified with Egypt instead. In the same way, the "Pir'u of Musri" to whom Hanno of Gaza asked for help in 720 BC could only have been Osorkon IV. The identity of the biblical King So is somewhat less definite. Generally, an abbreviation of (O)so(rkon) is again considered the most likely by several scholars, but the concurrent hypothesis which equates So with the city of Sais, hence with King Tefnakht, is supported by a certain number of scholars. ## Attestations Osorkon IV is attested by Assyrian documents (as Shilkanni and other epithets) and probably also by the Books of Kings (as King So), while Manetho's epitomes seem to have ignored him. He is undoubtedly attested by the well-known Victory Stela of Piye on which he is depicted while prostrating in front of the owner of the stela along with other submitted rulers. Another finding almost certainly referring to him is the aforementioned aegis of Sekhmet, found at Bubastis and mentioning a King Osorkon son of queen Tadibast who–as the name does not coincide with those of any of the other Osorkon kings' mothers–can only be Osorkon IV's mother. ### About the throne name Osorkon's throne name was thought to be Aakheperre Setepenamun from a few monuments naming a namesake pharaoh Osorkon, such as a faience seal and a relief–block, both in the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden in Leiden, but this attribution was questioned by Frederic Payraudeau in 2000. According to him, these findings could rather be assigned to an earlier Aakheperre Osorkon – i.e., the distant predecessor Osorkon the Elder of the 21st Dynasty – thus implying that Osorkon IV's real throne name was unknown. Furthermore, in 2010/11 a French expedition discovered in the Temple of Mut at Tanis two blocks bearing a relief of a King Usermaa(t)re Osorkonu, depicted in a quite archaizing style, which at first were attributed to Osorkon III. In 2014, on the basis of the style of both the relief and the royal name, Aidan Dodson rejected the identification of this king with both the already-known kings Usermaatre Osorkon (Osorkon II and III) and stated that he was rather Osorkon IV with his true throne name. A long-known, archaizing "glassy faience" statuette fragment from Memphis now exhibited at the Petrie Museum (UC13128) which is inscribed for one King Usermaatre, had been tentatively attributed to several pharaohs from Piye to Rudamun of the Theban 23rd Dynasty and even to Amyrtaios of the 28th Dynasty, but may in fact represent Osorkon IV. ## See also - Pharaohs in the Bible for other historical or conjectural pharaohs cited in the Bible

French battleship Paris

French Courbet-class battleship

Paris was the third ship of four Courbet-class battleships, the first dreadnoughts built for the French Navy. She was completed before World War I as part of the 1911 naval building programme. She spent the war in the Mediterranean, spending most of 1914 providing gunfire support for the Montenegrin Army until her sister ship Jean Bart was torpedoed by the submarine U-12 on 21 December. She spent the rest of the war providing cover for the Otranto Barrage that blockaded the Austro-Hungarian Navy in the Adriatic Sea. Paris supported French and Spanish troops in 1925 during the Third Rif War before becoming a school ship in 1931. She was modernized in three separate refits between the wars even though she was not deemed to be a first-class battleship. She remained in that role until the Battle of France, which began on 10 May 1940, after which she was hastily rearmed. She supported Allied troops in the defence of Le Havre during June until she was damaged by a German bomb, but she took refuge later that month in England. As part of Operation Catapult, she was seized in Plymouth by British forces on 3 July. She was used as a depot ship and barracks ship there by the Royal and Polish Navies for the rest of the war. Returned to the French in July 1945 she was towed to Brest the following month and used as a depot ship until she was stricken on 21 December 1955. ## Background and description By 1909 the French Navy was finally convinced of the superiority of the all-big-gun battleship like HMS Dreadnought over the mixed-calibre designs like the Danton class which had preceded the Courbets. The following year, the new Minister of the Navy, Augustin Boué de Lapeyrère, selected a design that was comparable to the foreign dreadnoughts then under construction to be built as part of the 1906 Naval Programme. The ships were 166 metres (544 ft 7 in) long overall and had a beam of 27 metres (88 ft 7 in) and a mean draught of 9.04 metres (29 ft 8 in). They displaced 23,475 tonnes (23,104 long tons) at normal load and 25,579 tonnes (25,175 long tons) at deep load. Their crew numbered 1,115 men as a private ship and increased to 1,187 when serving as a flagship. The ships were powered by two licence-built Parsons steam turbine sets, each driving two propeller shafts using steam provided by 24 Belleville boilers. These boilers were coal-burning with auxiliary oil sprayers and were designed to produce 28,000 metric horsepower (20,594 kW; 27,617 shp). The ships had a designed speed of 21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph). The Courbet-class ships carried enough coal and fuel oil to give them a range 4,200 nautical miles (7,800 km; 4,800 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). The main battery of the Courbet class consisted of twelve Canon de 305 mm (12 in) Modèle 1906–1910 guns mounted in six twin-gun turrets, with two pairs of superfiring turrets fore and aft of the superstructure, and a pair of wing turrets amidships. Their secondary armament was twenty-two Canon de 138 mm (5.4 in) Modèle 1910 guns, which were mounted in casemates in the hull. Four Canon de 47 mm (1.9 in) Modèle 1902 Hotchkiss guns were fitted, two on each broadside in the superstructure. They were also armed with four 450-millimetre (17.7 in) submerged torpedo tubes and could stow 10 mines below decks. The ships' waterline belt ranged in thickness from 140 to 250 mm (5.5 to 9.8 in) and was thickest amidships. The gun turrets were protected by 250 mm of armour and 160 mm (6.3 in) plates protected the casemates. The curved armoured deck was 40 mm (1.6 in) thick on the flat and 70 mm (2.8 in) on the outer slopes. The conning tower had a 266 mm (10.5 in) thick face and sides. ## Construction and career The ship was ordered on 1 August 1911 and named after the French capital city. She was laid down on 10 November 1911 by Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée at its shipyard in La Seyne and launched on 28 September 1912. Due to the rising tensions in Europe in mid-1914, the ship was commissioned into the fleet on 1 August before she was formally completed on 14 August at a cost of F63,000,000. Paris was assigned to the 1st Division (1ère Division) of the 2nd Battle Squadron (2ème Escadre de ligne) of the 1st Naval Army (1ère Armée Navale) on 1 August, but did not join her squadron until 5 September.

After working up she was sent, along with her sisters, to the Mediterranean Sea. She spent most of the rest of 1914 providing gunfire support for the Montenegrin Army until U-12 hit Jean Bart on 21 December with a torpedo. This forced the battleships to fall back to either Malta or Bizerte to cover the Otranto Barrage. After the French occupied the neutral Greek island of Corfu in 1916 she moved forward to Corfu and Argostoli, but her activities were very limited as much of her crew was used to man anti-submarine ships. Before the end of the war she was fitted with seven 75-millimetre (3 in) Mle 1897 anti-aircraft (AA) guns in single mounts. These guns were adaptions of the famous French Mle 97 75-mm field gun. ### Interwar years Paris was sent to Pula on 12 December 1918 to supervise the surrendered Austro-Hungarian fleet, where she remained until 25 March 1919. She provided cover for Greek troops during the Occupation of İzmir (Smyrna) from May 1919 before returning to Toulon on 30 June 1919. She collided with the destroyer Bouclier at Toulon on 27 June 1922; both ships suffered severe damage. Paris received the first of her upgrades at Brest between 25 October 1922 and 25 November 1923. This included replacing one set of boilers with oil-fired boilers, increasing the maximum elevation of the main armament from 12° to 23°, removal of her bow armour to make her less bow-heavy, the installation of a fire-control director, with a 4.57 metres (15.0 ft) rangefinder, and the exchange of her Mle 1897 AA guns for Mle 1918 guns. After her return to service she supported an amphibious landing at Al Hoceima by Spanish troops during the summer of 1925 after the Rifs attacked French Morocco during the Third Rif War. She destroyed coastal defence batteries there despite taking light damage from six hits and remained there until October as the flagship of the French forces. She was refitted again from 16 August 1927 to 15 January 1929 at Toulon and her fire-control systems were comprehensively upgraded. A large cruiser-type fire-control director was added atop the foremast with a 4.57-m coincidence rangefinder and a 3-metre (9 ft 10 in) stereo rangefinder. The rangefinder above the conning tower was replaced by a duplex unit carrying two 4.57-m rangefinders and another 4.57-m rangefinder was added in an armoured hood next to the main mast. Two directors for the secondary guns were added on the navigation bridge, each with a 2-metre (6 ft 7 in) coincidence rangefinder. A 8.2 metres (26 ft 11 in) rangefinder was added to the roof of 'B' turret, the second one from the bow. Three 1.5-metre (4 ft 11 in) rangefinders were provided for her anti-aircraft guns, one on top of the duplex unit on the conning tower, one on 'B' turret and one in the aft superstructure. She resumed her role as flagship of the 2nd Division of the 1st Squadron of the Mediterranean Squadron until 1 October 1931 when she became a training ship. Paris was overhauled again between 1 July 1934 and 21 May 1935. Her boilers were overhauled, her main guns replaced and her Mle 1918 AA guns were exchanged for more modern Mle 1922 guns. They had a maximum depression of 10° and a maximum elevation of 90°. They fired a 5.93-kilogram (13.1 lb) shell at a muzzle velocity of 850 m/s (2,800 ft/s) at a rate of fire of 8–18 rounds per minute and had a maximum effective ceiling of 8,000 metres (26,000 ft). ### World War II Paris and Courbet formed a Fifth Squadron at the beginning of the war. They were transferred to the Atlantic to continue their training duties without interference. Both ships were ordered restored to operational status on 21 May 1940 by Amiral Mord and they were given six Hotchkiss 13.2-millimetre (0.52 in) twin machine gun mounts and two single 13.2-mm Browning machine guns at Cherbourg. Paris was ordered to Le Havre on 6 June to provide gunfire support on the Somme front and covered the evacuation of the town by the Allies, although the lack of spotting aircraft meant that she was not particularly effective in that role. Instead she helped to defend the harbour of Le Havre against German aircraft until she was hit by a bomb on 11 June. She sailed for Cherbourg that night for temporary repairs despite taking on 300 long tons (305 t) of water per hour. She was transferred to Brest on 14 June and carried 2,800 men when that port was evacuated on 18 June. In the wake of the Armistice, Paris was docked at Plymouth, England. On 3 July 1940, as part of Operation Catapult, British forces forcibly boarded her and she was used by the British as a depot ship and as a barracks ship by the Polish Navy for the rest of the war. On 21 August 1945, after the war had ended, Paris was towed to Brest where she continued in her role as a depot ship. She was sold for scrap on 21 December 1955 and broken up at La Seyne from June 1956.

Maryland Route 222

Highway in Maryland

Maryland Route 222 (MD 222) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland. The highway runs 11.36 miles (18.28 km) from MD 7 in Perryville north to U.S. Route 1 (US 1) near Conowingo. MD 222 connects Perryville, Port Deposit, and Conowingo along its route paralleling the Susquehanna River in western Cecil County. Due to limitations in the highway in Port Deposit, including a steep hill and a low-clearance railroad bridge, trucks are directed to use MD 275, MD 276, and US 1 through Woodlawn and Rising Sun to connect Interstate 95 (I-95) with US 222 in Conowingo. MD 222 was built as MD 268, a number presently assigned to North Street in Elkton. The state highway was paved from Perryville to Port Deposit in the late 1910s and early 1920s. MD 268 was extended north to Conowingo in the early 1930s. In 1938, MD 268 was superseded when US 222 was extended south from US 1 in Conowingo to US 40 in Perryville. US 222 was widened from Perryville to Port Deposit in the early 1940s and rebuilt around 1960. The highway was moved for the construction of I-95 interchange in the early 1960s and rebuilt south to Perryville in the late 1960s. MD 222 was established in 1972 on the portion of US 222 between MD 7 and US 40. The designation was extended from Perryville to Conowingo in 1995 when US 222 was rolled back to its former and present terminus at US 1 in Conowingo. ## Route description MD 222 begins at an intersection with MD 7 (Broad Street) in the town of Perryville. The highway heads north as two-lane undivided Aiken Avenue, which reaches its northern end at US 40 (Pulaski Highway) immediately to the east of the Thomas J. Hatem Memorial Bridge over the Susquehanna River. MD 222 continues northeast past US 40 as Perryville Road, which crosses over CSX's Philadelphia Subdivision railroad line. The highway curves north and leaves the town of Perryville, passing west of Perryville High School. MD 222 intersects the southern end of MD 824 (Reservoir Road) and the entrance to the former Perryville Outlet Center to the west before meeting I-95 (John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway) at a four-ramp partial cloverleaf interchange. At the north end of the interchange, the highway briefly re-enters the town of Perryville and intersects the ramps to and from southbound I-95 and Chesapeake Overlook Parkway, which serves as the entrance road to Hollywood Casino Perryville and the Great Wolf Lodge resort to the west. Past here, the road passes west of a park and ride lot before it reaches a four-way intersection with the northern end of MD 824 (Blythedale Road) and the southern end of MD 275 (Perrylawn Drive). At this intersection, MD 222 turns west onto Bainbridge Road toward Port Deposit. MD 222 heads west through farmland, crossing Happy Valley Branch before passing the entrance to the former United States Naval Training Center Bainbridge, which contains the Edward W. Haviland House and the original campus of the Tome School. The highway descends from a high bluff to the Susquehanna River, during which southbound MD 222 has a climbing lane. Upon entering the town limits of Port Deposit, MD 222's name changes to Main Street and the highway makes a sharp turn to the north to parallel the river and Norfolk Southern Railway's Port Road Branch, both of which are located southwest of the road. The state highway intersects MD 276 (Center Street) in the center of Port Deposit. MD 222 passes the Paw Paw Building and intersects Granite Avenue before crossing Rock Run and passing under a low-clearance railroad bridge to the west side of the tracks. The highway leaves the town of Port Deposit and continues north as Susquehanna River Road, closely paralleling the river and passing through a unit of Susquehanna State Park along the river. Soon after crossing Octoraro Creek, MD 222 reaches its northern terminus at an intersection with US 1 (Conowingo Road) at the eastern end of Conowingo Dam. Following US 1 northeast to the community of Conowingo leads to the southern terminus of US 222. MD 222 is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial from US 40 north to MD 275 within Perryville. ## History What is now MD 222 was originally designated MD 268. MD 268 was replaced by a southern extension of US 222 from US 1 at Conowingo to US 40 (now MD 7) in Perryville in 1938. The Susquehanna River Road section of US 222 was transferred from state to county maintenance through a May 8, 1958, road transfer agreement. However, that section was returned to state control through an August 23, 1961, agreement after Cecil County requested it be returned to the state. The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) approved rolling back the southern end of the US 222 designation from US 40 to US 1 at their April 1995 spring meeting. The Maryland State Highway Administration proposed and AASHTO approved the redesignation of US 222 to MD 222 from US 40 to US 1 in February 1996; however, the new designation had already been enacted officially and marked publicly in 1995. The redesignation did not apply to Aiken Avenue; indeed, Aiken Avenue's designation was changed from US 222 to MD 222 in 1972. The first stretch of the Perryville–Conowingo highway to be improved was in Perryville, where Cecil County constructed with state aid a macadam road from the Aikin station on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad south toward the Post Road (now MD 7) by 1910. Cecil County extended the macadam road to the Post Road by 1919. The highway from the Aikin railroad crossing to Port Deposit was paved as a 15-foot-long (4.6 m) concrete road in two sections: from the railroad to near Port Deposit by 1921 and through Port Deposit by 1923. MD 268 was paved as a concrete road from Port Deposit to US 1 at Conowingo Dam between 1930 and 1933; the construction work included repurposing a railroad bridge across Octoraro Creek as a highway bridge. MD 268's bridge across the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was constructed between 1931 and 1934. The old highway approaching the Aikin grade crossing became MD 449.

MD 268 was proposed to be widened to 20 feet (6.1 m) from US 40 to US 1 in 1934. The portion of US 222 from US 40 to near Port Deposit was expanded to improve access between the U.S. Highway and United States Naval Training Center Bainbridge, east of Port Deposit in 1942 and 1944. US 222 was widened and resurfaced between what is now the MD 222–MD 275—MD 824 intersection and Port Deposit in 1959 and 1960. The U.S. Highway was relocated as part of the construction of its original diamond interchange with I-95 in 1962 and 1963. The old alignment of US 222 east of its I-95 interchange became MD 824. The highway was resurfaced with bituminous concrete from MD 7 to US 40 and reconstructed and widened from US 40 to the southern MD 824 intersection in 1968 and 1969. The widening work included widening US 222's bridge across the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, which was removed and replaced between 1987 and 1989. The I-95 interchange was converted from a standard diamond to a four-ramp partial cloverleaf with all four ramps east of MD 222 between 1993 and 1994. Aiken Avenue was reconstructed in an urban streetscape project in 2001 and 2002. ## Junction list ## Related routes ### Former truck route Maryland Route 222 Truck was a signed 12.49-mile (20.10 km) truck bypass of MD 222 from MD 222 in Perryville to US 1 and US 222 in Conowingo. The signed route followed MD 275 from MD 222 in Perryville north to MD 276 in Woodlawn. MD 222 Truck continued north on MD 276 from Woodlawn north to US 1 west of Rising Sun. The truck route then headed west on US 1 (in a wrong-way concurrency) to US 222's southern terminus in Conowingo. MD 222 Truck was first signed by 2002. Signs for MD 222 Truck were removed by 2016 and replaced with signs directing trucks to I-95 and US 40 southbound and to US 222 northbound. Junction list ### Auxiliary routes MD 222 has three auxiliary routes that are maintained by the Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) and provide access to the authority's facilities around I-95's interchange with MD 222 and the John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway toll plaza to the east of the Millard E. Tydings Memorial Bridge. The highways were created as part of the reconstruction of MD 222's interchange with I-95 in 1993 and 1994. - MD 222A is the designation for Chesapeake Overlook Parkway, a 0.09-mile (0.14 km) spur west from the intersection of MD 222 and the ramps to and from southbound I-95. This spur intersects MD 222B near its western end and serves as the entrance to Hollywood Casino Perryville and the Great Wolf Lodge resort. MD 222A was assigned in 1994, and the highway received its name in 2010. - MD 222B is the designation for Turnpike Drive, a 0.89-mile (1.43 km) service road that heads south from MD 222A and veers west to parallel the southbound lanes of I-95. The state highway provides access to the MDTA administration building, the Perryville barracks of the Maryland State Police, and the adjacent truck weigh station on southbound I-95. MD 222B follows part of the course of what was the entrance ramp from MD 222 to southbound I-95. - MD 222C is the designation for G.R. Dawson Drive, a 0.48-mile (0.77 km) service road that heads west from MD 222 and parallels the northbound lanes of I-95. The state highway provides access to a truck weigh station on northbound I-95. MD 222C follows part of the course of what was the northbound I-95 exit ramp to MD 222. The designation was assigned in 1995, and the highway received its name in 2006. ## See also

Austria in the Eurovision Song Contest 2014

Austria participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 2014 with the song "Rise Like a Phoenix", written by Charlie Mason, Joey Patulka, Ali Zuckowski and Julian Maas. The song was performed by Conchita Wurst, the drag stage persona of Tom Neuwirth, who had risen to fame after taking part in an Austrian talent show in 2011 and attempting to represent Austria at the Eurovision Song Contest 2012. In September 2013 the Austrian broadcaster Österreichischer Rundfunk (ORF) announced that they had internally selected Wurst to compete at the 2014 contest in Copenhagen, Denmark, with her song presented to the public in March 2014. After a promotional tour of several European countries, Austria was seen as one of the countries most likely to qualify for the grand final. In the second of the Eurovision semi-finals "Rise Like a Phoenix" came first of the 15 participating countries, securing its place among the 26 other countries in the final. In Austria's forty-seventh Eurovision appearance on 10 May, "Rise Like a Phoenix" became the sixty-second song to win the Eurovision Song Contest, receiving a total of 290 points and full marks from thirteen countries. This was Austria's second win in the contest, having previously won in , 48 years prior; this is the longest gap between two Eurovision wins of a country to this day. After the show, the song went on to chart in several European countries, reaching number one in Austria and the UK Indie Chart, as well as reaching the top 10 in a further 10 countries. Wurst's appearance in the contest brought about both criticism and praise: by some of the more socially conservative sections of European society her victory in the contest was condemned as a promotion of LGBT rights; conversely the international attention received by Wurst's victory firmly established her among the LGBT community, leading her to take an active role in promoting tolerance and respect, and resulted in several invites to perform at several European pride events, as well as performances at the European Parliament and United Nations Office at Vienna. ## Background Prior to the 2014 contest, Austria had participated in the Eurovision Song Contest forty-six times since its first entry in , winning it in with the song "Merci, Chérie" performed by Udo Jürgens. Following the introduction of semi-finals for the , Austria had featured in only two finals. Austria's least successful result has been last place, which they have achieved on eight occasions, most recently in the . Austria has also received nul points on three occasions; in , and . The Austrian national broadcaster, Österreichischer Rundfunk (ORF), broadcasts the event within Austria and organises the selection process for the nation's entry. From 2011 to 2013, ORF had set up national finals with several artists to choose both the song and performer to compete at Eurovision for Austria, with both the public and a panel of jury members involved in the selection. For the 2014 Eurovision Song Contest, ORF held an internal selection to choose the artist and song to represent Austria at the contest. This method had last been used by ORF in 2007. ## Before Eurovision ### Internal selection ORF confirmed their intentions to participate at the 2014 Eurovision Song Contest on 6 September 2013. On 10 September 2013, the broadcaster announced that they had internally selected Conchita Wurst to represent Austria in Copenhagen. Wurst is the drag stage persona of Tom Neuwirth, who in 2007 finished second in the third season of Austrian talent show Starmania, behind the 2011 Austrian entry Nadine Beiler. Neuwirth went on to join the boy band Jetzt Anders! along with other contestants from Starmania in 2007, which disbanded later that year. Following this, Neuwirth, who uses masculine pronouns when referring to himself but feminine pronouns to describe Wurst, developed his new drag persona and appeared on ORF's talent show Die große Chance (The Big Opportunity) as Wurst in 2011, achieving sixth place. Wurst went on to compete in the Austrian selection for the Eurovision Song Contest 2012 with the song "That's What I Am", qualifying for the super final and finishing second with 49 percent of the public vote. ORF confirmed in October 2013 that the song to be performed by Wurst at the contest would also be chosen internally. On 18 March 2014 at an ORF press conference in Vienna, the song "Rise Like a Phoenix" was announced as the Austrian entry for the contest. The song was written by Charlie Mason, Joey Patulka, Ali Zuckowski and Julian Maas. Wurst's first live performance of the song was on 22 March 2014, during an episode of Dancing Stars, the Austrian version of international franchise Dancing with the Stars. ### Controversy The selection of Wurst caused some controversy in Austria and the rest of Europe. A Facebook group which amassed approximately 38,000 members protested the decision by the publicly funded broadcaster ORF, to internally select the country's Eurovision act without a public vote. In an interview with Austrian newspaper Kurier, Wurst defended her internal selection by ORF, noting that the broadcaster had the sole responsibility of making decisions regarding the contest and that the 2007 internal selection of Eric Papilaya received no backlash from the Austrian public. Wurst also claimed that the criticism from the group surpassed protest against her as the selected artist and instead "displayed homophobic statements and discrimination", and she vowed to "continue fighting against discrimination" in response to the Facebook group. Wurst's selection for Eurovision also sparked outrage outside of Austria; in Belarus, a petition by more than 2,000 people petitioned the Belarusian Ministry of Information to prevent the contest from being broadcast in the country, claiming it to being "a hotbed of sodomy" and an attempt by European liberals to impose Western values on Belarus and Russia. A similar petition of more than 15,000 signatures was also received by the Russian Ministry of Communications and Mass Media from the "All-Russian parenting group", claiming that Wurst "leads the lifestyle inapplicable [sic] for Russians" Wurst also received criticism from the Armenian representative, Aram Mp3, who claimed that her lifestyle was "not natural" and that she should "eventually decide whether she is a woman or a man". Aram Mp3 later apologised and insisted his statements were "a joke". In response to petitions in Russia, Belarus and Ukraine asking for Wurst to be removed from the competition, some of the other 2014 participants gave Wurst their support. Ireland's representative Kasey Smith, said that "everyone should be allowed in" to Eurovision and that she "totally disagree[s] with what they are doing. It's homophobia." ### Promotion Before her appearance at the contest, Wurst went on a promotional tour, performing in several European countries. Prior to her song selection, Wurst appeared at a Eurovision fan event in Vienna in October 2013 held by the Austrian branch of OGAE, an international organisation of Eurovision fan clubs across Europe and beyond, where she shared the stage with Anne-Marie David, the 1973 Eurovision winner. On 28 March Wurst appeared at the 2014 Euroschlager Party, held by OGAE Spain, in Madrid. On 29 March 2014, Wurst was a guest at the "Eurovision Pre-Party Riga" in Latvia, appearing alongside Poland's 2014 representatives Donatan and Cleo and Latvia's 2013 representatives PeR. Wurst was also one of 26 acts from the 2014 contest to perform during the 2014 Eurovision in Concert, the largest gathering of Eurovision artists outside of Eurovision itself, held in the Melkweg, a popular music venue in Amsterdam, the Netherlands on 5 April 2014. This was followed by an appearance at the London Preview Party alongside 15 other participating entries from 2014, held at the Café de Paris nightclub in London on 13 April. Wurst also took part in several interviews and performances on Irish, Belgian and Dutch television networks. In the run-up to the contest, Wurst asked her fans to take part in a campaign called "Knit for Tolerance", in which they would wear knitted beards in a display of tolerance and respect, also promising that she would take all beards that she received with her to Copenhagen. ## At Eurovision According to Eurovision rules, all nations with the exceptions of the host country and the "Big Five" (France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom) are required to qualify from one of two semi-finals in order to compete for the final; the top ten countries from each semi-final progress to the final. The European Broadcasting Union (EBU) split up the competing countries into six different pots based on voting patterns from previous contests, with countries with favourable voting histories put into the same pot. On 20 January 2014, a special allocation draw was held which placed each country into one of the two semi-finals, as well as which half of the show they would perform in. Austria was placed into the second semi-final, to be held on 8 May 2014, and was scheduled to perform in the first half of the show. As part of the contest's graphic design, special postcards were commissioned by the Danish host broadcaster DR to introduce each of the participating countries before the acts took to the stage. For the 2014 contest the contestants were asked to take a photo of their country's flag, made in a creative way. Austria's postcard was the first to be filmed by DR, and was shot at the Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna featuring Wurst and her stylist Tamara Mascara creating the Austrian flag out of 70 baroque-style dresses. Once all the competing songs for the 2014 contest had been released, the running order for the semi-finals was decided by the shows' producers rather than through another draw, so that similar songs were not placed next to each other. Austria was set to perform in position 6, following the entry from Poland and before the entry from Lithuania. All three shows were broadcast on ORF eins, with commentary by Andi Knoll. The Austrian spokesperson, who announced the Austrian votes during the final, was Kati Bellowitsch. ### Semi-final Wurst took part in technical rehearsals on 30 April and 3 May, followed by dress rehearsals on 7 and 8 May. This included the jury final where professional juries of each country, responsible for 50 percent of each country's vote, watched and voted on the competing entries. The stage show featured Wurst in a cream-covered mermaid-like dress standing on a pedestal in the middle of the stage. The stage appeared dark at the beginning of the song with minimal lighting, before the lighting rose towards the beginning of the first chorus. At the start of the song, the camera appeared at the back of the arena before swooping into centre stage to a close-up of Wurst, followed by it flying off again at the beginning of the chorus. The background LED screens featured at the first chorus flaming rain, followed by flames in the shape of wings, in reference to the phoenix in the title of the song. Pyrotechnic flames also featured at the finale of the song. Wind machines were also used to effect during the performance. At the end of the show, it was announced that Austria had finished in the top 10 and thus qualifying for the grand final; it was the last qualifying country to be announced by the show's hosts, Pilou Asbæk and Nikolaj Koppel. It was later revealed that Austria had won the semi-final, receiving a total of 169 points. ### Final

Shortly after the second semi-final, a winner's press conference was held for the ten qualifying countries. As part of this press conference, the qualifying artists took part in a draw to determine which half of the grand final they would subsequently participate in. This draw was done in the order the countries were announced during the semi-final. Austria was drawn to compete in the first half. Following this draw, the shows' producers decided upon the running order of the final, as they had done for the semi-finals. Austria was subsequently placed to perform in position 11, following the entry from Greece and before the entry from Germany. On the day of the grand final, Austria was considered by bookmakers to be the second most likely to win the competition, placed only behind the entry from Sweden. Wurst once again took part in dress rehearsals on 9 and 10 May before the final, including the jury final where the professional juries cast their final votes before the live show. Wurst performed a repeat of her semi-final performance during the final on 10 May. After a slow start, Austria eventually took the lead in the voting and won the competition with 290 points, beating the Netherlands and Sweden into second and third places respectively. Austria received 12 points, the maximum number of points a country can give to another country, from thirteen countries. The broadcast was watched by an average 1.3 million people in Austria, receiving a 54.4 percent market share. #### Marcel Bezençon Awards The Marcel Bezençon Awards, first awarded during the 2002 contest, are awards honouring the best competing songs in the final each year. Named after the creator of the annual contest, Marcel Bezençon, the awards are divided into three categories: the Press Award, given to the best entry as voted on by the accredited media and press during the event; the Artistic Award, presented to the best artist as voted on by the shows' commentators; and the Composer Award, given to the best and most original composition as voted by the participating composers. "Rise Like a Phoenix" was awarded the Press Award, which was accepted at the awards ceremony by Kathrin Zechner, ORF's Managing Director. ### Voting Voting during the three shows consisted of 50 percent public televoting and 50 percent from a jury deliberation. The jury consisted of five music industry professionals who were citizens of the country they represent, with their names published before the contest to ensure transparency. This jury was asked to judge each contestant based on vocal capacity, the stage performance, the song's composition and originality, and the overall impression of the act. In addition, no member of a national jury could be related in any way to any of the competing acts in such a way that they could not vote impartially and independently. The individual rankings of each jury member were released shortly after the grand final. Below is a breakdown of points awarded to Austria and awarded by Austria in the second semi-final and grand final of the contest, and the breakdown of the jury voting and televoting conducted during the two shows: #### Points awarded to Austria #### Points awarded by Austria #### Detailed voting results The following members comprised the Austrian jury: - Stella Jones [de] (jury chairperson) – singer, songwriter, vocal-stagecoach, represented Austria in the 1995 contest - Michael Dörfler – producer and owner of a sound studio - Dietmar Lienbacher – Division Head Austria Sony Music - Diana Lueger – singer, musician, songwriter - Alexander Kahr [de] – producer ## After Eurovision As the winners of the 2014 contest, Austria was given the responsibility of hosting the 2015 contest. Shortly after the 2014 final, ORF confirmed the preliminary dates for the 2015 contest, as well as that several cities in Austria were competing to host the 60th edition of the Eurovision Song Contest. After a competition was held to determine the host venue, three cities were short-listed by ORF: Vienna; Innsbruck; and Graz. On 6 August it was announced that the Wiener Stadthalle in Vienna would host the 2015 contest, scheduled to be held on 19, 21 and 23 May 2015. On 19 December 2014, the hosts of the contest were announced, with Wurst taking on the role of green room host for the event. On Wurst's return to Austria after winning Eurovision, she was greeted at Vienna International Airport by thousands of fans and hundreds journalists celebrating her victory. On 18 May she met with Werner Faymann, the Chancellor of Austria and Josef Ostermayer, the Minister of Arts, Culture, and Media at an official reception, followed by a performance on stage at Vienna's Ballhausplatz to an audience of thousands of fans. The concert was however criticised by the conservative Austrian People's Party, a member of the coalition government. "Rise Like a Phoenix" went on to become a hit across Europe, reaching the top 3 in iTunes download charts in fourteen countries, including both Belarus and Russia, where she had courted controversy before the contest. The song also reached the top 10 in charts in twelve countries, including number one in Austria and the UK Indie Chart. Wurst received both praise and criticism following her victory. Many celebrities sent their congratulations and support to Wurst via Twitter and other means, including Elton John, Cher, Lady Gaga, Boy George and Robbie Williams, as well as from fellow Eurovision winners Alexander Rybak, Emmelie de Forest, Lena Meyer-Landrut and Charlotte Perrelli. However her victory was also met with negative reaction by some more conservative sections of European society. In Turkey, which had not taken part in the contest since 2012, the government party AKP criticised Wurst's win, with then-Prime Minister of Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdoğan vowing that Turkey would never take part in the contest again and his colleague Volkan Bozkır proclaiming "Thank god we no longer participate in Eurovision". Church leaders in the Balkans have also claimed that Wurst's win is responsible for floods in south-east Europe in May 2014, which left over 60 people dead. Metropolitan Amfilohije, the Montenegrin patriarch of the Serbian Orthodox Church claimed that "this [flood] is not a coincidence, but a warning" and a "reminder that people should not join the wild side", Patriarch Irinej, the spiritual leader of Eastern Orthodox Serbs has reportedly said the floods are "divine punishment for their vices" and that "God is thus washing Serbia of its sins". Wurst had previously been condemned by the Russian Orthodox Church. However Fr. Michael Unger, Tom Neuwirth's childhood Catholic priest, condemned the homophobic backlash against him, and said that he is "just happy that he's happy". In the wake of her Eurovision win, Wurst was invited onto several television programmes across Europe. Wurst appeared as a guest on several BBC programmes in the United Kingdom; including The Graham Norton Show on 16 May, a chat show hosted by British commentator Graham Norton; and on 23 May 2014 she appeared on The One Show and Newsnight. Wurst was invited onto the German talk show TV total on 4 June 2014, hosted by former Eurovision contestant and host Stefan Raab, and was in demand by German broadcaster RTL as a new personality for their upcoming reality shows. Wurst also performed on the popular Swedish show Allsång på Skansen in July 2014. In June 2014, Wurst headlined the Vienna Life Ball, Europe's biggest charity event supporting people with HIV and AIDS, attending the event in a dress designed by Jean Paul Gaultier. Wurst has since modelled for both Gautier and Karl Lagerfeld at several events. Both before and after her Eurovision win, Wurst had become very involved with the LGBT community. In June 2014 Wurst recorded a message for the It Gets Better Project, an Internet-based project devoted to preventing suicide among LGBT youth by having gay adults convey the message that their lives will improve, and to inspire change required to make life better for them. Wurst was also invited to perform at several pride events in several cities across Europe, including in Stockholm, Zürich, Dublin, Berlin, Madrid, Amsterdam, London and Manchester among others. In October 2014, British gay lifestyle magazine Attitude awarded Wurst with the 'Moment of the Year' award for her win at Eurovision as part of the 2014 Attitude Awards. In October 2014, Wurst accepted an invitation by Ulrike Lunacek MEP, vice-president of the Austrian Greens, to perform in a special concert at the European Parliament. The concert was organised by MEPs from 5 different parliamentary groups, with the aim to support the adoption of a report against homophobia and sexual discrimination in February. This was followed in November 2014 by a performance at the United Nations Office at Vienna and a meeting with the Secretary-General of the United Nations Ban Ki-moon. Ban hailed Wurst's win as a "powerful message", praising her promotion of respect for diversity, which he called a "core value" of the United Nations and that "discrimination has no place in the United Nations, nor in the world of the 21st century". Wurst had also extended her CV into voice acting, voicing the character of Eva in the German dub of the computer-animated film Penguins of Madagascar, spin-off of the Madagascar film franchise.

The Falcon and the D'ohman

"The Falcon and the D'ohman" is the twenty-third season premiere of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 25, 2011. In the episode, the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant hires a new security guard named Wayne and Homer soon becomes friends with him. "The Falcon and the D'ohman" also reveals the fate of the relationship between the characters Ned Flanders and Edna Krabappel that was initiated in the previous episode of the series, "The Ned-Liest Catch", that aired in May 2011. Actor Kiefer Sutherland guest starred in the episode as the voice of Wayne. This was the third time he appeared on The Simpsons. The episode also features a guest appearance by American chef and Top Chef judge Tom Colicchio as himself in a segment in which Marge dreams about being a contestant in a show similar to Top Chef. "The Falcon and the D'ohman" has received mixed reviews from television critics, with criticism directed at the plot and the cultural references featured. However, a reference in the episode to the computer-animated re-enactments of news stories done by the Taiwan-based Next Media Animation has been particularly praised. ## Background "The Falcon and the D'ohman" features a reference to the previous episode of the series, the twenty-second season finale "The Ned-Liest Catch" that aired on May 22, 2011. In that episode, the characters Ned Flanders and Edna Krabappel start dating. The episode ends with Homer and Marge Simpson giving viewers a link to the official The Simpsons website, TheSimpsons.com, and encouraging them to go on the website and vote over the 2011 summer on whether Ned and Edna should stay together. The result of the poll was revealed in "The Falcon and the D'ohman"—a majority had voted for the couple to remain in a relationship. According to executive producer Al Jean, the poll was "very strong in one direction". In an interview before the result was presented, Jean guaranteed that the poll was authentic and that the writers would not undo the viewers' decision, adding "What the fans have joined together, let no writer put asunder." ## Plot Comic Book Guy opens the season premiere by telling the viewers that there will be hints in the episode as to the conclusion of the romance between Ned and Edna. Homer sneaks late into work at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant, sings to the tune of The Police's "Walking on the Moon", and marks up his time card to make it seem like he was on time and had put in some overtime hours. Homer is surprised to find that a new security guard named Wayne has been hired, and repeatedly tries to befriend him, only to be rebuffed. One night, while Wayne is walking home in the rain and hail, he reluctantly agrees to let Homer drive him to Moe's Tavern for a drink, though insists they remain professional afterwards. While Wayne is in the bathroom, Snake dramatically crashes through the door on his motorcycle to rob everyone. As soon as Wayne comes out, he soundly beats up Snake. The story spreads quickly and a news segment that features an interview with Wayne by Kent Brockman and a computer-animated Taiwanese dramatization of the incident soon airs on television. It is discovered that Wayne is a highly-trained former CIA black ops agent, who decided to go into hiding in Springfield. He is plagued by recurring flashbacks from his previous missions, which cause him to act or shout them out, as evidenced when he unintentionally attacks Mr. Burns, the boss of the power plant, which results in Wayne being fired. Because Wayne can no longer afford his apartment, Homer lets Wayne sleep in Bart's treehouse. However, Wayne speaks loudly about past missions in his sleep, causing the couples in the nearby houses to lose sleep. Ned and Edna are one of these couples, and they are shown holding each other in bed. News of what happened to Burns spreads to YouTube and is seen by one of Wayne's gangster enemies, Viktor, in Kiev, Ukraine. Apparently, Wayne accidentally killed Viktor's wife with a stray bullet on a previous mission. Thus, the Ukrainian gangster and his henchmen kidnap and torture Homer as bait to lure Wayne. Wayne tracks Homer down through tracking devices he unknowingly ate, frees him and kills all of the Ukrainian gangsters, including Viktor, with help from Homer. Afterwards, Wayne repays Homer for his help by giving him the fist pound he wanted when they first met, and considers leaving Springfield, but Marge suggests that Wayne get a job at the Springfield Department of Motor Vehicles instead. At the DMV, he has a flashback to the time he was a prisoner in North Korea and was forced to write Being Short Is Not A Hindrance To Greatness, a ridiculous musical play paying tribute to Kim Jong Il. During the closing credits, Ned and Edna thank the fans for voting for their relationship to continue. Seymour Skinner tries to protest, but Agnes, who approves of the outcome, rebukes him for waiting until the polls had closed to offer his opinion. ## Production

"The Falcon and the D'ohman" was written by Justin Hurwitz and directed by Matthew Nastuk. The storyline of the episode resembles David Cronenberg's film A History of Violence. "The Falcon and the D'ohman" features several references to popular culture. For example, in a sequence at the beginning of the episode, Homer sings about working at the power plant to the melody of The Police's song "Walking on the Moon". According to Chris Ledesma, music editor on The Simpsons, the staff was "very fortunate to have obtained the original master tracks from The Police without vocals. This is a rare instance. When we need to do our own lyrics to an established hit song, [composer Alf Clausen] usually arranges and records a 'sound-alike' that tries to capture all the spirit and nuance of the original so that the audience immediately identifies the track, but allows us to add our own vocals." The episode also made frequent use of the sequence "Dance of the Knights" from the ballet Romeo and Juliet by Sergei Prokofiev. The sequence had to be licensed, as it was under copyright in most parts of the world. Another cultural reference appears in one of Wayne's flashbacks, in which he is seen receiving special training against enemies such as Chucky from the Child's Play film and basketball player Kobe Bryant. The Taiwanese dramatization of Wayne's fight with Snake at Moe's Tavern parodies the humorous computer animated re-enactments of news stories done by the Taiwan-based Next Media Animation. One YouTube clip that Viktor sees is a reference to The Gregory Brothers, the creators of the popular online Auto-Tune the News series, in that a news segment featuring a lady who has lost her cat has been autotuned into a song. Marge's dream of becoming a contestant in a cooking competition parodies the American reality competition series Top Chef. American chef Tom Colicchio, who is a judge on that show, guest starred in "The Falcon and the D'ohman" as himself. Canadian actor Kiefer Sutherland guest starred in "The Falcon and the D'ohman" as the security guard Wayne. This was the third episode of The Simpsons that he appeared in, the first being the 2006 episode "G.I. (Annoyed Grunt)" (playing a colonel) and the second being the 2007 episode "24 Minutes" (playing his character Jack Bauer from the television series 24). As noted by Rick Porter of the website Zap2it, Sutherland's appearance in "The Falcon and the D'ohman" makes him "one of the relatively few Simpsons guest stars who've appeared more than once and voiced different characters rather than recurring residents of Springfield." Other guest stars to have done this are Albert Brooks, Jon Lovitz, and Phil Hartman, all of whom have played one-time characters and recurring parts. The character Wayne is partly based on Sutherland's 24 character Jack Bauer, who, according to Christopher Hooton of Metro, is also a "po-faced anti-terrorism agent constantly finding his loved ones kidnapped by megalomaniacs." After the episode had aired in the United States, the Ukrainian press reported that the mafioso Viktor bears a resemblance to the Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych. ## Release The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 25, 2011, as the premiere of the twenty-third season of The Simpsons. It was watched by approximately 8.08 million people during this broadcast. It received a 3.9 Nielsen rating in the demographic for adults aged 18–49 (up three percent from the last season's premiere), and a ten percent share. The Simpsons became the second highest-rated program in the 18–49 demographic in Fox's Animation Domination lineup that night, finishing with a higher rating than The Cleveland Show and American Dad! but a lower rating than Family Guy. The Simpsons was, however, the most-watched show in the lineup in terms of total viewers. ### Critical reception Since airing, "The Falcon and the D'ohman" has received mixed reviews from critics. The plot of the episode has been criticized by some reviewers. Kyle Lemmon of Under the Radar gave the episode a three out of ten rating, concluding that "this new episode is rarely grounded in any kind of reality. The best examples of The Simpsons center the situational humor in somewhat plausible scenarios within the town. I guess after so many years, they've completely run out of ideas." Similarly, Television Blend's Jesse Carp wrote that the plot shows "essentially what is wrong with the show and why I stopped watching. Because of the endless amount of material needed to keep a series running for twenty three years, they have to resort to outlandish plots and endless cameos to stay interesting. The best episodes, ... definitely have some absurd elements but they're all firmly grounded in a fairly real world of Springfield, USA and its colorful cast of characters. I'd like to see more of that. I miss them." The cultural references featured in the episode have attracted both criticism and praise. The parody of Next Media Animation has been commended by several reviewers. Hayden Childs of The A.V. Club commented that the episode "features a couple of quite funny sight gags, like the fresco on Moe's ceiling and the delightful Taiwanese dramatization of certain events", but further wrote that the "rest of the jokes and references clang away without being too funny or too insulting, and that is probably the best that any viewers can ask of The Simpsons in its advanced age." Television Blend's Steve West commented that the episode was the worst of the Animation Domination lineup that week and further elaborated that the cultural references "are always a year behind, and the smart writers who used classic American culture to bring wit to the series have been replaced by those who want to mimic South Park and Family Guy. They fail miserably, and it's gotten so bad that I now no longer care about the relationship between Marge and Homer." Matt Roush of TV Guide wrote more positively about the episode, noting that "Fox's eternal The Simpsons kicks off a night of all-new animation, welcoming Kiefer Sutherland in a very clever guest role as a security guard trying without much success to escape his violent past. A nod to Taiwanese animation is just one of the highlights in this homage to 24-style mayhem." Similarly, Umika Pidaparthy of CNN's The Marquee Blog commented that "there were a lot of light laughs in this episode, like when Wayne walks through the Ukrainian part of Springfield (Tsarbucks, anyone?). Pop culture references like the Taiwanese animation of the robbery were hilarious. I was disappointed, though, to see that Marge's daydream about being on Top Chef didn't become a side story." Mike Hughes of the Lansing State Journal commented that the episode was "inconsistent, but [had] great moments", and that it was "much better than Fox's other season-openers" that premiered on the same day.

SNCASO Trident

French mixed-power interceptor aircraft

The SNCASO SO.9000 Trident is a French mixed-power interceptor aircraft built by aircraft manufacturer SNCASO during the 1950s. As part of a wider effort to re-build French military power during the late 1940s and to furnish France with advanced, new domestically produced designs, a request for a supersonic-capable point-defence interceptor aircraft to equip the French Air Force was issued to SNCASO. In response, the firm designed the mixed-propulsion Trident, powered by a single SEPR rocket engine, which was augmented by wingtip-mounted turbojet engines, and the Air Force ordered two prototypes. The two SO.9000 Trident Is demonstrated the feasibility of the design concept despite the loss of one aircraft during flight testing and the Air Force ordered a batch of three prototype SO.9050 Trident II fighters in 1954, and a batch of six pre-production aircraft in 1956 to further develop the aircraft so it could serve as a short-range interceptor. Only six of these nine aircraft were ultimately completed, of which all three prototypes were damaged or destroyed in accidents before the programme was cancelled in 1958 despite their record-setting performance. ## Background and description During the late 1940s, following the end of the Second World War, France quickly set about its recovery and the rebuilding of its military, particularly the French Air Force with the indigenous development of advanced military aircraft. In this respect, one area of high interest was the relatively new field of rocket-powered aircraft. According to aviation historian Michel van Pelt, French Air Force officials were against a pure rocket-powered fighter, akin to the wartime-era Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet, but instead favoured a mixed-propulsion approach, using a combination of rocket and turbojet engines. During 1944, a new company, Société d'Etudes pour la Propulsion par Réaction (SEPR), had been founded for the purpose of developing France's own domestic rocket engines. Accordingly, SNCASO received a request from the Air Staff to begin studies for rocket-powered point-defence interceptors with auxiliary turbojets in 1948. During October, SNCASO commenced work upon a series of design studies in response. One particular design by aircraft designer Lucien Servanty was favoured by the company. This was a shoulder-wing monoplane capable of supersonic speeds using a single SEPR-built rocket engine in the fuselage augmented with a set of wingtip-mounted turbojets; operationally, both types of engines were to be used to perform a rapid climb and interception at high altitudes, while the jet engines alone would be used to return to base. Servanty persuaded the Air Force to fund a design study and a mockup on 7 July 1950. The rocket engine selected was based that used by the Matra M.04 missile. It was powered by a mixture of Furaline (C₁₃H₁₂N₂O) and nitric acid (HNO₃); according to Pelt, the decision to use nitric acid as the oxidizing agent posed some challenges as it was corrosive to both the airframe and engine. The combination of Furaline, which was relatively difficult to manufacture in comparison to conventional kerosene, and nitric acid functioned as a hypergolic propellant, not requiring any igniting agent. However, as manned rocket aircraft were an entirely unknown commodity within France, the Air Force decided to modify an existing aircraft, the Sud-Ouest Espadon, to serve as an aerial test bed to prove the propulsion arrangement. During March 1951, the first ground tests of the rocket engine were performed; on 10 June 1952, the modified Espadon test bed performed its maiden flight. During its test programme, improved rocket engines were trialed and the aircraft became the first European aircraft to attain Mach 1 during level flight. Encouraged by the success of the Espadon, the Air Force issued a request to French aircraft companies for a high-speed, lightweight interceptor aircraft that harnessed either turbojet or rocket propulsion, or some combination thereof. Amongst the specified requirements given were the ability to attain Mach 1.3, a relatively high climb rate, and the possibility of deploying the aircraft from austere airstrips. Amongst the various responses from French industry was SNCASO with their own proposal, which was based upon their earlier design studies; their design was later designated as the SO.9000 Trident. The Trident was a fast-looking bullet-shaped aircraft, furnished with an aerodynamically clean fuselage and thin, straight wings in order to minimise drag. It was equipped with a narrow-track tricycle landing gear with the main wheels retracting into the fuselage. The design was unusual for more than just its mixed-propulsion arrangement. Instead of a conventional ejection seat, the entire nose section could be jettisoned. Particular attention had been dedicated to the control system to ensure it would be suitable throughout the transonic and supersonic stages of flight; while conventional ailerons were used when flown at slow speeds, these would be locked out of use at higher speeds to prevent the formation of shock waves; instead, the tailplane controlled roll by moving in opposite directions. All three tail surfaces were all-moving, eliminating the requirement for separate elevators and rudders while preventing control lock-ups during high speeds. Suitably impressed with the design and its projected performance, SNCASO received a contract for two prototypes on 8 April 1951. ### SO.9000 Trident I On 2 March 1953, the first prototype Trident I conducted the type's maiden flight; flown by test pilot Jacques Guignard, the aircraft used the entire length of the runway to get airborne, being powered only by its two 4 kN (900 lbf) Turbomeca Marboré turbojet engines. It was initially flown without any rocket engine installed, relying solely upon its turbojet engines instead to evaluate its low-speed handling. According to aviation historian Bill Gunston, the early test flights of the SO.9000 were "hairy" prior to the installation of the rocket motor in September 1954. During the first flight of the second Trident I prototype on 1 September 1953, the aircraft crashed after struggling to gain altitude after takeoff and collided with a utility pole, resulting in the separation of the nose section and Guignard sustaining severe injuries. On 16 January 1954, test flights using the remaining Trident I prototype were resumed, flown by test pilot Charles Goujon. On what would have been its sixth rocket-powered flight on 26 October, the rocket failed during take off and the aircraft was barely able to return to the runway and land safely. This incident graphically demonstrated that the Trident needed more power from its turbojets and the aircraft was grounded until more powerful 7.34 kN (1,654 lbf) Dassault MD.30 Viper engines, a license-produced version of the British Armstrong Siddeley Viper, were installed. The aircraft made its first flight with its new engines in March 1955. Powered by these engines, the aircraft soon proved its ability to exceed Mach 1 during a shallow dive even without the added thrust of the rocket motor. In April 1956, it was decided to end flight testing with the surviving Trident I. During the 18-month-long flight test programme, the Trident I had completed over 100 flights, having eventually reached a maximum recorded speed of Mach 1.8 and a peak altitude of 20,000 metres (65,000 ft). A total of 24 of these flights had been flown using the rocket engine. According to Pelt, the French Air Force were impressed by the performance of the Trident, and were keen to adopt an improved operationally-capable model into service. ### SO.9050 Trident II

Two prototype SO.9050 Trident IIs were ordered in 1954 and primarily differed from their predecessors by the use of a more powerful rocket as a two-chamber 29.3 kN (6,600 lbf) SEPR 631 rocket replaced the SEPR 431. Other changes included the deletion of the ailerons, a smaller wing, an enlarged cockpit, the transfer of the speed brakes from the wings to the fuselage and the lengthening of the landing gear to accommodate a large air-to-air missile (AAM) beneath the fuselage. The first aircraft made its maiden flight on 19 July 1955, albeit only with its turbojets, and its first rocket-powered flight occurred on 21 December. The second prototype first flew on 4 January 1956, but was destroyed three days later when the fuel pump to the turbojets failed and the engines flamed out. A third prototype had been built by SNCASO to develop a surface-to-air missile based on the Trident, but it was purchased by the Air Force to replace the destroyed aircraft and first flew on 30 March. On 16 February 1956, the first prototype reached a speed of Mach 1.7 while carrying a mockup of the Matra 052 AAM. It subsequently attained a speed of Mach 1.96 without the missile at a height of 19,100 m (62,664 ft). On 21 May 1957, the aircraft exploded in mid-air during a practice flight for the Paris Air Show that was probably caused when the highly volatile Furaline and nitric acid accidentally mixed and exploded, killing the pilot. The third prototype continued flying until it made a belly landing on 19 September. In May 1956 the Air Force placed an order for a batch of six pre-production aircraft, and a supplementary contract followed for four additional aircraft, although this later contract was cancelled on 24 October 1957 due to budget cutbacks. These aircraft differed from the first three prototypes by substituting a pair of 10.79 kN (2,430 lbf) Turbomeca Gabizo turbojets for the MD.30 engines. Other changes included a redesigned nose to accommodate a fire-control radar and the addition of a hardpoint below the fuselage for a Matra R.511 AAM. The first pre-production aircraft (the fourth Trident II) was first flown on 3 May 1957. In an unsuccessful attempt to stave off cancellation, SNACSO made efforts to establish new time-to-height and altitude records in 1958. The first pre-production aircraft set a record of 2 minutes, 37 seconds to 15,000 metres (49,213 ft) on 4 April while the third pre-production aircraft unofficially reached 22,800 metres (74,800 ft) on 17 January and then made its officially-observed record-breaking altitude of 24,217 metres (79,452 ft) on 2 May, shortly after the programme was cancelled on 26 April. The last three incomplete airframes were scrapped, but the Air Force continued the flight testing until late in the year. This allowed the Trident II to establish various unofficial records before the surviving aircraft were scrapped. These included a maximum speed of Mach 1.97 on 23 July, an altitude of 26,000 metres (85,302 ft) on 6 October that was the highest altitude to be flown by a turbojet and a time-to-height of 2 minutes, 15 seconds to 15,000 metres on 8 July. None of these later accomplishments were publicised to avoid upsetting the Air Force after it had decided upon the Dassault Mirage III to satisfy its interceptor requirement. ## Variants SO.9000 Trident I: Two aircraft built, powered by two Turbomeca Marboré II turbojet engines with a single three-chamber SEPR 481 rocket engine. SO.9050 Trident II: Three prototypes and six pre-production aircraft, but only three of the latter were completed. The prototypes were powered by a pair of Dassault MD.30 Viper turbojets and a two-chamber SEPR 631 rocket engine. The pre-production aircraft were equipped with two Turbomeca Gabizo turbojets and a SEPR 631. SO.9050 Trident III: The fourth incomplete pre-production aircraft would have served as a prototype for the Trident III family, all of which would have been fitted with two afterburning Turbomeca Gabizo turbojets and a SEPR 631. The IIIB would have had a lengthened fuselage and a revised canopy. The nose of the IIIC would have been enlarged to accommodate a larger fire-control radar. ## Surviving aircraft The first prototype of the SO.9000 has been on public display since 1956 at the Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace, near Paris. ## Specifications (SO.9050 Trident II (pre-production models)) ## See also

Magnus Barefoot

King of Norway from 1093 to 1103

Magnus III Olafsson (Old Norse: Magnús Óláfsson, Norwegian: Magnus Olavsson; 1073 – 24 August 1103), better known as Magnus Barefoot (Old Norse: Magnús berfœttr, Norwegian: Magnus Berrføtt), was the King of Norway from 1093 until his death in 1103. His reign was marked by aggressive military campaigns and conquest, particularly in the Norse-dominated parts of the British Isles, where he extended his rule to the Kingdom of the Isles and Dublin. As the only son of King Olaf Kyrre, Magnus was proclaimed king in southeastern Norway shortly after his father's death in 1093. In the north his claim was contested by his cousin, Haakon Magnusson (son of King Magnus Haraldsson), and the two co-ruled uneasily until Haakon's death in 1095. Disgruntled members of the nobility refused to recognise Magnus after his cousin's death, but the insurrection was short-lived. After securing his position domestically, Magnus campaigned around the Irish Sea from 1098 to 1099. He raided through Orkney, the Hebrides and Mann (the Northern and Southern Isles), and ensured Norwegian control by a treaty with the Scottish king. Based on Mann during his time in the west, Magnus had a number of forts and houses built on the island and probably also obtained suzerainty of Galloway. He sailed to Wales later in his expedition, winning control of Anglesey (and possibly Gwynedd's submission) after repelling the invading Norman forces from the island. Following his return to Norway, Magnus led campaigns into Dalsland and Västergötland in Sweden, claiming an ancient border with the country. After two unsuccessful invasions and a number of skirmishes Danish king Eric Evergood initiated peace talks among the three Scandinavian monarchs, fearing that the conflict would get out of hand. Magnus concluded peace with the Swedes in 1101 by agreeing to marry Margaret, daughter of the Swedish king Inge Stenkilsson. In return, Magnus gained Dalsland as part of her dowry. He set out on his final western campaign in 1102, and may have sought to conquer Ireland. Magnus entered into an alliance with Irish king Muirchertach Ua Briain of Munster, who recognised Magnus' control of Dublin. Under unclear circumstances, while obtaining food supplies for his return to Norway, Magnus was killed in an ambush by the Ulaid the next year; territorial advances characterising his reign ended with his death. Into modern times, his legacy has remained more pronounced in Ireland and Scotland than in his native Norway. Among the few domestic developments known during his reign, Norway developed a more centralised rule and moved closer to the European model of church organisation. Popularly portrayed as a Viking warrior rather than a medieval monarch, Magnus was the last Norwegian king to fall in battle abroad, and he may in some respects be considered the final Viking king. ## Background Most information about Magnus is gleaned from Norse sagas and chronicles, which began appearing during the 12th century. The most important sources still available are the Norwegian chronicles Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensium by Theodoric the Monk and the anonymous Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum (or simply Ágrip) from the 1180s and the Icelandic sagas Heimskringla (by Snorri Sturluson), Morkinskinna and Fagrskinna, which date to about the 1220s. While the later sagas are the most detailed accounts, they are also generally considered the least reliable. Additional information about Magnus, in particular his campaigns, is found in sources from the British Isles, which included contemporary accounts. Magnus was born around the end of 1073 as the only son of King Olaf Kyrre. His mother's identity is uncertain; she is identified as Tora Arnesdatter (daughter of otherwise-unknown Arne Låge) in Morkinskinna and Fagrskinna, as Tora Joansdatter in Heimskringla, Hrokkinskinna and Hryggjarstykki and an unnamed daughter of "Ragnvald jarl" from Godøy, Sunnmøre in the genealogical text Af en gl. ætleg (commonly known as Sunnmørsættleggen). The historical consensus (including P. A. Munch and Claus Krag) has favoured Tora Arnesdatter, but the other claims have also gained support. Anders Stølen has argued that she was a daughter of Ragnvald jarl (who has been identified as Rognvald Brusason, Earl of Orkney by Ola Kvalsund), while historian Randi Helene Førsund has considered Tora Joansdatter more likely. Magnus grew up among the hird (royal retinue) of his father in Nidaros (modern Trondheim), de facto capital of Norway at the time. His father's cousin, the chieftain Tore Ingeridsson, was foster-father to Magnus. In his youth, he was apparently more similar to his warlike grandfather, King Harald Hardrada, than to his father (who bore the byname Kyrre: "the Peaceful"). According to Snorri Sturluson, Magnus was considered handsome and gifted in learning; although he was shorter in stature than his grandfather Harald, he was reportedly known as "Magnus the Tall". Magnus' more-common byname, "Barefoot" or "Barelegs", was—according to Snorri—due to his adopting the Gaelic dress of the Irish and Scots: a short tunic, which left the lower legs bare. Another version (by Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus) maintains that he acquired the nickname because he was forced to flee from a Swedish attack in his bare feet, while a third explains that he rode barefoot (like the Irish). Due to Magnus' aggressive nature and his campaigns abroad, he also had the nickname styrjaldar-Magnús ("Warrior Magnus" or "Magnus the Strife-lover"). ## Reign ### Establishing authority Norway had experienced a long period of peace during the reign of Magnus' father, Olaf. Magnus may have been present when Olaf died in Rånrike, Båhuslen (southeastern Norway) in September 1093 and was probably proclaimed king at the Borgarting, the thing (assembly) of the adjacent region of Viken later that month. When Magnus became king, he already had a network of support among the Norwegian aristocracy. Although sources are unclear about the first year of his reign, it is apparent that Magnus' focus was on the west (towards the British Isles). Since conditions were chaotic in Norse-dominated parts of the British Isles since the death of Thorfinn the Mighty, this provided Magnus an opportunity to intervene in local power struggles. According to some accounts, he made his first expedition west in 1093–94 (or 1091–92), helping Scottish king Donald Bane to conquer Edinburgh and the Scottish throne and possibly gaining control of the Southern Isles (Suðreyjar) in return. It is unclear if this early expedition took place, since it is not directly referenced in early reliable sources or the sagas. Magnus was opposed by his cousin Haakon Magnusson, son of King Olaf's brother and short-lived co-ruler King Magnus Haraldsson, who claimed half the kingdom. Haakon was proclaimed king in the Uplands and at the Øyrating, the thing of Trøndelag (in central Norway). According to Førsund, Haakon took control of the entire portion of the kingdom once held by his father (also including the Frostating—the thing of Hålogaland in northern Norway—and the Gulating—the thing of western Norway). Haakon secured support by relieving farmers of taxes and duties (including taxes dating back to the Danish rule of Sweyn Knutsson during the early 1030s), while Magnus pursued costly policies and demanded lengthy military service. After Magnus settled at the new royal estate in Nidaros for the winter of 1094–95, Haakon also travelled to the city and took up residence at the old royal estate. Their relationship became increasingly tense, culminating when Haakon saw Magnus' longships fully rigged at sea. Haakon summoned the Øyrating in response, leading Magnus to sail southwards. Haakon attempted to intercept Magnus by travelling south to Viken by land (over the mountains of Dovrefjell), but he died unexpectedly while hunting in February 1095. The strongman behind Haakon's monarchy had been his foster-father Tore Tordsson ("Steigar-Tore"), who refused to recognise Magnus as king after Haakon's death. With Egil Aslaksson and other noblemen, he had the otherwise-unknown Sweyn Haraldsson set up as a pretender. Although later sagas maintain that Sweyn was Danish, some modern historians have speculated that he may have been a son of Harald Hardrada. The revolt was based in the Uplands, but also gained support from noblemen elsewhere in the country. After several weeks of fighting, Magnus captured Tore and his supporters and had them hanged on the island of Vambarholm (outside Hamnøy, Lofoten, in northern Norway). Magnus was reportedly furious because he could not pardon Egil, a potentially useful, young and resourceful nobleman. As king, his honour would only allow a pardon if other noblemen pleaded for Egil's life; this did not happen. Magnus' final domestic dispute was with the noble Sveinke Steinarsson, who refused to recognise him as king. Although Sveinke reduced piracy in Viken, he was forced into exile for three years after negotiating with Magnus' men. Since piracy increased soon after Sveinke's departure (possibly encouraged by Sveinke himself), Magnus met him in the Danish province of Halland to request his return to Norway. They reconciled; Sveinke became a loyal supporter of Magnus, now the undisputed king of Norway. ### Other developments Since the Norse sources (including the skaldic verses which were the sagas' main sources) chiefly describe war-related matters, less is known about other events during the reigns of the early Norwegian kings. Snorri, for instance, wrote fifteen pages about Magnus and only two pages about Magnus' peaceful father Olaf Kyrre (despite Olaf's reign lasting almost three times longer than Magnus'). Modern historians have noted that this probably has made the image of kings like Magnus Barefoot one-sided (in Magnus' case, skewed towards his deeds as a warrior). Magnus' rule was generally marked by Norway's increasing similarity to other European kingdoms. Royal rule became established, and he consolidated power through a network of powerful noblemen (some of whom were relatives); church organisation also developed. The Nordic bishops belonged to the Archdiocese of Hamburg-Bremen until a year after Magnus' death (when the Archdiocese of Lund was formed); priests and bishops were largely foreigners from England and Germany. In reality, however, Magnus ruled the church in Norway. Through numismatics, it is known that minting reform began during Magnus' reign. The reform restored silver content in coins to around 90 percent, the level at Harald Hardrada's 1055 reform (Haraldsslåtten) which reduced silver content to about 30 percent (the remainder of the coin was copper). Coin size in Magnus' reform was reduced to .45 gram, half the previous weight. Although the silver value of a coin remained about the same, copper was not needed in coins. ### First Irish Sea campaign Magnus sought to re-establish Norwegian influence around the Irish Sea. He attempted to install vassal king Ingemund in the Southern Isles in 1097, but the latter was killed in a revolt. It is unclear what Magnus' ultimate ambitions were, and the significance of his campaign has been downplayed by modern English historians. English chronicler William of Malmesbury believed that Magnus sought to capture the throne from William II of England (in common with the ambitions of his grandfather, Harald Hardrada). Historians have speculated that he wanted to establish an empire which included Scotland and Ireland, although most modern Norwegian and Scottish historians believe his chief aim was simply to control the Norse communities around the Irish Sea. While he may have been influenced by Ingemund's murder, the Orkneyinga saga claims that Magnus was persuaded by a son of an Orkney earl, Haakon Paulsson, who wanted an earldom for himself. It is also possible that Magnus wished to provide a realm outside Norway for his eight-year-old son Sigurd, who accompanied him. Magnus sailed into the Western Sea in 1098, arriving in Orkney with a large fleet. The Chronicles of the Kings of Mann and the Isles claim that he had 160 ships, but English chronicler Orderic Vitalis states that his fleet consisted of 60 ships. Based on this, P. A. Munch suggests an initial fleet of 160 ships, of which 100 were from the leidang (public levy) and returned shortly after arrival; the fleet accompanying Magnus southward in the campaigns consisted of 60 royal and baronial ships. According to Førsund, the low estimate of 120 men per ship means 8,000 men in the royal and baronial ships and 12,000 from the leidang ships. However, many historians believe that ship numbers in old naval campaign accounts are exaggerated. After his arrival, Magnus began negotiations with Scottish and Irish kings about the hird and control of land in Scotland, Ireland and the surrounding islands. Upon arriving in Orkney, he sent the earls Paul and Erlend Thorfinnsson away to Norway as prisoners on a leidang ship, took their sons Haakon Paulsson, Magnus Erlendsson and Erling Erlendsson as hostages and installed his own son Sigurd as earl. Magnus then raided Scotland, the Southern Isles and Lewis. Meeting no significant opposition, he continued pillaging the Hebridean islands of Uist, Skye, Tiree, Mull and Islay, and the peninsula of Kintyre; Iona was visited, but not pillaged. Magnus is also recorded as warring in Sanday, although the exact location is unclear (there are three islands with that name in the region). On entering the Irish Sea, he lost three leidang ships and 120 men in Ulster. Magnus then continued to Mann, where the earl Óttar fell in a violent battle; he also chased (or captured) Lagman Godredsson, King of the Isles. Mann came under Norwegian control, and Magnus and his men stayed on the island for a time. During his time there, he organised Norwegian immigration to the island and had several forts and houses built (or rebuilt) using timber from Galloway on the Scottish mainland. This implied he had subdued part of that region too, reducing its chieftains to tributaries. Magnus may have intended to invade Ireland next, only to find he had overextended himself. He may have been approached by Gruffudd ap Cynan, King of Gwynedd, who had been driven to Ireland by the Norman earls Hugh of Montgomery and Hugh d'Avranches. With six ships (according to Orderic Vitalis), Magnus steered towards Anglesey in Gwynedd, Wales. Appearing off the coast at Puffin Island, he interrupted a Norman victory celebration after their defeat of the Gwynedd king—for the Welsh, "so opportunely it was ascribed to divine providence" according to historian Rosemary Power (although Magnus had not necessarily intended to side with them). In the ensuing battle (known as the Battle of Anglesey Sound, according to Power "the most widely reported event in the history of Magnus"), Magnus shot Hugh of Montgomery dead with an arrow through his eye and defeated the Norman forces. The sources indicate that Magnus regretted killing Montgomery, suggesting that he may have been interested in an alliance with the Normans. He abruptly returned to Mann with his men, leaving the Norman army weak and demoralized. After this battle, Anglesey was considered the southern border of Norway. Gruffudd ap Cynan soon returned to the island, awarding Magnus gifts and honour (which may indicate that Gwynedd had capitulated). The extension of Magnus' kingdom probably began to concern the English, who remembered the invasion of Magnus' grandfather Harald Hardrada in 1066, war with Danish king Sweyn Estridson in 1069–70 and the threat of invasion by Cnut IV in 1085. In Scotland internal fighting continued between rival kings, although King Edgar had gained a slight advantage. Perhaps fearing to meet Magnus in battle after the internecine strife, according to the sagas Edgar—mistakenly called Malcolm—told Magnus he would renounce all Scottish claims to islands west of Scotland in exchange for peace. Magnus accepted the offer, which reportedly gave him every island a ship could reach with its rudder set. He gained recognition of his rule in the Southern Isles, including Kintyre after demonstrating that it should be included by sitting at the rudder of his ship as it was dragged across the narrow isthmus at Tarbert. Historian Richard Oram has claimed that references to a formal agreement with the Scottish king is a "post-Norwegian civil war confection" designed to legitimise the agenda of Haakon IV Haakonsson. Rosemary Power agrees with the Norse sources that a formal agreement with the Scots was probably concluded, and Seán Duffy notes that Edgar "happily ceded" the isles to Magnus since he had "little or no authority there in any case". Magnus spent the winter in the Hebrides (continuing to fortify the islands), while many of his men returned to Norway. There may have been talks at this time of Magnus marrying Matilda, daughter of late Scottish king Malcolm Canmore, but no marriage took place. Magnus returned to Norway a year later during the summer of 1099, although many of the islands he had conquered (such as Anglesey) were only nominally under Norwegian control. ### Campaign in Sweden

After returning to Norway, Magnus turned east. By claiming an ancient border between Norway and Sweden, he set his course for the Swedish provinces of Dalsland and Västergötland in late 1099. In Magnus' view, the border with Sweden should be set further east: at the Göta älv river, through the Vänern lake and north to the province of Värmland. He claimed all land west of Vänern (chiefly Dalsland). Swedish king Inge Stenkilsson refuted the claim, and Magnus began a campaign in response. He raided his way through the forest villages, and Inge began amassing an army. When advised by his men to retreat, Magnus became more aggressive; he believed that once begun, a campaign should never be aborted. In a surprise nighttime attack, Magnus assaulted Swedish forces east of Göta älv at Fuxerna (near Lilla Edet). After defeating the Swedes at Fuxerna, he conquered part of Västergötland. According to a skald, Magnus conquered "fifteen hundreds from the Geats". He had a wooden fort, surrounded by a moat, built on the island of Kållandsö in the southern portion of Vänern. Before returning to Norway, Magnus left 300 men on the island for the winter (led by Finn Skofteson and Sigurd Ullstreng). According to Randi Helene Førsund, the Norwegians in Kållandsö appear to have been characterized by arrogance (perhaps due to their successes under Magnus) and taunted the Swedish king for taking so long to arrive. After newly formed ice connected the island to the mainland, Inge arrived with about 3,000 men. Although he offered several times to allow the Norwegians to return home in peace (with their plunder and possessions), Inge's offers were rejected. The Swedes finally attacked, burning the fort. The Norwegians were spared and allowed to return home, after being beaten with sticks and surrendering all their possessions. Angry at the humiliating defeat, Magnus planned revenge. He entered Sweden the following year, reconquering the same areas. During the hasty campaign Magnus and his men were ambushed by Swedish forces and forced to flee back to their ships, suffering heavy losses. The war continued until 1100 or 1101. Danish king Eric Evergood, concerned that the conflict would escalate, began peace talks between the two kings. Relations had been strained between Denmark and Norway after Magnus' 1096 raids into Halland, and Eric feared that the conflict might spill over into his own country. The three Scandinavian kings eventually agreed to negotiate peace in the border area near Göta älv. After a constructive meeting, they agreed to preserve ancestral borders; by marrying Inge's daughter Margaret (who acquired the byname Fredkulla: "Colleen-of-Peace"), Magnus acquired the lands he claimed on behalf of his ancestors. Since the marriage was childless, Dalsland never became established as a Norwegian province and was returned to Sweden after his death. ### Second Irish Sea campaign and death Magnus again set his course for Ireland in 1101 or 1102, this time probably with a greater army than he had in his previous campaign. One of his biggest challenges was the number of petty kings and alliances on the island. Irish sources maintain that Magnus came to "take Ireland", "invade Ireland" or "besiege Ireland". He received reinforcements from Orkney on his way to Mann, where he set up a base to survey conditions. Tensions ran high between Magnus and the king of Munster and High King of Ireland, Muirchertach Ua Briain (Mýrjartak), who was struggling with his rival Domnall Ua Lochlainn. Magnus may have tested the situation in 1101, when unnamed sailors are said to have raided Scattery Island (near Muirchertach's base). After his arrival at Mann, Irish sources describe Magnus as agreeing to "a year's peace" with the Irish (suggesting enmity; such agreements were diplomatic devices, usually negotiated between two sides in war). The marriage agreement described in other sources was part of the treaty; Magnus' son, Sigurd, married Muirchertach's daughter Bjaðmunjo. On their wedding day, Magnus named Sigurd his co-king and put him in charge of the western lands. Muirchertach also recognised Magnus' control over Dublin and Fingal. Around the same time Muirchertach married a daughter of Arnulf of Montgomery, brother of Hugh (who was killed by Magnus in 1098). The account in Morkinskinna concerning a "foreign knight" named "Giffarðr", who appeared at the court of Magnus before his Swedish campaign, is suggested by Rosemary Power as evidence that Magnus may have conspired with the Norman Walter Giffard, Earl of Buckingham (or a family member) in the revolt against Henry I of England. According to Orderic Vitalis, Magnus left treasure with a wealthy citizen in Lincoln which was confiscated by King Henry after Magnus' death. This treasure could have been paid by Norman earls for Magnus' support, and possibly arranged by the Giffarðr who is said to have visited Magnus' court in the sagas. This could have provided Magnus with a lucrative return for his costly western campaigns, which were unpopular in Norway at the time. Muirchertach was skilled in diplomacy, and negotiation with the dowries of his daughters may have been part of a political game. While he may not have intended to honour his agreements with Magnus (or others), he needed the latter's assistance to crush Domnall. Magnus and Muirchertach went on joint raiding expeditions after the peace agreement, only interrupted by the winter of 1102–03. The sagas claim that Magnus wintered in Connacht, but since Connacht is incorrectly claimed to be Muirchertach's kingdom the location was corrected to Kincora, Munster by modern historians. Rosemary Power considered it more likely that Magnus would have kept his fleet near Dublin. Magnus was probably allied with Muirchertach during his campaigns against Domnall and the Cenél nEógain in 1103, but (in contrast to the Norse sources) Irish sources (the Annals of Ulster and Annals of the Four Masters) do not describe their campaigns as successful. On 5 August 1103, Muirchertach unsuccessfully tried to subdue Domnall in the Battle of Mag Coba. Magnus did not take part, but his Dublin subjects fought with Muirchertach. Since Magnus was closing in on the Irish throne, Muirchertach may have wanted him out of the way. According to Morkinskinna and Heimskringla, the two agreed that Muirchertach was to bring Magnus and his men cattle provisions for their return to Norway; as this dragged on past the agreed time, Magnus became suspicious that the Irish planned an attack. He gathered his men on St. Bartholomew's Day (or the day before, according to Ágrip), 24 August 1103, and ventured into the country. It is possible that Magnus and his men made an incautious landing to raid cattle, or the Ulaid mistook the Norwegians for cattle-raiding Hebrideans. Alternatively, Muirchertach may have ordered the Ulaid to bring provisions to Magnus, inciting the Ulaid to ambush the Norwegians. Norse sources describe a large force emerging from hiding places in an ambush. The Norwegian forces were taken by surprise, and were not in battle order. Magnus attempted to assert control over his disordered army, ordering part of his force to seize secure ground and use archery fire to slow the Irish. In the melee Magnus was pierced by a spear through both thighs above the knees but he fought on, attempting to get his men back to the level campsite. An axe-wielding Irishman charged him, striking a lethal blow to his neck. When his men said that he proceeded incautiously in his campaigns, Magnus is reported to have responded "Kings are made for honour, not for long life"; he was the last Norwegian king to fall in battle abroad. Perhaps betrayed by Muirchertach, Magnus may also have been betrayed by his own men (in particular the contingent of nobleman Torgrim Skinnluve from the Uplands, who fled to the ships during the battle). It is possible that Torgrim and his men may have been directed by powerful men in Norway, who wanted Magnus removed from the Norwegian throne. More Irishmen than Norwegians fell in the battle, according to Snorri Sturluson, and Magnus' reign could have been different if Torgrim and his men had fought as directed. Magnus' son Sigurd returned to Norway without his child bride after his father's defeat, and direct Norwegian control in the region came to an end. Although Norwegian influence remained, no Norwegian king returned for more than 150 years. ## Descendants Magnus married Margaret Fredkulla, daughter of Swedish king Inge Stenkilsson, as part of the peace agreement of 1101. Their marriage did not produce any children. His three sons (who succeeded him as king) were born to different women, and he had two known daughters by unidentified women: - Eystein: Born 1089 to a mother "of low birth". - Sigurd: Born 1090; his mother's name was Tora. - Olaf: Born c. 1099; his mother was Sigrid Saxesdatter from Vik in Strinda, Trøndelag. - Ragnild: Married Harald Kesja, Danish pretender and son of Danish king Eric Evergood. - Tora: Married Icelandic chieftain Loftur Sæmundsson. Years after Magnus' death, other men came forward claiming to be his sons; however, it is impossible to ascertain the veracity of these claims: - Harald Gille: Born 1103 in Ireland, his claim was recognised by Magnus' son Sigurd. - Sigurd Slembe: His mother was Tora Saxesdatter from Vik; his claim was not recognised (by Harald Gille). - Magnus Raude: Mentioned only in Fagrskinna. ## Aftermath ### Burial Magnus probably died in the vicinity of the River Quoile. According to the Chronicles of the Kings of Mann and the Isles, Magnus was "buried near the Church of St Patrick, in Down". About two miles (1.2 km) south of the cathedral on Horse Island is a mound which became known as Magnus' Grave after its identification on an 1859 map attributed to Danish archaeologist Jens Jacob Asmussen Worsaae. Snorri Sturluson's description of the marshy and difficult terrain where Magnus and his men were attacked fits the conditions in and around Horse Island, making it a strong candidate for the burial site. According to Finbar McCormick, the people who ambushed Magnus may not have wanted a Christian burial for him and his men, instead burying them near where they had been slain. The Downpatrick runestone monument marking the site was erected in March 2003 to mark the 900th anniversary of his death. The burial site is largely only accessible via the heritage railway in Downpatrick; a halt overlooking the barrow and runestone has been built and erected by Philip Campbell, local viking history enthusiast, chairman and founder of the Magnus Viking Association and the Ballydugan Medieval Settlement which is located a short distance from the Runestone on the Drumcullan Road. ### Succession Magnus was succeeded peacefully by his three sons: Sigurd, Eystein and Olaf. Near the end of Sigurd's reign (he having outlived his brothers) during the late 1120s, the previously unknown Harald Gille came to Norway from the west claiming to be a son of Magnus Barefoot and legitimate successor to the kingdom. Sigurd recognised Harald as his brother (and successor) after Harald walked uninjured over nine burning ploughshares in a trial by ordeal, and he was proclaimed king after Sigurd's death in 1130 with Sigurd's son Magnus Sigurdsson. Since Harald was accompanied by his mother to Norway, Sigurd may have recognised a former lover of his father. Relations between Harald and Magnus Sigurdsson soured, and several years later Harald had Magnus mutilated and deposed (hence his byname "the Blind"). Soon afterwards, Harald was murdered by another pretender: Sigurd Slembe, who also claimed to be a son of Magnus Barefoot and had been outlawed by Harald. After Harald's death Slembe allied himself with Magnus the Blind, but they were defeated by chieftains loyal to Harald Gille's family in the Battle of Holmengrå. Magnus was killed during the battle; Sigurd was captured, tortured and executed. This began what would become the century-long Norwegian civil-war era. ### Legacy The earliest-known native Irishman to have been named Magnus may have been the son of Muirchertach's greatest rival, Domnall Ua Lochlainn; Magnus became a name among the Ulaid during the 12th century. According to Morkinskinna, tribute from Ireland was received in Norway as late as about twelve years after Magnus' death. Magnus became the subject of at least two Gaelic ballads as the character Manus Mór. In the best-known version, he returns to Norway after an expedition to the west; he is killed in the second version. The different versions are probably derived from Magnus' two expeditions. There are also traditions concerning Magnus in Scotland in legends, poems and local history. In modern times, a "Magnus Barelegs festival" has been held near Downpatrick at Delamont Country park bi-annually. Traditionally held on the last weekend of August every second year (27 and 28 August 2022) it is organised, funded and carried out by the Magnus Viking Association. There is a beer named after his sword, Legbiter. In Norway, according to Førsund, Magnus has "been reduced to a sigh" in history books; little remains to commemorate him. When King Magnus was killed in an ambush by the Men of Ulster, his sword was retrieved and sent home.

Portuguese ironclad Vasco da Gama

Portuguese ironclad

Vasco da Gama was an ironclad of the Portuguese Navy built in the 1870s by the Thames Iron Works in London. Ordered to strengthen the defenses of the Portuguese capital of Lisbon, Vasco da Gama was launched in 1876 and completed in 1878. She served as the flagship of the Portuguese fleet for the majority of her long and peaceful career. She was rebuilt and heavily modernized between 1901 and 1903. Her crew was involved in revolts in 1913 and 1914; during the latter event, they bombarded Lisbon and killed around one hundred people. Long-since obsolete by the 1930s, Vasco da Gama was finally sold for scrapping in 1935. ## Design Vasco de Gama was the only capital ship to be built for the Portuguese Navy; ordered from a British shipyard, she was intended to defend the capital at Lisbon from naval attack. Vasco da Gama was 200 feet (61 m) long between perpendiculars, and she had a beam of 40 ft (12 m), though at the main battery guns, the ship was 46 ft 6 in (14.17 m) wide. She had a maximum draft of 19 ft (5.8 m). She displaced 2,384 metric tons (2,346 long tons; 2,628 short tons) as originally built. The ship was propelled by a marine steam engine driving a single screw propeller, with steam provided by an unknown number of boilers vented through a single funnel. Her propulsion system was rated at 3,000 indicated horsepower (2,200 kW) and produced a top speed of 10.3 knots (19.1 km/h; 11.9 mph). She was fitted with a two-masted barquentine rig to supplement the steam engine. She had a crew of 232 officers and men. As built, Vasco da Gama was armed with a main battery of two 10.2 in (260 mm) guns, placed in an armored, octagonal box amidships. Each gun had multiple gun ports, and the box extended beyond the sides of the hull, allowing a measure of end-on fire ahead and astern. She was also equipped with a single 5.9 in (150 mm) gun mounted on her stern, and four 9-pounder guns for close-range defense against torpedo boats. She was protected with a complete iron armored belt that was 4 inches (100 mm) thick on either end and 9 in (230 mm) thick amidships, where it protected the ammunition magazines and propulsion machinery spaces. The main battery box was protected by armor plate that ranged in thickness from 6 to 10 inches (150 to 250 mm). ### Modifications

The ship was extensively reconstructed in 1901. She was cut in half and lengthened by a 32 ft 6 in (9.91 m) long section. She was fitted with new engines and more powerful water-tube boilers rated at 6,000 ihp (4,500 kW); this increased her speed to 15.5 kn (28.7 km/h; 17.8 mph). Her sailing rig also was removed. Her main battery guns were replaced with new 8 in (203 mm) L/40 guns in sponsons, the short 5.9-inch gun was replaced by a new long-barreled 5.9-inch L/45 gun, and six 3-pounders augmented her close-range defense. Her iron belt armor was removed and stronger steel armor was installed in its place. The ship's crew increased to 260 officers and men. All of the changes caused her displacement to rise to 2,972 metric tons (2,925 long tons; 3,276 short tons). ## Service history Vasco da Gama was laid down at the Thames Iron Works shipyard in London, Britain in 1875, and was launched on 1 December 1876. The ship was completed in 1878. She served as part of the coastal defense force that protected Lisbon, the Portuguese capital, and the mouth of the river Tagus. On 26 June 1897, Vasco da Gama participated in the Fleet Review at Spithead celebrating Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee. At the time, the ship was commanded by Captain Augusto Barreto de Vascomellos. In 1901, Vasco da Gama was taken into drydock at Orlando shipyard in Livorno, Italy, for a major reconstruction. Work on Vasco da Gama was completed by 1903. On 27 August 1907, a gas explosion aboard the ship injured several crewmen. Vasco da Gama remained the flagship of the Portuguese Navy at least into the 1910s, as the Portuguese naval budget was insufficient to fund a suitable replacement vessel. During this period, the Portuguese Navy played a major role in domestic politics. Amid political unrest in April 1913, part of the crew of Vasco da Gama had to be removed from the ship, as they had been involved in a planned ultra-Radical coup d'état against the First Portuguese Republic. On 14 May 1915, the crew again participated in unrest; they mutinied and killed the ship's captain and bombarded Lisbon, killing around one hundred people. The Portuguese Army launched a coup against the government in December 1917, and the navy retaliated on 8 January 1918 to restore the republican government. Vasco da Gama, still the fleet flagship, and the destroyers Douro and Guadiana anchored in Lisbon, where army field artillery took the ships under fire. Vasco da Gama traded shots with the artillery, but after about twenty-five minutes of shooting, abandoned the effort and flew a white flag, prompting Douro and Guadiana to do the same. None of the ships were damaged in the incident. Thoroughly obsolete, she remained in the Portuguese fleet until 1935, when she was sold for scrapping.

I Miss You (Beyoncé song)

"I Miss You" is a song by American recording artist Beyoncé, taken from her fourth studio album, 4 (2011). It was written by Beyoncé, Frank Ocean and Shea Taylor, while production was handled by Beyoncé and Taylor. The song's development was motivated by the fact that Beyoncé wanted to focus on songs being classics, songs that would last, and songs that she could sing when she becomes old. A mid-paced R&B ballad, "I Miss You" is influenced by the ballads of the 1980s. Its instrumentation consists essentially of synthesizers and keyboards. "I Miss You" finds Beyoncé, as the protagonist, thinking deeply over her relationship with her love interest from whom she parted; however, she still pines for him and feels self-conscious for doing so. "I Miss You" was generally praised by music critics who complimented its very sparse production as well as its aurally remarkable 1980s influence. Some of them also described the song as a "haunting" ballad and called it the highlight of the record. Critics also complimented how Beyoncé's vocals keep on alternating from desperate and calm throughout the song, and highlighted the vulnerability in her voice. Following the release of 4 in early July 2011, "I Miss You" charted at number 184 on the UK Singles Chart and at number 34 on the South Korea Gaon International Singles Chart, based on downloads alone. The song was part of Beyoncé's set list for her 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé residency, held in Roseland Ballroom, New York City in August 2011. ## Background and development "I Miss You" was written by Beyoncé, Odd Future collective member Frank Ocean, and Shea Taylor while production was handled by Beyoncé and Taylor themselves. In early March 2011, Ocean made known that Beyoncé was back in the studio working on her then upcoming fourth studio album, 4. Ocean posted a snap of Beyoncé in his studio on Twitter, fuelling reports that he had worked with Beyoncé on the new record. As well as posting a picture of Beyoncé recording new material, he also accompanied the image with the comment: "This is the room i am working in this day. not to brag but man, this is surreal. like [...] she is singing my songs. If time were to stop right now, the past couple weeks would be near the top of the highlight reel for my short time on earth [sic]." In July 2011, Beyoncé sat for an interview with Gabriel Alvarez of Complex magazine, where she elaborated on how she came to know about Ocean: "Jay[-Z] had a CD playing in the car one Sunday when we were driving to Brooklyn. I noticed his tone, his arrangements, and his storytelling. I immediately reached out to him—literally the next morning. I asked him to fly to New York and work on my record." In this way, Ocean ended up co-writing "I Miss You". Beginning on June 16 to June 27, 2011, the songs from 4 were available to listen to in full each day on Beyoncé's official website, paired with its accompanying photo spread from the album packaging and an insightful quote. On June 18, 2011, "I Miss You"" was the third song to be chosen. The quote found Beyoncé elaborating on what motivated her to record a song like "I Miss You": > [4] is definitely an evolution. It is bolder than the music on my previous albums because I’m bolder. The more mature I become and the more life experiences I have, the more I have to talk about. I really focused on songs being classics, songs that would last, songs that I could sing when I’m 40 and when I’m 60. ## Composition "I Miss You" is a ballad that draws from the genres of R&B and contains elements of pop music and trip hop. Michael Cragg, writing for both The Guardian and The Observer, noted that it is heavily influenced by the 1980s ballads. This was further noted by Charles Ubaghs of The Quietus and Priya Elan of NME, who commented that "I Miss You" is influenced by the 1980s electro soul and neo soul music styles respectively. A generally low-key song, "I Miss You" is built on a simple puttering metronomic beat, The song's instrumentation consists of "layers of atmospheric keyboards", ambient synthesizers, and tinny 808 drums The synthesizers expand and contract as they progress through their chords, maintaining an even level of intensity throughout. `Additionally, Rich Juzwiak of The Village Voice commented that Martika's 1991 song "Love... Thy Will Be Done" is conjured in "I Miss You". Matthew Horton of BBC felt that "I Miss You" features "the kind of subtle tension" achieved by Alicia Keys' Try Sleeping with a Broken Heart (2010). Jim Farber of Daily News added that "'I Miss You' contrasts a soft bed of synth[esizers] and heavily echoed drums" in a way similar to Phil Collins' 1981 song "In the Air Tonight".` Described by Matthew Horton as a song that "tug[s] heartstrings", "I Miss You" finds Beyoncé, as the female protagonist, ruminating over her relationship with her ex-love interest without firm verdicts; she is "confused, conflicted, very human", as stated by the Chicago Sun-Times's Thomas Conner. Even though they have parted, Beyoncé "still cannot let go and her needs are vexing her", according to Melinda Newman of HitFix. Also, Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone added that the song features Beyoncé "at her most understated". Throughout the song, her phrasing is "cool, calm and collected". Ian Walker of AbsolutePunk stated that the lyrics of "I Miss You" are a mixture of "hopeful longing and loneliness." In the chorus lines, Beyoncé questions herself, "I miss you / But if I got with you, could it feel the same?" From the second verse and onwards, the song finds Beyoncé "vocalizing an internal battle, alternately desperate and calm", as stated by Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle. She starts to sing in a double voice; her lower vocal notes are set as the song's base, while her voice in a heightened key is played over it. In the second verse, she sings, "The words don’t ever seem to come out right / But I still mean [th]em", pining for her ex-love interest and feeling self-conscious for doing so, "It hurts my pride to tell you how I feel, but I still need to" before asking again, "Why is that?". ## Critical reception

"I Miss You" received highly positive reviews. David Amidon of PopMatters who stated that "1+1 provides Beyoncé a song that "can compete with the favorites of this generation’s parents", came to the conclusion that "1+1" and "I Miss You" are "equally competent, if safer, attempts at the same formula". He concluded that these songs make it clear that Beyoncé is "head and shoulders above her Clear Channel competition in R&B". Joanne Dorken of MTV UK who described "I Miss You" as "heartfelt ballad" with her vocals being "on point", as she delivers the song with "raw emotion". Ben Cardew of Music Week appreciated "the influence of Frank Ocean", which according to him, made it feel like "the first track on the album to have a modern feel". He went on praising the fact that the ballad is constructed from "a stripped down beat and washes of synth, making a very simple track but one that benefits from its simplicity". Describing "I Miss You" as a "gently pulsing, sci-fi ballad", Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle called the song "one of the most fascinating moments amid a dozen tracks". Cameron Adams of the Herald Sun wrote that "I Miss You" is a nocturnal and experimental ballad due to its synth washes. Michael Cragg of The Observer called "the minimal 'I Miss You' the highlight [of 4]". Brandon Lewis of Blogcritics found "I Miss You" both "haunting and gorgeous, with an ominous vocal and very sparse production". Showing high favoritism for "I Miss You", Roberts Randall of Los Angeles Times wrote: > Beyoncé Knowles is not worried chasing fads, though she is well aware of them. Over the years, she has learned how to harness them so effortlessly that they seem like her ideas. Take the standout track on her new album, 4, 'I Miss You', a slow-burn jam of desire co-written by Odd Future-affiliated crooner Frank Ocean. In its beginning moments, the song draws on the sparse wave of recent music by British band The xx by using silence as a weapon, a notion that extends across the 12-song album. Adam Markovitz of Entertainment Weekly was also positive, writing that Beyoncé "pants and sweats and grunts (except, you know, sexy-like), her voice climbing ever higher in search of an octave big enough to hold it". Embling of Tiny Mix Tapes wrote that "[...]" if sung by anyone else, 'I Miss You' would be a thin wisp of a ballad, but Beyoncé allows her voice to crack at the right moments, moving tenuously, self-consciously through the soft, circular melody." He concluded that songs like "I Miss You" and "Start Over" would earn deserved spots in "the Beyoncé pantheon" once fans take the time to grow attached to them. Referring to "I Miss You", Alexis Petridis of The Guardian wrote that "the [19]80s influence is not always a bad thing." He considered the song to be "a woozy update of an old-fashioned slow jam", further stating that "it is probably pushing it a bit to call it an R&B equivalent of Ariel Pink's hypnagogic pop, but there's something enveloping and dream-like about it." Ian Walker of AbsolutePunk commented that "[the] hollow beat and dismal synthesizers, allow[ed] Beyoncé and her morosely beautiful voice center stage. [...] Beyoncé delivers a believable performance effortlessly." By contrast, Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune was negative, writing that "['I Miss You' is] easily overlooked with its forlorn keyboard and beat-box chintziness." Similarly, Consequence of Sound writer Chris Coplan felt that the ballad is "too-saccharine-for-its-own-good." The Guardian's critics Ben Beaumont Thomas and Rebecca Nicholson ranked "I Miss You" at numbers four and nine respectively on their lists of The 10 Best Tracks of 2011. Mesfin Fekadu from the Associated Press dubbed "I Miss You" as a classic. ## Live performances Beyoncé performed "I Miss You" live for first time on August 14, 2011 during her 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé in Roseland Ballroom, New York City. She performed the song in front of 3,500 people wearing a gold dress and backed by her all-female band and her backing singers, called the Mamas. During the ITV special A Night With Beyoncé which aired on December 4 in the United Kingdom, Beyoncé performed "I Miss You" to a selected crowd of fans. In May 2012, Beyoncé performed "I Miss You" during her Revel Presents: Beyoncé Live revue in Revel Atlantic City. An electronic backdrop behind Beyoncé and a male dancer in kinetic, black-and-white stripes accompanied Beyoncé on stage. Dan DeLuca of The Philadelphia Inquirer noted that "the set list tipped too heavily at times toward bombastic balladry like 'I Care' and 'I Miss You'". Jim Farber of Daily News commented that the song was sung with "precision and sweep, she tipped the balance decidedly softer, giving her power grounding". Tris McCall of New Jersey On-Line wrote, "Even 'I Miss You,' perhaps the least flashy song in her catalog, felt like a necessary breather, and an occasion for her to break out her conversational lower register." ## Cover versions On November 5, 2011, Ocean performed "I Miss You" at the House of Blues in New Orleans. Dressed in a black suit with a red-and-white bandana around his head, he sat down at an electric piano to perform it live to end the evening. The crowd also sang along. Alex Rawls of Rolling Stone found his performance to be "warm and soulful". British indie pop band The xx covered the song on February 14, 2013 during their concert in Austin, Texas and later posted the cover on their official blog. Their cover of the song was a duet between Romy Madley Croft and Oliver Sim accompanied by spare guitar and bass. Their cover of the song was described as "great" by Jenn Pelly of Pitchfork Media, while Sam Weiss of Complex magazine praised the performance saying that the band made the song sound similar to their own material from the album Coexist (2012). Chris Martins of Spin magazine commented that "It's exactly what you'd expect to hear, and it's exactly as beautiful as you'd hope it would be." ## Chart performance Selling 16,032 digital downloads, "I Miss You" opened at number 34 on the South Korea Gaon International Singles Chart for the week ending July 2, 2011. Following the release of 4, "I Miss You" also charted at number 184 on the UK Singles Chart on July 9, 2011, based on downloads alone.

Lola Álvarez Bravo

Mexican photographer (1903–1993)

Lola Álvarez Bravo (3 April 1903 – 31 July 1993) was the first Mexican female photographer and a key figure in the post-revolution Mexican renaissance. Known for her high level of skill in composition, her works were seen by her peers as fine art. She was recognized in 1964 with the Premio José Clemente Orozco (José Clemente Orozco Prize), by the State of Jalisco, for her contributions to photography and her efforts to preserve the culture of Mexico. Her works are included in the permanent collections of international museums, including the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. Álvarez was born in a small town in Jalisco, but moved to Mexico City with her father when her parents separated around 1906. For a decade, she lived with her father in a large mansion, but upon his death was taken in by her older half-brother, who sent her to boarding school. After completing a traditional education, in 1922 she enrolled in the Escuela Nacional Preparatoria, where she met her lifelong friend, Frida Kahlo. A friendship with another of her childhood friends, Manuel Álvarez Bravo, blossomed into romance around the same time and the two married in 1925. Her husband taught her photography, as well as development techniques, and for nearly a decade, she acted as his assistant. As she sought to explore her own creativity and was unhappy in the marriage, the couple separated in 1934. Beginning her career as a teacher, Álvarez took photographic assignments for magazines and newspapers, developing a reputation as one of the only women photojournalists working in Mexico City. She chose to portray subjects candidly, revealing the deeper meaning of culture and social significance, rather than seeking newsworthy work. In 1935, she began cataloging photographs in the Department of Education and two years later was hired to run the photography workshops of the National Autonomous University of Mexico, where she remained until her retirement in 1971. In addition to her contributions to advertising and photojournalism, Álvarez took many photographs of her artistic friends, and in 1951 opened the Galeria de Arte Contemporáneo (Gallery of Contemporary Art) to promote their work. In 1953 at the Galeria, she hosted the only exhibition of Frida Kahlo's works held in Mexico during the artist's life. From the late 1970s until her death in 1993, she gained international recognition for her body of work. Her photo archive is located at the Center for Creative Photography in Tucson, Arizona, United States. ## Early life (1903–1927) Dolores Concepción Martínez de Anda, known as Lola from a young age, was born on 3 April 1903 in Lagos de Moreno, Jalisco, Mexico, to Sara de Anda and Gonzalo Martínez, a dealer who imported art and furniture. Her parents appear to have separated when she was very young. When she was around three years old, her father took Martínez and her older half-brother, Miguel, to live in Mexico City in a large 28-room mansion. One of her brother's friends who lived nearby, Manuel Álvarez Bravo, was a frequent visitor at their home on Calle de Factor (now Calle de Allende). Gonzalo Martínez died of a heart attack in 1916, while traveling on a train with his daughter. With his death, Martínez moved from their home to live with her brother and his wife in an apartment on Calle de Santa Teresa (now Calle Guatemala). Keen to ensure she would become a responsible wife and homemaker, Miguel's wife sent Martínez to complete a traditional education at the Colegio del Sagrado Corazón. Unhappy with her options, Martínez wanted more, saying, "I don't know why since childhood, I had the idea that I wanted to do something not everybody did. What I've hated most about my life is that they order me around and they limit my freedom". She went on to further her education at the Escuela Nacional Preparatoria, meeting Frida Kahlo there in 1922. The two women formed a close, lifelong friendship. In parallel, her relationship with her childhood friend Manuel Álvarez, burgeoned into romance. The couple often roamed the streets together observing the beauty beneath the city's grime and poverty. In 1925, Martínez and Álvarez married and she took his name. They moved to Oaxaca, where Manuel found work as an accountant for the National Accounting Office, engaging in the local artists' community. In their free time, Manuel, who had learned photography as a teenager, taught Álvarez how to use a camera and develop film. As they had in Mexico City, the couple would wander the streets, but now began documenting their walks in photographs. Álvarez produced her first photographs in Oaxaca, which mirrored the allegoric style preferred by her husband. When she became pregnant, the couple decided to move back to Mexico City in 1927 to be near medical facilities and family. It was there their only child, Manuel Álvarez Bravo Martínez was born. Though Manuel was still working for the National Accounting Office, soon after his son, Manuelito's birth, he resigned to pursue a career as a professional photographer. As she developed her own vision and became discontented with simply processing her husband's film, tensions in the marriage began to surface. ## Early career (1927–1934) In 1927, opening an art gallery in their home, the couple exhibited photographs and paintings created by their artistic friends, including David Alfaro Siqueiros, José Clemente Orozco, Diego Rivera, and Rufino Tamayo. Manuel began by taking commissions for portraits and Álvarez assisted him while raising their son. Relegating her to minor tasks, like mixing chemicals and printing, Manuel was reluctant to allow Álvarez time with the camera, but she did recommend thematic ideas to him and learned the craft. At a time when most newspaper photographers were interested in producing sensational images, Manuel taught Álvarez to distance herself from her subjects to capture their underlying essence. She also studied the paintings their artist friends presented in the gallery, learning about composition. In 1930, she obtained her own camera, when Tina Modotti sold Álvarez her Graflex, to raise money for her departure from the country after Modotti's lover Julio Antonio Mella was murdered. When in 1931, Manuel became seriously ill, she completed his commissions and managed the gallery to sustain their livelihood. In 1933, Álvarez met Paul Strand, an American photographer, and recognized in his style a photo-documentary aspect that appealed to her more than her husband's stylized photographs. She realized that photography was a chronicle of history, documenting the transformation of society. She called the camera a "third eye", which elicited the truth of the photographer's experience. One of her early works from this period is titled La Visitación (The Visitation) and was taken on an excursion with Manuel and the French photographer Henri Cartier-Bresson. The trio had traveled to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and Álvarez's image of two women standing in a doorway, captured the solace offered by the subjects to each other. Rather than the posed compositions favored by her husband, or the ideologically motivated portraits taken by Modotti, Álvarez's image focuses on the subtle meanings of everyday life captured by the camera. In 1934, she joined the newly formed Liga de Escritores y Artistas Revolucionarios (League of Revolutionary Writers and Artists) and, along with Manuel and Emilio Amero, formed one of the earliest cinema screening clubs in Mexico. As her own style and desire to have her own voice emerged, tensions between the couple worsened and in 1934, Álvarez took her son and separated from Manuel, though they would not divorce until 1948. At the time of their separation, she had established herself as a professional photographer. Having secured work with several local magazines, she retained the Álvarez Bravo name professionally. ## Middle career (1935–1971) Moving into the home of María Izquierdo in 1935, near the National Institute of Fine Arts, Álvarez began working as an elementary school art teacher. Maria's house became a haven for intellectuals, artists, and politicians to meet and participate in the formation of the Mexican cultural identity that defined the post revolutionary era. She also took assignments from magazines like Avance, Espacio, Futuro, Vea, and Voz, quickly earning a reputation as a skilled photojournalist. She participated in her first group exhibition in 1935, displaying two Surrealist collages at the Department of Fine Arts in Guadalajara. That year, she took a position at the Department of Education cataloging photographs. She met Lázaro Cárdenas, at the time the Minister of Education (and later President of Mexico), by chance and was asked to photograph him. Appreciating her work, Cárdenas showed her photographs to other influential people, which landed her an offer to contribute to the El Maestro Rural (The Rural Teacher), an influential pedagogical magazine for young teachers. Working her way up the ladder, she became a staff photographer at El Maestro Rural and eventually became the journal's chief photographer. Her first major commission was in 1936 from the San Agustin church to record biblical scenes. In 1937 Álvarez began working as a photographer at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) in the Institute of Aesthetic Research. She took photographs to document archaeological sites, visiting various regions of the country. Five years later she was appointed head of the photography department of the Dirección General de Educación Extraescolar y Estética, where she remained for the next 30 years. She taught photography classes, led workshops and curated traveling presentations. Simultaneously, Álvarez continued her work as a photojournalist, becoming the only woman to work in the field throughout the 1950s. She photographed factories, farms, fire stations, schools, hospitals, and orphanages throughout Mexico to accompany magazine articles and undertook assignments in advertising and fashion photography. In her spare time, she made portraits of friends and colleagues, as well as their works. Álvarez is represented in the work of the Mexican Surrealist artist, Juan Soriano in his Retrato de Lola Álvarez con Juan Soriano Niño Soriano. Considered one of Soriano's best works, Álvarez is depicted as both the photographer and the protective figure watching over the young Soriano against the large window overlooking a dreamlike sky dominated by a whirlwind of reds and blues. She also experimented with techniques such as photomontage, when a single photograph could not adequately depict her message. In one such image, "Anarquía arquitectónica de la ciudad de México" (Architectural Anarchy of Mexico City), she overlapped photographs of skyscrapers to show the overcrowding caused by urbanization. In another piece titled, El sueño de los pobres (The Dream of the Poor), a sleeping child lies unaware under a money-making machine as a political statement concerning the impact of capitalism on the poor. The original photograph would later be displayed in El sueño de los pobres 2 (The Dream of the Poor 2). Álvarez would come back to this medium the late forties and fifties in the form of large posters commissioned by several business and institutions that began with various covers for El Maestro Rural in the thirties. In 1939 she moved into her own apartment in an Art Deco Building on Avenida Juarez but at the time she did not think of herself as an artist even with all her past accomplishments. In 1940, she addressed the limitations of women and feelings of confinement among women in her work En su propia carcel (In Her Own Jail), with shadows creating lines on a woman's body, visually alluding to jail bars. Other women Surrealists similarly commented on these confined conditions of the traditional roles of women, such Leonora Carrington, in her work Green Tea (La Dame Ovale), from 1942, in which the central female form seems to be restrained in a straitjacket. In 1941, Álvarez started her 30 year long position as chief of photography for the Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes y Literatura (INBA). Álvarez held her first solo art exhibition in 1944, at the Palacio de Bellas Artes and simultaneously curated Pintores Jaliscienses (Painters of Jalisco), also shown at the Palacio to promote the work of artists from that state. This initial show was followed by many solo and group presentations. In 1950, she rented a garage and converted it into a gallery with a sculpture garden. It officially opened the following October, as the Galeria de Arte Contemporáneo (Gallery of Contemporary Art). It was in this gallery in 1953, that Álvarez presented the only solo showing of Frida Kahlo's work in Mexico held while the artist was living. It was also in 1953 that Álvarez became the first woman photographer to present her work at the Salón de la Plástica Mexicana with the exhibit México en la Vida, en la Danza, en la Muerte (Mexico in Life, Dance, Death) and was accepted as a member of the salon. She also featured the works of Isabel Villaseñor in the Galeria de Arte Contemporáneo in 1954 in memory of the artist's death the previous year. Álvarez helped attend one of her closest friend's, Frida Kahlo, body after her death in the summer of 1954. In 1955, her "Entierro de Yalalag" (Burial in Yalalag), taken in 1946, was included in Museum of Modern Art's The Family of Man presentation in Manhattan. The exhibition subsequently toured 37 countries over the next eight years. Because of financial constraints, Álvarez closed the Galeria de Arte Contemporáneo in 1958. Then for a while, she stopped taking photographs after a 1961 heart attack. In 1964, she received the Premio José Clemente Orozco (José Clemente Orozco Prize), a commemorative plaque given by the State of Jalisco, for her contributions to photography and her interest in cultural preservation. She sold to the federal government over 2,500 negatives of her work and organized a presentation of her portraits at the Palacio de Bellas Artes in Mexico City in 1965. This exhibit at the Palacio de Bellas Artes was her first individual exhibition, which was entitled "Galería de mexicanos. 100 photos by Lola Álvarez Bravo". For a majority of her career she had a passion for film and was influenced by cinematic techniques. Álvarez dreamed of making films but ultimately had limited success in the field. ## Later career (1971–1992)

After her retirement in 1971 from the National Institute for Fine Arts, Álvarez continued to take photographs until she became blind at age 79 in 1986. The 1965 exhibition was the last showing of Álvarez's work until the mid-1970s, when the Ministry of Education approached her to create an exhibition, sending her back to the darkroom, where she began organizing her archives. In 1979, the first retrospective of her work was held in Mexico City at the Alianza Francesa de Polanco. From the 1980s, she began to be recognized internationally with many exhibitions showing renewed interest in her work. In 1982, she published two compilations of her photographs, Escritores y Artistas de Mexico, focused upon her portraiture and Recuento fotográfico, an anthology. Álvarez's apartment in Colonia Tabacalera, where she had lived since 1939, was destroyed in the 1985 Mexico City earthquake and she was forced to evacuate with few belongings. In declining health, she left her apartment in the care of a neighbor, Clementina Rivera Vallejo, and moved in with her son. In 1991, an exhibition organized in Dallas, Texas, by the Society of Friends of Mexican Culture, highlighted Álvarez's intimate portraits of Kahlo, expanding her international acclaim as it traveled to other cities such as Albuquerque, New Mexico, and Washington, D.C. The Fundación Cultural Televisa celebrated her 50-year career in photography in 1992, hosting a show in Mexico City spanning her trajectory. She made a statement late in life of her perception of her legacy: "If my photographs have any meaning, it's that they stand for a Mexico that once existed". Although separated from her husband, she praised him for his work and called him "the founder of modern photography in Mexico." She also felt as though she owed her ex-husband "a creative debt". ## Death and legacy Álvarez died on 31 July 1993 in Mexico City. She bequeathed her archive to the Center for Creative Photography (CCP) at the University of Arizona in Tucson, Arizona. A hundred photographs were received by the Center in 1994 and organised by Olivier Debroise. A traveling exhibition, Lola Alvarez Bravo: In Her Own Light and a publication of the same name was launched. Álvarez's son Manuel continued to add to the collection and in 1996 around 200 gelatin silver photographs and negatives were added. In 2007, additional photographs were discovered in Mexico City, when a friend who had purchased Álvarez's old apartment discovered boxes full of images of Álvarez, her husband, and also of her students' work. According to James Oles, a specialist in Latin American art and a lecturer at Wellesley College, the new material gave "us original titles and dates that radically change the meaning and interpretation" of some of Álvarez's works. The images were added to the Center's archive and several shows followed, including the exhibition Lola Álvarez Bravo and the Photography of an Era, which featured the additions in 2013. In 1953, when asked by a journalist from Excélsior to identify Mexico's most important painter, Mexican painter Alfonso Michel replied, "Lola Álvarez Bravo", because "her compositions are those of a woman who knows how to see the thing itself". By ignoring icons like David Alfaro Siqueiros, José Clemente Orozco, and Diego Rivera, Michel placed Álvarez's skill with composition and imagery firmly in the context of fine art, raised her photography to the same level as painting, and praised her skill with no regard to her gender. Álvarez has images in the permanent collections of several museums including the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, and the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. On 3 April 2020, Google celebrated Lola Álvarez Bravo’s 117th Birthday with a doodle. ## Selected works Álvarez exclusively employed black and white film for her pictures, rather than color photography, as a means of allowing fuller development between monochrome contrasts. Color did not suit her documentary style of composition. As a photojournalist, Álvarez focused on candid revelations, seeking to impart the social meaning, without duplicating other photographers' work. For example, in one assignment where she went to Papantla, in Veracruz, to shoot the Danza de los Voladores, she ignored the dancers photographed by others, instead taking pictures of pilgrims coming to attend the ritual, the processional entrance of the sacred pole, and an animal sacrifice. The distance between herself and the subject candidly captures them in a manner that intimately captures their experience without judgment. Her preference was to avoid "the news", instead documenting her surroundings in their historical context. In her advertising work, Álvarez used chiaroscuro techniques to highlight aspects of the products, as if they were still life paintings. From 1936, she produced photomontages, always using her own photographs to make the composite, rather than images from the published work of others. Many of the photomontages from her later career were posters. During this time she created the photo-collage, Sirenas del aire (Mermaids of the Air), in which two mermaids float in the air, connected by a typewriter, which they both touch. Many of Álvarez's works were grouped into specific themes, which she returned to time and again. They included representations of indigenous and peasant women, mothers, children, women of varying social classes as well as the women involved as avant-garde participants in the Mexican muralism and intellectual renaissance movement of the interwar period. Besides the images of her friend Frida Kahlo, for whom she was known internationally later in her career, are portraits of artists, such as Lilia Carrillo, Olga Costa, Marion Greenwood, María Izquierdo, Alice Rahon, and Cordelia Urueta; cultural preservationists, including Pita Amor, Anita Brenner, and Judith Martínez Ortega; and writers, such as Rosario Castellanos, and Elena Poniatowska. She also created a series of nude portraits, which were unique in their depiction of women as "alegorías de la condición femenina en el contexto de la sociedad patriarchal mexicana (allegories of the female condition in the context of Mexican patriarchal society)". These included her nude image of the dancer Maudelle Bass, and the heavily pregnant artist Julia López. Her contemporary male photographers, when depicting motherhood, captured more traditionally domestic images. Her street photography focused on people's daily lives as she strove to expose beauty, as well as the misery, and the irony of the human condition. Her work displayed an instant in time and did not have any symbolic or underlying meaning but instead was a way of preserving a moment in life. Álvarez's photography focused on documenting Mexico and its people during her lifetime, with a humanistic perspective. Her images document the industrialization of the country which occurred after the Mexican Revolution as well as the effects of 20th century technology. She did not like stylized studio shots, but wandered with her camera, searching for poignant moments and arresting compositions, which depicted the landscape, people and customs of Mexico. Typical are her photographs of indigenous women, like Un descanso, llanto e indiferencia (A Rest, Weeping and Indifference), from 1940, which portrays the exploitation and lonely suffering of its subject, or El sueño de los pobres 2 (The Dream of the Poor, 2), in which a young boy lies sleeping amidst a collection of sandals. Álvarez noted that only the wealthy could dream of sweets, as young, poor Mexicans dreamed only of having shoes. Many of her works explore the intersections of light and shade, which she employed repeatedly as a metaphor in her works. In "Unos suben y otros bajan" (Some Go Up and Others Go Down), she used contrast to demonstrate mechanical patterns. In her 1950 work "En su propia cárcel" (In Her Own Prison), she used the cross-hatched shadows as an allegory for prison bars, trapping the young woman who leaned on a windowsill. In both "Tríptico del martirio" (Triptych of Martyrdom, 1949), a series of photographs of prostitutes, and an untitled photograph of a masked gay rights activist (1982), Álvarez used the play of light and shadow to suggest erotic tension, as well as a social critique by obscuring the faces in darkness. Lola Alvarez Bravo is responsible for capturing the photograph titled La Visitacion in 1954. The photograph shows two women holding each other in the corridor of a home. It represents a metaphor for unity connecting two Indigenous women of different eras who have shared common struggles. The title La Visitacion translates to "The Visit" and alludes to a religious implication. The image shows a contrast of lighting, shadows, and the shapes of the women in front of the house. The medium present in the photo is a gelatin silver print. One of Lola Álvarez Bravo's photographs that encapsulates her recurring theme of motherhood in Mexico is her striking photo De Generación en generación (Generation to Generation, ca. 1950), a gelatin silver print. The photograph features an indigenous woman who is holding her stoic daughter while her back faces the camera, revealing the intricate details of her braid, and Álvarez Bravo's signature way of capturing the light that plays on the body of the mother. The unsmiling face of the baby along with the traditional garb that the mother is wearing, depict the unique niche of Álvarez Bravo's work that focused on the hard lives of the indigenous people of Mexico, and attempted to relay the raw reality of their lives to the viewers. This documentation of the indigenous and cultural traditions of Mexico is something that tied in with the larger art movement that swept throughout the country during the post-revolutionary period, emphasizing identities of Mexicans, and in essence what it means to be Mexican. Because of her enduring friendship with Frida Kahlo, Álvarez took some of the most revealing photographs of the artist. Álvarez enjoyed photographing Kahlo and found Kahlo aesthetic. Álvarez herself stated, "...she always looked very natural. I never saw Frida too made up or ridiculous." She believed Kahlo was a special being and became very close to her personally and through her work. During Kahlo's final years when she was plagued by illness, Álvarez and her camera provided respite from Kahlo's pain and the two women collaborated on both still images and a Surrealistic film. The film was not completed because of Kahlo's death, but a series of photographs evoke the dual and dueling aspects of Kahlo's exterior façade and interior turmoil. Frida looking at herself in the mirror in the patio of Casa Azul and Frida leaning against a tree, both taken in 1942, encapsulate Kahlo's tentative hold on tranquillity. In Álvarez's 1944 image The Two Fridas, Kahlo approached a mirror and Álvarez captured the beautiful, elegantly-clad artist, and her reflection, riddled with interior pain from her accident as well as unhappiness from her troubled marriage. Álvarez stated (about her pieces of Kahlo) "I wanted to show something of her internal life." "Frida Kahlo Following Amputation of Her Right Leg", taken in 1953, and the interaction Kahlo and Álvarez had before taking it displays the relationship the two female artists had with each other. Kahlo would call Álvarez "manita", meaning little sister. The last photograph taken of Kahlo, Frida Kahlo on her deathbed, was taken by Álvarez in 1954. According to Kahlo's wishes, she was dressed in an outfit she had selected, her nails were painted and hair braided and her favorite jewelry adorned her neck and fingers. One of her most iconic images, and a personal favorite of Álvarez's, was Entierro de Yalalag (Burial at Yalalag), created in 1946. The photograph captures a funeral procession in which Zapotec women in traditional dress somberly accompany a coffin. Their faces are obscured, their heads are covered with scarves, and they humbly gaze toward their feet, separated from the queue of male mourners, bordering the group of women. The care with which the composition was made, contrasting the white flowing garments against the dark landscape and coffin, establishes a "rhythmic, lyrical pattern, creating an otherworldly effect". Demonstrating both her respect for indigenous culture and desire to document Mexican rituals, Álvarez also captured a deeper social meaning in the photograph. The lack of individual identity for the women and their seeming anonymity, represents the societal constraints upon them and their perceived interchangeability. ### Publications ### Exhibitions - 1935 (Group) Carteles revolucionarios de las pintoras del sector femenino de la sección de Artes Plásticas, Department of Fine Arts, Guadalajara - 1940 (Group) Exposición de pintura, escultura, grabado y fotografía, National Educational Workers Union, Mexico City - 1943 (Group) Mexico: Art Today, Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania - 1944 (Solo) Exposición de fotografías de Lola Álvarez Bravo, Palacio de Bellas Artes, Mexico City - 1953 (Solo) México en la vida, en la danza, en la muerte, Salón de la Plástica Mexicana, Mexico City - 1965 (Solo) Galería de mexicanos: 100 photos of Lola Álvarez Bravo, National Institute of Fine Arts (INBA), Mexico City - 1977 (Group) Exposición nacional de homenaje a Frida Kahlo, Palacio de Bellas Artes, Mexico City - 1979 (Solo) Fotografías de Lola Álvarez Bravo, Exposición retrospectiva 1938–1979, Alianza Francesa de Polanco, Mexico City - 1982 (Solo) Lola Álvarez Bravo, Osuna Gallery, Washington, D.C. - 1982 (Solo) Exposicion-Homenaje a Lola Álvarez Bravo, Centro Cultural El Nigromante, San Miguel de Allende, Mexico - 1982 (Solo) Lola Álvarez Bravo, recuento fotográfico, Editorial Penélope, Mexico City - 1983 (Group) La fotografía como fotografía, México 1950–1980, Museo de Arte Moderno, Mexico City - 1984 (Solo) De las cosas humildes, Museo de la Alhóndiga de Granaditas, Guanajuato, Mexico - 1985 (Solo) Elogio de la fotografía: Lola Álvarez Bravo, Centro Cultural de Las Fronteras, Tijuana, Mexico - 1987–1988 (Group) La femme et le surrealisme, Musée Cantonal des Beaux-Arts, Lausanne, Switzerland - 1989 (Solo) Reencuentros, Museo Estudio Diego Rivera [es], Mexico City - 1990 (Group) La Mujer en México, Museo de Arte Contemporáneo, Mexico City - 1991 (Solo) Lola Álvarez Bravo: Photographs, Carla Stellweg Gallery, New York City - 1991 (Solo, traveling exhibit) Lola Álvarez Bravo, Photographs of Frida Kahlo, Barry Whistler Gallery, Dallas, Texas - 1991 (Solo) Frida y su mundo: Fotografías de Lola Álvarez Bravo, Galería Juan Martín de México, Mexico City - 1992 (Solo) Frida-Lola, Galería Quetzalli, Oaxaca, México - 1992 (Solo) Lola Álvarez Bravo: Fotografías Selectas 1934–1985, Fundación Cultural Televisa, Mexico City - 1996 (Solo, posthumous) Lola Álvarez Bravo: In Her Own Light, Aperture Gallery, New York City - 2005 (Group, posthumous) Frida Kahlo: Portrait of an Icon, National Portrait Gallery, London - 2006 (Group, posthumous) Frida Kahlo y Diego Rivera, Centro Cultural Borges, Buenos Aires, Argentina - 2008 (Solo, posthumous) Lola Alvarez Bravo 1903–1993, Portland Museum of Art, Portland, Maine - 2010 (Group, posthumous) Angels of Anarchy: Woman Artists and Surrealism, Manchester Art Gallery, Manchester, UK

Don Tallon with the Australian cricket team in England in 1948

Don Tallon was a key member of Donald Bradman's famous Australian cricket team tour of England in 1948, in which Australia was undefeated in their 34 matches. This unprecedented feat by a Test side touring England earned them the sobriquet The Invincibles. The team's first-choice wicket-keeper ahead of Ron Saggers, Tallon played in four of the five Tests, missing the Fourth Test due to injury. Despite being the preferred gloveman, Tallon conceded byes at a higher rate than Saggers during the tour. Bradman rotated the two glovemen during the tour, and Tallon played in 14 of the 31 first-class matches, taking 29 catches and 14 stumpings. Tallon's catch of Len Hutton in the Fifth Test at The Oval was described as Wisden as the best of the year. He also took a difficult catch to remove George Emmett in the Third Test at Old Trafford, catching a ball that flew to his feet at yorker length. However, Tallon also had some mishaps, with finger injuries inflicted by failing to catch the ball correctly. Tallon had few opportunities with the bat, scoring 283 runs at a batting average of 25.72 in 13 first-class innings, including two fifties. During the Test, Tallon scored 112 runs at 28.00, including a 53 in the Second Test that saw Australia recover to a first innings of 350 after a middle-order slump had seen England take the upper hand. He took 12 catches in the Tests. In recognition of his performances, Tallon was named as one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1949. ## Background Tallon's form as Australia's wicket-keeper since World War II saw him selected for the 1948 Ashes tour as part of the side that would become known to cricket history as the Invincibles. Tallon was the first-choice wicket-keeper, with Saggers as his deputy. Having spent the majority of his life in sunny Queensland and growing up in tropical Bundaberg, the cold English climate initially caught Tallon off guard. He did not wet his inner gloves as was his custom due to the temperature. As England agreed to make a new ball available every 55 overs, this meant that the ball would more frequently be in a favourable state for fast bowling, since it would swing more. As a result, Australia adopted a pace-oriented strategy and Ian Johnson was the only spinner regularly used in the Test matches. Colin McCool was not to play a Test on the tour, depriving Tallon of an opportunity to show his stumping abilities standing up at the stumps to his Queensland team-mate in the Tests. ## Early tour Australia traditionally fielded its first-choice team in the tour opener, which was customarily against Worcestershire. Accordingly, Tallon was selected as the wicket-keeper for the match. The home side batted first and Tallon made his first dismissal on English soil by catching Worcestershire captain Allan White from the bowling of Keith Miller. He then stumped former England captain Bob Wyatt from McCool. In reply to the hosts' 233, Tallon was promoted to No. 6, but managed only six in a collapse of 4/38 before Australia recovered to declare at 8/462. He took a further three dismissals in the second innings, two of them stumpings from McCool's bowling, as Australia crushed the hosts by an innings and 17 runs. Tallon conceded 11 byes in the match. Tallon was rested for the second tour match against Leicestershire, which Australia won by an innings with Saggers behind the stumps. Tallon played a key role in Australia's victory in the next match against Yorkshire, on a damp pitch that suited slower bowling. He came in at 7/86 and made ten in the first innings to push Australia to 101 in reply to Yorkshire's 71, in which Tallon did not concede a bye. However, Tallon was not so tidy in the second innings, conceding 11 byes as the hosts were bowled out for 89 in their second innings. He did not make a dismissal in the match. Australia then collapsed to 6/31 in pursuit of 60 for victory when Tallon strode in. To make matters worse, Sam Loxton was injured and could not bat, so Australia only had three wickets in hand. Australia faced its first loss to an English county since 1912. He survived an immediate leg before wicket appeal and then hit a shot that fell just short of a fielder. He then compiled 17 unbeaten runs as Australia scraped home by four wickets. The Australians travelled to London to play Surrey at The Oval. Tallon came in with the score at 6/553, and held up his end, scoring an unbeaten 50 as his partners steadily fell and Australia were bowled out at 632. Tallon had some difficulty in English conditions as he sustained a bruised right finger when he lost sight of a Ray Lindwall bouncer on a misty morning during the match and was hit as he put hand over his face for protection, with the ball running away for four byes. Tallon took two catches in the second innings as Australia won the match by an innings, but he also conceded 24 byes in Surrey's match total of 336. After sustaining the bruised finger, Tallon was rested for the following three matches, which were against Cambridge University, Essex and Oxford. Australia won each of the matches by an innings. Saggers filled in and scored 110 runs including a 104 not out against Essex and took five dismissals. Saggers conceded only 34 byes in his four tour matches, while Tallon had conceded 46 in three.^N- The next match was against the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) at Lord's. The MCC fielded seven players who would represent England in the Tests,^N- and were basically a full strength Test team, as were Australia, who fielded their first-choice team. It was a chance to gain a psychological advantage, and Tallon was selected despite conceding byes at a higher rate in the preceding tour matches. He made 11 batting at No. 9, including a six from Jim Laker as Australia made 552. He took three catches in the first innings, having a hand in the first three wickets to fall, Jack Robertson, Bill Edrich and Denis Compton. He then took two stumpings in the second innings as the follow on was enforced, but also conceded 26 byes as Australia won by an innings. Tallon had conceded 72 byes to Saggers' 34 with both having played four matches.^N- Following the match against the MCC, there were four more county fixtures before the First Test, against Lancashire, Nottinghamshire, Hampshire and Sussex. Australia drew the first two before winning the latter two by eight wickets and an innings and 325 runs respectively. Tallon played in only the Nottinghamshire match, taking two catches in the first innings and two stumpings in each of the innings. The catches were all from Lindwall and the stumpings from Doug Ring. Tallon conceded 18 byes for the match and scored 27, being last man out at 400 after coming to the crease at 6/355. In Saggers's three matches, 36 byes were conceded and six dismissals were made. ## First Test Despite averaging more byes per innings than Saggers during the warm-up matches,^N- Tallon was retained in the Test team. During the First Test at Trent Bridge, Tallon took four catches. In the first innings, Tallon caught Jim Laker from the bowling of Keith Miller to end England's innings of 165 after he and Alec Bedser had joined forces at 8/74. When Australia batted, Tallon came in at 6/338 to accompany Lindsay Hassett and took 39 minutes to compile 10 before hitting a return catch to the left arm orthodox spin of Jack Young. The scoring was slow during this passage of play—Young delivered 11 consecutive maiden overs and his 26-over spell conceded only 14 runs with Australia using leg theory. After Australia ended with 509 and took a 334-run lead, Tallon took two difficult catches to dismiss key batsmen at the start of England's second innings. Miller removed Cyril Washbrook for one from a top-edged hook shot to Tallon. Bill Edrich was then caught behind attempting a cut from the off spin of Johnson. He did not read the arm ball that went straight on and the ball took the outside edge, leaving England at 2/39. He thus helped Australia to seize the initiative by denying England a good start, but they recovered. Later, he caught Godfrey Evans for 50 from Johnson as England ended at 441. Australia reached their target of 98 with two wickets down, completing an eight-wicket victory. Tallon conceded five and 12 byes in the two innings respectively. Between Tests, Australia played Northamptonshire and Yorkshire, and Tallon was rested for both matches. The first was won by an innings and second was drawn. Saggers made four and 22 and conceded 24 byes in four innings. ## Second Test The teams moved on to Lord's for the Second Test and Australia compiled 350 in its first innings. Tallon came to the crease with Australia at 6/225 after Hassett and Bill Brown had gone in quick succession, joining Johnson in the middle. Johnson struggled to score, while Tallon did so freely in the last hour. After Johnson fell for four at 7/246, Lindwall then joined Tallon and the pair survived to the close of play. England were well placed when Australia ended at stumps on 7/258 with Tallon on 25. Tallon had dominated the scoring late in day, making 25 of the 33 runs added. The crowd was optimistic about England's position and some immediately camped outside the turnstiles upon leaving the ground.

Australia's lower order batted the tourists into control on the second morning. Despite the loss of Lindwall for 15 at 8/275, Tallon kept on batting in a conventional manner, supported by Johnston and Ernie Toshack, who scored their highest Test scores. Both tail-enders threw the bat at the ball, which often went in vastly different directions to where they had aimed their shots. Tallon put on 45 with Johnston—who scored 29— before holing out for 53. Ending at 350, the Australians had regained the momentum, taking 92 runs from 66 minutes of hitting in the morning. Tallon did not concede a bye in England's first innings of 215 and his diving was estimated to have saved around 40 runs. He caught Washbrook from Lindwall to leave England at 1/17, and later caught Laker from Johnson. Tallon was not needed in the second innings; Lindwall was promoted above Tallon because Australia needed quick runs and Lindwall was a big-hitter. Australia declared at 7/460, leaving England a target of 509. With the score at 2/65, Washbrook inside edged a Toshack full toss directly downwards at Tallon's ankle. Bradman described the catch as "miraculous" because Tallon had to reach so low, so quickly, in order to take the catch. Another dive to stop a leg glance resulted in a severely bruised left little finger. Tallon conceded 16 byes in the second innings, more than 8% of England's score. Australia won the Test by 409 runs, and nursing his finger, Tallon was rested for both tour matches between the Tests, which were against Surrey and Gloucestershire, which were won by ten wickets and an innings respectively. In his place, Saggers scored 12, took nine dismissals and conceded 31 byes in four innings. ## Third Test The teams then played out a rain-affected draw in the Third Test match at Manchester, where England elected to bat first. On the first day, Edrich gloved a rising Lindwall delivery and was caught by Tallon for 32, leaving England at 5/119. Compton returned at the fall of Edrich's wicket after previously leaving the ground after being bloodied in the head by a Lindwall bouncer. He batted to stumps, after being dropped one-handed on 50 by Tallon, before again being dropped on 64 late in the day by the gloveman from the bowling of Johnston. England closed at 7/231 with Compton on 64. On the second morning, Tallon again dropped Compton from Johnston when the batsman was on 73. England eventually finished on 363, with Compton not out on 145. Thus Tallon's drops cost 95 runs as well as allowing Compton to hold up one end so his partners could score. Tallon also conceded seven byes. Australia reached 3/135 when Miller and Arthur Morris departed in quick succession. With Sid Barnes retiring hurt because of a blow to the ribs, Tallon came in at 5/139, effectively six wickets down and made 18 in half an hour before falling at 6/172. Australia managed to reach 221 and avoid the follow on. England batted again and Tallon dismissed George Emmett from Lindwall with a diving one-handed catch. Lindwall pitched an outswinger on the off stump and Emmett edged it to wicket-keeper Tallon, who took it in his right hand with a dive, leaving England at 1/1. England then declared at 3/174; Tallon conceded nine byes and with more than a day was lost to rain, Tallon was not required as Australia batted out the last session for a draw. Tallon's little left finger swelled up after the Third Test and he exacerbated the injury during a tour match against Middlesex. In this match, he scored 17, took two catches and a stumping in the first innings and conceded only seven byes for the entire match as Australia won by ten wickets. ## Fourth Test The left finger injury ruled him out of the Fourth Test at Headingley, and he was replaced by Saggers. Australia set a world record in successfully chasing a target of 404 to win the match by seven wickets and secure the series. Saggers leaked only six byes in 299.1 overs of glovework during the match as Australia conceded a total of 861 runs for the match. It was the lowest percentage of byes conceded in a match total by an Australian wicket-keeper for the tour (0.697%).^N- Tallon missed the innings victory over Derbyshire, before returning against Glamorgan. In his first match back from injury, Tallon took a catch and two stumpings as the hosts were dismissed for 197, but he also conceded 19 byes. Byes made 9.64% of the match total conceded by Australia, the highest proportion by the tourists during the summer.^N- He did not bat as rain ended the match with Australia at 3/215. He was rested for the nine-wicket win over Warwickshire, before returning for Australia's second match and second draw against Lancashire. Tallon came in at 7/232 and scored 33, adding 63 with Ian Johnson to help Australia reach 321. He took two catches and two stumpings but also conceded 23 byes. In the non-first-class match against Durham, Tallon played purely as a batsman, while Saggers kept wicket. He opened the batting, but was dismissed for one as Australia made 273 and the hosts reached 5/73 before rain ended the match. ## Fifth Test Tallon returned for the Fifth Test at The Oval, where England elected to bat first on a rain-affected pitch. Tallon caught Jack Crapp from an outside edge for a duck from the bowling of Miller, leaving England at 4/23 as play was adjourned for lunch. England continued to struggle against the moving ball and were all out for 52 in the middle session. The innings ended when Tallon took an acrobatic catch to dismiss Len Hutton down the leg side, catching it with his left hand. It was considered the catch of the season by Wisden. Tallon conceded six byes in the innings. Australia batted and passed England's total on the first afternoon. Tallon came in to bat on the second day with the score at 7/332, joining opener Morris, who had already passed 150. It took a run out to remove Morris; he attempted a quick run to third man after being called through by Tallon but was not quick enough for the substitute fielder's arm, leaving Australia at 8/359. Tallon, who scored 31, put on another 30 runs with Doug Ring, before both were out on 389, ending Australia's innings. In the second innings, Tallon caught Hutton from Miller and conceded nine byes as England were dismissed for 188 and lost by an innings, sealing a 4–0 series victory for Australia. ## Later tour matches Seven matches remained on Bradman's quest to go through a tour of England without defeat. Tallon was rested for three consecutive matches against Kent, the Gentlemen of England, and Somerset, all of which Australia won by an innings. Saggers stood in and made seven dismissals and conceded 29 byes in the six innings of the three matches. He returned for the following match against the South of England. He did not bat as Australia declared at 7/522. He then took three catches and conceded 13 byes as the match was washed out when the hosts were dismissed for 298. Australia's biggest challenge in the post-Test tour matches was against the Leveson-Gower's XI. During the last tour in 1938, this team was effectively a full-strength England outfit, but this time Bradman insisted that only six current England Test players be allowed to play for the hosts. Bradman then fielded a full-strength team, with the only difference from the Fifth Test team being Johnson coming for Doug Ring. Tallon made two as Australia declared at 8/489. He conceded seven byes and did not make a dismissal as the match ended in a draw after multiple rain delays. The tour ended with two non-first-class matches against Scotland. In the first match, Tallon played as a batsman while Saggers kept wicket. Tallon scored only six in Australia's 236 and then took 0/10 in Scotland's second innings and did not take a catch in the innings victory. In the second match in Aberdeen, Tallon kept wicket, conceding 26 byes and not taking a dismissal and he was not required to bat. When the match became safe, with Australia in an unassailable position in Scotland's second innings, Bradman allowed Tallon to dispense with his wicket-keeping pads and try his luck at bowling leg spin. Tallon never bowled in his Test career and only rarely in first-class cricket, where he delivered 301 balls, the approximate workload of a specialist bowler in one match. Tallon took 2/15 as Australia finished the tour with another innings win. ## Role Tallon had had moderate success with his batting during the Test series, aggregating 114 runs at 28.50. He usually batted at No. 8, and only had four innings as Australia's batting strength was such that he did not need to bat in the second innings in any of the Tests. The Australian team strategy of primarily depending on fast bowling saw Tallon make 12 catches and no stumpings during the Tests. However, Bradman gave his lead pace bowlers Miller and Lindwall more rest during the tour games to save energy for the Tests, and relied more heavily on the off spin of Ian Johnson and the leg spin of McCool and Doug Ring in the county matches. Thus overall Tallon took 29 catches and 14 stumpings for the first-class matches during the tour. Tallon scored 283 runs at 25.72 for the season at an average higher than Saggers's 23.22. In all his matches on tour, Tallon conceded 249 byes as Australia conceded 5331 runs, a bye percentage of 4.67%, compared to Saggers's 221 byes from 6190 runs, a percentage of 3.57%.^N- During the tour, Tallon had few opportunities with the bat, generally batting between No. 8 and No. 9,^N- because Australia's frontline bowlers included the likes of Ray Lindwall, Colin McCool, Ian Johnson and Doug Ring, who were all capable with the bat. Lindwall scored two Test centuries in his career, while McCool scored 18 first-class centuries, including one in Tests. Johnson and Ring both scored more than 20 fifties at first-class level. As Australia often won by an innings, and often declared in the first innings, Tallon only had 13 innings in his 14 first-class fixtures and was not out two times as he ran out of partners. Tallon's performances during the English summer saw him named by Wisden as one of its five Cricketers of the Year.

Earth in science fiction

An overwhelming majority of fiction is set on or features the Earth, as the only planet home to humans. This also holds true of science fiction, despite perceptions to the contrary. Works that focus specifically on Earth may do so holistically, treating the planet as one semi-biological entity. Counterfactual depictions of the shape of the Earth, be it flat or hollow, are occasionally featured. A personified, living Earth appears in a handful of works. In works set in the far future, Earth can be a center of space-faring human civilization, or just one of many inhabited planets of a galactic empire, and sometimes destroyed by ecological disaster or nuclear war or otherwise forgotten or lost. ## Related vocabulary In a number of works of science fiction, Earth's English name has become less popular, and the planet is instead known as Terra or Tellus, Latin words for Earth. Inhabitants of Earth can be referred to as Earthlings, Earthers, Earthborn, Earthfolk, Earthians, Earthies (this term being often seen as derogatory), Earthmen (and Earthwomen), Earthpersons, Earthsiders, Solarians, Tellurians, Terrestrials, Terrestrians, or Terrans. In addition, science fiction vocabulary includes terms like Earthfall for landing of a spaceship on planet Earth; or Earth-type, Earthlike, Earthnorm(al) and terrestrial for the concept of "resembling planet Earth or conditions on it". The concept of modifying planets to be more Earth-like is known as terraforming. The concept of terraforming developed from both science fiction and actual science. In science, Carl Sagan, an astronomer, proposed the terraforming of Venus in 1961, which is considered one of the first accounts of the concept. The term itself, however, was coined by Jack Williamson in a science-fiction short story ("Collision Orbit") published in 1942 in Astounding Science Fiction, although the concept of terraforming in popular culture predates this work; for example, the idea of turning the Moon into a habitable environment with atmosphere was already present in La Journée d'un Parisien au XXI^e siècle ("A Day of a Parisian in the 21st Century", 1910) by Octave Béliard [fr]. ## Themes In general, the vast majority of fiction, including science fiction, takes place on Earth. To the extent that Earth is more than the obvious but forgettable background where the action of the story takes place, a number of themes have been identified. ### Earth Many works of science fiction focus on the outer space, but many others still take place on Earth; this distinction has been subject to debates among the science fiction authors, visible for example in J. G. Ballard's 1962 essay Which Way to Inner Space?. Some critics of the "outer space adventures" have pointed to the importance of "earthly" concepts and imagery closer to contemporary readers' everyday experience. While it has been argued that a planet can be considered "too large, and its lifetime too long, to be comfortably accommodated within fiction as a topic in its own right," this has not prevented some writers from engaging with said topic. Some works that focus on Earth as an entity have been influenced by holistic, "big picture" concepts such as the Gaia hypothesis, noosphere and the Omega Point, and the popularizing of the photography of Earth from space. Others works have addressed the concept of Earth as a Goddess Gaia (from Greek mythology; another prominent goddess of Earth whose name influenced science fiction was the Roman Terra or Tellus). Bridging these ideas, and treating Earth as a semi-biological or even sentient entity, are classic works like Arthur Conan Doyle's When the World Screamed (1928) and Jack Williamson's Born of the Sun (1934). ### Shape

Depictions of the Earth as being flat are uncommon in modern works, the sphericity of the planet having been proved around 200 B.C. by Archimedes and Eratosthenes. Exceptions to this include Terry Pratchett's satirical Discworld series—which was inspired by Hindu cosmology—and deliberately provocative works like S. Fowler Wright's novel Beyond the Rim from 1932. There have also been fictional accounts of a hollow Earth, such as Edgar Allan Poe's 1838 novel The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket inspired by John Cleves Symmes Jr.'s model featuring openings at the north and south poles whereby the interior can be accessed. A few writers have likewise engaged with another old fringe theory, that of Counter-Earth – a hypothetical body of the Solar System that orbits on the other side of the solar system from Earth. Many stories portray Earth as known to modern science, but the exploration of its subterrean depths, relatively consistent with the knowledge of modern geology, is still subject to a number of works. Brian Stableford listed among "notable accounts of burrowing expeditions" into such an Earth works such as Harry Harrison's "Rock Diver" (1951). ### Planetary engineering Large scale planetary engineering includes ideas such as adjusting the Earth's axial tilt, or moving the Earth from its orbit. Some works deal with geoengineering, a term usually referred to large-scale projects attempting to deal with the problem of climate change; a theme common in many works of climate fiction. In the extreme case, Earth can be consumed in its entirety, all of its mass repurposed in construction of megastructures such as a Dyson sphere. ### The end of Earth Various versions of the future of Earth have been imagined. Some works focus on the end of the planet; those have been written in all forms – some focused on "ostentatious mourning"; others more of a slapstick comedy; yet others take this opportunity to explore themes of astronomy or sociology. The genre of climate fiction can often mix the themes of near and far future consequences of the climate change, whether anthropogenic or accidental. In other works, often found in the apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction and the Dying Earth genres, Earth has been destroyed or at least ruined for generations to come; many such works are therefore set in the background of Earth changed into a wasteland. Some of the works in these genres overlap with the climate change genre, as climate change and resulting ecological disasters are a commonly used plot device for events that trigger the fall of human civilization (other plots involve the destruction of Earth from human warfare, alien invasions, or from various sorts of man-made incidents or accidental disasters). Many such works, set either during the disaster, or in its aftermath, are metaphors for environmental concerns or otherwise warnings about issues the writers think humanity needs to be concerned about. ### One planet among many For many works set in the far future, Earth is just one of many inhabited planets of a galactic empire, federation or larger civilization, and many similar planets have been found or created (common themes in space opera), all of which challenges the idea of Earth's uniqueness. In some works, Earth is still a center of the known universe, or at least a significant player on the galactic scene. In others, Earth has become of so little importance that it is a mostly forgotten backwards world. In Clifford D. Simak's Cemetery World (1973) Earth is a planet-size cemetery and in Gordon R. Dickson's Call Him Lord (1966), a museum. At its extreme, in some settings, knowledge of Earth has been simply lost, making it a mythological place, whose existence is questioned by the few who even know the legends about it. In some of these works, a major plotline can involve future civilizations or intrepid explorers seeking the "lost cradle" or Earth. Finally, some stories told from the perspective of aliens focus on their discovery of Earth. ### A different history Some works look backwards – or perhaps sideways, not to the future of Earth, but to its past; here, works of science fiction can overlap with historic fiction as well as prehistoric fiction. This can happen particularly through the genres of alternate history as well as time travel (where as Gary Westfahl observed, most time travellers travel through time much more than space, visiting the past or future versions of Earth). ## See also - Class M planet - Earth Is Room Enough - Ecofiction - Moon in fiction - Mythopoeia - Near future in fiction

USS Freedom (ID-3024)

Cargo and transport ship in the United States Navy during World War I

USS Freedom (ID-3024) was a cargo and transport ship in the United States Navy during World War I. Originally SS Wittekind for the North German Lloyd line, the ship also served as USAT Iroquois and USAT Freedom after being seized by the United States in 1917. SS Wittekind was built in Germany for the Bremen–New York service of the Roland Line service of North German Lloyd, and was the sister ship of SS Willehad. In March 1900 Wittekind was lengthened because her cargo capacity was found lacking. Later that same year, Wittekind was among the first transports to carry German Empire troops as part of the Eight-Nation Alliance intended to put down the Boxer Rebellion in China. In August 1914, at the start of World War I, the ship was interned at Boston in the neutral United States. When the U.S. entered that conflict in April 1917, Wittekind was seized and turned over to the United States Shipping Board. Renamed Iroquois, the ship was chartered to the United States Army as a cargo ship after a refit, and, in 1918, was renamed Freedom. In January 1919 the ship was commissioned into the United States Navy, and carried almost 5,000 troops home from Europe before her decommissioning in September. Held in reserve for transport duty, the ship was laid up for five years before being scrapped in 1924. ## SS Wittekind SS Wittekind was built by Blohm & Voss of Hamburg for North German Lloyd's Roland Line, which was a fortnightly steerage and freight service from Bremen to New York. Launched on 3 February 1894, Wittekind—named for Wittekind (c. 730–808), the Duke of Saxony—and sister-ship Willehad were the first twin-screw steamers expressly built for North German Lloyd. The new liner sailed on her maiden voyage to Hoboken, New Jersey on 14 April. Wittekind and sister-ship Willehad were both quickly found to be deficient in cargo space, and plans were made to lengthen both vessels (though Willehad was never lengthened). Wittekind 's bridge was moved forward and a cargo hatch was installed behind it. After this, the ship was cut into two parts forward of the bridge's new position, and a new 18.29-meter (60.0 ft) section was inserted, which greatly increased the cargo capacity. Sources disagree as to where the procedure was performed with one reporting it was performed at the Seebeck Yard in Germany, while another claims it was done by Tyne Pontoons & Drydock Co., at Newcastle. Wherever the work was performed, it was completed by March 1900. On 3 July 1900, Wittekind sailed from Bremerhaven with Frankfurt as the initial transport ships to depart with troops of Germany's contribution to the Eight-Nation Alliance intended to put down the Boxer Rebellion in China. Wittekind remained in naval service as a transport and hospital ship through late October 1901. After her naval service ended, Wittekind sailed variously to Baltimore, Maryland; Galveston, Texas; Montreal; and ports in South America through mid-1914. At sea and headed for Montreal when the United Kingdom declared war on the German Empire, Wittekind instead headed for Boston and safety in the then-neutral United States. The steamer—carrying a cargo of lead and coal tar products reportedly worth \$1,000,000—slipped past British cruiser Essex in a dense fog near Sable Island. Wittekind 's wireless operator calculated that the ship passed fewer than 10 nautical miles (19 km) from Essex. The steamer was interned by the U.S. and her Canadian-bound passengers—18 cabin-, and 305 steerage-class who were not allowed to remain in the United States—were greeted by the Canadian Commissioner of Immigration who was stationed at Boston.

Wittekind was joined in Boston by sister-ship Willehad; North German Lloyd line-mates Kronprinzessin Cecilie and Köln; the Hamburg America Line steamers SS Amerika and Cincinnati; and Hansa Line freighter Ockenfels. In March 1916, all except Kronprinzessin Cecilie and Ockenfels were moved from their waterfront piers to an anchorage across the harbor from the Boston Navy Yard. Daily "neutrality duty" by United States Coast Guard harbor tug kept a watchful eye on the ships. Many crew members of the ships eventually went ashore, were processed through immigration, and found employment, while a contingent of musicians from the vessels toured New England, frequently playing at department stores and restaurants, and drawing the ire of the local musicians' union. After the U.S. declared war on Germany, Wittekind and the other interned ships were seized on 6 April 1917 and handed over to the United States Shipping Board (USSB). ## United States service in World War I After her seizure and refitting, the former liner was chartered to the United States Army as USAT Iroquois. In 1918, her name was again changed, this time to Freedom. On 24 January 1919, Freedom was acquired by the United States Navy and commissioned the same day. Freedom was assigned to the Cruiser and Transport Force, and after overhaul at New York, sailed on a voyage to Saint-Nazaire, France, and embarked troops for return to the United States. The cargo ship made two more voyages to France, each to Brest, with a visit to Norfolk, Virginia, between trips. She returned a total of 4,983 troops on her voyages from France. She arrived at Hoboken on 5 September 1919 and was assigned to duty in the 3rd Naval District. Freedom was decommissioned at New York on 23 September and returned to the USSB the same day. The veteran ship was transferred to the United States Army transport reserve, and was laid up for five years. On 24 February 1924, Freedom arrived at Baltimore for scrapping.

Solar eclipse of May 20, 2012

21st-century annular solar eclipse

The solar eclipse of May 20, 2012 (May 21, 2012 local time in the Eastern Hemisphere) was an annular solar eclipse that was visible in a band spanning through Eastern Asia, the Pacific Ocean, and North America. As a partial solar eclipse, it was visible from northern Greenland to Hawaii, and from eastern Indonesia at sunrise to northwestern Mexico at sunset. The moon's apparent diameter was smaller because the eclipse was occurring only 32 1/2 hours after apogee. A solar eclipse is an astronomical phenomenon that occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. An annular solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is smaller than the Sun's, blocking most of the Sun's light and causing the Sun to look like an annulus (ring). An annular eclipse appears as a partial eclipse over a region of the Earth thousands of kilometres wide. The annular eclipse was the first visible from the contiguous United States since the solar eclipse of May 10, 1994 (Saros 128), and the first in Asia since the solar eclipse of January 15, 2010 (Saros 141). The path of the eclipse's antumbra included heavily populated regions of China and Japan, and an estimated 100 million people in those areas were capable of viewing annularity. In the western United States, its path included 8 states, and an estimated 6 million people were capable of viewing annularity. It was the 58th eclipse of the 128th Saros cycle, which began with a partial eclipse on August 29, 984 AD and will conclude with a partial eclipse on November 1, 2282. ## Visibility and viewing The antumbra had a magnitude of .94, stretched 236 kilometres (147 mi) wide, and traveled eastbound at an average rate of 1.00 kilometre (0.62 mi) per second, remaining north of the equator throughout the event. The longest duration of annularity was 5 minutes and 46 seconds, occurring just south of the Aleutian Islands. The eclipse began on a Monday and ended on the previous Sunday, as it crossed the International Date Line. ### Asia The annular eclipse commenced over the Chinese province of Guangxi at sunrise, at 6:06 a.m. China Standard Time. Travelling northeast, the antumbra of the eclipse approached and passed over the cities of Macau, Hong Kong, Guangzhou, and Xiamen, reaching Taipei by 6:10 a.m NST. After crossing the East China Sea, it passed over much of eastern Japan, including Osaka and Tokyo at 7:28 a.m and 7:32 a.m JST respectively, before entering the Pacific Ocean. The penumbra of the eclipse was visible throughout Eastern Asia and various islands in the Pacific Ocean until noon. The path of the antumbra over highly populated areas allowed at least an estimated 100 million people to view annularity. Because the eclipse took place during the summer monsoon season in Southeast Asia, viewing conditions were not ideal in some areas, including Hong Kong. ### North America

After traveling approximately 4,000 miles (6,500 kilometers) across the Pacific Ocean, the antumbra entered North America between the coastlines of Oregon and California, reaching the coastal city of Eureka, California at 6:25 p.m PDT. After passing over Medford, Oregon and Redding, California, it had reached Reno, Nevada by 6:28 p.m PDT. The eclipse continued to travel southeast, passing 30 miles (48 km) north of Las Vegas, Nevada, over St. George, Utah, and reaching the Grand Canyon by approximately 6:33 p.m MST. After passing over Albuquerque, New Mexico and Lubbock, Texas, the eclipse terminated above central Texas at sunset, 8:38 p.m. CST. An estimated 6.6 million people lived under the path of the antumbra. The penumbra was visible throughout most of North America, including the islands of Hawaii. ## Related eclipses ### Eclipses of 2012 - An annular solar eclipse on May 20. - A partial lunar eclipse on June 4. - A total solar eclipse on November 13. - A penumbral lunar eclipse on November 28. ### Solar eclipses 2011–2014 ### Saros 128 ### Tritos series ### Metonic series ### Inex series

Gilbert Stuart

American painter (1755–1828)

Gilbert Charles Stuart ( Stewart; December 3, 1755 – July 9, 1828) was an American painter from Rhode Island Colony who is widely considered one of America's foremost portraitists. His best-known work is an unfinished portrait of George Washington, begun in 1796, which is sometimes referred to as the Athenaeum Portrait. Stuart retained the portrait and used it to paint scores of copies that were commissioned by patrons in America and abroad. The image of George Washington featured in the painting has appeared on the United States one-dollar bill for more than a century and on various postage stamps of the 19th century and early 20th century. Stuart produced portraits of more than 1,000 people, including the first six Presidents. His work can be found today at art museums throughout the United States and the United Kingdom, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art and Frick Collection in New York City, the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., the Philadelphia Museum of Art in Philadelphia, the National Portrait Gallery in London, Worcester Art Museum in Worcester, Massachusetts, and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. ## Biography ### Early life Stuart was born on December 3, 1755, in Saunderstown, a village of North Kingstown in the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, and he was baptized at Old Narragansett Church on April 11, 1756. He was the third child of Gilbert Stuart, a Scottish immigrant employed in the snuff-making industry, and Elizabeth Anthony Stuart, a member of a prominent land-owning family from Middletown, Rhode Island. Stuart's father owned the first snuff mill in America, which was located in the basement of the family homestead. Stuart moved to Newport, Rhode Island, at the age of six, where his father pursued work in the merchant field. In Newport, he first began to show great promise as a painter. In 1770, he made the acquaintance of Scottish artist Cosmo Alexander, a visitor to the colonies who made portraits of local patrons and who became a tutor to Stuart. Under the guidance of Alexander, Stuart painted the portrait Dr. Hunter's Spaniels when he was 14; it hangs today in the Hunter House Mansion in Newport. In 1771, Stuart moved to Scotland with Alexander to finish his studies; however, Alexander died in Edinburgh one year later. Stuart tried to maintain a living and pursue his painting career, but to no avail, so he returned to Newport in 1773. ### England and Ireland Stuart's prospects as a portraitist were jeopardized by the onset of the American Revolution and its social disruptions. Although he was a patriot, he departed for England in 1775 following the example set by John Singleton Copley. His painting style during this period began to develop beyond the relatively hard-edged and linear style that he had learned from Alexander. He was unsuccessful at first in pursuit of his vocation, but he became a protégé of Benjamin West in 1777 and studied with him for the next six years. The relationship was beneficial, with Stuart exhibiting for the first time at the Royal Academy in spring of 1777. By 1782, Stuart had met with success, largely due to acclaim for The Skater, a portrait of Sir William Grant. It was Stuart's first full-length portrait and, according to art historian Margaret C. S. Christman, it "belied the prevailing opinion that Stuart 'made a tolerable likeness of a face, but as to the figure, he could not get below the fifth button'". Stuart said that he was "suddenly lifted into fame by a single picture". The prices for his pictures were exceeded only by those of renowned English artists Joshua Reynolds and Thomas Gainsborough. Despite his many commissions, however, he was habitually neglectful of finances and was in danger of being sent to debtors' prison. In 1787, he fled to Dublin, Ireland where he painted and accumulated debt with equal vigor. ### New York City and Philadelphia Stuart ended his 18-year stay in Britain and Ireland in 1793, leaving behind numerous unfinished paintings. He returned to the United States with a particular goal of painting a portrait of George Washington and having an engraver reproduce it and provide for his family through the engraving's sale. He settled briefly in New York City and pursued portrait commissions from influential people who could bring him to Washington's attention. In 1794, he painted statesman John Jay, from whom he received a letter of introduction to Washington. In 1795, Stuart moved to the Germantown section of Philadelphia, where he opened a studio, and Washington posed for him later that year. Stuart painted Washington in a series of iconic portraits, each of them leading to a demand for copies and keeping him busy and highly paid for years. The most famous and celebrated of these likenesses is known as The Athenaeum and is portrayed on the United States one-dollar bill. Stuart painted about 75 reproductions of The Athenaeum. However, he never completed the original version; after finishing Washington's face, he kept the original version to make the copies. He sold up to 70 of his reproductions for a price of \$100 each, but the original portrait was left unfinished at the time of his death in 1828. The painting was jointly purchased by the National Portrait Gallery and Museum of Fine Arts, Boston in 1980, and is generally on display in the National Portrait Gallery. Another celebrated image of Washington is the Lansdowne portrait, a large portrait with one version hanging in the East Room of the White House. This painting was rescued during the Burning of Washington in the War of 1812 thanks to the efforts of First Lady Dolley Madison and Paul Jennings, one of President James Madison's slaves. Four versions of the portrait are attributed to Stuart, and additional copies were painted by other artists for display in U.S. government buildings. In 1803, Stuart opened a studio in Washington, D. C.

### Boston, 1805–1828 Stuart moved to Devonshire Street in Boston in 1805, continuing in both critical acclaim and financial troubles. He exhibited works locally at Doggett's Repository and Julien Hall. He was sought out for advice by other artists, such as John Trumbull, Thomas Sully, Washington Allston, and John Vanderlyn. ### Personal life Stuart married Charlotte Coates around September 1786; she was 13 years his junior and "exceedingly pretty". They had 12 children, five of whom died by 1815 and two others of whom died in their youth. Their daughter Jane (1812–1888) was also a painter. She sold many of his paintings and her replicas of them from her studios in Boston and Newport, Rhode Island. In 2011, she was inducted into the Rhode Island Heritage Hall of Fame. In 1824, Stuart suffered a stroke which left him partially paralyzed, but he continued to paint for two years until his death in Boston on July 9, 1828, at 72. He was buried in the Central Burial Ground at Boston Common. Stuart left his family deeply in debt, and his wife and daughters were unable to purchase a grave site. He was, therefore, buried in an unmarked grave which was purchased cheaply from Benjamin Howland, a local carpenter. His family recovered from their financial troubles 10 years later, and they planned to move his body to a family cemetery in Newport. However, they could not remember the exact location of his body, and it was never moved. There is a monument for Stuart, his wife, and their children at the Common Burying Ground in Newport. The Boston Athenæum held a benefit exhibition of Stuart's works in August 1828 in an effort to provide financial aid for his family. More than 250 portraits were lent for this critically acclaimed and well-subscribed exhibition. This also marked the first public showing of his unfinished 1796 Athenæum Head portrait of Washington. ## Legacy By the end of his career, Gilbert Stuart had painted the likenesses of more than 1,000 American political and social figures. He was praised for the vitality and naturalness of his portraits, and his subjects found his company agreeable. John Adams said: > Speaking generally, no penance is like having one's picture done. You must sit in a constrained and unnatural position, which is a trial to the temper. But I should like to sit to Stuart from the first of January to the last of December, for he lets me do just what I please, and keeps me constantly amused by his conversation. Stuart was known for working without the aid of sketches, beginning directly upon the canvas, which was very unusual for the time period. His approach is suggested by the advice which he gave to his pupil Matthew Harris Jouett: "Never be sparing of colour, load your pictures, but keep your colours as separate as you can. No blending, tis destruction to clear & bea[u]tiful effect." John Henri Isaac Browere created a life mask of Stuart around 1825. In 1940, the U.S. Post Office issued a series of postage stamps called the "Famous Americans Series" commemorating famous artists, authors, inventors, scientists, poets, educators, and musicians. Gilbert Stuart is found on the 1 cent issue in the artists category, along with James McNeill Whistler, Augustus Saint-Gaudens, Daniel Chester French, and Frederic Remington. Today, Stuart's birthplace in Saunderstown, Rhode Island, is open to the public as the Gilbert Stuart Birthplace and Museum. The birthplace consists of the original house where he was born, with copies of his paintings hanging throughout the house, as well as a separate art gallery in which are displayed several original paintings by both Gilbert Stuart and his daughter Jane. The museum opened in 1931. Gilbert Stuart's paintings of Washington, Jefferson, and others have served as models for dozens of U.S. postage stamps. Washington's image from the famous portrait The Athenaeum is probably the most noted example of Stuart's work on postage. ## Notable people painted This is a partial list of portraits painted by Stuart. - Abigail Adams – Second First Lady of the United States, wife of John Adams - John Adams – Second President of the United States - John Quincy Adams – Sixth President of the United States - Charles Humphrey Atherton - United States Representative from New Hampshire from 1815 to 1817 - John Jacob Astor – First American multi-millionaire, fur trader, art patron - John Bannister – Owner of Bannister's Wharf in Newport, Rhode Island - Commodore John Barry – Father of the American Navy - Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry – Hero of the Battle of Lake Erie in 1814. - Ann Willing Bingham – Philadelphia socialite - Horace Binney – Prominent Philadelphia lawyer - Elizabeth Bowdoin, Lady Temple – wife of Sir John Temple, first British consul general to United States, 1785 - Hugh Henry Brackenridge – early American writer, Pennsylvania Supreme Court justice, and founder of the University of Pittsburgh - Jean Baptiste Casmiere Breschard – Performer and theatrical impresario - Rosalie Stier Calvert – Belgian-born heiress and mother of Charles Benedict Calvert - Mary Willing Clymer – Philadelphia socialite - John Singleton Copley – American colonial portraitist - Thomas Dawes - Early American architect, builder, military leader, politician - Horatio Gates – American Revolutionary War general - King George III – King of United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, 1760–1820 - King George IV – King of United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, 1820–30 - John Jay – First Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court - Thomas Jefferson – Third President of the United States - Rufus King – a signer of United States Constitution - Robert Kingsmill – Admiral in Royal Navy during American and French Revolutionary Wars - King Louis XVI – King of France, 1774–92 - James Madison – Fourth President of the United States - Samuel Miles – Revolutionary War General and Philadelphia mayor - James Monroe – Fifth President of the United States - Daniel Pinckney Parker – Prominent Boston merchant - John Randolph of Roanoke – Virginia congressman and senator - Joshua Reynolds – English artist - Henry Rice – Boston merchant and Massachusetts state legislator - John Tayloe III – Virginia planter, builder of The Octagon House in Washington, DC. - Thomas Townshend, 1st Viscount Sydney – the cities of Sydney in New South Wales and Sydney, Nova Scotia are named in his honor - John Trumbull – artist during the period of the American Revolutionary War - George Washington – First President of the United States - Martha Washington – First Lady of the United States, wife of George Washington - Benjamin West – American painter - Catherine Brass Yates – Philadelphia socialite - John Bill Ricketts – Equestrian, leader of Ricketts' Circus in Philadelphia - Elisabeth Merry - Wife of Anthony Merry 1805. ## Portrait gallery

Russian monitor Tifon

Russian Uragan-class monitor

Tifon (Russian: Тифон) was an Uragan-class monitor built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the mid-1860s. The design was based on the American Passaic-class monitor, but was modified to suit Russian engines, guns and construction techniques. Spending her entire career with the Baltic Fleet, the ship was only active when the Gulf of Finland was not frozen, but very little is known about her service. She was struck from the Navy List in 1900, converted into a storage hulk for mines in 1909 and renamed Blokshiv No. 3. The ship was abandoned by the Soviets in Finland in 1918; although retroceded to the Soviets in 1922, she was later scrapped by the Finns. ## Description While the Uragans were extensively modified by the Russians, they did retain the single twin-gun turret and low freeboard of the original Passaic-class design. Tifon was 201 feet (61.3 m) long overall, with a beam of 46 feet (14.0 m) and a draft of 10.16–10.84 feet (3.1–3.3 m). She displaced 1,500–1,600 long tons (1,500–1,600 t), and her crew numbered 8 officers and 88 enlisted men in 1865. They numbered 10 officers and 100 crewmen in 1877. The ship was fitted with a two-cylinder, horizontal direct-acting steam engine built by the Baird Works of Saint Petersburg. It drove a single propeller using steam that was provided by two rectangular boilers. Specific information on the output of the ship's engine has not survived, but it ranged between 340–500 indicated horsepower (254–373 kW) for all the ships of this class. During Tifon's sea trials on 19 June 1865, she reached a maximum speed of 6.7 knots (12.4 km/h; 7.7 mph). The ship carried a maximum of 190 long tons (190 t) of coal, which gave her a theoretical endurance of 1,440 nmi (2,670 km; 1,660 mi) at full speed. Tifon was designed to be armed with a pair of 9-inch (229 mm) smoothbore muzzle-loading guns purchased from Krupp of Germany and rifled in Russia, but the rifling project was seriously delayed and the ship was completed with the Krupp smoothbore guns. These lacked the penetration power necessary to deal with ironclads and they were replaced by license-built 15-inch (380 mm) smoothbore muzzle-loading Rodman guns in 1867–68. The Rodmans were replaced around 1876 with the originally intended nine-inch rifled guns.

All of the wrought-iron armor that was used in the Uragan-class monitors was in 1-inch (25 mm) plates, just as in the Passaic-class ships. The side of the ship was entirely covered with three to five layers of armor plates, of which the three innermost plates extended 42 inches (1.1 m) below the waterline. The gun turret was protected by eleven layers of armor and the pilothouse above it had eight layers of armor. Curved plates six layers thick protected the base of the funnel up to a height of 7 feet (2.1 m) above the deck. Unlike their predecessors, the Uragans were built without deck armor to save weight, but Tifon was modified for the addition of 0.5-inch (12.7 mm) armor plates after completion, although it is unknown if they were ever fitted. They were, however, manufactured and then placed in storage. ## Construction and career Construction of the ship began on 13 June 1863 at the New Admiralty Shipyard in Saint Petersburg. Tifon was laid down on 1 December 1863 and she was launched on 27 May 1864. She entered service in 1865 and cost a total of 1,105,800 rubles, almost double her contract cost of 600,000 rubles. The ship was assigned to the Baltic Fleet upon completion and she, and all of her sister ships except Latnik, made a port visit to Stockholm, Sweden in July–August 1865 while under the command of General Admiral Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich. Sometime after Tifon was completed, an armored ring, 5 inches (127 mm) thick and 15 inches (381 mm) tall, was fitted around the base of the turret to prevent splinters from jamming it. Later, an armored, outward-curving bulwark was fitted around the top of the turret to protect any crewmen there. Three sponsons were later added, probably during the 1870s, to the upper portion of the turret. Each sponson, one above the gun ports and one on each side of the turret, mounted a light gun, probably a 1.75-inch (44 mm) Engstrem gun, for defense against torpedo boats. A fourth gun was mounted on a platform aft of the funnel when a hurricane deck was built between the funnel and the turret, also probably during the 1870s. Little is known about the ship's career other than that she was laid up each winter when the Gulf of Finland froze. Tifon was reclassified as a coast-defense ironclad on 13 February 1892 and turned over to the Port of Kronstadt for disposal on 6 July 1900, although she was not stricken until 17 August. Tifon was converted into a mine storage hulk in 1909 and renamed Blokshiv No. 3 on 27 October of that year. She was abandoned by the Soviets in Helsingfors (Helsinki) when they were forced to withdraw from Finland in April 1918 according to the terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, but she was later returned by the Finns in 1922. The ship was subsequently broken up in Finland.

Meteorite (Mariah Carey song)

"Meteorite" is a song by the American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey from her fourteenth studio album, Me. I Am Mariah... The Elusive Chanteuse (2014). It was composed by Carey and Q-Tip. A disco track, it contains a sample of the recording "Goin' Up in Smoke" written by Allan Felder, Norman Harris, and Ron Tyson, all of whom received songwriting credits for "Meteorite" as a result. It also quotes an observation by Andy Warhol that everyone will achieve 15 minutes of fame. "Meteorite" garnered mostly positive reviews from music critics, many of whom praised the disco influence and highlighted it as one of the album's best tracks. The song peaked at number 70 on the international download chart in South Korea. Carey performed "Meteorite" at the 2014 World Music Awards, for which she was criticized for arriving over an hour late, and included it on the set list of her 2014 tour, The Elusive Chanteuse Show. ## Production and composition In an interview with Fuse in August 2012, Q-Tip confirmed that he was working with Carey on material for her fourteenth studio album. In April 2014, Carey confirmed that she and Q-Tip had worked together on a song which was yet to be mixed in an interview with Radio.com. Of the collaboration, Carey said "He's angry with me because he thinks that I didn't allow him to do his mix, but really it's okay. He loves me, we're going to make this work. And that's good because it's one of my favorite songs. I'm going to call him soon ... I think we need to get that ready." She also stated that it was the first time they had worked together since composing "Honey" for Carey's sixth studio album, Butterfly (1997). "Meteorite" was written and produced by Carey and Q-Tip. It was recorded by Brian Garten and Blair Wells at several locations, including Rapture Studios in Bel Air, Metrocity Studios and Jungle City Studios in New York City, and Pon de Islands Studio in Antigua. Rob Sucheck served as the assistant during the recording sessions. Manny Marroquin mixed the song at Larrabee Studios in Universal City, and was assisted by Chris Galland and Delbert Bowers. "Meteorite" is a disco song with influences of dance music and 1980s style pop music, which lasts for a duration of three minutes and 59 seconds. Mike Wass of Idolator noted that Carey has dabbled with disco music since the release of "Fantasy" in 1995, but "never as faithfully" as she does on "Meteorite" and "You Don't Know What to Do" on Me. I Am Mariah... The Elusive Chanteuse. The song begins with an observation by Andy Warhol that everyone will achieve 15 minutes of fame which is followed by a rocket launch blast off sound effect. Instrumentation consists of bass performed by Louis Cato, keyboards by Ray Angry and Q-Tip, and Chris Sholar on guitar. Lewis Corner for Digital Spy noted that is also makes use of a "rattling" percussion and a 1970s style "cosmic" synth line. Carey provided her own background vocals. Courtesy of permission granted by Motown Records, the song incorporates a sample of Eddie Kendricks' 1976 song "Goin' Up in Smoke", written by Allan Felder, Norman Harris and Ron Tyson; all three received songwriting credits for "Meteorite" as a result. Me. I Am Mariah... The Elusive Chanteuse was available to stream for free on iTunes prior to its release. During this time, an alternate version of the song called the "Meteorite Q-Tip Remix" was released by Q-Tip on May 23, 2014, to stream on Spotify. It features a different arrangement and mix to that of the version included on the album, and has a "galloping beat" according to Rap-Up. ## Critical reception

"Meteorite" received mostly positive reviews from contemporary music critics. Eric Henderson for Slant Magazine noted that "Meteorite", along with "You Don't Know What to Do", are two of Carey's "most serious-minded performances" on the album, describing them as "galaxies away" from her 2008 single "I'll Be Lovin' U Long Time". Of "Meteorite", he wrote "The chugging midnight soul train to gorgeous 'Meteorite' burns bright on the still-potent embers of Eddie Kendricks's urgent masterpiece 'Goin' Up in Smoke'". PopMatters writer Devone Jones complimented Carey taking "a brave step into untouched territory" in recording a 1980s style song. Labeling the track a "breezy banger" and an album highlight, Corner wrote that the song embodies an "oddly other-worldly" feel. Fashion designer Donatella Versace and friend of Carey's told Vogue that "Meteorite" is "upbeat" and "has the power to lift your mood". Jim Farber of New York Daily News complimented the track, writing that the disco beat and the Warhol quote was reminiscent of Studio 54. John Sargent for Pitchfork Media was less impressed with the song, simply commenting that the song "is a gloopy scoop of Cher schmaltz". AXS writer John Shetler was critical of "Meteorite" and included it on his four worst songs list from the album, writing Meteorite' gets bonus points for opening with an Andy Warhol quote, but that's not enough to save the non-descript dance track with a grating, repetitive chorus and unimaginative lyrics about shooting stars and burning up the night sky." ## Live performances Carey opened the 2014 World Music Awards with "Meteorite" in May 2014. In addition to performing, she was attending the event to collect a Pop Icon award for having sold 200 million records worldwide and for having the most number one songs for a solo artist in the United States. Carey was criticized for arriving at the ceremony over an hour late and delaying the show. Carey performed underneath disco balls while dancers skated around her on roller skates. Both Rap-Up and Vibe described the performance as "dazzling", with the former writing that "Carey [lit] up the stage". The show was due to air on NBC and was later cancelled by the network, though the ceremony later aired on August 3 through 4Music. "Meteorite" was included on Carey's 2014 tour, The Elusive Chanteuse Show. ## Charts "Meteorite" debuted at number 70 on the South Korea International Download Singles Chart for the week ending May 31, 2014, with sales of 3,088 units.

Politics of Svalbard

Political system of Svalbard

Svalbard lies under the sovereignty of Norway, but the Svalbard Treaty places several restrictions. Norway cannot use the archipelago for warlike purposes, cannot discriminate economic activity based on nationality and is required to conserve the natural environment. Uniquely, Svalbard is an entirely visa-free zone. Everybody may live and work in Svalbard indefinitely regardless of country of citizenship. Svalbard Treaty grants treaty nationals equal right of abode as Norwegian nationals. Non-treaty nationals may live and work indefinitely visa-free as well. "Regulations concerning rejection and expulsion from Svalbard" is in force on non-discriminatory basis. Public administration of the archipelago is the responsibility of the Governor of Svalbard, who acts as county governor and chief of police. The institution was established by and is regulated by the Svalbard Act, which also limits which Norwegian laws apply to the islands. Longyearbyen Community Council is the only elected local government and is organized similar to a mainland municipality. Other Norwegian government agencies with a presence are the Directorate of Mining and the Tax Administration. The only diplomatic mission is the Consulate of Russia in Barentsburg. The archipelago was spotted in 1596, and soon companies from England, the Netherlands, Denmark–Norway and France were whaling and hunting. Both England and Denmark–Norway claimed the land, while the Dutch and France claimed the mare liberum principle, resulting in Svalbard becoming terra nullius—land without sovereignty. Work on establishing a public administration started in the 1870s, but did not progress until the 1900s, when the establishment of coal mining communities created a more urgent need. The Svalbard Treaty was signed following the Paris Peace Conference in 1920, and the governor and act came into effect in 1925. By then only Norwegian and Russian communities remained. After the Second World War and the outbreak of the Cold War, Svalbard became polarized with Norwegian and Soviet communities isolated from each other. Norway carried out a more defensive foreign policy on Svalbard compared to on the mainland, and foreign activity was held at a minimum. The Soviet Union issued protests against virtually all new Norwegian activity. At the time there were twice as many Soviet citizens as Norwegians on the islands. More than half the archipelago was conserved in 1973. Since the 1990s Longyearbyen has become "normalized", abandoned the company town structure and seen its population doubled. On the other hand, the Soviet communities have dwindled, with only a few hundred residents remaining in Barentsburg. On 9 October 2023, the next election to the local council is scheduled. ## History ### Terra nullius Svalbard was undoubtedly spotted by Willem Barentsz of the Netherlands in 1596, although it may have previously have been discovered by Norsemen or Pomors. The Muscovy Company of England started walrus hunting on Bjørnøya in 1604, and from 1611 the company's Jonas Poole started whaling around Spitsbergen. The following year the Muscovy Company sent a new expedition, but was met by both Dutch and Spanish whalers. The company claimed exclusive rights to the area and sent away the contenders. In 1613, seven armed English ships were sent on an expedition that expelled a few dozen Dutch, Spanish and French vessels. This led to an international political conflict. The Dutch rejected exclusive rights for the English, claiming the mare liberum principle. Christian IV claimed that Denmark–Norway had the rights to all of the Northern Sea in lieu of Greenland being an old Norwegian tax-land, and it was believed at the time by all parties that Spitsbergen was part of Greenland. England offered to purchase the rights from Denmark–Norway in 1614, but the offer was rejected, after which the English reverted to their exclusive rights claim. Denmark–Norway sent three man-of-wars in 1615 to collect taxes from English and Dutch whalers, but all refused to pay. The English claimed sovereignty based on the false claim that Svalbard was discovered by Hugh Willoughby in 1553, that James I had annexed it in 1614 and that it was the English who had started whaling. The Netherlands stated that whaling could not be the basis for claiming sovereignty. The issue ended in a political deadlock, with Denmark–Norway and England both claiming sovereignty and France, the Netherlands and Spain claiming the archipelago a free zone under mare liberum. Although Denmark–Norway never formally gave up its claim to Svalbard, the archipelago continued to be a terra nullius—a land without a government. The English and Dutch partitioned the island in 1614, as the aggression was hampering the profitability of both groups. That year the Netherlands created Noordsche Compagnie as a whaling cartel. After the Muscovy Company fell into financial difficulties some years later, the Noordsche Compagnie got the upper hand and was able to dominate the whaling and fend off the English. The company established itself in the northwestern corner of Spitsbergen (around Albert I Land) and only permitted a limited Danish presence. The English whaled further south, while the French were allocated to the north coast and the open sea. From the 1630s, the situation stabilized, and there were only a limited number of aggressive incidents. By the end of the 18th century, whaling had ceased as the bowhead whale had reached local extinction. ### Establishing jurisdiction Work on establishing an administration was initiated by Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld in 1871. After contacting the invested governments, he concluded that only Russia and Norway would object to an annexation of the island. Fridtjof Nansen's endeavors raised the Norwegian public's consciousness of the Arctic, which again brought forth public support for annexation of Svalbard. Industrialization and permanent settlements on Svalbard began in the 1900s with the introduction of coal mining. This resulted in the need for jurisdiction. Firstly, there was no means to make a mining claim legal. Secondly, there was a need for conflict resolution, particularly regarding labor conflicts, which often saw the mining company and the workers have different nationalities. The Government of Norway took initiative in 1907 for negotiations between the involved states. Multilateral conferences were held in 1910, 1912 and 1914, all of which proposed various types of joint rule. The breakthrough came at the Paris Peace Conference following the First World War. Germany and Russia had both been excluded, while Norway enjoyed much goodwill after its neutral ally policy during the war and was at the same time seen as harmless. The Svalbard Treaty of 9 February 1920 granted Norway full sovereignty over Svalbard, although with two major limitations: all parties to the treaty had equal rights to economic resources, and the archipelago was not to be used for "warlike purposes". After significant political debate, a proposal to establish Svalbard as a dependency and administrate it from Tromsø was rejected. Instead the Svalbard Act specified that the islands would be administered by the Governor of Svalbard and were considered "part of the Kingdom of Norway", although not regarded as a county. The islands had until then been known as the Spitsbergen Archipelago, and it was at this time the term Svalbard was introduced. The legislation took effect on 14 August 1925. A mining code was passed in 1925, and by 1927 all mining claims, some of which conflicted, were resolved. All unclaimed land was taken over by the Government of Norway. Although the Soviet Union was initially skeptical to the treaty, its government was willing to sign in exchange for a Norwegian recognition of the Soviet regime. Until the Second World War, both the governor and the Commissioner of Mining were a single person, stationed on the mainland during the winter. ### Cold War Mining fell into an economic slump during the 1920s, resulting in several of the mining communities being closed. By the 1930s only Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani and the Soviet state-owned Arktikugol were left, which led to a bilateralization of politics. The archipelago was evacuated during the Second World War and the major settlements leveled by Germany during Operation Zitronella. The Soviet Union proposed in 1944 that Svalbard become a condominium under joint Norwegian and Soviet rule, except for Bjørnøya, which would be transferred to the Soviet Union. Although the proposal was discussed in Norway, it was ultimately rejected in 1947. The Norwegian and Russian communities were largely built independent of each other and each had their own infrastructure, such as postal service, radio stations and transport. The Norwegian population stabilized at about 1,000 people, while there were about twice as many Soviets. The political tension between Norway and the Soviet Union became heated after Norway joined NATO in 1949. The Soviet Union issued memorandums to Norway stating that Svalbard could not be under a NATO joint command, but this was rejected by Norway, and the issue laid at rest. A new protest was issued in 1958 after Norsk Polar Navigasjon proposed building a private airport at Ny-Ålesund, which was then actively opposed by the Norwegian government in order to not agitate the Soviet Union. New protests were issued against the establishment of the European Space Research Organization's Kongsfjord Telemetry Station, although the protests did not stop construction. A compromise about a Norwegian civilian airport was reached in 1971 and Svalbard Airport, Longyear opened in 1975, serving both Soviet and Norwegian towns. Twenty-one miners were killed in an accident in Ny-Ålesund in 1962. The resulting Kings Bay Affair, where unsafe mining had been approved to maintain an increased Norwegian presence on Svalbard, ultimately led to vote of no confidence in Parliament and the withdrawal of Prime Minister Einar Gerhardsen's third cabinet. Oil drilling was started by Caltex in 1961. Caltex was granted claims based on indications of oil, rather than samples. Arktikugol was not granted claims based on similar evidence, contributing to tensions with the Soviet Union. Both the Kings Bay Affair and the Caltex Affair initiated public debate about the administration of Svalbard, and in particular the lack of resources and control of Soviet settlements. Funding for local and central administration was increased heavily, and the Governor increased its activities in Soviet settlements. More than half the archipelago was protected in 1972 through four national parks, fourteen bird sanctuaries and four nature reserves. Store Norske was nationalized between 1973 and 1976. ### Normalization The Svalbard Council was established on 1 November 1971. It consisted of 17 nonpartisan members who were elected or appointed from three different Norwegian groups—SNSK employees, government employees and others, although the ratio changed several times. Svalbard Samfunnsdrift (SSD), a limited company which was responsible for public infrastructure and services in Longyearbyen, was established by Store Norske on 1 January 1989. Responsibilities included healthcare, the fire department, the kindergarten, roads, garbage disposal, power production, the water and sewer system, the cinema, cultural actives and the library. Ownership of SSD was taken over by the Ministry of Trade and Industry on 1 January 1993. During the 1990s the authorities started a process to "normalize" Longyearbyen by abolishing the company town scheme and introducing a full range of services, a varied economy and local democracy. The Svalbard Council changed its regulations from 1993 and allowed parties to run for election. Longyearbyen Community Council was established in 2002, replacing the Svalbard Council and assimilating SSD. From 1990 to 2011, the Russian and Ukrainian population fell from 2,300 to 370, while the Norwegian population increased from 1,100 to 2,000. ## Legislation The Svalbard Treaty was signed on 9 February 1920 and came into effect on 14 August 1925. The treaty defines Svalbard as all islands, islets and skerries from 74° to 81° north latitude, and from 10° to 35° east longitude. It secures full Norwegian sovereignty over the archipelago, but contains several restrictions: peaceful use of the islands, the non-discrimination of citizens and companies of signatory countries, the obligation to protect the natural environment and limitations in taxation. The treaty has 39 signatories. The Svalbard Act was passed on 17 June 1925 and establishes that Svalbard is "part of the Kingdom of Norway". It further stipulates that civil law, criminal law and procedural law applies to Svalbard, but that other provisions only apply if specifically stipulated. As of 2008 there were 31 regulations which applied to Svalbard. The act also dictates the administration of Svalbard, notably establishing the governor and the Commissioner of Mines.

The Svalbard Environmental Protection Act was passed on 15 June 2001 and took effect on 1 July 2002, replacing various regulations. The act was created to secure a continuous, nearly untouched natural environment on Svalbard, particularly regarding wilderness, landscape, flora, fauna and cultural heritage. The act is enacted by the Ministry of the Environment, the Climate and Pollution Agency, the governor, the Directorate for Cultural Heritage and the Directorate for Nature Management. The act is supplemented by various regulations. Specific issues addressed in the act include the protection of plants and all remains of all human activity up to 1945. It imposes limitations on traffic in permitted areas, particularly motorized vehicles, but allows locals to operate snowscooters in more areas than tourists. Two-thirds of Svalbard is protected through national parks and nature reserves. ## Institutions ### Governor The Governor of Svalbard (Norwegian: Sysselmesteren) is the principal representative of the Government of Norway in Svalbard. The institution is located in Longyearbyen and has since 2021 been led by Governor Lars Fause. The institution's main responsibilities are implementing Norwegian policies, safeguarding Norwegian rights and obligations and representing Svalbard in relation to central authorities. Specifically, the governor acts as chief of police, holds the authority of a county governor and enacts family law. The institution has 30 employees and is subordinate to the Ministry of Justice and Public Security. Svalbard is a police district of the Norwegian Police Service, with the governor having the responsibilities of both sheriff and chief of police. This includes security; law and order enforcement, including traffic controls; case investigation; and preventative systems. The governor is responsible for search and rescue and is head of the local rescue station and subordinate of the Joint Rescue Coordination Centre of Northern Norway in Bodø. The institution is also responsible for issuing of driver's licences, vehicle registration, passports and firearms licenses. The governor and his deputy represent the public prosecutors. The governor is also responsible for environmental protection, including nature supervision, environmental monitoring, species management, management of cultural heritage sites, administration of tourism and travel, oil spill contingency and safeguarding of the environment. The agency maintains two helicopters, a Eurocopter AS332 Super Puma and a Eurocopter AS365 Dauphin, the inspection vessel Nordsyssel as well as lighter equipment such as snowmobiles, cars and boats. The governor's jurisdiction applies to all land and the territorial waters up to 12 nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi) from land. ### Longyearbyen Community Council Longyearbyen Community Council is the only elected local government in the archipelago and has many of the same responsibilities of a municipality. It is organized with a fifteen-member council which since 2011 has been led by Mayor Christin Kristoffersen of the Labour Party. The council's main responsibilities are infrastructure and utilities, including power, land-use and community planning, education from kindergarten to upper secondary level and child welfare. It operates three kindergartens in addition to the 13-grade Longyearbyen School. However, unlike mainland municipalities, the healthcare services are provided by the state through Longyearbyen Hospital, a clinic operated by the University Hospital of North Norway. No care or nursing services and welfare payments are available. Norwegian residents retain pension and medical rights through their mainland municipalities. ### Other The Commissioner of Mining for Svalbard is part of the Norwegian Directorate of Mining, but retains its own offices in Longyearbyen. The commissioner is responsible for administrating mineral rights, both for mining and petroleum. Other public agencies which have supervisory roles, but are not stationed on Svalbard, are the Norwegian Labour Inspection Authority, the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, the Norwegian Directorate for Fire and Explosion Prevention and the Norwegian Directorate for Product and Electrical Safety. Other public offices with presence on Longyearbyen are the Norwegian Polar Institute, the Norwegian Tax Administration and the Church of Norway. Svalbard is subordinate to Nord-Troms District Court and Hålogaland Court of Appeal, both located in Tromsø. Russia maintains a consulate in Barentsburg, led by Consule General Alexander Antipov. ## Issues ### Peaceful use Article 9 of the Svalbard Treaty specifies that no fortifications and naval bases may be built on Svalbard, nor can the archipelago be used for "warlike purposes". The preparatory work of the treaty and later state practice has been to enforce that no military activity is carried out on the archipelago; however, the treaty as such does not ban, for instance, the construction of air stations or military installations not regarded as defense works. There is scholarly consensus that Article 9 is unclear, but that a military presence should only be established when there is an attack or threat of attack on Svalbard. Norway can clearly not use Svalbard to make a threat of war, but retains the right to self-defense against an attack on Svalbard. However, the right does not allow Norway to bring Svalbard into war as part of self-defense of other parts of the country. The waters around Svalbard are of strategic significance for Russia as the Northern Fleet must pass through the area to reach the Atlantic Ocean. The concern of the Soviet Union and Russia was therefore to ensure that listening stations and anti-submarine warfare installations were not placed on the archipelago. Except during the Second World War, Norway has never stationed any military troops on Svalbard. However, the Norwegian Coast Guard carries out surveillance. There were many protests during the Cold War from the Soviet Union against Norwegian activity on the island, including purely civil arrangements. The Soviet Union issued many memorandums protesting such installations as satellite ground stations and airports, and even the filming of Orion's Belt, on the grounds that it could be a cover for or had the potential for being used for military activities. ### Sovereignty Norway was prior to 1920 extremely active in gaining international support for Norwegian sovereignty, but following the treaty, Norwegian interest in the archipelago dwindled. From the start of the Cold War, Norwegian politicians wanted to avoid bringing the islands into superpower politics. This resulted in a policy of avoiding agitating the Soviet Union, which again resulted in the Norwegian authorities actively working against both Norwegian and foreign activities on Svalbard which could raise tensions. Compared to mainland relations, which were dominated by deterring through NATO membership, the Norwegian policy on Svalbard was related to calming the Soviet Union. Similarly, while a foreign presence was encouraged on the mainland, it was strongly discouraged on Svalbard. Nearly all Norwegian activity during the Cold War resulted in a protest from the Soviet Union, which claimed, with basis in the treaty, that the archipelago was a demilitarized zone. The Soviet Union would protest against any foreign and most new Norwegian activity on the grounds that it violated Article 9, even if it was not remotely related to military activity. The fear of such a reaction led Norway to disallow practically all foreign and innovative use of the archipelago. Norway essentially had a "non-policy" managing Svalbard with a defensive and inconsequential reaction every time activity was proposed. Norway established a fisheries protection area surrounding Svalbard on 15 June 1977, which strictly regulates fisheries, but on a non-discriminatory basis. The zone extends 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) beyond the territorial waters. Norway maintains that the treaty's non-discrimination-policy only applies to land and the territorial waters and that Norway is free to establish an economic zone beyond that. Fishing vessels from Norway, Iceland, the Faeroe Islands, Russian and the European Union are awarded quotas for cod and herring; these and Greenland and Canada have been issued quotas for shrimp. Norway and the Soviet Union, later Russia, disagreed regarding the border between the two counties' exclusive economic zones in the Barents Sea. Norway claimed the internationally recognized equidistance principle should apply, while Russia claimed that the unilateral meridian line be used. The issue was resolved with a compromise in 2010. ### Non-discrimination The treaty ensures that all citizens and companies from signatory countries receive equal rights of access and residence. Norway may not discriminate—based on nationality—the rights to fish, hunt and conduct mining, trade, industry and maritime activity. However, these activities may be limited by non-discriminatory legislation. Thus Norway is permitted to place regulations and prohibitions on basis of other objective criteria, or ban certain activities altogether or in certain geographic areas. The non-discrimination clause also does not ban nationality discrimination elsewhere than in economic activity. Specifically, research and scientific activities do not fall under the non-discrimination clause. A central part of the non-discrimination policy is the Mining Code of 7 August 1925. It is uncertain if the code is internationally binding, or if it can be amended unilaterally by Norway. Specifically, the commissioner issues licenses to search for minerals and state-owned and other owner's land and to register claims. To maintain a claim, the owner must work 1,500-man-hours per five years and pay an annual fee of 6,000 Norwegian krone. However, the Ministry of Trade and Industry may grant exceptions from the work obligation under specific conditions. The treaty only allows taxation to the extent that it covers the cost of administrating the archipelago and covering the services provided to the residents. The tax rate is therefore significantly lower than in Metropolitan Norway, including the absence of value added tax. The government summarizes its expenses on Svalbard in the Svalbard Budget. The taxation rules made Svalbard a tax paradise, and in 2009 the oil rig operator Seadrill established a subsidiary in Longyearbyen to exploit the lower taxes. In 2011, the tax rate for profits exceeding NOK 10 million were raised from 16 to 28 percent—the same as on the mainland.

Gordon Gollob

German World War II flying ace

Gordon Gollob (16 June 1912 – 7 September 1987) was an Austrian fighter pilot during World War II. A fighter ace, he was credited with 150 enemy aircraft shot down in over 340 combat missions. Gollob claimed the majority of his victories over the Eastern Front, and six over the Western Front. Gollob volunteered for military service in the Austrian Armed Forces in 1933. In March 1938, following the Anschluss, the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany, Gollob was transferred to the Luftwaffe. In 1939, Gollob was posted to Zerstörergeschwader 76 (ZG 76—76th Destroyer Wing), a heavy fighter wing. He claimed his first aerial victory on 5 September 1939 during the invasion of Poland. Gollob claimed one victory during the Battle of the Heligoland Bight and two victories during the Norwegian Campaign. He then transferred to Jagdgeschwader 3 (JG 3—3rd Fighter Wing), flying the single-engined Messerschmitt Bf 109. In the aftermath of the Battle of Britain on the Channel Front, he claimed his sixth and final victory on the Western Front. Gollob then fought in the aerial battles of Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union. On 27 June 1941, he was appointed commander of the II. Gruppe (2nd group) of JG 3. He claimed 18 aerial victories in August, and following his 42nd victory was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 18 September. He was credited with 37 victories in October, including nine on 18 October and six on 22 October. On 26 October 1941, his total then at 85 aerial victories, Gollob was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves. He then served at a training facility and underwent commander training. Gollob was appointed Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 77 (JG 77—77th Fighter Wing) on 16 May 1942. He claimed his 100th victory on 20 May, and on 23 June was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords following his 107th aerial victory. On 29 August, Gollob became the first fighter pilot to claim 150 enemy aircraft destroyed and was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds, Germany's highest military decoration at that time. Due to concerns that he would be killed in action, Gollob was prohibited from flying further combat missions. On 15 October 1942, he became Jagdfliegerführer 3 on the Western Front. On 6 September 1943 he was appointed as Jagdfliegerführer 5, responsible for the tactical fighter command of northwestern France. In April 1944, he was transferred to the staff of the Inspector of Fighters. In January 1945, he succeeded Generalleutnant (Major General) Adolf Galland as Inspector of Fighters, a position he held until the end of the war. In peacetime, he became General Secretary of the Federation of Independents, a right-wing political party in Austria. He worked in a sales position for the Deutz AG. Married and the father of three children, Gollob died on 7 September 1987. ## Early life and career Gollob was born on 16 June 1912 in Vienna, the capital of Austria-Hungary. His father, Heinrich Gollob, worked as an academic painter. His mother, Johanna (née Reininghaus), was the daughter of Zoe von Karajan, a distant relative of Herbert von Karajan and wife of Carl Reininghaus. Gollob was the first of five children. Both his parents had studied at the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna, where they mutually befriended Gordon Mallet McCouch, an American artist of Scottish descent. McCouch was his godfather and the namesake for his first name, Gordon. Max was his middle name, not Mac, but because of McCouch, he was called "Mac". In his youth, Gollob already wanted to become an engineer and pilot. In 1930, as a student at an Oberrealschule, a secondary school, he built his first primary glider in Tirol, experimenting with it at the old airfield at Innsbruck. He also completed his A- and B-license to fly glider aircraft and became an instructor as well as a construction and airframe inspector. Following four semesters of mechanical engineering at the University of Graz, Gollob joined the Austrian Armed Forces in 1933 as an officer cadet in the artillery. For three years he was trained at the Theresian Military Academy at Wiener Neustadt and was promoted to Leutnant (second lieutenant) on 1 September 1936. He then served as an instructor in the Austrian Air Force and commander of Schulstaffel A (Training Squadron A). Following the Anschluss in March 1938, the forced incorporation of Austria into Nazi Germany, Gollob was transferred to the Luftwaffe (the Nazi German Air Force). There, he was promoted to Oberleutnant (first lieutenant) on 1 June 1938. On 15 March 1939, Gollob was posted to the 3. Staffel (3rd squadron) of Zerstörergeschwader 76 (ZG 76—76th Destroyer Wing) flying the Messerschmitt Bf 110 twin-engined heavy fighter. ## World War II Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939 starting World War II in Europe. ZG 76 had been stationed at the Polish border prior to the invasion. Gollob scored the first of his aerial victories over Poland on 5 September 1939, shooting down a PWS 56 (Podlaska Wytwórnia Samolotów—Podlasie Aircraft Factory) biplane. He also flew ground support missions, attacking an airfield and destroying several aircraft on the ground. On 21 September 1939, Gollob was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class (Eisernes Kreuz 2. Klasse). Following the campaign in Poland, ZG 76 was moved to Germany for defensive operations. The 1. Gruppe of ZG 76 first relocated to the Stuttgart area on 29 September 1939 to defend the western border against the French and British, who had declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939. From early October to mid-December, I. Gruppe operated from airfields in the Stuttgart and Ruhr regions before relocating north to Jever on 16 December 1939. There, on 18 December 1939, Gollob claimed his second aerial victory over a Royal Air Force (RAF) Vickers Wellington bomber in what became known as the Battle of the Heligoland Bight. During the battle, he shot down and killed Squadron Leader Archibald Guthrie, of No. 9 Squadron. ### Invasion of Norway and Battle of Britain On 8 April 1940, Gollob was appointed Staffelkapitän (squadron leader) of 3. Staffel of ZG 76. The unit took part in Operation Weserübung, Germany's assault on Denmark and Norway in the opening operation of the Norwegian Campaign. In June 1940, I. Gruppe was based at Trondheim-Værnes, when the Allied expeditionary force composed of the British, French, and Free Polish forces, were being evacuated from Narvik. In support of the evacuation, the RAF was targeting German shipping in Norwegian waters and Luftwaffe occupied airfields along the coast. On 13 June, fifteen Blackburn Skua dive bombers, six from 800 Naval Air Squadron and nine from 803 Naval Air Squadron, launched from the Royal Navy aircraft carrier Ark Royal attempted to attack the battleship Scharnhorst in the Trondheimsfjord. The flight was intercepted by the Luftwaffe and in the resulting aerial encounter, eight Skuas were shot down, the first by Gollob. That day, he was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class (Eisernes Kreuz 1. Klasse). Gollob then received night fighter training. At the time, he made several recommendations for technical improvement of the Messerschmitt Bf 109 single-engined fighter. Based on these recommendations, he was transferred to the Erprobungstelle Rechlin, the Luftwaffe test facility at Rechlin in June 1940. At 14:47 on 9 July 1940, Gollob intercepted and shot down Short Sunderland flying boat "Y" (N6133) from No. 201 Squadron. The Sunderland, piloted by Flight Lieutenant J.D. Middleton, was on patrol off Norway and crashed 140 kilometers (90 mi) southwest of Sumburgh Head. That same day at 17:20, Gollob, together with Oberfeldwebel (Staff Sergeant) Herbert Schob and Oberleutnant Gerhard Böhmel, shot down a patrolling Lockheed Hudson reconnaissance aircraft "J" (N7377) from No. 233 Squadron off Shetland. On 7 September 1940 during the Battle of Britain, Gollob was transferred to the Gruppenstab (headquarters unit) of II. Gruppe Jagdgeschwader 3 (JG 3—3rd Fighter Wing) based at Arques in northern France. On 8 October, Oberleutnant Werner Voigt, Staffelkapitän of 4. Staffel was shot down over England and taken prisoner of war. Four days later, Gollob took command of 4. Staffel. In February 1941, the entire II. Gruppe returned to Germany for a period of rest. The pilots went on a ski vacation in Kitzbühel from 9 to 28 March 1941. 4. Staffel was housed at the foot of the Ehrenbachhöhe, the highest point of the Hahnenkamm. The Gruppe then reassembled at Darmstadt-Griesheim where they received a complement of the new Bf 109 F-2 fighter aircraft. On 25 April 1941, II. Gruppe began relocating back to the English Channel Front at Monchy-Breton. The Gruppe completed relocation on 4 May and flew its first mission on 7 May 1941. That day, the RAF flew several fighter sweeps over the French coast and Gollob was credited with shooting down a Supermarine Spitfire fighter, his sixth of the war and last on the Western Front. On 1 June 1941, Gollob was promoted to Hauptmann (captain) and II. Gruppe began its relocation to the Eastern Front. The ground elements moved immediately while the air elements followed on 8 June. On that day, they flew to Saint-Dizier and then to Böblingen. On the following day, they continued to Breslau-Gandau, now the Wrocław–Copernicus Airport in Poland, via Straubing. ### War against the Soviet Union In preparation for Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, II. Gruppe headed further east on 18 June. Following a stopover at Kraków, the unit was moved to Hostynne. At the start of the campaign, JG 3 under the command of Major (Major) Günther Lützow was subordinated to the 5th Air Corps, under the command of General der Flieger (General of the Aviators) Robert Ritter von Greim, itself part of Luftflotte 4 (4th Air Fleet), under the command of Generaloberst (Colonel General) Alexander Löhr. These air elements supported Generalfeldmarschall (Field Marshal) Gerd von Rundstedt's Army Group South, with the objective of capturing Ukraine and its capital Kiev. At 17:00 on 21 June 1941, the 5th Air Corps, based at Lipsko, briefed the various unit commanders of the upcoming attack. That evening, Gruppenkommandeur (group commander) of II. Gruppe Lothar Keller informed his subordinates of the attack. The invasion of the Soviet Union began on 22 June 1941. II. Gruppe flew its first missions on the Eastern Front shortly before 04:00, flying low attacks against Soviet airfields in the vicinity of Lvov in Ukraine. At 06:30 the Gruppe fought its first aerial battles. 4. Staffel claimed three victories and the Gruppenstab four. One of these victories was credited to Gollob, who claimed a Polikarpov I-16 fighter shot down at 07:00. On 25 June, II. Gruppe claimed 17 victories, 6 of which were credited to 4. Staffel. The Staffel engaged Ilyushin DB-3 bombers escorted by I-16 "Ratas" on a free chase mission west of Lutsk. The Soviet bombers targeted the German advance roads from Hrubieszów through Volodymyr-Volynskyi to Lusk. Gollob was credited with two victories over DB-3s in this encounter. On 26 June 1941, Gruppenkommandeur Keller was killed in a mid-air collision. The next day, Gollob succeeded Keller in this position and turned over command of 4. Staffel to Oberleutnant Karl Faust. In the beginning of July 1941, the front in the vicinity of the northern sector of Army Group South became increasingly fluid. This necessitated the relocation of II. Gruppe to Volodymyr-Volynskyi. By this time the war of attrition had reduced the Gruppe to 50 percent of its authorized strength. One reason for this was the almost complete lack of new aircraft or of engines and other spare parts. Another factor was overwork of the ground crews and signs of exhaustion were apparent. Flying combat air patrols over Berdychiv and Zhytomyr on 1 July, II. Gruppe claimed four victories. On this day at 19:42, Gollob claimed his tenth aerial victory over a Petlyakov Pe-2 light bomber. The following day, the Gruppe claimed 23 aerial victories for the loss of one in combat. The first victory of the day was claimed by Gollob who shot down a ZKB-19—a German alias for the Polikarpov I-17 fighter, possibly a misidentified Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-1 or Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-3—at 05:52 in the morning. On another mission that day, he claimed two Vultee V-11 attack aircraft shot down at 11:30 and 11:43. The rapid advance of German ground forces required II. Gruppe to move to Lutsk on 5 July, then to Dubno that evening and to Miropol on 10 July. Flying missions east of Zhytomyr, Gollob claimed his 14th victory over a Polikarpov I-153 at 06:30 on 13 July 1941. A victory over a DB-3 at 11:42 and a further victory over a Tupolev SB-2 bomber at 11:44, both claimed on 16 July, took his total to 16 aerial victories. On 20 July 1941, II. Gruppe relocated from Miropol to Berdychiv. One day later, Gollob was awarded the Honor Goblet of the Luftwaffe (Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe) for 16 aerial victories. On 23 July 1941 at 16:35, Gollob claimed a Polikarpov R-5 reconnaissance bomber, his 17th aerial victory. That day, II. Gruppe received orders to turn over its remaining aircraft to I. Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 53 (JG 53—53rd Fighter Wing). Gollob's Gruppe was re-equipped with the Bf 109 F-4. On 28 July, the pilots were flown to Krosno on a Junkers Ju 52 where they received a full complement of Bf 109 F-4s. After a single familiarization flight, they departed to Berdychiv and on the following morning they were transferred to Bila Tserkva. During the first days in August 1941, II. Gruppe flew missions over the combat areas along the Dnieper in support of the main German attack to encircle Soviet forces near Uman, approximately 200 km (120 mi) south of Kiev. Most II. Gruppe missions were subsequently in the greater Kiev area and to the north near Malyn, where Soviet forces were still holding onto the west bank of the Dnieper. Until 6 August 1941, II. Gruppe claimed five victories without loss. Two victories claimed on 5 August took Gollob's total to 20 aerial victories. He was victorious over a I-153 at 17:46 and a I-17 at 18:22. On 7 August, II. Gruppe moved again, from Bila Tserkva the Gruppe moved to Signajewka, a forward airfield near Shpola. In the days to come, the Gruppe flew combat missions over the Dnieper, between Kaniv and Kremenchuk as well to the south. Flying from Signajewka for the next 10 days, II. Gruppe claimed 64 aerial victories, including 11 on 8 August, 7 on 9 August, 8 on 12 August and 27 on 17 August 1941, the Gruppe's most successful day of the entire 1941 summer campaign. In the same timeframe, Gollob increased his tally of aerial victories to 26. II. Gruppe had to relocate again to keep up with the German advance. On the afternoon of 17 August parts of the air elements flew to Kirovohrad-North airfield. Their primary mission was to protect the armored spearheads in the Dnipropetrovsk area. On 21 August 1941, II. Gruppe claimed 17 victories, five of which were by Gollob. This "ace-in-a-day" achievement, the first of six during his combat career, took his total to 33 aerial victories. On 25 August, III Army Corps took Dnipropetrovsk and captured the first bridgehead across the Dnieper. Until the end of August 1941, II. Gruppe primary objective was to help secure the bridgehead on the east bank of the Dnieper. In support of these battles, Gollob scored a I-17 on 22 August, a Polikarpov I-180 fighter aircraft on 24 August and a Tupolev TB-3 heavy bomber on 31 August 1941, taking his total to 36 aerial victories. On 1 September 1941, the 17th Army began crossing the Dnieper in force and II. Gruppe was moved to Myronivka. Flying from Myronivka was characterized by poor weather conditions with rain and fog, as a result operations were kept to a minimum. At the time, II. Gruppe's primary objective was the defense of the Dnieper crossing. In these defensive battles, Gollob score his 37th victory on 8 September. His opponent was classified as an I-26 fighter aircraft, later referred to as Yakovlev Yak-1. One day later, he claimed an Ilyushin Il-2 ground-attack aircraft. On 12 September weather conditions improved and flight operations increased. II. Gruppe flew missions in support of the armored spearheads as well as fighter escort missions for Junkers Ju 87 dive bombers. That day, Gollob claimed two victories, an Il-2 and a I-26, taking his total to 40 aerial victories. On 13 September, the Gruppe claimed 20 victories over Soviet bombers and ground-attack aircraft, including a V-11 shot down by Gollob at 17:19. On 14 September 1941, the German airfield at Myronivka came under Soviet air attack. Following the attack, Gollob and his wingman Oberleutnant Walther Dahl managed to pursue the attackers, and both shot down one of them. This victory over an I-153 claimed at 05:47 in the morning took his total to 42 aerial victories. II. Gruppe was again forced to relocate, on 15 September it moved to an airfield at Kremenchuk. On 18 September, Gollob was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross (Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes) for 42 victories. On 19 September 1941, II. Gruppe was tasked with strafing Soviet airfields in the Poltava area. That day, Gollob claimed his 43rd aerial victory over an R-5 at 13:55. He became an "ace-in-a-day" again on 28 September 1941 which took his score to 48 aerial victories. That day he had claimed three Pe-2s and two I-61s, a designation for the MiG-1 fighter aircraft. ### Battle of Moscow and Crimean Campaign On 30 September 1941, the Gruppe was temporarily transferred from the southern sector of the Eastern Front. Their new area of operation was Sechtschinskaja, approximately 40 km (25 mi) southeast of Roslavl. The Gruppe was then subordinated to the 2nd Air Corps under the command of General der Flieger Bruno Loerzer and was part of the preparations for Operation Typhoon, the planned assault on Moscow. All available German forces were concentrated under the command of Generalfeldmarschall Fedor von Bock's Army Group Centre for the attack which began on 2 October 1941. In the first days of this campaign, II. Gruppe supported the advance northeast by 4th Panzer Group and the 4th Army towards Vyazma and Yukhnov. Predominantly flying escort missions for Ju 87 dive bombers and combat air patrols over the battle zone east of Desna, Gollob claimed one enemy aircraft shot down on 4 October and two more the following day, including his 50th aerial victory over a I-61. Gollob claimed two Pe-2s shot down on 6 October, the first at 10:15 and the second two hours later. The following day, he was victorious over two further Pe-2s and one Il-2, taking his total to 56 aerial victories. On that night, the first snow fell, worsening road conditions. By 9 October German units had encircled major Soviet forces in two separate pockets at Vyazma and Bryansk. In support of German ground forces, II. Gruppe detached a Schwärme—two pairs of two fighter aircraft—to a forward airfield at Syevsk, approximately 100 km (62 mi) south of Bryansk. From 9 to 11 October the air elements operated from the Kirov and Oryol airfields, which had been captured by German forces on 3 October. Operating from these airfields, Gollob claimed his 57th and 58th victories on 10 October, both aircraft were I-61s shot down at 12:40 and 12:43. The missions on 11 October 1941 were II. Gruppe's last in support of Operation Typhoon. Orders had been received to transfer the air element and a small technical ground crew detachment, which was airlifted by several Ju 52s to Chaplynka. From there, the Gruppe participated in the Crimean Campaign, the conquest of the Crimean peninsula. The transfer began on 13 October, but due to bad weather conditions, it was only completed on 16 October. At Chaplynka, the Gruppe was placed under the command of the Geschwaderstab (headquarters unit) of Jagdgeschwader 77 (JG 77—77th Fighter Wing).

The first missions over the battle zone in front of Perekop and over the Crimea were flown on 17 October 1941, either flying Ju 87 escort missions or combat air patrols. On two separate missions that day, Gollob claimed two I-61s and one I-16 shot down. On 18 October 1941, the 11the Army began its attack on the Isthmus of Perekop and Ishun. II. Gruppe flew several combat air patrols that day and reported 16 aerial victories for the loss of two Bf 109s damaged in combat. Gollob alone accounted for nine of these 16 claimed victories. This was the third time he had become an "ace-in-a-day" and was the most successful day of his combat career. During the course of three combat missions, he increased his personal score to 70. That day he filed a claim for nine I-61s shot down, two at 07:18 and 07:20, five more at 10:05, 10:07, 10:19, 10:20 and 10:29 and two more at 14:46 and 14:48. On 19 October, Gollob again achieved "ace-in-a-day" for the fourth time, claiming a I-61 at 08:55, three P-2s at 12:36, 12:37 and 12:42, and another I-61 at 15:35. The next day, he was credited with one further I-61, taking his total to 76 victories. Two days later, on 22 October, Gollob made "ace-in-a-day" for the fifth time and surpassed eighty victories. That day he claimed three I-16s, one Pe-2 and one I-61. One day later, he claimed three aerial victories, all I-61s, and on 24 October, he was credited with his 85th victory after he shot down a I-153. Following this streak of 37 aerial victories in October 1941, he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves (Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub) after reaching 85 victories. He was the 38th member of the German armed forces to be so honored. Gollob, together with Oberleutnant Erbo Graf von Kageneck, received the Oak Leaves from Adolf Hitler personally at the Wolf's Lair, Hitler's headquarters in Rastenburg, present-day Kętrzyn in Poland, on 5 November 1941. On 31 October 1941, II. Gruppe flew its last combat missions over the northern Crimea. The Gruppe was then ordered to return to Germany, to be stationed at the Wiesbaden-Erbenheim airfield where it arrived in early November. Prior to departure, all of the remaining aircraft where handed over to III. Gruppe of JG 77. Since the start of Operation Barbarossa on 22 June 1941, II. Gruppe had claimed 504 aerial victories for the loss of ten pilots killed or missing in action, and a further nine pilots who had been injured. In addition, 27 aircraft were lost or damaged beyond repair, a further 21 aircraft received heavy damaged and another 27 were lightly damaged. On 20 November 1941, Gollob was again posted to the central Erprobungstelle Rechlin primary Luftwaffe test facility. Gollob was replaced by Hauptmann Karl-Heinz Krahl as commander of II. Gruppe of JG 3. At Rechlin, he flew numerous test and comparison flights with the latest version of the Bf 109 and Focke-Wulf Fw 190 fighter aircraft, as well as a variety of types which never went beyond a prototype variant. ### Wing Commander In early 1942, the General der Jagdflieger (General of Fighters), Oberst (Colonel) Adolf Galland recommended Gollob for the Geschwaderkommodore (wing commander) position of Jagdgeschwader 77. Gollob was sent to the Geschwaderstab of Jagdgeschwader 54 (JG 54—54th Fighter Wing) as a commander-in-training under Major Hannes Trautloft. On 1 May 1942, Gollob was officially appointed Geschwaderkommodore of JG 77, replacing Major Gotthard Handrick. He took operational command of the Geschwader after he arrived on 16 May 1942. On the same day of his arrival, Gollob flew his first combat mission as Geschwaderkommodore. That day, he claimed his aerial victories 87 to 89, shooting down three Lavochkin-Gorbunov-Gudkov LaGG-3 fighter aircraft. Gollob's success continued the following day, when he was credited with three R-5s and one LaGG-3 destroyed. JG 77 had been given the task of supporting the German ground forces in the Crimean Campaign over the Kerch Strait on the Crimean Peninsula. An anonymous JG 77 pilot described Gollob's methods; "Gollob flew from Kerch together with his wingman. They positioned themselves at a low altitude beneath a Soviet formation. Then they started climbing in spirals, carefully maintaining their position beneath the enemy formation. Before the peacefully flying Soviets had even suspected any mischief, the two planes at the bottom of their formation had been shot down and the two Germans were gone." On 18 May 1942, Gollob claimed his 94th to 96th aerial victories over Kerch and the Caucasus coast; all three were Polikarpov R-5 reconnaissance bombers. JG 77, led by Gollob, and its I. Gruppe, led by Hauptmann Heinrich Bär, were engaged in an intense rivalry, each striving to outperform the other, and both eager to achieve the century mark first. Bär claimed his 100th aerial victory on 19 May. That day, Gollob claimed three more R-5 shot down, taking his total to 99 aerial victories. One day later, on 20 May 1942, Gollob shot down two aircraft, a DB-3 and a LaGG-3, and thereby exceeded 100 aerial victories. He was the 10th Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark. On 7 June 1942, German and Romanian forces began Operation Störfang, the final assault in the siege of Sevastopol, which resulted in the city's capture on 4 July 1942. On the first day of this operation, Gollob claimed his 102nd victory, a LaGG-3 shot down over Sevastopol. The attack on Sevastopol was still making slow progress on 9 June, largely due to the artillery deployed within the fortress. Over the battle zone, Gollob claimed a I-153 shot down that day. Gollob did not claim any further victories until 18 June. The fighting over Sevastopol was still ongoing and Gollob claimed an Il-2 and a LaGG-3 over the southern sector of Sevastopol. These two victories took his total to 105. On 21 June 1942, Gollob was credited with two victories over LaGG-3 fighter aircraft. For this achievement, on 23 June, he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords (Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern), after his score had increased to 107 aerial victories. This was the 13th presentation of this award. On 1 July 1942, he was promoted to Major. On 22 July 1942, the Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 52 (JG 52—52nd Fighter Wing), Major Herbert Ihlefeld, was severely injured in a flight accident and had to surrender command during his convalescence. At the time, all three Gruppen of JG 77 were lent out to other units, and Gollob had time to spare, so temporarily took over command of JG 52 as acting Geschwaderkommodore. On this or one of the following days, he departed and flew to the Geschwaderstab of JG 52. On 28 June 1942, the Wehrmacht had initiated Fall Blau (Case Blue), the 1942 strategic summer offensive in southern Russia. The objective was to secure the oil fields of Baku as well as an advance in the direction of Stalingrad along the Volga River, to cover the flanks of the advance towards Baku. Tasked with aerial support of this offensive was Luftflotte 4 to which JG 52 was subordinated. By the time Gollob joined the Geschwader in late July 1942, the offensive had been renamed Operation Braunschweig and JG 52 was located at Rostov-on-Don. Gollob claimed his first victory with the Stab of JG 52 on 26 July 1942, a I-16 and his 108th in total. The next day, he shot down two I-153 biplane fighters. He claimed the first aerial victory of August 1942, his last month of combat operations, on 4 August over a Yakovlev Yak-1 fighter aircraft. He was then credited with four victories on 6 August, two Il-2, one Yak-1 and one R-5 took his score to 115 aerial victories. He claimed one Yak-1 on each of the next two days. On 14 August, he was credited with two LaGG-3 and one Douglas A-20 Havoc, referred to as a Boston. For the last time in his combat career, Gollob achieved "ace-in-a-day" for the sixth time on 16 August 1941. That day he claimed two LaGG-3, two I-16 and one Il-2. His success as a fighter pilot continued, as he shot down two LaGG-3 on 17 August, three I-16 on 18 August, and two Il-2 and an I-153 on 19 August, taking his overall total to 133 aerial victories. Following three victories on 20 August, two I-153 and a I-16, Gollob shot down two Bostons on 22 August. On 24 August 1941, he took his total to 142 aerial victories by claiming three LaGG-3 and one Boston. Over the course of the next four days, he scored one victory on each day, a Boston on 25 August, a Pe-2 on 26 August, a I-16 on 27 August, and another Boston on 28 August. After three victories over LaGG-3s and one Pe-2 on 29 August 1942, he reached 150 aerial victories and became the Luftwaffe's highest scoring pilot at that point. For this he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds (Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub, Schwertern und Brillanten) on 30 August. Gollob was the third member of the Wehrmacht and the third fighter pilot who had received this award. Fearing he would be lost in combat, Hitler imposed a flying ban on him. Der Adler, a biweekly Nazi propaganda magazine published by the Luftwaffe, also reported his actions in volume 19 of 1942. On 30 September 1942, Gollob was officially replaced in command of JG 77 by Hauptmann Joachim Müncheberg. Gollob was then posted to the Stab of Jagdfliegerführer 3 (Jafü 3—3rd Fighter Pilot Leader) at Brest-Guipavas on the English Channel Front. ### High command On 15 October 1942, Gollob was made Jagdfliegerführer 3, responsible for tactical fighter command over northwestern France. Jagdfliegerführer 3 was renamed Jagdfliegerführer 5 (Jafü 5—5th Fighter Pilot Leader) on 6 September 1943. In this command position, he was promoted to Oberstleutnant (lieutenant colonel) on 20 April 1943, effective as of 1 April, and to Oberst on 1 May 1944. When he became Jafü 5 he frequently submitted reports to his superiors at the 5. Jagd-Division (5th Fighter Division) about the suitability of the Bf 109 on the Western Front. He indicated that in its present state the Bf 109 G-3 to G-6 were no longer adequate for service in the West and that the Fw 190 and Bf 109 were inferior to enemy aircraft. Learning about the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet-powered aircraft, Gollob became a strong advocate of it and its employment as fighter aircraft. Hitler had become interested in the idea of using the Me 262 in a fighter-bomber role, which contributed to the delays in preparing the aircraft for operational readiness as an interceptor. In April 1944, Gollob was transferred to the personal staff of General der Jagdflieger Galland, to advise on the development of the Me 262 jet and Messerschmitt Me 163 rocket aircraft projects. Gollob quarrelled with Galland in September and was transferred to Kommando der Erprobungstellen (headquarters of test units), which two years previously had been put under the command of Oberst Edgar Petersen. Gollob was also involved in the development and testing of the FuG 217 Neptun "J2" and FuG 218 Neptun "J3" airborne radar specifically for single-engined night fighters and air-to-air rockets, such as the R4M. In November 1944, Gollob was appointed commander of the Jäger-Sonderstab—or special fighter command—for the Ardennes offensive and the ill-fated Operation Bodenplatte. On 11 November, Reichsmarschall (Marshal of the Reich) Hermann Göring, the Commander-in-Chief of the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (Air Force High Command), organized a meeting of high-ranking Luftwaffe officers, including Gollob. The meeting, also referred to as the "Areopag" was held at the Luftkriegsakademie (air war academy) at Berlin-Gatow. This Luftwaffe version of the Greek Areopagus—a court of justice—aimed at finding solutions to the deteriorating air was situation over Germany. On 15 November, Gollob and Leutnant Karl Schnörrer, Hauptmann Heinz Strüning, Major Georg Christl, Major Rudolf Schoenert, Major Josef Fözö formed the guard of honor at Walter Nowotny funeral at the Zentralfriedhof in Vienna. Nowotny had been killed in action on 8 November while evaluating the Me 262 under combat conditions. The eulogy was delivered by Generaloberst Otto Deßloch. Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler had suggested to Hitler that he appoint Gollob as General der Jagdflieger. Himmler's intervention in Luftwaffe affairs had been an irritation to Göring. Himmler had ambitions to expand his influence and power base into the Luftwaffe. One aspect of this was to put jet fighter units under control of the SS and later, Göring ordered Galland to prepare a report on Gollob. Galland's conclusion was that Gollob required close supervision in a responsible post. In early January 1945, Göring summoned Gollob to Karinhall, Göring's estate northeast of Berlin, and read out selected excerpts from Galland's report to him and Gollob became infuriated with Galland. Göring then ordered Galland to Karinhall and informed him of his dismissal. During the meeting, Göring postponed his decision as to what position Galland would receive and sent Galland on vacation. News of Galland's dismissal soon spread, leading to the failed Fighter Pilots' Revolt, an insurrection of a small group of high-ranking Luftwaffe pilots, including Oberst Johannes Steinhoff who after the war became Chairman of the NATO Military Committee, aimed at re-instating Galland as General der Jagdflieger. On 31 January 1945, Gollob was officially appointed as General der Jagdflieger. In his new role, Gollob worked with General der Flieger Josef Kammhuber, responsible for fighting against the enemy four-engined bombers, and SS-Obergruppenführer Hans Kammler, responsible for air armament and manufacturing of the Me 262. Gollob's objective was to deploy and arm the Me 262 as a defensive weapon against the Allied air offensive. Hitler's decision to use the Me 262 in a fighter bomber role had not been revised. Gollob gathered data and hoped to meet Hitler to convince him that the Me 262 was better suited as a fighter aircraft and not as a fighter bomber, but this meeting never occurred. On 7 April 1945, frustrated over the lack of progress made, Gollob submitted his written request to be released from office as General der Jagdflieger, but the request was not approved by Göring. Gollob left Berlin on 10 April 1945 after his staff had left for southern Germany. At that time he needed urgent hospitalization to treat his appendicitis. Gollob underwent surgery by Prof. Dr. Burghard Breitner at a hospital in Igls, in the present-day a borough of Innsbruck, eight days after his departure from Berlin. On 24 April, he was transferred to the Luftwaffe hospital at Kitzbühel, which was in the middle of the so-called Alpine Fortress. At Kitzbühel, he met with the last Commander-in-Chief of the Luftwaffe, Generalfeldmarschall Greim and the female pilot Hanna Reitsch. Greim was convalescing from an injury sustained during a flight by Reitsch into the encircled city of Berlin on 26 April. At Kitzbühel, Gollob was taken prisoner of war by elements of the 36th Infantry Division of the United States Army under the command of General John E. Dahlquist. Shortly after, he was transferred into the custody of the US 42nd Infantry Division commanded by Major General Harry J. Collins. ## Later life On 1 June 1945, Gollob, who had been released on parole, was arrested by the Austrian Gendarmerie acting for the US authorities. From Kitzbühel, he was taken via Pass Strub, and other internment camps, to Ludwigsburg in Württemberg, and then flown to England. In England, he was held at Latimer and interrogated at the Combined Services Detailed Interrogation Centre regarding combat operations. He was released by US forces in 1946 and was then interned by the French authorities, as his home region of North Tyrol had become part of the French Occupation Zone. After release, Gollob made a living by contributing to aircraft magazines and lecturing. In 1948, Gollob became General Secretary of the Federation of Independents (German: Verband der Unabhängigen, VdU), a right-wing political party in Austria. Gollob adhered to strongly German nationalist viewpoints. In June 1950 he caused a public scandal, when he spoke at a public rally held by the Styrian organization of the VdU in Graz. Gollob had criticized the anti-Nazi legislation and called the Austrian Government a "fake democracy". As a consequence the Styrian party organization was banned by the Austrian government to avoid a ban of the party as a whole by the Allied Council. For the same reason the party at first suspended and on 20 July 1950 expelled Gollob from the party. This resulted in a bitter strife between the party's factions. Gollob's expulsion was revoked. On 1 October 1950 he was elected to be one of the deputies of party leader Herbert Kraus. In 1951 Gollob moved to Germany. Gollob and his wife Elisabeth Lüning, had married on 14 February 1943, and had two sons and a daughter. Their first son, Ulrik, was born on 30 November 1943 in Kitzbühel, their second son, Gerald was born on 9 January 1946, also in Kitzbühel, and their daughter Cornelia was born on 16 March 1954 in Sulingen. The family had moved to his wife's hometown of Sulingen. There, from November 1951, he started working in a sales role for the Klöckner Humboldt Deutz AG, a company making motors and vehicles. Until a myocardial infarction impeded his health in 1975, he regularly flew powered and glider aircraft. Gollob died in Sulingen, Diepholz, Lower Saxony on 7 September 1987. ## Summary of career ### Aerial victory claims According to US historian David T. Zabecki, Gollob was credited with 150 aerial victories. Spick also lists Gollob with 150 aerial victories claimed in 340 combat missions, 144 of which were on the Eastern Front. He never lost a wingman in combat, nor was he shot down. Mathews and Foreman, authors of Luftwaffe Aces — Biographies and Victory Claims, researched the German Federal Archives and found records for 146 aerial victory claims, plus five further unconfirmed claims. This number includes one claim over a Polish Air Force aircraft, five aerial victory claims on the Western Front, and 140 Soviet Air Forces piloted aircraft on the Eastern Front. ### Awards - Iron Cross (1939) - 2nd Class (21 September 1939) - 1st Class (13 June 1940) - Narvik Shield (30 January 1941) - Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold (11 May 1941) - Honour Goblet of the Luftwaffe (21 July 1941) - Combined Pilots-Observation Badge in Gold with Diamonds - Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds - Knight's Cross on 18 September 1941 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of II./Jagdgeschwader 3 - 38th Oak Leaves on 26 October 1941 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of II./Jagdgeschwader 3 - 13th Swords on 23 June 1942 as Hauptmann and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 77 - 3rd Diamonds on 30 August 1942 as Major and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 77 - Crimea Shield (15 March 1943)

Longfin mako shark

Species of shark

The longfin mako shark (Isurus paucus) is a species of mackerel shark in the family Lamnidae, with a probable worldwide distribution in temperate and tropical waters. An uncommon species, it is typically lumped together under the name "mako" with its better-known relative, the shortfin mako shark (I. oxyrinchus). The longfin mako is a pelagic species found in moderately deep water, having been reported to a depth of 220 m (720 ft). Growing to a maximum length of 4.3 m (14 ft), the slimmer build and long, broad pectoral fins of this shark suggest that it is a slower and less active swimmer than the shortfin mako. Longfin mako sharks are predators that feed on small schooling bony fishes and cephalopods. Whether this shark is capable of elevating its body temperature above that of the surrounding water like the other members of its family is uncertain, though it possesses the requisite physiological adaptations. Reproduction in this species is aplacental viviparous, meaning the embryos hatch from eggs inside the uterus. In the later stages of development, the unborn young are fed nonviable eggs by the mother (oophagy). The litter size is typically two, but may be as many as eight. The longfin mako is of limited commercial value, as its meat and fins are of lower quality than those of other pelagic sharks; however, it is caught unintentionally in low numbers across its range. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed this species as endangered due to its rarity, low reproductive rate, and continuing bycatch mortality. In 2019, alongside the shortfin mako, the IUCN listed the longfin mako as "Endangered". ## Taxonomy and phylogeny The original description of the longfin mako was published in 1966 by Cuban marine scientist Darío Guitart-Manday, in the scientific journal Poeyana, based on three adult specimens from the Caribbean Sea. An earlier synonym of this species may be Lamiostoma belyaevi, described by Glückman in 1964. However, the type specimen designated by Glückman consists of a set of fossil teeth that could not be confirmed as belonging to the longfin mako, thus the name paucus took precedence over belyaevi, despite being published later. The specific epithet paucus is Latin for "few", referring to the rarity of this species relative to the shortfin mako. The sister species relationship between the longfin and shortfin mako has been confirmed by several phylogenetic studies based on mitochondrial DNA. In turn, the closest relative of the two mako sharks is the great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias). Fossil teeth belonging to the longfin mako have been recovered from the Muddy Creek marl of the Grange Burn formation, south of Hamilton, Australia, and from Mizumani Group in Gifu Prefecture, Japan. Both deposits date to the Middle Miocene Epoch (15–11 million years ago (mya)). The oligo-miocene fossil shark tooth taxon Isurus retroflexus may be the ancestor to or even conspecific with the Longfin Mako. ## Distribution and habitat Widely scattered records suggest that the longfin mako shark has a worldwide distribution in tropical and warm-temperate oceans; the extent of its range is difficult to determine due to confusion with the shortfin mako. In the Atlantic Ocean, it is known from the Gulf Stream off the East Coast of the United States, the Caribbean, and southern Brazil in the west, and from the Iberian Peninsula to Ghana in the east, possibly including the Mediterranean Sea and Cape Verde. In the Indian Ocean, it has been reported from the Mozambique Channel. In the Pacific Ocean, it occurs off Japan and Taiwan, northeastern Australia, a number of islands in the Central Pacific northeast of Micronesia, and southern California. An inhabitant of the open ocean, the longfin mako generally remains in the upper mesopelagic zone during the day and ascends into the epipelagic zone at night. Off Cuba, it is most frequently caught at a depth of 110–220 m (360–720 ft) and is rare at depths above 90 m (300 ft). Off New South Wales, most catches occur at a depth of 50–190 m (160–620 ft), in areas with a surface temperature around 20–24 °C (68–75 °F). ## Description

The longfin mako is the larger of the two mako and the second-largest species in its family (after the great white), reaching upwards of 2.5 m (8.2 ft) in length and weighing over 70 kg (150 lb); females grow larger than males. The largest reported longfin mako was a 4.3-metre-long (14 ft) female caught off Pompano Beach, Florida, in February 1984. Large specimens can scale over 200 kg (440 lb) and can scale up to around 500 kg (1,100 lb). This species has a slim, fusiform shape with a long, pointed snout and large eyes that lack nictitating membranes (protective third eyelids). Twelve to 13 tooth rows occur on either side of the upper jaw and 11–13 tooth rows are on either side of the lower jaw. The teeth are large and knife-shaped, without serrations or secondary cusps; the outermost teeth in the lower jaw protrude prominently from the mouth. The gill slits are long and extend onto the top of head. The pectoral fins are as long or longer than the head, with a nearly straight front margin and broad tips. The first dorsal fin is large with a rounded apex, and is placed behind the pectoral fins. The second dorsal and anal fins are tiny. The caudal peduncle is expanded laterally into strong keels. The caudal fin is crescent-shaped, with a small notch near the tip of the upper lobe. The dermal denticles are elliptical, longer than wide, with three to seven horizontal ridges leading to a toothed posterior margin. The coloration is dark blue to grayish black above and white below. The unpaired fins are dark except for a white rear margin on the anal fin; the pectoral and pelvic fins are dark above and white below with sharp gray posterior margins. In adults and large juveniles, the area beneath the snout, around the jaw, and the origin of the pectoral fins have dusky mottling. ## Biology and ecology The biology of the longfin mako is little-known; it is somewhat common in the western Atlantic and possibly the central Pacific, while in the eastern Atlantic, it is rare and outnumbered over 1,000-fold by the shortfin mako in fishery landings. The longfin mako's slender body and long, broad pectoral fins evoke the oceanic whitetip shark (Carcharhinus longimanus) and the blue shark (Prionace glauca), both slow-cruising sharks of upper oceanic waters. This morphological similarity suggests that the longfin mako is less active than the shortfin mako, one of the fastest and most energetic sharks. Like the other members of its family, this species possesses blood vessel countercurrent exchange systems called the rete mirabilia (Latin for "wonderful net", singular rete mirabile) in its trunk musculature and around its eyes and brain. This system enables other mackerel sharks to conserve metabolic heat and maintain a higher body temperature than their environments, though whether the longfin mako is capable of the same is uncertain. The longfin mako has large eyes and is attracted to cyalume sticks (chemical lights), implying that it is a visual hunter. Its diet consists mainly of small, schooling bony fishes and squids. In October 1972, a 3.4-metre-long (11 ft) female with the broken bill from a swordfish (Xiphias gladias) lodged in her abdomen was caught in the northeastern Indian Ocean; whether the shark was preying on swordfish as the shortfin mako does, or encountered the swordfish in some other aggressive context is not known. Adult longfin mako have no natural predators except for killer whales, while young individuals may fall prey to larger sharks. As in other mackerel sharks, the longfin mako is aplacental viviparous and typically gives birth to two pups at a time (one inside each uterus), though a 3.3-metre-long (11 ft) female pregnant with eight well-developed embryos was caught in the Mona Passage near Puerto Rico in January 1983. The developing embryos are oophagous; once they deplete their supply of yolk, they sustain themselves by consuming large quantities of nonviable eggs ovulated by their mother. No evidence of sibling cannibalism is seen, as in the sand tiger shark (Carcharias taurus). The pups measure 97–120 cm (3.18–3.94 ft) long at birth, relatively larger than the young of the shortfin mako, and have proportionally longer heads and pectoral fins than the adults. Capture records off Florida suggest that during the winter, females swim into shallow coastal waters to give birth. Male and female sharks reach sexual maturity at lengths around 2 m (6.6 ft) and 2.5 m (8.2 ft), respectively. ## Human interactions No attacks on humans have been attributed to the longfin mako shark. Nevertheless, its large size and teeth make it potentially dangerous. This shark is caught, generally in low numbers, as bycatch on longlines intended for tuna, swordfish, and other pelagic sharks, as well as in anchored gillnets and on hook-and-line. The meat is marketed fresh, frozen, or dried and salted, though it is considered to be of poor quality due to its mushy texture. The fins are also considered to be of lower quality for use in shark fin soup, though are valuable enough that captured sharks are often finned at sea. The carcasses may be processed into animal feed and fish meal, while the skin, cartilage, and jaws are also of value. The most significant longfin mako catches are by Japanese tropical longline fisheries, and those sharks occasionally enter Tokyo fish markets. From 1987 to 1994, United States fisheries reported catches (discarded, as this species is worthless on the North American market) of 2–12 tons per year. Since 1999, retention of this species has been prohibited by the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic sharks. Longfin mako were once significant in the Cuban longline fishery, comprising one-sixth of the shark landings from 1971 to 1972; more recent data from this fishery are not available. The IUCN has assessed this species as "Vulnerable" due to its uncommonness, low reproductive rate, and susceptibility to shark fishing gear. It has also been listed under Annex I of the Convention on Migratory Species Migratory Shark Memorandum of Understanding. In the North Atlantic, stocks of the shortfin mako have declined 40% or more since the late 1980s, and concerns exist that populations of the longfin mako are following the same trend. In 2019, along with its relative the shortfin mako, the IUCN listed the longfin mako as "Endangered" due to continuing declines alongside 58 elasmobranch species. ## See also - List of common commercial fish of Sri Lanka

Small shelly fauna

Fossils from the Ediacaran and Cambrian periods

The small shelly fauna, small shelly fossils (SSF), or early skeletal fossils (ESF) are mineralized fossils, many only a few millimetres long, with a nearly continuous record from the latest stages of the Ediacaran to the end of the Early Cambrian Period. They are very diverse, and there is no formal definition of "small shelly fauna" or "small shelly fossils". Almost all are from earlier rocks than more familiar fossils such as trilobites. Since most SSFs were preserved by being covered quickly with phosphate and this method of preservation is mainly limited to the late Ediacaran and early Cambrian periods, the animals that made them may actually have arisen earlier and persisted after this time span. Some of the fossils represent the entire skeletons of small organisms, including the mysterious Cloudina and some snail-like molluscs. However, the bulk of the fossils are fragments or disarticulated remains of larger organisms, including sponges, molluscs, slug-like halkieriids, brachiopods, echinoderms, and onychophoran-like organisms that may have been close to the ancestors of arthropods. One of the early explanations for the appearance of the SSFs – and therefore the evolution of mineralized skeletons – suggested a sudden increase in the ocean's concentration of calcium. However, many SSFs are constructed of other minerals, such as silica. Because the first SSFs appear around the same time as organisms first started burrowing to avoid predation, it is more likely that they represent early steps in an evolutionary arms race between predators and increasingly well-defended prey. On the other hand, mineralized skeletons may have evolved simply because they are stronger and take less energy to produce than all-organic skeletons like those of insects. Nevertheless, it is still true that the animals used minerals that were most easily accessible. Although the small size and often fragmentary nature of SSFs makes it difficult to identify and classify them, they provide very important evidence for how the main groups of marine invertebrates evolved, and particularly for the pace and pattern of evolution in the Cambrian explosion. Besides including the earliest known representatives of some modern phyla, they have the great advantage of presenting a nearly continuous record of early Cambrian organisms whose bodies include hard parts. ## History of discovery The term "small shelly fossils" was coined by Samuel Matthews and V. V. Missarzhevsky in 1975. The term is often abbreviated to "small shellies" or "SSF". It is quite a misnomer since, as Stefan Bengtson says, "they are not always small, they are commonly not shelly – and the term might equally well apply to Pleistocene periwinkles." Paleontologists have been unable to invent a better term, and have vented their frustration in parodies such as "small silly fossils" and "small smellies". The great majority of all the morphological features of later shelled organisms appear among the SSFs. No-one has attempted a formal definition of "small shelly fauna", "small shelly fossils" or other similar phrases. Specimens and sometimes quite rich collections of these fossils were discovered between 1872 and 1967, but no-one drew the conclusion that the Early Cambrian contained a diverse range of animals in addition to the traditionally recognized trilobites, archaeocyathans, etc. In the late 1960s Soviet paleontologists discovered even richer collections of SSFs in beds below and therefore earlier than those containing Cambrian trilobites. Unfortunately the papers that described these discoveries were in Russian, and the 1975 paper by Matthews and Missarzhevsky first brought the SSFs to the serious attention of the non-Russian-reading world. There was already a vigorous debate about the early evolution of animals. Preston Cloud argued in 1948 and 1968 that the process was "explosive", and in the early 1970s Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould developed their theory of punctuated equilibrium, which views evolution as long intervals of near-stasis "punctuated" by short periods of rapid change. On the other hand, around the same time Wyatt Durham and Martin Glaessner both argued that the animal kingdom had a long Proterozoic history that was hidden by the lack of fossils. ## Occurrence Rich collections have been found in China,Russia, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Australia, and Antarctica; and moderately diverse ones in India, Pakistan, Iran, Europe and North America. There are different views about the time range of the SSFs. The Russian discoveries of the late 1960s were assigned to the Tommotian age of the Cambrian period, and for some time the term "small shelly fauna" was applied only to that age. On the other hand, Bengston includes in "SSF" Ediacaran fossils like Cloudina and post-Tommotian fossils like Microdictyon from the Maotianshan Shales lagerstätte. SSFs have been found in layers that also contain fossil trilobites. The mass extinction at the end of the Cambrian period's Botomian age was thought to have wiped out most of the SSF, with the exception of the halkieriids, wiwaxiids and Pojetaia. ## Mode of preservation Small shelly fossils are typically, although not always, preserved in phosphate. Whilst some shellies were originally phosphatic, in most cases the phosphate represents a replacement of the original calcite. They are usually extracted from limestone by placing the limestone in a weak acid, typically acetic acid; the phosphatized fossils remain after the rock is dissolved away. Preservation of microfossils by phosphate seems to have become less common after the early Cambrian, perhaps as a result of increased disturbance of sea-floors by burrowing animals. Without this fossil-forming mode, many small shelly fossils may not have been preserved – or been impossible to extract from the rock; hence the animals that produced these fossils may have lived beyond the early Cambrian – the apparent extinction of most SSFs by the end of the Cambrian may be an illusion. For decades it was thought that halkieriids, whose "armor plates" are a common type of SSF, perished in the end-Botomian mass extinction; but in 2004 halkieriid armor plates were reported from Mid Cambrian rocks in Australia, a good 10 million years more recent than that. ## Minerals used in shells Small shelly fossils are composed of a variety of minerals, the most important being silica, calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate. The minerals used by each organism are influenced by the chemistry of the oceans the organism first evolved in, but then continue to be used even if the ocean chemistry changes. For example, in the Ediacaran period and the Nemakit–Daldynian age of the Cambrian, those animals that used calcium carbonate used the form called aragonite. On the other hand, animals that first appeared in the following Tommotian age used another form, calcite. A recently discovered modern gastropod that lives near deep-sea hydrothermal vents illustrates the influence of both earlier and contemporary local chemical environments: its shell is made of aragonite, which is found in the earliest fossil molluscs; but it also has armor plates on the sides of its foot, and these are mineralized with the iron sulfides pyrite and greigite, which had never previously been found in any metazoan but whose ingredients are emitted in large quantities by the vents. Methods of constructing shells vary widely among the SSF, and in most cases the exact mechanisms are not known. ## Evolution of skeletons and biomineralization Biomineralization is the production of mineralized parts by organisms. Hypotheses to explain the evolution of biomineralization include physiological adaptation to changing chemistry of the oceans, defense against predators and the opportunity to grow larger. The functions of biomineralization in SSFs vary: some SSFs are not yet understood; some are components of armor; and some are skeletons. A skeleton is any fairly rigid structure of an animal, irrespective of whether it has joints and irrespective of whether it is biomineralized. Although some SSFs may not be skeletons, SSFs are biomineralized by definition, being shelly. Skeletons provide a wide range of possible advantages, including: protection, support, attachment to a surface, a platform or set of levers for muscles to act on, traction when moving on a surface, food handling, provision of filtration chambers and storage of essential substances.

It has often been suggested that biomineralization evolved as a response to an increase in the concentration of calcium in the seas, which happened around the Ediacaran–Cambrian boundary, and that biomineralization's main benefit was to store harmlessly minerals that might have disrupted organisms' internal processes. For example, Mikhail A. Fedonkin suggested that an increase in the length of food chains may have contributed, as animals higher up the food chain accumulate greater amounts of waste products and toxins relative to their size, and biomineralization may have been a way of isolating excess carbonates or silicates consumed with prey. However, biomineralizing a skeleton is a fairly expensive way to dispose safely of excess minerals, as the main construction cost is the organic matrix, mostly proteins and polysaccharides, with which minerals are combined to form composite materials. The idea that biomineralization was a response to changes in ocean chemistry is also undermined by the fact that small shelly fossils made of calcite, aragonite, calcium phosphate and silica appeared virtually simultaneously in a range of environments. Organisms started burrowing to avoid predation at around the same time. Jerzy Dzik suggested that biomineralization of skeletons was a defense against predators, marking the start of an evolutionary arms race. He cited as another example of hardened defenses from this time the fact that the earliest protective "skeletons" included glued-together collections of inorganic objects — for example the early Cambrian worm Onuphionella built a tube covered with mica flakes. Such a strategy required both anatomical adaptations that allowed organisms to collect and glue objects and also moderately sophisticated nervous systems to co-ordinate this behavior. On the other hand, Bernard Cohen argued that biomineralized skeletons arose for "engineering" reasons rather than as defenses. There are many other defensive strategies available to prey animals including mobility and acute senses, chemical defenses, and concealment. Mineral-organic composites are both stronger and take less energy to build than all-organic skeletons, and these two advantages would have made it possible for animals to grow larger and, in some cases, more muscular. In animals beyond a certain size, the larger muscles and their greater leverage produce forces all-organic skeletons are not rigid enough to withstand. The development of modern brachiopods includes a progression from all-organic to mineral-organic composite shells, which may be a clue to their evolutionary development. The evolution of rigid biomineralized exoskeletons may then have started an arms race in which predators developed drills or chemical weapons capable of penetrating shells, some prey animals developed heavier, tougher shells, etc. Fedonkin suggested another explanation for the appearance of biomineralization around the start of the Cambrian: the Ediacara biota evolved and flourished in cold waters, which slowed their metabolisms and left them with insufficient spare energy for biomineralization; but there are signs of global warming around the start of the Cambrian, which would have made biomineralization easier. A similar pattern is visible in living marine animals, since biomineralized skeletons are rarer and more fragile in polar waters than in the tropics. ## Evolutionary significance In some locations, up to 20% of Cloudina fossils show borings, holes that are thought to have been made by predators. The very similar shelly fossil Sinotubulites, which is often found in the same locations, was not affected by borings. In addition, the distribution of borings in Cloudina suggests selection for size – the largest holes appear in the largest shells. This evidence of selective attacks by predators suggests that new species may have arisen in response to predation, which is often presented as a potential cause of the rapid diversification of animals in the early Cambrian. The small shellies provide a relatively continuous record throughout the early Cambrian, and thus provide a more useful insight into the Cambrian explosion than instances of exceptional preservation. Although most of the SSFs are difficult to identify, those assigned positions in modern taxa, or in their stem groups of evolutionary "aunts" or "cousins", enable scientists to assess the pattern and speed of animal evolution on the strength of the small shelly evidence. Such an assessment shows that the earliest small shellies are the most basal. As time goes on, they can be placed in the stem group to an ever-smaller clade. In other words, the earliest (Ediacaran) small shellies can be tentatively considered diploblastic, in other words made of two main tissue layers. Later shellies are more convincingly triploblastic, as all "higher" animals are. Subsequently, the Helcionellids are the first shelly fossils that can be placed in the stem group to a phylum (mollusca). As one looks at more recent SSFs, the arguments for stem group placements become stronger, and by the Atdabanian, some SSFs can be assigned to the crown group of a modern phylum, echinoderms. This gives the impression that the first SSF animals, from the late Ediacaran, were basal members of later clades, with the phyla subsequently appearing in a "rapid, but nevertheless resolvable and orderly" fashion, rather than as a "sudden jumble", and thus reveals the true pace of the Cambrian explosion. ## Types of small shelly fossil ### Ediacaran forms The few collections of SSF from the Ediacaran period have a limited range of forms Fully and partially mineralized tubes are common and form a really mixed collection: the structures and compositions of their walls vary widely; specimens have been classified as members of a wide range of clades including foraminiferans, cnidarians, polychaete and pogonophoran annelids, sipunculids and others. Cloudina'''s "tube", which was 8 to 150 millimetres (0.31 to 5.91 in) long, consisted of nested cones that were mineralized with calcium carbonate but left unmineralized gaps between the cones. Sinotubulites built long thin tubes that were more flexible but probably had mineralized ridges. Namapoikia was probably either a sponge or a coral-like organism, and built dwellings up to 1 metre (39 in) across out of calcium carbonate. Spicules are spines or star-like combinations of spines, made of silica, and are thought to be the remains of sponges. Namacalathus, which may have been a cnidarian, closely related to jellyfish and corals, built goblet-like dwellings with stalks up to 30 millimetres (1.2 in) long. This type of shape is known as a "stalked test", since "test" in biology means a roughly spherical shell. ### Cambrian forms In finds from the early Cambrian, tubes and spicules become more abundant and diverse, and new types of SSF appear. Many have been attributed to well-known groups such as molluscs, slug-like halkieriids, brachiopods, echinoderms, and onychophoran-like organisms that may have been close to the ancestors of arthropods. A multitude of problematic tubular fossils, such as anabaritids, Hyolithellus or Torellella characterize the earliest Cambrian Small Shelly Fossil skeletal assemblages. Most of the Cambrian SSF consists of sclerites, fragments that once made up the external armor of early animals, such as Halkieria or "scale worms". Fairly complete and assembled sets, which are rare, are called "scleritomes". In many cases the body shapes of sclerites' creators and the distribution of sclerites on their bodies are not known. The "coat of mail" generally disintegrated once the animal died, and its fragments became dispersed and sometimes fossilized. Reconstructing these elements usually relies upon a fully articulated fossil being found in an exceptionally preserved lagerstätte. Such discoveries may in turn enable paleontologists to make sense of other similar fragments, such as those labelled Maikhanella. Many sclerites are of the type called "coelosclerites", which have a mineralized shell around a space originally filled with organic tissue and which show no evidence of accretionary growth. It is not clear whether coelosclerites evolved independently in different groups of animals or were inherited from a common ancestor. Halkieriids produced scale- or spine-shaped coelosclerites, and complete specimens show that the animals were slug-shaped, and had cap-shaped shell plates at both ends in addition to the sclerites. Chancelloriids produced star-shaped composite coelosclerites. They are known to have been animals that looked like cacti and have been described as internally like sponges, although they may have been more closely related to halkieriids. Some sclerites are mineralized with calcium phosphate rather than calcium carbonate. Tommotiids have a wide range of sclerite shapes and internal structures, and may in fact represent a polyphyletic set of lineages, in other words they may have independently developed phosphatic scleritomes rather than inheriting them from a common ancestor. On the other hand, they may be closely related to the ancestors of modern brachiopods, animals that at first sight look like bivalve molluscs, but brachiopods stand on fleshy stalks and their internal anatomy is different. Some sclerites and small pieces of "debris" are regarded as the remains of echinoderms. Other phosphatic sclerites include tooth-shaped, hook-shaped and plate-like objects, mostly of unknown origin. However it is known that some, including Microdictyon, were produced by lobopods, animals that looked like worms with legs and are thought to be close to the ancestors of arthropods. Univalved and bivalved shells are fairly common. Some cap-shaped shells are thought to be the only sclerite covering their creators, while others are known to be parts of a more complex armor system like Halkieria's. The Helcionellids are thought to be early molluscs with somewhat snail-like shells. Some have horizontal "exhaust pipes" on the concave edges of their shells, and there is debate about whether these pointed forwards or backwards. Hyoliths left small conical shells. These animals may have been molluscs or worm-like Sipuncula. Other molluscan univalved shells have been found in Canada. Some bivalve shells have been found with both parts still joined, and include both brachiopods and bivalve molluscs. Fossils have been found that resemble the opercula ("lids") used by snails to close the openings in their armor, and are attributed to hyoliths, small animals that had conical shells and may have been molluscs or worm-like Sipuncula. Small arthropods with bivalve-like shells have been found in early Cambrian beds in China, and other fossils (Mongolitubulus henrikseni'') represent spines that snapped off bivalved arthropod carapaces. ### Post-Cambrian forms SSFs after the Cambrian start to pick up more recognizable and modern groups. By the mid-Ordovician, the majority of SSFs simply represent larval molluscs, mostly gastropods.

The Boat Race 1923

The 75th Boat Race took place on 24 March 1923. Held annually, the Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames. Cambridge's crew was marginally heavier than Oxford's, the latter included an Olympic silver medallist. Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions, having won the previous year's race. In this year's race, umpired by former rower Frederick I. Pitman, Oxford won by three-quarters of a length (the narrowest margin of victory since 1913) in a time of 20 minutes 54 seconds, securing their first win in five years. The victory took the overall record in the event to 40–34 in their favour. ## Background The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues"). The race was first held in 1829, and since 1845 has taken place on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide. Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions, having won the 1922 race by one length, while Oxford led overall with 39 victories to Cambridge's 34 (excluding the "dead heat" of 1877). Oxford were coached by G. C. Bourne who had rowed for the university in the 1882 and 1883 races, Harcourt Gilbey Gold (Dark Blue president for the 1900 race and four-time Blue) and E. D. Horsfall (who had rowed in the three races prior to the First World War). Cambridge's coaches were Harald Peake (who had participated in the Peace Regattas of 1919), G. L. Thomson and David Alexander Wauchope (who had rowed in the 1895 race). For the fifteenth year the umpire was old Etonian Frederick I. Pitman who rowed for Cambridge in the 1884, 1885 and 1886 races.

According to author and former Oxford rower G. C. Drinkwater, the Oxford trial eights were "of a better average than those of the preceding years" and after they arrived at Putney, the Dark Blue crew "improved rapidly up to the day of the race". Conversely he reported that Cambridge suffered "a dearth of good heavy-wrights" and that the crew "were not of very high class". ## Crews The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 8.875 lb (80.0 kg), 0.375 pounds (0.2 kg) per rower more than their opponents. Oxford's crew included four rowers with Boat Race experience, including P. C. Mallam and Guy Oliver Nickalls who were both participating in their third consecutive event. Nickalls was a silver medallist in the men's eight at the 1920 Summer Olympics. Cambridge's crew included three rowers who had represented the university in the previous year's race: K. N. Craig, B. G. Ivory and David Collet. Two of the participants in the race were registered as non-British: Cambridge's Kane and Mellen were from the United States. ## Race Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station, handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge. Umpire Pitman started the race in calm conditions at 5:10 p.m. Apparently disrupted by the wake of a nearby moored steamer, Oxford's start was poor, allowing Cambridge to lead by a canvas' length after a minute. Despite this, Oxford had drawn level a minute later, to hold a small lead by the time the crews commenced the long bend. By the Mile Post, the Dark Blues held a quarter-length lead and by Hammersmith Bridge had extended this to three-quarters of a length. Spurting at The Doves pub, Oxford began to draw clear of Cambridge. By Chiswick Eyot, Oxford accelerated away from the Light Blues and were two lengths clear before a spurt from Cambridge ahead of Barnes Bridge reduced the lead to a length and a quarter by the time the crews passed below the bridge. With the bend in the river in their favour, and pushing hard, Cambridge slowly gained on the Dark Blues but could not level terms. Oxford passed the finishing post with a lead of three-quarters of a length in a time of 20 minutes 54 seconds. It was their first victory in five years, the narrowest winning margin since the 1913 race and the slowest winning time since the 1920 race. The win took the overall record in the event to 40–34 in their favour.

James the Deacon

7th- and 8th-century missionary to Britain and saint

James the Deacon (died after 671) was a Roman deacon who accompanied Paulinus of York on his mission to Northumbria. He was a member of the Gregorian mission, which went to England to Christianise the Anglo-Saxons from their native Anglo-Saxon paganism. However, when he arrived in England is unknown. After Paulinus left Northumbria, James stayed near Lincoln and continued his missionary efforts, dying sometime after 671, according to the medieval chronicler Bede. ## Life James was presumably an Italian, like the other members of the Gregorian mission. The dates of his birth and his arrival in Britain are unknown. He went with Paulinus to Northumbria accompanying Æthelburh, sister of King Eadbald of Kent, who went to Northumbria to marry King Edwin. Traditionally this event is dated to 625, but the historian D. P. Kirby argues that the mission to Northumbria probably happened before 619. Edwin died in battle at Hatfield fighting against Penda of Mercia and Caedwalla in 633. Edwin had been the main supporter of Paulinus' mission, and with his death, a pagan backlash set in. Paulinus fled to Kent, along with Æthelburg and Edwin and Æthelburg's daughter Eanflæd. James, however, remained behind in Northumbria and continued missionary efforts. James' efforts were centred in Lincoln, at a church that Paulinus had built there, the remains of which may lie under the church of St. Paul-in-the-Bail. This was in the dependent kingdom of Lindsey, where Paulinus had preached before Edwin's death, and it was reconquered by one of Edwin's successors, Oswald of Northumbria in the 640s.

Bede writes that James lived in a village near Catterick, which "bears his name to this day". He reports that James undertook missionary work in the area and lived to a great age. During the reign of King Oswiu of Northumbria, James attended the royal court, for he celebrated Easter with Oswiu's queen, Eanflæd, Edwin's daughter. James and Eanflæd celebrated Easter on the date used by the Roman church, which led to conflicts with Oswiu, who celebrated Easter on the date calculated by the Irish church. These dates did not always agree and were one of the reasons that Oswiu called the Synod of Whitby in 664 to decide which system of Easter calculation his kingdom would use. According to Bede's account of events, James was present at the Synod of Whitby. Bede states that after the synod, and the return of Roman customs, James, as a trained singing master in the Roman and Kentish style, taught many people plainsong or Gregorian chant in the Roman manner. James' date of death is unknown, but Bede implies that he was still alive during Bede's lifetime, which presumably means that he died after Bede's birth, sometime around 671 or 672. This would mean he was at least 70 years old at his death. It has been suggested that James was Bede's informant for the life of Edwin, the works of Paulinus, and perhaps the Synod of Whitby. The historian Frank Stenton calls James "the one heroic figure in the Roman mission". This reflects the fact that many of the Gregorian missionaries had a habit of fleeing when things went wrong. After his death, James was venerated as a saint. His feast day is 17 August (Catholic General Roman Calendar) or 11 October (Church of England). ## See also - List of members of the Gregorian mission

Can't Hold Us Down

2003 single by Christina Aguilera

"Can't Hold Us Down" is a song recorded by American singer Christina Aguilera and rapper Lil' Kim for the former's fourth studio album Stripped (2002). It was released by RCA Records on July 8, 2003, as the fourth single from the album. The track was written and produced by Scott Storch, with additional songwriting by Aguilera and Matt Morris. An R&B and hip hop song with a dancehall outro, "Can't Hold Us Down" criticizes gender-related double standards. "Can't Hold Us Down" received mixed reviews from music critics. It was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 2004 ceremony, but lost to "Whenever I Say Your Name" by Sting and Mary J. Blige. The single peaked at number 12 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and charted within the top ten of record charts of several countries including Australia, Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom. The song was included on the setlists of Aguilera's four major concert tours: Justified and Stripped Tour (2003), the Stripped Tour (2003), Back to Basics Tour (2006–08) and the Liberation Tour (2018). A music video for "Can't Hold Us Down" was directed by David LaChapelle, inspired by the Lower East Side of New York City in the 1980s. The single has been widely recognized as a feminist anthem. ## Background and release American singer Christina Aguilera rose to prominence with the successes of her first three studio albums Christina Aguilera (1999), Mi Reflejo (2000), and My Kind of Christmas (2000). However, she was dissatisfied with being marketed as what her then-manager Steve Kurtz desired rather than Aguilera's own wish. In late 2000, Aguilera hired Irving Azoff as her new manager and announced that her forthcoming album would have more musical and lyrical depth. She named the album Stripped, explaining that the term represented "a new beginning, a re-introduction of [herself] as a new artist". Hip hop producer Scott Storch wrote and produced several tracks for the album, including "Can't Hold Us Down". Additional writing credits for the song were provided by Aguilera and Matt Morris. "Can't Hold Us Down" was serviced to mainstream radio and rhythmic stations in the United States as the fourth single from Stripped by RCA Records on July 8, 2003. The song was distributed as a CD single from September to October 2003 in the United Kingdom, Australia, Germany, and Italy by RCA Records and Sony Music Entertainment. A 12-inch edition of the song was released in the United States on September 9, 2003. ## Music and lyrics "Can't Hold Us Down" is written in the key of E♭ major. Chuck Taylor from Billboard described it as a R&B track, while The New York Times's Kelefa Sanneh characterized it as a hip hop song. Todd Burns writing for Stylus Magazine also noted elements of dancehall towards the end of the track. Aguilera and Kim's vocals on the track, which Taylor described as "faux-R&B", span two octaves, from F₃ to F₅. "Can't Hold Us Down" lyrically discusses feminism; the song criticizes "common" gender-related double standards, in which men are applauded for their sexual behaviors, while women who behave in a similar fashion are disdained. In the book Therapeutic Uses of Rap and Hip-Hop, Susan Hadley and George Yancy discuss that "Can't Hold Us Down" is a hip hop song that "encourages young women to be proud, strong, and empowered to be all that they can be". At the song's first verse, Aguilera sings "Call me a bitch 'cause I speak what's on my mind / Guess it's easier for you to swallow if I sat and smiled"; she later rejects that all women "should be seen, not heard" and encourages them to "shout louder" during the chorus. Aguilera comments on the double standard with the lyrics "The guy gets all the glory the more he can score / While the girl can do the same and yet you call her a whore". Lil' Kim shares a similar sentiment during her verse in the bridge, questioning why a man is able to give a woman "some sex or sex her raw" while "if the girl do the same and then she's a whore". Media outlets speculated that the lyrics of "Can't Hold Us Down" were directed towards rapper Eminem, who referred to Aguilera in his songs "Off the Wall" and "The Real Slim Shady". Spin magazine's Josh Kun wrote that Aguilera suggested Eminem "Must talk so big / To make up for smaller things". According to Kelefa Sanneh writing for The New York Times, Aguilera referred to Eminem in the lyrics "It's sad you only get your fame through controversy". ## Critical reception Upon its release, "Can't Hold Us Down" received mixed reviews from music critics. Chuck Taylor from Billboard criticized the song as a "real waste of time and talent", while Rolling Stone's Jancee Dunn called the track "curiously lifeless". Stylus Magazine's Todd Burns was critical of the song's "bland" lyrics yet appreciated the dancehall elements that emerged at the end of the track. Josh Kun of Spin praised the lyrics for being more confrontational than the works of her contemporary Britney Spears. Jacqueline Hodges writing for BBC Music appreciated Lil's Kim's inclusion on the track for adding "a bit of edge". "Can't Hold Us Down" was nominated for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 2004 Grammy Awards, but lost to "Whenever I Say Your Name" by Sting and Mary J. Blige. On reviewing Aguilera's greatest hits album, Keeps Gettin' Better: A Decade of Hits in 2008, Nick Levine from Digital Spy shared disappointment because the song could not make it to the compilation. The song has been recognized as a feminist anthem. Nicholas Ransbottom from The Charleston Gazette placed the song on his list of the top ten songs of female empowerment in 2013, calling it a "great anthem about women sticking up for themselves in a misogynistic world". Several writers for The A.V. Club included the track on their list of seventeen "well-intended yet misguided feminist anthems" in 2010; they agreed that the song itself was "actually one of her better songs", although they felt that its accompanying music video overshadowed its lyrical "[confrontation of] the double standard of female sexuality" since Aguilera conducted herself in a provocative fashion that conflicted its intended meaning. Yasamin Saeidi from Burton Mail listed "Can't Hold Us Down" on her list of the "top ten empowering lady anthems" in 2013. According to Julianne Shepherd of Portland Mercury "Can't Hold Us Down" is a "valuable and important moment for feminist pop music". ## Commercial performance "Can't Hold Us Down" peaked at number 12 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 3 on the Pop Songs chart. The song peaked at number 4 on the Canadian Singles Chart. In Australia, "Can't Hold Us Down" reached a peak position of number 5 on the Australian Singles Chart, and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for shipments of 35,000 copies in the country. Additionally, it reached number 2 on the New Zealand Singles Chart. It peaked at number 4 on the Hungarian Singles Chart, number 5 on the Irish Singles Chart, and number 6 on the UK Singles Chart. On May 4, 2020, it was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry for shipments of 200,000 copies in the UK. The single charted at numbers 7 and 15 on the Belgian Flanders and Walloon Singles Charts, respectively. On the Danish Singles Chart, "Can't Hold Us Down" peaked at number 8, while its highest position on the German Media Control Charts was number 9. ## Music video The music video for "Can't Hold Us Down" was directed by David LaChapelle, who previously directed the music video for Stripped's lead single "Dirrty" in 2002. It was filmed in a Los Angeles soundstage that depicted a 1980s Lower East Side neighborhood in Manhattan, New York City. LaChapelle described the concept of the video as his "ode to the '80s". In the video, Aguilera wears a pink midriff shirt matching a sleeveless sports jacket and pair of shorts, a purple baseball cap embroidered with the words "Lady C", and white long socks. She is seen with dyed black hair and gold earrings. As the video starts with Aguilera is chatting with a group of women. When Aguilera leaves the conversation, a man suddenly grabs her butt, making Aguilera stop and causing an argument between them. As she continues to sing, the nearby women in the neighborhood join her, while the male dancers are joined and form their respective sides in the street. They performed their own hip hop dance skills against each other. At the bridge, Lil' Kim appears in a bikini and a mesh black coat, and dances in her high heels. The argument ends with Aguilera spraying the men with a water hose, which she holds between her legs and parodies the penis. ### Reception Jason Heller from The A.V. Club criticized LaChappelle for "[swallowing] the message" of the track by following an unrelated concept in the clip. In the book Music Video and the Politics of Representation, Diane Railton and Paul Watson felt that the video exemplified cultural appropriation, specifically noting how Aguilera conducted herself as an African-American woman, and elaborated that it emphasized "a range of issues concerning the representation of gender and race". Andy Cohn from The Fader provided a more favorable review, and opined that Aguilera's "sass" helped to highlight her mixed Irish-Ecuadorian background. The music video for "Can't Hold Us Down" has received scholarly attention as an example of cultural appropriation. Murali Balaji, author of the article "Vixen Resistin': Redefining black womanhood in hip-hop music videos" published in the Journal of Black Studies, noted that "blackness and sexuality" has become characteristics by which African-American women are able to self-define. Consequently, he opined that the inclusion of Lil' Kim in the clip represented an element of "'primitive' sexuality", which Aguilera intended to imitate through her own behavior in the video. In their article "Naughty girls and red-blooded women: Representations of female heterosexuality in music video", published in Feminist Media Studies, Diane Railton and Paul Watson made specific note of the conflicting message raised by the lyrics "all my girls around the world", while "blackness and whiteness are clearly inscribed on and through the bodies of Aguilera and Kim." They suggested that this example detracted the message of the track by emphasizing the problem that "female heterosexuality" is confined to "the very limited range of ways" in mainstream culture, in this instance "gender and race [and] sexual behaviour". ## Live performances Though Lil' Kim and Christina have not performed the song together, Aguilera performed "Can't Hold Us Down" on her Justified and Stripped Tour, which was held in support of Aguilera's Stripped and Justin Timberlake's album Justified (2002). In late 2003, the track was included on the setlist of the Stripped Tour, which acted as the Justified and Stripped Tour's extension and happened without Timberlake's acts. The performance in London was included on the singer's first full-length DVD Stripped Live in the U.K. (2004). On her Back to Basics Tour (2006–08), Aguilera performed excerpts of "Can't Hold Us Down" in a medley with "Still Dirrty".

In July 2021, Aguilera performed the song for two nights at the Hollywood Bowl with Gustavo Dudamel and the Los Angeles Philharmonic. She also sang excerpts from the song during the 47th People's Choice Awards. ## Track listings - CD single 1. "Can't Hold Us Down" – 2. "Can't Hold Us Down" (Sharp Boys Orange Vocal Remix) – 3. "Can't Hold Us Down" (Jacknife Lee Remix) – - 12-inch single 1. "Can't Hold Us Down" (album version) – 4:15 2. "Can't Hold Us Down" (instrumental) – 4:29 3. "Can't Hold Us Down" (a capella) – 4:25 - DVD single 1. "Can't Hold Us Down" (video) – 4:15 2. "Can't Hold Us Down" (album version) – 4:15 3. "Beautiful" (Brother Brown Divine Remix) – 9:07 4. "Impossible" (Performance Snippet) – 1:00 5. "Get Mine, Get Yours" (Performance Snippet) – 1:00 ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from "Can't Hold Us Down" CD liner notes Studios - Mixed at the Record Plant, Los Angeles, CA - Recorded at the Enterprise Studios, Burbank, CA, and Conway Studios, Hollywood Personnel - Writing – Christina Aguilera, Scott Storch, Matt Morris - Producing – Scott Storch - Vocals arranging – Christina Aguilera - Vocals producing – Christina Aguilera, E. Dawk - Mixing – Tony Maserati \* Assistant mixing – Anthony Kilhoffer - Recording – Wassim Zreik, Oscar Ramirez - Assistant Engineering – Aaron Leply, John Morichai, Kevin Szymanski, Scott Whitting - Drums – Kameron Houff - Background vocals – Crystal Drummer. Charlean Hines, Erica King, Robinson, Toya Smith - Lil' Kim appear courtesy of Queen Bee/Atlantic Recording Corporation ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history

United States v. More

United States v. More, 7 U.S. (3 Cranch) 159 (1805), was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court held that it had no jurisdiction to hear appeals from criminal cases in the circuit courts by writs of error. Relying on the Exceptions Clause, More held that Congress's enumerated grants of appellate jurisdiction to the Court operated as an exercise of Congress's power to eliminate all other forms of appellate jurisdiction. The second of forty-one criminal cases heard by the Marshall Court, More ensured that the Court's criminal jurisprudence would be limited to writs of error from the state (and later, territorial) courts, original habeas petitions and writs of error from habeas petitions in the circuit courts, and certificates of division and mandamus from the circuit courts. Congress did not grant the Court jurisdiction to hear writs of error from the circuit courts in criminal cases until 1889, for capital crimes, and 1891, for other "infamous" crimes. The Judicial Code of 1911 abolished the circuit courts, transferred the trial of crimes to the district courts, and extended the Court's appellate jurisdiction to all crimes. But, these statutory grants were construed not to permit writs of error filed by the prosecution, as in More. More arose from the same Federalist/Jeffersonian political dispute over the judiciary that gave rise to Marbury v. Madison (1803) and Stuart v. Laird (1803). Benjamin More, a justice of the peace in the District of Columbia, argued that the repeal of statutory provisions authorizing compensation for his office violated the salary-protection guarantees for federal judges in Article Three of the United States Constitution. Below, a divided panel of the United States Circuit Court of the District of Columbia had sided with More, interpreted the repeal act prospectively, and sustained his demurrer to the criminal indictment for the common law crime of exacting illegal fees under color of office. ## Background ### United States presidential election, 1800 The Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party comprised the First Party System in the United States. Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson defeated Federalist John Adams in the 1800 presidential election. Jefferson's party also took control of Congress in the House and Senate elections. After the elections, the lame duck Federalist administration passed the Judiciary Act of 1801 (the "Midnight Judges Act"), creating 16 new circuit judgeships to preside in the circuit courts (as opposed to the district judges and the Supreme Court justices riding circuit). Along with the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801 (the "Organic Act"), the statutes created many judicial vacancies, and Adams filled nearly all of these judgeships on his last day in office. Marshall, in his dual role as Adams' Secretary of State, failed to deliver some of these commissions before leaving office. ### Companion cases Immediately after his inauguration, Jefferson instructed his Secretary of State, James Madison, to stop delivery on all outstanding commissions. Further, an act of March 8, 1802 abolished the circuit court judgeships created by the Midnight Judges Act (15 of which had already been filled), restoring the system created under the 1789 and 1793 acts. Federalists viewed this as unconstitutional and looked to the then-pending case of Marbury v. Madison—concerning a confirmed D.C. justice of the peace who had not received his commission—as a test case for the constitutionality of the repeal. The next session of the Supreme Court was in June, one month before the repeal would take effect. But, the Judiciary Act of 1802 delayed the Court's next session until February 1803, and made other changes to the structure of the judicial system. More broadly, Jefferson removed 146 of 316 (46%) incumbent, second-level, appointed federal officials, including 13 U.S. Attorneys and 18 U.S. Marshals. Jefferson also displaced two district judges—Ray Greene and Jacob Read—citing technical flaws in their appointments. Further, District Judge John Pickering was impeached and removed from office on a party-line vote. The following day, the House impeached Justice Samuel Chase, but six Democratic-Republicans crossed party lines in the Senate to prevent his conviction by a single vote. In Marbury, the Supreme Court held that Madison's failure to deliver the commission to Marbury was illegal, but did not grant Marbury a writ of mandamus on the ground that § 13 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional insofar as it authorized the Court to issue such writs under its original jurisdiction. Stuart v. Laird—involving a civil judgment rendered by a circuit court constituted under the Midnight Judges Act and enforced by a circuit court constituted under the Judiciary Act of 1802—challenged the constitutionality both of abolishing the circuit judgeships and of requiring the Supreme Court justices to ride circuit. In a brief opinion, the Court rejected both challenges. ### District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801 Both the United States Circuit Court of the District of Columbia and the D.C. justices of the peace were created on February 27, 1801 by the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801. Unlike its better-known predecessor, the Midnight Judges Act, the Organic Act survived repeal by the Jeffersonian Congress. #### D.C. justices of the peace The D.C. justices of the peace were appointed by the President, in a number at his discretion, and confirmed by the Senate for five-year terms. A D.C. justice of the peace had jurisdiction over "all matters, civil and criminal, and in whatever relates to the conservation of the peace" within their county. The District of Columbia was divided into two counties: Washington County, east of the Potomac River, and Alexandria County, west of the Potomac. Justices of the peace were authorized to "inflict whipping, imprisonment, and fine as high as 500 pounds of tobacco" and to hear civil cases with an amount in controversy up to \$20. One year after More, in Ex parte Burford (1806), the Marshall Court's first original habeas case, the Court granted a writ of habeas corpus to a prisoner subjected to preventive detention by the D.C. justices of the peace. As to compensation, the Organic Act provided that justices of the peace "shall be entitled to receive for their services the fees allowed for like services by the laws herein before adopted and continued, in the eastern part of said district." A March 3, 1801 amendment to the Organic Act provided that: "[T]he magistrates, to be appointed for the said district, shall be and they are hereby constituted a board of commissioners within their respective counties, and shall possess and exercise the same powers, perform the same duties, receive the same fees and emoulments [sic?], as the levy courts or commissioners of county for the state of Maryland possess, perform and receive . . . ." On March 4, 1801, President John Adams's last day in office, Adams nominated and the Senate confirmed 20 D.C. justices of the peace for Washington County and 19 for Alexandria County. On March 16, President Thomas Jefferson issued 15 commissions to justices of the peace in Washington County, including 13 nominated by Adams, and 15 in Alexandria County, including 11 nominated by Adams; the remainder were of his own choosing. (Jefferson's list, submitted to the Senate on January 6, 1802, erroneously contained the name of John Laird, a confirmed Adams appointed who had not received a commission from Jefferson, instead of More.) The plaintiffs in Marbury v. Madison (1803)—William Marbury, Dennis Ramsay, Robert Townsend Hooe, and William Harper—were among the confirmed Adams nominees not commissioned. On May 3, 1802, Congress eliminated both the fees for justice of the peace services, except travel expenses, authorized by the Organic Act and fees associated with the justices of the peace's role on the board of commissioners. These two sources represented the entirety of their compensation. #### D.C. circuit court The three-judge United States Circuit Court of the District of Columbia was populated by its own judges, rather than by a mixture of district judges and circuit riding Supreme Court justices like the other circuit courts. The D.C. circuit court had jurisdiction over crimes committed within the district. With regard to appeals from the D.C. circuit court, the Organic Act provided: [A]ny final judgment, order or decree in said circuit court, wherein the matter in dispute, exclusive of costs, shall exceed the value of one hundred dollars, may be re-examined and reversed or affirmed in the supreme court of the United States, by writ of error or appeal, which shall be prosecuted in the same manner, under the same regulations, and the same proceedings shall be had therein, as is or shall be provided in the case of writs of error on judgments, or appeals upon orders or decrees, rendered in the circuit court of the United States. The provision to which the Organic Act referred, that for writs of error from the circuit courts to the Supreme Court in the Judiciary Act of 1789, provided: And upon a like process [as a writ of error from the district court to the circuit court], may final judgments and decrees in civil actions, and suits in equity in a circuit court, brought there by original process, or removed there from courts of the several States, or removed there by appeal from a district court where the matter in dispute exceeds the sum or value of two thousand dollars, exclusive of costs, be re-examined and reversed or affirmed in the Supreme Court, the citation being in such case signed by a judge of such circuit court, or justice of the Supreme Court, and the adverse party having at least thirty days’ notice. Unlike the appellate provision of the Judiciary Act of 1789, the appellate provision of the act of February 27, 1801 was not explicitly limited to civil cases (except insofar as it incorporated the former by reference). Further, because the D.C. circuit court was not constituted within the framework of the Judiciary Act of 1802, appeals to the Supreme Court by way of certificates of division could not issue. After More, the Marshall Court heard six appeals from the D.C. circuit court via original habeas. ### Criminal appeals The availability of criminal appeals to the Supreme Court by means of writs of error from the circuit courts was perhaps an open question prior to More. In England, the writ of error was available as of right in misdemeanor cases, but, in felony cases, required the express consent of the prosecutor. The legislative history of the Judiciary Act of 1789 reveals little consideration of criminal appeals. Caleb Strong, a Senator at the time of its drafting, described § 22 of that act as follows: "Writs of Error from the Circuit to the Supr. Court in all Causes not criminal of which the Circuit Court has original Cognizance and the Matter in Dispute does not exceed 2000 Dolrs." Senator (and future Supreme Court justice) William Paterson noticed the lack of provision for criminal appeals in preliminary notes and a draft outline of a speech he gave on June 23, 1789. According to Rossman, Paterson may have viewed the inability of the government to appeal (to a court in the nation's capitol) as a "protection for ordinary citizens." The issue of criminal appeals was not mentioned in the House debates. Shortly after the Judiciary Act of 1789 took effect, Attorney General Edmund Randolph proposed, in a report to the House of Representatives, a criminal appeal similar to that in England: a writ of error as of right in non-capital cases, and no writs of error in capital cases. Randolph's report was referred to the Committee of the Whole, which took no action. Prior to Marshall's tenure, the Supreme Court had heard only two criminal cases—both by prerogative writ. First, in United States v. Hamilton (1795), the Court granted bail to a capital defendant—as it was authorized to do by § 33 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 and § 4 of the Judiciary Act of 1793. The greater portion of the decision was dedicated to the Court's refusal to order the case tried by a special circuit court, as was provided for by § 3 of the Judiciary Act of 1793. In Ex parte Bollman (1807), the Court explained that its jurisdiction in Hamilton could only have been exercised via original habeas under § 14 of the Judiciary Act of 1789. Second, in United States v. Lawrence (1795), the Court declined to issue a writ of mandamus to compel a district judge to order the arrest of a deserter of the French navy. In one criminal trial, United States v. Callender (C.C.D. Va. 1800), Justice Samuel Chase (who expressed no dissent in More) wrote: [I]f I am not right, it is an error in judgment, and you can state the proceedings on the record so as to show any error, and I shall be the first man to grant you the benefit a new trial by granting you a writ of error in the supreme court. In United States v. Simms (1803), the Court heard a writ of error, brought by the United States, on the merits from a criminal case in the D.C. circuit court. Simms was the first such case, and after Simms, the next criminal writ of error heard by the Court was More. U.S. Attorney for the District of Columbia John T. Mason argued both Simms and More. ## Indictments Benjamin More was one of two of D.C. justices of peace in Alexandria County of Jefferson's own choosing, receiving an interim appointment. Jefferson proceeded to nominate More for a full five-year term, and the Senate confirmed More on April 27, 1802. According to O'Fallon, "More appears to have been a man of moderate Jeffersonian sentiments and attachments, who nonetheless joined in a Federalist defense of judicial independence." He was "an unlikely character for the lead role in a Federalist attack on Jeffersonian principles." O'Fallon hypothesizes that More's case was intended as a test case by all parties involved. "More has all the markings of a trumped-up case, manufactured to present the Supreme Court with the issues of principle raised by the repeal, without the embarrassment of direct conflict with the Executive." More was indicted by the Grand Inquest for the County of Washington, during its July term, for taking unlawful fees for his services as a justice of the peace. The indictment charged More with having taken the fees on July 17 and 24. A capias, returnable at the December 1802 term, was issued. The members of the Inquest included five other D.C. justices of the peace: Daniel Carrol, Daniel Reintzell, Joseph Sprigg Belt, Thomas Corcoran, and Anthony Reintzell. Another member of the Inquest was Thomas Beall, a confirmed Adams appointee who had not received a commission from Jefferson. More was indicted a second time at the December term for conduct on December 10, 1802. More demured, and the case was continued until the July 1803 term. Only the latter indictment was mentioned in the United States Reports. More's demurrer was opposed by U.S. Attorney Mason, a Jefferson appointee. Mason argued that the D.C. justices of the peace were Article I judges established pursuant to Congress's enumerated power over the District of Columbia in Article One of the United States Constitution. Article One provides that Congress shall have power "[t]o exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States." Mason advanced a broad view that Congress's power over the District of Columbia was not limited any other constitutional provision. In support of his argument that the justices of the peace were not Article III judges, Mason argued that their jurisdiction was broader than that permitted by Article III. According to O'Fallon, there were additional indicia—not cited by either party—that the justices of the peace were not Article III judges. For example, the Organic Act authorized the President to appoint as many justices of the peace as he "shall from time to time think expedient." This was a broad delegation to the President of Congress's power "[t]o constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court."

More was not indicted under any criminal statue passed by Congress. Rather, his was "an indictment at common law . . . for having, under colour of his office, exacted and taken an illegal fee." The Organic Act provided that the laws of Maryland and Virginia would continue in force in the portions of the district ceded from those states. Since More was a justice of the peace for Alexandria County, the common law of Virginia would have applied. ## Dismissal The D.C. circuit court judges hearing the demurrer were Chief Judge William Kilty and assistant judges William Cranch and James Markham Marshall (Chief Justice John Marshall's brother). Cranch and Marshall were Adams appointees; Kilty was a Jefferson appointee. Cranch, also the reporter of decisions for the Supreme Court, included the D.C. circuit court opinions in the margin of his report of the Supreme Court's decision in More. ### Majority Cranch, joined by Marshall, sustained More's demurrer based on the Compensation Clause of Article Three of the United States Constitution. That clause provides: "The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts . . . shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services a Compensation which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office." Cranch held that Congress's power over the federal district was limited by the remainder of the Constitution. In response to Mason's argument for unfettered power, Cranch replied: "[T]his is a doctrine to which I can never assent. Can it be said, that congress may pass a bill of attainder for the district of Columbia? That congress may pass laws ex post facto in the district, or order soldiers to be quartered upon us in a time of peace, or make our ports free ports of entry, or lay duties upon our exports, or take away the right of trial by jury, in criminal prosecutions?" Cranch held that More was an Article III judge sitting on a "Tribunal inferior to the supreme Court." In response to the argument that his jurisdiction exceeded Article Three, Cranch replied that: "The causes of which they have cognizance, are causes arising under the laws of the United States, and, therefore, the power of trying them, is part of the judicial power . . . ." In response to the argument that the fees would never have been paid at a "time Stated," Cranch replied that: "[I]t may, perhaps, be a compliance with the clause of the constitution, which requires that it shall be receivable at stated times, to say that it shall be paid when the service is rendered. And, we are rather to incline to this construction, than to suppose the command of the constitution to have been disobeyed." Further, Cranch dodged the question of whether a five-year term was consistent with the Good Behavior Clause. "It is unnecessary in this cause to decide the question, whether, as such, he holds his office during good behaviour . . . ." Cranch stopped short of declaring the statute unconstitutional. He merely interpreted it as prospective, holding that it "cannot affect that justice of the peace during his continuance in office; whatever effect it may have upon those justices who have been appointed to office since the passing of the act." Contemporary media accounts reported that the circuit court had held that fee-elimination provision of the May 23, 1802 act unconstitutional, rather than interpreting it as prospective. According to O'Fallon, this is evidence that Cranch's published opinion (as reported by himself) may have differed from his oral opinion. ### Dissent Chief Judge Kilty's dissent noted the recent confirmation of the principle of judicial review in Marbury v. Madison. "According to the course which has been pursued by the supreme court, it appears unnecessary to say any thing about the power of a court to examine into the constitutionality of a law . . . ." Instead, Kilty proceeded by "taking the power for granted." But, Kilty noted, "[i]n testing an act of the legislature by the constitution, nothing less than the positive provisions of the latter can be resorted to . . . ." Kilty briefly argued that More was not an Article III judge and that the fees in question were not compensation received at "times Stated." But, the bulk of Kilty's dissent was devoted to the argument that Congress's power over the federal district was broad. He argued that "the district of Columbia, though belonging to the United States, and within their compass, is not, like a state, a component part, and that the provisions of the constitution, which are applicable particularly to the relative situation of the United States and the several states, are not applicable to this district." "[W]hen congress, in exercising exclusive legislation over this territory, enact laws to give or to take away the fees of the justices of the peace, such laws cannot be tested by a provision in the constitution, evidently applicable to the judicial power of the whole United States, and containing restrictions which cannot, in their nature, affect the situation of the justices, or the nature of the compensation." Yet, Kilty did not fully accept Mason's argument that Congress's power over the district was unlimited. He argued that the word "exclusive" meant only "free from the power exercised by the several states" and that "the legislative power to be exercised by congress may still be subject to the general restraints contained in the constitution." He admitted that, even within the federal district, Congress was restrained from suspending the writ of habeas corpus, unless in the cases allowed; from passing (within and for the district) a bill of attainder, or ex post facto law; from laying therein a capitation tax; from granting therein any title of nobility; from making therein a law respecting the establishment of religion, or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; and from quartering soldiers therein, contrary to the third amendment. ## Oral argument Mason argued the appeal of the United States before the Supreme Court. Samuel Jones argued for More. ### Merits Jones cited Marbury v. Madison for the proposition that a D.C. justice of the peace does not serve merely at the pleasure of the president. According to O'Fallon, due to the President's power to remove most appointees from office, this could only have been a reference to the Good Behavior Clause of Article Three. That clause provides that "Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behavior." Mason countered that Marbury only held that justices of the peace were entitled to hold their offices for five years of good behavior. Mason again pressed his argument that Congress's power of the federal district was unlimited: The constitution does not apply to this case. The constitution is a compact between the people of the United States in their individual capacity, and the states in their political capacity. Unfortunately for the citizens of Columbia, they are not in either of these capacities. . . . Congress are under no controul in legislating for the district of Columbia. Their power, in this respect, is unlimited. Marson also argued that More was not an Article III judge because "the judicial power exercised in the district of Columbia, extends to other cases [than those enumerated in Article III], and, therefore, is not the judicial power of the United States." "It is a power derived from the power given to congress to legislate exclusively in all cases whatsoever over the district." ### Jurisdiction On February 13, sua sponte, Chief Justice Marshall raised his doubts to the Court's jurisdiction to entertain criminal appeals. Argument on this question commenced on February 22. Mason argued in favor of jurisdiction. No argument from More's counsel on this issue was reported, "although it was typical for the reporter to summarize the arguments on both sides." Mason acknowledged that, under Clarke v. Bazadone (1803), the Supreme Court's appellate jurisdiction required an affirmative grant by Congress. Mason argued that such a grant was found in § 14 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 (known as the All Writs Act), which authorized the Supreme Court to "issue writs of scire facias, habeas corpus, and all other writs, not specially provided for by statute, which may be necessary for the exercise of [its] jurisdiction, and agreeable to the principles and usages of law." Mason's argument based on the All Writs Act was not necessarily limited to the D.C. circuit court. Said Mason: There is no reason why the writ of error should be confined to civil cases. A man's life, his liberty, and his good name, are as dear to him as his property; and inferior courts are as liable to err in one case as in the other. There is nothing in the nature of the cases which should make a difference; nor is it a novel doctrine that a writ of error should lie in a criminal case. They have been frequent in that country from which we have drawn almost all our forms of judicial proceedings. Chief Justice Marshall replied that, if Congress had made no provision for appeals of any kind to the Supreme Court, "your argument would be irresistible." But, Marshall countered, under the Exceptions Clause, when Congress "has said in what cases a writ of error or appeal shall lie, an exception of all other cases is implied." The Exceptions Clause provides that "[i]n all [cases other than those in which the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction], the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make." Mason replied, first, that the Exceptions Clause did not apply to the federal district, and second, that Organic Act differed from the Judiciary Act of 1789 by referring to "any final judgment, order, or decree," rather than explicitly limiting appeals to "civil cases." Mason suggested that the references to the amount in controversy could refer to criminal fines as well as civil judgments. Finally, Mason pointed out that, just two years earlier, in United States v. Simms (1803), the Court had reached the merits in a criminal appeal from the same court. Mason himself had argued Simms, and Marshall himself had authored the opinion. In response to the last point, Marshall replied that: "No question was made, in that case, as to the jurisdiction. It passed sub silentio, and the court does not consider itself as bound by that case." Mason retorted: "But the traverser [Simms] had able counsel, who did not think proper to make the objection." ## Opinion On March 2, 1805, writing for a unanimous Court, Chief Justice John Marshall dismissed the writ of error for want of jurisdiction. Justice Johnson was absent from the opinion announcement. Marshall held that the partial statutory grant of appellate jurisdiction to the Court operated as an exercise of Congress's power under the Exceptions Clause to limit the jurisdiction of the Court in all other cases. Marshall noted that "it has never been supposed, that a decision of a circuit court could be reviewed, unless the matter in dispute should exceed the value of 2,000 dollars." Thus, Marshall interpreted the \$2000 amount in controversy requirement of § 22 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 as applying to the entire section, rather than only the last antecedent. Marshall rejected the argument that the Organic Act authorized criminal appellate jurisdiction. He interpreted the grant, in light of its \$100 amount in controversy requirement, as "confined to civil cases." "The words, 'matter in dispute,' seem appropriated to civil cases, where the subject in contest has a value beyond the sum mentioned in the act. But, in criminal cases, the question is the guilt or innocence of the accused. And although he may be fined upwards of 100 dollars, yet that is, in the eye of the law, a punishment for the offence committed, and not the particular object of the suit." A final footnote refers to United States v. La Vengeance (1796), "where it seems to be admitted, that in criminal cases the judgment of the inferior court is final." La Vengeance was an admiralty libel case. There, at oral argument, Attorney General Charles Lee argued, in the alternative, that the case was a "criminal cause" and therefore "should never have been removed to the Circuit Court, the judgment of the District Court being final in criminal causes." The Court summarily rejected Lee's argument: "we are unanimously of opinion, that it is a civil cause: It is a process of the nature of a libel in rem; and does not, in any degree, touch the persons of the offender." ## Aftermath After More, no writs of error issued from federal criminal trials in the circuit courts for 84 years. In 1889, Congress created a right of appeal by writ of error in capital cases. In 1891, the Judiciary Act of 1891 (the "Evarts Act") extended this right to other serious crimes. The Judicial Code of 1911 abolished the circuit courts and placed original jurisdiction for the trial of all federal crimes in the district courts. Appeal to the courts of appeals by writs of error was provided for all "final decisions," in civil and criminal cases alike. Appeals to the Supreme Court were permitted directly from the district courts by writ of error, from the courts of appeals on certified questions, and by petition for certiorari. Without reported discussion of the jurisdictional issue, the Court did hear writs of error from criminal cases removed to the circuit courts. (Recall that the Judiciary Act of 1789 explicitly authorized appeals in removal cases.) The Supreme Court had other, limited sources of appellate jurisdiction in criminal cases. The Court could hear criminal appeals from the state courts by writ of error, as authorized by the Judiciary Act of 1789. The Court could hear federal criminal appeals by certificate of division, as authorized by the Judiciary Act of 1802, original habeas petition, as authorized by the Judiciary Act of 1789, and mandamus, as authorized by the same act. Between 1867 and 1868, and after 1885, the Court had jurisdiction to hear writs of error from habeas petitions (a civil action) in the circuit courts. Beginning in 1850, the Court also entertained such appeals from the territorial courts. Attempts to utilize other prerogative writs as sources of jurisdiction were unsuccessful. ## Analysis More had received far less scholarly attention than Marbury. "The timing and the ground of decision may explain why historians of the battle over repeal have ignored More." "In a doctrinal summary of constitutional law, More stands only for the proposition that an affirmative grant of appellate jurisdiction by Congress carries with it an implicit negative of jurisdiction within the constitutional description but not mentioned in the grant." According to O'Fallon, "More may have been part of a Federalist strategy to get the Court to intervene in the political struggle over the judiciary." Given that Justice Samuel Chase was acquitted by the Senate in his impeachment case on March 1, 1805, the day before the release of the More decision, "[o]ne can imagine John Marshall passing a sigh of relief as he handed down the judgment in More." "[T]he dismissal of More marked the end of Federalist efforts to obtain a Supreme Court ruling, directly or by implication, that the repeal of the 1801 Judiciary Act was unconstitutional. "More is of a piece with Marbury and Stuart v. Laird in its avoidance of an opportunity for an open clash with political critics of the courts. It further shares with Marbury the characteristic of declining an exercise of jurisdiction that the Court found to be unwarranted." O'Fallon argues: Rather than seize the opportunity presented by More, John Marshall ducked. . . . Without questioning the soundness or propriety of Marshall's decision, it is worth noting that the Court had previously entertained criminal appeals from the district without raising any such jurisdictional problem. One might reasonably wonder if the Court wanted to avoid a decision on the merits. By March of 1805, the repeal question had lost its political immediacy, and the impeachment strategy of the Jeffersonians had faltered. There was little to be gained in reopening the sores of the repeal battle. And Marshall may have felt that he had had his say on the critical matters of principle with his opinion in Marbury.

Malvern railway station, Melbourne

Railway station in Melbourne, Australia

Malvern railway station is a commuter railway station that is part of the Melbourne railway network in Victoria, Australia. The station is located on the southern border of Malvern, a suburb of Melbourne, and was opened on 7 May 1879. The station complex consists of an island platform and two side platforms all accessed by a pedestrian bridge. There are two red brick Edwardian-era station buildings, constructed in 1914 as ticketing and staff offices. The entire complex is listed on the Victorian Heritage Register because of its architectural significance and its role in the development of Malvern as a significant metropolitan centre. The station is only partially accessible because of multiple steep access ramps. Malvern railway station is served by the Frankston line, with limited services on the Pakenham and Cranbourne lines. The station also connects to route 16 and 64 tram services. The journey to Flinders Street railway station is approximately 8.5 km (5.3 mi) and takes 15 minutes. ## Description Malvern railway station is on the boundary of Malvern and Caulfield North, suburbs of Melbourne, Victoria. East of the station is Glenferrie Road, and south of the station is Dandenong Road. The station is located nearby to the Glenferrie Road shopping precinct, Malvern Central Shopping Centre, and the Malvern Collective apartments. The station is owned by VicTrack, a state government agency, and is operated by Metro Trains. The station is 8.5 km (5.3 mi), or a 15-minute train journey, from Flinders Street station. The adjacent stations are Armadale station up towards Melbourne and Caulfield station down towards Dandenong or Frankston. The station consists of a single island platform and two side platforms. The platforms are of standard design for the Melbourne commuter rail network, with an asphalt surface and concrete edges. The platforms are approximately 160 metres (524.93 ft) long, enough for a Metro Trains 7-car High Capacity Metro Train (HCMT). The station features a pedestrian bridge, accessed from the centre of the platforms by a ramp. The station has two station buildings that were former ticketing offices and are now used as staff facilities. Distinct Edwardian architectural features of the two red brick station buildings include tiled hip roof with terracotta finials, tall chimneys with terracotta pots, ornate parapets, cement banding, and stucco walls. These features are similar to those of other stations constructed in eastern Melbourne in the same period, including the nearby stations Hawksburn, Toorak, and Armadale. The entire complex is listed on the Victorian Heritage Register because of its architectural significance and its role in the development of Malvern as a significant metropolitan centre. There is no dedicated car-parking available at the station, instead there are a limited number of on-street parking spaces for travellers to use. The station is listed as an "assisted access" station on the Metro Trains website, as the access ramp is too steep and would require assistance for wheelchair customers to traverse. ## History Malvern station is situated on Crown Allotment 59, purchased in 1854 by Thomas Fulton, Lauchlan Mackinnon, and Frederick Sargood for a sum of £310. The land was promptly divided into smaller plots, and by 1865, property at the intersection of Glenferrie Road and Dandenong Road had been purchased by William Chandler, a market gardener. In 1874, the Secretary of the Malvern Shire, Smith Ellis, lobbied the Commissioner of Roads and Railways, arguing for the proposed Gippsland Railway to be routed through Malvern. He claimed that the route would capture a substantial portion of the daily commuter traffic that was currently using other means of transport to and from the city. In 1877, the State Government obtained the assets of the Melbourne and Hobson's Bay United Railway Company. A decision was reached to extend the railway line from South Yarra through Malvern, Caulfield, and Oakleigh. This extension would link the suburban railway network with the government's country service, providing access to Gippsland. During the surveying of the Malvern section, the railway line's path crossed William Chandler's property, including his house and land. Consequently, in 1878, the Board of Land and Works acquired his property for the purpose of constructing the railway. Malvern railway station was opened on 7 May 1879, with the station consisting of a single platform and track for commuter and freight service. Like the suburb itself, the station was named after the Malvern Hill Estate. The housing lots within the estate were sold by barrister Charles Skinner in 1856, who named the estate after the Malvern Hills in Herefordshire, England. The first station buildings were opened on the site between 1881 and 1883 to coincide with the duplication of track between the city and Oakleigh. In 1888, postal authorities established an office at the station due to the high volume of mail passing through the station. The current station was constructed in 1914. It was designed by James Hardy, chief architect for the Department of Way and Works, to provide improved and additional facilities to what had become an increasingly busy and important location on the train network. The station rebuild was part of level crossing removal works that removed all level crossings, rebuilt all stations, and quadruplicated the corridor between South Yarra and Caulfield by 1914. Whilst these removals did bring positive safety benefits to the community, reports have highlighted that these works incidentally made pedestrian conditions worse, due to limited pedestrian crossings around the station and difficult transfers with tram services. Later in 1922, the line was electrified using 1500 V DC overhead wires, with three-position signalling also introduced. In 1924, gas lighting at the station was replaced with electric lights. In 1988, the former electrified goods yard were removed. This platform had been used for cargo and postal deliveries during its operational life, however was decommissioned after the reduction in use. The station underwent minor upgrades with the installation of new shelters on Platform 1 in the 2010s. In September 2021, High Capacity Metro Trains used on the Pakenham and Cranbourne lines were certified to stop at platforms 3 and 4 only, due to the Frankston line not receiving approval for their use. In 2015, Stonnington Council rezoned land surrounding the station to allow for higher density residential and commercial development. Following this decision, Kokoda Property acquired multiple parcels of land immediately south of the station to construct two apartment towers. The \$260 million development, known as the Malvern Collective, consists of two towers, one with 73 apartments and the other with 192. The project also includes the construction of a small supermarket, offices, and other retail spaces. The project is currently under construction and set to be complete by 2024. ## Incidents Numerous incidents have occurred at the station since its opening in 1879. In the period from 1879 to 1888, there were three fatal accidents at the station. A fire occurred at the joinery works adjacent to the station in 1911, causing about £2000 worth of property. Another four fatalities at the station occurred between 1918 and 1940. In 1935, a cow escaped from its herd near Dandenong and Orrong roads in Armadale and made its way to the platforms at Malvern station. The cow injured a women who was knocked over in the process, with the cow eventually being caught in a nearby garage. In September 1936, a 47-year-old woman fell from the platform moments before a train arrived and flung herself between the rails. The train's first carriage passed over the spot where she lay, with only about 18 inches of clearance. Despite the ordeal, she only suffered minor facial abrasions and shock.

In June 2014, a 17 year old Beaumaris male was fatally injured when he leaned out of a moving train 200 m from Malvern station. The teenager, accompanied by two others, had broken into the back carriage of the Frankston-bound train before leaning outside. The teenager's head struck a fixed object, and he later died from his injuries. ## Platforms and services The station is currently served by Pakenham, Cranbourne, and Frankston line trains—all on the metropolitan railway network. The Pakenham line runs between Pakenham station and Flinders Street station via the City Loop. The Cranbourne line also follows a similar route, joining the Pakenham line at Dandenong before continuing to the city. Due to low patronage, the Cranbourne and Pakenham lines only stop at the station during off-peak periods. The Frankston line runs from Frankston station south east of Melbourne, joining the Cranbourne and Pakenham lines at Caulfield station before continuing onto the Werribee or Williamstown lines via Flinders Street station. From 2025, the Pakenham and Cranbourne lines will run via the Metro Tunnel before continuing onto the Sunbury line to Sunbury. Platform 1: - all stations and limited stop services to Flinders Street, Werribee and Williamstown Platform 2: - all stations and limited express services to Frankston Platform 3: - off-peak express services to Flinders Street - off-peak express services to Flinders Street Platform 4: - off-peak all stations services to Pakenham - off-peak all stations services to Cranbourne From 2025, the Pakenham and Cranbourne lines will be connected to the Sunbury line via the Metro Tunnel. From 2029, the lines will also be connected to the Melbourne Airport rail link. ## Transport links Malvern station has two tram connections with no bus connections. The route 16 tram service operates from nearby Glenferrie Road up towards the city and down towards Kew. The route 64 tram service operates from nearby Dandenong Road up towards the city and down towards East Brighton. The station has an accessible platform tram stop for routes 16 and 64 on adjacent Dandenong road. The Route 16 stop outside the station is not wheelchair accessible, instead, this stop is operated through an on-street tram stop. Malvern station also has train replacement bus stops located adjacent to the station. Tram connections: - : Melbourne University – Kew - : Melbourne University – East Brighton

Fly Like a Bird

2006 promotional single by Mariah Carey

"Fly Like a Bird" is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey, released on March 13, 2006, by Island Records as a single from her tenth studio album, The Emancipation of Mimi (2005). Written and produced by Carey and James "Big Jim" Wright, the song is influenced by Gospel, soul, and R&B music genres. Its arrangement is built on piano chords and guitar melodies, and features Carey's pastor Clarence Keaton, who recites two Biblical verses during the song's introduction and bridge. Carey described "Fly Like a Bird" as the most personal and religious track from The Emancipation of Mimi, with its lyrics featuring a veritable prayer to God: "Fly like a bird, take to the sky, I need you now Lord, carry me high!". At the time of its release, "Fly Like a Bird" received acclaim from music critics. While many praised Carey's strong vocal performance throughout its climax, many pinpointed on its lyrical content and compared it to Carey's debut song, "Vision of Love". Released as the final single from its parent album, the song was only sent to adult contemporary and gospel radio stations, during the same time "Say Somethin'" was commissioned to mainstream channels. Carey performed the song on several high-profile industry events, including the 48th annual Grammy Awards, the Shelter from the Storm: A Concert for the Gulf Coast concert charity benefit, and Idol Gives Back. Additionally, Carey included the song on the set-lists for all her succeeding tours since its release, up to the Caution World Tour. ## Background and recording Following record-breaking success throughout the 1990s, Carey departed from Columbia Records after the release of Rainbow (1999). Almost a year later, she signed an unprecedented \$100 million five-album record contract with Virgin Records, and began work on a film and soundtrack project titled Glitter. Prior to its release on September 11, 2001, Carey suffered an "emotional and physical breakdown", and was subsequently hospitalized over a period of several weeks. Glitter became a box-office bomb, earning less than eight million dollars, and receiving scathing reviews. The soundtrack, while faring slightly better, failed to reach the critical or commercial heights of Carey's previous releases, and eventually lead to the annulment of her record contract with Virgin. Following the events, as well as the release of Carey's succeeding album, Charmbracelet (2002), she began working on new material for The Emancipation of Mimi (2005). Aside from the dance-influenced tracks and the ballads, Carey created a concept, in which a song's lyrics would reach out to God. She created the song's choral lyrics, melody and main instrumentation, before calling James "Big Jim" Wright for a collaboration. During their meeting, Wright helped Carey arrange the song's chord structure, as well as produce the introduction, while Carey finished the rest of the lyrics. Once completing "Fly Like a Bird", Carey had her pastor, Clarence Keaton, read two verses from the Bible on the song, "Weeping may endure for the night, but joy comes in the morning" (Psalm 30:5) during the introduction, and "He said 'He'll never forsake you, or leave you alone' Trust him" (Hebrews 13:5). According to Carey, the song, as well as the Biblical verses, were included on her "comeback album" because they helped her get through many difficult situations in the past. She described moments that were difficult growing up, during which she reached out to God, as well as during her breakdown, when she used such verses to give her faith. Carey explained how although the verses helped her greatly, no one had ever said them to her. For this reason, she wanted to make sure they were there for fans and listeners to hear, in order to give them faith and assurance lest they be in a grave situation. ### Release Following the extended chart success of The Emancipation of Mimi, "Fly Like a Bird" was released as a single from the project. Simultaneously promoted alongside "Say Somethin', the song was released on March 13, 2006 to urban, urban AC and gospel stations, while the latter to mainstream Top 40 channels. "Fly Like a Bird" was only commercially available as a digital download. Tom Ferguson from Billboard did not agree with releasing both singles concurrently, as he had given "Say Somethin'" a negative review. According to Ferguson, while the latter had radio appeal, its "scantily produced drum'n'bass" only distracted, concluding "'Fly Like A Bird' is a classic: why muddy the water with this release." ## Composition "Fly Like a Bird" is a mid-tempo ballad, drawing influence from gospel, soul and R&B music genres. It incorporates music from several musical instruments, including the organ, bass drum and trumpet. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing, the song is set in common time with a moderate tempo of 54 beats per minute. It is composed in the key of C♯ minor (with modulation) to D minor at the song's climax, with Carey's vocal range spanning almost four octaves, from the low-note of B₂ in a background note to the high-note of A₆. The song's chorus has a chord progression of Fm7-Bm-G/A-Bmaj7 in the verses, while changing into Gmaj7 during the bridge. Lyrically, "Fly Like a Bird" boasts a prayer in which the protagonist asks God for help during difficult times, and to carry them "higher and higher". Cintra Wilson from LA Weekly described the song's lyrics in depth, as well as where she felt the yearning lyrics stemmed from: > 'Fly Like A Bird', is a kitchen-sink, hyper-produced gospel number, but is really quite moving. There is a real, human yearning for mercy in it — Mariah’s true cry for help from a place of near-suicidal despair: 'Sometimes this life can be so cold /(Lord) I pray you'll come and carry me home'. But there’s a lot of hope and faith in this wounded voice: Carey keeps, with touching conviction, a firm grip on the idea that some higher, divine intelligence out there loves her, even if nobody else does; even if she is lost to herself. It comes across emotionally, because her heart is fully in it — Mimi has been beaten, humiliated, heartbroken; joys have been slapped out of her hands quicker than she could appreciate them. She’s deeply confused, and God, she really needs help. Hell: We’ve all been there. Entertainment Weekly's Tom Sinclair described the song as a "veritable prayer that explicitly references God", and highlighted the lines "Sometimes this life can be so cold / I pray you'll come and carry me home, Carry me higher, higher, higher." According to Carey, the song holds deep lyrical meaning for herself, as well as her fans. She compared it to older emotional ballads from her career, and described the sentiment they held for many fans "Usually, I'll have an introspective bleak-outlook-on-life song. In the past it's been 'Petals' or 'Close My Eyes'. Those were the ones that the hard-core fans related to most. But this has a hopefulness to it. That's why it's one of my favorites, too." Additionally, Carey outed Keaton's verse during the song's introduction as her favorite part of the song, and included it as a guide for fans, due to the help it had given her in the past: > 'To me the most important thing is the message he says in the beginning of the song,' she notes. 'Weeping may endure for a night, but joy comes in the morning.' I felt like a lot of people may not hear that message and a lot of people need to. It wasn't to be preachy. A lot of times people will hear songs that I write that are not the typical songs people look at as 'Mariah Carey songs.' ## Critical reception "Fly Like a Bird" received acclaim from music critics, many of whom praised Carey's gospel-flavored vocal performance, as well as the song's lyrical content. Critic Jim DeRogatis from the Chicago Sun-Times called Carey's voice as "one-in-a-million", and wrote "she's never been shy about showing off with frequently annoying octave-spanning trills – and her instrument seems to be intact; witness the display of bravado on 'Fly Like a Bird'." When describing the song, Dina Passaro from Newsday wrote "This songstress is back and better than ever!" and claimed Carey "sounds awesome and tears it apart". Tom Ferguson from Billboard called the track a "classic", and wrote "the re-crowned diva delivers a consummate vocal." Similarly, in a separate review for the song, Ferguson went into detail regarding Carey's performance in "Fly Like a Bird": > The Emancipation of Mimi spawns yet another career-redefining hit in the sweet, soulful "Fly Like a Bird", an honest-to-God religious mantra about redemption. Set against a low-key, organ-spiced groove that recalls mid-'70s R&B, Carey opens with a pretty, wispy vocal and buoyant harmonies throughout the first chorus before she waves her arms, parts the clouds and wails to the heavens as a mile-high wall of gospel background vocals joins in for the crescendo. The flight of 'Bird' from humble call for deliverance into a frenzied ecclesiastic hymn is utterly spine-tingling. A joyful noise. Entertainment Weekly's Tom Sinclair outed the song as a "heart-on-my-sleeve number", and called it the "crux of the album". Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine felt the song "made Mariah likeable again" and wrote "[it's] an inspirational ballad that's equal parts 'Butterfly' and 'Hero'." A writer from the Sarasota Herald-Tribune compared it to Carey's debut single, "Vision of Love", and called it one of the best cuts from The Emancipation of Mimi. ## Commercial performance

During April 2006, "Fly Like a Bird" was released to US urban and adult contemporary radio stations, at the same time "Say Somethin'" (featuring Snoop Dogg, the sixth single from The Emancipation of Mimi), was released to pop and rhythmic radio stations. "Fly Like a Bird" failed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100, instead reaching number four on Billboards Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart, which represents the twenty-five songs below the Hot 100's number 100 position that have not yet appeared on the Hot 100. It peaked at number nineteen on Billboard's Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart and topped the Adult R&B Songs chart for six weeks. The song experienced longevity in the urban market, reaching its peak on the R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart in its twenty-fourth week. ## Music video Following the radio premiere of "Say Somethin'", as well as the video release, MTV News reported that Carey would film a music video for "Fly Like a Bird" at the end of March 2006. According to Carey, the video had already been conceptualized by mid-March, with a script featuring Carey, Keaton and a church choir as the main focuses. In a later interview, Carey said, "We don't have a lot of time to do it. It's not a big-budget thing. But it doesn't need to be. It just needs to be about the song, capturing the song and the emotion of it." While plans for the video's filming were made, a final version was never released or commissioned. ## Live performances Following the European promotional tour for The Emancipation of Mimi, Carey launched the stateside release of the album on Good Morning America, in the form of an interview and five-piece outdoor concert. The concert, taking place in Times Square, and featuring the largest crowd in the plaza since the 2004 New Year's Eve celebration, Carey performed the first three singles from the album, as well as "Fly Like a Bird" and "Make It Happen" (1991). Months later, following the tragic events involving Hurricane Katrina in the Gulf Coast throughout August 2005, she was featured as a head-lining performer at the Shelter from the Storm: A Concert for the Gulf Coast concert charity benefit. Carey, wearing a non-formal ensemble of a pink tank-top and blue jeans, performed "Fly Like a Bird" alongside a large church choir. According to Nielsen Media Research, the special was viewed by over twenty-four million United States citizens, airing on over twelve different cable channels and in ninety-five countries. Following the beginning of 2006, and the continued charting of the album, Carey was nominated for eight Grammy Awards, the most she had received in one night throughout her career. Due to the continued success of The Emancipation of Mimi, Carey decided to return to the Grammy stage for the 48th annual ceremony, held on February 8, 2006, for the first time since 1996. The performance opened with a pre-taped video of Carey discussing the importance of religion and God in her life, and how it helped her get through difficult times as a child and adult. Following the video, she appeared on stage wearing a white Chanel evening gown, and began with a shortened version of "We Belong Together". Following its completion, the spotlight focused on Carey's now-deceased pastor Clarence Keaton, who opened "Fly Like a Bird" with a passage from the Bible, also featured in the studio recording of the song. Midway through the song, a black temporary wall was removed, revealing a large choir, who joined Carey for the song's gospel climax. After completing her performance, "Fly Like a Bird" induced the night's only standing ovation, prompting Teri Hatcher, who was presenting the next award, to exclaim "It's like we've all just been saved." Critics raved about Carey performance following the completion of the ceremony, with Jon Pareles from The New York Times saying "once she was worked up, she moaned, growled and swooped to the high and low extremes of her voice in "Fly Like a Bird". A writer from USA Today complimented her recital of both songs, writing "Carey certainly earned the right to savor the spotlight this year. But the diva made room for Walker's booming baritone in 'Bird', her fluttering homage to Minnie Ripperton." Gary Susman from Entertainment Weekly called Carey the "comeback queen" and wrote "Its what her voice did, soaring into the rafters like only Carey's can." Roger Friedman from Fox News outed the performance as "the number that sent the audience into a frenzy". On April 9, 2008, reality competition American Idol aired its second annual charity event, titled Idol Gives Back. Backed up by Randy Jackson on the bass, Carey appeared on stage as the last head-lining performer of the evening. Midway through the performance, a large church choir walked on stage in blue garbs, and provided the gospel climax for the song. Ann Powers from the Los Angeles Times called the song an "inspirational show-stopper" and felt Carey's vocal's were "patented impossible notes". In regards to the performance, Katie Byrne from MTV News wrote "Carey was at her over-the-top best, with a full gospel choir and the high notes that made her famous." Aside from several televised performances, Carey included "Fly Like a Bird" on the set-lists of all her tours following its release. During Carey's The Adventures of Mimi Tour (2006) stop at Madison Square Garden, the song was dedicated to Ol' Dirty Bastard, who died in 2004 from an accidental drug overdose. The performance had to be re-done, as Carey's pastor, Clarence Keaton, missed his cue for the Biblical verses, and was forced to be found backstage and ushered to the spotlight. Four years later, Carey performed the song throughout her Angels Advocate Tour, only dedicating it to Keaton, who died on July 3, 2009. Editor and journalist Thomas Kintner from the Hartford Courant felt that during her live recital of "Fly Like a Bird", Carey "displayed power and sky-scraping pitch". ## Track listing - United States CD single (Promo) 1. "Fly Like a Bird" – 3:53 2. "My Saving Grace" – 4:10 ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from The Emancipation of Mimi liner notes. - Vocals – Mariah Carey - Songwriting – Mariah Carey, James "Big Jim" Wright - Production – Mariah Carey, James "Big Jim" Wright - Background vocals – Mariah Carey, Mary Ann Tatum, Melonie Daniels, Trey Lorenz, Sherry Tatum, Courtney Bradley, Rev. Dr. Clarence Keaton - Engineers – Brian Garten, Dana Jon Chapelle - Assistant engineer – Jason Finkel, Michael Leedy, Manuel Farolfi, Riccardo Durante - Mixer – Phil Tan (mixed at Right Track Studios, NYC) - Mastering – Herb Powers - Additional keyboards – Loris Holland ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts

Adaptive Coloration in Animals

1940 textbook on camouflage, mimicry and aposematism by Hugh Cott

Adaptive Coloration in Animals is a 500-page textbook about camouflage, warning coloration and mimicry by the Cambridge zoologist Hugh Cott, first published during the Second World War in 1940; the book sold widely and made him famous. The book's general method is to present a wide range of examples from across the animal kingdom of each type of coloration, including marine invertebrates and fishes as well as terrestrial insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The examples are supported by many of Cott's own drawings, diagrams, and photographs. This essentially descriptive natural history treatment is supplemented with accounts of experiments by Cott and others. The book had few precedents, but to some extent follows (and criticises) Abbott Handerson Thayer's 1909 Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom. The book is divided into three parts: concealment, advertisement, and disguise. Part 1, concealment, covers the methods of camouflage, which are colour resemblance, countershading, disruptive coloration, and shadow elimination. The effectiveness of these, arguments for and against them, and experimental evidence, are described. Part 2, advertisement, covers the methods of becoming conspicuous, especially for warning displays in aposematic animals. Examples are chosen from mammals, insects, reptiles and marine animals, and empirical evidence from feeding experiments with toads is presented. Part 3, disguise, covers methods of mimicry that provide camouflage, as when animals resemble leaves or twigs, and markings and displays that help to deflect attack or to deceive predators with deimatic displays. Both Batesian mimicry and Müllerian mimicry are treated as adaptive resemblance, much like camouflage, while a chapter is devoted to the mimicry and behaviour of the cuckoo. The concluding chapter admits that the book's force is cumulative, consisting of many small steps of reasoning, and being a wartime book, compares animal to military camouflage. Cott's textbook was at once well received, being admired both by zoologists and naturalists and among allied soldiers. Many officers carried a copy of the book with them in the field. Since the war it has formed the basis for experimental investigation of camouflage, while its breadth of coverage and accuracy have ensured that it remains frequently cited in scientific papers. ## The book ### Approach Adaptive Coloration in Animals is a 500-page book, 10 by 7 inches (250 by 180 mm) in its first edition. It was published by Methuen (in London) and Oxford University Press (in New York) in 1940. It is full of detailed observations of types of camouflage and other uses of colour in animals, and illustrated by the author with clear drawings and photographs. There is a coloured frontispiece showing eight of Cott's paintings of tropical amphibians. The book has 48 monotone plates and several illustrations. Cott's method is to provide a large number of examples, illustrated with his own drawings or photographs, showing animals from different groups including fish, reptiles, birds and insects, especially butterflies. The examples are chosen to illustrate specific adaptations. For example, the fish Chaetodon capistratus is described as follows: > this species had the habit of swimming very slowly tail first: but when disturbed it darts rapidly off to safety in the opposite direction... C. capistratus adopts the same tactics... [This fish] is of particular interest in that the real eye is obliterated and a false eye substituted in one and the same animal. Cott was well aware that he was publishing in wartime. There are, as Julian Huxley remarks in his 'Introduction', references throughout the book to the human analogues of animal camouflage and concealment. For example, in the section on 'Adaptive Silence', the kestrel is said to "practise dive-bombing attacks", or "after the fashion of a fighter 'plane" to fly down other birds, while "Owls have solved the problem of the silent air-raid"; Cott spends the rest of that paragraph on the "method which has recently been rediscovered and put into practice" of shutting off a bomber's engines and "gliding noiselessly down towards their victims" at Barcelona in the Spanish Civil War. In the concluding chapter, Cott explicitly states "The innumerable visible devices used ... in peacetime and in wartime ... are merely rediscovered ... applications of colour that have already reached a high ... degree of specialization and perfection.. in the animal world", mentioning predator-prey relationships, sexual selection and signalling to rivals. He then compares the "hunting disguises put on ... as a means of approaching, ambushing or alluring game, and the sniping suits, concealed machine-gun posts, and booby traps" with the camouflage of animal predators; and similarly he compares "protective disguises" with the "photographer's hide and the gunner's observation post." In the same section, Cott compares intentionally visible signs with animal warning colours: "The policeman's white gloves have their parallel in the white stripes or spots of nocturnal skunks and carabids. The Automobile Association has adopted a system of coloration [black and yellow] whose copyright belongs by priority to wasps and salamanders." ### Structure The book addresses its subject under three main headings: concealment, advertisement, and disguise. #### Part I: Concealment The methods by which concealment is attained in nature Cott sets out his view that we have to be re-taught how to see, mentioning Ruskin's "innocence of the eye". He argues that camouflage should, and in animals actually does, use four mechanisms: colour resemblance, obliterative shading (i.e. countershading, the graded shading which conceals self-shadowing of the lower body), disruptive coloration, and shadow elimination. Chapter 1. General colour resemblance. Cott gives many examples such as a table of 16 species of green tropical tree-snakes. Chapter 2. Variable colour resemblance. Caterpillars and pupae (as in Poulton's famous experiment) are coloured to match their environment. Mountain hares change colour in winter; many fish, cephalopods, frogs, and crustacea can change colour rapidly. Chapter 3. Obliterative shading. Following the artist and amateur naturalist Abbott Handerson Thayer, Cott explains countershading with diagrams, photographs of models and examples of real animals. He shows how helpful it would be for military camouflage with drawings of gun barrels. Chapter 4. Disruptive coloration. Cott argues with diagrams, drawings, photographs and examples that animals are often extremely effectively disruptively patterned. He analyses the component effects of disruption, including "differential blending" and "maximum disruptive contrast". Cott's figure 7 is a set of nine drawings, arranged as a 3x3 table. On the left is an animal's outline in grey tone against a differently coloured background. In the centre, the same animals are now disruptively patterned against the same plain backgrounds. On the right, the disruptively patterned animals are shown against realistic broken backgrounds containing vegetation or rocks. Cott explains > The simplified diagrams in Fig. 7 illustrate the value and effectiveness of maximum disruptive contrasts better than any verbal description... On looking at these drawings from a little distance, it will be seen that the conspicuous patches operate most efficiently in distracting attention from the form of the animals wearing them. By sheer force of their brightness, or blackness, or contrasts, they dominate the picture presented to the eye, apparently destroying their form... Cott goes on to explain that the right-hand drawing shows the effect "of broken surroundings in further blending and confusing the picture", observing that this is the closest to what is seen in nature. His readers are invited to look first at the right-hand images to gain an idea of the power of "these optical devices" as camouflage, putting off the moment when the animal is actually recognised. Chapter 5. Coincident disruptive coloration. Animals such as frogs are patterned so that when they are at rest with legs tucked in, their outline is powerfully disrupted with markings that seem to flow across body and leg boundaries. Eyes too are often hidden in stripes or eye masks. Chapter 6. Concealment Of the shadow. Cast shadows give away even well-camouflaged animals. Many animals therefore take care to minimise shadow, by lying down, with flattened bodies, or with fringes. Some hawkmoth caterpillars have false shadow patterns to suggest they are parts of other objects. The function of concealing coloration in nature Chapter 7. Concealment in defence, mainly as illustrated by birds. Cott considers how effective camouflage is as an adaptation, such as in incubation and rest (sleep) in birds. For instance nightjars are nocturnal, and rest, well camouflaged, on the ground during the day. Chapter 8. Concealment In offence. Cott describes the care that predators take when approaching prey, minimizing visible movement and scent, the use of cover for ambush, and "adaptive silence". Chapter 9. Objections and evidence bearing on the theory of concealing coloration. In this chapter Cott discusses various objections to the adaptive (evolutionary) nature of camouflage, and provides evidence to dismiss them. Some are "based upon such obvious fallacies that they hardly deserve serious consideration." Chapter 10. The effectiveness of concealing coloration. Cott describes simple experiments such as that fish that have changed colour to match a pale background survived better (64% to 42%) on such a background than fish which had not. He also quotes some anecdotal observations on wild animals with similar but not quantified results. #### Part II: Advertisement The methods by which conspicuousness is attained in nature Chapter 1. The appearance and behaviour of aposematic animals. Animals that are genuinely distasteful (aposematic) boldly advertise themselves in black, white, red, and yellow. They are often "sluggish", not running from predators; gregarious; and diurnal, since warning displays only work if they can be seen "by potential enemies". Chapter 2. Warning displays. Aposematic animals often have (honest) threat displays; edible prey sometimes have (bluffing) startle displays. For example the frilled lizard, Chlamydosaurus kingii, is illustrated in a drawing by Cott, with its tail raised over the body, stretched up on all four legs, mouth wide open, and frills out both sides of the head, making it a startling sight. Chapter 3. Adventitious warning coloration. Some marine animals select aposematic materials as coverings, not only as camouflage. Some birds nest near wasps' nests. Warning coloration in relation to prey Chapter 4. The nature and function of warning coloration, as illustrated by the mammalia. Prey like porcupines have warning colours, make noise, and attack predators (even leopards). Chapter 5. The Protective Attributes Of Aposematic Animals In General. Evidence is given that conspicuous animals such as caterpillars really are distasteful. Animals with actual poisons are discussed, and how these are secreted, used in bites and stings, or kept to make the animal bitter tasting. Chapter 6. The relation between warning colours and distasteful attributes. Various kinds of evidence are presented for aposematism. Chapter 7. The effectiveness of protective attributes associated with warning colours. Experimental evidence is presented that insects with warning colours are rejected by predators. Warning coloration in reference to predatory enemies Chapter 8. Experimental evidence that vertebrate enemies learn by experience.

Experiments by Cott show that toads learn to avoid eating stinging bees. Chapter 9. Evidence of selective feeding by vertebrate enemies in a state of nature. Evidence from wild birds and toads demonstrates preferences for particular prey. #### Part III: Disguise Special protective and aggressive resemblance Chapter 1. Special resemblance to particular objects. Cott describes leaf-like fish, chameleons, and insects, and other mimetic forms of camouflage. A liana-like snake near Para (a haunt of Henry Walter Bates in Naturalist on the River Amazons) 160 times as long as it was thick is called "a revelation in the art of aggressive resemblance". Chapter 2. Adaptive behaviour in relation to special cryptic resemblance. Animals keep still, sway in the wind, or play dead to assist their camouflage. Poulton's examples of twig-like Geometridae caterpillars are praised. There are fine photographs of leaf insects, and Cott's admired drawing of a poor-me-one or potoo, Nyctibius griseus, sitting on its nest mimicking a broken branch. Cott explains, in a section on "Special resemblances in relation to the attitude of rest" > This wonderful bird ... habitually selects the top of an upright stump as a receptacle for its egg, which usually occupies a small hollow just, and only just, large enough to contain it.... the stump selected had thrown up a new leader just below the point of fracture;... the bird sat facing this in such a way that when viewed from behind they came into line and blended with the grey stem. Chapter 3. Adventitious Concealing Coloration. Cott begins by citing Shakespeare's Macbeth with "until/ Great Birnamwood to the Dunsinane hill/ Shall come against him" to introduce his chapter on the use of materials as camouflage. Animals from crabs to caterpillars are described. Conspicuous localized characters Chapter 4. Deflective marks. Cott describes markings that help to deflect attack, such as the eyespots of butterfly wings and the twitching cast-off tails of lizards, both acknowledged to Poulton, as well as the distraction displays of birds such as the partridge mentioned by Gilbert White in his Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne. Chapter 5. Directive marks. A selection of lures and deceptive markings are described. A large drawing depicts the deimatic warning display of a mantis, Pseudocreobotra wahlbergi with its spined forelegs raised and large spiral eyespots on its spread wings forming an image "suggestive of a formidable foe". Other drawings depict the eyespots of fish such as Chaetodon capistratus, the four-eye butterfly fish, which are "usually towards the tail end" and tending to direct attack away from the head. Alluring and mimetic resemblances Chapter 6. Alluring coloration. The bird-dropping spider Ornithoscatoides decipiens, the flower mantis Hymenopus bicornis and other camouflaged hunters are described. Chapter 7. Mimicry: the attributes of mimics. Cott follows Poulton in treating mimicry as basically the same as camouflage or "adaptive resemblance". Batesian mimicry and Mullerian mimicry are compared. The behaviour of "Esquimaux seal-hunters" and First World War Q-ships are mentioned. Chapter 8. Breeding parasitism and mimicry in cuckoos. The mimicry and behaviour of the European cuckoo, Cuculus canorus is analysed. #### Conclusion The final chapter confirms that "The force of the facts and arguments used in this work is cumulative in effect." Many small steps of reasoning combine to show that "adaptive coloration... has been... one of the main achievements of organic evolution." The book ends by comparing human artefacts and "natural adaptations", both of which can have goals (recall the publication date of 1940, early in the Second World War) including "the frustration of a predatory animal or of an aggressive Power". ## Reception ### Foreword Julian S. Huxley wrote a foreword (labelled 'Introduction') which defends the Darwinian concept of adaptation, especially of colour (in animals) and within that frame of mimicry. He makes it clear that "in these last thirty years" (that is, from about 1910 to 1940) he believed that "experimental biologists" professed, even if they did not actually hold, "a radical scepticism on the subject of adaptations", in other words about whether natural selection really could have created the enormous diversity of pattern and colour seen in nature. Huxley quoted the now long-forgotten Aaron Franklin Shull's 1936 Evolution which stated "These special forms [sexual selection, warning colours, mimicry and signalling] of the selection idea... seem destined to be dropped, or at least relegated to very minor places in the Evolution discussion.", and more sharply that "aggressive and alluring resemblance" (Huxley's words) "must probably be set down as products of fancy belonging to uncritical times." Huxley's reply is simply > Dr. Cott, in this important book, has turned the tables with a vengeance on objectors of this type... Had they taken the trouble to acquaint themselves with even a fraction of the relevant facts to be found in nature, they could never have ventured to enunciate such sweeping criticisms: their objections are a measure of their ignorance. With objections dismissed, Huxley remarks that "Dr. Cott is a true follower of Darwin in driving his conclusions home by sheer weight of example," observing that "Faced with his long lists of demonstrative cases, the reader is tempted to wonder why adaptive theories of coloration have been singled out for attack by anti-selectionists." Huxley also noted Cott's "constant cross-reference to human affairs", and that it was good to know that Cott was applying his principles "to the practice of camouflage in war". Huxley concluded his introduction by describing Adaptive Coloration as "in many respects the last word on the subject", upholding the great tradition of "scientific natural history". ### Contemporary reviews (circa 1940) Reviewers had little to compare Adaptive Coloration with. The English zoologist Edward Bagnall Poulton, a Darwinian, had written a 360-page book, The Colours of Animals, fifty years earlier in 1890, and he was able, at age 84, to review Cott's work in Nature on its appearance in 1940, beginning with the words > This excellent work, eagerly awaited for many years, will be most welcome to naturalists, even, we may hope, to the few who have hitherto rejected the Darwinian interpretation which the author has here supported by a mass of additional evidence based on his own observations and those of very many others. The ichthyologist Carl Leavitt Hubbs, reviewing the book for American Naturalist in 1942, began > In this Neodarwinian epic Dr. Cott stamps himself as a true disciple of the master evolutionist. Indeed, he rivals Darwin in the thorough, objective and penetrating analysis of a major biological problem. An immense body of facts and interpretation, much of it original, has been judiciously considered and brought to bear on the question of the biological significance of coloration. Hubbs notes that Cott is seeming concerned about the scarcity of experimental data for the survival value of camouflage, and accordingly relies on Sumner and Isely's "clear-cut results", but at once continues that Cott relies on "the general lore of natural history". Hubbs also remarks on the "resurgence to Darwinian views", referring to the scepticism about the power of natural selection among both geneticists of the time and to the Lamarckist views of Trofim Lysenko. Hubbs observes that Cott is both an artist and a naturalist as well as a scientist: "In section after section, rivaling one another in fascination, this master of art and of natural history unfolds the biological significance of adaptive coloration in animals." And Cott's emphasis on disruptive patterning and (following Thayer) countershading clearly affected the reviewer: "Particularly impressive is the author's treatment of "coincident disruptive coloration", in which a ruptive mark crosses structural boundaries, so as to obliterate visually such ordinarily conspicuous parts as the eye and the limbs. Concealment of an animal's ordinarily telltale shadow is also stressed". Hubbs's review ends "This book is the work of an artist, and it is a work of art. Every biologist with an interest in any phase of natural history or evolution should keep it at hand." "W.L.S.", reviewing Cott in The Geographical Journal in 1940, begins with "In this large and well-illustrated volume the author discusses at length reason or reasons for the various colour patterns found in the animal kingdom." The reviewer goes on "He has presented us with a vast number of facts and observations which are somewhat difficult to analyse." However "W.L.S." admits that disruptive coloration "is discussed at considerable length by Mr. Cott and many remarkable instances of it are considered in detail". The review ends by mentioning that while biologists (of the 1930s) usually "reject the influence of Natural Selection in evolution, the facts of adaptive coloration as given in Mr. Cott's work are a strong argument in its favour, and must be given due weight. This is what Mr. Cott claims to have accomplished in a volume which will certainly take its place as a most valuable contribution to zoological literature." ### Looking back (after 2000) Peter Forbes, in his book Dazzled and Deceived, wrote that > Cott's Adaptive Coloration in Animals must be the only compendious zoology tract ever to be packed in a soldier's kitbag. The book also marks the apotheosis of the descriptive natural history phase of mimicry studies. Although Cott does report experiments on predation to test the efficacy of mimicry and camouflage, the book is essentially a narrative of examples plus theory. Over 60 years after its publication, Adaptive Coloration in Animals remains a core reference on the subject. Sören Nylin and colleagues observe in a 2001 paper that > Adaptive coloration in animals has been a very active research field in evolutionary biology over the years (e.g. Poulton 1890, Cott 1940, Kettlewell 1973, Sillen-Tullberg 1988, Malcolm 1990), and one in which the Lepidoptera have always featured prominently as model species. As a natural history narrative on what has become an intensely researched experimental subject, Adaptive Coloration could be thought obsolete, but instead, Peter Forbes observes "But Cott's book is still valuable today for its enormous range, for its passionate exposition of the theories of mimicry and camouflage". This width of coverage and continuing relevance can be seen in the introduction to Sami Merilaita and Johan Lind's 2005 paper on camouflage, Background-Matching and Disruptive Coloration, and the Evolution of Cryptic Coloration, which cites Adaptive Coloration no fewer than eight times, quoting his terms "cryptic coloration or camouflage", "concealing coloration", "background matching (also called cryptic resemblance)", "disruptive coloration", resemblance to visual background, and the difficulty a predator has to detect a prey visually. Steven Vogel, in a review of Peter Forbes's book Dazzled and Deceived (2009), echoes Julian Huxley's words of seventy years before (in his 'Introduction') by writing > The zoologist Hugh Cott had the final word in Adaptive Coloration in Animals (1940), a definitive synthesis of everything known about camouflage and mimicry in nature. Cott ruffled fewer feathers [than Trofim Lysenko or Vladimir Nabokov], and his well-organized and unfanatic ideas proved militarily effective, even under the scrutiny of improved techniques for target detection. Thayer’s principles reemerged in more temperate and rational terms, and camouflage schemes based on them survived both photometric analyses and enemy encounters. Biomimetic camouflage took its place as yet another technique in a sophisticated armamentarium of visual deceptions.[^1] Camouflage researcher Roy Behrens cites and discusses Adaptive Coloration frequently in his writings. For example, in his Camoupedia blog, related to the book of the same name, he writes of Cott's drawings of the hind limbs of the Common frog: "Reproduced above is one of my favorite drawings from what is one of my favorite books." He continues "What makes these drawings (and the book itself) even more interesting is that Cott (1900-1987) was not just a zoologist—he was a highly skilled scientific illustrator (these are his own pen-and-ink drawings), a wildlife photographer, and a prominent British camoufleur in World War II." Still in 2011, Behrens can write of Cott's way of thinking, citing his words as models of clear and accurate explanation of the mechanisms of camouflage: "As he so aptly explained it, disruptive patterns work 'by the optical destruction of what is present', while continuous patterns work 'by the optical construction of what is not present.'" ## Publication history Adaptive Coloration in Animals has been published as follows: - 1940, Methuen, Frome and London (printed by Butler and Tanner). Foreword by Julian Huxley - 1940, Oxford University Press, New York - 1941, Oxford University Press, New York - 1957, Methuen, London (reprinted with minor corrections) - 1966, Methuen, London (reprinted with minor corrections) ## See also - Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom (G. H. Thayer, 1909) - The Colours of Animals (E. B. Poulton, 1890) - Animal Coloration'' (F. E. Beddard, 1892) [^1]: Vogel, Steven. The Deceptional Life. American Scientist. On the Bookshelf. September–October 2010. Volume 98, Number 5. Page: 436

Nimco Ali

British social activist

Nimko Ali OBE (Somali: Nimco Cali), alternatively spelled Nimco (born ), is a British social activist of Somali heritage. She is the co-founder and CEO of The Five Foundation, a global partnership to end female genital mutilation (FGM). Ali underwent female genital mutilation in Djibouti, and later went on to form the Daughters of Eve organisation with Leyla Hussein to campaign against FGM. She released her first book in 2019 that contains 42 stories from 152 interviews that Ali collected from women across 14 countries. Later that year she co-founded The Five Foundation with Brendan Wynne, and in 2020 she co-founded the Ginsburg Women's Health Board with Mika Simmons. She contested a seat in the 2017 general election under the Women's Equality Party. In 2019, she supported Boris Johnson, endorsed the Conservative Party and campaigned for Conservative candidates. She was appointed as Independent Government Adviser for Tackling Violence Against Women and Girls in 2020, a post which ended in 2022. ## Early life Ali was born c. 1983 in Somalia. When she was four, her family moved to Manchester in England later moving to Cardiff, Wales. She has four brothers, one of whom, Mohamed, is chair of the Somali Conservatives. Aged seven, Ali underwent female genital mutilation (FGM) in Djibouti while on holiday with her family. She later suffered health complications and had to undergo reconstructive surgery. The experience, and meeting other females who had been incised later inspired her to assist at-risk girls and to call for the practice's eradication. Ali studied law at Bristol University. ## Career In 2010, Ali along with psychotherapist Leyla Hussein founded Daughters of Eve. The non-profit organisation was established to help young women and girls, with a focus on providing education and raising awareness on female genital mutilation. Ali co-founded The Five Foundation, "The Global Partnership to End FGM", with Brendan Wynne in 2019. This non-profit organisation works to raise the issue of FGM on the international agenda and leverage funding for grassroots organisations working to end FGM. Ali previously worked as a civil servant. She also served as a women's rights activist and an independent training consultant for a number of years. Additionally, Ali served as a Network Coordinator for The Girl Generation. She has also written extensively on national gender rights. Her book What We’re Told Not to Talk About (But We're Going to Anyway): Women's Voices from East London to Ethiopia was published by Penguin Books in June 2019. It includes stories of women who are sharing experiences they have always been told should be "secret and shameful" as well as Ali's own story of living with FGM. The book contained 42 stories from 152 interviews that Ali had undertaken with women across 14 countries. In The Times, Hannah Betts described the book as "a compelling cross-cultural account of vaginal life". Isobel Shirlaw said in i that it was an important book and that "The chorus of women's voices which provide a multi-dimensional, global view of these hidden issues is powerful". The Guardian review by Arifa Akbar praised the book as "rich collection of intimate and uncensored stories" and wrote that Ali "delivers the physicality of the women's experiences with all the leaking, faecal, bloody mess of the body laid bare", although noting that "deeper reflection is lacking" and criticising the omission of coverage of anyone that was not heterosexual and cisgender. Ali told an interviewer from The Guardian that:

> "Since the age of seven, when I started talking about my vagina after FGM, I was told that I should be ashamed. But I wouldn't have been talking about these things if FGM hadn't happened to me. FGM was the patriarchy's way of trying to break me and keep me silent, but it made me the loudest person in the room." In 2020, Ali and Mika Simmons co-founded the Ginsburg Women's Health Board, to campaign for a more effective and equitable healthcare system for women from the National Health Service. The organisation is named after Ruth Bader Ginsburg. Home Secretary of the United Kingdom Priti Patel appointed Ali as an Independent Government Adviser for Tackling Violence Against Women and Girls, in October 2020. Ali was a direct appointment to the role, which, as is common with such roles, was not advertised. The role involves the formulation of a strategy to reduce violence against women and girls, with recommendations expected to be produced in 2021. The report, with forewords from Priti Patel and from Ali, was published in July 2021. Ali expressed her hope that the strategy would be a foundation to improve safety for women and girls through education and legislation, but that "whole system" change would be required to reduce violence. In December 2022 Ali said she does not want to serve under new Conservative Home Secretary Suella Braverman and was on a "completely different planet" to Braverman on women's rights and ethnic minorities. ## Political activity At the 2017 general election, Ali contested the seat of Hornsey and Wood Green in North London for the Women's Equality Party. Ali polled 551 votes (0.9% of the total), finishing in 5th place out of the 8 candidates that stood and losing her election deposit. During the campaign, Ali's campaign workers received dozens of abusive and aggressive telephone calls, and Ali received a death threat. Ali is godmother to the son of Boris Johnson, the former prime minister of the United Kingdom, and his wife Carrie Johnson. She endorsed Johnson, who she has referred to as a "real feminist", in the 2019 Conservative leadership election. During the 2019 general election, Ali campaigned on behalf of the Conservatives. ## Honours and awards In 2014, Ali received the community/charity award, jointly with Leyla Hussein, at the 2014 Red Magazine Woman of the Year awards for their work with Daughters of Eve. They also placed sixth in the Woman's Hour Power List 2014. Ali was named one of BBC's 100 Women during 2018. On International Women's Day 2019 it was announced that the 2019 Geneva Summit for Human Rights and Democracy’s International Women's Rights Award would be awarded to Ali for her "approach to ending FGM by offering holistic support to survivors of the practice". Ali was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2019 Birthday Honours for services to tackling female genital mutilation and gender inequality.

George Kenney

United States Army Air Forces general

George Churchill Kenney (August 6, 1889 – August 9, 1977) was a United States Army general during World War II. He is best known as the commander of the Allied Air Forces in the Southwest Pacific Area (SWPA), a position he held between August 1942 and 1945. Kenney enlisted as a flying cadet in the Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps in 1917, and served on the Western Front with the 91st Aero Squadron. He was awarded a Silver Star and the Distinguished Service Cross for actions in which he fought off German fighters and shot two down. After hostilities ended he participated in the Occupation of the Rhineland. Returning to the United States, he flew reconnaissance missions along the border between the US and Mexico during the Mexican Revolution. Commissioned into the Regular Army in 1920, he attended the Air Corps Tactical School, and later became an instructor there. He was responsible for the acceptance of Martin NBS-1 bombers built by Curtis, and test flew them. He also developed techniques for mounting .30 caliber machine guns on the wings of an Airco DH.4 aircraft. In early 1940, Kenney became Assistant Military Attaché for Air in France. As a result of his observations of German and Allied air operations during the early stages of World War II, he recommended significant changes to Air Corps equipment and tactics. In July 1942, he assumed command of the Allied Air Forces and Fifth Air Force in General Douglas MacArthur's Southwest Pacific Area. Under Kenney's command, the Allied Air Forces developed innovative command structures, weapons, and tactics that reflected Kenney's orientation towards attack aviation. The new weapons and tactics won perhaps his greatest victory, the Battle of the Bismarck Sea, in March 1943. Two other significant bombing raids that ultimately led to complete air supremacy in the New Guinea campaign, at Wewak (174 planes destroyed) in August 1943 and at Hollandia (400 planes destroyed) in March to April 1944, also were due to Kenney and his command. In June 1944 he was appointed commander of the Far East Air Forces (FEAF), which came to include the Fifth, Thirteenth, and Seventh Air Forces. In April 1946, Kenney became the first commander of the newly formed Strategic Air Command (SAC), but his performance in the role was criticized, and he was shifted to become commander of the Air University, a position he held from October 1948 until his retirement from the Air Force in September 1951. ## Early life George Churchill Kenney was born in Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada, on August 6, 1889, during a summer vacation taken by his parents to avoid the humidity of the Boston area. The oldest of four children of carpenter Joseph Atwood Kenney and his wife Anne Louise Kenney, née Churchill, Kenney grew up in Brookline, Massachusetts. He graduated from Brookline High School in 1907 and later that year he entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he pursued a course in civil engineering. After his father left his family, Kenney quit MIT and took various jobs before becoming a surveyor for the Quebec Saguenay Railroad. His mother died in 1913 and Kenney returned to Boston, where he took a job with Stone & Webster. In 1914 he joined the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad as a civil engineer, building a bridge in New London, Connecticut. After this was completed, he formed a partnership, the Beaver Contracting and Engineering Corporation, with a high school classmate, Gordon Glazier. The firm became involved in a number of projects, including the construction of a seawall at Winthrop, Massachusetts, and a bridge over the Squannacook River. ## World War I The United States entered World War I in April 1917, and Kenney enlisted as a flying cadet in the Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps on June 2, 1917. He attended ground school at MIT in June and July, and received primary flight training at Hazelhurst Field in Mineola, New York, from Bert Acosta. He was commissioned as a first lieutenant on November 5, 1917, and departed for France soon after. There, he received further flight training at Issoudun. This ended in February 1918, when he was assigned to the 91st Aero Squadron. The 91st Aero Squadron flew the Salmson 2A2, a reconnaissance biplane. Kenney crashed one on takeoff on March 22, 1918. He broke an ankle and a hand, and earned himself the nickname "Bust 'em up George". His injuries soon healed, and he recorded his first mission on June 3. Kenney flew one of four aircraft on a mission near Gorze on September 15, 1918, that was attacked by six German Pfalz D.III scouts. His observer William T. Badham shot one of them down, and Kenney was credited with his first aerial victory. For this he was awarded a Silver Star. A second victory followed in similar circumstances on October 9 while he was flying near Jametz in support of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. Once again, the formation he was flying with was attacked by German fighters. This time he was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross, which was presented by Brigadier General Billy Mitchell on January 10, 1919. Kenney's citation read: > For extraordinary heroism in action near Jametz, France, October 9, 1918. This officer gave proof of his bravery and devotion to duty when he was attacked by a superior number of aircraft. He accepted combat, destroyed one plane and drove the others off. Notwithstanding that the enemy returned and attacked again in strong numbers, he continued his mission and enabled his observer to secure information of great military value. Kenney remained for a time with the Allied occupation forces in Germany, and was promoted to captain on March 18, 1919. He returned to the United States in June 1919. He was the co-author in 1919 of "History of the 91st Aero Squadron" He was sent to Kelly Field, near San Antonio, Texas, and then to McAllen, Texas. As commander of the 8th Aero Squadron, he flew reconnaissance missions along the border with Mexico during the Mexican Revolution. Poor aircraft maintenance, rough landing strips and bad weather led to the squadron losing 22 of its 24 Airco DH.4 aircraft in just one year. ## Between the wars Kenney applied for one of a number of Regular Army commissions offered to reservists after the war, and was commissioned as a captain in the Air Service on July 1, 1920. While he was in hospital in Texas recovering from an aviation accident, he met a nurse, Helen "Hazel" Dell Richardson, the daughter of a Mobile, Alabama, contractor, George W. Richardson. They were married in Mobile on October 6, 1920. Hazel miscarried twins, and was warned by her doctor of the danger of another pregnancy, but she strongly wished to have a child. In 1922, while the couple was living on Long Island, New York, a son, William Richardson Kenney, was born to them, but Hazel died soon afterward from complications. Kenney arranged to have the infant cared for by his neighbor, Alice Steward Maxey, another nurse. On June 5, 1923, Kenney married Maxey in her home town of Gardiner, Maine. From July to November 1920, Kenney was air detachment commander at Camp Knox, Kentucky. He then became a student at the Air Service Engineering School at McCook Field, near Dayton Ohio. He was the Air Service Inspector at the Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company in Garden City, New York, where he was responsible for the acceptance of the fifty Martin NBS-1 bombers that the Air Service had ordered from Curtis between 1921 and 1923. Kenney inspected the aircraft, and test flew them. While there, he was reduced in rank from captain to first lieutenant on November 18, 1922, a common occurrence in the aftermath of World War I when the wartime army was demobilized. He returned to McCook in 1923, and developed techniques for mounting .30 caliber machine guns on the wings of a DH.4. He was promoted to captain again on November 3, 1923. His daughter, Julia Churchill Kenney, was born in Dayton in June 1926. In 1926, Kenney became a student at the Air Corps Tactical School, at Langley Field, Virginia, the Air Corps' advanced training school. He then attended the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, the Army's advanced school where officers were taught how to handle large formations as commanders or staff officers. Most Air Corps officers, including Kenney, considered the course largely irrelevant to them, and therefore a waste of time, but nonetheless a prerequisite for promotion in a ground-oriented Army. Afterwards, he returned to the Air Corps Tactical School as an instructor. He taught classes of attack aviation. He was particularly interested in low-level attacks, as a means of improving accuracy. There were tactical problems with this, as low-flying aircraft were vulnerable to ground fire. There were also technical problems to be solved, as an aircraft could be struck by its own bomb fragments. His interest in attack aviation would ultimately set him apart in an Air Corps where strategic bombardment came to dominate thinking. Kenney reached the pinnacle of his professional education in September 1932, when he entered the Army War College in Washington, D.C. At the war college, committees of students studied a number of World War I battles; Kenney's committee examined the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes. They updated actual war plans, Kenney's study group working on War Plan Orange. They also had to write an individual paper; Kenney wrote his on "The Proper Composition of the Air Force". One benefit of the Army War College was that it brought Air Corps officers into contact with ground officers that they would later have to work closely with. Members of Kenney's class included Richard Sutherland and Stephen Chamberlain, both of whom worked with him on committees. Graduation from the Army War College was normally followed by a staff posting, and on graduation in June 1933 Kenney became an assistant to Major James E. Chaney in the Plans Division of the Office of the Chief of the Air Corps, Major General Benjamin Foulois. He performed various duties, including translating an article by the Italian air power theorist Giulio Douhet into English. In 1934, he was involved with drafting legislation that granted the Air Corps a greater degree of independence. This legislation prompted the Army to create GHQ Air Force, a centralized, air force-level command headed by an aviator answering directly to the Army Chief of Staff. Lieutenant Colonel Frank M. Andrews was chosen to command it, and selected Kenney as his Assistant Chief of Staff for Plans and Training. In this role, Kenney was promoted to the temporary rank of lieutenant colonel on March 2, 1935, skipping that of major. He became involved in an acrimonious debate with the Army General Staff over the Air Corps' desire to purchase more Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers. He also became caught up in a bureaucratic battle between Andrews and Major General Oscar Westover over whether the Chief of the Air Corps should control GHQ Air Force. As a result, Kenney was transferred to the Infantry School at Fort Benning, Georgia, on June 16, 1936, with the temporary rank of major, to teach tactics to young infantry officers. He was promoted to the substantive rank of major on October 1, 1937, but the assignment was hardly a choice one for an Air Corps officer. In September 1938 he accepted an offer to command the 97th Observation Squadron at Mitchell Field, New York. ## World War II In 1939, Kenney was made Chief of the Production Engineering Section at Wright Field, Ohio. He was sent to France in early 1940, once again with the temporary rank of lieutenant colonel, as Assistant Military Attaché for Air. His mission was to observe Allied air operations during the early stages of World War II. As a result of his observations, he recommended many important changes to Air Corps equipment and tactics, including upgrading armament from .30 caliber to .50 caliber machine guns, and installing leak-proof fuel tanks, but his scathing comparisons of the German Luftwaffe with the Air Corps upset many officers. This resulted in his being sent back to Wright Field. In January 1941, he became commander of the Air Corps Experimental Depot and Engineering School there, with the rank of brigadier general. He was promoted to major general on March 26, 1942, when he became commander of the Fourth Air Force, an air defense and training organization based in San Francisco. Kenney personally instructed pilots on how to handle the Lockheed P-38 Lightning and A-29 Hudson. ### Southwest Pacific Area In July 1942, Kenney received orders to take over the Allied Air Forces and Fifth Air Force in General Douglas MacArthur's Southwest Pacific Area. MacArthur had been dissatisfied with the performance of his air commander, Lieutenant General George Brett. Frank M. Andrews, by then a major general, turned down the job, and MacArthur, offered a choice between Kenney and Major General James Doolittle, chose Kenney. Kenney reported to MacArthur in Brisbane on July 28, 1942, and was treated to "a lecture for approximately an hour on the shortcomings of the Air Force in general, and the Allied Air Forces in the Southwest Pacific in particular." Kenney felt that MacArthur did not understand air operations, but recognized that he somehow needed to establish a good working relationship with him. When he asked MacArthur for authority to send people he considered "deadwood" home, something that his superiors in Washington, D.C. had refused to give, MacArthur enthusiastically approved. Building a good relationship with MacArthur meant getting past MacArthur's chief of staff, Lieutenant General Richard Kerens Sutherland. Brett advised Kenney that "a showdown early in the game with Sutherland might clarify the entire atmosphere." Sutherland, who had a civil pilot's license, had taken to issuing detailed instructions to the Allied Air Forces. This was more than simply a turf battle; to many airmen, it was a part of the ongoing battle for an independent air force that they had long been advocating. At one point, Kenney drew a dot on a plain page of paper and told Sutherland, "the dot represents what you know about air operations, the entire rest of the paper what I know." Sutherland backed down, and would henceforth let Kenney run the Allied Air Forces without interference. It did not follow, however, that MacArthur would invariably accept Kenney's advice. Kenney sent home Major General Ralph Royce, Brigadier Generals Edwin S. Perrin, Albert Sneed and Martin Scanlon, and about forty colonels. In Australia, he found two talented, recently arrived brigadier generals, Ennis Whitehead and Kenneth Walker. Kenney reorganized his command in August, appointed Whitehead as commander of the V Fighter Command and Walker as commander of the V Bomber Command. The Allied Air Forces was composed of both United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) and Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) personnel. Kenney moved to separate them. Brigadier General Donald Wilson arrived in September and replaced Air Vice Marshal William Bostock as Kenney's chief of staff. Bostock took over the newly created RAAF Command. This brought Kenney into conflict with the Chief of the Air Staff of the RAAF, Air Vice Marshal George Jones, who felt that an opportunity had been lost to simplify the administration of the RAAF. Kenney preferred to have Bostock in command, and while he regarded the antipathy between Jones and Bostock as a nuisance, was happy to leave arrangements the way they were. However, Kenney deviated from the normal structure of an air force by creating the Advanced Echelon (ADVON) under Whitehead. The new headquarters had the authority to change the assignments of aircraft in the forward area, where fast-changing weather and enemy action could overtake orders drawn up in Australia. Kenney was promoted to lieutenant general on October 21, 1942.

Perhaps because of his experience in World War I, Kenney had a great deal of respect for Japanese fighters. He decided to conserve his bombers, and concentrate on attaining air superiority over New Guinea. Kenney switched the bombers to attacking by night unless fighter escorts could be provided. SWPA had a low priority, and simply could not afford to replace losses from costly daylight missions. What he needed was an effective long-range fighter, and Kenney hoped that the Lockheed P-38 Lightning would fit the bill, but the first ones delivered to SWPA were plagued with technical problems. Kenney had Charles Lindbergh teach his P-38 pilots how to extend the range of their aircraft. The Southwest Pacific was not a promising theater of war for the strategic bomber. The bombers of the day did not have the range to reach Japan from Australia, and there were no typical strategic targets in the theater other than a few oil refineries. This set up a doctrinal clash between Kenney, an attack aviator, and Walker, the bomber advocate. The long-standing Air Corps tactic for attacking shipping called for large formations of high-altitude bombers. With sufficient mass, so the theory went, bombers could bracket any ship with walls of bombs, and do so from above the effective range of the ship's anti-aircraft fire. However the theoretical mass required was two orders of magnitude greater than what was available in the Southwest Pacific. A dozen or so bombers was the most that could be put together, owing to the small number of aircraft in the theater and the difficulties of keeping them serviceable. The results were therefore generally ineffective, and operations incurred heavy casualties. Walker resisted Kenney's proposals that the bombers conduct attacks from low level using bombs armed with instantaneous fuses. Kenney ordered Walker to try the fuses for a couple of months, so that data could be gained about their effectiveness; a few weeks later Kenney discovered that Walker had discontinued their use. In November, Kenney arranged for a demonstration attack on the SS Pruth, a ship that had sunk off Port Moresby in 1924 and was often used for target practice. After the attack Walker and Kenney took a boat out to the wreck to inspect the damage. As expected, none of the four bombs dropped had hit the stationary wreck, but the instantaneous fuses had detonated the bombs when they struck the water, so bomb fragments had torn holes in the sides of the ship. Walker reluctantly conceded the point. A few weeks later, Walker was shot down leading a daylight raid over Rabaul, an attack that Kenney had ordered to be conducted at night. In addition to trying different types of ordnance, the Allied Air Forces experimented with modifications to the aircraft themselves. Major Paul I. "Pappy" Gunn modified some USAAF Douglas A-20 Havoc light bombers by installing four .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns in their noses, and two 450-US-gallon (1,700 L; 370 imp gal) fuel tanks were added to give the aircraft more range. This was successful, and an attempt was then made to create a longer range attack aircraft by doing the same thing to a B-25 Mitchell medium bomber, to operate as a "commerce destroyer". This proved to be somewhat more difficult. The resulting aircraft was obviously nose heavy despite adding lead ballast to the tail, and the vibrations caused by firing the machine guns were enough to make rivets pop out of the skin of the aircraft. The tail guns and belly turrets were removed, the latter being of little use if the aircraft was flying low. The Allied Air Forces also adopted innovative tactics. In February 1942, the RAAF began experimenting with skip bombing, an anti-shipping technique used by the British and Germans. Flying only a few dozen feet above the sea toward their targets, aircraft would release their bombs, which would then, ideally, ricochet across the surface of the water and explode at the side of the target ship, under it, or just over it. A similar technique was mast-height bombing, in which bombers would approach the target at low altitude, 200 to 500 feet (61 to 152 m), at about 265 to 275 miles per hour (426 to 443 km/h), and then drop down to mast height, 10 to 15 feet (3.0 to 4.6 m) about 600 yards (550 m) from the target. They would release their bombs at around 300 yards (270 m), aiming directly at the side of the ship. The two techniques were not mutually exclusive. A bomber could drop two bombs, skipping the first and launching the second at mast height. The Battle of the Bismarck Sea demonstrated the effectiveness of low-level attacks on shipping. Another form of airpower employed by Kenney was air transport. This started in September 1942 when troops of the 32nd Infantry Division were airlifted from Australia to Port Moresby. Later in the campaign, C-47 Dakotas landed Australian troops at Wanigela. A year later, American paratroops landed at Nadzab, enabling the Australian 7th Division to be flown in. The ultimate challenge was to integrate air power with MacArthur's strategy. Kenney described the process this way in 1944: > The first step in this advancement of the bomber line is to gain and maintain air control as far into enemy territory as our longest range fighters can reach. Then we put an air blockade around the Jap positions or section of the coast which we want in order to stop him from getting supplies or reinforcements. The bombers then go to work and pulverize his defensive system, methodically taking out artillery positions, stores, bivouac areas and so on. Finally comes the air cover escorting the amphibious expedition to the landing beach, a last minute blasting and smoking of the enemy beach defenses and the maintenance of strafers and fighters overhead, on call from the surface forces until their beachhead is secured. If emergency supplies are needed we drop them by parachute. The ground troops get a transport field ready as fast as possible so that we can supplement boat supply by cargo carrying airplanes. When necessary, we evacuate the wounded and sick and bring in reinforcements in a hurry. The transport field becomes a fighter field, the strafers and finally the heavies arrive and it is time to move forward again. ### Far East Air Forces In June 1944, Kenney was appointed commander of the Far East Air Forces (FEAF), which came to include the Fifth, Thirteenth, and Seventh Air Forces. He created the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Air Task Forces to control air operations in forward areas, each for a specific mission, another departure from doctrine. While Kenney was enthusiastic about this innovation, Washington did not like it and, over Kenney's objections, converted the three air task forces into the 308th, 309th and 310th Bombardment Wings. He was promoted to general on March 9, 1945. Kenney hoped to get Boeing B-29 Superfortresses assigned to the Far East Air Forces so that, based from airfields near Darwin, they could destroy the Japanese oilfields at Balikpapan. His agitation for the B-29s did not endear him to the USAAF staff in Washington, D.C. Instead, B-24 Liberators were used in a strike from Darwin in August 1943 by the American 380th Bombardment Group assigned to the Royal Australian Air Force. Another series of five air raids were launched by B-24s of the 5th and Thirteenth Air Forces from Noemfoor Island. The Japanese had been conserving their fighter forces to protect the oil fields and the first two raids, which did not have fighter cover, suffered severe losses. After the war, the Strategic Bombing Survey concluded that this would have been far more productive than Operation Matterhorn, which saw B-29s based in China to bomb steel plants in Japan, as oil was more critical to the Japanese war effort than steel. ## Post-war career In April 1946, Kenney became the first commander of the newly formed Strategic Air Command (SAC). He was encouraged by Secretary of the Air Force Stuart Symington to join him in the political battle surrounding the establishment of an independent United States Air Force. Separately, the two men gave promotional speeches around the country. As a result, SAC's efficiency suffered. On May 8, 1946, Kenney publicly presented the Medal of Honor to the family of Thomas B. McGuire, Jr, the second-highest scoring US fighter pilot, who had been killed in action. Kenney left day-to-day operations at SAC in the hands of his deputy commander, Major General St. Clair Streett. Part of the reason for Kenney's lack of focus on SAC was also his assignment as U.S. representative to the United Nations Military Staff Committee, which appeared at that time to be potentially an important assignment. In January 1947, Streett was replaced by Major General Clements McMullen. With McMullen serving officially as Kenney's deputy but actually in command, a cross-training program was implemented in early 1948 to teach bomber crew members each other's tasks, the goal being to reduce each bomber's contingent of officers from five to three. Morale suffered as a result. Major General Lauris Norstad, responsible for reporting the readiness of American airpower to the U.S. Secretary of Defense, James Forrestal, heard from unhappy airmen that the SAC was in a poor state of readiness, and he initiated an investigation. He selected Charles Lindbergh and Paul Tibbets to perform the inquiry. Tibbets told Norstad that he found nobody at SAC knew their job. Lindbergh said that McMullen's cross-training program "seriously interfered with training the primary mission." On May 6, 1948, Kenney spoke to a crowd in Bangor, Maine, telling them that the US was likely to be attacked by the Soviet Union as soon as the latter had enough atomic bombs. In Washington, D.C., a group of senators including Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. complained of Kenney's "belligerent" speech, and previous ones in the same vein by Symington, saying that matters of foreign policy should be left to the president and the secretary of state, not to leaders of the United States Air Force (USAF) Another controversy that Kenney became embroiled in concerned the Convair B-36 Peacemaker. He was less than impressed with this expensive and under-performing aircraft, preferring the Boeing B-50 Superfortress, an upgraded version of the B-29 instead. The USAF, however, had staked much of its credibility on the B-36, something that Kenney did not seem to appreciate. In the context of the Berlin Blockade in June 1948, the Air Force Chief of Staff, General Hoyt S. Vandenberg, met with Forrestal to report the poor state of SAC. Following this meeting, Norstad recommended that Vandenberg replace Kenney, and Vandenberg quickly agreed, choosing Lieutenant General Curtis LeMay as the man he would prefer to lead the strategic bombing arm in case of war with the USSR. LeMay was made leader of SAC, and Kenney became commanding officer of the Air University, a position he held from October 1948 until his retirement from the Air Force in September 1951. In April 1949, Kenney became the sixth person to receive the General William E. Mitchell Memorial Award. He was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in Dayton, Ohio, in 1971. ## Retirement After his retirement, he lived in Bay Harbor Islands, Florida. In 1958 he appeared as the host of the TV anthology series Flight. He died on August 9, 1977. ## Books Kenney wrote three books about the SWPA air campaigns he led during World War II. His major work was General Kenney Reports (1949), a personal history of the air war he led from 1942 to 1945. He also wrote The Saga of Pappy Gunn (1959) and Dick Bong: Ace of Aces (1960), which described the careers of Paul Gunn and Richard Bong, two of the most prominent airmen under his command. In addition, he wrote a book about military leader General Douglas MacArthur titled The MacArthur I Know (1951). ## Family He was survived by his two children, five grandsons and one granddaughter. His son, William "Bill" R. Kenney, rose to the rank of colonel in the USAF. His daughter, Julia, married Edward C. Hoagland Jr., a fighter pilot in World War II and later in Korea, who eventually retired from the USAF at the rank of lieutenant colonel. ## Dates of rank Effective dates of rank, which count towards time in service, are when the officer formally accepted the appointment or promotion. Source: ### Awards and decorations - Nine Overseas Service Bars, three for World War I and six for World War II ## See also - List of commanders-in-chief of the Strategic Air Command

Spider-Man Unlimited (video game)

2014 endless runner video game

Spider-Man Unlimited is a discontinued endless runner video game developed and published by Gameloft based on the Marvel Comics superhero Spider-Man. The player controls the title character and his alternate versions during his fight against the members of the Sinister Six and their multiverse counterparts. The game's main mode features definitive goals in contrast to the traditional aim of running as far as possible. The game was also known for having regular, special, time-limited, community events. Announced in June 2014, Spider-Man Unlimited was released for Android, iOS and Windows Phone on September 10, 2014. Starting in October 2014, Gameloft released several updates that added chapters to the story mode, Spider-Men and Spider-Women, enemies, events, and stages. The game was discontinued in March 2019. It has been downloaded 30 million times and has been well received by gaming critics. Reviewers praised the game's controls, sound, animation and the variety of characters, while criticizing its energy system, which they considered a limit to its playability. ## Plot After Spider-Man defeats a figure known as the Gold Goblin, Nick Fury tells him the Green Goblin has used a portal to assemble a multiverse Sinister Six and plans to take over Spider-Man's dimension. S.H.I.E.L.D. used the portal to assemble alternative versions of Spider-Man and other spider-powered heroes like Spider-Girl, Spider-Ham, and Spider-Man 2099 to aid in the battle. Spider-Man pursues the Green Goblin and his alternative versions. After he defeats the alternative Goblins, Spider-Man fights various versions of Vulture, Electro, Sandman, Doctor Octopus, and Mysterio, as well as the Sinister Soldiers—armored soldiers working for the multiverse Sinister Six. ## Gameplay Spider-Man Unlimited is an endless runner game in which Spider-Man runs across New York rooftops, including that of the Oscorp building, as well as Sinister Six spaceships and a giant Doctor Octopus machine, as he dodges obstacles, defeats enemies, and collect power-ups and vials. Regular enemies are defeated by slide attacks and punches, while bosses requires the player to fling projectiles at them. Players earn combos by overthrowing enemies; almost hitting an obstacle or going through a ring also increases the player's combo count. Sections in which Spider-Man swings through streets, climbs the sides of buildings and free-falls from buildings are interspersed with the running portions of the game. The game has a story mode that, in contrast to traditional endless runners, features definitive goals—for example defeating a predetermined number of enemies, collecting random items, reaching a specific point, or defeating the boss. It is divided into chapters, called "issues", each having 5 main missions that end with a boss fight, and various side missions. Some missions can only be completed by a specific version of Spider-Man. Others were restricted to characters of a certain level; but with the third update, it was modified to require a certain amount of "Spidey Power", or the player's team multiplier. By completing missions, the player can win experience points to reach the next level and in-game currency: regular vials or rarer ISO-8. Players can improve their power-ups and buy alternate versions of Spider-Man by spending vials. To get a new version of Spider-Man as a "card", players can use their vials or ISO-8 to open portals to an alternate dimension from which a randomly selected Spider-Man arrives. Each card can be leveled up and has a star rating called the level cap. To level up a card, players can earn experience points during a run. A card can also be sacrificed to level up another, and by fusing two equal cards, players can increase a card's level cap. By using vials, which usually gives players a 3- or 4-star character, players have a small chance of acquiring a rare version of Spider-Man, while ISO-8 ensures they get a rare one. Each card has a score multiplier that is raised once a Spider is leveled up and a special ability. For example, Spider-Armor increases by 30% the score earned by running. Each card occupies a character slot, of which six are available. Players can unlock slots by completing an issue, or can buy it using vials and, as the price increases, ISO-8s. In addition to the story mode, the game features an unlimited, de facto endless runner-style mode and time-limited events, both of which are score-based games. The leaderboard of the unlimited mode awards prizes based on daily rank. In events, players can compete against other players and win rewards; players earn the Spider-Man featured in that event by ranking at certain positions on the leaderboard or reaching certain objectives. The seventh update added an alliance mode for online players; it is a territorial competition to gain the possession of New York streets, in which a player can join an alliance or create one's own to confront other's alliances.[^1] Additionally, players can complete extra missions called "Spidey Ops", in which one or more characters, up to a maximum of six, become unavailable for a set period of time; when they return they gain experience and vials. The game's energy system gives players 5 energy points at the start. Beginning a run in any mode costs one point, and it takes 10 minutes for a point to recharge. Players can pay to refill energy by spending ISO-8s. Players can make friends at the leaderboard; once per day they can send and request 5 energy points, which are stored in their inboxes.

## Development and release Spider-Man Unlimited was developed and published by Paris-based company Gameloft. Its soundtrack was composed by Pascal Dion, and it was directed by Baptiste Marmey, produced by Steve Melanson, designed by Corentin Delprat, and programmed by Jerome Chen. At a press release on June 6, 2014, Gameloft announced it had formed a partnership with Marvel Entertainment and was developing a Spider-Man-based game for smartphones and tablets. Later that month, during the Electronic Entertainment Expo, an announcement trailer was exhibited and the game was made playable. A second trailer was shown at the San Diego Comic-Con International that July. The game was released for iOS, Android OS, and Windows Phone on September 10. The idea for the game was first conceived as the production team thought that endless runner games were popular but were always too similar. To create an endless runner that would differentiate itself from others in the genre, the staff focused on Spider-Man's main powers, which originally led to a swinger-only game. However, they found it "a bit boring", and it was complicated to have boss fights and to add new systems and gameplay styles. Then they reconceptualized the game as a runner with elements of swinging, fighting, wall-climbing, and free-falling. The storyline of the game was created to focus on the Sinister Six and the multiple versions of Spider-Man. Gameloft was allowed to explore other stories such as the Spider-Verse, but they were required to consult with Marvel to decide which were to be featured. The product manager, Tatiana Nahai, was the responsible for choosing among the options and she discusses the ideas with the narrative designer. After the narrative designer creates the main plotline and dialogues, they consult Marvel writer Fred Van Lente for feedback. The same process of having Marvel feedback occurs for the addition of new characters and environments. Environments were created by the level design team, which was responsible for deciding which obstacles or types of boss attacks fit best, based on how distinct they would be from other levels. As new updates were released, new environments like the New York Highline, 2099 New York and snowy New York were added. The animation techniques for the characters were based on previous Spider-Man games, films and comics. Characters were designed to be balanced and, with this in mind, the production team tried to implement similar abilities for the Spider-Men and Spider-Women, despite giving them different skills. Originally, Marvel only allowed the staff to use 30 characters, but the developers felt it was limited—only having 1 female character, for example—and requested more variety. Requests on their forums, Facebook page, subreddit, and Twitch were also considered, but they always focused on thematic releases; for example, "Monster Spiders" (Spider-X and Tarantula) or dimensional variations of Spider-Man. Since the inception of the game, the production team planned to add a character with a level cap higher than 100 as they imagined players would eventually master all the available characters. This resulted in the creation of the "Titan" characters to expand the game replay value. To avoid overpowering them and reducing other characters' value, however, they made Titans difficult to acquire. Gameloft frequently released updates to the game. The main reason for adding new updates was to group characters thematically and to synchronize with Marvel Comics. As such, the first update, released in October 2014, started the "Spider-Verse" storyline; this remained the main theme until the fourth update, released in April following year. The main villains of this storyline, the Inheritors, were faced in the "Great Hunt" event; first Karn and Morlun, then Daemos and Jennix, and ultimately Solus. The seventh update, released in September 2015, added events and environments based on the Spider-Island storyline into the game. The eighth, released in October, continued Spider-Island, and added Renew Your Vows character Annie Parker and costumes from the All-New, All-Different storyline. The game even anticipated the comics when a new Spider-Woman's costume debuted in the second update, released in December 2014, before its March 2015 comics debut. The updates also contributed to the main story mode; the first added Sandman as its boss, while the fourth added Doctor Octopus, the sixth added Mysterio, and Venom was added in the August 2016 update. New characters were frequently added through the updates, and some of them, such as Spider-Gwen, Silk, Spider-Punk, and Aracnido Jr., made their first appearances in Spider-Man Unlimited. Other common update content included thematic fights against specific villains, such as Jack O'Lantern, Hydro-Man, and Silver Sable. The sixth improved objective counters for events, while the seventh added short mission-style events. Some updates like the first and the sixth also included bug fixes, while the first adapted it to run on Windows Phone devices with 512 megabytes of RAM, and the sixth also made it compatible with the MFi Program. Coinciding with the release of Avengers: Infinity War on April 27, 2018, the game released a tie-in event involving Thanos in his quest to collect the Infinity Stones. The 32nd update of the game also featured the release of the Iron Spider based on the movie incarnation as well as the introduction of other characters, particularly those from the Venomverse story. On December 20, Gameloft announced that the game would receive no more updates and would be shut down by March 31, 2019. ## Reception Spider-Man Unlimited has been well received by customers; as of December 2014, it has been downloaded more than 30 million times. Media outlets noted it had a "dedicated" and "hardcore" fanbase. Critics have provided "generally favorable reviews", according to Metacritic, which assigns a score of 79 out of 100 based on 10 reviews. Jim Squires, writing for Gamezebo, stated the game "is both how you do a runner right AND how you do a superhero game right". Shaun Musgrave of TouchArcade recommended it to both Spider-Man fans and endless runner fans. Polygon's Justin McElroy said "Spider-Man Unlimited is a top-notch game all on its own". The staff of Download.com appreciated its combination of "great graphics, super-spidey skills, and the old-school feel of a classic runner game". For 148Apps.com, Jennifer Allen wrote, "Despite [some problems], Spider-Man Unlimited is a surprisingly well-made endless runner". Peter Willington of Pocket Gamer wrote that those waiting for a Spider-Man game would "be disappointed" but that it is "a high quality auto-runner". Squires, Willington, and McElroy praised the responsiveness of the game's controls, and the Download.com staff enjoyed its intuitiveness. Regarding the audio, Musgrave and Willington praised the voice acting, Musgrave commended the soundtrack, and Willington praised the sound effects. Musgrave, Willington, and McElroy also commended the animation; Musgrave and Willington mainly appreciated the comic book-like style, and Musgrave and McElroy the varied environments. Squires said it has "a perfect mix of speed, humor, missions, and collectibles", while McElroy and the Download.com staff highlighted the possibility of having collectible Spider-Men. Squires and Musgrave praised the variability between running, swinging, climbing and free-falling; the former stated, "the result is a game that continues to feel fresh long after the hundredth play". Musgrave commented, "the art style does sometimes hinder the gameplay", and Willington was critical of the story mode, which he said had a "weak plot" and lacked character development. The Download.com staff also noted some lags and software bugs, while Musgrave and Allen stated the controls sometimes had problems recognizing swipes. Squires commented that a problem of the game is its level cap limit when the player is using only one character. However, according to Musgrave, the game's energy system was "the biggest point of controversy"; he, Willington, Allen, and Mike Fahey of Kotaku criticized it. In opposition, McElroy said the energy system is a "microtransaction hook" that is easily surmountable without spending any real money, and Squires affirmed that because of the duration of a run it "ends up feeling a lot fairer in practice than it sounds on paper". While David Chapman of Common Sense Media generally praised the game, saying it "does a great job of capturing the feel of the comic books", he was critical of its frequent adverstising and pop-ups that contributed to what he described as an "ever-present push to buy something". When Gameloft announced Spider-Man Unlimited would be discontinued, Ryan Winslett of CinemaBlend and Tyler Fischer of ComicBook.com noted that fans would be disappointed as the game's plot was not concluded, resulting on a cliffhanger. However, Fischer noted some fans were already expecting it, while Winslett stated it is not rare for a mobile game to be shut down without any previous announcement, which made the three-month warning sound good. Winslett also found the discontinuance to be surprising as Spider-Man–related properties at the time such as Spider-Man: Homecoming, Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse, and Marvel's Spider-Man'' were commercially successful at the time. [^1]:

Flesh and Stone

Episode of Doctor Who

"Flesh and Stone" is the fifth episode of the fifth series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who. Written by Steven Moffat and directed by Adam Smith, the episode was first broadcast on 1 May 2010 on BBC One. Featuring the Weeping Angels as primary villains and the recurring character River Song (Alex Kingston), it is the conclusion of a two-episode story; the first part, "The Time of Angels", aired on 24 April. In the episode, the alien time traveller the Eleventh Doctor (Matt Smith), his companion Amy Pond (Karen Gillan), River Song, and Father Octavian (Iain Glen) and his militarised clerics have escaped entrapment by the Weeping Angels, creatures who only move when unobserved by others. They take refuge inside the crashed starship Byzantium, but the Angels pursue them and Amy is on the brink of dying from the imprint of an Angel in her eye. Both the Angels and the Doctor's team face danger from a widening crack in space and time which has the power to erase persons from history. Moffat wrote the two-part story as a more action-packed sequel to his 2007 episode "Blink", inspired by the relationship between the film Alien and its sequel, Aliens. The episode contains vital information concerning the main story arc of the cracks in time, and contains many instances which are character-motivated. "The Time of Angels" and "Flesh and Stone" were the first two episodes of the fifth series to be filmed; filming for "Flesh and Stone" took place in July 2009, with location filming in Puzzlewood and Southerndown beach. The episode was watched by 8.495 million viewers in the United Kingdom and received mostly positive reviews from critics, though many commented that it did not live up to the quality to the first part and disagreed about the decision to show the Angels moving. ## Plot The Eleventh Doctor, Amy, River, Father Octavian, and Octavian's surviving clerics escape the approaching Weeping Angels when the Doctor destroys the gravity globe illuminating the cave they are in, allowing them to jump up into the artificial gravity of the crashed starship Byzantium. They scramble inside as the Angels start to follow, and the Doctor directs the group to the ship's oxygen factory, a forest contained within the ship. As they pass the primary flight deck, the Doctor notices a crack in its wall just like the one in Amy's bedroom is leaking time energy from the end of the universe that the Angels are being drawn to. Amy starts becoming more afflicted by the image of the Angel in her eye, and the Doctor instructs her to keep her eyes closed, preventing her from seeing it. Octavian has the clerics guard Amy while he, the Doctor and River make for a secondary flight deck on the other side of the oxygen factory. During this, the Doctor learns that River is Octavian's prisoner, and is promised a full pardon if she helps capture the Angel. Octavian is killed by an Angel but this allows the Doctor and River to enter and secure the flight deck. They analyse the crack and confirm that the leaking energy came from an explosion in time, and they narrow the date of the explosion's epicenter to Amy's home time. Meanwhile, the Angels start to move away from the flight deck room. The clerics are erased from time by the crack as it grows wider. River teleports Amy to the secondary flight deck, rescuing her from the Angels. The Angels' energy drain of the Byzantium engines cause the artificial gravity to fail, and the Angels fall into the crack. The crack closes, as the Angels are a sufficiently complex event in space and time to do so. Because the Angel that infected Amy has been erased from time, she is no longer afflicted by it. River is taken back into custody. Amy asks the Doctor to take her back to Earth on the day he took her, and she shows him that she is to be wed the next day, before she tries to seduce him. The Doctor believes the cracks are related to Amy herself, and he brings her inside the TARDIS to "get [her] sorted out". ## Production ### Writing Writer Steven Moffat came up with the concept for "The Time of Angels" and "Flesh and Stone" when he was thinking of the worst possible situations to be in with the Weeping Angels and thought of the inability to see. His first idea was blindness, though this developed into the situation that Amy ends up in. Moffat designed the two-part story to be a more action-oriented sequel to "Blink", an episode he wrote for the third series that introduced the Weeping Angels. He was inspired by the relationship between the film Alien and its sequel, Aliens, which he referred to as "the best conceived movie sequel ever", describing it as being more "highly coloured" as opposed to Alien's more low-key tone. He also intended for the Angels to have a plan that could become "almost like a war", in contrast to the way they were struggling to survive in "Blink". The title "Flesh and Stone" was suggested by Moffat's son. The episode is also important in the main story arc concerning the cracks in time and space. The idea of the crack was inspired by a similar crack in the wall of Moffat's son's bedroom. As the crack reappears, several facts about it are revealed. In the episode, the Doctor speculates that they are connected to the fact that Amy could not remember the events of several previous episodes, as well as events in history that had occurred in "The Next Doctor". He also discovers that the time explosion that caused the crack is due to occur on 26 June 2010, which is also the original airdate of the final episode of the series, "The Big Bang". Before the Doctor, River, and Octavian leave Amy and the other clerics, the Doctor briefly returns to console Amy and to ask her to trust him and remember what he told her when she was younger; however, the Doctor in this scene is shown wearing his jacket, which he had lost to the Angels earlier in the episode, as well as a different wristwatch. It is revealed in "The Big Bang" that this was in fact the Doctor from later in his timeline, setting up events in Amy's past to try to help her remember him after he has rebooted the universe. River Song tells the Doctor she will see him again when the Pandorica opens; the Pandorica was previously referred to by Prisoner Zero in "The Eleventh Hour" and is revealed in "The Pandorica Opens", which also sees the return of River Song. Many details of the episode were character-driven. The Angel's wish to torture Amy "for fun" sparked anger in the Doctor, but also gave him courage to defeat the Angels and save Amy. Moffat stated that, in the scene in which the Doctor must work out how to save Amy in a matter of seconds, he was "very basic ... very pure, simple Doctor", and did not have time to comfort Amy because any compassion would get in the way of his reasoning. River was also meant to understand this, and explain to Amy that he needed to think. Moffat believed that Amy was "passionate and a fighter and ... also really smart", which he demonstrated in the scene where Amy could not open her eyes for more than a second but was determined to do it for less than one. Moffat also believed that Amy's attempt to seduce the Doctor was consistent with the character he had built up from her first episode. It reflected the narrow escape from death and challenging experience the two had just shared, and Amy's tendency to do things "in the heat of the moment" – although Moffat later admitted he regretted the way he wrote the scene, saying "I played it for laughs, and it was so wrong". The Doctor's response was intended to be a typically embarrassed and flustered reaction to female behaviour of this kind. ### Filming and effects

"The Time of Angels" and "Flesh and Stone" were the first two episodes to be produced in the series. The read-through for "Flesh and Stone" took place on 15 July 2009 following the read-through of "The Time of Angels". The forest scenes in the Byzantium were filmed at Puzzlewood, in the Forest of Dean over nine nights in July 2009. The final scenes on a beach were shot at Southerndown, Vale of Glamorgan in Wales during 20–21 July 2009, the first filming done for the new series. Most of the Weeping Angels are not statue props but young women wearing masks, costumes, and paint that took two to three hours to apply. Director Adam Smith called them "an absolute nightmare to film with" because it took a long time for them to get ready and they had to stand still for long periods of time. In the climactic scene Gillan had to walk with her eyes closed, which she said was difficult and challenging as the ground was uneven and muddy. She stated that "it was the most scary thing" when she had to trip over a step and fall, even though she was aware of the crash mat. As she was not able to express herself through her eyes, Gillan had to make herself more animated to convey emotion. The scene in which the Doctor, Amy and River are horizontal in mid-air when the gravity field fails on the Byzantium was achieved by using wires and powerful wind machines. The blue in Amy's bedroom was Adam Smith's idea, to show that it was inspired by the TARDIS from Amy's encounter with the Doctor when she was young. ## Broadcast and reception "Flesh and Stone" was first broadcast on BBC One and simulcast on BBC HD on 1 May 2010. Overnight figures showed that "Flesh and Stone" was watched by 6.87 million viewers; 6.53 million watched on BBC One, with a further 0.34 on BBC HD. This was a slight increase from the previous episode, but "Flesh and Stone" was still second for the night behind Britain's Got Talent. Final consolidated ratings showed that 8.495 million viewers had watched the episode, with 8.019 on BBC One and 476,000 on BBC HD, the fifth and first most-watched programme on each channel respectively. It achieved an Appreciation Index of 86, considered "excellent". ### Critical reception "Flesh and Stone" has received mostly positive reviews. Daniel Martin gave the episode a positive review on The Guardian's guardian.co.uk, saying that it "can lay credible claim to being the greatest episode of Doctor Who there has ever been". He went on to declare: "It's just ridiculously good — so much that there's scarcely any point in picking out moments because there was an iconic sequence every couple of seconds." In particular he praised Father Octavian's death scene, noting how "despair creeps over Matt Smith's face as he realises he is going to have to leave him to die; Octavian's final speech weeps with honour and elegance". IGN's Matt Wales gave the episode a 10 out of 10 rating, saying it was "packed with huge, iconic moments" and stated, "by the end of it, we were left with more questions than answers and a far better sense of Moffat's meticulous planning". Gavin Fuller, writing for The Daily Telegraph's website, described the episode as "a rollercoaster ride of thrills and spills". He praised the forest scenes, saying they were "easily the highlight of the episode, taking in a whole range of emotions as the nature and scale of the threat facing the Doctor, Amy, River and the clerics shifted as the episode progressed." However he expressed uncertainty over Amy's "attempted seduction of the Doctor", claiming that it "did seem out of keeping with the usual tone of the series", and that "Given the number of young children who watch, it may not have been the most appropriate of scenes to screen". Patrick Mulkern, writing for the Radio Times, gave the episode a positive review, describing it and its predecessor "The Time of Angels" as "two episodes of Who that deserve 10 out of 10 in anybody's scorebook", although he felt that of the two "The Time of Angels" was "marginally more dazzling", as he found the Angels in that episode more "macabre", but he still thought that "Flesh and Stone" "bombards us with shudders and tension". He also stated that he was "much amused by Amy's amorous antics at the end". Steven Cooper of Slant Magazine called it "an exciting, action-packed roller coaster" and praised director Adam Smith's "top-notch visuals" as well the performances of Smith, Gillan, and Kingston. He noted the difference between Moffat's more obvious story arc as opposed to others in the revived series, believing it to be possibly a "long-overdue innovation" for the show. Though he praised the final defeat of the Angels for making use of what the viewer had forgotten, he thought that being able to see the Angels moving was "creepy and well-done", but made them "much less original and interesting" and the reason behind it weak, considering that the scene had "no significance at all" and was just to fill up time. SFX Magazine's Dave Golder agreed, calling the scene "very creepy" and the Angels moving "effective", but feeling that "these once great monsters come across a bit wussy and stupid". He also thought that it did not live up to the "brilliant first part", feeling "a bit one-note" and lacking "a really good jawdropping revelation". However, he thought it was "a solid, exciting, pulse-pounding 45 minutes" that was "tense, action-packed, and stuffed with memorable one-liners and touching character moments", particularly praising Amy's countdown and Octavian's death, and gave the episode four out of five stars. ## Home media A Region 2 DVD and Blu-ray containing "Flesh and Stone" together with the episodes "The Time of Angels" and "The Vampires of Venice" was released on 5 July 2010. It was re-released as part of the complete series five DVD on 8 November 2010. The DVD also contains a cut scene set between "Flesh and Stone" and "The Vampires of Venice" where the Doctor tries to explain to Amy that he needs companions, not out of any ulterior motive but to help him see the universe with fresh eyes. ### In print Pearson Education published a novelisation of this episode and "The Time of Angels" under the title The Time of Angels by Trevor Baxendale for school literacy programs in May 2011. ## Legacy In 2017, Moffat said that he wished he could have changed the kissing scene at the end. He said in a Twitter Q&A, "...there’s a brilliant scene to be written there, and I entirely avoided writing it. I played it for laughs, and it was so wrong."

Battle of Kinburn (1855)

1855 battle of the Crimean War

The Battle of Kinburn, a combined land-naval engagement during the final stage of the Crimean War, took place on the tip of the Kinburn Peninsula (on the south shore of the Dnieper–Bug estuary in what is now Ukraine) on 17 October 1855. During the battle a combined fleet of vessels from the French Navy and the British Royal Navy bombarded Russian coastal fortifications after an Anglo-French ground force had besieged them. Three French ironclad batteries carried out the main attack, which saw the main Russian fortress destroyed in an action that lasted about three hours. The battle, although strategically insignificant with little effect on the outcome of the war, is notable for the first use of modern ironclad warships in action. Although frequently hit, the French ships destroyed the Russian forts within three hours, suffering minimal casualties in the process. This battle convinced contemporary navies to design and build new major warships with armour plating; this instigated a naval arms race between France and Britain lasting over a decade. ## Background In September 1854, the Anglo-French army that had been at Varna was ferried across the Black Sea and landed on the Crimean Peninsula. They then fought their way to the main Russian naval base on the peninsula, the city of Sevastopol, which they placed under siege. The Russian garrison eventually withdrew from the city in early September 1855, freeing the French and British fleets for other tasks. A discussion ensued over what target should be attacked next; the French and British high commands considered driving from the Crimea to Kherson and launching major campaigns in Bessarabia or the Caucasus. Instead, at the urging of French commanders, they settled on a smaller-scale operation to seize the Russian fort at Kinburn, which protected the mouth of the Dnieper. The British argued that to seize Kinburn without advancing to Nikolaev would only serve to warn the Russians of the threat to the port. Fox Maule-Ramsay, then the British Secretary of State for War, suggested that without a plan to exploit the capture of the fortress, the only purpose of the operation would be to give the fleets something to do. ### Forces involved The fortress was located on the Kinburn Spit, at the extreme western end of the Kinburn Peninsula, and consisted of three separate fortifications. The primary fort, built of stone, square, and equipped with bastions, held 50 guns, some of which were mounted in protective casemates; the rest were in en barbette mountings, firing over the parapets. Two smaller fortresses were located further down the spit, mounting ten and eleven guns, respectively. The first was a small stone fort, while the second was a simple sand earthwork. The forts were armed only with medium and smaller calibre guns, the largest guns being 24-pounders. Major General Maxim Kokhanovitch commanded the garrison of 1,500 men, most of whom were stationed in the main fort. Across the estuary was Fort Nikolaev in the town of Ochakov with fifteen more guns, but these were too far away to play a role in the battle. To attack the forts, the British and French assembled a fleet centred on four French and six British ships of the line, led by British Rear Admiral Edmund Lyons and the French Vice Admiral Armand Joseph Bruat. The British contributed a further seventeen frigates and sloops, ten gunboats, and six bomb vessels, along with ten transport vessels. The French squadron included three corvettes, four avisos, twelve gunboats, and five bomb vessels. The transports carried a force of 8,000 men from French and British Army regiments that would be used to besiege the forts. In addition to the contingent of conventional sailing warships, the French squadron brought three experimental ironclad warships that had recently arrived from France. These, the first three ironclad batteries of the Dévastation class—Lave, Dévastation, and Tonnante—had been sent to the Black Sea in late July, but they arrived too late to take part in the siege of Sevastopol. These vessels, the first ironclad warships, carried eighteen 50-pounder guns and were protected with 4 inches (100 mm) of wrought iron armour. Observers speculated that these untested warships would be ineffective in combat, owing to their slow speed and poor handling.

## Battle In an effort to confuse the Russians, the combined fleet made a feint westward toward Odessa on 8 October before turning east to Kinburn. The combined French and British fleet arrived off Kinburn on 14 October. That night, a force of nine gunboats escorted transports carrying 8,000 men, led by François Achille Bazaine, who were landed behind the forts, further up the peninsula. The gunboat force was commanded by Rear Admiral Houston Stewart, who ordered his crews to hold their fire in the darkness unless they were able to clearly see a Russian target. The Russians did not launch a counterattack on the landing, allowing the French and British soldiers to dig trench positions while the gunboats shelled the main fort, albeit ineffectively. By the morning of the 17th, the soldiers had completed significant entrenchments, with French troops facing the fortifications and British troops manning the outward defences against a possible Russian attempt to relieve the garrison. By this time, the French had begun building sapping trenches, which then came under fire from the Russian fortress. In the meantime, on the night of the 16th, a French vessel had taken depth soundings close to the main fort to determine how closely the ships could approach it. Throughout this time, heavy seas prevented the fleet from launching a sustained bombardment of the Russian positions. At around 9:00 on 17 October, the Anglo-French fleet moved into position to begin their bombardment. The ships of the line had a difficult time getting into effective positions owing to the shoals in the surrounding water, and so much of the work fell to smaller and shallower draught vessels, most prominently the three ironclad batteries. The floating batteries were anchored just 600 yards (550 m) from the Russian fortress, where they proved to be immune to Russian artillery fire, which either bounced off or exploded harmlessly on their wrought iron armour plating. The French and British ships of the line were anchored further out, at around 1,200 yards (1,100 m), while the bomb vessels were placed further still, at 2,800 yards (2,600 m). While their guns battered at the fortifications, the ironclads each had a contingent of Royal Marines who inflicted significant casualties on the Russian gun crews. The only significant hit on the ironclad batteries was one shell that entered a gunport on Dévastation, which killed two men but otherwise caused no serious damage to the ship. The cannonade started fires in the main fortress and rapidly disabled Russian guns. Once Russian fire started to decrease, the gunboats moved into position behind the fortresses and began to bombard them as well. In the course of the morning, the three French vessels fired some 3,000 shells into the fort, and by 12:00, it had been neutralized by the combined firepower of the Anglo-French fleet. A single Russian hoisted a white flag above the fort to indicate their surrender, and Kokhanovitch walked out to speak with the French ground commander. According to historian James Grant, around 1,100 Russians of the 1,500-man garrison survived the battle and were allowed to leave without their weapons. Herbert Wilson puts the Russian casualties much lower, at 45 dead and 130 wounded. For the French and British, the only men killed were the two aboard Dévastation, with a further 25 wounded, all of whom were aboard the floating batteries. In the course of the battle, Dévastation was hit 75 times, while Lave received 66 hits and Tonnante was hit around the same number of times. None of the ships emerged from the battle with more than minor dents in their armour plate. ## Aftermath On 20 October, Bazaine's infantry conducted reconnaissance toward Kherson and met no organized resistance before withdrawing. After they returned to Kinburn, the French and British commanders determined that the fort could be rebuilt and held through the upcoming winter. A force of 1,700 men was left behind to garrison the position, along with the three ironclad batteries. The rest of the force returned to the Crimea. Though the British had initially considered continuing up the Dnieper to capture Nikolaev, it became clear after the seizure of Kinburn that to do so would require much larger numbers of soldiers to clear the cliffs that dominated the river than had been originally estimated. The British planned to eventually launch an offensive to take Nikolaev in 1856, but the war ended before it could be begun. Since they lacked the forces to take Nikolaev in a single campaign, the seizure of Kinburn proved to have limited strategic effect. Nevertheless, the attack on Kinburn was significant in that it demonstrated that the French and British fleets had developed effective amphibious capabilities and had technological advantages that gave them a decisive edge over their Russian opponents. The destruction of Kinburn's coastal fortifications completed the Anglo-French naval campaign in the Black Sea; the Russians no longer had any meaningful forces left to oppose them at sea. The British and French navies planned to transfer forces to the Baltic Sea the following year to strengthen operations there. Diplomatic pressure from still-neutral Austria convinced Czar Alexander II of Russia to sue for peace, which was concluded the following February with the Treaty of Paris. In his report, Bruat informed his superiors that "[e]verything may be expected from these formidable engines of war." The effectiveness of the ironclad batteries in neutralizing the Russian guns, though still debated by naval historians, nevertheless convinced French Emperor Napoleon III to order more ironclad warships. Their success at Kinburn, coupled with the devastating effect new shell-firing guns had had on wooden warships at the Battle of Sinop earlier in the war led most French naval officers to support the new armoured vessels. Napoleon III's programme produced the first sea-going ironclad, Gloire, initiating a naval construction race between France and Britain that would last until the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. The British Royal Navy, which had five ironclad batteries under construction, laid down another four after the victory at Kinburn, and replied to Gloire with a pair of armoured frigates of their own, Warrior and Black Prince. France built a further eleven batteries built to three different designs, and the Russian Navy built fifteen armoured rafts for harbour defence. ## See also - Battle of Kinburn (1787)

USS Johnston (DD-557)

Fletcher-class destroyer that helped stop a large Japanese fleet in WWII

USS Johnston (DD-557) was a Fletcher-class destroyer built for the United States Navy during World War II. She was named after Lieutenant John V. Johnston, an officer of the US Navy during the American Civil War. Johnston was laid down in May 1942 and was launched on 25 March 1943. She entered active duty in October 1943 under the command of Lieutenant Commander Ernest E. Evans and was assigned to the US Pacific Fleet. Johnston provided naval gunfire support for American ground forces during the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign in January and February 1944 and again, after three months of patrol and escort duty in the Solomon Islands, during the recapture of Guam in July. Thereafter, Johnston was tasked with escorting escort carriers during the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign and the liberation of the Philippines. On 25 October 1944, while assigned as part of the escort to six escort carriers, Johnston, two other Fletcher-class destroyers, and four destroyer escorts were engaged by a large Imperial Japanese Navy flotilla. In what became known as the Battle off Samar, Johnston and the other escort ships charged the Japanese ships to protect nearby US carriers and transport craft. After engaging several Japanese capital ships and a destroyer squadron, Johnston was sunk with 187 dead, including Evans. Johnston's wreck was discovered on 30 October 2019 but was not properly identified until March 2021. Lying more than 20,000 feet (6,100 m) below the surface of the ocean, it was the deepest shipwreck ever surveyed until the discovery of USS Samuel B. Roberts on 22 June 2022. ## Design and characteristics To rectify the top-heaviness and stability problems of the preceding Benson and Gleaves classes, the Fletcher class was greatly increased in size over the older designs. This allowed them to accept additional anti-aircraft (AA) guns and electronic equipment as well as their operators without sacrificing guns or torpedoes as the older ships were forced to do during the war. The Fletchers displaced 2,100 long tons (2,134 t) at standard load and 2,544 long tons (2,585 t) at deep load, roughly 30 percent more than the Bensons and Gleaves. In early 1942, the design of the Fletchers was modified to reduce topweight and to simplify the construction of the bridge by squaring off the curves at its front. One deck was removed from the aft superstructure and the base of the fire-control director above the bridge was shortened by six feet (1.8 m). The splinter plating protecting the bridge and the director was also reduced in thickness. In addition, visibility from the bridge was improved by the addition of an open platform connected to the bridge wings. The ships had an overall length of 376 feet 6 inches (114.76 m), with a draft of 17 feet 9 inches (5.41 m) and beam of 39 feet 8 inches (12.09 m). The ships were powered by two General Electric geared steam turbines that each drove one propeller shaft using steam provided by four Babcock & Wilcox boilers. The turbines produced 60,000 shaft horsepower (45,000 kW) which was intended to give the ships a top speed of 37.8 knots (70.0 km/h; 43.5 mph). The destroyers carried enough fuel oil to give them a range of 4,490 nautical miles (8,320 km; 5,170 mi) at 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). They were crewed by 9 officers and 264 enlisted men. ### Armament, fire control, protection and sensors The main battery of the Fletcher-class destroyers consisted of five dual-purpose 5 in (127 mm)/38 caliber guns in single mounts which were grouped in superfiring pairs fore and after of the superstructure. The fifth mount was positioned on the aft superstructure forward of the aft pair. The guns were controlled by the Mark 37 director. Their anti-aircraft battery depended on the availability of the weapons, but Johnston was built with ten 40 mm (1.6 in) Bofors guns in five powered twin-gun mounts and seven manually operated 20 mm (0.8 in) Oerlikon cannons. The forward pair of Bofors mounts were located forward of the bridge and the second pair were on platforms abreast the aft funnel with one mount on each broadside; the last mount was positioned between the aft superfiring pair of guns and the single mounts forward of them. Each mount was controlled by a nearby Mark 51 director. Four Oerlikons were located amidships, two on each broadside, and three were grouped in a triangle at the stern, next to the depth charge racks. The ships were fitted with two racks, each holding eight 600-pound (270 kg) depth charges and adjacent to them were two storage racks with five depth charges each. Abreast the aft superstructure were six "K-gun" throwers, three on each side, with five 300-pound (140 kg) depth charges. The destroyers were equipped with two quintuple rotating 21-inch (533 mm) torpedo tube mounts for Mark 15 torpedoes. The Fletchers had only minimal armor that was intended to protect against shell splinters and fragments. The sides of the propulsion machinery compartments consisted of plates 0.75 inches (19 mm) of special treatment steel (STS) while the deck above them consisted of 0.5-inch (12.7 mm) STS. The "square bridge" ships like Johnston had the splinter armor of the bridge reduced from the 0.75-inch armor of the earlier "round bridge" ships to 0.25 inches (6.4 mm). Furthermore, the protective plating of the Mark 37 director was reduced from the earlier 0.75 inches to 0.5 inches. The Fletcher-class destroyers were equipped with a Mark 4 or Mark 12 fire-control radar on the roof of the Mark 37 director. A SC-2 early-warning radar and a SG surface-search radar were fitted on the foremast. For anti-submarine work, the ships used a QC series sonar. ## Construction and service history Construction of Johnston, named after Lieutenant John V. Johnston, an officer of the US Navy during the American Civil War, began with the laying of her keel at the Seattle-Tacoma Shipbuilding Corporation's yard on 6 May 1942. Her launch, sponsored by Marie S. Klinger, Lt. Johnston's grandniece, took place on 25 March 1943. Johnston was finally commissioned into the United States Navy and placed under the command of Lieutenant Commander Ernest E. Evans on 27 October 1943. She then sailed to the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard and fitted out into early November. On 15 November, Johnston sailed for San Diego, California. From 19 November to 1 January 1944, Johnston put out to sea for her shakedown cruise and her crew trained with fleet units near San Diego. ### Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign On 13 January 1944 Johnston set sail for Hawaii with a US Navy squadron led by Rear Admiral Jesse B. Oldendorf and arrived 21 January. From there, Johnston sailed to join the ongoing campaign against the Japanese Empire in the Gilbert and Marshall Islands. She arrived by 29 January and was assigned to Fire Support Group 53.5 under Oldendorf. On 30 January, she screened for the cruisers Santa Fe, Biloxi, Indianapolis, and the battleship Maryland as they provided naval gunfire support for American forces in the Wotje Atoll. Johnston sailed for the Kwajalein Atoll, where from 31 January to 3 February she provided gunfire support for American forces attacking Roi-Namur Island. Johnston was reassigned on 5 February 1944 to escort transport ships to the Ellice Islands with destroyers Haraden and Stansbury, and the destroyer-minesweeper Long. The convoy set sail on 6 February but en route Johnston was ordered to return to the Marshalls for resupply. She arrived on 8 February, refueled, and then set sail for Kwajalein on 10 February. Her arrival was delayed until the next day after jellyfish clogged and overheated her condensers.

Almost as soon Johnston arrived, she was tasked with investigating a sighting of a Japanese submarine. No such vessel was detected. Early on 12 February, Japanese bombers attacked Roi-Namur, inflicting heavy casualties to the occupying Americans. In response to their detection on radar, Johnston and the other present American ships laid smoke to obscure their positions. They were not attacked. Over the next three days, Johnston resupplied, took on supplies from New Mexico, 5 in shells from Ringgold, and fuel oil from Suamico. Johnston was then attached to Operation Catchpole, the American attack on Enewetak Atoll. From 16 February to 18 February, Johnston screened for Pennsylvania, Colorado, Tennessee, Indianapolis, and cruisers Portland and Louisville as they bombarded Engebi Island. Then, from 19 February to 25 February, Johnston provided gunfire support for American troops herself and patrolled for submarines. ### Solomon Islands campaign On 25 February 1944, Johnston was relieved of patrol duty and was assigned to screen the escort carrier Manila Bay with Hoel. The trio was ordered back to the Marshall Islands on 28 February and arrived on 1 March. Johnston resupplied over the next five days. On 7 March the flotilla, joined by Natoma Bay, sailed for Espiritu Santo and arrived on 13 March. Johnston docked in the auxiliary floating drydock Waterford for minor repairs from 18 to 19 March, then set out for the Solomon Islands on 20 March. She arrived at Purvis Bay, near Guadalcanal, the following day and was subsequently assigned to patrol duties around New Ireland. On 27–28 March, Johnston and her sister ships Franks, Haggard, and Hailey were dispatched to bombard Kapingamarangi Atoll, in the Caroline Islands. Upon their return to the Solomons on 29 March, the destroyers were assigned additional patrol duties. For the rest of March and all of April, they patrolled the northern Solomons, escorted Allied shipping to and from them, and occasionally provided gunfire support for the US Army's XIV Corps on Bougainville Island. Johnston began May 1944 moored in Purvis Bay undergoing minor repairs. On 6 May, she sailed to New Georgia with Franks, Haggard, Hailey, and Hoel to screen for Montpelier and Cleveland and then for a minelaying operation between Bougainville and Buka Island on 10 May. Two days later, Haggard, Franks and Johnston were alerted by an American scout plane to the presence of the off Buka. The destroyers immediately began searching for the vessel and, late on 16 May, discovered it. Haggard, then Johnston, and then Franks attacked the submarine with depth charges and sank it after midnight on 17 May. The destroyers resumed their anti-submarine patrols on 18 May, then screened for Montpelier, Cleveland, and Birmingham as they shelled Japanese coastal guns on the Shortland Islands two days later. Johnston thereafter resumed patrol and escort duty, then docked with the destroyer tender Dixie for minor repairs from 27 May to 2 June. ### Mariana and Palau Islands campaign On 3 June 1944, Johnston joined a convoy of US warships headed to Kwajalein to join a fleet gathering to recapture Guam. The convoy arrived on 8 June, then made for Guam four days later with the invasion force and arrived by 18 June. The ongoing Battle of Saipan, however, delayed the invasion. On 30 June, the fleet was ordered to return to Kwajalein; Johnston arrived on 3 July and returned to patrol duty. When the invasion force was ordered back to Guam on 14 July, Johnston again sailed as part of its screen. The fleet arrived four days later. From 21 July to 1 August, Johnston joined several battleships, cruisers, and destroyers to furnish gunfire support for the 1st Marine Brigade and the 77th Infantry Division. Afterwards, from 2 August to 9 August, she screened for American ships. On 9 August, Johnston was ordered, with Franks, Haggard, Haily, Halford, Guest, Minneapolis, Cleveland, and Honolulu to return to the Marshalls. The flotilla arrived on 12 August, resupplied, and then sailed for Espiritu Santo from 19 August to 24 August. Three days later, after undergoing minor repairs, Johnston set sail for Purvis Bay with Pennsylvania, Idaho, Louisville, Minneapolis, and seven other destroyers. The flotilla arrived on 29 August and joined escort carriers Marcus Island, Ommaney Bay, Petrof Bay, Kalinin Bay, with whom Johnston trained for carrier escort duty. On 4 September, Johnston, Haggard, Hailey, and Welles, escorting Petrof Bay, Kalinan Bay, and Saginaw Bay, set sail for the Palau Islands and the invasions of Peleliu and of Angaur. Johnston escorted these escort carriers until 18 September, when Johnston was reassigned to escort Kitkun Bay, White Plains, and Gambier Bay. Johnston and her charges received orders on 21 September to proceed to Ulithi, an atoll in the Caroline Islands, where they arrived on 23 September. ### Battle off Samar The flotilla departed Ulithi on 25 September 1944 and arrived in Seeadler Harbor, in the Admiralty Islands on 1 October 1944. There, on 12 October, Johnston was assigned to the US 7th Fleet, which was preparing to invade the Philippines. Johnston was attached, with Hoel, Heermann, and the destroyer escorts Dennis, John C. Butler, Samuel B. Roberts, and Raymond, to the escort carriers Fanshaw Bay, St. Lo, White Plains, Gambier Bay, Kalinin Bay, and Kitkun Bay. These ships formed TU 77.4.3 (call sign "Taffy 3"), a sub-unit of the 7th Fleet's Escort Carrier Group (TG 77.4) commanded by Rear Admiral Clifton Sprague, aboard Fanshaw Bay, and sailed into Leyte Gulf on 17 October. In response, on 18 October, the Imperial Japanese Navy dispatched three fleets to cut off and destroy the American ground forces. The largest fleet was placed under the command of Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita and took a path that, on 25 October, led it to TG 77.4. Though Kurita's fleet – by 25 October numbering four battleships, eight cruisers, and 11 destroyers – had been attacked by US submarines and aircraft over the previous two days, TG 77.4 was not made aware of the Japanese force until Taffy 3's surface radar detected it at 0646. Johnston, 34,000 yards (31,000 m) south-east from the Japanese, was informed of its presence at 0650; eight minutes later, the Japanese opened fire, beginning the Battle off Samar. At 0657, Sprague ordered Taffy 3 to head east at top speed and lay smoke. Finding Johnston at the rear of the formation, however, Commander Evans ordered a turn to the northeast so that Johnston could charge the Japanese for a torpedo attack and lay smoke to cover the flotilla's escape. At 0710, Johnston began firing on the heavy cruiser Kumano, leading a column of cruisers, as she sailed into the 18,000-yard (16,000 m) range of Johnston's 5 in main battery. Johnston fired more than 200 main battery shells at the Kumano over the next five minutes, striking the cruiser at least 40 times and setting her superstructure on fire. Then, having closed to 10,000 yards (9,100 m), Johnston fired all 10 of her torpedoes at Kumano and then turned to hide in her own smoke. At least one of Johnston's torpedoes struck Kumano, blowing the bow off the latter. This damage forced Kumano and the cruiser Suzuya, which pulled alongside Kumano, to retire from the battle. But as Johnston charged and engaged Kumano, she was in turn engaged by battleships Yamato, Nagato and Haruna, and cruiser Suzuya. At 0730, Johnston sustained three 14 in and three 6 in shell hits. This resulted in numerous casualties and immense damage to her bridge and engineering spaces, the loss of her gyrocompass, aft 5 in guns, and steering engine, which reduced her speed to 17 knots (31 km/h; 20 mph). Hidden in her smoke and a rain squall for the next ten minutes, Johnston's crew restored power to two of the aft main guns. The third was permanently disconnected from fire control and had to be operated manually. After turning south to rejoin Taffy 3, Johnston encountered Hoel, Heermann, and Samuel B. Roberts, en route to make their own torpedo attacks. Evans turned Johnston around to follow and support them, in the process exchanging gunfire with the heavy cruiser Haguro. By 0820, the escorts had launched their torpedoes and turned south, making smoke and still exchanging fire with the Japanese, to rejoin Taffy 3. This was accomplished by 0840, when Heermann and Johnston, enveloped in smoke, nearly collided. At that time, Johnston spotted the battleship Kongō, 7,000 yards (6,400 m) distant, fired 30 shells at her, and then evaded returned fire from Kongō. Johnston next sighted Gambier Bay, immobile, listing to port, and under fire from a heavy cruiser, and briefly fired on the cruiser. Johnston ceased fire as four Japanese destroyers led by light cruiser Yahagi approached the other carriers. Johnston engaged the entire squadron, opening fire on Yahagi at 0850 from 10,000 yards and closed to 7,000 yards (6,400 m). She hit the cruiser 12 times and was in turn struck by several 5 in shells. In response, Yahagi, also being strafed by US aircraft, turned to starboard and disengaged. Johnston turned her fire on the Japanese destroyers, which soon also banked starboard and, with Yahagi, discharged their torpedoes at the carriers without effect. The squadron, joined by two more cruisers, then focused on Johnston, and, in short order, denuded her of her main mast, last engine, and guns, rendered the bridge uninhabitable, and set much of the ship ablaze. Evans moved his command to the fantail, where, at 0945, he ordered the crew to abandon ship. At 1010, Johnston rolled over and sank. Of her complement of 327 men, 186 men and officers, including Evans, died. The remaining 141 men were rescued by American vessels after 50 hours at sea. Johnston was struck from the Navy Register on 27 November 1944. ## Awards Johnston received six battle stars and, for the action at Samar, a Presidential Unit Citation. For the same action, Commander Evans was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor. ## Wreck discovery On 30 October 2019, the research vessel , belonging to Vulcan Inc., discovered the remains of what was believed to be Johnston at the bottom of the Philippine Trench. The remains consisted of a deck gun, a propeller shaft, and some miscellaneous debris that could not be used to identify the wreck, but additional debris was observed lying deeper than the RV could go. On 31 March 2021, the research vessel DSV Limiting Factor of Caladan Oceanic, financed and piloted by Victor Vescovo, surveyed and photographed the deeper wreck and definitively identified it as Johnston. She sits upright and is well preserved at a depth of 21,180 ft (6,460 m). Until Samuel B. Roberts was discovered on 22 June 2022, Johnston was the deepest discovered shipwreck in the world.

Dreamland (Coney Island, 1904)

Former amusement park in Brooklyn, New York

Dreamland was an amusement park in the Coney Island neighborhood of Brooklyn in New York City, United States, which operated from 1904 to 1911. It was the last of the three original large parks built on Coney Island, along with Steeplechase Park and Luna Park. The park was between Surf Avenue to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the south. It was arranged roughly as a horseshoe, with a pier facing south toward the Atlantic Ocean. Dreamland contained several attractions that were larger versions of those at Luna Park, and it included a human zoo, several early roller coasters, a Shoot the Chutes ride, and a replica of Venice. Dreamland also hosted entertainment and dramatic spectacles based on morality themes. Several structures, such as the Pompeiian, Electricity, and Submarine Boat buildings, were dedicated to exhibits. Former state senator William H. Reynolds announced plans in July 1903 for an amusement park rivaling Luna Park, originally known as the Hippodrome. The Dreamland Company started constructing the park in December 1903, and the park opened as Dreamland on May 15, 1904. The park operated between May and September of each year, and Reynolds constantly changed Dreamland's shows and attractions every season. Coney Island had reached its peak popularity by the late 1900s, but Dreamland struggled to compete with Luna Park, which was better managed. During the early morning of May 27, 1911, just after the start of Dreamland's eighth season, a worker kicked over a bucket of hot pitch, starting a fire that spread through the park's wooden buildings. Firefighters were unable to control the fire because of low water pressure; nearly all of the structures were quickly destroyed, although no one was killed. The site's northern portion, on Surf Avenue, was quickly redeveloped with various concessions. The New York City government acquired the southern portion through condemnation in 1912, but disputes over compensation continued for eight years. The site became a parking lot in 1921 and was redeveloped as a recreation center in 1935; the New York Aquarium was eventually built on the site in 1957. ## Development Between about 1880 and World War II, Coney Island was the largest amusement area in the United States, attracting several million visitors per year. Sea Lion Park opened in 1895 and was Coney Island's first amusement area to charge entry fees; this in turn spurred the construction of George C. Tilyou's Steeplechase Park in 1897, the neighborhood's first major amusement park. Frederic Thompson and Elmer "Skip" Dundy opened Luna Park, Coney Island's second major amusement park, in 1903 on the site of Sea Lion Park, which had closed the previous year. William H. Reynolds, a former state senator and successful Brooklyn real estate developer, decided to construct Dreamland following the success of Luna Park. He intended for Dreamland to compete with Luna Park. Dreamland was supposed to be refined and elegant in its design and architecture, compared to Luna Park with its many rides and chaotic noise. Reynolds announced plans in July 1903 for an amusement park rivaling Luna Park, which was to be built in a style resembling London's Hippodrome. According to local media, he reportedly paid \$180,000 for a pier on the Coney Island Beach, as well as \$447,500 for two parcels at Surf Avenue and West Eighth Street, measuring 800 feet (240 m) deep and 262 feet (80 m) wide. The Times Union subsequently said that the purchase prices for the site were not correct. The Surf Avenue parcels had belonged to John Y. McKane, who had operated a bathing house on the site. Previously, the parcels had also included the Coney Island Athletic Club's arena and the Culver Depot, the then-terminal of what is now the New York City Subway's Brighton and Culver lines. Although C. L. Turnbull and P. I. Thompson were nominally the buyers, but they acted as proxies for Reynolds, allowing him to acquire the Surf Avenue site at a discount of more than \$50,000. Once Reynolds acquired the site, he made a deal with the New York City Board of Estimate to demap West Eighth Street, which separated McKane's parcels from each other. The street, which had taken up one-sixth of the proposed park's width, contained a trolley terminal that needed to be relocated. Originally, the park was supposed to be known as the Hippodrome. In August 1903, Reynolds and several other men established the Wonderland Company, which had a capitalization of \$1.2 million and existed specifically to develop an amusement park on the site. The amusement pier was planned to contain a dance hall and bathing pavilion, while the main portion of the site would be arranged around a large tower that would overtop Luna Park's. The company took title to the plots in September 1903 and received a \$200,000 mortgage loan from the Title Guarantee and Trust Company. The Edison Company was hired to manufacture the park's lights in late 1903; the new park was expected to have more electric lights than had existed on all of Coney Island during the preceding season. Construction of the park itself began in December 1903. General contractor Edward Johnson Company employed about 2,000 workers, who were employed in three shifts of eight hours each. The park was known as Dreamland by January 1904. Reynolds, wishing to surpass Luna Park by every metric, reportedly spent \$3.5 million on Dreamland. Dreamland had one million lights, compared to 250,000 lights at Luna Park; even Dreamland's firefighting show was more elaborate than that at Luna Park. Dreamland also planned to differentiate itself from Luna Park by adding novel attractions, as well as operating a private beach and bath house (something that Luna Park lacked because of its inland location). Samuel W. Gumpertz was among those who helped develop the park. ## Operation ### 1904 to 1907 Dreamland opened on May 15, 1904, with a fire show that employed 4,000 performers. The park was \$1.9 million in debt, more than the entire amount invested in the competing Luna Park. Dreamland charged 10 cents for admission on weekdays and 15 cents on weekends, plus an additional fee of up to 25 cents for individual rides. The park closed for the season on September 24, 1904. Reynolds said Dreamland had recorded a \$400,000 net profit during the operating season, despite erroneous reports that the park had been placed in receivership. Although the Leapfrog Railway roller coaster was completed with the rest of the park, it did not open until the 1905 season. Reynolds spent \$500,000 on new attractions and shows ahead of the 1905 season, which ran from May 13 to September 24. Among these was a show based on the Creation myth, which had been exhibited at the 1904 St. Louis Exposition; this attraction alone cost \$250,000. The park also added an exhibition of a Roman hippodrome around the lagoon; replaced the submarine ride with the Hell Gate boat ride; and added a Japanese-themed theater. City officials temporarily closed Dreamland's pier in May 1905, citing the fact that the pier was too narrow to accommodate crowds. Many of the park's shows were replaced for the 1906 season, and park officials also rebuilt the pier. The new attractions for that season included a reenactment of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake's aftermath; a Moqui Indian village; a rebuilt Creation show; and the Touring New York car show. The park opened for the 1906 season on May 20, and it began hosting vaudeville shows for the first time that June. Dreamland's third season ended on September 24, 1906. Prior to the 1907 season, concessionaire William Ellis introduced an attraction called the Orient, anchored by a theater that presented several shows. Park officials also built a new administration building and installed other shows. Park officials gave \$50 to the first guest of the season on May 18, 1907, and the park operated through September 21 of that year. At this point, the park hosted several shows that were based on themes of morality, such as "The End of the World" and the "Feast of Beshazzar and the Destruction of Babylon". ### 1908 to 1911 Coney Island had reached its peak popularity by the late 1900s, when millions of people visited the neighborhood every year. Despite its many amusements, Dreamland struggled to compete with the better-managed Luna Park. As such, for the 1908 season, the park's management decided to offer free admission during weekdays; although the free-admission policy did not extend to individual rides, the policy still attracted visitors. The park opened for the season on May 23, 1908, and operated until September 20. For this season, Ellis added an auditorium with more than one thousand seats, and the park also added shows such as Freak Street, the Moroccan Jugglers, and an Old Virginia show. Following the 1908 season, Dreamland hired Wells Hawks of the New York Hippodrome to lead the publicity bureau, and they hired Gumpertz as the general manager. Prior to the 1909 season, four thousand workmen completely revamped the park's attractions. The ballroom was expanded to accommodate 1,500 couples. Other additions included a wisteria garden on the site of the former hippodrome track, a circus ring near the tower, a scenic railway roller coaster, a Deep Sea Divers attraction, and a village of Filipinos. The park's operators said "everything at Dreamland will be new but the ocean". The park's sixth season began on May 15, 1909, and ended on September 19. That year, New York City mayor George B. McClellan Jr. attempted to prevent the park from staging live shows on Sundays, citing the city's blue laws, although Reynolds strongly opposed the legislation. Dreamland had previously held a license permitting it to present shows seven days a week. When the license was renewed in June 1909, the shows were allowed only six days a week. Gumpertz said the city government took issue with Dreamland's circus, which was free of charge. City officials also objected to the Filipino villagers' attire, which exposed their legs. Kings County sheriff Patrick H. Quinn announced in February 1910 that the park would be auctioned off on behalf of Eugene Wood and Joseph Huber, the corporation's two largest bondholders, who wanted to reorganize the company. The auction only involved a nominal change of ownership, as Huber and Wood bought the park the next month. Dreamland's seventh season began on May 14, 1910, and ran until September 18. Among the new attractions for the 1910 season were Alligator Joe's alligator and crocodile farm, a Bornean village, and a ride called Trip to the North Pole.In preparation for Dreamland's 1911 season, its operators made additional changes. For instance, the buildings were repainted in white and red, and the structures near the Surf Avenue entrance were demolished to make way for a lighting plant with 130,000 additional light bulbs. Various rides such as the Great Divide, Canals of Venice, Tub Ride, and Hell Gate were enlarged, while the ballroom and restaurant had been relocated from the pier to near the Surf Avenue entrance. The site of the old ballroom was converted to a skating rink, and the bathing pavilion on the ocean was expanded significantly. The park added thirty new shows, such as Joseph Ferari's animal show, a biblical show known as the Sacrifice, and a village of "human curiosities". It also added a miniature subway around the park, a carousel, and a dual-tracked roller coaster. Some existing attractions were retained, such as Bostock's Wild Animals, which included a dwarf elephant named Little Hip and a one-armed lion tamer known as Captain Jack Bonavita. Dreamland also hired Omar Sami as a carnival barker for the 1911 season, and the park opened for its eighth season on May 20, 1911. ## Destruction ### Fire Despite the implementation of fire-safety regulations in certain areas of Coney Island after a major blaze in 1902, these regulations were not extended to Dreamland. Consequently, the park remained highly vulnerable to fire. During the early morning of May 27, 1911, the Hell Gate attraction was undergoing last-minute repairs by a roofing company owned by Samuel Engelstein. A leak had to be caulked with tar. During these repairs, at about 1:30 a.m., the light bulbs turned off and a worker kicked over a bucket of hot pitch, causing the light bulbs to explode. Winds from the ocean caused the fire to quickly spread throughout the park. The Dreamland fire was the first double-nine-alarm fire that the New York City Fire Department (FDNY) had ever fought in Brooklyn. This alarm, which signified the most severe type of fire, summoned FDNY companies from across Brooklyn. Fires had been a persistent problem at Coney Island, so a high-pressure water pumping station had been constructed at West 15th Street near Coney Island Creek during the 1900s. On the night of the Dreamland fire, the water pressure was extremely low: the pumping station was capable of supplying water at 150 pounds per square inch (1,000 kPa), but the pressure had dropped to 35 pounds per square inch (240 kPa). Furthermore, even though Coney Island's firehouse was within 100 yards (91 m) of Dreamland, the other FDNY companies had to travel long distances to reach Coney Island. By the time other FDNY companies reached the neighborhood, the entire park had caught fire. As a result of the conflagration's intensity, as well as the low water pressure, firefighters could not even enter the park; they attempted to extinguish the fire from its borders. As the park burned, tens of thousands of onlookers traveled from across New York City to see the fire. Firefighters quickly shifted their focus to saving adjacent structures. Several buildings on the south side of Surf Avenue caught fire, although almost all buildings on the north side remained undamaged. Bonavita and Ferari attempted to save the animals, some of whom escaped, though about 60 animals died. A lion named Black Prince rushed into the streets and climbed a roller coaster before being shot. Another animal, Sultan, was shot several dozen times before being killed by an axe blow. Early editions of The New York Times claimed the incubator babies had perished in the flames, but the infants were all saved, and the Times subsequently corrected itself. According to contemporary accounts, New York City Police Department (NYPD) sergeant Frederick Klinck made several trips into the burning structure to rescue incubator babies. The conflagration extended east to Balmer's bathing pavilion at West 5th Street and west to the new Giant Coaster at West 10th Street. The Giant Coaster acted as a firebreak that prevented the fire from spreading, as did several brick buildings east of the park's central tower. The tower collapsed just after 3 a.m., and all attractions were on fire by 3:30 a.m. Around 4 a.m., the water pressure returned to normal, but most of the park had been burned by then. The fire was extinguished at 5 a.m. ### Aftermath The NYPD initially estimated that the park had sustained \$4 million in damage, although other estimates ranged between \$2.25 and \$5 million. The fire destroyed almost everything in the park. The Dicker family's adjacent hotel also burned down, as did both of Dreamland's piers. Only one building remained intact after the fire, and all concessions were destroyed. Conversely, the El Dorado Carousel, which had been relocated to the area shortly before the fire, survived relatively intact. The entire complex had been constructed of combustible materials, so insurers saw the park as high-risk. The park was consequently insured for only about \$400,000. A preliminary investigation found that the fire had started when the tar spread across the floor, creating a short circuit that caused the light bulbs to explode.As a result of the fire, 1,600 Dreamland employees lost their jobs; another 900 people worked in neighboring businesses that had also been destroyed. Hundreds of workers were clearing the site several hours after the fire had been extinguished, and some of Dreamland's shows resumed on May 28, 1911, the day after the fire. Coney Island attracted 350,000 visitors on that day; concessionaires attracted some of these visitors by exhibiting debris and dead animals, and workers also tried to salvage the Giant Racing Coaster. The New York State Legislature also introduced legislation to ban infant incubators in New York state's amusement parks. The Dreamland fire negatively impacted its competitors' business, as the fire drove away visitors who would have gone to Dreamland. #### Condemnation proceedings Immediately after the fire was extinguished, Reynolds indicated that he would not rebuild the burned park. Two days after the fire, Reynolds proposed selling Dreamland's site to the New York City government for a "fair price", which would allow the city to convert the land to a public park. The Times Union reported the price as \$3 million, but Reynolds denied these allegations. He suggested that the New York City government could buy the 40-acre (16 ha) tract surrounding his park for that amount. The New York City Board of Estimate began considering buying the Dreamland site in mid-June 1911, and it voted to acquire the Dreamland site via condemnation at the end of July 1911. The board approved a revised proposal that October in which it agreed to pay \$1 million for a 7-acre (2.8 ha) site. The revised proposal excluded the northernmost 200 feet (61 m) of Dreamland's site, on Surf Avenue, thereby splitting the park's site into two sections. Brooklyn borough president Alfred E. Steers immediately advocated for selling the site and developing a boardwalk along the ocean. Legal disputes quickly arose over who held the Dreamland site's property title. The Morey and Lott families claimed in late 1911 that nearly all of Coney Island fell under a quitclaim deed granted by Nicholas Johnson, who had agreed to sell the land even though he had no right to the property. Barnet Morey's heirs sued Dreamland in February 1912, and the city formed a condemnation commission the same month to determine how much compensation the former owners should receive. The city took title to the Dreamland site in March 1912. Although the condemnation commissioners began taking testimony that October, the proceedings were delayed because of the lawsuit. A New York Supreme Court justice dismissed the Morey and Lott families' lawsuit in May 1913, and the Dreamland Company received \$1,000 in damages. The condemnation commission announced in late 1914 that it would pay \$2.189 million to property owners, which included the Dreamland Company, the Prospect Park and Coney Island Railroad (PP&CI), and the Balmer family. The award was revised downward to just over \$2.1 million in June 1915, but the city appealed the award, and the condemnation proceedings were delayed for years. The New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division, ruled in early 1916 that Dreamland Company's and PP&CI's awards were too high. The city selected a second group of commissioners, which decided in February 1919 to reduce the total award to \$1.4 million. The commissioners notified the state government of the revised award in October 1919; by then, the cost of the condemnation itself had grown to \$800,000. The State Supreme Court was asked to confirm the revised award in June 1920, eight years after the condemnation proceedings had begun. ## Subsequent site usage ### Northern section By July 1911, independent concessionaires had rebuilt their booths on the northern portion of the site, facing Surf Avenue; the remainder of the park remained ruined. The northern part of the site contained "a sideshow of freaks and some shooting galleries" in 1912. Gumpertz leased the northern parcel in 1914, measuring 400 feet (120 m) on Surf Avenue and 200 feet (61 m) deep; he intended to restore the attractions there. By the next year, the northern part of the site had roller coasters, side shows, and shooting galleries named after Dreamland. Film producer William Fox acquired the northern part of the site at an auction in March 1921 for \$407,750, and he resold it in June 1921 to Gumpertz and William M. Greve for \$450,000. Gumpertz and Greve planned to rebuild the park, although this never happened.

### Southern section The southern section of the park was not redeveloped for several decades after the 1911 fire. The remaining buildings on the southern part of the Dreamland site were razed by 1915. The site was supposed to be part of the unbuilt Seaside Park. The New York City government had planned to rebuild Dreamland's pier and fill it with rock; the pier was supposed to be completed in mid-1914, but two years later it still had not been rebuilt. R. H. Pfoor proposed constructing a bathhouse on Dreamland's site in 1919, but city officials rejected the proposal. The city government converted its portion of the site into a 1,000-by-60-foot (305 by 18 m) parking lot in 1921. The city had expanded the parking lot to 2,000 spaces by 1922, and it also operated a seasonal skating rink on Dreamland's site. Morris Auditore and Harry Shea leased the site from the city in 1926; the Supreme Court initially issued an injunction blocking the lease, but the Appellate Division reversed the injunction. The next year, the New York City Board of Aldermen blocked a proposal for the city to either sell the land or convert it into some "public use". Auditore and Shea operated the parking lot until 1933, when their lease was canceled because they could not afford to pay \$26,000 a year. Although the Park Association of New York City suggested that the site be converted back into a public park, the city leased the parking lot to Irving Rosoff in February 1933. City park commissioner Robert Moses canceled Rosoff's lease the next year. By 1935, the city planned to rebuild Dreamland as an 11-acre (4.5 ha) recreation center with courts for handball, ping-pong, and shuffleboard, as well as a large open field for archery and other games. In addition, the recreation center was to contain more than 600 trees, as well as a connection to the Riegelmann Boardwalk, which was built along the Atlantic Ocean shoreline after Dreamland had been destroyed. The city government first considered relocating the New York Aquarium to the Dreamland site in 1941 after the closure of Castle Clinton, the aquarium's previous home in Manhattan. Although plans for the new aquarium were announced in 1943, it did not open until 1957. The New York Aquarium occupies the entire Dreamland site. A 500-pound (230 kg) bronze bell, which had been installed on Dreamland's pier until the 1911 fire, was recovered from the Atlantic Ocean in 2009. According to Charles Denson of the Coney Island History Project, the bell was the only surviving major remnant of Dreamland's pier. ## Description The park was on a parcel between Surf Avenue to the north, West 5th Street to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and West 10th Street to the west. At its peak, Dreamland had 14,000 employees and could accommodate at least 100,000 guests at once. Everything in Dreamland was reputed to be bigger and more wide-ranging than in neighboring Luna Park. Dreamland had a larger central tower and one million electric light bulbs illuminating and outlining its buildings, four times as many lights as Luna Park. An individual connected with the Edison Company said in 1903 that Dreamland's lighting contract was "the largest contract for lighting ever made in the United States, and I believe in the world". Dreamland's illumination cost \$4,000 a week; it cost \$100 a night just to light the central tower. Manhattan-based architectural firm Kirby, Petit & Green designed Dreamland's buildings. The structures were generally painted in light colors. At the time of the park's opening, the buildings were reported to be clad with artificial stone, and 1,700 short tons (1,500 long tons; 1,500 t) of asbestos fireproofing and 90 miles (140 km) of utility pipes were used. However, the frames of the buildings were made of lath (thin strips of wood) covered with staff (a moldable mixture of plaster of Paris and hemp fiber). Consequently, the entire park was highly susceptible to fire. Throughout most of Dreamland's history, the attractions were painted white with small touches of green or yellow; the exception was the 1911 season, when the buildings were all repainted red and white. Dreamland advertised itself as an educational attraction, as symbolized by its main entrance, which contained a female representation of education. ### Layout and attractions The park was arranged roughly as a horseshoe, with a pier facing south toward the Atlantic Ocean. Several rides were imitations of Luna Park's, such as a submarine ride and a Shoot-the-Chutes replica. Multiple buildings, such as the Pompeiian, Electricity, and Submarine Boat buildings, were dedicated to exhibits. New attractions were added every season. To facilitate circulation, the paths were designed with gentle slopes and few steps. #### Entrance and lagoon Dreamland's primary landside entrance was on Surf Avenue, where there was an arch measuring 150 feet (46 m) deep, 75 feet (23 m) high, and 50 feet (15 m) wide; the portal was intended to resemble a theater's proscenium arch. There were several smaller, similarly designed portals along Surf Avenue. Guests paid a ten-cent entry fee to pass through the gates, then paid an additional fee for the attractions. At the park's center was a lagoon surrounded by a promenade. Originally, Dreamland's operators had planned to install flood gates that allowed salt water into the lagoon during high tide. The lagoon measured 130 feet (40 m) wide and 300 feet (91 m) long, spanned by a large pedestrian bridge at its southern end. The footbridge over the lagoon had ornate columns with glass globes, as well as carved lions on either end. There was a miniature railway underneath the promenade. The side shows were arranged around the lagoon. Kirby, Petit & Green designed the buildings around the lagoon in numerous architectural styles that complemented each other, in contrast to Luna Park. A hippodrome track was built around the lagoon in 1906. The track was replaced with bathhouses by 1910, and a pergola was also constructed on the lagoon's shore. At the northern end of the lagoon was the Beacon Tower, a French Renaissance-style edifice measuring 50 by 50 feet (15 by 15 m) square at its base and approximately 375 feet (114 m) tall. The tower's gold-and-white facade contained large arches; bas-reliefs carved by Perry Hinton; and 100,000 electric lights. Elevators transported visitors to the roof, which was decorated with a ball and eagle. The tower contained water-storage tanks with a capacity of 600,000 U.S. gallons (2,300,000 L). An attraction called Hiram Maxim's Airships was added just north of the tower in 1905; it consisted of airships that were hung from a 150-foot (46 m) tower. #### East side On the north side of the park, to the left of the Surf Avenue entrance, was a medieval-style entrance with a show called Our Boys in Blue. Another structure, just south of Our Boys in Blue, hosted an illusion presented by Ben Morris. Just right of the entrance, at the park's northeast corner, was Bostock's wild animal exhibit, housed in a Grecian-style structure with motifs of wild animals. Next to this structure was another edifice that contained the Chilkoot Pass attraction, which was essentially a massive bagatelle board where guests used their own bodies to play the game. The Chilkoot Pass building was situated within a classical-style structure whose main entrance resembled a proscenium arch. The Haunted Swing and Funny Room were housed within a Mission Revival-style building next to the Chilkoot Pass. South of that was a fishing pond operated by comedian Andrew Mack, located inside a building that resembled a boat and a lighthouse. East of the lagoon, next to the fishing pond, was an imitation of Venice made of papier-mâché; it featured canals with gondolas, as well as a replica of Doge's Palace. The latter building housed the Canals of Venice ride, which contained additional replicas of various Venetian landmarks. Next to the Doge's Palace was a scenic railway called Coasting Through Switzerland, which ran through a Swiss alpine landscape. The scenic railway building was designed in the Art Nouveau style, with a golden proscenium arch measuring 60 feet (18 m) wide and 30 feet (9.1 m) high. Attached to Coasting through Switzerland was a structure housing the Fighting the Flames show, where two thousand people pretended to put out a fire every half-hour. The show building, measuring 520 by 250 feet (158 by 76 m), was meant to resemble a seven-story hotel and several small stores; it was replaced in 1906 by a show themed to that year's earthquake in San Francisco. #### West side Near the park's southwest corner was a human zoo called the "Lilliputian Village", designed as an imitation of a 15th-century German village. It was populated by three hundred little people, who had their own livery tent, stable, laundry, and fire department. Next to the Lilliputian Village was the Destruction of Pompeii, a Greek-style structure with an exhibit that displayed the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. An adjacent structure, the Electricity Building, had a facade that depicted machinery; the building contained the park's actual mechanical plant. A third structure, next to the Pompeian and Electricity buildings, housed a submarine ride called Over and Under the Sea; the submarine ride was replaced in 1905 by the Hell Gate boat ride, which featured a whirlpool. LaMarcus Adna Thompson's Thompson Scenic Railway, which predated the park, was accessed via an Art Nouveau-style structure. The attractions on the southwestern corner of the park were replaced in 1907 with the Orient attraction, which consisted of a massive staff arch measuring 200 feet (61 m) high, as well as a series of structures surrounding a theater. In addition, in 1909, Gumpertz added a "Filipino village" which featured two hundred Igorot hunters. A building with baby incubators, designed as a German farmhouse, was at the park's northwest corner. The lower half of the building was clad in brick. By contrast, the upper half had a timber facade and a tiled gable roof. The baby-incubator building cared for and exhibited premature babies, including triplets who were members of the Dicker family. At the time, the technology was not allowed in hospitals, but the incubators were allowed in side shows; two of the triplets survived to adulthood. Yet another building housed Wormwood's Dog and Monkey Show, housed in a building that was decorated with motifs of monkeys and dogs. #### Oceanfront Dreamland's oceanfront pier contained a structure with a restaurant and a ballroom. The ballroom was supposedly the largest in New York state at the time of its construction; it spanned 25,000 square feet (2,300 m²), with dimensions of about 100 by 250 feet (30 by 76 m), and was surrounded by a balcony. The ceiling of the ballroom measured 50 feet (15 m) high and had 10,000 lightbulbs. Adjoining the ballroom was the restaurant, measuring 60 by 240 feet (18 by 73 m). The lower part of the structure was a ferry landing with booths and small shows. When Dreamland opened, the landing was served by ferry lines to Harlem, 23rd Street, and the Battery in Manhattan; the ferry rides cost up to 35 cents, but that price included admission. The lower deck of the pier was known as the Bowery, a replica of Manhattan's Chinatown, which the Times Union described as a place where "the lid will be off". The adjoining segment of the Coney Island Beach was originally a private beach. The oceanfront featured a Japanese building, a two-story structure capped by a central tower, which led to an airship attraction and some tea rooms. The airship attraction was an exhibition of Santos-Dumont Airship No. 9. Another show, called the Seven Temptations of St. Anthony, was targeted toward male guests. At the foot of the park's lagoon were two Shoot-the-Chutes with two ramps that could handle 7,000 hourly riders. Two boats, each carrying 20 people, slid down the ramps, which extended 300 feet (91 m) into the ocean. Another oceanfront attraction was the Leap-Frog Railway, a switchback railway-style attraction on a 500-foot-long (150 m) pier, where two 40-person carts were accelerated toward each other at high speed before passing each other at the last second. ### Concessions In a bid for publicity, Reynolds awarded a concession for the park's peanut-and-popcorn stands to Broadway actress Marie Dressler, with young boys dressed as imps in red flannel acting as salesmen. Dressler may have been in love with Captain Jack Bonavita, Dreamland's one-armed lion tamer. Bonavita, who commanded lions in the Bostock animal arena, had one arm amputated after his hand was severely clawed by one of the lions and a blood infection spread through that hand. ## Impact When Dreamland opened, the New-York Tribune wrote: "Nothing but a personal visit and inspection can do anything like justice to the subject." A writer for The Brooklyn Daily Eagle called Dreamland "a city of amusement in itself", which was successful because of "the intelligent use of unlimited money expended for the best interest of unnumbered patrons in search of innocent amusement". During its last full season of operation, in 1910, a writer for Billboard said: "It's a great big Dreamland this year, and it's good clean through". The writer Marcia Reiss wrote in 2014 that the park was a "dazzling white city", calling it "Coney Island's grandest and shortest-lived amusement park". The design of Dreamland also inspired the creation of similar amusement parks around the world, such as Magic-City in Paris. The park has been depicted in various works of popular culture. Artist Philomena Marano created a body of work inspired by the park in the papier collé method, American Dream-Land. Brian Carpenter wrote a play treatment which he used as a springboard for lyrics and compositions behind his second studio album for Beat Circus entitled Dreamland. The album featured Todd Robbins, an alumnus of Coney Island, and its booklet includes historical images of Dreamland donated by the Coney Island Museum. The Public Theater also staged the play Fire in Dreamland in 2018, which is based on the park's 1911 conflagration. ## See also - Rockaways' Playland - List of abandoned amusement parks

Operation Eastern Exit

1991 US embassy evacuation in Somalia

Operation Eastern Exit was the codename given to the military evacuation of the United States embassy in Mogadishu, the capital of Somalia, in January 1991. In late December 1990, violence quickly enveloped the city as armed militants began clashing with government soldiers. On 1 January 1991, the US Ambassador to Somalia, James Keough Bishop, contacted the Department of State requesting an evacuation of the embassy, which was approved the following day. United States Central Command began planning and mobilizing forces that evening. The initial plan was to evacuate with a military transport plane through the Mogadishu International Airport, but this was later abandoned. A helicopter evacuation via the USS Guam and USS Trenton was the remaining option. On the morning of 5 January, a 60-person Marine and Navy SEAL security detail was dispatched from Guam aboard two CH-53E Super Stallion helicopters to secure the embassy and prepare for the main evacuation. The two helicopters returned to Guam with the first 61 evacuees. Throughout the day, foreign diplomats and civilians sought refuge at the embassy. Four waves of five CH-46 Sea Knight helicopters each evacuated the embassy compound shortly after midnight on 6 January. The evacuees were transported to Muscat, Oman, where they disembarked on 11 January. In total, Operation Eastern Exit evacuated 281 (with a 282nd born aboard ship) diplomats and civilians from 30 countries, including 12 heads of missions (eight ambassadors and four chargés d'affaires). ## Background In the late 1980s, there was increasing rebellion against the rule of Somali President Siad Barre, a military dictator who maintained tight control of power and had a record of human rights abuses. By 1990, what began as civil disobedience evolved into a civil war, with several militias organized to overthrow the central government. In July 1989, the embassy moved to a new, 80-acre (32 ha) compound, 6 miles (9.7 km) from the previous embassy and James K. Bishop was appointed as the United States' ambassador to Somalia. Ambassador Bishop had significant experience in crisis management at US embassies. In 1967, he was at the US Embassy in Beirut, Lebanon when the Six-Day War erupted. About 3,600 Americans were evacuated in 33 hours; Bishop was one of 26 diplomats and soldiers that remained in the city. As deputy assistant secretary of state for Africa from 1981–87, Bishop chaired several task forces for crises and gained experience in the State Department's operations center as evacuations were carried out during several coups d'etat. During his previous assignment as Ambassador to Liberia (1987–90), Bishop was overseeing the voluntary evacuation of embassy staff and civilians as a civil war in Liberia spread, when he left in March 1990. Soon after returning to Washington to prepare for his new appointment to Somalia, he was appointed to a taskforce to deal with the crisis in Liberia, which included a gradual evacuation of American civilians and a rapid closure of the embassy in August. On 1 August, before leaving the US to take up his post in Mogadishu, Ambassador Bishop visited United States Central Command—the military command for the Middle East and northeast Africa—where he spent most of the day with its commander, Gen. Norman Schwarzkopf. Ambassador Bishop, aware of the ongoing strife, believed "the odds were better than even that we would have to leave Mogadishu under less than favorable circumstances." Ambassador Bishop understood from his past experiences in Beirut and Liberia the importance of being prepared to deal with emergencies and spent the afternoon working with military experts to review the embassy's Emergencies and Evacuation (E&E) plan until he was "satisfied...that [Central Command] realized that it might have to conduct an evacuation from Mogadishu and was prepared to do that." In its analysis of Operation Eastern Exit, the Center for Naval Analyses cited the Ambassador Bishop's previous experience and "clear understanding of his role" in the operation as one of the reasons Operation Eastern Exit went so well. Hours after Ambassador Bishop's visit to Central Command, Iraq invaded Kuwait. In 1979, the US negotiated access to an airport and port in both Mogadishu and Berbera; because of limited access the US had to locations in the Persian Gulf area, maintaining this access was a main interest for the Mogadishu embassy to pursue as the US mobilized to intervene in Kuwait. Though, the United States did not have any forces nor did it use Somali facilities in support of Operation Desert Shield. An increasing level of criminal violence prompted Ambassador Bishop to request the voluntary evacuation of dependents (e.g. children and spouses of staff) and non-essential staff in early December, although fighting between the government and the United Somali Congress (a rebel militia) remained no less than about 160 kilometres (100 mi) away. The voluntary evacuation later became a mandatory evacuation. By 19 December, the number of official US personnel in the city was reduced from 147 to 37; around the same time, fighting between the government and rebels came within about 64 kilometres (40 mi) of Mogadishu. ### Collapse of the Barre government On 30 December, violence escalated "an order of magnitude" as militants entered Mogadishu, which was quickly enveloped by a general state of lawlessness. On 30–31 December, diplomats, including many stationed in offices elsewhere in the city, were collected and housed in the embassy compound, except two volunteers who remained in the embassy's K-7 residential apartments located across Afgoy Road from the embassy. The volunteers in the K-7 building would be needed as look-outs for the embassy compound's main gate. On the morning of 31 December, the defense attaché was nearly killed when his vehicle was sprayed with bullets and that evening, a soldier at a roadblock shot the tires of a vehicle carrying another defense official. Attempts by the US and other nations' diplomats, in particular the Italian embassy, to negotiate a ceasefire for foreigners to leave were unsuccessful. Afgoy Road became a "shooting gallery," preventing those in safe-havens outside the embassy from reaching it. On New Year's Day, the first American civilians began to seek refuge at the embassy. Ambassador Bishop requested an evacuation of the American community on 1 January, indicating that the evacuation could be with the planned Italian, French, or German evacuation efforts, but preferred an evacuation by the US military. The State Department authorized the evacuation on 2 January and on that day, Ambassador Bishop specifically requested an evacuation by the US military, thereby initiating Operation Eastern Exit. Ambassador Bishop had spent a considerable amount of time discussing contingency plans for evacuation with other diplomatic posts. Ultimately, ten heads of missions—eight ambassadors and two chargés d'affaires—along with their staff sought refuge in the US embassy compound and were evacuated. ## Plans, mobilization, and escalating violence Ambassador Bishop had visited Central Command in August 1990, where he worked with military experts to update the embassy's E&E plan. The first notice that an evacuation of the Mogadishu embassy would be needed came on the morning of 1 January, when the top naval commander at Central Command sent a message to his naval operations staff: "Better have Amphib crowd take a look at a helo NEO of Mogadishu! time/distance to get there from Masirah OP area." Following the ambassador's 2 January evacuation request, the commander of Central Command ordered Air Force aircraft to the region, the movement of amphibious ships to Mogadishu, and requested United States Special Operations Command to prepare for a noncombatant evacuation operation. The initial plan was to evacuate via Mogadishu International Airport. Soon after the evacuation request, the United States Air Force deployed C-130 transport planes and an AC-130, for gunfire support, to Nairobi, Kenya, awaiting clearances to enter Somalia and the ability to safely transfer evacuees from the embassy to the airport. However, the US and other foreign embassies were unable to contact anyone within the government to obtain clearances. It also became apparent that the rebels had an ineffective command-and-control structure, making it impossible to negotiate any ceasefire or guarantee of safe passage. Likewise, government troops faced a command-and-control problem; reports indicated that army units were separating along clan lines, in some cases soldiers shot officers of a different clan when given orders they disagreed with. Thus, it became clear that safe passage to the airport would not be possible. Several other nations also had aircraft mobilized to reach Mogadishu, but faced the same problems of landing and transit of evacuees to the airport. On 4 January, several incidents, including a couple exchanges of gunfire, suggested that the embassy's security detail was insufficient to hold off armed Somalis until the USS Guam and USS Trenton arrived with their helicopters and Marines, at that time scheduled to arrive on 7 January. The embassy had just six Marine guards, whose job was limited to protecting the chancery. Ambassador Bishop made an urgent request to Washington for two platoons of soldiers to parachute into the embassy to defend it until the ships arrived. The request was denied, but the Ambassador was told that an advance element from the vessels would reach the embassy the following morning. USS Guam and USS Trenton began transit from the coast of Oman towards Mogadishu at 22:30 (23:30 Oman time) on 2 January. The commander of Amphibious Group 2 (PHIBGRU TWO) had initially proposed a seven-ship Amphibious Task Group, composed of vessels anchored at Masirah Island (off Oman) and Dubai and including four amphibious ships so that the full range of amphibious capabilities would be available for the operation. However, intervention in Kuwait seemed imminent and Commander, U.S. Naval Forces Central Command, did not want to divert that many ships from the Persian Gulf (and was mindful of the ongoing extended deployment of Operation Sharp Edge off Liberia), thus the decision to send just two ships. Although the two vessels were selected by mid-afternoon on 2 January, the transfer of some personnel from Dubai to Masirah and a decision to refuel the two ships (again, due to the potential risk of an extended operation like Sharp Edge) delayed departure by about ten hours. Guam and Trenton carried forces from the 4th Marine Expeditionary Brigade, specifically Charlie Co 1st Battalion 2nd Marines, including a detachment of CH-53E Super Stallion helicopters—the largest helicopters operated by the US military—and two squadrons of CH-46 Sea Knight helicopters. Planning began in earnest as the ships got underway, with a combined command center on Guam. On the morning of 3 January, the task force's command questioned why they were not given the option of an amphibious landing and requested a tank landing ship be added to the task force. The Seventh Fleet command staff, which were Pacific based, did not understand this request and denied it. The various military staffs were operating with different sets of information. Aboard Guam, a warrant officer who had previously served as a Marine Security Guard (MSG) at the Mogadishu embassy during the mid-1980s was found. The former MSG looked at the aboard ship material and said it was incorrect. The former MSG told planners that a new embassy had been planned and was under construction several years prior. In fact, the new embassy was located further inland. The two ships were from PHIBGRU Two and the Marines from the Second Marine Expeditionary Brigade (MEB), both East Coast commands. They had received old intelligence material about Mogadishu. The Seventh Fleet staff had up-to-date information with the embassy's actual location. After receiving updated information, task force commanders determined that a beach landing, requiring troops to fight their way across the city, was too risky. Initial plans had the ships launch their helicopters at 01:00 on 7 January from just off the coast. However, in response to indications from Ambassador Bishop that conditions in Mogadishu were deteriorating, planners considered 1,050-nautical-mile (1,940 km; 1,210 mi) and, later, 890-nautical-mile (1,650 km; 1,020 mi) flights with the CH-53Es while the ships were still located in the northern Arabian Sea. The situation in Mogadishu stabilized somewhat and the mission was delayed until 5 January. ## Evacuation On the evening of 4 January, the final execute order was issued for a 02:45 launch of two CH-53E Super Stallions to arrive at the embassy at dawn. The 60 soldiers selected for the security detail were issued weapons and ammunition. Two Marine Corps KC-130 refueling tankers were mobilized closer to the operation, from Bahrain to Oman, to refuel the helicopters en route to Mogadishu and the two helicopters transferred from Trenton to Guam.

### Security detail and first evacuees Two CH-53E Super Stallions carrying a 60-man security detail—51 Marines and nine Navy SEALs—departed Guam at 02:47, 466 nautical miles (863 km; 536 mi) from the embassy, and were expected to arrive at 06:20. They performed two aerial refuelings. During the first refueling, a pipe burst on one of the helicopters, dousing Marines in fuel and nearly forcing a return to the Guam; problems with the helicopters' navigation system also complicated the refueling rendezvous. The helicopters arrived in Mogadishu at dawn, crossing the coast just south of the harbor at 25–50 feet (7.6–15.2 m) in altitude on a route that was planned to avoid areas of more intense violence reported in the northern parts of the city. On their arrival in Mogadishu, the crew of the helicopters were using an outdated 1969 map, which showed the embassy in an isolated area. Furthermore, they had been told the embassy could be discerned by its white stucco perimeter wall and golf course. The embassy was, in fact, surrounded by new development and the crew saw white stucco walls around many buildings in the city. The helicopters were flying too low to spot a strobe light which was placed on the embassy's water tower (the highest point within the embassy compound) and the golf course in the embassy compound had a black, oil-coated surface—not the familiar green grass that the helicopter crew would recognize.After breaking radio silence (their only direct communication with the embassy was unencrypted) to contact the embassy, they were able to discern it and land at 07:10. As they arrived, a group of about 100 to 150 Somalis were attempting to enter the embassy compound via ladders on the wall, but scattered as the helicopters arrived. The security detail moved to establish a perimeter around the embassy compound and the Air Force's AC-130 arrived to provide overhead support. Ambassador Bishop gave the security detail clear instructions on the rules of engagement: they could only use deadly force if people came over the embassy compound's walls with obvious hostile intent. He also identified three zones of defense, stating a preference to retreat to the third zone before the use of deadly force: - the entire embassy compound - the Chancery, Joint Administrative Office (JAO) building, Marine House, and the helicopter landing zone (HLZ) - the chancery and JAO buildings (the two "safehaven" buildings where the evacuees were held) Ambassador Bishop clearly explained his rationale to the security detail, which was to avoid any impression that they were intervening in the violence in Mogadishu. He feared that the embassy would be targeted by organized attacks if any group involved in the clashes got the impression that the US was intervening in the conflict. To this effect, he requested the Voice of America and BBC broadcast announcements that the forces were present only to evacuate the embassy and would not interfere in the conflict. The Marines who had been doused in fuel during the refueling were able to take a shower and wash their clothes. After an hour on the ground, the helicopters left with the first 61 evacuees, including all American civilians and four heads of mission. Evacuees were provided blankets on one of the flights to remain warm. Complications with the only in-flight refueling on the return nearly prevented refueling, which would have forced the helicopters to divert to the Somali desert and await a rescue. At 9:40, the helicopters arrived on Guam and unloaded the evacuees. ### Embassy during the day No threats came upon the embassy during the day, although truckloads of armed Somalis frequently drove by the embassy along Afghoy Road. Only one incident seemed to directly target the embassy. A sniper and a spotter were positioned on the embassy's water tower (the highest structure in the compound) and came under fire; they were ordered to not return fire and soon thereafter ordered to leave their position on the water tower. The Office of Military Cooperation, just one and a half blocks from the embassy, required evacuation. Despite its proximity to the embassy, an armed convoy was needed to evacuate persons trapped there by the unrest. A convoy of vehicles with several Marines and SEALs left the embassy at 8:47 and returned ten minutes later with 22 persons from the OMC (four Americans, a Filipino, and 17 Kenyans). This was the only excursion outside the embassy by the security detail. Throughout the day, foreign diplomats contacted the embassy desiring to be evacuated; the US welcomed these requests, but required all of them to find their own transportation to the embassy. A Somali officer who had a previous relationship with the embassy, Major Siad, agreed to travel to rescue the German chargé d'affaires and British ambassador (junior staff from the British embassy had previously come to the US embassy). The Soviet Union was unable to land a plane in Mogadishu the previous day and the Soviet ambassador asked Ambassador Bishop if he and his staff could be rescued; Ambassador Bishop, a tennis partner of his Soviet counterpart, agreed but only if they found their own way to the embassy. Seeing the helicopters on the morning of 5 January, they realized the Americans would not remain in the city much longer. At the request of Ambassador Bishop, Major Siad agreed to transport the Soviets, but only if he was paid enough; the US embassy paid Major Siad, who returned with the Soviet ambassador and 38 of his staff. The brother of President Barre, who was also a Major General and Chief of Police, showed up at the embassy in the afternoon with 25 members of his family requesting to be evacuated, but was turned away after a vocal conversation with the ambassador. The operation did not include Marines to handle the evacuation control center (ECC), which was set up in the JAO. A 44-person force consisting primarily of Marines to handle the ECC was planned for insertion with the CH-53E Super Stallions after they had returned to the Guam. However, this was cancelled over objections from the commander of the security detail. The deficit was partially handled by embassy staff who assisted a few soldiers from the security detail. The evacuees were grouped into 15-person "sticks" to be loaded onto the helicopters and were limited to one piece of luggage apiece. Some attempted to bring more, resulting in problems coordinating their evacuation. Furthermore, many evacuees had pets they wanted to bring, which were not allowed. Most pets were killed by their owners; some were given poison. Meanwhile, the Marines were allowed to consume anything they wanted from the embassy's commissary, such as candy, sodas, and souvenirs (most had been stationed on ships for several months). They were also allowed use or take anything they needed from the embassy; the medic filled several bags with medical supplies to return to the ship. As evening approached, work began to prepare the HLZ for the main evacuation. The area was used as a parking lot and several vehicles were left without keys by staff that had already been evacuated. Some cars had to be broken into to be moved. Chemical lights were placed in the HLZ in a NATO "Y" pattern. The entire mission would be conducted with night vision goggles, which required all lights in the embassy compound to be turned off. ### Main evacuation The main evacuation occurred in the early morning hours of 6 January and consisted of four waves of five CH-46 helicopters. The timing of this phase was determined by the range of the CH-46 Sea Knight, which lack aerial refueling capability; the ships were about 350–380 nmi (650–700 km; 400–440 mi) away during this phase. An AC-130 was sent from Saudi Arabia to provide gunfire support during the evacuation and two UH-1 Iroquois helicopters were on standby to provide gunfire support, but were not deployed. The first wave departed Guam at 23:43. As the second wave landed, Major Siad arrived at the embassy gate accompanied by two truckloads of soldiers and held a grenade in one hand and a radio in the other. His request to speak with the ambassador was granted. Major Siad demanded that the evacuation cease immediately because the Somali government had not granted the US permission to carry out such a military operation. He claimed that he would radio soldiers to shoot down the helicopters if the operation continued. The second and third waves were able to depart without incident as the ambassador negotiated with the Major, who finally agreed to settle the matter for several thousand dollars in cash and keys to the ambassador's armored car. Ambassador Bishop remained engaged in conversation with the Major until he reached the helicopter landing zone to depart with the final wave to prevent the Major from reneging on the deal. The final wave departed the embassy at 1:49 and landed on Guam at 2:23; twenty minutes later, Ambassador Bishop declared the evacuation complete. ### Aftermath at the embassy Armed looters were observed entering the embassy compound as the final wave departed. The doors of the chancery—the main building of the embassy—were reportedly blown open by RPGs within two hours of the embassy's evacuation. Somali employees of the embassy—known as foreign service nationals (FSNs)—could not be evacuated. Ambassador Bishop tried unsuccessfully to have these employees airlifted to safer parts of Somalia. Many of the FSNs had sought refuge in the embassy with their families and about 30 were hired as guards and protected the embassy throughout the ordeal. Local banks had been closed for some time and the embassy was unable to pay the FSNs. The Ambassador left the FSNs with keys to the commissary and warehouse on the embassy compound and they were permitted to take anything they needed. ### Return to Oman A total of 281 evacuees were taken from the embassy, including 12 heads of missions (eight ambassadors and four chargés d'affaires) and 61 Americans (including Ambassador Bishop and 36 embassy staff). A 282nd evacuee was added to the total with a 10 January Caesarean delivery of a baby aboard Guam. The heads of mission were the ambassadors of the United States, Kenya, Nigeria, Soviet Union, Sudan, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, and United Kingdom and the chargés of the embassies of Germany, Kuwait, Oman, and Qatar. Rather than disembark in nearby Mombasa, as originally thought by the evacuees, the ships were ordered back to Oman—a five-day journey. The sailors and marines made way for the evacuees to share living quarters. When the chaplain of Guam asked crew to sign up as guides for the evacuees while aboard the vessel, two hundred signed up within an hour, and some of the sailors even dressed up as clowns to ease the ordeal for children. At the request of the ambassadors, a formal session with the ships' senior officers was held to express their thanks. On 11 January, the evacuees were offloaded at Muscat, Oman. That afternoon, the American evacuees were flown to Frankfurt, Germany, from where they continued home. ## See also - List of military operations - Military operations other than war (MOOTW)

Cabell Breckinridge

American politician

Joseph Cabell Breckinridge (July 14, 1788 – September 1, 1823) was a lawyer, soldier, slaveholder and politician in the U.S. state of Kentucky. From 1816 to 1819, he represented Fayette County in the Kentucky House of Representatives, and fellow members elected him as their speaker (1817 to 1819). In 1820, Governor John Adair appointed Breckinridge Kentucky Secretary of State, and he served until his death. A member of the Breckinridge political family, he was the son of Virginia (then Kentucky) lawyer, Senator, and U.S. Attorney General John Breckinridge (1760–1806) and his wife Mary Hopkins Cabell Breckinridge (1769–1858), of another distinguished political family. Their son John C. Breckinridge would follow his father's (and grandfather's) path into law and politics and rise to become Vice President of the United States. After graduating from Princeton University, Breckinridge intended to follow his late father's example by becoming a lawyer in Lexington, Kentucky, but first enlisted for service in the War of 1812. Soon after the war, he also began his political career by winning election to the Kentucky House of Representatives, where he led an unsuccessful attempt to oust Governor Gabriel Slaughter, who had ascended to the governorship upon George Madison's death. Breckinridge served as Speaker of the Kentucky House from 1817 to 1819. In 1820, he accepted Governor Adair's appointment as Secretary of State and moved to Frankfort, the state capital, to better attend to official duties, but fell ill with a fever in August 1823 and died on September 1, 1823. ## Early life and family Joseph Cabell Breckinridge was born in Albemarle County, Virginia, on July 14, 1788. He was the second child and first son of John and Mary Hopkins "Polly" (née Cabell) Breckinridge. He was named for his maternal grandfather, Joseph Cabell, of Virginia's Cabell political family and known as "Cabell" throughout his life. In 1793, his family moved to Lexington, Kentucky. Late in the year, a smallpox epidemic struck the city. Inoculations came too late, and although Breckinridge, his mother and his sister Letitia survived infection, his sister Mary and brother Robert died. Historian Lowell H. Harrison noted that otherwise "little is known of his boyhood", although presumably he received a private education suitable for his class and read from his father's extensive library. In 1801, when Breckinridge was 12 years old, Kentucky legislators elected his father to represent the new state in the U.S. Senate. The family moved across the Appalachian Mountains to Bedford County, Virginia near Lynchburg, where they lived with relatives in order to be closer to the elder Breckinridge during the congressional session at Washington, D.C. While there, Cabell Breckinridge attended the New London Academy. A case of measles prevented him from attending William and Mary College (now College of William & Mary), his father's alma mater, where his cousin, future Congressman James Breckinridge, was enrolled. In 1803, Cabell Breckinridge accompanied his father to the national capital, where he witnessed the debates over the Louisiana Purchase before returning to his studies. After Congress adjourned in March, John Breckinridge retrieved his son from school, and they arrived back at Cabell's Dale, the family estate near Lexington, on April 18, 1804. Breckinridge did not travel eastward with his father in late 1804, but instead studied for about a year under Colonel Samuel Wilson before enrolling at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University). ### Princeton University Breckinridge arrived in Princeton, New Jersey, in late December 1805. Despite completing his final exams by April 5, he declined his father's offer to come to Washington because he needed to catch up on his studies in arithmetic. When the next term began in May, Breckinridge joined the American Whig–Cliosophic Society, a debating society founded by James Madison, Philip Freneau, Aaron Burr, and Henry Lee in 1769. In mid-1806, Cabell learned that his father was sick back in Kentucky. Not long after, however, he received word that his father was improving and expected to meet him in Virginia en route to the capital. Although the specific rendezvous location was unspecified, he assumed it would near Lynchburg. In October, Breckinridge traveled to his uncle Lewis Breckinridge's home to wait for his father, who never arrived. After returning to Princeton as the new term began, Breckinridge learned that his father had attempted to leave Cabell's Dale on October 22 but collapsed off his horse and returned to his sick bed; he died December 14, 1806. In January 1807, travelers from Kentucky finally brought Cabell Breckinridge word of his father's death. Despite Cabell's declaration to a relative that, "I consider my life dedicated to my mother's ease", he did not return immediately to Kentucky. John Breckinridge died intestate, complicating the settlement of his estate and creating financial difficulties for Cabell, who had been receiving support from his father. Desperate, he appealed to Alfred Grayson, his sister Letitia's husband and son of former Virginia Senator William Grayson, for assistance. However, that March, Cabell joined about 125 other students protesting against the Presbyterian institution's strict rules and rigorous curriculum. College administrators subsequently suspended everyone who refused to withdraw his name from the formal protest petition. Breckinridge refused to apologize for his role in the protest. Instead, in May, he left Princeton for Cabell's Dale, but in Philadelphia found no available stages heading for Kentucky for two weeks. Unable to afford room and board for that long, he instead traveled south toward Lynchburg, then stayed with relatives in Fincastle. Breckinridge considered enrolling at the College of William and Mary for the fall term in 1807, believing he could complete his studies in nine months, but ultimately decided against it. He may have also managed to return to Cabell's Dale between July 1807 to July 1808, based on the absence of family correspondence. By July 1808, Breckinridge decided to return to Princeton in October to finish his studies. His roommate, James G. Birney, and the university president, Rev. Samuel Stanhope Smith (who had also served as a missionary in Virginia and had been the founding president of Hampden-Sydney College), were both ardent abolitionists. However, many of Cabell Beckinridge's relatives owned slaves. Nonetheless, he became convinced that slavery must end, but only by voluntary emancipation, not by government interference. He received his bachelor's degree in 1810. About a year later, as discussed below, he married Rev. Smith's daughter.

### Marriage While completing his degree, Breckinridge began courting Mary Clay Smith, the university president's daughter and granddaughter of John Witherspoon, a signer of the Declaration of Independence and Princeton's sixth president. After graduation, Breckinridge had journeyed home to Kentucky, but returned to Princeton. He married Mary Smith on May 11, 1811. The couple had five children – Frances (born 1812), Caroline (born 1813), Mary Cabell (born 1815), John Cabell (born 1821), and Laetitia (born 1822). Their only son followed Breckinridge family tradition and became a lawyer as well as represented Kentucky in both houses of Congress, and eventually was elected Vice President of the United States in 1856, as well as became the fifth and final Confederate States Secretary of War. ## Soldier, planter and lawyer After visiting friends and relatives in Princeton, Philadelphia, and New York City, the newly wed couple moved in with Breckinridge's widowed mother at Cabell's Dale. Before Breckinridge could begin his legal career, the U.S. entered the War of 1812. Commissioned a major, Breckinridge served as aide-de-camp under Congressman Samuel Hopkins during the War of 1812. He would later refer to the war as "a foolish and ineffectual brace of campaigns on the Illinois and Wabash". After the war, Breckinridge was admitted to the Kentucky bar in 1814, and began his legal career in Lexington. He also taught religion, helped found the Second Presbyterian Church in Lexington and became one of its ruling elders. In 1815, Breckinridge purchased Thorn Hill, an estate on north Limestone and 5th streets in Lexington. By 1820, Cabell Breckinridge owned eight slaves. ## Political career In 1816, Breckinridge won election as a Democratic-Republican to represent Fayette Countyin the Kentucky House of Representatives, gaining the largest majority given to a candidate for office in that county to that point. His legislative career began during the national "Era of Good Feelings", largely congruent with the presidency of James Monroe, when political disagreements were relatively few. Nevertheless, dissension erupted in Kentucky in October 1816 after the death of Governor George Madison just three weeks into his term. Lieutenant Governor Gabriel Slaughter, as acting governor, rescinded Madison's appointment of Charles Stewart Todd as Secretary of State, replacing him with former Senator John Pope, who was unpopular because of his vote against declaring the War of 1812. Slaughter followed this up by appointing Martin D. Hardin, widely regarded as a Federalist despite his nominal identification with the Democratic-Republicans, to fill the Senate vacancy caused by the resignation of William T. Barry. Both appointments were unpopular in the state, and on January 27, 1817, Breckinridge formed a coalition of legislators in the House that sponsored a bill to elect "a governor to fill the vacancy occasioned by the death of" Madison, essentially an attempt to oust Slaughter from the governorship. The bill passed the House by a vote of 56–30, but the Senate refused to concur. Madison's death was the first time the lieutenant governor succeeded permanently to the governorship, establishing the precedent for future instances. Nevertheless, several anti-Slaughter candidates were elected in the 1817 legislative elections. Breckinridge was re-elected in both 1817 and 1818 and was chosen Speaker of the House both years. In 1820, Breckinridge's friend, newly elected Governor John Adair, appointed him as Kentucky Secretary of State. Of this appointment, historian William C. Davis wrote, "It was a prestigious, albeit not too influential, position and would require his full-time presence at the capital." He remained in Lexington until the birth of his son in January 1821; in February, the family moved to the Governor's Mansion in Frankfort to live with Adair. Although his mother opposed the move to Frankfort, he intended for it to be permanent; an acquaintance wrote that "his plans were extensive and his hopes high" for his family's life in the state capital. In addition to his duties as secretary of state, he continued to practice law. ## Death Throughout his term, Breckinridge's health became increasingly fragile. When an illness described in contemporary accounts as "the prevailing fever" struck Lexington in 1823, he took the children to Cabell's Dale to prevent them from becoming ill. When he returned in late August, he contracted the fever. Despite the care of his brother, John, and the local doctors, he died on September 1, 1823, just over a week after falling ill. Originally buried on the grounds at Cabell's Dale, he and several family members were re-interred at Lexington Cemetery near the grave of his brother Robert Jefferson Breckinridge. Breckinridge left behind \$15,000 in debts, and with the nation still in the throes of the Panic of 1819, his assets were not enough to pay off the obligations. His wife, who also fell ill and was pregnant with the couple's sixth child, was so depressed because of his death and her subsequent financial straits that she suffered a miscarriage. She and the children moved in with Cabell's widowed mother at Cabell's Dale. For several years, she was dependent upon her in-laws for survival; Breckinridge's brother, Robert, assumed Cabell's debts, which he paid in full in 1832. ## See also

Beat of My Heart

2005 single by Hilary Duff

"Beat of My Heart" is a song by American actress and singer Hilary Duff from her first compilation album Most Wanted (2005). It was written by Duff and the Dead Executives, a record production team consisting of Jason Epperson, Joel and Benji Madden. Along with the three other new songs on Most Wanted, "Beat of My Heart" was crafted with the intention of having a "totally different sound" from Duff's previous material. It is an up-tempo new wave-inspired electropop song that incorporates elements of bubblegum pop in its production. Lyrically, "Beat of My Heart" can be interpreted in many ways. For Duff, it tells the story of a woman "com[ing] out of her shell again" after a bad break-up. Following the success of previous single, "Wake Up", "Beat of My Heart" was issued as the second international single from Most Wanted. It was released in Australia by Festival Mushroom Records on December 11, 2005, and in several European countries on March 6, 2006, by Angel Records. The single achieved moderate commercial success, charting in four countries. Its highest position was in Italy, where it peaked at number eight. It reached the top 20 in Australia and Spain, and secured a position towards the lower end of the chart in Switzerland. Critical reception of "Beat of My Heart" was generally mixed, with some critics pointing out its repetitive and childish nature, while others commended it for its accessible and pleasant sound. The accompanying music video for "Beat of My Heart" was directed by Phil Harder. The music video, which paid homage to Bond girls, debuted a "more mature" image of Duff. It emulates the title sequences of James Bond films from the 1960s to present-day, high-tech 3D designs. Duff has performed "Beat of My Heart" live on all of her concert tours since its inception. A pre-recorded performance of the song was played during the 2006 edition of Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve, which would later become a regular feature during future editions of the program. The song and video were parodied on the American sketch comedy series Mad TV. The parody satirizes Duff's thinness and Hollywood's obsession with body image. ## Background and development On May 20, 2005, MTV News reported that Hilary Duff would be releasing a new album in August, comprising previously released tracks and four new recordings. The following month, in an interview with MTV News, Duff said that she had been working with brothers Joel and Benji Madden, of the American rock band Good Charlotte, and Jason Epperson (together known under the production name the Dead Executives) to write and produce new songs for the compilation. She said that " ... they're three of my favorite songs I've ever done. ... It was really fun being in the studio with them." Described by Duff as the first time when "all the responsibility was on [her]", she went into the recording studio without the guidance of her record label or management. According to Duff, she did not tell anyone at her record label that she was working with the Dead Executives. Joel, whom Duff had been dating at the time, was aware that she needed new material for a compilation album, and knew that she wanted a "totally different sound". Together, the Dead Executives went into the recording studio and worked on new music for Duff, before bringing her into the studio to collectively work on them. Duff described working with them as pleasant, and the music as a new milestone in her career, stating that working with "people you're close with makes a world of difference when you're recording and being creative." At the same time, Duff was also nervous about how her fans would react to the new music. Duff recorded four tracks for the album, three of which were co-written and produced with the Dead Executives. For Duff, who stated that the song can be interpreted in many ways, "Beat of My Heart" tells the story of a heterosexual relationship, in which the woman was in love with the man, but he was not "as into her as she was him". After the couple break-up, she found herself in a place where she "wasn't herself". She then "comes out of her shell again", which Duff described as: "Coming out again, dancing again, smiling again, having fun and seeing everything in a brighter light." The Dead Executives were instrumental in the instrumentation of "Beat of My Heart", performing on the bass and guitars. They also mixed and engineered the song; the latter was also conducted by Todd Parker and Grant Conway and assisted by Allan Hessler. It was mixed and recorded at the Foxy Studio in Los Angeles, California. The drums featured on the track was performed by Dean Butterworth while Monique Powell and The Fruit performed backing vocals. The song was then mastered by Joe Gastwirt. ## Composition "Beat of My Heart" is an up-tempo new wave-inspired electropop song that incorporates elements of bubblegum pop and dance music in its production. It contains a "soft electronic pop" sound and has the heart beat sound as its base, as well as guitar strums at a "feverish pace" throughout the song. Spence D. of IGN described "Beat of My Heart" as a "glorious uninhibited slab of Euro pop as filtered through the vocal chords of a warm-blooded American girl." "Beat of My Heart" opens with the sound of a beating heart. In the pre-chorus, Duff's vocals are made distant by the song's use of guitars and synth keyboards. She sings that she is going to follow her own interests: "To the beat of my / To the beat of my / To the beat of my heart". In the first verse, a disinterested Duff sings that she is eager to speak her mind and "yield to her every desire". In the chorus, she sings that her confidence has strained her relationships with her friends. In the second verse, she sings of being over her depression. An "angry guitar" and a "goth piano" interrupts the song in its bridge. Duff sings that she is only listening to herself from now on. According to Chuck Taylor of Billboard magazine, the line "beat of my heart" is repeated forty-four times in the song. ## Critical response "Beat of My Heart" received generally mixed reviews from contemporary music critics. Pam Avoledo of Blogcritics wrote that Duff sounds like she is bored and "going through the motions" on the song. She further stated that Duff has "lost her sauciness and ironically, her spunk" in the song. Avoledo concluded her review by calling "the bland electro pop" song an "insult to the genre. It's like spilling ramen on a Vivenne Westwood evening gown." A reviewer from CBBC Newsround commented that the song is so repetitive that you will feel like "you've listened to it 20 times after just one play". The reviewer praised the heartbeat present on the track, writing that it "make it a bit of a foot-tapper", but deemed the lyrics to be "meaningless". The reviewer concluded that: "You'll find yourself humming it but will be hard pushed to remember what on earth she was singing about!" Spence D. of IGN wrote that "Beat of My Heart" does not try for subtlety as it utilizes the "much overused heartbeat" for the "foundation rhythm" of the song. A reviewer for Billboard noted that the song "seems to toss her back to her Disney days". They concluded that: "Pop music is always appreciated, but this is a kiddie anthem, plain and simple [...] it is hardly a contender for contemporary radio". Bill Lamb of About.com found the song, along with "Break My Heart", to be "disappointing cookie cutter copies" of Avril Lavigne's "Sk8er Boi". He stated that although the songs are "easy to listen", they "break no new ground". Gabriel Leong of MTV Asia stated that "Beat of My Heart" sounds "very much like" songs that Debbie Gibson, Tiffany and Bananarama would have recorded in 1980s, a direction that suits Duff "much better than the whole budding rock chick image she's been trying out. We don't want a squabble with Ashlee [Simpson] now, do we Hil?" ## Commercial performance "Beat of My Heart" was a moderate commercial success. The single managed to chart in four countries, reaching its highest position in Italy, where it peaked at number eight on the week ending on April 6, 2006, after debuting at number ten. In Australia, "Beat of My Heart" outperformed "Wake Up" by reaching number 13; it stayed on the chart for a total 14 weeks. The song gained lower positions in Spain, where it managed to peak inside the top twenty by reaching number 17; and in Switzerland, where it reached number 89. In 2006, "Beat of My Heart" was placed at number 90 on the Australian year-end singles chart, and at number 74 on the year-end Australian Physical Singles chart. ## Promotion ### Music video The music video for "Beat of My Heart" was shot in Los Angeles, California on the week of September 26, 2005. It was directed by Phil Harder for Harder/Fuller Films, who is best known for his mid-to-late 1990s videos for seminal indie rock acts Low, the Red House Painters and The Afghan Whigs, as well as his videos for The Barenaked Ladies. The video, which pays homage to Bond girls, contains "that hip sensibility" of James Bond films and presents a "more mature" image of Duff. A representative for Duff's record label said that: "She's always been a huge James Bond fan. She watched those movies with her sister growing up, and she loved the Bond girls, because they were always so stylish, and she's stylish." The music video was made available to purchase on the iTunes Store from November 2, 2005. It later made its on-air premiere on MTV's Total Request Live a week later, on November 9. The music video was also promoted during January 2006 on the Disney Channel as well.

The music video emulates the title sequences of Bond films from the 1960s to present-day, high-tech 3D designs. In the opening sequence, one of the graphics turns into a wire frame of a beating electronic heart, which "pulls out" with each beat. As the camera zooms, the heart grows in size and "weaves" to become Duff. According to MTV News, while she doesn't "take on" Pussy Galore, Plenty O'Toole, Holly Goodhead, or any other Bond girl, she becomes a "Bond girl in spirit", switching from era to era with different looks, with her hair blowing and flying around in graphic silhouettes. Instead of cutting from image to image, the shots evolve in a Bond-like style "as shapes take on different forms to reveal something else". Duff performs in silhouette, with a microphone, "where a gun would otherwise be". In another shot, her band is a silhouette. The edition of the video is matched to the beat of the song, "zapping the view in and out, until a lull in the song, when the view travels back into her eyes, through her skin and back to her beating heart." ### Live performances Duff premiered "Beat of My Heart" as part of the set list of the Still Most Wanted Tour, which commenced on July 12, 2005, in Los Angeles. She co-hosted the 2006 edition of Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve. A pre-recorded performance of "Beat of My Heart" was played during the program. The event also featured a live performance from Times Square by Mariah Carey—the first in the show's history. These live performances would become a regular feature during future editions of New Year's Rockin' Eve. Duff performed the song as part of the set list of the Dignity World Tour (2007–08). ## Track listings - Australian CD single 1. "Beat of My Heart" — 3:10 2. "Wake Up" (DJ Kaya Dance Remix) — 4:10 - European CD single 1. "Beat of My Heart" (Album Version) — 3:10 2. "Fly" (Remix) — 3:27 - Spanish CD maxi single 1. "Beat of My Heart" (Album Version) — 3:10 2. "Beat of My Heart" (Sugarcookie Remix) — 2:58 3. "Fly" (Remix) — 3:27 - Digital download 1. "Beat of My Heart" — 3:10 ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of "Beat of My Heart" CD single. - Songwriting – Hilary Duff, Dead Executives - Production, mixing, bass and guitar – Dead Executives - Executive producers – Hilary Duff, Andre Recke - Engineering – Dead Executives, Todd Parker, Grant Conway - Assistant engineering – Allan Hessler - Drums – Dean Butterworth - Mastering – Joe Gastwirt - Background vocals – Monique Powell, Fruit - Recorded and mixed at Foxy Studio in Los Angeles, California ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Release history

Field marshal (India)

Highest Military rank of Indian Army

Field marshal (abbreviated as FM) is a five–star general officer rank and the highest attainable rank in the Indian Army. Field marshal ranks immediately above general, but is not in use in the army's current structure. Awarded only twice, field marshal is a rank bestowed on generals for ceremonial purposes or during times of war. Sam Manekshaw was the first field marshal of the Indian Army, and was promoted on 1 January 1973. The second was Kodandera M. Cariappa, who was promoted to the rank on 15 January 1986. Field marshal is equivalent to admiral of the fleet in the Indian Navy and Marshal of the Indian Air Force in the Indian Air Force. There has never been an admiral of the fleet in the Indian Navy, leaving Marshal of the Indian Air Force Arjan Singh as the only officer to hold an equivalent rank to the Indian Army's two field marshals. ## History To date, only two Indian Army officers have been conferred the rank. It was first conferred to Sam Manekshaw in 1973, in recognition of his service and leadership in the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War. Immediately after the war, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi decided to promote Manekshaw to Field Marshal and subsequently to appoint him as the Chief of the Defence Staff (CDS). This appointment was dropped after several objections from the bureaucracy and the commanders of the Navy and the Air Force. On 3 January 1973, after his term as the Chief of the Army Staff (COAS) Manekshaw was promoted to field marshal at a ceremony held at Rashtrapati Bhavan. As it was the first use of the rank, some details such as the rank insignia, had not been set worked out. A few weeks before Manekshaw's appointment, the first Indian field marshal's badges of rank were made at the Army workshop in Delhi Cantonment. These were inspired by the rank insignia of a British field marshal. The second individual to be conferred the rank was Kodandera M. Cariappa, the first Indian to serve as the Commander–in–Chief of the Indian Army (the office that later became the Chief of the Army Staff). Unlike Manekshaw, who was promoted to field marshal a few days before leaving office as Chief of the Army Staff, Cariappa had been retired for close to 33 years at the time of his promotion. This posed a problem as field marshals remain on active duty for life. The Government of India elected to promote Cariappa regardless due to his exemplary service and conferred the rank of field marshal on him on 15 January 1986 at a special investiture ceremony held at Rashtrapati Bhavan. ## Overview Field marshal is the five-star rank and highest attainable rank in the Indian Army. It is a ceremonial or wartime rank, having been awarded only twice. A field marshal receives the full pay of a full general, and is considered a serving officer until their death. They are entitled to wear a full uniform on all ceremonial occasions. ### Insignia A field marshal's insignia consists of the national emblem over a crossed baton and sabre in a lotus blossom wreath. On appointment, field marshals are awarded a gold-tipped baton which they may carry on formal occasions. The star insignia, which comprises five golden stars over a red strip, is used on car pennants, rank flags and as gorget patches. ## Rank holders

### Sam Manekshaw Sam Manekshaw, MC (1914–2008), also known as "Sam Bahadur" ("Sam the Brave"), was the first Indian Army officer to be promoted to the rank of field marshal. Commissioned into the British Indian Army on 1 February 1935 with seniority antedated to 4 February 1934, Manekshaw's distinguished military career spanned four decades and five wars, beginning with service in World War II. He was first attached to the 2nd Battalion of Royal Scots, and later posted to the 4th Battalion of 12th Frontier Force Regiment, commonly known as the 54th Sikhs. Following partition, he was reassigned to the 16th Punjab Regiment. Manekshaw rose to be the 8th COAS of the Indian Army in 1969, and under his command Indian forces conducted successful campaigns against Pakistan in the Liberation War of Bangladesh in 1971.The war lasted for 09 months. Indian Army joined as an ally force with Bangladesh for 12 days from 3 December to 16 December. On 16 December 1971, Lt. Gen A. A. K. Niazi of the Pakistan Army signed the Instrument of Surrender at Dhaka in the presence of Lt. Gen. Jagjit Singh Aurora, Lt. Gen. J. F. R. Jacob and other Senior Officers of the Indian Army. More than 93000 Pakistani Soldiers surrendered to the allied force led by Indian Army, which was recorded as one among the largest surrenders in history. The decisive results achieved by the Indian Army during this war, under the able military leadership of Manekshaw, gave the nation a new sense of confidence, and in recognition of his services, in January 1973 the President of India conferred the rank of field marshal on him. He was also awarded the Padma Vibhushan and the Padma Bhushan, the second and third highest Indian civilian awards respectively, for his services to the Indian nation. #### Controversies Though Sam Manekshaw was conferred the rank of field marshal in 1973, it was reported that he was never given the complete allowances he was entitled to as a field marshal. It was not until President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam took the initiative when he met Manekshaw in Wellington, and made sure that the field marshal was presented with a cheque for ₹1.3 crores–his arrears of pay for over 30 years. Even more surprisingly, Manekshaw's funeral was not attended by the top brass from civil, military, or political leadership, because non parsis are not allowed to enter parsi funeral. ### Kodandera Madappa Cariappa Kodandera Madappa Cariappa, OBE (1899–1993), was the first Indian to be appointed as commander-in-chief (C-in-C) of the Indian Army. His distinguished military career spanned almost three decades. Cariappa joined the British Indian Army on 1 December 1920, and was commissioned as temporary second lieutenant in the 2/88 Carnatic Infantry. He was later transferred to 2/125 Napier Rifles, then to the 7th Prince of Wales Own Dogra Regiment in June 1922, and finally to the 1/7 Rajput, which became his parent regiment. He was the first Indian officer to attend the course at Staff College, Quetta, the first Indian to command a battalion in the Indian Army, and also was one of the first two Indians selected to undergo a training course at the Imperial Defence College, Camberly, UK. He served in various staff capacities at various unit and command headquarters (HQ) and also at the General HQ, New Delhi. He led the Indian forces in Kashmir during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. He was a member of the Army Sub Committee of the Forces Reconstitution Committee, which divided the British Indian Army into the Indian and Pakistani Armies after the Partition of India in 1947. After his retirement from the Indian Army in 1953, he served as the high commissioner to Australia and New Zealand until 1956. As a token of gratitude for the exemplary service rendered by him to the nation, the Government of India conferred the rank of field marshal on Cariappa in his 87th year, on 15 January 1986. ## See also - Army ranks and insignia of India - Marshal of the Indian Air Force Arjan Singh - Field marshal - Five-star rank

William Montagu, 1st Earl of Salisbury

English nobleman

William Montagu, alias de Montacute, 1st Earl of Salisbury, 3rd Baron Montagu, King of Man (1301 – 30 January 1344) was an English nobleman and loyal servant of King Edward III. The son of William Montagu, 2nd Baron Montagu, he entered the royal household at an early age and became a close companion of the young Prince Edward. The relationship continued after Edward was crowned king following the deposition of Edward II in 1327. In 1330, Montagu was one of Edward's main accomplices in the coup against Roger Mortimer, who until then had been acting as the king's protector. In the following years, Montagu served the king in various capacities, primarily in the Scottish Wars. He was richly rewarded, and among other things received the lordship of the Isle of Man. In 1337, he was created Earl of Salisbury, and given an annual income of 1000 marks to go with the title. He served on the Continent in the early years of the Hundred Years' War, but in 1340 he was captured by the French, and in return for his freedom had to promise never to fight in France again. Salisbury died of wounds suffered at a tournament early in 1344. Legend has it that Montagu's wife Catherine was raped by Edward III, but this story is almost certainly French propaganda. William and Catherine had six children, most of whom married into the nobility. Modern historians have called William Montague Edward's "most intimate personal friend" and "the chief influence behind the throne from Mortimer's downfall in 1330 until his own death in 1344." ## Family background William Montagu, born at Cassington, Oxfordshire in 1301, was the second but eldest surviving son of William Montagu, 2nd Baron Montagu, and Elizabeth de Montfort, daughter of Sir Peter Montfort of Beaudesert, Warwickshire, by Matilda/Maud de la Mare, daughter and heiress of Henry de la Mare of Ashtead, Surrey, Royal Justice, Seneschal of William Longspree II, Earl of Salisbury. The Montagu family, a West Country family with roots going back to the Conquest, held extensive lands in Somerset, Dorset and Devon. The father, William Montagu, distinguished himself in the Scottish Wars during the reign of Edward I, and served as steward of Edward II's household. Some members of the nobility, including Thomas of Lancaster, viewed Montagu with suspicion, as a member of a court party with undue influence on the king. For this reason, he was sent to Aquitaine, to serve as seneschal. Here he died on 18 October 1319. Even though he sat in parliament as a baron, the second lord Montagu never rose above a level of purely regional importance. ## Early service The younger William was still a minor at the time of his father's death, and entered the royal household as a ward of the king in 1320. On 21 February 1323 he was granted his father's lands and title. His service to Edward II took him abroad to the Continent in both 1320 and 1325. In 1326 he was knighted. After the deposition of Edward II in 1327, Montagu continued in the service of Edward's son Edward III. He helped the new king in repelling the Scottish invasion of 1327, and was created knight banneret in 1328. Montagu enjoyed a close relationship with Edward III, and accompanied him abroad on a diplomatic mission in 1329. That same year he was sent on an embassy to negotiate a marriage alliance with King Philip VI of France. His most important task, however, came in connection with a mission to the Papacy in Avignon. The young king—along with his government—was under the dominance of his mother Isabella and her lover Roger Mortimer, who had been responsible for the deposition of the king's father. Montagu explained the king's situation, and Pope John XXII asked for a special signal that assure him that he was dealing with the king in person. After Montagu's return, Richard Bury, Keeper of the Privy Seal, wrote to inform the pope that only letters containing the words pater sancte (holy father), in Edward's own handwriting, were indeed from the king. Only Edward, Bury and Montagu were party to the scheme. ## Coup against Mortimer When Mortimer discovered the conspiracy against him, Montagu was brought in for interrogation – along with the king – but gave nothing away. Afterward he supposedly advised Edward to move against his protector, because "It was better that they should eat the dog than that the dog should eat them". On 19 October 1330, while Mortimer and Isabella were entrenched in Nottingham Castle, the constable of the castle showed Montagu a secret entrance through a tunnel. Along with William de Bohun, Robert Ufford, and John Neville and others, he entered the castle, where he met up with the king. A short brawl followed before Mortimer was captured. The queen stormed into the chamber shouting "Good son, have pity on noble Mortimer". Edward did not obey his mother's wishes, and a few weeks later Mortimer was executed for treason in London. As a reward for his part in the coup, Montagu was given lands worth £1000, including the Welsh lordship of Denbigh that had belonged to Mortimer. His family also benefited; his brother Simon Montacute became Bishop of Worcester and later of Ely. Another brother, Edward Montagu, 1st Baron Montagu, married Alice of Norfolk, a co-heir of Thomas of Brotherton, 1st Earl of Norfolk. ## Service under Edward III `In the years to come, Montagu acted as Edward's closest companion. In April 1331, the two went on a secret expedition to France, disguised as merchants so they would not be recognised. In September of the same year, Montagu held a tournament at Cheapside, where he and the king were costumed as Tartars. From 1333 onwards, Montagu was deeply engaged in the Scottish Wars, and distinguished himself at the Siege of Berwick and the Battle of Halidon Hill. It was after this event that his lordship over the Isle of Man was recognised, a right he held from his grandfather. The lordship was at the moment of a purely theoretical nature, however, since the island was still under Scottish control.` In February 1334 Montagu was sent on a commission to Edinburgh, to demand Edward Balliol's homage to Edward. In the great summer campaign of 1335, it was Montagu who provided the largest English contingent, with 180 men-at-arms and 136 archers. He was well rewarded for his contributions: after Edward Balliol ceded the Lowlands, Montagu was granted the county of Peeblesshire. He was also allowed to buy the wardship of Roger Mortimer's son Roger for 1000 marks, a deal that turned out to be very lucrative for Montagu. At this point, however, the fortunes were turning for the English in Scotland. Montagu campaigned in the north again in 1337, but the Siege of Dunbar in 1338 against Agnes, Countess of Dunbar and Alexander Ramsay of Dalhousie met with failure. Following the abortive attempt in Scotland, Edward III turned his attention to the continent.

## The Hundred Years' War Montagu was created Earl of Salisbury on 16 March 1337. This was one of six comital promotions Edward III made that day, in preparation for what was to become the Hundred Years' War. To allow Montagu to support his new status, the king granted him land and rent of a value of 1000 marks a year. The money was provided from the royal stannaries of Cornwall. A contemporary poem tells of a vow made by the earl on the eve of the wars – he would not open one of his eyes while fighting in France. The story is probably a satire; the truth was that Montagu had already lost the use of one of his eyes in a tournament. In April 1337, Montagu was appointed to a diplomatic commission to Valenciennes, to establish alliances with Flanders and the German princes. In July 1338, he accompanied the king on another mission to the continent, again providing the greatest number of soldiers, with 123 men-at-arms and 50 archers. In September of that year he was made Marshal of England. After the death of Thomas of Brotherton, Earl of Norfolk, this office had come into the hands of Norfolk's daughter Margaret. The king did not trust the office with her husband, so he decided instead to bestow it on his trusted companion, Montagu. Edward's policy of building alliances put him in great debt, and when he left the Low Countries to return to England late in 1338, Salisbury had to stay behind as surety to the king's debtors, along with the king's family and the Earl of Derby. The earl had earlier voiced concerns about the costly alliances, but he nevertheless remained loyal to the king's strategy. While Edward was away, Salisbury was captured by the French at Lille in April 1340, and imprisoned in Paris. Reportedly, King Philip VI of France wanted to execute Salisbury and Robert Ufford, Earl of Suffolk, who was captured with him. Philip was, however, dissuaded by John of Bohemia, who argued that the earls could come in handy in an exchange, should any French noblemen be captured. Though released on parole in September, it was not until May 1342 that he reached a final settlement with the French. Salisbury was freed in a prisoner exchange, but only on the condition that he never fight in France again. ## Final years `Salisbury had long been frustrated by the failure of the government in England to provide sufficient funds for the war effort. On his return, however, he played little part in the conflict of 1341 between King Edward and Chancellor John Stratford. In May of that year, he was appointed to a committee to hear the king's charges against Stratford, but little came from this. In 1342–43 he fought with Robert of Artois in the Breton War of Succession, and in 1343 helped negotiate the Truce of Malestroit. It was probably sometime after this he made good his claim on the Isle of Man, by conquering the island which was until then held by the Scots.` His final international commission took place late in 1343, when he accompanied Henry of Grosmont, Earl of Derby, on a diplomatic mission to Castile. Early in 1344 he was back in England, where he took part in a great tournament at Windsor. It was during this tournament, according to the chronicler Adam Murimuth, that he received wounds that would prove fatal. Salisbury died on 30 January 1344. He was buried at Bisham Priory in Berkshire, adjoining his home, Bisham Manor. He had founded the priory himself in 1337, on his elevation to the earldom. King Edward's financial obligations were never paid in full during the earl's lifetime, and at Salisbury's death, the king owed him £11,720. Of this, some £6374 were written off by his executors in 1346. ## Family In or before 1327 Salisbury married Catherine, daughter of William de Grandison, 1st Baron Grandison. Two anecdotal stories revolve around Catherine Montagu; in one she is identified as the "Countess of Salisbury" from whose dropped garter Edward III named the Order of the Garter. In the other, Edward III falls in love with the countess, and arranges to be alone with her so he can rape her. Neither story is supported by contemporary evidence, and the latter almost certainly is a product of French propaganda. William and Catherine had six children, most of whom made highly fortunate matches with other members of the nobility. The first Earl of Salisbury made enormous additions to the family fortune; at the time of his father's death, the lands had been valued at just over £300. In 1344, only the annual income of the lands has been estimated to more than £2,300, equivalent to about £ in present-day terms. Edward was also free with granting franchises to Salisbury, including the return of writs, which gave the earl authority in his lands normally held by the royally appointed sheriff. Salisbury's oldest son William succeeded his father in July 1349, while still a minor, as William Montagu, 2nd Earl of Salisbury. The younger William was one of the founding members of the Order of the Garter, but he never enjoyed the same favour with the king as his father had. The children of William and Catherine were as follows: - Elizabeth Montagu, died 1359, married first, Giles de Badlesmere, 2nd Baron Badlesmere, second, Hugh le Despencer, Baron le Despencer (1338) before 27 April 1341, and third, Guy de Bryan, 1st Baron Bryan, after 1349. - William Montacute, 2nd Earl of Salisbury, born 1328, died 1397, succeeded his father on 11 June 1349. - Sibyl Montagu, married Sir Edmund FitzAlan, Knt., eldest son of Richard FitzAlan, 10th Earl of Arundel. - John de Montacute, 1st Baron Montacute, born 1330, died 1390, father of John Montacute, 3rd Earl of Salisbury. - Philippa Montagu, born 1332, died 1381, married Roger Mortimer, 2nd Earl of March. - Agnes Montagu, contracted to marry John, eldest son of Roger Grey, 1st Baron Grey de Ruthyn. ## In fiction Salisbury is a character in Les Rois maudits (The Accursed Kings), a series of French historical novels by Maurice Druon. He was portrayed by in the 1972 French miniseries adaptation of the series.

Golden Age of Trucking Museum

The Golden Age of Trucking Museum is a defunct trucking museum in Middlebury, Connecticut, United States. Founded in 1998 by Richard and Frances Guerrera, it was non-profit organization dedicated to trucking that focused on trucks of the 1950s. The museum was dedicated on September 23, 2002 and housed in a 32,000 square foot building. It featured a collection of historic and antique vehicles including the first registered car in Connecticut, a 1928 Pierce-Arrow Motor Car Company dump truck. Among the trucks in the museum were Mack Trucks, GMC and Autocar Company trucks, including a 1963 Mack B61 motivated Guerrera to found the museum. The Golden Age of Trucking Museum also featured a collection of toy trucks, hats, state license plates and images relating to trucking. Throughout its entire operation, the museum ran a deficit and it closed after a 2009 fund raising campaign failed. The museum's final day of operation was on July 20, 2010. The economic impact of the museums closure was expected to be low, but according to Steven Frischling of the Boston Globe. the Golden Age of Trucking Museum made its mark on the auto world. ## History Founded in 1998 by Richard and Frances Guerrera, the Golden Age of Trucking Museum was a non-profit organization dedicated to trucking. The Guerreras owned and operated R.J. Guerrera, a liquid transportation trucking company. Originally, a collection of trucks were restored and stored in barns and garages throughout Connecticut. The Golden Age of Trucking Museum was opened to bring the collection under a single roof. After the property for the museum was purchased in July 1998, Richard Guerrera was diagnosed with cancer. In June 1999, he was transported to the site for an unofficial groundbreaking event. Richard Guerrera died a month later and the facility was completed in 2002. The museum was designed by Francis Guerrera's son-in-law, a general contractor. On September 23, 2002, the museum was formally opened with a ribbon-cutting ceremony in the complete 32,000 square foot building. The museum never was able to sustain itself through its visitors and it ran a deficit throughout its entire operation; the museums operating costs that were covered by Frances Guerrera. In 2009, a \$100,000 funding raising campaign was undertaken, but it only resulted in a total of \$20,000 being raised prior to July 2010. On July 6, 2010, the board of directors came to the conclusion to close the museum. The museum's final day was on July 20, 2010 and also featured a gathering of antique cars in a "Cruise Night" event. ## Collection The Golden Age of Trucking Museum featured a collection of historic trucks, cars and other items related to the trucking operation, with a special focus on trucking in the 1950s. Many of the historic vehicles on display were noted for their rarity or otherwise unique quality. These include the first registered car in Connecticut, a 1902 Merry Oldsmobile, and a 1928 Pierce-Arrow Motor Car Company five-to-seven ton dump truck, one of only 55 Pierce-Arrow trucks produced. The displays included a 1916 Mack Paddy Wagon, a 1929 Diamond T truck, a 1931 Ford Model AA Service Car, a 1936 Ford Roadster Deluxe and a Model T Ford Tank Truck. A 1953 Fageol moving van with original owner's banner was located near some surreys and carriages. Other early period vehicles on display included a 1912 Autocar two-cylinder transit bus, a 1914 Trumbull, a 1915 Barker, and a 1917 Republic Model 10 1-ton express and a 1920 3 1⁄2 ton Model AC Mack. Trucks of the 1930s and 1940s included a 1937 Ford tow truck, a 1940 Dodge VK, a 1940 Mack FN, a 1941 Federal Model 25K and a 1942 Dodge WC-21. The 1950s' vehicles were represented by a 1952 Diamond T 950RSa, 1955 IH DFC405 and a 1955 GMC Model 860. Later vehicles included two Autocar Company trucks, a 1962 DC75T and a 1974 DC9364 10-wheel dump truck. The 1963 Mack B61 was of special importance to the founder Richard Guerrera who acquired the truck with the purchase of a local company, Oil Transport. Guerrera sold the truck and reacquired the same vehicle in 1985 to restore it. This Mack B61 was described as the "impetus" for the museum. Also on display was a 1996 Volvo prototype truck cab.

Other items on display included "Bumpers", a dog sculpture made of Mack Truck bumpers and a collection of toy trucks, hats, state license plates and images relating to trucking. The museum also included an exhibit featuring kerosene lamps. According to Stephen Wood, the kerosene lamps might have come from the defunct Kerosene Lamp Museum. Also on display was Stephen Guman's Guinness World Record breaking Popsicle stick structure, made of 396,000 sticks. ## Impact Throughout its operation, the Golden Age of Trucking Museum was one of two trucking museums in Connecticut. Steven Frischling of the Boston Globe wrote, "It may seem strange that two trucking museums would be located in the same state, but [t]he Haul of Fame truck museum and [t]he Golden Age of Trucking Museum make their individual marks on the auto world." The economic impact of the museum's closure was not expected to be large according to John Cookson, co-chairman of Economic and Industrial Development Commission. Janet Serra, the director for the Western Connecticut Convention and Visitor's Bureau, said the effect of closure would not be immediate, but noted it could impact tourism and area hotels. ## See also - List of museums in Connecticut

French cruiser Sully

French Navy's Gloire-class armored cruiser

The French cruiser Sully was one of five armored cruisers of the Gloire class that were built for the French Navy (Marine Nationale) in the early 1900s. Fitted with a mixed armament of 194-millimeter (7.6 in) and 164.7-millimeter (6.5 in) guns, the ships were designed for service with the battle fleet. Completed in 1904, Sully joined her sister ships in the Northern Squadron (Escadre du Nord), although she was transferred to the Far East shortly afterwards. The ship struck a rock in Hạ Long Bay, French Indochina in 1905, only eight months after she was completed, and was a total loss. ## Design and description The Gloire-class ships were designed as enlarged and improved versions of the preceding Gueydon class by Emile Bertin. The ships measured 139.78 meters (458 ft 7 in) overall, with a beam of 20.2 meters (66 ft 3 in) and a draft of 7.55 meters (24 ft 9 in). They displaced 9,996 metric tons (9,838 long tons). Their crew numbered 25 officers and 590 enlisted men. The sisters' propulsion machinery consisted of three vertical triple-expansion steam engines, each driving a single propeller shaft, using steam provided by water-tube boilers, but the types of machinery differed between them. Sully had three-cylinder engines fed by 28 Belleville boilers that were designed to produce a total of 20,500 metric horsepower (15,100 kW) intended to give them a maximum speed of 21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph). During her sea trials on 23 May 1903, the ship reached 21.41 knots (39.65 km/h; 24.64 mph) from 20,110 metric horsepower (14,790 kW). The cruisers carried enough coal to give them a range of 6,500 nautical miles (12,000 km; 7,500 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). ### Armament and armor The main battery of the Gloire class consisted of two quick-firing (QF) 194 mm Modèle 1893–1896 guns mounted in single-gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure. Their secondary armament comprised eight QF 164.7 mm Modèle 1893–1896 guns and six QF Canon de 100 mm (3.9 in) Modèle de 1893 guns. Half of the 164.7 mm guns were in two singe-gun wing turrets on each broadside and all of the remaining guns were on single mounts in casemates in the hull. For defense against torpedo boats, they carried eighteen 47-millimeter (1.9 in) and four 37-millimeter (1.5 in) Hotchkiss guns, all of which were in single mounts. The sisters were also armed with five 450-millimeter (17.7 in) torpedo tubes, of which two were submerged and three above water. Two of these were on each broadside and the fifth tube was in the stern. All of the above-water tubes were on pivot mounts. The ships varied in the number of naval mines that they could carry and Sully was fitted with storage for 10.

The Gloire class were the first French armored cruisers to have their waterline armored belt made from Harvey face-hardened armor plates. The belt ranged in thickness from 70 to 150 millimeters (2.8 to 5.9 in). Because of manufacturing limitations, the thinner end plates were nickel steel. Behind the belt was a cofferdam, backed by a longitudinal watertight bulkhead. The upper armored deck met the top of the belt and had a total thickness of 34 millimeters (1.3 in) while the lower armored deck curved down to meet the bottom of the belt and had a uniform thickness of 45 millimeters (1.8 in). The main-gun turrets were protected by 161 millimeters (6.3 in) of Harvey armor, but their barbettes used 174-millimeter (6.9 in) plates of ordinary steel. The face and sides of the secondary turrets were 92 millimeters (3.6 in) thick and the plates protecting their barbettes were 102 millimeters (4 in) thick. The casemates protecting the 100-millimeter guns also had a thickness of 102 millimeters. The face and sides of the conning tower were 174 millimeters thick. ## Construction and career Sully, named after the statesman Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully, was authorized in the 1898 Naval Program and was ordered from Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée on 24 May 1899. The ship was laid down on that same day at their shipyard in La Seyne-sur-Mer, launched on 4 June 1901, and completed in June 1904. The ship was sent to French Indochina for her first commission. On 7 February 1905 Sully struck a rock in Hạ Long Bay; her crew was not injured. Her guns and equipment were salvaged, but the ship broke in two and was abandoned as a total loss.

Tottenham Hotspur F.C.

Association football club in London, England

Tottenham Hotspur Football Club, commonly referred to as simply Tottenham (/ˈtɒtənəm/) or Spurs, is a professional football club based in Tottenham, London, England. It competes in the Premier League, the top flight of English football. The team has played its home matches in the 62,850-capacity Tottenham Hotspur Stadium since April 2019, replacing their former home of White Hart Lane, which had been demolished to make way for the new stadium on the same site. Founded in 1882, Tottenham's emblem is a cockerel standing upon a football, with the Latin motto Audere est Facere ("to dare is to do"). The club has traditionally worn white shirts and navy blue shorts as their home kit since the 1898–99 season. Their training ground is on Hotspur Way in Bulls Cross, Enfield. After its inception, Tottenham won the FA Cup for the first time in 1901, the only non-League club to do so since the formation of the Football League in 1888. Tottenham were the first club in the 20th century to achieve the League and FA Cup Double, winning both competitions in the 1960–61 season. After successfully defending the FA Cup in 1962, in 1963 they became the first British club to win a UEFA club competition – the European Cup Winners' Cup. They were also the inaugural winners of the UEFA Cup in 1972, becoming the first British club to win two different major European trophies. They collected at least one major trophy in each of the six decades from the 1950s to 2000s, an achievement only matched by Manchester United. In domestic football, Spurs have won two league titles, eight FA Cups, four League Cups, and seven FA Community Shields. In European football, they have won one European Cup Winners' Cup and two UEFA Cups. Tottenham were also runners-up in the 2018–19 UEFA Champions League. They have a long-standing rivalry with nearby club Arsenal, with whom they contest the North London derby. Tottenham is owned by ENIC Group, which purchased the club in 2001. The club was estimated to be worth £1.9 billion (\$2.35 billion) in 2022, and it was the ninth-highest-earning football club in the world, with an annual revenue of £442.8 million in 2022. ## History ### Formation and early years (1882–1908) Originally named Hotspur Football Club, the club was formed on 5 September 1882 by a group of schoolboys led by Bobby Buckle. They were members of the Hotspur Cricket Club and the football club was formed to play sports during the winter months. A year later the boys sought help with the club from John Ripsher, the Bible class teacher at All Hallows Church, who became the first president of the club and its treasurer. Ripsher helped and supported the boys through the club's formative years, reorganised and found premises for the club. In April 1884 the club was renamed "Tottenham Hotspur Football Club" to avoid confusion with another London club named Hotspur, whose post had been mistakenly delivered to North London. Nicknames for the club include "Spurs" and "the Lilywhites". Initially, the north London side played games between themselves and friendly matches against other local clubs. The first recorded match took place on 30 September 1882 against a local team named the Radicals, which Hotspur lost 2–0. The team entered their first cup competition in the London Association Cup, and won 5–2 in their first competitive match on 17 October 1885 against a company's works team called St Albans. The club's fixtures began to attract the interest of the local community and attendances at its home matches increased. In 1892, they played for the first time in a league, the short-lived Southern Alliance. The club turned professional on 20 December 1895 and, in the summer of 1896, was admitted to Division One of the Southern League (the third tier at the time). On 2 March 1898, the club also became a limited company, the Tottenham Hotspur Football and Athletic Company. Soon after, Frank Brettell became the first ever manager of Spurs, and he signed John Cameron, who took over as player-manager when Brettell left a year later. Cameron would have a significant impact on Spurs, helping the club win its first trophy, the Southern League title in the 1899–1900 season. The following year Spurs won the 1901 FA Cup by beating Sheffield United 3–1 in a replay of the final, after the first game ended in a 2–2 draw. In doing so they became the only non-League club to achieve the feat since the formation of The Football League in 1888. ### Early decades in the Football League (1908–1958) In 1908, the club was elected into the Football League Second Division and won promotion to the First Division in their first season, finishing runners-up. In 1912, Peter McWilliam became manager; Tottenham finished bottom of the league at the end of the 1914–15 season when football was suspended due to the First World War. Spurs were relegated to the Second Division on the resumption of league football after the war, but quickly returned to the First Division as Second Division champions of the 1919–20 season. On 23 April 1921, McWilliam guided Spurs to their second FA Cup win, beating Wolverhampton Wanderers 1–0 in the Cup Final. Spurs finished second to Liverpool in the league in 1922, but would finish mid-table in the next five seasons. Spurs were relegated in the 1927–28 season after McWilliam left. For most of the 1930s and 40s, Spurs languished in the Second Division, apart from a brief return to the top flight in the 1933–34 and 1934–35 seasons. Former Spurs player Arthur Rowe became manager in 1949. Rowe developed a style of play, known as "push and run", that proved to be successful in his early years as manager. He took the team back to the First Division after finishing top of the Second Division in the 1949–50 season. In his second season in charge, Tottenham won their first ever top-tier league championship title when they finished top of the First Division for the 1950–51 season. Rowe resigned in April 1955 due to a stress-induced illness from managing the club. Before he left, he signed one of Spurs' most celebrated players, Danny Blanchflower, who won the FWA Footballer of the Year twice while at Tottenham. ### Bill Nicholson and the glory years (1958–1974) Bill Nicholson took over as manager in October 1958. He became the club's most successful manager, guiding the team to major trophy success three seasons in a row in the early 1960s: the Double in 1961, the FA Cup in 1962 and the Cup Winners' Cup in 1963. Nicholson signed Dave Mackay and John White in 1959, two influential players of the Double-winning team, and Jimmy Greaves in 1961, the most prolific goal-scorer in the history of the top tier of English football. The 1960–61 season started with a run of 11 wins, followed by a draw and another four wins, at that time the best ever start by any club in the top flight of English football. The title was won on 17 April 1961 when they beat the eventual runner-up Sheffield Wednesday at home 2–1, with three more games still to play. The Double was achieved when Spurs won 2–0 against Leicester City in the final of the 1960–61 FA Cup. It was the first Double of the 20th century, and the first since Aston Villa achieved the feat in 1897. The next year Spurs won their consecutive FA Cup after beating Burnley in the 1962 FA Cup Final. On 15 May 1963, Tottenham became the first British team to win a European trophy by winning the 1962–63 European Cup Winners' Cup when they beat Atlético Madrid 5–1 in the final. Spurs also became the first British team to win two different European trophies when they won the 1971–72 UEFA Cup with a rebuilt team that included Martin Chivers, Pat Jennings, and Steve Perryman. They had also won the FA Cup in 1967, two League Cups (in 1971 and 1973), as well as a second place league finish (1962–63) and runners-up to the 1973–74 UEFA Cup. In total, Nicholson won eight major trophies in his 16 years at the club as manager. ### Burkinshaw to Venables (1974–1992) Spurs went into a period of decline after the successes of the early 1970s, and Nicholson resigned after a poor start to the 1974–75 season. The team was then relegated at the end of the 1976–77 season with Keith Burkinshaw as manager. Burkinshaw quickly returned the club to the top flight, building a team that included Glenn Hoddle, as well as two Argentinians, Osvaldo Ardiles and Ricardo Villa, which was unusual as players from outside the British Isles were rare at that time. The team that Burkinshaw rebuilt went on to win the FA Cup in 1981 and 1982 and the UEFA Cup in 1984. The 1980s was a period of change that began with a new phase of redevelopment at White Hart Lane, as well as a change of directors. Irving Scholar took over the club and moved it in a more commercial direction, the beginning of the transformation of English football clubs into commercial enterprises. Debt at the club would again lead to a change in the boardroom, and Terry Venables teamed up with businessman Alan Sugar in June 1991 to take control of Tottenham Hotspur plc. Venables, who had become manager in 1987, signed players such as Paul Gascoigne and Gary Lineker. Under Venables, Spurs won the 1990–91 FA Cup, making them the first club to win eight FA Cups. ### Premier League football (1992–present) Tottenham was one of the five clubs that pushed for the founding of the Premier League, created with the approval of The Football Association, replacing the Football League First Division as the highest division of English football. Despite a succession of managers and players such as Teddy Sheringham, Jürgen Klinsmann and David Ginola, for a long period in the Premier League until the late 2000s, Spurs finished mid-table most seasons with few trophies won. They won the League Cup in 1999 under George Graham, and again in 2008 under Juande Ramos. Performance improved under Harry Redknapp with players such as Gareth Bale and Luka Modrić, and the club finished in the top five in the early 2010s. In February 2001, Sugar sold his shareholding in Spurs to ENIC Sports plc, run by Joe Lewis and Daniel Levy, and stepped down as chairman. Lewis and Levy would eventually own 85% of the club, with Levy responsible for the running of the club. They appointed Mauricio Pochettino as head coach, who was in the role between 2014 and 2019. Under Pochettino, Spurs finished second in the 2016–17 season, their highest league finish since the 1962–63 season, and advanced to the UEFA Champions League final in 2019, the club's first, where they ultimately lost to Liverpool 2–0. Pochettino was subsequently sacked after a poor start to the 2019–20 season, in November 2019, and was replaced by José Mourinho. Mourinho was sacked in April 2021, while Nuno Espírito Santo lasted just four months as his successor. The next manager, Antonio Conte, guided Spurs to fourth during the 2021–22 season and back to a Champions League place. Following a poor run of form, Conte criticised the players and management of the club in press conferences; after exiting both the Champions League and FA Cup, he departed the club by mutual agreement in March 2023. Ange Postecoglou took over as head coach on 1 July 2023. ## Stadiums ### Early grounds Spurs played their early matches on public land at the Park Lane end of Tottenham Marshes, where they had to mark out and prepare their own pitch. Occasionally fights broke out on the marshes in disputes with other teams over the use of the ground. The first Spurs game reported by the local press took place on Tottenham Marshes on 6 October 1883 against Brownlow Rovers, which Spurs won 9–0. It was at this ground that, in 1887, Spurs first played the team that would later become their arch rivals, Arsenal (then known as Royal Arsenal), leading 2–1 until the match was called off due to poor light after the away team arrived late. As they played on public parkland, the club could not charge admission fees and, while the number of spectators grew to a few thousand, it yielded no gate receipts. In 1888, the club rented a pitch between numbers 69 and 75 Northumberland Park at a cost of £17 per annum, where spectators were charged 3d a game, raised to 6d for cup ties. The first game at the Park was played on 13 October 1888, a reserve match that yielded gate receipts of 17 shillings. The first stand with just over 100 seats and changing rooms underneath was built at the ground for the 1894–95 season at a cost of £60. However, the stand was blown down a few weeks later and had to be repaired. In April 1898, 14,000 fans turned up to watch Spurs play Woolwich Arsenal. Spectators climbed on the roof of the refreshment stand for a better view of the match. The stand collapsed, causing a few injuries. As Northumberland Park could no longer cope with the larger crowds, Spurs were forced to look for a larger ground and moved to the White Hart Lane site in 1899. ### White Hart Lane The White Hart Lane ground was built on an unused plant nursery owned by the Charrington Brewery and located behind a public house named the White Hart on Tottenham High Road (the road White Hart Lane actually lies a few hundred yards north of the main entrance). The ground was initially leased from Charringtons, and the stands they used at Northumberland Park were moved here, giving shelter for 2,500 spectators. Notts County were the first visitors to 'the Lane' in a friendly watched by 5,000 people and yielding £115 in receipts; Spurs won 4–1. Queens Park Rangers became the first competitive visitors to the ground and 11,000 people saw them lose 1–0 to Tottenham. In 1905, Tottenham raised enough money to buy the freehold to the land, as well as land at the northern (Paxton Road) end. After Spurs were admitted to the Football League, the club started to build a new stadium, with stands designed by Archibald Leitch being constructed over the next two and a half decades. The West Stand was added in 1909, the East Stand was also covered this year and extended further two years later. The profits from the 1921 FA Cup win were used to build a covered terrace at the Paxton Road end and the Park Lane end was built at a cost of over £3,000 some two years later. This increased the stadium's capacity to around 58,000, with room for 40,000 under cover. The East Stand (Worcester Avenue) was finished in 1934 and this increased capacity to around 80,000 spectators and cost £60,000. Starting in the early 1980s, the stadium underwent another major phase of redevelopment. The West Stand was replaced by an expensive new structure in 1982, and the East Stand was renovated in 1988. In 1992, following the Taylor Report's recommendation that Premier League clubs eliminate standing areas, the lower terraces of the south and east stand were converted to seating, with the North Stand becoming all-seater the following season. The South Stand redevelopment was completed in March 1995 and included the first giant Sony Jumbotron TV screen for live game coverage and away match screenings. In the 1997–98 season the Paxton Road stand received a new upper tier and a second Jumbotron screen. Minor amendments to the seating configuration were made in 2006, bringing the capacity of the stadium to 36,310. By the turn of the millennium, the capacity of White Hart Lane had become lower than other major Premier League clubs. Talks began over the future of the ground with a number of schemes considered, such as increasing the stadium capacity through redevelopment of the current site, or using of the 2012 London Olympic Stadium in Stratford. Eventually the club settled on the Northumberland Development Project, whereby a new stadium would be built on a larger piece of land that incorporated the existing site. In 2016, the northeast corner of the stadium was removed to facilitate the construction of the new stadium. As this reduced the stadium capacity below that required for European games, Tottenham Hotspur played every European home game in 2016–17 at Wembley Stadium. Domestic fixtures of the 2016–17 season continued to be played at the Lane, but demolition of the rest of the stadium started the day after the last game of the season, and White Hart Lane was completely demolished by the end of July 2017. ### Tottenham Hotspur Stadium In October 2008, the club announced a plan to build a new stadium immediately to the north of the existing White Hart Lane stadium, with the southern half of the new stadium's pitch overlapping the northern part of the Lane. This proposal would become the Northumberland Development Project. The club submitted a planning application in October 2009 but, following critical reactions to the plan, it was withdrawn in favour of a substantially revised planning application for the stadium and other associated developments. The new plan was resubmitted and approved by Haringey Council in September 2010, and an agreement for the Northumberland Development Project was signed on 20 September 2011. After a long delay over the compulsory purchase order of local businesses located on land to the north of the stadium and a legal challenge against the order, resolved in early 2015, planning application for another new design was approved by Haringey Council on 17 December 2015. Construction started in 2016, and the new stadium was scheduled to open during the 2018–19 season. While it was under construction, all Tottenham home games in the 2017–18 season as well as all but five in 2018–19 were played at Wembley Stadium. After two successful test events, Tottenham Hotspur officially moved into the new ground on 3 April 2019 with a Premier League match against Crystal Palace which Spurs won 2–0. The new stadium is called Tottenham Hotspur Stadium while a naming-rights agreement is reached. ## Training grounds An early training ground used by Tottenham was located at Brookfield Lane in Cheshunt, Hertfordshire. The club bought the 11-acre ground used by Cheshunt F.C. in 1952 for £35,000. It had three pitches, including a small stadium with a small stand used for matches by the junior team. The ground was later sold for over £4 million, and the club moved the training ground to the Spurs Lodge on Luxborough Lane, Chigwell in Essex, opened in September 1996 by Tony Blair. The training ground and press centre in Chigwell were used until 2014. In 2007, Tottenham bought a site at Bulls Cross in Enfield, a few miles south of their former ground in Cheshunt. A new training ground was constructed at the site for £45 million, which opened in 2012. The 77-acre site has 15 grass pitches and one-and-a-half artificial pitches, as well as a covered artificial pitch in the main building. The main building on Hotspur Way also has hydrotherapy and swimming pools, gyms, medical facilities, dining and rest areas for players as well as classrooms for academy and schoolboy players. A 45-bedroom players lodge with catering, treatment, rest and rehabilitation facilities was later added at Myddleton Farm next to the training site in 2018. The lodge is mainly used by Tottenham's first team and Academy players, but it has also been used by national football teams – the first visitors to use the facilities at the site were the Brazilian team in preparation for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. ## Crest Since the 1921 FA Cup Final the Tottenham Hotspur crest has featured a cockerel. Harry Hotspur, after whom the club is named, was said to have been given the nickname Hotspur as he dug in his spurs to make his horse go faster as he charged in battles, and spurs are also associated with fighting cocks. The club used spurs as a symbol in 1900, which then evolved into a fighting cock. A former player named William James Scott made a bronze cast of a cockerel standing on a football at a cost of £35 (), and this 9-foot-6-inch (2.90 m) figure was then placed on top of the West Stand the end of the 1909–10 season. Since then the cockerel and ball emblem has become a part of the club's identity. The club badge on the shirt used in 1921 featured a cockerel within a shield, but it was changed to a cockerel sitting on a ball in the late 1960s. Between 1956 and 2006 Spurs used a faux heraldic shield featuring a number of local landmarks and associations. The castle is Bruce Castle, 400 yards from the ground and the trees are the Seven Sisters. The arms featured the Latin motto Audere Est Facere (to dare is to do). In 1983, to overcome unauthorised "pirate" merchandising, the club's badge was altered by adding the two red heraldic lions to flank the shield (which came from the arms of the Northumberland family, of which Harry Hotspur was a member), as well as the motto scroll. This device appeared on Spurs' playing kits for three seasons 1996–99. In 2006, in order to rebrand and modernise the club's image, the club badge and coat of arms were replaced by a professionally designed logo/emblem. This revamp displayed a sleeker and more elegant cockerel standing on an old-time football. The club claimed that they dropped their club name and would be using the rebranded logo only on playing kits. In November 2013, Tottenham forced non-league club Fleet Spurs to change their badge because its new design was "too similar" to the Tottenham crest. In 2017, Spurs added a shield around the cockerel logo on the shirts similar to the 1950s badge, but with the cockerel of modern design. The shield was however removed the following season. ## Kit The first Tottenham kit recorded in 1883 included a navy blue shirt with a letter H on a scarlet shield on the left breast, and white breeches. In 1884 or 1885, the club changed to a "quartered" kit similar to Blackburn Rovers after watching them win in the 1884 FA Cup Final. After they moved to Northumberland Park in 1888, they returned to the navy blue shirts for the 1889–90 season. Their kit changed again to red shirt and blue shorts in 1890, and for a time the team were known as 'the Tottenham Reds'. Five years later in 1895, the year they became a professional club, they switched to a chocolate and gold striped kit. In the 1898–99 season, their final year at Northumberland Park, the club switched colours to white shirts and blue shorts, same colour choice as that for Preston North End. White and navy blue have remained as the club's basic colours ever since, with the white shirts giving the team the nickname "The Lilywhites". In 1921, the year they won the FA Cup, the cockerel badge was added to the shirt for the final. A club crest has featured on the shirt since, and Spurs became the first major club to have its club crest on the players shirt on every match apart from the war years. In 1939 numbers first appeared on shirt backs. In the early days, the team played in kits sold by local outfitters. An early supplier of Spurs' jerseys recorded was a firm on Seven Sisters Road, HR Brookes. In the 1920s, Bukta produced the jerseys for the club. From the mid-1930s onwards, Umbro was the supplier for forty years. In 1959, the V-neck shirt replaced the collared shirts of the past, and then in 1963, the crew neck shirt appeared (the style has fluctuated since). In 1961, Bill Nicholson sent Spurs players out to play in white instead of navy shorts for their European campaign, starting a tradition which continues to this day in European competitions. In 1977, a deal was signed with Admiral to supply the team their kits. Although Umbro kits in generic colours had been sold to football fans since 1959, it was with the Admiral deal that the market for replica shirts started to take off. Admiral changed the plain colours of earlier strips to shirts with more elaborate designs, which included manufacturer's logos, stripes down the arms and trims on the edges. Admiral was replaced by Le Coq Sportif in the summer of 1980. In 1985, Spurs entered into a business partnership with Hummel, who then supplied the strips. However, the attempt by Tottenham to expand the business side of the club failed, and in 1991, they returned to Umbro. In 1991, the club was the first to wear long-cut shorts, an innovation at a time when football kits all featured shorts cut well above the knee. Umbro was followed by Pony in 1995, Adidas in 1999, Kappa in 2002, and a five-year deal with Puma in 2006. In March 2011, Under Armour announced a five-year deal to supply Spurs with shirts and other apparel from the start of 2012–13, with the home, away and the third kits revealed in July and August 2012. The shirts incorporate technology that can monitor the players' heart rate and temperature and send the biometric data to the coaching staff. In June 2017, it was announced that Nike would be their new kits supplier, with the 2017–18 kit released on 30 June, featuring the Spurs' crest encased in a shield, paying homage to Spurs' 1960–61 season, where they became the first post-war-club to win both the Football League First Division and the FA Cup. In October 2018, Nike agreed a 15-year deal reportedly worth £30 million a year with the club to supply their kits until 2033. Shirt sponsorship in English football was first adopted by the non-league club Kettering Town F.C. in 1976 despite it being banned by the FA. FA soon lifted the ban, and this practice spread to the major clubs when sponsored shirts were allowed on non-televised games in 1979, and then on televised games as well in 1983. In December 1983, after the club was floated on the London Stock Exchange, Holsten became the first commercial sponsor logo to appear on a Spurs shirt. When Thomson was chosen as kit sponsor in 2002 some Tottenham fans were unhappy as the shirt-front logo was red, the colour of their closest rivals, Arsenal. In 2006, Tottenham secured a £34 million sponsorship deal with internet casino group Mansion.com. In July 2010, Spurs announced a two-year shirt sponsorship contract with software infrastructure company Autonomy said to be worth £20 million. A month later they unveiled a £5 million deal with leading specialist bank and asset management firm Investec as shirt sponsor for the Champions League and domestic cup competitions for the next two years. Since 2014, AIA has been the main shirt sponsor, initially in a deal worth over £16 million annually, increased to a reported £40 to £45 million per year in 2019 in an eight-year deal that lasts until 2027. In 2023, Tottenham provisionally agreed a three-year shirt sponsorship deal with South Africa Tourism (SAT) starting in 2023/24 and ending in the 2026/27 season. ### Kit suppliers and shirt sponsors ¹ Only appeared in the Premier League. Investec Bank appeared in the Champions League, FA Cup, League Cup and Europa League. ² Aurasma is a subsidiary of the Autonomy Corporation. ³ Hewlett-Packard is the parent company of the Autonomy Corporation and only appeared in the Premier League. AIA appeared in the FA Cup, League Cup and Europa League. ## Ownership Tottenham Hotspur F.C. became a limited company, the Tottenham Hotspur Football and Athletic Company Ltd, on 2 March 1898 so as to raise funds for the club and limit the personal liability of its members. 8,000 shares were issued at £1 each, although only 1,558 shares were taken up in the first year. 4,892 shares were sold in total by 1905. A few families held significant shares; they included the Wale family, who had association with the club since the 1930s, as well as the Richardson and the Bearman families. From 1943 to 1984, members of these families were chairmen of Tottenham Hotspur F.C. after Charles Robert who had been chairman since 1898 died. In the early 1980s, cost overruns in the construction of a new West Stand together with the cost of rebuilding the team in previous years led to accumulating debts. In November 1982, a fan of the club Irving Scholar bought 25% of Tottenham for £600,000, and together with Paul Bobroff gained control of the club. In order to bring in funds, Scholar floated Tottenham Hotspur plc, which wholly owns the football club, on the London Stock Exchange in 1983, the first European sports club to be listed in a stock market, and became the first sports company to go public. Fans and institutions alike can now freely buy and trade shares in the company; a court ruling in 1935 involving the club (Berry and Stewart v Tottenham Hotspur FC Ltd) had previously established a precedent in company law that the directors of a company can refuse the transfer of shares from a shareholder to another person. The share issue was successful with 3.8 million shares quickly sold. However, ill-judged business decisions under Scholar led to financial difficulties, and in June 1991 Terry Venables teamed up with businessman Alan Sugar to buy the club, initially as equal partner with each investing £3.25 million. Sugar increased his stake to £8 million by December 1991 and became the dominant partner with effective control of the club. In May 1993, Venables was sacked from the board after a dispute. By 2000, Sugar began to consider selling the club, and in February 2001, he sold the major part of his shareholding to ENIC International Ltd. The majority shareholder, ENIC International Ltd, is an investment company established by the British billionaire Joe Lewis. Daniel Levy, Lewis's partner at ENIC, is Executive Chairman of the club. They first acquired 29.9% share of the club in 1991, of which 27% was bought from Sugar for £22 million. Shareholding by ENIC increased over the decade through the purchase of the remaining 12% holding of Alan Sugar in 2007 for £25m, and the 9.9% stake belonging to Stelios Haji-Ioannou through Hodram Inc. in 2009. On 21 August 2009 the club reported that they had issued a further 30 million shares to fund the initial development costs of the new stadium project, and that 27.8 million of these new shares had been purchased by ENIC. The Annual Report for 2010 indicated that ENIC had acquired 76% of all Ordinary Shares and also held 97% of all convertible redeemable preference shares, equivalent to a holding of 85% of share capital. The remaining shares are held by over 30,000 individuals. Between 2001 and 2011 shares in Tottenham Hotspur F.C. were listed on the Alternative Investment Market (AIM index). Following an announcement at the 2011 AGM, in January 2012 Tottenham Hotspur confirmed that the club had delisted its shares from the stock market, taking it into private ownership. Lewis' shares are owned by the Lewis Family Trusts. In October of 2022, Lewis ceased to be a person with significant control of the club, following a reorganisation of the Trusts. The club continues to be owned by Levy and the Lewis trusts and, in the summer of 2022, ENIC intended to inject up to £150 million into the club by the issuing of new shares. Only £100 million of shares were subscribed for and this took ENIC's shareholding up to 86.58%. ## Support

Tottenham has a large fan base in the United Kingdom, drawn largely from North London and the Home counties. The attendance figures for its home matches, however, have fluctuated over the years. Five times between 1950 and 1962, Tottenham had the highest average attendance in England. Tottenham was 9th in average attendances for the 2008–09 Premier League season, and 11th for all Premier League seasons. In the 2017–18 season when Tottenham used Wembley as its home ground, it had the second-highest attendance in the Premier League. It also holds the record for attendance in the Premier League, with 83,222 attending the North London derby on 10 February 2018. Historical supporters of the club have included such figures as philosopher A.J. Ayer. There are many official supporters' clubs located around the world, while an independent supporters club, the Tottenham Hotspur Supporters' Trust, is officially recognised by the club as the representative body for Spurs supporters. Historically, the club had a significant Jewish following from the Jewish communities in east and north London, with around a third of its supporters estimated to be Jewish in the 1930s. Due to this early support, all three chairmen of the club since 1984 have been Jewish businessmen with prior history of supporting the club. The club no longer has a greater Jewish contingent among its fans than other major London clubs (Jewish supporters are estimated to form at most 5% of its fanbase), though it is nevertheless still identified as a Jewish club by rival fans. Antisemitic chants directed at the club and its supporters by rival fans have been heard since the 1960s, with words such as "Yids" or "Yiddos" used against Tottenham supporters. In response to the abusive chants, Tottenham supporters, Jewish and non-Jewish alike, began to chant back the insults and adopt the "Yids" or "Yid Army" identity starting from around the late 1970s or early 1980s. Some fans view adopting "Yid" as a badge of pride, helping defuse its power as an insult. The use of "Yid" as a self-identification, however, has been controversial; some argued that the word is offensive and its use by Spurs fans "legitimis[es] references to Jews in football", and that such racist abuse should be stamped out in football. Both the World Jewish Congress and the Board of Deputies of British Jews have denounced the use of the word by fans. Others, such as former Prime Minister David Cameron, argued that its use by the Spurs fans is not motivated by hate as it is not used pejoratively, and therefore cannot be considered hate speech. Attempts to prosecute Tottenham fans who chanted the words have failed, as the Crown Prosecution Service considered that the words as used by Tottenham fans could not be judged legally "threatening, abusive or insulting". ### Fan culture There are a number of songs associated with the club and frequently sung by Spurs fans, such as "Glory Glory Tottenham Hotspur". The song originated in 1961 after Spurs completed the Double in 1960–61, and the club entered the European Cup for the first time. Their first opponents were Górnik Zabrze, the Polish champions, and after a hard-fought match Spurs suffered a 4–2 reverse. Tottenham's tough tackling prompted the Polish press to write that "they were no angels". These comments incensed a group of three fans and for the return match at White Hart Lane they dressed as angels wearing white sheets fashioned into togas, sandals, false beards and carrying placards bearing biblical-type slogans. The angels were allowed on the perimeter of the pitch and their fervour whipped up the home fans who responded with a rendition of "Glory Glory Hallelujah", which is still sung on terraces at White Hart Lane and other football grounds. The Lilywhites also responded to the atmosphere to win the tie 8–1. Then manager of Spurs, Bill Nicholson, wrote in his autobiography: > A new sound was heard in English football in the 1961–62 season. It was the hymn Glory, Glory Hallelujah being sung by 60,000 fans at White Hart Lane in our European Cup matches. I don't know how it started or who started it, but it took over the ground like a religious feeling. There had been a number of incidents of hooliganism involving Spurs fans, particularly in the 1970s and 1980s. Significant events include the rioting by Spurs fans in Rotterdam at the 1974 UEFA Cup Final against Feyenoord, and again during the 1983–84 UEFA Cup matches against Feyenoord in Rotterdam and Anderlecht in Brussels. Although fan violence has since abated, the occasional incidence of hooliganism continues to be reported. ### Rivalries Tottenham supporters have rivalries with several clubs, mainly within the London area. The fiercest of these is with north London rivals Arsenal. The rivalry began in 1913 when Arsenal moved from the Manor Ground, Plumstead to Arsenal Stadium, Highbury, and this rivalry intensified in 1919 when Arsenal were unexpectedly promoted to the First Division, taking a place that Tottenham believed should have been theirs. Tottenham also share notable rivalries with fellow London clubs Chelsea and West Ham United. The rivalry with Chelsea is secondary in importance to the one with Arsenal and began when Tottenham beat Chelsea in the 1967 FA Cup Final, the first ever all-London final. West Ham fans view Tottenham as a bitter rival, although the animosity is not reciprocated to the same extent by Tottenham fans. ## Social responsibility The club through its Community Programme has, since 2006, been working with Haringey Council and the Metropolitan Housing Trust and the local community on developing sports facilities and social programmes which have also been financially supported by Barclays Spaces for Sport and the Football Foundation. The Tottenham Hotspur Foundation received high-level political support from the prime minister when it was launched at 10 Downing Street in February 2007. In March 2007 the club announced a partnership with the charity SOS Children's Villages UK, whereby player fines would go towards this charity's children's village in Rustenburg, South Africa to support of a variety of community development projects in and around Rustenburg. In the financial year 2006–07, Tottenham topped a league of Premier League charitable donations when viewed both in overall terms and as a percentage of turnover by giving £4,545,889, including a one-off contribution of £4.5 million over four years, to set up the Tottenham Hotspur Foundation. In contrast, they have successfully sought the reduction of section 106 planning obligations connected to the redevelopment of the stadium in the Northumberland Development Project. Initially the development would incorporate 50% affordable housing, but this requirement was later waived, and a payment of £16m for community infrastructure was reduced to £0.5m. This is controversial in an area which has suffered high levels of deprivation as Spurs had bought up properties for redevelopment, removing existing jobs and businesses for property development but not creating enough new jobs for the area. The club however argued that the project, when completed, would support 3,500 jobs and inject an estimated £293 million into the local economy annually, and that it would serve as the catalyst for a wider 20-year regeneration programme for the Tottenham area. In other developments in Tottenham, the club has built 256 affordable homes and a 400-pupil primary school. ### London Academy of Excellence As part of the development of Tottenham Hotspur Stadium, the club built an elite educational facility to sit alongside its club offices. The London Academy of Excellence Tottenham (LAET) is a state-funded Sixth Form, sponsored by the Club and Highgate School - the principle academic sponsors who deliver expert teaching. LAET was named the Sunday Times Sixth Form College of the Year, 2020 by Parent Power, The Sunday Times School Guide. In 2022, LAET achieved an 'Outstanding' Ofsted rating across all areas. ### Environmental sustainability Spurs are one of the high profile participants in the 10:10 project, which they joined in 2009. In a year, the carbon emissions were reduced by 14%, an estimated 400 tonnes of carbon. The club further said it is dedicated to minimising the environmental impact of its activities across all operations, setting targets to reduce its carbon emissions by 50% by 2030 and become net-zero by 2040. In September 2021, the club partnered with Sky Sports to host the world's first net-zero carbon top-level football game. The initiative won in the Sustainability category at the 2022 Football Business Awards. In 2023, the club was ranked top in Premier League's Sustainability Rankings for fourth year running. ## Honours Sources:Tottenham Hotspur – History ### Domestic #### Leagues - First Division / Premier League (Tier 1) - Winners (2): 1950–51, 1960–61 - Second Division / Championship (Tier 2) - Winners (2): 1919–20, 1949–50 #### Cups - FA Cup - Winners (8): 1900–01, 1920–21, 1960–61, 1961–62, 1966–67, 1980–81, 1981–82, 1990–91 - League Cup - Winners (4): 1970–71, 1972–73, 1998–99, 2007–08 - FA Charity Shield / FA Community Shield - Winners (7): 1921, 1951, 1961, 1962, 1967, 1981, 1991 - Sheriff of London Charity Shield - Winners (1): 1902 ### European - UEFA Cup Winners' Cup - Winners (1): 1962–63 - UEFA Cup / UEFA Europa League - Winners (2): 1971–72, 1983–84 - Anglo-Italian League Cup - Winners (1): 1971 ## Statistics and records Steve Perryman holds the appearance record for Spurs, having played 854 games for the club between 1969 and 1986, of which 655 were league matches. Harry Kane holds the club goal scoring record with 280 goals scored. Tottenham's record league win is 9–0 against Bristol Rovers in the Second Division on 22 October 1977. The club's record cup victory came on 3 February 1960 with a 13–2 win over Crewe Alexandra in the FA Cup. Spurs' biggest top-flight victory came against Wigan Athletic on 22 November 2009, when they won 9–1 with Jermain Defoe scoring five goals. The club's record defeat is an 8–0 loss to 1. FC Köln in the Intertoto Cup on 22 July 1995. The record home attendance at White Hart Lane was 75,038 on 5 March 1938 in a cup tie against Sunderland. The highest recorded home attendances were at their temporary home, Wembley Stadium, due to its higher capacity – 85,512 spectators were present on 2 November 2016 for the 2016–17 UEFA Champions League game against Bayer Leverkusen, while 83,222 attended the North London derby against Arsenal on 10 February 2018 which is the highest attendance recorded for any Premier League game. The club is ranked No. 21 by UEFA with a club coefficient of 80.0 points as of June 2023. ## Players ### Current squad ### Out on loan ### Youth Academy ## Management and support staff ## Directors ## Managers and players ### Managers and head coaches in club's history \*Listed according to when they became managers for Tottenham Hotspur: : \*(A) – Acting : \*(C) – Caretaker : \*(I) – Interim : \*(FTC) – First team coach - 1898 Frank Brettell - 1899 John Cameron - 1907 Fred Kirkham - 1912 Peter McWilliam - 1927 Billy Minter - 1930 Percy Smith - 1935 Wally Hardinge (C) - 1935 Jack Tresadern - 1938 Peter McWilliam - 1942 Arthur Turner - 1946 Joe Hulme - 1949 Arthur Rowe - 1955 Jimmy Anderson - 1958 Bill Nicholson - 1974 Terry Neill - 1976 Keith Burkinshaw - 1984 Peter Shreeves - 1986 David Pleat - 1987 Trevor Hartley (C) - 1987 Doug Livermore (C) - 1987 Terry Venables - 1991 Peter Shreeves - 1992 Doug Livermore - Ray Clemence (FTC) - 1993 Osvaldo Ardiles - 1994 Steve Perryman (C) - 1994 Gerry Francis - 1997 Chris Hughton (C) - 1997 Christian Gross - 1998 David Pleat (C) - 1998 George Graham - 2001 David Pleat (C) - 2001 Glenn Hoddle - 2003 David Pleat (C) - 2004 Jacques Santini - 2004 Martin Jol - 2007 Clive Allen (C) - 2007 Juande Ramos - 2008 Harry Redknapp - 2012 André Villas-Boas - 2013 Tim Sherwood - 2014 Mauricio Pochettino - 2019 José Mourinho - 2021 Ryan Mason (C) - 2021 Nuno Espírito Santo - 2021 Antonio Conte - 2023 Cristian Stellini (A) - 2023 Ryan Mason (A) - 2023 Ange Postecoglou ### Club hall of fame The following players are noted as "greats" for their contributions to the club or have been inducted into the club's Hall of Fame: The most recent additions to the club's Hall of Fame are Steve Perryman and Jimmy Greaves on 20 April 2016. - Osvaldo Ardiles - Ricardo Villa - Clive Allen - Les Allen - Paul Allen - Darren Anderton - Peter Baker - Phil Beal - Bobby Buckle - Keith Burkinshaw - Martin Chivers - Tommy Clay - Ray Clemence - Ralph Coates - Garth Crooks - Jimmy Dimmock - Ted Ditchburn - Terry Dyson - Paul Gascoigne - Jimmy Greaves - Arthur Grimsdell - Willie Hall - Ron Henry - Glenn Hoddle - Jack Jull - Cyril Knowles - Gary Lineker - Gary Mabbutt - Paul Miller - Billy Minter - Tom Morris - Alan Mullery - Bill Nicholson - Maurice Norman - Steve Perryman - Martin Peters - John Pratt - Graham Roberts - Teddy Sheringham - Bobby Smith - Chris Waddle - Fanny Walden - Vivian Woodward - David Ginola - Steffen Freund - Jürgen Klinsmann - Chris Hughton - Danny Blanchflower - Pat Jennings - Steve Archibald - Bill Brown - John Cameron - Alan Gilzean - Dave Mackay - John White - Ronnie Burgess - Mike England - Cliff Jones - Terry Medwin - Taffy O'Callaghan ## Player of the Year As voted by members and season ticket holders (calendar year until 2005–06 season) - 1987 Gary Mabbutt - 1988 Chris Waddle - 1989 Erik Thorstvedt - 1990 Paul Gascoigne - 1991 Paul Allen - 1992 Gary Lineker - 1993 Darren Anderton - 1994 Jürgen Klinsmann - 1995 Teddy Sheringham - 1996 Sol Campbell - 1997 Sol Campbell - 1998 David Ginola - 1999 Stephen Carr - 2000 Stephen Carr - 2001 Neil Sullivan - 2002 Simon Davies - 2003 Robbie Keane - 2004 Jermain Defoe - 2005–06 Robbie Keane - 2006–07 Dimitar Berbatov - 2007–08 Robbie Keane - 2008–09 Aaron Lennon - 2009–10 Michael Dawson - 2010–11 Luka Modrić - 2011–12 Scott Parker - 2012–13 Gareth Bale - 2013–14 Christian Eriksen - 2014–15 Harry Kane - 2015–16 Toby Alderweireld - 2016–17 Christian Eriksen - 2017–18 Jan Vertonghen - 2018–19 Son Heung-min - 2019–20 Son Heung-min - 2020–21 Harry Kane - 2021–22 Son Heung-min - 2022–23 Harry Kane ## Tottenham Hotspur Women Tottenham's women's team was founded in 1985 as Broxbourne Ladies. They started using the Tottenham Hotspur name for the 1991–92 season and played in the London and South East Women's Regional Football League (then fourth tier of the game). They won promotion after topping the league in 2007–08. In the 2016–17 season they won the FA Women's Premier League Southern Division and a subsequent playoff, gaining promotion to the FA Women's Super League 2. On 1 May 2019 Tottenham Hotspur Ladies won promotion to the FA Women's Super League with a 1–1 draw at Aston Villa, which confirmed they would finish second in the Championship. Tottenham Hotspur Ladies changed their name to Tottenham Hotspur Women in the 2019–20 season. Tottenham Hotspur Women announced the signing of Cho So-hyun on 29 January 2021. With her Korean men's counterpart Son Heung-min already at the club it gave Spurs the rare distinction of having both the men's and women's Korean National Team captains at one club. ## Formula racing Tottenham Hotspur competed in Superleague Formula for three seasons from 2008 to 2010. Duncan Tappy was the main driver in the first season racing 10 times with 3 podium finishes. In 2010 Tottenham won the trophy with driver Craig Dolby. Through its partnership with F1, the club will also introduce Go Karting. ## Affiliated clubs - Internacional - San Jose Earthquakes - South China AA - Supersport United

Floating Clouds (artwork)

Artwork by Alexander Calder

Floating Clouds (sometimes called Flying Saucers by the artist) is a work of art by American sculptor Alexander Calder, located in the Aula Magna of the University City of Caracas in Venezuela. The 1953 work comprises many 'cloud' panels that are renowned both artistically and acoustically. The piece is seen as "one of Calder's most truly monumental works" and the prime example of the urban-artistic theory of campus architect Carlos Raúl Villanueva. Originally intended as only an art piece, the panels were moved inside the Aula Magna to resolve the poor acoustics caused by the hall's design; the hall has since been said to have some of the best acoustics in the world. The Floating Clouds are named specifically in the UNESCO listing of the campus as a World Heritage Site, and are greatly renowned in Venezuela. ## Background The Venezuelan architect and designer Carlos Raúl Villanueva began designing the University City of Caracas campus in the 1940s, beginning construction in the 1950s. In a time of prevailing Modernism in Latin America, Villanueva had a stylistic ideology for the project he called the "Synthesis of the Arts"; combining the arts and architecture and creating artistic pieces that could also serve functional purposes. These principles also facilitated for the campus designs to change dramatically, both through necessity and the whim of the designer and artists he hired. Villanueva hired many artists from around the world to contribute works to the campus, including the American sculptor Alexander Calder. Calder contributed four pieces; the Floating Clouds, two stabiles, and a mobile known as Ráfaga de nieve. ## Design and construction The design of the Floating Clouds was originally a large mobile structure for outside the Aula Magna, either in its atrium or in the Plaza Cubierta, a connected covered outdoor space, but the artwork was moved inside for two diverse reasons. During the design of the hall, Calder learnt how complex both Villanueva's project and his Synthesis of the Arts theory were, and proposed an integration of his panels into the space to serve "an artistic, decorative and acoustic purpose". On the construction side, at the same time, the Bolt, Beranek and Newman company (who were involved for logistics and construction) made Villanueva aware of a specialist flaw in his designs for the Aula Magna; based on a conch shape, the natural acoustics would be poor and extensive panelling inside was needed. Calder's panel design would serve the acoustic function, and was modified for the interior by Robert Newman. The panels of the design, known as 'clouds', are made of two laminated wood pieces each 13 mm (1⁄2 in) thick, held in a steel frame; they vary in thickness from 100 to 200 mm (4 to 8 in) and are held to the ceiling and walls by 9+1⁄2 mm (3⁄8 in) metal cables, which were adjustable at the time of installation to give the inclination and height needed. A false ceiling was created to help with the installation of the clouds and additional lighting around them. The Bolt, Beranek and Newman company installed the clouds; to calibrate the design perfectly, an orchestra played on stage while they were being fitted. The artwork comprises 31 clouds, with 22 on the ceiling, five on the right side wall and four on the left side wall. The largest of these has a surface area of 80 m² (860 sq ft) and a weight of approximately 2.3 tonnes (2.5 short tons). Ladders exist in the ceiling space, allowing people to climb through the clouds. ## Appearance and function

The design of the clouds and their response to a problem with sound was a contributor to the development of interior space acoustics. The panels are positioned with consideration to angle and dimensions; some absorb sound, some project it, and some magnify it. As Calder intended, the clouds combine technology and art; however, Calder had also wanted the clouds to be movable, so that they could create different acoustic experiences, but they are not – after being angled for installation they are fixed. The hall can have two different acoustic optimization formats, though, as a removable fiberglass sheet was installed above the panels. This is intended to reduce echo and sound transfer time, which optimizes the acoustics for speech; removing the sheet with the clouds in place gives the outstanding acoustics for musical performance. Art critic Phyllis Tuchman notes that though Calder was not Latin American, the "colorfully curving" clouds are "archetypically 'Latin American'"; she says that this "express[es] the region's 'lyricism'". Tuchman also appreciates the real cloud-like appearance, saying that the interior of the hall "resembles clouds scattered across a night sky [...] [w]ith the hall darkened", so those who enter with only the houselights on "feel as if they have entered a multihued, three-dimensional abstract painting". Patrick Frank, writer on modern art in Latin America, says that the design "both dazzles the senses and inspires awareness". Supposedly, when the Aula Magna was completed and the clouds had just been painted, Villanueva went inside to see them and was so impressed he threw his arms up and cheered. ## Legacy After working on the campus project, Villanueva and Calder began a longstanding working relationship. However, Calder only saw his Floating Clouds in person once, when visiting Villanueva in Caracas in 1955. The clouds are seen as the best example of Villanueva's philosophy of the campus project, in that they combine art, architecture, design, and function. Calder is noted as naming the clouds as his favorite of his own works, while acknowledging they are less remembered than many other pieces. The Aula Magna was ranked by acoustics engineer Leo Beranek in the 1980s as one of the top five concert halls worldwide in terms of acoustics, largely because of the clouds. The interior design and function has also influenced other venues seeking impressive acoustics, including an opera hall in China. In UNESCO's World Heritage listing of the campus, the Clouds are named specifically. A stylized image of the interior of the Aula Magna, framed as a silhouette within a shape of one of the clouds, is used as the logo for the centenary celebration of Villanueva. ## See also - Aula Magna (Central University of Venezuela)#Nubes de Calder - List of artworks in University City of Caracas - List of Alexander Calder public works#Venezuela

The Ansonia

Residential building in Manhattan, New York

The Ansonia (formerly the Ansonia Hotel) is a condominium building at 2109 Broadway, between 73rd and 74th Streets, on the Upper West Side of Manhattan in New York City. The 17-story structure was designed by French architect Paul Emile Duboy in the Beaux-Arts style. It was built between 1899 and 1903 as a residential hotel by William Earle Dodge Stokes, who named it after his grandfather, the industrialist Anson Greene Phelps. Over the years, the Ansonia has housed many conductors, opera singers, baseball players, and other famous and wealthy people. The Ansonia is a New York City designated landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The building occupies a large, irregular site on the west side of Broadway. It has a facade of limestone, granite, white brick, and terracotta, as well as turrets at its corners, light courts along each side, and a three-story mansard roof. The Ansonia Hotel was constructed with as many as 2,500 rooms, many of which were arranged as multi-room suites, although these have since been downsized to 425 apartments. Originally, the hotel had its own power plant and air-filtration plant, as well as a system of pneumatic tubes and cooling pipes. The public rooms, including the lobby, basement shopping arcade, and restaurants, were decorated in the Louis XIV style, and the hotel also had a small roof farm in the 1900s. There was also a basement swimming pool, which in the late 20th century housed a gay bathhouse called the Continental Baths and a swingers' club called Plato's Retreat. The apartments themselves ranged from small studios to multi-room suites with parlors, libraries, and dining rooms. Over the years, both the apartments and public spaces have been substantially rearranged, but the facade has remained largely intact. Stokes headed the Onward Construction Company, which acquired the site in July 1899 and built the hotel there. The restaurants in the hotel were dedicated in February 1903, though the hotel itself did not formally open until April 16, 1904. Frank Harriman leased the Ansonia in 1911, turning it into a short-term hotel, and the Bowman-Biltmore Hotels chain took over in 1918 and renovated the hotel. Stokes's son W. E. D. "Weddie" Stokes acquired the hotel after his father's death in 1926. The Ansonia passed through multiple operators during the 1920s and stopped offering hotel services in the early 1930s. The building was sold three times between 1945 and 1948 before being auctioned in 1950 to Jacob Starr. The Ansonia gradually fell into disrepair through the 1970s, and Ansonia Associates eventually acquired it in 1978. Ansonia Associates repaired many of the building's issues but was involved in hundreds of lawsuits during that time. The Ansonia was converted into a condominium building in 1992, although rent-regulated tenants remained in the building through the 21st century. ## Site The Ansonia is at 2101 Broadway, on the Upper West Side of Manhattan in New York City. It occupies the eastern end of a trapezoidal city block bounded by Broadway to the east, 74th Street to the north, West End Avenue to the west, and 73rd Street to the south. The land lot covers 44,375 sq ft (4,122.6 m²). The site has frontage of about 185 ft (56 m) on 74th Street, 218 ft (66 m) on Broadway, and 249 ft (76 m) on 73rd Street. It occupies what was originally 42 land lots. The Ansonia is on a curved section of Broadway, which runs diagonally to the Manhattan street grid to the south, but which parallels other avenues to the north. Prior to the development of larger structures on Broadway, the building was originally visible from as far south as 59th Street and as far north as 105th Street. The building is near several other notable structures, including the Rutgers Presbyterian Church to the south, the Hotel Beacon and Beacon Theatre to the northeast, the Apple Bank Building to the east, and the Dorilton one block south. Directly south of the Ansonia is Verdi Square and an entrance for the New York City Subway's 72nd Street station, serving the . The city's first subway line was developed starting in the late 1890s, and it opened in 1904 with a station at Broadway and 72nd Street. The construction of the subway spurred the development of high-rise apartment buildings on the Upper West Side along Broadway; many of these buildings were constructed on land that had never been developed. The Ansonia was one of several large apartment buildings developed on the Upper West Side in the early 1900s, along with such structures as the Dorilton and the Astor. ## Architecture The Ansonia was built as a residential hotel and is designed in the Beaux-Arts style. Its developer, William Earl Dodge Stokes, listed himself as "architect-in-chief" for the project and hired French architect Paul Emile Duboy to draw up the plans. Duboy only made one set of drawings before Stokes demoted him to a draftsman. New Orleans architect Martin Shepard served as draftsman and assistant superintendent of construction, while George Vassar's Son & Co. built the structure. The building was named for industrialist Anson Green Phelps, the developer's grandfather. The Ansonia is 17 stories tall. Early plans called for the building to be 12 stories, 14 stories, or more than 20 stories. In a letter to the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC), the developer's son William Earl Dodge Stokes Jr. claimed that "they just put one floor on top of another and they got up to the seventeenth floor, and they decided they wouldn’t build any more". Other sources have cited the Ansonia as being 16 or 18 stories tall. ### Form and facade The Ansonia measures about 200 by 200 ft (61 by 61 m). The building includes turrets with cupolas at its corners and light courts along each side. There are two light courts each on 73rd and 74th Streets and one light court along Broadway. This gives the building an irregular "H" shape, which allowed each guestroom, suite, and apartment to receive as much natural light as possible. The Ansonia is characterized as having a facade of limestone, granite, white brick, and terracotta. The base is clad with rusticated blocks of limestone, and there are balconies just above the base and near the top of the building. On 73rd Street is a 27 ft (8.2 m) archway (which originally led to a tea room) and two full-height windows, which were restored in the 2000s as part of the construction of a North Face store at the building's base. All three windows, which had been hidden behind a masonry wall for several decades, have cast-iron frames and large roundel windows. On the intermediate stories are French windows with elaborate iron balconies. The balconies, many of which span several bays, visually divide the facade into several groups of windows. Some parts of the facade are characterized by smooth brickwork, limestone, and terracotta details, while other sections are ornamented with quoins and rusticated limestone blocks. The facade was decorated with Louis XVI style grilles and scrollwork, leading the Ansonia to be nicknamed "the Wedding Cake of the Upper West Side". The building is topped by a convex mansard roof, which measures three stories high. Prior to World War II, the building had a copper cornice and seven copper cartouches, each weighing 4 to 5 short tons (3.6 to 4.5 long tons; 3.6 to 4.5 t). ### Features When the Ansonia opened in the 1900s, it covered 550,000 sq ft (51,000 m²). Sources disagree on the size of the hotel, which has been variously cited as having 1,400 guestrooms and 340 suites, or 1,218 guestrooms and 400 suites. One source described the hotel as having 2,500 total rooms (including rooms in individual apartments), with 340 suites in total. The modern-day Ansonia has 425 apartments, as well as a garage and a rooftop terrace. #### Mechanical features The hotel contained about 175 mi (282 km) of pipe, about ten times as much as in similarly-sized office buildings. The pipes carried gas; hot, cold, and iced water; electrical wiring; and sewage. The boilers had a total capacity of 1,400 hp (1,000 kW). The building had its own power plant with coal-fired generators. The power plant occupied one-fourth of the basement. The Ansonia also included an air-filtration plant, which drew air from the western side of the building; the air was filtered, heated in the sub-basement, and distributed to each room through pipes in the walls. Air was ventilated from a flue on the roof. There were originally six elevators for guests, two elevators for housekeepers, two freight elevators, and numerous dumbwaiters. Although the Otis Elevator Company had offered to install elevators in the building, Stokes considered them too expensive, so he created his own elevator company and his own hydraulic-elevator model, which could travel at up to 400 ft/min (120 m/min). Upon the Ansonia's opening in 1903, it was cited as having 362 telephones, 18,000 electric burners, 2,500 steam radiators, 400 refrigerators, and 1,000 faucets. The building also had 600 toilets and 400 washrooms, more than any other residential building in New York City at the time. #### Public areas When the Ansonia was being constructed, it was planned to have "more and finer banquet halls, assembly rooms, and reception rooms than any other hotel". All of the public rooms were decorated in the Louis XIV style. An art curator, Joseph Gilmartin, was hired to display the hotel's collection of 600 paintings. The ground floor was devoted to public rooms and consisted of various offices and corridors. Originally, there were several storefronts at ground level, including a bank, a florist, and a pharmacy. The hotel's lobby included a fountain with live seals. The lobby was flanked by two banks of elevators. Next to the main entrance, on 73rd Street, was a palm court and assembly room. The ground-floor restaurant, decorated with chandeliers and hand-painted murals, could fit 550 people and included a balcony from which an orchestra performed at night. There was a ballroom on the second floor, which was briefly converted into a mini-golf course in 1929. In the 21st century, American Musical and Dramatic Academy occupies the lower stories, with a theater, studios, private rooms, and performance spaces. In the basement was a shopping arcade with a butcher, a barber, and a laundry room. There was also a bakery, a milk shop, hairdressers' salons, cold-storage vaults, safe-deposit vaults, and a vehicular garage, in addition to a liquor store and milliners' shop. The basement reportedly had the world's largest indoor swimming pool at the time of the Ansonia's completion, The swimming pool was cited as measuring either 90 by 40 ft (27 by 12 m) or 100 by 32 ft (30.5 by 9.8 m). The Continental Baths, a gay bathhouse operated by Steve Ostrow, began operating within the Ansonia's basement in 1967 or 1968. The bathhouse had "private encounter rooms", a sauna, a massage parlor, and Turkish baths. From 1977 to 1980, the Ansonia's basement housed Plato's Retreat, a club for heterosexual couples characterized in The New York Times as a swingers' sex club. The space was accessed by a mirrored staircase, and also featured a 60-person Jacuzzi, an "orgy room", a dance floor, and private rooms. In the 1990s, the basement was converted into storefront space. The hotel had two interior staircases and several fire escapes when it was completed. Leading from the lobby was a large stairwell, characterized as a spiral staircase. The marble-and-iron stairway was intended to complement the lobby's marble floor, which was designed in a black-and-white checkerboard pattern. The stairway was topped by a skylight, which was blacked out during World War II. The building reportedly had about 4.5 mi (7,200 m) of hallways in total. Hallways measured 10 ft (3.0 m) wide. Each story also had a hall attendant, a cold-storage pantry, a serving room where food from the kitchen could be delivered, and a reception room with communal toilets. On the 17th floor were rooms for staff. The top stories included a restaurant and a roof garden. The restaurant, on the 16th floor, was designed in an English style and could fit 1,300 people. The hotel's roof included a small farm, where Stokes kept farm animals next to his personal apartment, as well as a cattle elevator next to the farm. Stokes's decision to create a roof farm was influenced by his belief that the Ansonia could be either partially or fully self-sufficient. The farm housed bears, chickens, ducks, goats, and hogs; it also reportedly housed four geese and a pig owned by W. E. D. Stokes. Every day, a bellhop delivered free or half-priced fresh eggs to all tenants. The New York City Department of Health raided the roof farm in November 1907 after receiving a tip about it. In a failed effort to prevent its closure as an illegal farm, W. E. D. Stokes claimed the animals belonged to his son, W. E. D. "Weddie" Stokes Jr. Thereafter, the farm was closed, and the animals were sent to Central Park. When Weddie was 12 years old, he installed a radio transmitter on the roof of the hotel. For a short time in 1929, the roof contained handball courts. #### Apartments Each apartment's ceiling measured 12 ft (3.7 m) or 14 ft (4.3 m) tall. The building had extremely thick masonry walls measuring between 1 and 3 ft (0.30 and 0.91 m) thick, which made each apartment nearly soundproof. Embedded in the walls were a system of pneumatic tubes, which allowed residents and staff to communicate easily. Each apartment also had a landline equipped for long-distance calling, as well as call bells to summon staff; there was also a hall attendant on every floor. The walls also included a system of pipes that carried freezing brine, which was characterized as an early version of an air-conditioning system. The brine pipes allowed the building to maintain a constant temperature of 70 °F (21 °C) year-round. Many of the smaller guestrooms initially did not have kitchens because they were intended for short-term guests; instead, there were refrigerators in these units. Apartments with kitchens were equipped with electric ranges. Residents lived in "luxurious" apartments with multiple bedrooms, parlors, libraries, and formal dining rooms. Generally, the apartments were designed in the French Renaissance style with enameled woodwork. The suites also had mahogany doors that were twice the width of normal doors. The apartments were decorated with paintings from the hotel's collection; the parlor rooms included domes with crystal chandeliers; and the parquet floors were covered with custom Persian rugs. Long-term tenants were allowed to add their own furniture. The rooms had several doorways so they could easily be combined into a larger apartment. To facilitate this, the floors and moldings all had a uniform design so they would not look out of place when several rooms were merged. Some of the rooms were designed in unconventional shapes such as ovals. After the Ansonia was converted to condominiums, many of the old apartments were combined. Nonetheless, some apartments on the south side of the building retained their original layouts in the 2010s. ## History During the early 19th century, apartment developments in the city were generally associated with the working class. By the late 19th century, apartments were also becoming desirable among the middle and upper classes. Between 1880 and 1885, more than ninety apartment buildings were developed in the city. ### Stokes ownership #### Development and opening In July 1899, the Onward Construction Company acquired land on the western side of Broadway between 73rd and 74th Streets, and the Equitable Life Assurance Society placed a \$500,000 mortgage loan on the site. William E. D. Stokes had established the Onward Construction Company specifically to develop the hotel. Stokes also founded companies to manufacture the building's terracotta and elevators. By mid-1900, the ironwork had reached the fourth floor, while the facade had been built to the second floor. At the time, the building was expected to cost \$800,000 and rise 14 stories. Later that year, Stokes said 150 people had applied for apartments at the hotel, although he had not publicly announced the building's name. Sixteen hundred workers were employed in the structure's construction by early 1901, when the hotel's facade was nearly complete. The hotel was known at the time as the Anson-Stokes, after William's grandfather, and was projected to be the world's largest hotel, beating out the old Waldorf-Astoria. The hotel's construction was delayed by numerous labor strikes, including a six-week strike among bricklayers and a two-month strike among masonry workers. After the masonry workers went on strike in May 1902, Stokes offered \$1,000 to end the strike. That August, the Bank for Savings lent the Onward Construction Company \$1.5 million to complete the building. The hotel's construction was delayed by numerous other labor strikes. For example, plasterers went on strike in July 1902 for six months. Carpenters and painters, plumbers, gas installers, and marble installers each went on strike for several weeks. As the building was being completed, the plasterers struck again, prompting Stokes to abandon his plans to install Caen stone in the hotel; the painters and decorators also struck after discovering that some tenants had hired decorators from a different labor union. The hotel housed 110 families by early 1903, when it was known as the Ansonia, although it had not formally opened. The hotel's ground-floor restaurant was formally dedicated on February 13, 1903, although the Broadway entrance was not yet complete. By August 1903, Stokes had leased most of the larger apartments, but many of the smaller units were still vacant. The hotel was dedicated on April 19, 1904. The Ansonia had cost \$6 million, eight times the original budget. When the Ansonia was completed, every apartment had housekeeping service, although residents could opt out. Each room had 18 table napkins and 18 bath towels. Servants changed the table napkins and towels three times a day and the bedsheets twice a week. Although the apartments were originally priced at \$600 to \$6,000 a year, some of these suites were rented for \$14,000 a year. #### 1900s and 1910s The Ansonia's thick walls and large apartment sizes attracted many musicians, particularly opera singers and conductors. Although the Ansonia had a luxurious design, it attracted gamblers, prostitutes, and other "shady characters" in its early years. As early as 1906, Stokes had rented an apartment to gangster Al Adams, who had recently been released from prison; the next year, Adams was found in his room, dead of a gunshot wound. The Ansonia also faced several lawsuits after its completion. For example, contractor Vinton Improvement Company sued Stokes for \$68,000 in 1904, claiming that Stokes had failed to pay the company while the labor strikes were ongoing. Another contractor sued Stokes in 1907 for \$90,000. Stokes defended himself by claiming that Duboy was in an insane asylum in Paris and that, when Duboy signed the final plans for the hotel in 1903, he was already insane and should not have been making commitments in Stokes's name concerning the hotel. A grillroom opened at the Ansonia Hotel in December 1908. In September 1911, Stokes leased the entire hotel for 30 years to Frank Harriman for \$9 million. Stokes also announced that he would transfer the hotel's title to his son, W. E. D. "Weddie" Stokes Jr., but the elder Stokes would still operate the hotel. At the time, the elder Stokes had been shot several months earlier and believed that he would die. Harriman announced plans to convert the Ansonia from an apartment hotel to a transient hotel by dividing the apartments, which typically had up to eighteen rooms, into guestrooms with no more than two rooms. According to Albert Pease, who brokered the sale, the decision to convert the Ansonia into a transient hotel had been influenced by the proximity of the 72nd Street station, which at the time was only one station away from Grand Central Terminal. Upon taking over the hotel. Harriman spent over \$100,000 on renovations, including a new restaurant and restoring the basement swimming pool. Federal and city officials thwarted a 1916 plot by German operatives Franz von Papen and Karl Boy-Ed to detonate a bomb at the Ansonia's ballroom. Unlike his father, Weddie never had any interest in operating the Ansonia, choosing to lease it to more experienced hotel operators instead. In May 1918, the Ansonia became part of the Bowman-Biltmore Hotels chain, operated by John McEntee Bowman. George W. Sweeney was appointed as the hotel's manager. Bowman announced plans to renovate the Ansonia for \$500,000, converting 300 "non-housekeeping" suites into guestrooms with bathrooms. He also planned to renovate the ground level and add a ballroom there. The hotel began to attract sportsmen like boxer Jack Dempsey, in part because of what writer Steven Gaines described as "the Ansonia's racy reputation as a home to gamblers and spies and deposed dictators". After World War I, many New York Yankees players stayed at the Ansonia, including Babe Ruth, Bob Meusel, Lefty O'Doul, and Wally Schang. One resident, Chicago White Sox first baseman Chick Gandil, held a meeting at his apartment in which he told several teammates to intentionally lose the 1919 World Series; in the ensuing Black Sox Scandal, Gandil and his teammates were permanently banned from professional baseball. #### 1920s to 1940s After the Ansonia was refurbished in the early 1920s, its operators published a promotional booklet for travelers who "expect more of a hotel than just a place to sleep and leave their luggage". By 1922, the hotel was worth \$6.5 million, of which the land was worth \$2.65 million and the building was worth \$3.85 million. At the time, Stokes's wife Helen sought to divorce him, and Helen's lawyer claimed that Stokes was intentionally undervaluing the Ansonia and was receiving tens of thousands of dollars in annual rent. The same year, federal agents raided the Ansonia after discovering that its operators were selling alcoholic beverages in violation of Prohibition-era restrictions. Although the Stokeses did not divorce, W. E. D. Stokes moved out of his apartment at the Ansonia in 1925, less than a year before his death. Edward Arlington subleased the upper levels of the hotel in January 1926. At the time, the hotel had 1,218 rooms; Arlington planned to add eight stories to the hotel, with another 1,000 rooms, but this never happened. When W. E. D. Stokes died that May, Weddie inherited the hotel, which was estimated to be worth \$4.5 million. Childs Restaurants leased the hotel's Fountain Room and ground-level bank for use as a restaurant in 1927, and Keens Chop House leased the main dining room the same year. The Onward Construction Company then leased the hotel to the Ansonia Hotel Corporation until November 1928. Zue McClary, proprietor of the Ansonia Hotel Corporation, then operated the hotel on a monthly lease from November 1928 to April 1929. McClary reportedly spent \$160,000 on renovating the hotel. Although McClary claimed to have given up the hotel's lease of her own volition. her company filed for bankruptcy several months afterward. Ansco Hotel Systems Inc. took over the hotel at the beginning of May 1929, with Paul Henkel in charge. The new operators, a group of men who operated Keens Chop House, agreed to lease the hotel for 20 years for a total of \$5.5 million. Walter S. Schneider was hired to design a renovation of the building costing \$500,000. The plans included a gymnasium, swimming pool, ballroom, and indoor golf course. The golf course on the second floor, as well as handball courts on the roof, were unpopular and were removed shortly thereafter.

The Stokes family continued to own the hotel, refusing a \$14.3 million offer for the building in October 1929. With the onset of the Great Depression, the kitchens and restaurants were shuttered permanently in the 1930s, and the Ansonia stopped offering traditional hotel services such as food service and housekeeping. The operators removed partition walls, sinks, and kitchens from 114 suites, converting them to "non-tenements", and they sold the awnings that had been mounted outside the windows. In addition, the Broadway entrance was closed, additional storefronts were created on the ground level, the gates in front of the elevators were replaced with doors, and fireproof partitions were installed around the elevator shafts. The Ansonia Hotel Corporation signed a new ten-year lease for the hotel in 1936 and announced that it would add a more modern air-cooling system to the Ansonia. In September 1942, workers began removing the Ansonia Hotel's ornamental copper cartouches and copper cornices to provide scrap metal for the U.S. military during World War II. This effort produced 100,000 lb (45,000 kg) of scrap metal. The hotel's manager Louis Zuch had said of the copper decorations, "Before we start taking off the metal railings around parks, we should collect all our useless junk"; at the time, city officials had considered removing metal railings in Central Park. In addition, the brine pipes and pneumatic tubes were removed from the walls, and the skylight at the top of the building's main staircase was blacked out. A piece of the hotel's masonry cornice fell to the ground in 1944, killing an employee. ### 1940s sales The Stokes family's Onward Construction Corporation agreed in August 1945 to sell the building to a client of attorney Abraham Traub for \$2.5 million. The client, Rexby Realty, announced plans to spend \$200,000 on renovating the property. That October, Louis Schleiffer agreed to buy the purchase contract for the Ansonia, as well as take over the hotel's \$2.17 million mortgage. The Ansonia Realty Corporation, headed by Edwin S. Lowe, took title to the building in February 1946. That April, Lowe announced that he would convert the second floor into the Ansonia Professional Center, with 42 offices for doctors and dentists. The Dajon Realty Corporation bought the Ansonia in October 1946, paying \$750,000 in cash and taking over a \$1.8 million mortgage. Dajon immediately announced plans to spend \$300,000 on renovations, including installing kitchenettes and refrigerators in every apartment. Dajon resold the building in April 1948 to a group of investors known as Ansonia House Inc. At the time, the Ansonia was cited as containing 476 apartments and ten stores. The building was operated by Samuel Broxmeyer, president of Ansonia House Inc., until January 1949, when Abraham I. Menin was appointed as receiver for Broxmeyer's company. Residents claimed that Broxmeyer was significantly increasing their rent, while employees alleged that they could not cash the checks that they had received as salary. Federal officials also investigated claims that Broxmeyer was collecting advance rent from tenants and failing to pay his creditors; instead, he used the money to buy more apartment buildings. That February, tenants formed a committee to fight Broxmeyer's management of the building, and state and federal judges signed separate orders preventing the Ansonia's furnishings from being sold off. Menin was appointed as trustee of Ansonia House Inc. the same month. Some tenants refused to pay rent after Menin took over the Ansonia, prompting him to begin evicting these tenants that June. Broxmeyer was subsequently sentenced to five years in prison, and his assets were sold off. ### Starr ownership and decline #### 1950s and 1960s In April 1950, a federal judge approved Menin's recommendation that the hotel be sold to a syndicate that had placed a \$1.021 million mortgage on the property. The buyers, led by Jacob Starr, bought the hotel for \$40,000 or \$50,000 in cash and assumed a \$1.623 million mortgage. The new owners then announced that they would renovate the Ansonia. However, the renovations never took place. When Starr submitted alteration plans to the Department of Buildings, he discovered that the hotel had never received a proper certificate of occupancy; before he could obtain one, he had to repair several building-code violations that the DOB had issued over the years. The issues included attling windows, a leaky roof, and rusted ducts and pipes, as well as balconies that were on the verge of falling off the facade. Starr refused to rectify any of these building-code violations, claiming that they were too expensive to resolve, so he did not receive a certificate of occupancy. Following a series of robberies at the hotel, its managers added CCTV systems to the elevators in 1960. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) began collecting photographs and other documents for several buildings, including the Ansonia, in 1963 after Fortune magazine published an article titled "Vanishing Glory in Business Buildings". At the time, the LPC did not have the power to designate buildings itself. The nonprofit organization American Music Center was headquartered at the Ansonia in the 1960s. To earn money from the hotel, Starr converted its long-abandoned basement pool to a gay bathhouse, the Continental Baths, during 1967 or 1968. The Continental Baths also hosted cabaret shows, and Bette Midler provided musical entertainment there early in her career, with Barry Manilow as her accompanist. The Continental Baths' cabaret performances attracted large crowds, especially during the weekends. Meanwhile, the Ansonia had been reclassified as a residential hotel after the city's zoning codes were modified in 1968. Harry Garland, one of many voice coaches who lived at the Ansonia, established the building's first tenants' association, the Ansonia Residents Association (ARA). Members of the ARA petitioned a state judge to freeze the Ansonia's rents until Starr had made the repairs. After the judge ruled in the ARA's favor, Garland said that "people were concerned for my safety" because Starr was furious at him. #### 1970s Unable to raise rents at the Ansonia, Starr announced plans to demolish it and build a 40-story tower in its place. The ARA first tried to find a rich buyer for the building, without success, then asked the LPC to designate the building as a city landmark. At a public hearing hosted by the LPC in April 1970, a lawyer for Starr testified that the structure lacked "any particular historic significance". According to the lawyer, it would cost between \$4 million and \$5 million to repair the building and that "the only sound solution is demolition". This prompted concerns from residents who believed that the building would be demolished. Garland advocated for the building to be designated as a New York City landmark. In an attempt to avert the Ansonia's demolition, its residents created a petition advocating for the building to be designated as a city landmark; the petition attracted 25,000 signatures. They also hosted a five-hour gala in October 1971 to raise awareness for the Ansonia. The LPC received numerous petitions in support of the landmark designation, signed by 25,770 people, and a petition in opposition to the designation, signed by 11 people. With support from U.S. Representative Bella Abzug, who represented the neighborhood, the LPC designated the building as a city landmark on March 15, 1972, preventing the facade from being modified or demolished without the LPC's approval. Despite the landmark designation, the Ansonia continued to suffer from what the Times called "steadily deteriorating mechanical systems and a warren-like layout". In addition, the designation only applied to the facade, as interior-landmark designations did not yet exist. By the early 1970s, dozens of crimes were being reported at the Ansonia every year, and Starr agreed to hire security guards to protect the building 16 hours a day and install alarms and taller gates. Increasing crime had prompted tenants to patrol the corridors themselves. Residents filed multiple lawsuits against the Ansonia Holding Corporation, the building's legal owner, in an attempt to force Starr to fix the hotel's many issues. The tenants only won one lawsuit through 1978, which blocked the landlord from raising the rent by 13 percent between 1976 and 1977. One tenant claimed the pipes were so dirty that she had to run her faucet for half an hour before taking a bath. while another tenant said that constant flooding had damaged a light socket in her apartment. The Continental Baths in the basement had closed by 1973. When Starr died, his heirs also sought to sell the building, but they could not do so without first fixing the building-code issues. The New York City Conciliation and Appeals Board (CAB) placed a rent freeze on 500 rent-regulated apartments at the Ansonia in 1976, having received multiple complaints from tenants. The Plato's Retreat club opened at the hotel in late 1977. The club routinely attracted over 250 couples per night but did not allow single men to enter. As a result, men began loitering outside a pornographic shop at the building's base, which prompted the owners to close the 74th Street entrance to the building for security reasons. In addition, during the late 1970s, many psychics, fortune tellers, and mediums began moving into the building. ### Ansonia Associates ownership In 1978, the building was acquired by Ansonia Associates, a consortium of three partnerships, for \$2.5 million. The consortium, headed by Herbert Krasnow, Albert Schussler, and Stanley Stahl, collectively represented 21 individuals. The group began considering converting the building into residential condominiums, devising about 30 distinct floor plans. The building's exterior had remained relatively unchanged over the years, other than modifications to the storefronts. By contrast, in 1980, Paul Goldberger of The New York Times characterized the interior as having "gone from Beaux-Arts grandeur to near dereliction", with unreliable elevators clad in false wood and a lobby that resembled "the vestibule of a skid row hotel". Over the following decades, one of the co-owners, Jesse Krasnow, began to collect hundreds of documents, photographs, building plans, and decorations. #### Initial renovations Almost immediately after acquiring the hotel, Jesse Krasnow sought to evict Plato's Retreat, since the club's presence made it difficult for Krasnow to obtain financing for a planned renovation of the Ansonia. Krasnow paid the club's operator Larry Levenson \$1 million to break his lease, and Plato's Retreat moved out of the basement in 1980, The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places the same year, at which point it had been divided into approximately 540 apartments. Krasnow began to remedy the Ansonia's building-code violations, and the owners spent \$2 million on a waterproof flat roof and renovating vacant apartments. The LPC had approved repairs to the mansard roof, although the repairs to the flat roof did not require LPC approval. Residents claimed that Ansonia Associates were only conducting spot repairs and that the roof still leaked even after its renovation. By one account, the owners spent \$3.5 million to repair the roof, which still leaked. The masonry facade had also started to fall apart and was being repaired. Krasnow had spent \$21 million on renovations by 1980; he had created a \$4 million reserve fund for the building, and he opened a 100-space parking garage in the basement to provide income for the Ansonia. Even so, Krasnow continued to face considerable opposition from residents. The owners had renovated the 12th-floor hallway with dropped ceilings and two types of wallpaper and carpeting, intending to extend these design features to the rest of the interior. Existing residents disliked these changes so much that they asked the LPC to designate the building's interior as a city landmark. An article in The Village Voice, documenting the changes, was published under the headline "Barbarians Rape the Ansonia". Residents and officials also raised concerns that the Ansonia was being classified as a residential hotel despite no longer providing hotel services. As such, residents requested that the city's CAB recategorize the building as an apartment house. The CAB unfroze rents for 333 apartments in early 1980 after the owners had announced their intentions to repair these apartments. The CAB unfroze each apartment's rent after that unit had been repaired. Krasnow then notified each tenant of the rent increase, to which the tenants had 72 hours to respond. The owners indicated that they would raise these apartments' rents by 46 percent, to make up for rent increases that had been deferred during the rent freeze, but some tenants received a 300 percent rent increase. This prompted the ARA to begin a rent strike in March 1980, making their rent payments to an escrow account. Some of the tenants were unable to pay the increased rates, as they were retired and lived on Social Security payments. The owners and the ARA settled their dispute in February 1981. The settlement limited the extent to which the rents could be raised, provided tenants with rent abatements and concessions, and placed restrictions on the scope of the renovations. A group of dissenting residents, led by Thomas Soja, formed the Ansonia Tenants Coalition (ATC). Members of the ATC also paid rent into an escrow account, then sued Krasnow using the interest collected from that account. #### Condo-conversion plan and lawsuits The Ansonia's owners planned to convert the 471 apartments on the 15 upper stories to residential condos, while retaining ownership of the ground-level storefronts and basement garage. The condos were to cost about \$48,500 per room, whereas residents typically paid \$150 per month per room. The Attorney General of New York could approve the Ansonia's condo-conversion plan if five percent of tenants bought condos, but tenants alleged that the building still had significant issues. By the late 1980s, the Ansonia was involved in so many lawsuits, one New York City Housing Court judge spent nearly all of his time reviewing lawsuits and settlements related to the Ansonia. In what was then the longest lawsuit in the New York City Civil Court's history, a judge denied Soja's request that the city government appoint him as the Ansonia's manager; the case involved 22,000 pages of testimony and lasted four months. In another lawsuit filed by several tenants, a state judge ruled that the owner could temporarily raise rents to pay for capital improvements, but that the owner had to undo the rent increases when the project was finished; this decision was later overturned. The New York City Department of Sanitation fined the Ansonia's owners \$400,000 in 1988 for failing to remove asbestos from the building, as was required under city law. Ansonia Associates had completed several aspects of the renovation by early 1990. These included a new boiler room; upgraded telephone and wiring systems; repairs to the roof; and addition of storm windows. The building also experienced several major incidents during this time. For example, a resident died in a fire in January 1990. That March, one person was killed and 16 others were injured after the plaster ceiling of a croissant shop at the Ansonia's ground level collapsed. An investigation found that the collapsed ceiling had supported the weight of a false ceiling and mechanical equipment that had been installed in the 1980s; the original ceiling had been further weakened when contractors drilled holes to install pipes and wiring. Meanwhile, Krasnow began buying out the tenants who had most strongly opposed the condo-conversion plan. In 1990, the tenants and Ansonia Associates finally agreed on a condo offering plan, wherein they could either buy or continue to rent their apartments. Tenants who wished to buy their apartments would pay 60 percent below market rates; for a one-bedroom apartment, this equated to \$125,000, although many tenants could not afford even the discounted price. Ansonia Associates initially proposed selling 50 condos for between \$101,000 and \$939,000, and they planned to spend between \$9 million and \$11 million on further renovations. The proposed renovations included restoration of the lobby, sitting rooms, and elevators; adding kitchens; adding ventilation ducts and fans to 250 units; and replacing the electrical distribution system, The main entrance on 73rd Street, a porte-cochère, would be restored. The Ansonia Tenants Association agreed to the proposal, but the Ansonia Tenants Coalition did not want the conversion to proceed until the building-code violations had been fixed. #### Beginning of condo conversion The Ansonia's condo offering plan went into effect in 1992. Frank Farinella was hired to design the condos and restore a porte-cochère on 73rd Street, and the owners replaced signage for the ground-level stores. The owners also established a \$4 million capital reserve fund for the building. By 1993, Ansonia Associates had restored much of the facade, but they had yet to restore the windows, lobby, or storefronts. The owners eventually pared back the signage above the storefronts on Broadway. Tower Records announced plans to temporarily relocate to the Ansonia's basement in 1994, while its main store was being renovated, and opened a store at the Ansonia the next year. Also in 1994, the New York Court of Appeals upheld a lower court's ruling that the building could not be called a hotel. By then, The New York Times called the Ansonia "one of the most litigious buildings in the city"; at the time, the Ansonia's tenants and landlords were involved in about 60 lawsuits, which were still pending in the city's court system. In addition, the New York City Department of Environmental Protection issued the owners a building-code violation in 1995 after finding that the walls retained high amounts of asbestos. Condo sales lagged until the late 1990s. Ansonia Associates had sold 60 apartments by 1996, at which point it had hired Zeckendorf Realty to market the building; Zeckendorf opened a sales office with three employees. The American Society of Interior Designers' New York City chapter was also hired to design four model apartments for the Ansonia, each of which was designed for a specific buyer. The Tower Records store at the Ansonia's base had closed by 1997, when Ansonia Associates was negotiating with The Food Emporium to open a store at the building. Some of the building's apartments were combined over the years after tenants had died or relocated. By the late 1990s, the building had 410 apartments, compared with 520 before the condominium conversion had started. The Food Emporium store at the building's base opened in late 1998. #### 2000s to present By the 2000s, apartments were routinely selling for several million dollars, although Steven Gaines characterized the lobby as still being "a little dowdy". Apparel company The North Face renovated the ground-floor retail space at 73rd Street in the early 2000s, restoring some windows that had been hidden behind a masonry wall for several decades. By 2005, most of the rent-controlled tenants had moved out, and their units had been converted to condos. Only one-quarter of the units were rent-controlled or rent-stabilized; the remaining three-quarters of the building was composed of condominiums. According to Ansonia Realty sales director Bernie Gelb, the building had between two and five vacant apartments at any given time. Due to the building's landmark status, condo owners could not replace the windows when renovating their apartments; in addition, Ansonia Realty had to approve all subleases of the condos. A Loehmann's store opened in the building's basement in 2007, within the space formerly occupied by the Continental Baths and Plato's Retreat. The building continued to face lawsuits over the years, and it had been the subject of more than 800 lawsuits by 2014. For instance, a resident sued the Ansonia's managers in 2007, alleging that the building was infested with cockroaches, and a family sued their neighbor over cigarette smoke the next year. Nonetheless, by 2011, the Times reported that prices at the Ansonia, and at other condominiums on the Upper West Side, were higher than at housing cooperatives along Central Park. Apartments continued to be sold for millions of dollars, although 27 apartments were sold between 2009 and 2014 for less than \$500,000. Some rent-regulated tenants also remained in the building. ## Notable tenants The Ansonia was nicknamed "The Palace for the Muses" because, in its heyday, many of its residents were musicians and artists. The Ansonia was particularly popular in the opera community, leading Opera World magazine to write in 1963: "In short, scarcely anyone in the opera business has not, at one time or another, lived in the Ansonia, where residence was regarded as the first step toward success in a precarious and overcrowded field". It is unknown why the Ansonia attracted so many opera performers, but several factors, including the hotel's thick walls and air-cooling system, have been cited. Many of the residents were also musicians or music students. As a result, some residents had clauses in their leases that allowed them to play music without restrictions from 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. This privilege did not extend to hosting music classes in the apartments, which led to a lengthy lawsuit in the mid-1990s. After the building was converted to condominiums in the 1990s, it began to attract lawyers, doctors, and financiers. One writer for the Times wrote in 1985 that "Ansonia has probably gotten as much panache from the names who have lived there as it has gained from its own name". Over the years, residents have included: - Frances Alda, soprano - Martin C. Ansorge, U.S. representative - ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, son and chosen successor of Bahá’u’lláh, the founder of the Bahá’í Faith - Sarah Bernhardt, actress - Billie Burke, actress; lived with her husband Florenz Ziegfeld Jr. - Enrico Caruso, tenor - Feodor Chaliapin, bass - Fausto Cleva, conductor - Richard and John Contiguglia, concert pianists - Royal S. Copeland, U.S. senator - Jack Dempsey, boxer - Theodore Dreiser, writer - Richard Dreyfuss, actor - Geraldine Farrar, soprano and actress - Sam Franko, conductor - Chick Gandil, baseball player - Giulio Gatti-Casazza, opera manager - Anna Held, actress; lived with her husband Florenz Ziegfeld Jr. - Victoriano Huerta, Mexican dictator - Sol Hurok, impresario - Angelina Jolie, actress - Andre Kostelanetz, conductor; lived with his wife, Lily Pons - Lillian Lorraine, actress - Gustav Mahler, composer and conductor - Lauritz Melchior, tenor - Yehudi Menuhin, violinist - Bob Meusel, baseball player - Lefty O'Doul, baseball player - Charles Henry Parkhurst, clergyman - Ettore Panizza, composer - Roberta Peters, soprano - Ezio Pinza, bass - Lily Pons, soprano; lived with her husband, Andre Kostelanetz - Ashley Putnam, soprano - Elmer Rice, playwright - Isaac L. Rice, businessman - Babe Ruth, baseball player - Wally Schang, baseball player - Tito Schipa, tenor - Antonio Scotti, baritone - Eleanor Steber, soprano - Teresa Stratas, soprano - Igor Stravinsky, composer - Arturo Toscanini, conductor - Florenz Ziegfeld Jr., impresario; lived with his wives ## Impact ### Critical reception When the building was being developed, in 1902, the New-York Tribune characterized the Ansonia as "an up-to-date specimen of apartment architecture". A reporter for The New York Times wrote in 1980 that the Ansonia "looks from midtown like a turreted fortress in the middle of upper Broadway". Christopher Gray wrote in 1987 that the Ansonia, along with the Apthorp and the Belnord, "gave a cosmopolitan electricity to" the section of Broadway north of 59th Street. In the 1983 book New York 1900, Robert A. M. Stern and his coauthors wrote that the building "transformed Parisian prototypes into a veritable skyscraper". A representative for the Municipal Art Society said that, had the Ansonia been demolished, "our city would have suffered far more than the loss of a Beaux-Arts masterpiece". ### Influence and media The presence of the building influenced David Childs's design of the Alexandria, constructed at Broadway and 72nd Street in 1990. That development contains an illuminated octagonal cupola as a homage to the Ansonia's turrets. The Laureate condominium building at Broadway and 76th Street, completed in the 2000s, also contains balconies, curved corners, and rusticated blocks inspired by those of the Ansonia. In the film Perfect Stranger (2007), Halle Berry plays a news reporter who lives in a "professionally decorated \$4-million condo in the lavish Ansonia building on the Upper West Side." The building's facade was used as a set for the 2012 TV show 666 Park Avenue, whose producer David Wilcox said he had been attracted by the building's "absolutely fascinating" history. Its facade was also depicted in the TV show The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel, standing in for the fictional "Dansonia". In addition, the Ansonia has been used as a setting or filming location for movies such as The Sunshine Boys (1975), Three Days of the Condor (1975), Hannah and Her Sisters (1986), Life and Nothing But (1989), Single White Female (1992), and Uptown Girls (2003). ## See also - List of buildings and structures on Broadway in Manhattan - List of former hotels in Manhattan - List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 59th to 110th Streets - National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan from 59th to 110th Streets - Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument (Manhattan), also co-designed by DuBoy

Mogilev Conference

1941 German army conference

The Mogilev Conference was a September 1941 Wehrmacht training event aimed at improving security in the rear of Army Group Centre during the German invasion of the Soviet Union. The event was organised by General Max von Schenckendorff, commander of Army Group Centre Rear Area, in cooperation with the officials of the security and intelligence services of Nazi Germany—SS and the Sicherheitsdienst (Security Service; SD)—operating in the same area. Ostensibly an "anti-partisan" training conference, the event marked an escalation of violence against Jews and other civilians in the areas under Schenckendorff's command. ## Background In June 1941, the Axis Powers launched Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union and by 26 July 1941, Mogilev, Belarus, had been occupied by the Wehrmacht. Army Group Centre Rear Area, commanded by General Max von Schenckendorff, established its headquarters there on 7 September, but members of Einsatzgruppe B had entered the city in August and already begun murdering Jews. A ghetto was later established in September; in October 1941, most of the inmates had been murdered as part of two operations. The Wehrmacht's aggressive security doctrine—and the use of the "security threat" to disguise genocidal policies—resulted in close cooperation between the army and the security apparatus behind the front lines. Einsatzgruppe B was the key killing unit that operated in the territory of Army Group Centre Rear Area, killing thousands of Jews, Communists and Soviet POWs handed over by the army for execution as well as other "undesirables", such as Roma ("Gypsies"), "Asiatics", and the mentally disabled. In July, Einsatzgruppe B commander Arthur Nebe reported that a "solution to the Jewish problem" was "impractical" in his region of operation due to "the overwhelming number of the Jews", that is there were too many Jews to be killed by too few men. By August 1941, Nebe came to realize that his Einsatzgruppe's resources were insufficient to meet the expanded mandate of the killing operations, due to the inclusion of Jewish women and children since that month. The SS Cavalry Brigade, made up of the 1st and 2nd SS Cavalry Regiments, also participated in mass murder activities targeting Jews in Belarus. In July and August 1941, the unit carried out the Pripyat swamps punitive operation resulting in the murder of over 11,000 Jewish civilians. The operation has since been considered a turning point in the transition from "selective mass murder" to the wholesale extermination of the Jewish population in occupied areas. Units of Police Regiment Centre had, by that time, also conducted mass murder of Jews. In that environment, Schenckendorff, in cooperation with Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski, the Higher SS and Police Leader for Army Group Centre, organised a three-day conference for security troops. Held in Mogilev, the meeting aimed to create an "exchange of experiences" for the Wehrmacht rear unit commanders. Police Colonel , commander of Police Regiment Centre, was in charge of planning and logistics. ## The conference The conference began on 24 September and focused on "combatting partisans" (Bekämpfung von Partisanen, later Bandenbekämpfung) and reflected Schenckendorff's views on the need for total eradication of the resistance to German forces as the only way to secure the occupied territories. The minutes of the conference, if they had been taken, did not survive. What is known of the conference is based on the agenda, the list of attendees, after-action reports, and the summary distributed by Schenckendorff after the event. ### Attendees and speakers Invited officers were selected on the basis of their previous participation in security operations, and included representatives of the Army High Command and Army Group Centre. The audience also included battalion commanders and higher-level officers from both SS-Police and the Wehrmacht, including its security divisions, the 221st, the 286th, and the 403rd. In total, 61 officers participated, with 82 percent of attendees coming from Wehrmacht units. Of the attendees, 38 percent were battalion and company-level commanders. Many had already participated in mass atrocities. For example, the attendees included the commander of the 3rd Battalion in the 354th Infantry Regiment, 286th Security Division. A week prior to the conference, the battalion assisted Einsatzkommando 8 and directly participated in the murder of 1,000 Jews in the town of Krupki. The speakers included: Arthur Nebe, commander of Einsatzgruppe B; Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski, as the representative of Heinrich Himmler; Max Montua, commander of Police Regiment Centre; Hermann Fegelein, commander of the SS Cavalry Brigade; and Gustav Lombard, commander of the 1st SS Cavalry Regiment. The commander of the 2nd SS Cavalry Regiment, Franz Magill, was not invited, perhaps because he was not viewed as extreme enough on the "Jewish question", as he only massacred Jewish males, and not women and children. ### Lectures and sand-table sessions Presentations covered the evaluation of Soviet "bandit" organisations and tactics, why it was necessary to kill political commissars immediately upon capture, and gaining intelligence from local collaborators. Bach-Zelewski's session was entitled "The Capture of Kommissars and Partisans in 'Scouring-Actions'", referring to the activities of the SS Cavalry Brigade in the "Pripyat swamps" punitive operation. Nebe's talk focused on the role of the SD in the fight against "partisans" and "plunderers". He also covered the "Jewish question", with particular consideration to the anti-partisan movement. Company-grade officers gave short classes or led sand-table exercises on a variety of tactical situations that could be encountered in the field, such as securing a village.

### Field exercises The conference included three field exercises. On the first day, the participants observed an operation by Police Regiment Centre that involved surrounding a village and distribution of leaflets. On the second day, participants travelled to the village of (German: Knjaschitschi) in the vicinity of Mogilev. There, men of the Police Battalion 322 of Police Regiment Centre conducted a demonstration of how to surround and screen a village. According to the after-action report, "suspicious strangers" (Ortsfremde) or "partisans" could not be found. The screening of the population revealed 51 Jewish civilians, 32 of whom were shot by the police and SD troops. At dawn on the last day of the conference, participants observed another operation conducted by police troops. The goal was to "practically experience" the combing of the town for suspects who were identified as "partisans, commissars, and communists". After the roundup, the participants observed the interrogations then rejoined their respective units. ## Conference summary and aftermath A 16-page executive summary of the conference, under Schenckendorff's signature, was distributed to Wehrmacht troops and police units in the rear area. The document focused on tactics of security warfare, while also prescribing harsh measures, such as "the streets should be kept clear of 'wanderers'" who should be handed over to the Secret Field Police or sent to filtration camps for further screening. (Many sent to these camps were killed by the SS and SD troops.) The summary warned that the enemy was employing women, children and the elderly as agents. The summary proclaimed that "the enemy must be completely annihilated", while specifying that the distinction between a "partisan" and a "suspicious person" was not always possible, thus giving a carte blanch to the troops for the most brutal approach possible. The document was sent to all company-level units in the army group's area of operations, including to units that did not send representatives to the conference. The conference marked a dramatic increase in atrocities by the Wehrmacht units against Jews and other civilians in the final three months of 1941. The summary had an impact beyond the territory under the control of Army Group Centre Rear Area. The commander of the German army, Field Marshal Walther von Brauchitsch, issued "Guidelines for the Fighting of Partisans" in October 1941, one month after the conference. Underlining the importance of the event, the closing text of Schenckendorff's summary was reproduced verbatim: > The constant decision between life and death for partisans and suspicious persons is difficult even for the hardest soldier. It must be done. He acts correctly who fights ruthlessly and mercilessly with complete disregard for any personal surge of emotion. ## Assessment In the opinion of historian Waitman Wade Beorn, the Mogilev Conference was a key event that, in the Army Group Center Rear Area, helped incorporate the Wehrmacht into the Nazi genocide as part of "the anti-partisan war and the Jew-Bolshevik-partisan construct". Since the conference, the Wehrmacht rear units were instructed to cooperate fully with the SD detachments beyond simply providing logistical support. The Wehrmacht units also assumed direct responsibility for the murder of Jews in the territory under Schenckendorff's command. Jewish civilians were added to an approved list of enemies that the army's rear units would then destroy on their own initiative and without the participation of the SS Police or SD. Although the conference summary did not mention Jews, the field exercises demonstrated that the Wehrmacht was to target Jews in its anti-partisan actions. Beorn concludes that verbal instructions to this effect were, most likely, communicated during the sessions, given the speaker lineup, which included experienced mass murderers such as Bach-Zalewski, Nebe, Lombard, and Fegelein. The anti-Jewish policy had changed radically the month before, with the addition of women and children to the list of targets. This strained the limited resources of the SD and SS organisations. In addition, the German forces had to make room for Jews newly deported from elsewhere in occupied Europe, which was achieved by killing Soviet Jews already concentrated in ghettos. The size of territories under German control increased as well, which limited the activities of these units even further to major population centres. The conference led to a further conflation of more legitimate anti-partisan warfare against irregular fighters with genocide by identifying civilians as enemy combatants. Euphemistic language helped couch the actions; Wehrmacht reports frequently referred to targets as "stranger to the village", "wanderer", "suspect civilian", "partisan helper", "civilian without identification", and "women soldiers". The exercises during the conference put the punitive operations into military context, by breaking down the actions into something that soldiers could relate to, such as surrounding a village, guarding and escorting the suspects, interrogations, etc. In explaining the Wehrmacht's willingness to participate in the genocide, Beorn opines that the Wehrmacht's long history of harsh treatment of civilians, paranoia about a not-yet-existent partisan threat, institutional and individual racism, and its own criminal actions against Red Army commissars all predisposed the army towards accepting mass murder. This was done under the guise of anti-partisan warfare where Jews were targeted as Bolsheviks and thus partisan supporters. Consequently, the division between the Holocaust and the anti-partisan war still prevalent in historiography is a false one. Beorn concludes that "the Mogilev conference shows that these two were never separate, but intentionally connected in an effort to include the combat power of the Wehrmacht more efficiently in Hitler's genocidal projects in the east".

2nd Army (Kingdom of Yugoslavia)

Royal Yugoslav Army formation (1941)

The 2nd Army (Serbo-Croatian Latin: 2. armija) was a Royal Yugoslav Army formation commanded by Armijski đeneral Dragoslav Miljković that opposed the German-led Axis invasion of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in April 1941 during World War II. It consisted of three infantry divisions and one horsed cavalry regiment along with supporting units. It formed part of the 2nd Army Group, and was responsible for the defence of the Yugoslav–Hungarian border along the Drava river from Slatina to the Danube. The 2nd Army was not directly attacked during the first few days after the invasion commenced, but attacks on its flanks from 10 April resulted in successive orders to withdraw to the lines of the Danube and then the Sava. On 11 April, the Hungarians crossed the border in the sector for which the 2nd Army had been responsible, but the Yugoslavs were already withdrawing and the Hungarians faced almost no resistance. On the same day, the German 8th Panzer Division, driving on Belgrade into the flank of the 2nd Army, had effectively routed the entire 2nd Army Group. The disintegration of the 2nd Army as a combat force was accelerated by fifth column activities and desertion by many of its Croat soldiers. The Germans captured Belgrade on 12 April. Remnants of the 2nd Army continued to resist along the line of the Sava on 14 April, and the headquarters of the 2nd Army was rebuffed when it contacted the Germans in an attempt to negotiate a separate ceasefire. On 14–15 April, tens of thousands of Yugoslav soldiers were captured, including many from the 2nd Army. The Germans closed on Sarajevo, capturing it on 15 April, and accepted the unconditional surrender of Yugoslavia on 17 April, which came into effect at 12:00 the following day. ## Background The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was created with the merger of Serbia, Montenegro and the South Slav-inhabited areas of Austria-Hungary on 1 December 1918, in the immediate aftermath of World War I. The Army of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was established to defend the new state. It was formed around the nucleus of the victorious Royal Serbian Army, as well as armed formations raised in regions formerly controlled by Austria-Hungary. Many former Austro-Hungarian officers and soldiers became members of the new army. From the beginning, much like other aspects of public life in the new kingdom, the army was dominated by ethnic Serbs, who saw it as a means by which to secure Serb political hegemony. The army's development was hampered by the kingdom's poor economy, and this continued during the 1920s. In 1929, King Alexander changed the name of the country to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, at which time the army was renamed the Royal Yugoslav Army (Serbo-Croatian Latin: Vojska Kraljevine Jugoslavije, VKJ). The army budget remained tight, and as tensions rose across Europe during the 1930s, it became difficult to secure weapons and munitions from other countries. Consequently, at the time World War II broke out in September 1939, the VKJ had several serious weaknesses, which included reliance on draught animals for transport, and the large size of its formations. Infantry divisions had a wartime strength of 26,000–27,000 men, as compared to contemporary British infantry divisions of half that strength. These characteristics resulted in slow, unwieldy formations, and the inadequate supply of arms and munitions meant that even the very large Yugoslav formations had low firepower. Generals better suited to the trench warfare of World War I were combined with an army that was neither equipped nor trained to resist the fast-moving combined arms approach used by the Germans in their invasions of Poland and France. The weaknesses of the VKJ in strategy, structure, equipment, mobility and supply were exacerbated by serious ethnic disunity within Yugoslavia, resulting from two decades of Serb hegemony and the attendant lack of political legitimacy achieved by the central government. Attempts to address the disunity came too late to ensure that the VKJ was a cohesive force. Fifth column activity was also a serious concern, not only from the Croatian nationalist Ustaše but also from the country's Slovene and ethnic German minorities. ## Formation and composition ### Peacetime organisation Yugoslav war plans saw the 2nd Army organised and mobilised on a geographic basis from the peacetime 2nd Army District, headquartered in Sarajevo, which was divided into three divisional districts, each of which was subdivided into regimental regions. Slavonski Brod and Tuzla were key centres for the mobilisation and concentration of the 2nd Army due to their good rail infrastructure. Prior to the invasion, some fortifications had been constructed along the Hungarian border within what became the 2nd Army's area of operations. In the Baranya region, an anti-tank ditch, barbed wire entanglements, and medium and small bunkers had been constructed, with the main defensive line running from the Drava River through Beli Manastir to Batina on the Danube River. These defences had only been partially constructed by the time of the invasion, with the intention to complete them once troops had been mobilised. ### Wartime organisation The 2nd Army was commanded by Armijski đeneral Dragoslav Miljković, his chief of staff was Brigadni đeneral Bogdan Maglić, and Maglić's deputy was Pukovnik Draža Mihailović. The 2nd Army consisted of: - 10th Infantry Division Bosanska (10th ID) - 17th Infantry Division Vrbaska (17th ID) - 30th Infantry Division Osiječka (30th ID) - 76th Cavalry Regiment (horse) Army-level support was provided by the 76th Artillery Regiment, the 2nd Anti-Aircraft Battalion, and the 2nd Army Anti-Aircraft Company. The 3rd Air Reconnaissance Group comprising sixteen Breguet 19s was attached from the Royal Yugoslav Army Air Force and was based at Staro Topolje just east of Slavonski Brod. ## Deployment plan The 2nd Army was part of the 2nd Army Group, which was responsible for the eastern section of the Yugoslav–Hungarian border, with the 2nd Army in the Slavonia and Baranya regions between Slatina and the Danube, and the 1st Army in the Bačka region between the Danube and the Tisza. On the left flank of the 2nd Army was the 4th Army of the 1st Army Group, which was responsible for the defence of the Yugoslav–Hungarian border west of Slatina. The boundary with the 4th Army ran from just east of Slatina through Požega towards Banja Luka. The boundary with the 1st Army on the right flank of the 2nd Army was the Danube. The Yugoslav defence plan saw the 2nd Army deployed from the boundary with the 4th Army to the Danube, with two divisions along the line of the Drava and one division in reserve. The headquarters of the 2nd Army was to initially be located in Đakovo. The planned deployment of the 2nd Army from west to east was: - 17th ID around Našice - 30th ID in the Baranya region behind the border fortifications - 10th ID in reserve on the right flank behind the Vuka river, centred on Vinkovci Army-level and rear area troops were to be deployed near Đakovo. The 10th Border Guard Regiment was to man fortifications in the Baranya region, and the 1st Battalion of the 393rd Reserve Regiment was to man defences along the Drava in front of the 17th ID. The 33rd Infantry Division Lička (33rd ID), which was under the direct command of the Supreme Command of the VKJ, was deployed further south behind the Sava river, centred on Doboj. ## Mobilisation After unrelenting pressure from Adolf Hitler, Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact on 25 March 1941. On 27 March, a military coup d'état overthrew the government that had signed the pact, and a new government was formed under the VVKJ commander, Armijski đeneral Dušan Simović. A general mobilisation was not called by the new government until 3 April, out of fear of offending Hitler and thus precipitating war. On the same day as the coup, Hitler issued Führer Directive 25 which called for Yugoslavia to be treated as a hostile state, and on 3 April, Führer Directive 26 was issued, detailing the plan of attack and command structure for the invasion, which was to commence on 6 April. The Yugoslav historian Velimir Terzić describes the mobilisation of the 2nd Army as a whole on 6 April as "only partial", and states the headquarters of the 2nd Army was mobilising at Kiseljak near Sarajevo, and did not reach Đakovo until 7 April. Of the army-level support units, the 76th Artillery Regiment was mobilising far to the south in Mostar, and was unable to move to its concentration area near Đakovo due to a lack of draught animals. ### 17th Infantry Division Vrbaska The 17th Infantry Division Vrbaska was still largely located at mobilisation centres in Bosnia, with only the operations branch of the divisional headquarters located in its concentration area in Slavonia. The balance of the division was located as follows:

- the rest of the divisional headquarters was located in Banja Luka - the 33rd Infantry Regiment, with about 70 percent of its troops, was located at Banja Luka - the 89th Infantry Regiment was located in Sisak - the 90th Infantry Regiment, with about 90 percent of its troops, was located in Banja Luka - the 17th Divisional Infantry Regiment, less its 2nd Battalion, was located in Banja Luka, with its 2nd Battalion located in Caprag - the 17th Divisional Cavalry Battalion was mobilising in Banja Luka, but had less than five percent of its horses and riding equipment - the 17th Artillery Regiment, less its 1st and 4th Battalions, was located in Petrinja, the 1st Battalion was in Otočac (and about to join Detachment Lika of the 7th Army), and the 4th Battalion was in Banja Luka Other divisional units were also mobilising in the Banja Luka area. The 89th Infantry Regiment was ordered to march west to join the 40th Infantry Division Slavonska (40th ID), which was part of the 1st Army Group's 4th Army. The 43rd Infantry Regiment, originally allocated to the 40th ID and with about 75–80 percent of its troops, was marching from its mobilisation centre in Požega towards Našice, but on 6 April had only reached Jakšić, 9 km (5.6 mi) northeast of Požega. Border troops in the planned 17th ID deployment area consisted of the 1st Battalion of the 393rd Reserve Regiment. ### 30th Infantry Division Osiječka The 30th Infantry Division Osiječka was mainly located in its concentration areas in the Baranya region. The divisional headquarters and other divisional support troops were located in Osijek, and the rest of the division was located as follows: - the 17th Infantry Regiment had marched from Vinkovci and was arriving in Valpovo - the 41st Infantry Regiment was in the Beli Manastir area, except for its 1st Battalion, which was already in its planned position - the 64th Infantry Regiment was in the Osijek area and was moving forward to its planned position - the 30th Divisional Infantry Regiment was in Čepin, about 10 km (6.2 mi) southwest of Osijek - the 30th Divisional Cavalry Battalion was Zmajevac, about 15 km (9.3 mi) east of Beli Manastir - the 30th Artillery Regiment, less its 1st Battalion, was moving from Osijek towards Kozarac, the 1st Battalion was moving with the 17th Infantry Regiment The units of the division had generally completed mobilisation, with about 80–90 percent of men having reported for duty, but only about 40 percent of animals taken on strength. Border troops in the planned 30th ID deployment area consisted of the 10th Border Guard Regiment. ### 10th Infantry Division Bosanska The 10th Infantry Division Bosanska had largely completed mobilisation in Bosnia. The divisional headquarters and other divisional support troops were located in Sarajevo, and the rest of the division was located as follows: - the 10th Infantry Regiment was in Sarajevo - the 27th Infantry Regiment was in Travnik - the 60th Infantry Regiment was Derventa, preparing to march towards Vinkovci - the 10th Divisional Infantry Regiment, less its 2nd Battalion, was located near Sarajevo, its 2nd Battalion was located in Travnik - the 316th Reserve Army Regiment, with 90 percent of its troops, was located near Sarajevo - the 10th Artillery Regiment, with 85 percent of its troops and 75 percent of its animals, was near Ilidža close to Sarajevo - the 10th Divisional Cavalry Battalion was located in Ilidža The 60th Infantry Regiment only had one-third of its strength in weapons, animals and equipment, it was given the task of supplying ammunition to the rest of the Army. Some other units lacked weapons and other items of equipment, despite there being stocks held in warehouses. Those providing the animals and fodder provided only the poorest material to the 2nd Army. The division was to move to its concentration area around Vinkovci as the reserve force for the 2nd Army. ### Overall condition of the 2nd Army The 2nd Army, with the exception of the 30th ID, was still mobilising in Bosnia on 6 April. About 80 to 90 percent of troops had reported for mobilisation, and units had 60 percent of the animals they needed to be at full strength. The 30th ID had completed its mobilisation and concentration according to the war plans, and was ready for action. ## Operations By the end of 6 April, the 30th ID held positions in Baranya on the line Batina—Beli Manastir—Drava, with its strongest flank on the left, closest to the Drava. As the 17th ID had not yet arrived in its planned deployment locations, the 1st Battalion of the 43rd Infantry Regiment was initially the only unit in the divisional area, supported by the 1st Battalion of the 30th Artillery Regiment. The 2nd Army faced the Hungarian 3rd Army, and on 7 April Hungarian forces could be seen massing across the border. During the first few days after the commencement of the invasion, there were exchanges of fire with Hungarian border guards, but the 2nd Army faced no direct attacks. Neither the 2nd Army nor the Hungarians were ready for full-scale fighting, as they were still mobilising and deploying their forces. On 7 April, 2nd Army headquarters arrived in Đakovo and issued orders to its subordinate formations. On the left, the 43rd Infantry Regiment and border units remained the only fighting formations yet deployed along the Drava. In Baranya, the 30th ID was deployed with the 41st Infantry Regiment on the left, the 10th Infantry Regiment on the right, and the 64th Infantry Regiment in reserve, with supporting artillery distributed among the infantry formations. The 30th Divisional Cavalry Battalion was located in Kneževi Vinogradi, 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) southeast of Beli Manastir. On 9 April, due to events in other parts of Yugoslavia, the 6th Army on the right flank of the 2nd Army Group was ordered to withdraw south of the Danube and deploy on a line facing east to defend against an attack from the direction of Sofia, Bulgaria. The headquarters of the 2nd Army issued orders to evacuate Baranja and reinforce the left flank. The following day, the situation deteriorated significantly when General der Panzertruppe Georg-Hans Reinhardt's XXXXI Motorised Corps of the German 12th Army crossed the Yugoslav–Romanian border into the Yugoslav Banat and struck the 6th Army, halting its withdrawal and disrupting its ability to organise a coherent defence behind the Danube. Also on 10 April, the main thrust of General der Panzertruppe Heinrich von Vietinghoff's XXXXVI Motorised Corps of the 2nd Army, consisting of the 8th Panzer Division leading the 16th Motorised Infantry Division crossed the Drava at Barcs in the 4th Army sector on the left of the 2nd Army. Generalmajor Walter Neumann-Silkow's 8th Panzer Division turned southeast between the Drava and Sava rivers, and meeting almost no resistance and with strong air support, had reached the left flank of the 2nd Army at Slatina by evening, despite poor roads and bad weather. Later that day, as the situation was becoming increasingly desperate throughout the country, Simović, who was both the Prime Minister and Yugoslav Chief of the General Staff, broadcast the following message: > All troops must engage the enemy wherever encountered and with every means at their disposal. Don't wait for direct orders from above, but act on your own and be guided by your judgement, initiative, and conscience. The 2nd Army was able to evacuate Baranja and organised a defence of the left flank of the 2nd Army Group, now threatened by the 8th Panzer Division, but Croat reservists began to desert their units due to the fifth column activities of the fascist Ustaše and their sympathisers. This significantly reducing the combat power of the 2nd Army. By the evening of 10 April, the 2nd Army Group was ordered to withdraw from this line and form a defensive line behind the Sava, from Debrc to the confluence with the Vrbas river, for which one or two days would be needed. On the night of 10/11 April, the whole 2nd Army Group continued its withdrawal, but units of the 2nd Army that included significant numbers of Croats began to dissolve. At dawn on 11 April, Hungarian forces, consisting of the Mobile, IV and V Corps of Vezérezredes Elemér Gorondy-Novák's 3rd Army, crossed the Yugoslav border north of Osijek and near Subotica, overcame Yugoslav border guards and advanced on Subotica and Palić. The XXXXVI Motorised Corps continued to push east south of the Drava, with the 8th Panzer Division capturing Našice, Osijek on the Drava, and Vukovar on the Danube, followed by Generalmajor Sigfrid Henrici's 16th Motorised Infantry Division which advanced east of Našice, despite bridge demolitions and poor roads. The 8th Panzer Division had effectively routed the 2nd Army Group by 11 April. On the same day, the 3rd Air Reconnaissance Group Breguet 19s were flown from Staro Topolje to Bijeljina. The following day, Messerschmitt Bf 110s of I Group of the 26th Heavy Fighter Wing (German: Zerstörergeschwader 26, ZG 26) destroyed the 3rd Air Reconnaissance Group aircraft when they swept over the airfield in one of the most effective attacks of the campaign. On the night of 11/12 April, the 8th Panzer Division captured Sremska Mitrovica on the Sava at 02:30, after two important bridges over the Sava were captured intact. The 8th Panzer Division then destroyed a bridge over the Danube at Bogojevo, and advanced on Lazarevac about 32 kilometres (20 mi) south of Belgrade. These advances delayed the withdrawal of the 2nd Army Group south of the Sava. ## Fate By 12 April, the withdrawal of the 2nd Army Group was being threatened from the left flank, with 2nd Army being described by the Polish historian Andrzej Krzak as having "no combat importance at all". On the far right flank, 6th Army attempted to regroup while being pressed by the 11th Panzer Division as it drove towards Belgrade. West of Belgrade, remnants of the 2nd Army Group tried to establish a line along the Sava, but XXXXVI Motorised Corps had already captured the bridges. Elements of the 8th Panzer Division captured Zemun without a fight. On 12 April, the 1st Army's 3rd Cavalry Division counter-attacked on the right flank of the 2nd Army at Šabac and pushed the Germans back across the Sava. The Ustaše had captured Slavonski Brod without German assistance, but 2nd Army units recaptured the town and destroyed the bridge over the Sava. The Hungarians occupied Baranja without facing resistance. On the evening of 12 April, elements of SS-Gruppenführer und Generalleutnant der Waffen-SS Paul Hausser's SS Motorised Infantry Division Reich, under command of XXXXI Motorised Corps crossed the Danube in pneumatic boats and captured Belgrade without resistance. About the same time, most of the elements of XXXXVI Motorised Corps that were approaching Belgrade from the west were redirected away from the capital, but part of the 8th Panzer Division continued their thrust to capture the Sava bridges to the west of Belgrade, and entered the city during the night. The rest of the 8th Panzer Division turned southeast and drove towards Valjevo to link up with the left flank of the First Panzer Group southwest of Belgrade. The 16th Motorised Infantry Division was redirected south across the Sava, and advanced toward Zvornik. On 13 and 14 April, the 8th Panzer Division led a southward thrust towards Sarajevo, where both the Yugoslav Supreme Command and the headquarters of the 2nd Army were located, and during that day the 2nd Army asked the Germans for a separate ceasefire agreement, but were rebuffed, as by this stage only the unconditional surrender of the whole Yugoslav Army would be considered by the Germans. On 14 and 15 April, tens of thousands of Yugoslav soldiers were taken prisoner by the Germans during their drive on Sarajevo in the centre of the country, including 30,000 around Zvornik and 6,000 around Doboj. On 15 April, the 8th Panzer Division approached Sarajevo from the east as the 14th Panzer Division entered it from the west, and the 2nd Army surrendered. After a delay in locating appropriate signatories for the surrender document, the Yugoslav Supreme Command unconditionally surrendered in Belgrade effective at 12:00 on 18 April.

Atal Bihari Vajpayee

10th Prime Minister of India in 1996 and from 1998–2004

Atal Bihari Vajpayee (; 25 December 1924 – 16 August 2018) was an Indian politician and poet who served three terms as the 10th Prime Minister of India, first for a term of 13 days in 1996, then for a period of 13 months from 1998 to 1999, followed by a full term from 1999 to 2004. Vajpayee was one of the co-founders and a senior leader of the BJP. He was a member of the RSS, a Hindu nationalist volunteer organisation. He was the first Indian prime minister not of the INC to serve a full term in office. He was also a renowned poet and a writer. He was a member of the Indian Parliament for over five decades, having been elected ten times to the Lok Sabha, the lower house, and twice to the Rajya Sabha, the upper house. He served as the MP (LS) for Lucknow, retiring from active politics in 2009 due to health concerns. He was among the founding members of the BJS, of which he was president from 1968 to 1972. The BJS merged with several other parties to form the JP, which won the 1977 general election. In March 1977, Vajpayee became the Minister of External Affairs in the cabinet of Prime Minister Morarji Desai. He resigned in 1979, and the Janata alliance collapsed soon after. Former members of the BJS formed the BJP in 1980, with Vajpayee its first president. During his tenure as prime minister, India carried out the Pokhran-II nuclear tests in 1998. Vajpayee sought to improve diplomatic relations with Pakistan, travelling to Lahore by bus to meet with Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif. After the 1999 Kargil War with Pakistan, he sought to restore relations through engagement with President Pervez Musharraf, inviting him to India for a summit at Agra. Vajpayee's government introduced many domestic economic and infrastructural reforms, including encouraging the private sector and foreign investments, reducing governmental waste, encouraging research and development and privatisation of some government owned corporations. During his reign, India's security was threatened by a number of violent incidents including 2001 Indian Parliament attack and 2002 Gujarat riots which ultimately caused his defeat in 2004 general election. The administration of Narendra Modi declared in 2014 that Vajpayee's birthday, 25 December, would be marked as Good Governance Day. In 2015, he was conferred India's highest civilian honour, the Bharat Ratna, by the president of India, Pranab Mukherjee. He died in 2018 of age-related illness. ## Early life and education Vajpayee was born into a Hindu Brahmin family on 25 December 1924 in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh. His mother was Krishna Devi and his father was Krishna Bihari Vajpayee. His father was a school teacher in their home town. His grandfather, Shyam Lal Vajpayee, had migrated to Morena near Gwalior from his ancestral village of Bateshwar in the Agra district of Uttar Pradesh. Vajpayee did his schooling at the Saraswati Shishu Mandir in Gwalior. In 1934, he was admitted to the Anglo-Vernacular Middle (AVM) School in Barnagar, Ujjain district, after his father joined as headmaster. He subsequently attended Gwalior's Victoria College, Agra University (now Maharani Laxmi Bai Govt. College of Excellence) where he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in Hindi, English and Sanskrit. He completed his post-graduation with a Master of Arts in political science from DAV College, Kanpur, Agra University. ## Early works as activist His activism started in Gwalior with Arya Kumar Sabha, the youth wing of the Arya Samaj movement, of which he became the general secretary in 1944. He also joined the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) in 1939 as a swayamsevak, or volunteer. Influenced by Babasaheb Apte, he attended the Officers Training Camp of the RSS during 1940 to 1944, becoming a pracharak (RSS terminology for a full-time worker) in 1947. He gave up studying law due to the partition riots. He was sent to Uttar Pradesh as a vistarak (a probationary pracharak) and soon began working for the newspapers of Deendayal Upadhyaya: Rashtradharma (a Hindi monthly), Panchjanya (a Hindi weekly), and the dailies Swadesh and Veer Arjun. By 1942, at the age of 16 years, Vajpayee became an active member of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS). Although the RSS had chosen not to participate in the Quit India Movement, in August 1942, Vajpayee and his elder brother Prem were arrested for 24 days during the Quit India Movement. He was released after giving a written statement that while he was a part of the crowd, he did not participate in the militant events in Bateshwar on 27 August 1942. Throughout his life, including after he became prime minister, Vajpayee has labelled the allegation of participation in the Quit India Movement to be a false rumour. ## Early political career (1947–1975) In 1951, Vajpayee was seconded by the RSS, along with Deendayal Upadhyaya, to work for the newly formed Bharatiya Jana Sangh, a Hindu right-wing political party associated with the RSS. He was appointed as a national secretary of the party in charge of the Northern region, based in Delhi. He soon became a follower and aide of party leader Syama Prasad Mukherjee. In the 1957 Indian general election, Vajpayee contested elections to the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Indian Parliament. He lost to Raja Mahendra Pratap in Mathura, but was elected from Balrampur. In the Lok Sabha his oratorial skills so impressed Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru that he predicted that Vajpayee would someday become the prime minister of India. Vajpayee's oratorial skills won him the reputation of being the most eloquent defender of the Jana Sangh's policies. After the death of Deendayal Upadhyaya, the leadership of the Jana Sangh passed to Vajpayee. He became the national president of the Jana Sangh in 1968, running the party along with Nanaji Deshmukh, Balraj Madhok, and L. K. Advani. ## Janata Party and the BJP (1975–1995) Vajpayee was arrested along with several other opposition leaders during the Internal Emergency imposed by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in 1975. Initially interned in Bangalore, Vajpayee appealed his imprisonment on the grounds of bad health, and was moved to a hospital in Delhi. In December 1976, Vajpayee ordered the student activists of the ABVP to tender an unconditional apology to Indira Gandhi for perpetrating violence and disorder. The ABVP student leaders refused to obey his order. Gandhi ended the state of emergency in 1977. A coalition of parties, including the BJS, came together to form the Janata Party, which won the 1977 general elections. Morarji Desai, the chosen leader of the alliance, became the prime minister. Vajpayee served as the minister of external affairs, or foreign minister, in Desai's cabinet. As foreign minister, Vajpayee became the first person in 1977 to deliver a speech to the United Nations General Assembly in Hindi. In 1979, Desai and Vajpayee resigned, triggering the collapse of the Janata Party. The erstwhile members of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh came together to form the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in 1980, with Vajpayee as its first President. Leading up to Operation Bluestar, there were several protests by Sangh Parivar, including a march led by LK Advani and Vajpayee of the Bhartiya Janta Party to protest against the lack of government action and to demand that the Indian Army be sent into the Golden Temple. The 1984 general elections were held in the wake of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's assassination by her Sikh bodyguards. While he had won the 1977 and the 1980 elections from New Delhi, Vajpayee shifted to his home town Gwalior for the election. Vidya Razdan was initially tipped to be the Congress (I) candidate. Instead, Madhavrao Scindia, scion of the Gwalior royal family, was brought in on the last day of filing nominations. Vajpayee lost to Scindia, managing to secure only 29% of the votes. Under Vajpayee, the BJP moderated the Hindu-nationalist position of the Jana Sangh, emphasising its connection to the Janata Party and expressing support for Gandhian Socialism. The ideological shift did not bring it success: Indira Gandhi's assassination generated sympathy for the Congress, leading to a massive victory at the polls. The BJP won only two seats in parliament. Vajpayee offered to quit as party president following BJP's dismal performance in the election, but stayed in the post until 1986. He was elected to the Rajya Sabha in 1986 from Madhya Pradesh, and was briefly the leader of the BJP in Parliament. In 1986, L. K. Advani took office as president of the BJP. Under him, the BJP returned to a policy of hardline Hindu nationalism. It became the political voice of the Ram Janmabhoomi Mandir Movement, which sought to build a temple dedicated to the Hindu deity Rama in Ayodhya. The temple would be built at a site believed to be the birthplace of Rama after demolishing a 16th-century mosque, called the Babri Masjid, which then stood there. The strategy paid off for the BJP; it won 86 seats in the Lok Sabha in the 1989 general election, making its support crucial to the government of V. P. Singh. In December 1992, a group of religious volunteers led by members of the BJP, the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP), tore down the mosque. He served as Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha, for various terms starting at Balrampur from 1957–1962. He served again from Balrampur from 1967–1971, then from Gwalior from 1971–1977, and then from New Delhi from 1977–1984. Finally, he served from Lucknow from 1991–2009. ## Terms as prime minister (1996, 1998- 99 and 1999–2004) ### First term: May 1996 During a BJP conference in Mumbai in November 1995, BJP President Advani declared that Vajpayee would be the party's prime ministerial candidate in the forthcoming elections. Vajpayee himself was reported to be unhappy with the announcement, responding by saying that the party needed to win the election first. The BJP became the single largest party in Parliament in the 1996 general election, helped by religious polarisation across the country as a result of the demolition of the Babri Masjid. Indian president Shankar Dayal Sharma invited Vajpayee to form the government. Vajpayee was sworn in as the 10th prime minister of India, but the BJP failed to muster a majority among members of the Lok Sabha. Vajpayee resigned after 16 days, when it became clear that he did not have enough support to form a government. In this short period, he also created and administered the Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution. ### Second term: 1998–1999 After the fall of the two United Front governments between 1996 and 1998, the Lok Sabha was dissolved and fresh elections were held. The 1998 general elections again put the BJP ahead of others. A number of political parties joined the BJP to form the National Democratic Alliance (NDA), and Vajpayee was sworn in as the prime minister. The coalition was an uneasy one, as apart from the Shiv Sena, none of the other parties espoused the BJP's Hindu-nationalist ideology. Vajpayee has been credited for managing this coalition successfully, while facing ideological pressure from the hardline wing of the party and from the RSS. Vajpayee's government lasted 13 months until mid-1999 when the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) under J. Jayalalithaa withdrew its support. The government lost the ensuing vote of confidence motion in the Lok Sabha by a single vote on 17 April 1999. As the opposition was unable to come up with the numbers to form the new government, the Lok Sabha was again dissolved and fresh elections were held. #### Nuclear tests In May 1998, India conducted five underground nuclear tests in the Pokhran desert in Rajasthan, 24 years after its first nuclear test (Smiling Buddha) in 1974. Two weeks later, Pakistan responded with its own nuclear tests making it the newest nation with declared nuclear capability. While some nations, such as France, endorsed India's right to defensive nuclear power, others including the United States, Canada, Japan, Britain and the European Union imposed sanctions on information, resources and technology to India. In spite of intense international criticism and steady decline in foreign investment and trade, the nuclear tests were popular domestically. In effect, the international sanctions imposed failed to sway India from weaponising its nuclear capability. US sanctions against India and Pakistan were eventually lifted after just six months. #### Lahore summit In late 1998 and early 1999, Vajpayee began a push for a full-scale diplomatic peace process with Pakistan. With the historic inauguration of the Delhi-Lahore bus service in February 1999, Vajpayee initiated a new peace process aimed towards permanently resolving the Kashmir dispute and other conflicts with Pakistan. The resultant Lahore Declaration espoused a commitment to dialogue, expanded trade relations and mutual friendship and envisaged a goal of denuclearised South Asia. This eased the tension created by the 1998 nuclear tests, not only within the two nations but also in South Asia and the rest of the world. #### AIADMK's withdrawal from coalition The AIADMK had continually threatened to withdraw from the coalition and national leaders repeatedly flew down from Delhi to Chennai to pacify the AIADMK general secretary J. Jayalalithaa. However, in May 1999, the AIADMK did pull the plug on the NDA, and the Vajpayee administration was reduced to a caretaker status pending fresh elections scheduled for October 1999. #### Kargil War In May 1999 some Kashmiri shepherds discovered the presence of militants and non-uniformed Pakistani soldiers (many with official identifications and Pakistan Army's custom weaponry) in the Kashmir Valley, where they had taken control of border hilltops and unmanned border posts. The incursion was centred around the town of Kargil, but also included the Batalik and Akhnoor sectors and artillery exchanges at the Siachen Glacier. The Indian army responded with Operation Vijay, which launched on 26 May 1999. This saw the Indian military fighting thousands of militants and soldiers in the midst of heavy artillery shelling and while facing extremely cold weather, snow and treacherous terrain at the high altitude. Over 500 Indian soldiers were killed in the three-month-long Kargil War, and it is estimated around 600–4,000 Pakistani militants and soldiers died as well. India pushed back the Pakistani militants and Northern Light Infantry soldiers. Almost 70% of the territory was recaptured by India. Vajpayee sent a "secret letter" to U.S. President Bill Clinton that if Pakistani infiltrators did not withdraw from the Indian territory, "we will get them out, one way or the other" - meaning he did not rule out crossing the Line of Control (LoC), or was the use of nuclear weapons. After Pakistan suffered heavy losses, and with both the United States and China refusing to condone the incursion or threaten India to stop its military operations, General Pervez Musharraf was recalcitrant and Nawaz Sharif asked the remaining militants to stop and withdraw to positions along the LoC. The militants were not willing to accept orders from Sharif but the NLI soldiers withdrew. The militants were killed by the Indian army or forced to withdraw in skirmishes which continued even after the announcement of withdrawal by Pakistan. ### Third term: 1999–2004 #### 1999–2002 The 1999 general elections were held in the aftermath of the Kargil operations. The BJP-led NDA won 303 seats out of the 543 seats in the Lok Sabha, securing a comfortable and stable majority. On 13 October 1999, Vajpayee took oath as the prime minister of India for the third time. A national crisis emerged in December 1999, when Indian Airlines flight IC 814 from Kathmandu to New Delhi was hijacked by five terrorists and flown to Taliban-ruled Afghanistan. The hijackers made several demands including the release of certain terrorists like Masood Azhar from prison. Under pressure, the government ultimately caved in. Jaswant Singh, the minister of external affairs at the time, flew with the terrorists to Afghanistan and exchanged them for the passengers. In March 2000, Bill Clinton, the President of the United States, paid a state visit to India. This was the first state visit to India by a U.S. president in 22 years, since President Jimmy Carter's visit in 1978. President Clinton's visit was hailed as a significant milestone in relations between the two nations. Vajpayee and Clinton had wide-ranging discussions on bilateral, regional and international developments. The visit led to expansion in trade and economic ties between India and the United States. A vision document on the future course of Indo-U.S. relations was signed during the visit. Domestically, the BJP-led government was influenced by the RSS, but owing to its dependence on coalition support, it was impossible for the BJP to push items like building the Ram Janmabhoomi temple in Ayodhya, repealing Article 370 which gave a special status to the state of Kashmir, or enacting a uniform civil code applicable to adherents of all religions. On 17 January 2000, there were reports of the RSS and some BJP hard-liners threatening to restart the Jan Sangh, the precursor to the BJP, because of their discontent over Vajpayee's rule. Former president of the Jan Sangh Balraj Madhok had written a letter to the then-RSS chief Rajendra Singh for support. The BJP was, however, accused of "saffronising" the official state education curriculum and apparatus, saffron being the colour of the RSS flag of the RSS, and a symbol of the Hindu nationalism movement. Home Minister L. K. Advani and the Human Resource Development Minister (now called Education Minister) Murli Manohar Joshi were indicted in the 1992 Babri Mosque demolition case for inciting a mob of activists. Vajpayee himself came under public scrutiny owing to his controversial speech one day prior to the mosque demolition. These years were accompanied by infighting in the administration and confusion regarding the direction of government. Vajpayee's weakening health was also a subject of public interest, and he underwent a major knee-replacement surgery at the Breach Candy Hospital in Mumbai to relieve intense pressure upon his legs.

In March 2001, the Tehelka group released a sting operation video named Operation West End which showed BJP president Bangaru Laxman, senior army officers and NDA members accepting bribes from journalists posing as agents and businessmen. The Defence Minister George Fernandes was forced to resign following the Barak Missile scandal involving the botched supplies of coffins for the soldiers killed in Kargil, and the findings of an inquiry commission that the government could have prevented the Kargil invasion. Vajpayee initiated talks with Pakistan, and invited Pakistani president Pervez Musharraf to Agra for a joint summit. President Musharraf was believed to be the principal architect of the Kargil War in India. By accepting him as the President of Pakistan, Vajpayee chose to move forward leaving behind the Kargil War. But after three days of much fanfare, which included Musharraf visiting his birthplace in Delhi, the summit failed to achieve a breakthrough as President Musharraf declined to leave aside the issue of Kashmir. #### 2001 attack on Parliament On 13 December 2001, a group of masked, armed men with fake IDs stormed Parliament House in Delhi. The terrorists managed to kill several security guards, but the building was sealed off swiftly and security forces cornered and killed the men who were later proven to be Pakistan nationals. Vajpayee ordered Indian troops to mobilise for war, leading to an estimated 500,000 to 750,000 Indian soldiers positioned along the international border between India and Pakistan. Pakistan responded by mobilising its own troops along the border. A terrorist attack on an army garrison in Kashmir in May 2002 further escalated the situation. As the threat of war between two nuclear capable countries and the consequent possibility of a nuclear exchange loomed large, international diplomatic mediation focused on defusing the situation. In October 2002, both India and Pakistan announced that they would withdraw their troops from the border. The Vajpayee administration brought in the Prevention of Terrorism Act in 2002. The act was aimed at curbing terrorist threats by strengthening powers of government authorities to investigate and act against suspects. It was passed in a joint session of the parliament, amidst concerns that the law would be misused. Another political disaster hit his government between December 2001 and March 2002: the VHP held the Government hostage in a major standoff in Ayodhya over the Ram temple. On the 10th anniversary of the destruction of the Babri mosque, the VHP wanted to perform a shila daan, or a ceremony laying the foundation stone of the cherished temple at the disputed site. Thousands of VHP activists amassed and threatened to overrun the site and forcibly perform the ceremony. A grave threat of not only communal violence, but an outright breakdown of law and order owing to the defiance of the government by a religious organisation hung over the nation. The incident, however, ended peacefully with a symbolic handover of a stone at a different location 1 km away from the disputed site. #### 2002 Gujarat violence In February 2002, a train filled with Hindu pilgrims returning to Gujarat from Ayodhya stopped in the town of Godhra. A scuffle broke out between Hindu activists and Muslim residents, and the train was set on fire, leading to the deaths of 59 people. The charred bodies of the victims were displayed in public in the city of Ahmedabad, and the Vishwa Hindu Parishad called for a statewide strike in Gujarat. These decisions stoked anti-Muslim sentiments. Blaming Muslims for the deaths, rampaging Hindu mobs killed thousands of Muslim men and women, destroying Muslim homes and places of worship. The violence raged for more than two months, and more than 1,000 people died. Gujarat was being ruled by a BJP government, with Narendra Modi as the chief minister. The state government was criticised for mishandling the situation. It was accused of doing little to stop the violence, and even being complicit in encouraging it. Vajpayee reportedly wanted to remove Modi, but was eventually prevailed upon by party members to not act against him. He travelled to Gujarat, visiting Godhra, and Ahmedabad, the site of the most violent riots. He announced financial aid for victims, and urged an end to the violence. While he condemned the violence, he did not chastise Modi directly in public. When asked as to what would be his message to the chief minister in the event of the riots having taking place, Vajpayee responded that Modi must follow raj dharma, Hindi for ethical governance. At the meeting of the BJP national executive in Goa in April 2002, Vajpayee's speech generated controversy for its contents which included him saying: "Wherever Muslims live, they don't like to live in co-existence with others." The Prime Minister's Office stated that these remarks had been taken out of context. Vajpayee was accused of doing nothing to stop the violence, and later admitted mistakes in handling the events. K. R. Narayanan, then president of India, also blamed Vajpayee's government for failing to quell the violence. After the BJP's defeat in the 2004 general elections, Vajpayee admitted that not removing Modi had been a mistake. #### 2002–2004 In late 2002 and 2003 the government pushed through economic reforms. The country's GDP growth exceeded 7% every year from 2003 to 2007, following three years of sub-5% growth. Increasing foreign investment, modernisation of public and industrial infrastructure, the creation of jobs, a rising high-tech and IT industry and urban modernisation and expansion improved the nation's international image. Good crop harvests and strong industrial expansion also helped the economy. In May 2003, he announced before the parliament that he would make one last effort to achieve peace with Pakistan. The announcement ended a period of 16 months, following the 2001 attack on the Indian parliament, during which India had severed diplomatic ties with Pakistan. Although diplomatic relations did not pick up immediately, visits were exchanged by high-level officials and the military standoff ended. The Pakistani President and Pakistani politicians, civil and religious leaders hailed this initiative as did the leaders of the United States, Europe and much of the world. In July 2003, Prime Minister Vajpayee visited China, and met with various Chinese leaders. He recognised Tibet as a part of China, which was welcomed by the Chinese leadership, and which, in the following year, recognised Sikkim as part of India. China–India relations improved greatly in the following years. #### Policies Vajpayee's government introduced many domestic economic and infrastructural reforms, including encouraging the private sector and foreign investments, reducing governmental waste, encouraging research and development and privatisation of some government owned corporations. Among Vajpayee's projects were the National Highways Development Project and Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana. In 2001, the Vajpayee government launched the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan campaign, aimed at improving the quality of education in primary and secondary schools. ## 2004 general election In 2003, news reports suggested a tussle within the BJP with regard to sharing of leadership between Vajpayee and Deputy Prime Minister LK Advani. BJP president Venkaiah Naidu had suggested that Advani must lead the party politically at the 2004 general elections, referring to Vajpayee as vikas purush, Hindi for development man, and Advani as loh purush, iron man. When Vajpayee subsequently threatened retirement, Naidu backtracked, announcing that the party would contest the elections under the twin leadership of Vajpayee and Advani. The NDA was widely expected to retain power after the 2004 general election. It announced elections six months ahead of schedule, hoping to capitalise on economic growth, and Vajpayee's peace initiative with Pakistan. The 13th Lok Sabha was dissolved before the completion of its term. The BJP hoped to capitalise on a perceived 'feel-good factor' and BJP's recent successes in the Assembly elections in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. Under the "India Shining" campaign, it released ads proclaiming the economic growth of the nation under the government. However, the BJP could only win 138 seats in the 543-seat parliament, with several prominent cabinet ministers being defeated. The NDA coalition won 185 seats. The Indian National Congress, led by Sonia Gandhi, emerged as the single largest party, winning 145 seats in the election. The Congress and its allies, comprising many smaller parties, formed the United Progressive Alliance, accounting for 220 seats in the parliament. Vajpayee resigned as prime minister. The UPA, with the outside support of communist parties, formed the next government with Manmohan Singh as the prime minister. ## Post-premiership In December 2005, Vajpayee announced his retirement from active politics, declaring that he would not contest in the next general election. In a famous statement at the BJP's silver jubilee rally at Mumbai's Shivaji Park, Vajpayee announced that "Henceforth, Lal Krishna Advani and Pramod Mahajan will be the Ram-Lakshman [the two godly brothers much revered and worshipped by Hindus] of the BJP." Vajpayee was referred to as the Bhishma Pitamah of Indian politics by former prime minister Manmohan Singh during a speech in the Rajya Sabha, a reference to the character in the Hindu epic Mahabharata who was held in respect by two warring sides. Vajpayee was hospitalised at All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Delhi (AIIMS) for a chest infection and fever on 6 February 2009. He was put on ventilator support as his condition worsened but he eventually recuperated and was later discharged. Unable to participate in the campaign for the 2009 general election due to his poor health, he wrote a letter urging voters to back the BJP. His protege Lalji Tandon was able to retain the Lucknow seat in that election even though the NDA suffered electoral reverses all over the country. It was speculated that Vajpayee's non-partisan appeal contributed to Lalji's success in Lucknow in contrast to that BJP's poor performance elsewhere in Uttar Pradesh. ## Positions held ## Personal life Vajpayee remained a bachelor for his entire life. He adopted and raised Namita Bhattacharya as his own child, the daughter of longtime friend Rajkumari Kaul and her husband B. N. Kaul. His adopted family lived with him. Unlike purist Brahmins who shun meat and alcohol, Vajpayee was known to be fond of whisky and meat. He was a noted poet, writing in Hindi. His published works include Kaidi Kaviraj Ki Kundalian, a collection of poems written during the 1975–1977 emergency, and Amar aag hai. With regard to his poetry he wrote, "My poetry is a declaration of war, not an exordium to defeat. It is not the defeated soldier's drumbeat of despair, but the fighting warrior's will to win. It is not the despirited voice of dejection but the stirring shout of victory." ## Death Vajpayee had a stroke in 2009 which impaired his speech. His health had been a major source of concern; reports said he was reliant on a wheelchair and failed to recognise people. He also had dementia and long-term diabetes. For many years, he had not attended any public engagements and rarely ventured out of the house, except for checkups at the All India Institutes of Medical Sciences. On 11 June 2018, Vajpayee was admitted to AIIMS in critical condition following a kidney infection. He was officially declared dead there at 5:05 pm IST on 16 August 2018 at the age of 93. Some sources claim that he had died on the previous day. On the morning of 17 August, Vajpayee's body, draped with the Indian flag, was taken to the Bharatiya Janata Party headquarters where party workers paid their tributes until 1 pm. Later that afternoon at 4 pm, Vajpayee was cremated with full state honours at Rashtriya Smriti Sthal near Raj Ghat, and his pyre was lit by his foster daughter Namita Kaul Bhattacharya. Thousands of people and many dignitaries attended his funeral procession, including Prime Minister Narendra Modi and President Ram Nath Kovind. On 19 August, his ashes were immersed in Ganga river at Haridwar by Kaul. ### Reactions and tributes India reacted to Vajpayee's death with grief and thousands of tributes poured in through social media platforms. Thousands of people paid their respects during his funeral procession. A seven-day state mourning was announced by the central government throughout India. The national flag flew half-mast during this period. - Afghanistan: Former Afghan President Hamid Karzai was among several foreign dignitaries present at former prime minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee's funeral in New Delhi. He recalled that the departed leader was "the first to offer us civilian planes, Airbuses at the time we were starting out". - Bangladesh: Bangladesh Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina expressed "deep shock" at the demise of former Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee and said it is a day of great sadness for the people of Bangladesh. Paying tribute to Vajpayee, Hasina termed him as "one of the most famous sons of India" and a highly respected person in Bangladesh. - Bhutan: Bhutan king Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck attended the funeral ceremony in New Delhi. - China: In a statement, the ministry of foreign affairs said the Indian leader was an "outstanding Indian statesman and had made outstanding contributions to the development of Sino-Indian relations"."China expresses its deep condolences on his death and sincere condolences to the Indian government and people and the relatives of Mr Vajpayee. Premier Li Keqiang has sent a condolence message to the leaders of India," the statement said. - Israel: Prime Minister of Israel Benjamin Netanyahu conveyed his condolences calling Vajpayee "a true friend of Israel". Foreign Ministry of Israel also extended its condolences on the passing of Vajpayee and in a statement described him as "a genuine friend of Israel". - Japan: Remembering Vajpayee's visit to Japan in 2001, the Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe said, "On behalf of the Government and people of Japan, I would like to convey my sincerest condolences to the Government and people of India and the bereaved family. His Excellency Vajpayee visited Japan in 2001 as the then-Prime Minister and made significant contributions to the friendship between our two countries as a good friend of Japan. It is him who established the cornerstone of Japan-India relations today". Terming Vajpayee as an eminent leader of India, Abe added, "I pray from the bottom of my heart that his soul may rest in peace". - Mauritius: On 17 August, the government of Mauritius announced that both Mauritian and Indian flags would fly at half mast in the honour of Vajpayee. During the World Hindi Conference in Mauritius, PM Pravind Jugnauth announced that the cyber tower towards which Vajpayee contributed to be set up in Mauritius would be henceforth named as Atal Bihari Vajpayee tower. - Pakistan: Pakistan's interim Minister for Law and Information Syed Ali Zafar met External Affairs Minister Sushma Swaraj and extended Pakistan's condolence on the death of former prime minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee. Zafar was among the foreign dignitaries who attended Vajpayee's funeral in New Delhi. Former Pakistani president Pervez Musharraf mourned the demise of former prime minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, calling him a great man. He said that Vajpayee's demise was a great loss for both India as well as Pakistan. - Russia: Russian President Vladimir Putin sent a message of condolences to President Ram Nath Kovind and Prime Minister Narendra Modi on the demise of Vajpayee. Putin termed the former prime minister as "outstanding statesman". "Atal Bihari Vajpayee rightly commanded great respect around the world. He will be remembered as a politician who made a major personal contribution to the friendly relations and privileged strategic partnership between our countries. The President of Russia conveyed words of sincere sympathy and support to the family of the deceased, the Government and the people of India", the message read. - Sri Lanka: Various Sri Lankan leaders paid rich tribute to the three-time PM, hailing him as a "friend of Sri Lanka". In a tweet President Maithripala Sirisena said: "Today, we have lost a great humanist and a true friend of Sri Lanka. Former Prime Minister of India Atal Bihari Vajpayee was a visionary leader and an ardent defender of democracy. My condolences to his family and millions of his admirers around the world". Leader of Opposition R. Sampanthan said that India has lost one of its "most regarded intellectual[s] and [statesmen]". "He served the great country of India with humility and honesty, and he was much loved and respected by millions of people across the world. Former three-time Prime Minister Vajpayee is also an exceptional orator and a leader with a great sense of humour, his speeches within the Indian parliament and outside will always be remembered", he said in a statement, extending his condolences on behalf of the Tamil people of Sri Lanka. - United States: U.S. Secretary of State Michael Pompeo said Vajpayee recognised early on that the US-India partnership would contribute to the world's economic prosperity and security and the two democracies would continue to benefit from his vision. "On behalf of the people of the United States of America, I extend my heartfelt condolences to the people of India on the recent passing of former prime minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee", Pompeo said in a statement yesterday. He recalled Vajpayee's address to the Congress in 2000, when he had famously characterised US-India ties as a "natural partnership of shared endeavours". "Today, our two countries and our bilateral relationship continue to benefit from Prime Minister Vajpayee vision, which helped promote expanded cooperation", Pompeo said. He said the American people stand with the people of India "as we mourn Prime Minister Vajpayee's passing". ## Honours, awards and international recognition ### Awards - 1993, D. Lit. from Kanpur University - 1994, Lokmanya Tilak Award - 1994, Outstanding Parliamentarian Award - 1994, Bharat Ratna Pandit Govind Ballabh Pant Award ### State honours ### Other achievements - In 2012, Vajpayee was ranked number 9 in Outlook magazine's poll of The Greatest Indian. - In August 2018, Naya Raipur was renamed as Atal Nagar. - In October 2018, four Himalayan peaks near Gangotri glacier named after his name. ## Legacy The administration of Narendra Modi declared in 2014 that Vajpayee's birthday, 25 December, would be marked as Good Governance Day. The world's longest tunnel, Atal Tunnel at Rohtang, Himachal Pradesh, on the Leh-Manali Highway was named after Atal Bihari Vajpayee. The third longest cable-stayed bridge in India over the Mandovi River, Atal Setu was named in his memory. The Government of Chhattisgarh changed the name of Naya Raipur to Atal Nagar. ## In popular culture The Films Division of India has produced the short documentary films Pride of India Atal Bihari Vajpayee (1998) and Know Your Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee (2003), both directed by Girish Vaidya, which explore different facets of his personality. Vajpayee also appears in a cameo in the 1977 Indian Hindi-language film Chala Murari Hero Banne by Asrani. In 2019, Shiva Sharma and Zeeshan Ahmad, owners of Amaash Films, acquired the official rights of the book The Untold Vajpayee written by Ullekh N P, to make a biopic based on Vajpayee's life from his childhood, college life and finally turning into a politician. Aap Ki Adalat, an Indian talk show which airs on India TV, featured an interview with Vajpayee just before the 1999 elections. Pradhanmantri (lit. 'Prime Minister'), a 2013 Indian documentary television series which aired on ABP News and covers the various policies and political tenures of Indian PMs, includes the tenureship of Vajpayee in the episodes "Atal Bihari Vajpayee's 13 days government and India during 1996–98", "Pokhran-II and Kargil War", and "2002 Gujarat Riots and Fall of Vajpayee Government". ## See also - List of prime ministers of India - List of Indian writers

1980 National League West tie-breaker game

1980 Major League Baseball tie-breaker game

The 1980 National League West tie-breaker game was a one-game extension to Major League Baseball's (MLB) 1980 regular season, played between the Houston Astros and Los Angeles Dodgers to decide the winner of the National League's (NL) West Division. The game was played on October 6, 1980, at Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles, California. It was necessary after the Dodgers overcame a three-game deficit in the final three games of the season and both teams finished with identical win–loss records of 92–70. The Dodgers won a coin flip late in the season which, by rule at the time, awarded them home field for the game. The Astros won the game, 7–1, with Houston starter Joe Niekro throwing a complete game. This victory advanced the Astros to the 1980 NL Championship Series (NLCS), in which they lost to the Philadelphia Phillies, ending the Astros' season. In baseball statistics, the tie-breaker counted as the 163rd regular season game for both teams, with all events in the game added to regular season statistics. ## Background The Cincinnati Reds won the West division the previous season with the Astros finishing 1.5 games back in second, and the Dodgers 11.5 back in third. However, the Reds went on to lose the 1979 NLCS in three games to the Pittsburgh Pirates, ending their season. The Astros acquired Joe Morgan and Nolan Ryan via free agency during the offseason and the Dodgers signed Dave Goltz. Dave Kindred of The Washington Post, George Vecsey of The New York Times, and Astros' relief pitcher Joe Sambito all credited Morgan's leadership with the Astros' success in 1980. The Reds maintained early success in 1980 with an eight-game winning streak to open the season and held at least a share of first place in the division until April 30. They were not as successful over the remainder of the season, only occasionally taking the division lead and last holding it on August 16. The Astros held the lead for the majority of the season thereafter, including a three-game lead over Los Angeles entering the final series of the season. The series matched the Astros with the Dodgers for three games at Dodger Stadium. The Dodgers won all three games, all by a single run, stopping the Astros from clinching a division championship as the two teams sat tied at 92–70. Kindred described the Astros as losing each game of the series by "fail[ing] to make elementary fielding plays." The final game included a run-scoring pinch hit single by Manny Mota, who had been almost exclusively a coach and not a player that season, and a home run by Ron Cey which also scored Steve Garvey, who had reached base in the previous at bat on an error. The Dodgers needed each of these runs as they won the game 4–3. ## Game summary The Astros took their lead early, scoring in the top of the first inning. Terry Puhl led off the game reaching base on an error by the second baseman. Enos Cabell followed Puhl with a single and, while Joe Morgan batted, stole second base to put runners at second and third. Morgan struck out and José Cruz appeared to hit into a fielder's choice but a catching error by the catcher allowed Puhl to score, Cabell to advance to third base, and Cruz to reach safely all with no out recorded. Cabell then scored on a César Cedeño ground out to make the game 2–0. Art Howe singled to advance Cruz to third, but Dodgers' starting pitcher Dave Goltz escaped the inning without further scoring. The Astros' Joe Niekro retired the Dodgers in order in the first and second innings. The Astros added to their lead in the top of the third as Cedeño singled, stole second (after Cruz had been caught stealing earlier in the inning), and scored on Art Howe's home run to make the game 4–0. Niekro allowed two successive singles to lead off the bottom of the inning, but proceeded to retire three straight Dodgers without allowing either runner to score. The Astros further added to their lead in the fourth, as Puhl singled on a bunt to third base and then stole second and third base while Cabell batted. Both he and Morgan walked to load the bases with one out. Puhl scored on a Cruz sacrifice fly, Cedeño walked to re-load the bases, and finally a Howe single gave the Astros another two runs to make the game 7–0.

The Dodgers scored their only run in the bottom of the fourth as Dusty Baker singled, advanced to second on an error, and scored on another single. They threatened again in the sixth inning, loading the bases, though they failed to score. That was the only inning after the fourth in which a Dodgers' runner reached scoring position. Niekro steadied again after the sixth, allowing just one baserunner on a two-out ninth-inning single over the remaining three innings before Dave Bergman fielded the final out on a groundball near first base to clinch the first division title in Astros history. ## Aftermath Houston's win clinched the team's first postseason berth in franchise history. The Astros lost the five-game NLCS to the Phillies 3–2, ending their season. Due to the 1981 Major League Baseball strike, the following season was split into halves and the winner of each half advanced to the postseason. The Dodgers won the first half and the Astros the second and so met in the first National League Division Series. The Dodgers won the series 3–2 after Houston held a 2–0 series lead heading to Los Angeles (reminiscent to Los Angeles needing all three games at home during this season to force this tiebreaker), and went on to win the 1981 World Series. The Astros did not return to the NLCS until 1986 and did not win a NL pennant until 2005, leading to a loss in the 2005 World Series. In baseball statistics, tie-breakers counted as regular season games, with all events in them added to regular season statistics. Niekro, for example, reached his 20th win to break a tie with Jim Bibby for the second most wins in the NL that season. Similarly, Steve Garvey played in his 163rd game of the season, leading the league with a figure which could not have been equaled by anyone not on the Astros or Dodgers. Dusty Baker won a Silver Slugger Award and Steve Howe, who pitched the final two scoreless innings of the tie-breaker for the Dodgers in relief, won the Rookie of the Year Award for their performances in the regular season. Additionally six Dodgers (Garvey, Davey Lopes, Bill Russell, Reggie Smith, Jerry Reuss, and Bob Welch) and two Astros (J. R. Richard and Cruz) were named to the National League's All-Star team. In later years, after his retirement in 1996, Lasorda stated he regretted using a 19-year old Fernando Valenzuela out of the bullpen during the October 5 game vs. the Astros, thinking he could have saved Fernando to start in a potential tie-breaker game instead. This decision caused the team to start Dave Goltz in the tie-breaker game. Goltz recorded double-digit wins for six straight seasons in Minnesota, but his first season in Dodger Blue was a disappointment. He entered the most important game of the season with a 7–10 record. Nevertheless, Valenzuela still pitched in the tie-breaker game and threw two scoreless innings, though at that point, the score was 7–1. A year later, Valenzuela would have a breakout season, helping lead the Dodgers to a World Championship. Due to tiebreaker games being abolished in 2022, this would end up being the only time that two teams had played each other in a tiebreaker game and a regularly-scheduled series at the same stadium back to back.

Don Geiss, America and Hope

"Don Geiss, America, and Hope" is the fifteenth episode of the fourth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock, and the 73rd overall episode of the series. It was directed by Stephen Lee Davis, and written by Jack Burditt and Tracey Wigfield. The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 18, 2010. Guest stars in "Don Geiss, America and Hope" include John Anderson, Scott Bryce, Marceline Hugot, James Rebhorn, and Michael Sheen. In the episode, Liz Lemon (Tina Fey) attempts to avoid running into Wesley Snipes (Sheen) after they fail to hit it off in their first encounter, but fate seems to want them together. At the same time, Jack Donaghy (Alec Baldwin) deals with the impending purchase of NBC. Finally, Tracy Jordan (Tracy Morgan) does damage control after his former nanny publishes a tell-all book. The episode continued a story arc involving Wesley as a love interest for Liz, which began in the previous episode. "Don Geiss, America and Hope" makes reference to the real-life acquisition of NBC Universal by cable company Comcast, as well as that of professional golfer Tiger Woods' extramarital affairs scandal. This episode of 30 Rock has received generally positive reviews from television critics. According to the Nielsen Media Research, it was watched by 6.857 million households during its original broadcast, and received a 3.0 rating/9 share among viewers in the 18–49 demographic. For his performance in "Don Geiss, America and Hope", Alec Baldwin received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in the category for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series. ## Plot Jack Donaghy (Alec Baldwin), outgoing Vice President of East Coast Television and Microwave Oven Programming for General Electric (GE), researches company Kabletown (which recently purchased the NBC network as a charitable, tax-deductible act), to find a way he can contribute in the corporation's development. NBC page Kenneth Parcell (Jack McBrayer) lets it slip that he may have been living forever, when he shows concern that Kabletown may impose new rules for "age limits and age verification" for pages. A former colleague, Dave Hess (Scott Bryce), who left NBC for Kabletown, reveals that Kabletown's success comes from running pay-per-view adult channels; the company runs "the perfect business" and needs no investment in new services or products. On learning this, Jack is horrified at the prospect of no longer making things. Later, however, while giving a eulogy at former GE CEO Don Geiss's (Rip Torn) funeral, he has an epiphany and proposes to Kabletown executives that they produce "porn for women" (specifically, channels featuring attractive men who "listen" while women blather on). Liz Lemon (Tina Fey) tries to avoid meeting with Wesley (Michael Sheen), the British man she met and flirted with while under the influence of anesthesia. Liz finds him to be annoying, but they continually run into each other, which leads them to believe they are meant to be together. However, after visiting the dentist office where they met, Liz and Wesley come to terms with the fact that the anesthesia was the cause of whatever they experienced, and agree to stop seeing each other. But when they run into each other yet again, Wesley suggests that they should probably just "settle" for one another. Liz is horrified at this prospect and consults Jack for advice, but he is still disconsolate at the prospect of "settling" for a company without upward momentum, and cannot help her. Later, Liz meets Wesley to tell him her answer is no, and she believes both of them can do better than being with each other; she is further dismayed to learn he shares his name with actor Wesley Snipes. Meanwhile, Tracy Jordan's (Tracy Morgan) nanny publishes a tell-all book, revealing that he has never actually had an affair with anyone, a secret he had shared only with Jack in "The Ones". In order to restore his womanizing persona, Tracy holds a press conference announcing he is leaving show business to spend more time with a stripper, but no one is convinced. To make matters worse, women begin to come forward and admit that they did not have sex with Tracy. His wife Angie even advises him to have an affair in order to save his career, a suggestion which Jenna Maroney (Jane Krakowski) urges him to take seriously. Tracy attempts to proposition Liz, but is unable to pretend he wants to cheat on his wife. Liz rebuffs Tracy's advances, admitting she envies his happy marriage and urging him to embrace his monogamy. At the end of the episode, Liz is seen watching and being intrigued by some of the "porn for women" content, which somehow features her fantasy boyfriend Astronaut Mike Dexter. ## Production "Don Geiss, America and Hope" was directed by series first assistant director Stephen Lee Davis, and written by Jack Burditt and Tracey Wigfield. This was Burditt's first written episode for the season, as he had moved to Los Angeles, California, to become a staff writer on the CBS comedy show The New Adventures of Old Christine. Overall, this was Burditt's twelfth writing credit. This was Wigfield's third writing credit, and was Davis's first directed episode. "Don Geiss, America and Hope" originally aired in the United States on March 18, 2010, on NBC as the fifteenth episode of the show's fourth season and the 73rd overall episode of the series. This episode of 30 Rock was filmed on January 25 and January 27, 2010.

In January 2010, it was announced that Welsh actor Michael Sheen would guest star as a love interest for series creator Tina Fey's character, Liz Lemon. He made his debut as Wesley in the previous episode, "Future Husband". Actor Scott Bryce guest starred as Dave Hess, a former colleague of Jack Donaghy's. Bryce first appeared in the season three episode "Flu Shot" as a different character named Michael Templeton. Actress Marceline Hugot made her ninth appearance as Kathy Geiss, the daughter of GE CEO Don Geiss. In the episode, Kathy performs Ellens dritter Gesang by Schubert with a trumpet at her father's funeral. Dr. Kaplan was played by actor James Rebhorn, who first guest starred as the character in "Future Husband". At the end of "Don Geiss, America and Hope", where Liz is shown watching one of the "porn for women" channels, the man depicted as speaking to her was portrayed by actor John Anderson, who has guest starred previously on the show as Astronaut Mike Dexter. At the end of the credits, Anderson is credited as Astronaut Mike Dexter. Jack learns from former GE CEO Jack Welch, in the last episode, that current GE CEO Don Geiss (Rip Torn) has died. In "Don Geiss, America and Hope", a funeral service is held for Geiss. Television critic Bob Sassone of TV Squad, in his recap of this episode, wondered if Torn was written out of the series due to an alcohol-related incident that occurred with Torn in January 2010. This episode was inspired by the real-life acquisition of NBC Universal by cable company Comcast in November 2009. After winning her fourth Screen Actors Guild Award as her 30 Rock character at the 16th Screen Actors Guild Awards ceremony in January 2010, Fey was asked whether or not the show would make reference to the Comcast acquisition to which she said that it would be dealt with. "The sale of NBC to another company is integral to our show and it will be hard for Jack." In the episode, Kabletown—a fictional Philadelphia company network—has taken over GE Sheinhardt NBC Universal, and Jack tries to contribute his ideas to the company. In April 2010, the NBC network created a website for the Kabletown company. When asked by a contributor from The Philadelphia Inquirer why the characters on 30 Rock refer to the network's new owner as "Kabletown, with a K", co-showrunner and executive producer Robert Carlock revealed that the reason for this was that the staff writers came up with the name "Cabletown", however, they later learned that there was a real company with a similar name, so NBC's legal team department "wanted to emphasize the difference, and after a while, everyone just liked the sound of it." Tracy Jordan's storyline in which his former nanny writes a tell-all book revealing that he has never actually had an affair with anyone mirrored—though in reversal—the real life of professional golfer Tiger Woods' extramarital affairs scandal that occurred in late 2009. In one scene, it is revealed that women have come forward admitting to never have had a sexual relationship with Tracy; After news broke of Woods's infidelities, numerous women came forward admitting to having affairs with the golfer. To re-establish his womanizing persona, Tracy holds a press conference announcing he is leaving show business to spend more time with a stripper; In December 2009, Woods announced he would take an indefinite leave from professional golf to focus on his marriage after he admitted infidelity. Other women, who Tracy did not have a relationship with, have released voice mails to the news media. In one of them, Tracy leaves a message to his wife, Angie (Sherri Shepherd), in which he is loving and sincere in the message; One of Woods's mistresses produced voice and text messages as evidence of a relationship with the golfer. As a result of him being outed as monogamous, Tracy loses various endorsements; After admitting to his affairs, Woods lost various endorsement deals with different companies. ## Cultural references In the beginning of the episode, Jack announces at a staff meeting that NBC has been bought by Kabletown, a company network from Philadelphia. Immediately, Jack and Liz exchange opinions about Philadelphia and Boston; Liz, who grew up near Philadelphia, declares "Go Eagles! Philly rules! Cheesesteaks! Bobby Clarke! Will Smith! [Boston] sucks!". Jack, who is from Boston, responds "Boston is the greatest city in the world. Boston Tea Party. Boston cream pie. Boston Rob Mariano. Birthplace of Benjamin Franklin." Liz interjects "Yeah, then [Franklin] looked around, realized it sucked, and moved to Philadelphia!" Jack and the New York staff then deride the city of Los Angeles, provoking an NBC executive teleconferencing in from Los Angeles to assert that "LA rules: Michael Bay, freeways, Legoland—" before Jack shuts off his feed. While meeting with Kabletown executives, Jack learns that they focus on adult films and sees their list of features, including Assatar, The Lovely Boners, The Hind Side, and Fresh-Ass: Based on the Novel Tush by Assfire, puns on the 2009 films Avatar, The Lovely Bones, The Blind Side, and Precious: Based on the Novel "Push" by Sapphire. Jenna claims to Tracy that she "ate the pig that played Babe", in a reference to the 1995 film Babe based on the British novel The Sheep-Pig. At Don Geiss's funeral, the trumpet solo that his daughter Kathy Geiss (Marceline Hugot) performs is Ellens dritter Gesang by Franz Schubert, a melody best known as a setting for the Latin Catholic prayer Ave Maria. When Liz tells Tracy that he has a life with his family and should enjoy it after Tracy tries to have sex with her in order to restore his womanizing reputation, she tells him "You know what I have? A Sims family that keeps getting murdered." The Sims is a video game in which players create virtual people called "Sims" and places them in houses and helps direct their moods and satisfy their desires. Tracy responds "One day, you will have what I have because you are an amazing, strong, intelligent woman, like Hilary ... from Fresh Prince of Bel-Air." The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air was a series that previously aired on NBC, and the Hilary character was a dull-witted individual who lacked intelligence. Before going their separate ways, Liz discovers that Wesley's last name is Snipes, but Wesley tells her that it is a name more fitting for a "pale English guy", than actor Wesley Snipes. Liz and Wesley also attend a second run of the movie Hot Tub Time Machine, which provokes arguments between them despite their mutual enjoyment of the film. Star Wars is frequently referenced in 30 Rock, beginning with the pilot episode in 2006 where Tracy is seen shouting that he is a Jedi. Liz admits to being a huge fan of Star Wars, saying that she had watched it many times with Pete Hornberger (Scott Adsit), and dressed up as the Star Wars character Princess Leia during four recent Halloweens, and while trying to get out of jury duty in Chicago and New York. Star Wars is also referenced when Tracy takes on the identity of the character Chewbacca. In this episode, at Don Geiss's funeral, he is shown to be frozen in carbonite similar to that of Star Wars character Han Solo in the 1980 film The Empire Strikes Back. Fey, a fan of Star Wars herself, said that the weekly Star Wars joke or reference "started happening organically" when the crew realized that they had a Star Wars reference "in almost every show". Fey said that from then on "it became a thing where [they] tried to keep it going", and that even though they could not include one in every episode, they still had a "pretty high batting average". Fey attributed most of the references to executive producer and writer Robert Carlock, whom she described as "the resident expert". ## Reception According to the Nielsen Media Research, "Don Geiss, America and Hope" was watched by 6.857 million viewers during its original United States broadcast. The rating was a 3 percent increase in viewership from the previous week's episode, "Future Husband", which was seen by 5.894 million American viewers. The show claimed a 3.0 rating/9 share among viewers aged 18 to 49, meaning that 3.0 percent of all people in that group, and 9 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time, watched the episode. For his work in this episode, Alec Baldwin received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in the category for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards, but lost it to actor Jim Parsons. Television columnist Alan Sepinwall of The Star-Ledger wrote that despite "Don Geiss, America and Hope" not being "strong" as the last episode it had "many funny moments scattered throughout" that he was satisfied with. He noted that the uncomfortable relationship between Liz and Wesley "worked better" here than previously. Sepinwall said it "was a good story" for Jack's character, and that it was "nice" to see 30 Rock "fearless about mocking their future Comcast overlords as they are at making fun of NBC". The A.V. Club's Nathan Rabin enjoyed Michael Sheen's return, said that every part of Liz and Wesley's story was "brilliant". He observed that Jack's midlife crisis here was "poignant as well as funny." Overall, Rabin gave it a B+ rating, and concluded "...it was a rock-solid episode". Despite enjoying Sheen's role on the show, Time contributor James Poniewozik confessed he had a problem with his story arc with Tina Fey's Liz. "I assume that [Sheen] is not going to become a permanent cast member, and so however much I might enjoy parts of this story, I can never forget that this is probably one more relationship that Liz will go through and end up at status quo ante." Bob Sassone of AOL's TV Squad was complimentary towards the NBC/Kabletown deal, enjoyed Tracy's subplot, noting it gave the character "something important to do ... it also shined some new light on the Tracy Morgan character." Adam Mersel for TV Guide reasoned "I can officially say that almost no episode of 30 Rock falls flat for me, and this one certainly didn't [...] All in all, this is one of my favorite episodes of the season." Paste magazine contributor Sean Gandert was favorable to it, noting "I'm not sure when the last time I thought every plot in a 30 Rock episode was a winner, but 'Don Geiss, Hope and America' delivered on the exuberant claims of the episode's title". Nick Catucci of New York magazine wrote that Jack trying to fit in at Kabletown, along with his suggestion of "porn for women", was "meh", Liz dealing with Wesley and Tracy "dealing with the world's discovery of his fidelity to his wife" were all "quite comfortably situated in the show's wheelhouse". Not all reviews were positive. IGN contributor Robert Canning felt that "Don Geiss, American and Hope" felt "a bit rudderless as well. The main stories eventually crossed over in meaningful ways, but aside from those connections, their direction was a bit weak and unsure. They all had a great bit or two ... but the general feel of the episode was mostly blah. That could likely be the result of the main characters coming off as mostly blah." In conclusion, Canning gave it a 7.5 out of 10 rating. Meredith Blake, a contributor for the Los Angeles Times, was not positive towards Fey and Sheen's story here, explaining that the premise of the two characters settling for one another "fell flat" and "it just wasn't as funny as it could have been."

The Hawking Excitation

"The Hawking Excitation" is the 21st episode of the fifth season of The Big Bang Theory that first aired on CBS on April 5, 2012. It is the 108th episode overall. After learning that Stephen Hawking is coming to lecture at Caltech, Howard (Simon Helberg) is hired to maintain his wheelchair equipment. When Sheldon (Jim Parsons) discovers this, he is desperate to meet Hawking. Howard says he can, but only if he completes a humiliating series of tasks. The final scene of the episode features a cameo appearance by cosmologist Stephen Hawking, the third high-profile guest star in season 5. The episode had 13.29 million viewers in America and garnered mixed reviews. ## Plot Raj (Kunal Nayyar) and Leonard (Johnny Galecki) are at lunch with Howard when he gets an e-mail from Stephen Hawking's office; Hawking is coming to lecture at Caltech and needs an engineer to help maintain his wheelchair. Sheldon is a big fan of Hawking, so Howard considers bringing Sheldon along to meet him. Sheldon then arrives and says that he has revolutionized understanding of the Higgs boson particle; he explains it to Raj and Leonard but ignores Howard, thinking he wouldn't understand. Howard, feeling insulted, refuses to introduce Sheldon to Hawking, even after Sheldon pleads. The next day, Howard talks about his work with Hawking to frustrate Sheldon. After Sheldon begs, Howard agrees to give Sheldon's paper on the Higgs boson to Hawking on the condition that Sheldon performs several tasks for him. The first task is to polish Howard's belt buckles. Howard tends to stand too close to the urinal and urine often splashes back onto the buckles. Sheldon is given a black light and several dozen belt buckles to clean. Sheldon performs the task flawlessly. For his second task, Sheldon is forced to wear a French maid costume, that Howard originally bought for his girlfriend Bernadette (Melissa Rauch), in the cafeteria at Caltech. Everyone laughs at him, enjoying his embarrassment. When Penny (Kaley Cuoco) goes to do her laundry, she finds Sheldon washing Howard's panties. Sheldon explains that he is being punished for being, according to Howard, a "condescending jerk", and asks Penny if she thinks he is condescending. Penny agrees with Howard. Howard shows Bernadette a picture of Sheldon wearing the French maid costume. She thinks Howard is being too cruel and says that Sheldon is unaware of how mean he is. Howard agrees to stop making Sheldon perform tasks. Howard's mother interrupts to remind Bernadette that they made plans to go dress shopping; Bernadette says that she cannot make it, but that Sheldon will accompany her instead. Sheldon is forced to go shopping with Mrs. Wolowitz. Sheldon's final task is to give Howard a compliment about his work: he says that Howard is good at his job, although Sheldon does not consider his work to be "worth doing". Howard reveals that he gave Hawking the paper three days ago. Sheldon finally gets to meet Hawking in person. When they meet, Hawking points out an arithmetic error in Sheldon's paper that makes the whole paper incorrect, causing Sheldon to faint. ## Production Stephen Hawking has been mentioned several times on the show, including in the Pilot. Hawking has appeared on comedy television shows previously: he did the voice-over for cartoon versions of himself in Futurama, and in four episodes of The Simpsons.

On March 9, 2012, Bill Prady announced that a "super-secret, super-cool guest star" would appear on the show. On March 12, 2012, CBS announced that Hawking would be guest starring on the show on April 5. Photos of Hawking's appearance were published by The Hollywood Reporter on April 2. Hawking had been asked to appear on the show previously but was too ill to do so. Bill Prady stated that Stephen Hawking was always their "dream guest star" for the show, but that Hawking appearing was "a long shot of astronomical proportions". Hawking was a fan of The Big Bang Theory and requested to watch a rehearsal of the episode after filming his scene. Simon Helberg, who plays Howard, does an impression of Hawking's voice in the episode; he felt slightly uncomfortable mimicking Hawking, but Hawking seemed to enjoy the impression. Hawking is the third high-profile guest star to appear in season 5, after Mike Massimino and Leonard Nimoy. Hawking later appeared in the season 6 episode "The Extract Obliteration", the season 7 episode "The Relationship Diremption" and the season 8 episode "The Troll Manifestation", but in these episodes only his voice is heard. Hawking was shown in a pre-recorded video segment at the Big Bang Theory panel at Comic-Con 2013. He apologized for not being there in person and sang the show's theme tune. Following "The Hawking Excitation", there was a three-week break before the next episode, "The Stag Convergence", aired. ## Reception ### Ratings On the night of its first broadcast on CBS on April 5, 2012, the episode was watched by 13.29 million U.S. households and received a Nielsen rating of 4.2/14 among viewers aged between 18 and 49 (meaning that 4.2% of 18–49 years olds watched the episode). It aired at 8 p.m. alongside American Idol on Fox, Missing on ABC, NBC's Community and a repeat episode of The Vampire Diaries on The CW. The episode was the third most watched program that night, and second most watched on CBS. In Canada, the episode received 3.18 million viewers, making it the most watched episode that week. In the UK, the episode aired on May 17, 2012 and 1.83 million households watched it on E4. It garnered 0.34 million viewers on E4 +1, so was watched by 2.17 million viewers overall. On E4, it was the most watched show that week while on E4 +1, it ranked third. In Australia, the episode aired on April 24, 2013 and had 1.87 million viewers. It was the second most watched show on television that night. ### Reviews Overall, the episode received mixed reviews. Carla Day from TV Fanatic gave the episode a very positive review, describing it as "Possibly, the best episode. Ever." and giving it the maximum possible editor rating (5.0). Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B−. Sava complimented Hawking's line, "it was quite a boner", calling it "the big pay-off of the story" and enjoyed the scene with Bernadette. However, Sava also said the "personal slave" storyline was a "classic sitcom plot" and noted that it was "the second episode in a row with no Amy". R. L. Shaffer of IGN rated it 7.5 out of 10 and wrote that the episode "played like filler" but was "a very good filler episode". Shaffer described the final scene with Hawking as "fun" and "effective", although claimed some of the subplots "were only so-so". Robin Pierson of The TV Critic rated the episode 36 out of 100, stating that "the craft has gone from the stories and jokes in favour of the most basic stories and punch lines." Pierson thought Helberg "did a nice job showing vulnerability" as Howard, but that the episode overall was "one utterly predictable, unimaginative joke after another." Simon Helberg complimented Stephen Hawking on his comedic timing via Twitter. The Huffington Post said that "none of [Hawking's guest appearances] felt quite as right as when he appeared as himself on "The Big Bang Theory"."

Casimir Pulaski

Polish nobleman and American Revolutionary War general (1745–1779)

Kazimierz Michał Władysław Wiktor Pułaski of the Ślepowron coat of arms (; Casimir Pulaski /ˈkæ.zɪ.ˌmɪər pəˈlæ.skiː/; March 4 or March 6, 1745 – October 11, 1779) was a Polish nobleman, soldier, and military commander who has been called the "father of the American cavalry." Born in Warsaw and following in his father's footsteps, he became interested in politics at an early age. He soon became involved in the military and in revolutionary affairs in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Pulaski was one of the leading military commanders for the Bar Confederation and fought against the Commonwealth's foreign domination. When this uprising failed, he was driven into exile. Following a recommendation by Benjamin Franklin, Pulaski traveled to North America to help in the American Revolutionary War. He distinguished himself throughout the revolution, most notably when he saved the life of George Washington. Pulaski became a general in the Continental Army, and he and his friend, Michael Kovats, created the Pulaski Cavalry Legion and reformed the American cavalry as a whole. At the Battle of Savannah, while leading a cavalry charge against British forces, he was fatally wounded by grapeshot and died shortly after. Pulaski is remembered as a hero who fought for independence and freedom in Poland and the United States. Numerous places and events are named in his honor, and he is commemorated by many works of art. Pulaski is one of only eight people to be awarded honorary United States citizenship. ## Personal life Pulaski was born on March 6, 1745, in the manor house of the Pułaski family in Warsaw, Poland. Casimir was the second eldest son of Marianna Zielińska and Józef Pułaski, who was an advocatus at the Crown Tribunal, the Starost of Warka, and one of the town's most notable inhabitants. He was a brother of Francis Xavier Pulaski [pl] and Antoni Pułaski [pl]. His family bore the Ślepowron coat of arms. The Pułaski family was Roman Catholic. Early in his youth, Casimir Pulaski attended an elite college run by Theatines, a male religious order of the Catholic Church in Warsaw, but did not finish his education. There is some circumstantial evidence that Pulaski was a Freemason. When Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette laid the cornerstone of the monument erected in Pulaski's honour in Monterey Square in Savannah in 1824, a full Masonic ceremony took place with Richard T. Turner, High Priest of the Georgia chapter, conducting the service. Other sources claim Pulaski was a member of the Masonic Army Lodge in Maryland. A Masonic Lodge in Chicago is named Casimir Pulaski Lodge, No.1167, and a brochure issued by the lodge claims he obtained the degree of Master Mason on June 19, 1779, and was buried with full Masonic honours. To date, no surviving documents of Pulaski's actual membership have been found. ## Military career In 1762, Pulaski started his military career as a page of Carl Christian Joseph of Saxony, Duke of Courland and the Polish king's vassal. He spent six months at the ducal court in Mitau, during which the court was interned in the palaces by the Russian forces occupying the area. He then returned to Warsaw, and his father gave him the village of Zezulińce in Podole; from that time, Pulaski used the title of Starost of Zezulińce. ### Bar Confederation He took part in the 1764 election of the new Polish monarch, Stanisław II Augustus, with his family. In December 1767, Pulaski and his father became involved with the Bar Confederation, which saw King Stanisław as a Russian puppet and sought to curtail Russian hegemony over the Commonwealth. The confederation was actively opposed by the Russian forces stationed in Poland. Pulaski recruited a unit and, on February 29, 1768, signed the act of the confederation, thus declaring himself an official supporter of the movement. On March 6, he received a pułkownik (colonel) rank and commanded a chorągiew of cavalry. In March and April, Pulaski agitated among the Polish military, successfully convincing some forces to join the Confederates. He fought his first battle on April 20 near Pohorełe. It was a victory, as was another on April 23 near Starokostiantyniv. An engagement at Kaczanówka on April 28 resulted in a defeat. In early May, he garrisoned Chmielnik but was forced to retreat when allied reinforcements were defeated. He retreated to a monastery in Berdyczów, which he defended during a siege by royalist forces for over two weeks until June 16. Eventually, he was forced to surrender and was taken captive by the Russians. On June 28, he was released in exchange for a pledge that he would not again take up arms with the Confederates, and that he would lobby the Confederates to end hostilities. However, Pulaski considered the assurance to be non-binding and made a public declaration to that effect upon reaching a camp of the Confederates at the end of July. Agreeing to the pledge in the first place weakened his authority and popularity among the Confederates, and his own father considered whether or not he should be Court-martialed. Some heated debates followed, and Pulaski was reinstated to active-duty only in early September. In 1769, Pulaski's unit was again besieged by numerically superior forces, this time in the old fortress of Okopy Świętej Trójcy, which had served as his base of operations since December the previous year. After a staunch defence, he was able to break the Russian siege. On April 7, he was made the regimentarz of the Kraków Voivodeship. In May and June he operated near Przemyśl, but failed to take the town. Criticized by some of his fellow Confederates, Pulaski departed to Lithuania with his allies and a force of about 600 men on June 3. There, Pulaski attempted to incite a larger revolt against Russia. Despite no decisive military successes, he was able to assemble a 4,000-strong army and deliver it back to a Confederate staging point. This excursion received international notice and gained him a reputation as the most effective military leader in the Bar Confederation. Next, he moved with his unit towards Zamość and — after nearly losing his life to the inferior forces of the future Generalissimo Alexander Suvorov in the disastrous Battle of Orekhowa — on the next day, September 15, he was again defeated at the Battle of Włodawa, with his forces almost completely dispelled. He spent the rest of the year rebuilding his unit in the region of Podkarpacie. In February 1770, Pulaski moved near Nowy Targ, and in March, helped to subdue the mutiny of Józef Bierzyński. Based in Izby, he operated in southern Lesser Poland. On May 13 his force was defeated at the Battle of Dęborzyn. Around June 9–10 in Prešov, in a conference with other Confederate leaders, he met Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, who complimented Pulaski on his actions. On July 3–4, Pulaski's camp was captured by Johann von Drewitz, and he was forced to retreat into Austria. Early in August he met with the French emissary, Charles François Dumouriez. He disregarded an order to take Lanckorona and instead cooperated with Michał Walewski in a raid on Kraków on the night of August 31. He then departed for Częstochowa. On September 10, along with Walewski, he used subterfuge to take control of the Jasna Góra monastery. On September 18 he met Franciszka z Krasińskich, an aristocrat from the Krasiński family and the wife of Charles of Saxony, Duke of Courland. He impressed her and she became one of his protectors. Around September 22–24 Walewski was made the commandant of Jasna Góra, which slighted Pulaski. Nonetheless he continued as the de facto commander of Confederate troops stationed in and around Jasna Góra. Between September 10, 1770, and January 14, 1771, Pulaski, Walewski and Józef Zaremba commanded the Polish forces during the siege of Jasna Góra monastery. They successfully defended against Drewitz in a series of engagements, the largest one on November 11, followed by a siege from December 31 to January 14. The defense of Jasna Góra further enhanced his reputation among the Confederates and abroad. A popular Confederate song taunting Drewitz included lyrics about Pulaski and Jasna Góra. Pulaski intended to pursue Drewitz, but a growing discord between him and Zaremba prevented this from becoming a real option. In February 1771, Pulaski operated around Lublin. On February 25 he was victorious at Tarłów and on the night of February 28 and March 1, his forces besieged Kraśnik. In March that year he became one of the members of the Confederates' War Council. Dumouriez, who became a military adviser to the Confederates, at the time described him as "spontaneous, more proud than ambitious, friend of the prince of Courland, enemy of the Potocki family, brave and honest" as well as popular among other commanders. This was due to his refusal to follow orders and adhere to discipline. Jędrzej Kitowicz who met him as well around that time described him as short and thin, pacing and speaking quickly, and uninterested in women or drinking. He enjoyed fighting against the Russians above everything else, and was daring to the extent he forgot about his safety in battles, resulting in his many failures on the battlefield. In May 1771, Pulaski advanced on Zamość, refusing to coordinate an operation with Dumouriez against Alexander Suvorov. Without Pulaski's support, the Confederates were defeated at the Battle of Lanckorona. Pulaski's forces were victorious at the Battle of Majdany, and briefly besieged Zamość, but it was relieved by Suvorov. He retreated, suffering major losses, towards Częstochowa. On July 27, pressured by Franciszka z Krasińskich, he declared he would from then on strictly adhere to orders from the Confederacy that he had previously habitually disregarded. In October his responsibilities in the War Council were increased, and the same month he became involved with the plan to kidnap King Poniatowski. Pulaski was initially opposed to this plan but later supported it on the condition that the king would not be harmed. The attempt failed, weakening the international reputation of the Confederates. When Pulaski's involvement with the attempted kidnapping became known, the Austrians expelled him from their territories. He spent the following winter and spring in Częstochowa, during which time several of his followers were defeated, captured or killed. On May 31, 1772, Pulaski, increasingly distanced from other leaders of the Confederation, left the Jasna Góra monastery and went to Silesia in Prussia. In the meantime, the Bar Confederation was defeated, with most fighting ending around the summer. Overall, Pulaski was seen as one of the most famous and accomplished Confederate leaders. At the same time, he often acted independently, disobeying orders from Confederate command, and among his detractors, which included Dumouriez, had a reputation of a "loose cannon". The First Partition of Poland occurred in 1772. Leaving Prussia, Pulaski sought refuge in France, where he unsuccessfully attempted to join the French Army. In 1773, his opponents in Poland accused him of attempted regicide, and proceedings began at the Sejm Court on June 7. The Partition Sejm had been convened by the victors to validate the First Partition. Poniatowski himself warned Pulaski to stay away from Poland, or risk death. The court verdict, declared in absentia in July, stripped Pulaski of "all dignity and honors", demanded that his possessions be confiscated, and sentenced him to death. He attempted to recreate a Confederate force in the Ottoman Empire during the Russo-Turkish War, but before he could make any progress, the Turks were defeated, and he barely escaped by sea to Marseille, France. He found himself in debt and unable to find an army that would enlist him. He spent the year of 1775 in France, imprisoned at times for debts, until his allies gathered enough funds to arrange for his release. Around that time, due to the efforts of his friend Claude-Carloman de Rulhière, he was recruited by the Marquis de Lafayette and Benjamin Franklin, who he met in spring 1777, for service in the American Revolutionary War. ### In the United States #### Northern front Franklin was impressed by Pulaski, and wrote of him: "Count Pulaski of Poland, an officer famous throughout Europe for his bravery and conduct in defence of the liberties of his country against the three great invading powers of Russia, Austria and Prussia ... may be highly useful to our service." He subsequently recommended that General George Washington accept Pulaski as a volunteer in the Continental Army cavalry and said that Pulaski "was renowned throughout Europe for the courage and bravery he displayed in defense of his country's freedom." Pulaski departed France from Nantes in June, and arrived in Marblehead, Massachusetts, near Boston, on July 23, 1777. After his arrival, Pulaski wrote to Washington, "I came here, where freedom is being defended, to serve it, and to live or die for it." On August 20, he met Washington in his headquarters in Neshaminy Falls, outside Philadelphia. He showed off riding stunts, and argued for the superiority of cavalry over infantry. Because Washington was unable to grant him an officer rank, Pulaski spent the next few months traveling between Washington and the United States Congress in Philadelphia, awaiting his appointment. His first military engagement against the British occurred before he received it, on September 11, 1777, at the Battle of Brandywine. When the Continental Army troops began to yield, he reconnoitered with Washington's bodyguard of about 30 men, and reported that the enemy were endeavoring to cut off the line of retreat. Washington ordered him to collect as many as possible of the scattered troops who came his way and employ them according to his discretion to secure the retreat of the army. His subsequent charge averted a disastrous defeat of the Continental Army cavalry, earning him fame in America and saving the life of George Washington. As a result, on September 15, 1777, on the orders of Congress, Washington commissioned Pulaski a brigadier general in the Continental Army cavalry. At that point, the cavalry was only a few hundred men strong organized into four regiments. These men were scattered among numerous infantry formations, and used primarily for scouting duties. Pulaski immediately began work on reforming the cavalry, and wrote the first regulations for the formation. On September 16, while on patrol west of Philadelphia, Pulaski spotted significant British forces moving toward the Continental position. Upon being informed by Pulaski, Washington prepared for a battle, but the encounter was interrupted by a major storm before either side was organized. On October 4, Pulaski took part in the Battle of Germantown. He spent the winter of 1777 to 1778 with most of the army at Valley Forge. Pulaski argued that the military operations should continue through the winter, but this idea was rejected by the general staff. In turn, he directed his efforts towards reorganizing the cavalry force, mostly stationed in Trenton.

While at Trenton his assistance was requested by General Anthony Wayne, whom Washington had dispatched on a foraging expedition into southern New Jersey. Wayne was in danger of encountering a much larger British force sent to oppose his movements. Pulaski and 50 cavalry rode south to Burlington, where they skirmished with British sentries on February 28. After this minor encounter the British commander, Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Stirling, was apparently convinced that he was facing a much larger force than expected, and prepared to withdraw his troops across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania at Cooper's Ferry (present-day Gloucester City). Pulaski and Wayne joined forces to attack Stirling's position on February 29 while he awaited suitable weather conditions to cross. In the resulting skirmish, which only involved a few hundred men out of the larger forces on either side, Pulaski's horse was shot out from under him and a few of his cavalry were wounded. American officers serving under Pulaski had difficulty taking orders from a foreigner who could scarcely speak English and whose ideas of discipline and tactics differed enormously from those to which they were accustomed. This resulted in friction between the Americans and Pulaski and his fellow Polish officers. There was also discontent in the unit over delays in pay, and Pulaski's imperious personality was a regular source of discontent among his peers, superiors, and subordinates. Pulaski was also unhappy that his suggestion to create a lancer unit was denied. Despite a commendation from Wayne, these circumstances prompted Pulaski to resign his general command in March 1778, and return to Valley Forge. Pulaski went to Yorktown, where he met with General Horatio Gates and suggested the creation of a new unit. At Gates' recommendation, Congress confirmed his previous appointment to the rank of a brigadier general, with a special title of "Commander of the Horse", and authorized the formation of a corps of 68 lancers and 200 light infantry. This corps, which became known as the Pulaski Cavalry Legion, was recruited mainly in Baltimore, where it was headquartered. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow would later commemorate in verse the consecration of the Legion's banner. By August 1778, it numbered about 330 men, both Americans and foreigners. British major general Charles Lee commented on the high standards of the Legion's training. The "father of the American cavalry" demanded much of his men and trained them in tested cavalry tactics. He used his own personal finances when money from Congress was scarce, in order to assure his forces of the finest equipment and personal safety. However, later that year a controversy arose related to the Legion's finances, and its requisitions from the local populace. His troubles with the auditors continued until his death. Pulaski complained that he received inadequate funds, was obstructed by locals and officials, and was forced to spend his own money. He was not cleared of these charges until after his death. In the autumn Pulaski was ordered to Little Egg Harbor on the coast of southeast New Jersey, where in the engagement on October 15, known as the Affair at Little Egg Harbor, the legion suffered heavy losses. During the following winter Pulaski was stationed at Minisink, at that time in northwestern New Jersey. Ordered to take part in the punitive Sullivan Expedition against the Iroquois, he was dissatisfied with this command, and intended to leave the service and return to Europe, but instead asked to be reassigned to the Southern front. On February 2, 1779, Washington instead ordered him to South Carolina. #### Southern front Pulaski arrived in Charleston on May 8, 1779, finding the city in crisis. General Benjamin Lincoln, commander of the southern army, had led most of the army toward Augusta, Georgia, in a bid to recapture Savannah, which had been captured by the British in late 1778. The British commander, Brigadier General Augustine Prevost, responded to Lincoln's move by launching a raiding expedition from Savannah across the Savannah River. The South Carolina militia fell back before the British advance, and Prevost's force followed them all the way to Charleston. Pulaski arrived just as military leaders were establishing the city's defenses. When the British advanced on May 11, Pulaski's Legion engaged forward elements of the British force, and was badly mauled in the encounter. The Legion infantry, numbering only about 60 men before the skirmish, was virtually wiped out, and Pulaski was forced to retreat to the safety of the city's guns. Although some historians credit this action with Prevost's decision to withdraw back toward Savannah the next day, despite ongoing negotiations of a possible surrender of Charleston, that decision is more likely based on news Prevost received that Lincoln's larger force was returning to Charleston to face him, and that Prevost's troops had gone further than he had originally intended. One early historian criticized Pulaski's actions during that engagement as "ill-judged, ill-conducted, disgraceful and disastrous". The episode was of minor strategic consequence and did little to enhance the reputation of Pulaski's unit. Although Pulaski frequently suffered from malaria while stationed in Charleston, he remained in active service. At the beginning of September, Lincoln prepared to launch an attempt to retake Savannah with French assistance. Pulaski was ordered to Augusta, where he was to join forces with General Lachlan McIntosh. Their combined forces were to serve as the forward elements of Lincoln's army. Pulaski captured a British outpost near Ogeechee River. His units then acted as an advance guard for the allied French units under Admiral Charles Hector, comte d'Estaing. He rendered great services during the siege of Savannah, and in the assault of October 9 commanded the whole cavalry, both French and American. ## Death and burial While attempting to rally fleeing French forces during a cavalry charge, Pulaski was mortally wounded by grapeshot. The reported grapeshot is on display at the Georgia Historical Society in Savannah. The Charleston Museum also has a grapeshot reported to be from Pulaski's wound. Pulaski was carried from the field of battle and taken aboard the South Carolina merchant brig privateer Wasp, under the command of Captain Samuel Bulfinch, where he died two days later, having never regained consciousness. His heroic death, admired by American Patriot supporters, further boosted his reputation in America. Pulaski never married and had no descendants. Despite his fame, there have long been uncertainties and controversies surrounding both his place and date of birth, and his burial. Many primary sources record a burial at sea. The historical accounts for Pulaski's time and place of burial vary considerably. According to several contemporary accounts there were witnesses, including Pulaski's aide-de-camp, that Pulaski received a symbolic burial in Charleston on October 21, sometime after he was buried at sea. Other witnesses, including Captain Samuel Bulfinch of the Wasp, claimed that the wounded Pulaski was actually later removed from the ship and taken to the Greenwich Plantation in the town of Thunderbolt, near Savannah, where he died and was buried. In March 1825, during his grand tour of the United States, Lafayette personally laid the cornerstone for the Casimir Pulaski Monument in Savannah, Georgia. ### Exhumation and analysis of remains In 1853 remains found on a bluff above Augustine Creek on Greenwich Plantation were believed to be the general's. These bones are interred at the Casimir Pulaski Monument in Savannah, Georgia. They were exhumed in 1996 and examined during a forensic study. The eight-year examination, including DNA analysis, ended inconclusively, although the skeleton was consistent with Pulaski's age and occupation. A healed wound on the skull's forehead was consistent with historical records of an injury Pulaski sustained in battle, as was a bone defect on the left cheekbone, believed to have been caused by a benign tumor. In 2005, the remains were reinterred in a public ceremony with full military honors, including Pulaski's induction into the Georgia Military Hall of Fame. A later study funded by the Smithsonian Institution, the results of which were released in 2019, concluded from the mitochondrial DNA of his grandniece, known injuries, and physical characteristics, that the skeleton was likely Pulaski's. The skeleton has a number of typically female features, which has led to the hypothesis that Pulaski may have been female or intersex. A documentary based on the Smithsonian study suggests that Pulaski's hypothesized intersex condition could have been caused by congenital adrenal hyperplasia, where a fetus with female chromosomes is exposed to a high level of testosterone in utero and develops partially male genitals. This analysis was based on the skeleton's female pelvis, facial structure and jaw angle, in combination with the fact that Pulaski identified as and lived as male. However, there is no conclusive argument or evidence that Pulaski was intersex. The question remains unsettled due to the limited understanding of how an intersex condition might be revealed in the analysis of a skeleton. There is no way to prove that Pulaski was born intersex without a DNA test. ## Tributes and commemoration The United States has long commemorated Pulaski's contributions to the American Revolutionary War, and already on October 29, 1779, the United States Congress passed a resolution that a monument should be dedicated to him, but the first monument to him, the Casimir Pulaski Monument in Savannah, Georgia, was not built until 1854. A bust of Pulaski was added to a collection of other busts of American heroes at United States Capitol in 1867. On May 11, 1910, US President William Taft revealed a Congress-sponsored General Casimir Pulaski statue. In 1929, Congress passed another resolution, this one recognizing October 11 of each year as "General Pulaski Memorial Day", with a large parade held annually on Fifth Avenue in New York City. Separately, a Casimir Pulaski Day is celebrated in Illinois and some other places on the first Monday of each March. In some Illinois school districts, the day is an official school holiday. In 1931 a ten foot tall bronze statue of Pulaski, sculpted by Polish-American sculptor Joseph Kiselewski, was erected in Pulaski Park in Milwaukee Wisconsin. 35,000 people attended the ceremony. After a previous attempt failed, Congress passed a joint resolution conferring honorary U.S. citizenship on Pulaski in 2009, sending it to President Barack Obama for approval. He signed it on November 6, 2009, making Pulaski the seventh person so honored. In Poland, in 1793 Pulaski's relative, Antoni Pułaski, obtained a cancellation of his brother's sentence from 1773. He has been mentioned in the literary works of numerous Polish authors, including Adam Mickiewicz, Juliusz Słowacki and Józef Ignacy Kraszewski. Adolf Nowaczyński wrote a drama "Pułaski w Ameryce" (Pulaski in America) in 1917. A museum dedicated to Pulaski, the Casimir Pulaski Museum in Warka, opened in 1967. Throughout Poland and the United States, people have celebrated anniversaries of Pulaski's birth and death, and there exist numerous objects of art such as paintings and statues of him. In 1879, to commemorate the 100th anniversary of his death, Henri Schoeller composed "A Pulaski March". Twenty years earlier, Eduard Sobolewski composed his opera, "Mohega", about the last days of Pulaski's life. Commemorative medals and stamps of Pulaski have been issued. Several cities, towns, townships and counties in United States are named after him, as are numerous streets, parks and structures. Although his statue stands in Savannah's Monterey Square, the city's Pulaski Square is named for him. The Pulaski Bridge in New York City links Brooklyn to Queens; the Pulaski Skyway in Northern New Jersey links Jersey City to Newark, and the Pulaski Highway traverses the city of Baltimore, Maryland. Michigan designated US Highway 112 (now US 12) as Pulaski Memorial Highway in 1935. There are also a number of educational, academic, and Polish-American institutions named after him. A 20th-century US Navy ballistic missile submarine, USS Casimir Pulaski, was named for him, as was, in the 19th-century, a United States Revenue Cutter Service cutter, USRC Pulaski and a side-wheel steam gunboat, USS Pulaski. A Polish frigate, ORP Generał Kazimierz Pułaski, is also named after Pulaski. Fort Pulaski between Savannah and Tybee Island in Georgia, active during the American Civil War, is named in honor of Casimir Pulaski. Pulaski Barracks, an active U.S. Army post in Kaiserslautern, Germany, is named for Casimir Pulaski in honor of the Polish people who worked for the U.S. Army in Civilian Service Groups after WWII. A statue commemorating Pulaski stands at the eastern end of Freedom Plaza in Washington, D.C. There is an equestrian statue of Pulaski in Roger Williams Park in Providence, Rhode Island, as well as one in the center of Pulaski park in Manchester, New Hampshire. A statue by Granville W. Carter depicting Pulaski on a rearing horse signaling a forward charge with a sword in his right hand is erected in Hartford, Connecticut. There is a Pulaski Monument in Patterson Park in Baltimore, Maryland. There is also a statue in Buffalo, NY near the intersection of Main and S. Division St. A statue of Pulaski sculpted by Sidney Waugh resides in Philadelphia, on the slope behind the Philadelphia Museum of Art in Fairmount Park. The villages of Mt. Pulaski, Illinois, Pulaski, New York, and Pulaski, Wisconsin, are named for him, as is the city of Pulaski, Tennessee. Pulaski High School and Casimir Pulaski High School, both in Wisconsin, are also named after him, as is Pulaski Middle School in New Britain, Connecticut. Pulaski County in Virginia, Pulaski County in Arkansas, Pulaski County in Georgia, Pulaski County in Missouri, Pulaski County in Kentucky, and Pulaski County in Indiana are named after him as well. Polish historian Władysław Konopczyński, who wrote a monograph on Pulaski in 1931, noted that he was one of the most accomplished Polish people, grouping him with other Polish military heroes such as Tadeusz Kościuszko, Stanisław Żółkiewski, Stefan Czarniecki, and Prince Józef Poniatowski. ## In popular culture - Michigan-born songwriter Sufjan Stevens released a song called "Casimir Pulaski Day" on his album Illinois. The song interweaves his memories of a friend's battle with bone cancer with an account of the holiday. - In a downloadable content of Age of Empires III, twelve Uhlan cavalry units can be summoned by the player by clicking on a shipment button called Pulaski's Legion. - An account of Pulaski's death and burial is used as the background and setting for the family reunion of two POV characters in Diana Gabaldon's ninth main Outlander novel, Go Tell the Bees That I Am Gone (2021). Her historical observations and inspirations are in her author's notes. ## See also - Casimir Pulaski Foundation - leading Polish think tank specialized in foreign policy and national security - Johann de Kalb, a Bavarian-born French officer who served as a general in the Continental Army - Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, a French officer who served as a general in the Continental Army - The General Was Female?, documentary film about Pulaski's possible intersex status - Intersex people and military service in the United States - Knight of Freedom Award, an award established in honour of General Pulaski - Michael Kovats de Fabriczy, a Hungarian nobleman and cavalry officer who served in the Continental Army - List of Poles - Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, a Prussian drill master who served in the Continental Army ## Explanatory notes ## General bibliography

Diego Costa

Spanish footballer (born 1988)

Diego da Silva Costa (, ; born 7 October 1988), is a Brazilian-born Spanish professional footballer who plays as a striker for Campeonato Brasileiro Série A club Botafogo. Costa began his football career in his native Brazil before joining Braga in Portugal in 2006, aged 17. He never played for the club but spent time on loan at Penafiel, and signed with Atlético Madrid the following year. Over the next two seasons he had loan periods with Braga, Celta Vigo and Albacete. His form earned him a move to fellow La Liga club Real Valladolid in 2009, where he spent one season, finishing as their top goalscorer, before returning to Atlético Madrid. Costa struggled to maintain a regular starting role with Atlético, and spent more time on loan, this time at Rayo Vallecano, where he finished as the club's highest scorer that season. In 2011 Costa returned to Atlético with a greater role. He blossomed as a goalscorer, and helped the team win a La Liga title, a Copa del Rey title, and a UEFA Super Cup. His performances attracted the attention of several big clubs, and in 2014 Costa was transferred to Premier League club Chelsea in a deal worth €35 million (£32 million). In London, Costa won three trophies, including two Premier League titles, and a League Cup. In 2018, following a rift with head coach Antonio Conte, Costa returned to Atlético Madrid in a club record transfer worth an initial €56 million, where he won a UEFA Europa League title and another UEFA Super Cup. Costa is a dual citizen of Brazil and Spain. He played twice for Brazil in 2013, before declaring his desire to represent Spain, having been granted Spanish citizenship in September that year. He made his debut for Spain in March 2014, and has since won 24 caps and scored 10 goals, and has represented them at the 2014 and 2018 FIFA World Cups. Known for his fiery temperament, Costa has been criticised and punished for several confrontations with opponents. ## Early life Costa was born in Lagarto, Sergipe, Brazil, to parents José de Jesus and Josileide. His father named him in honour of Argentine footballer Diego Maradona despite the rivalry between the two nations, and he has an elder brother named Jair after Brazilian player Jairzinho. Despite regularly playing street football, Costa did not believe as a child that he would turn professional, in part due to the remote location of his hometown. He has since set up a football academy in his hometown, where he pays all the costs. Costa is a fan of Palmeiras. Costa trialled unsuccessfully at his hometown team Atlético Clube Lagartense. At age 15, he left Sergipe and moved to São Paulo, to work in the store of his uncle Jarminho. Although he was never a professional, Jarminho had connections in football and recommended his nephew to Barcelona Esportivo Capela, a team from the south of the city set up as an alternative to drugs and gangs for youth of the favelas. Before joining this team, he had never been coached in football. He turned professional at the club, earning around £100 per month, and competed in the under-18 Taça de São Paulo despite a four-month ban for slapping an opponent and dissent towards the referee. Although he was sent off in the first game of the tournament, he attracted the attention of renowned Portuguese agent Jorge Mendes, who offered him a contract at Braga. Costa's father was apprehensive of sending his son to Europe, and suggested he instead sign for nearby Associação Desportiva São Caetano, but he was adamant that he would take the opportunity. Jair played on the same team as Diego, and was a slimmer, more technically able player, but had less focus; the two were often not fielded at the same time in order to prevent arguments. He never turned professional, but had a three-month trial at Basque club Salvatierra. ## Club career ### Early career Costa signed for his first European club in February 2006, Portugal's Braga. He initially struggled with loneliness and the comparatively cold weather of northern Portugal. Out of action due to the club's lack of a youth team, he was loaned that summer to Penafiel in the second division, managed by former Portugal international Rui Bento, who desired the "rough diamond". Through his negotiations with Spain's Atlético Madrid, Mendes arranged Costa's transfer for €1.5 million and 50% of the player's rights in December 2006, but he remained on loan at Braga until the end of the season. Atlético defeated interest from Porto and Recreativo de Huelva for Costa's signature, with director Jesús García Pitarch admitting that it was a risk to pay so much for an inexperienced player. After 5 goals in 13 games for Penafiel, he was recalled to Braga in January 2007. On 23 February, he came on in the 71st minute for Zé Carlos and scored his first goal for the team, a last-minute goal for a 1–0 win at Parma to advance 2–0 on aggregate to the Last 16 of the UEFA Cup. His season ended after seven games due to a metatarsal injury which ruled him out for six months. Costa was presented by Atlético Madrid president Enrique Cerezo on 10 July 2007 as "the new Kaká". While scout Javier Hernández wished for him to return to fitness in the club's reserves, García Pitarch instead suggested loaning Costa out immediately. He made his debut on 11 August in the Ciudad de Vigo tournament against Celta de Vigo, replacing Simão at half-time in a penalty shootout victory. ### Celta Vigo Later that month, Costa and Mario Suárez were loaned to Segunda División side Celta de Vigo for the season, and Costa became a regular in the team, managed by former Ballon d'Or winner Hristo Stoichkov. In his seventh league match, he scored his first goal in Spanish football in a dominant home victory over Xerez; after scoring, he showboated, causing a brawl which resulted in him being sent off. Costa was subsequently rested from Celta's away game at the same opposition. The event drew the wrath of Stoichkov, who unexpectedly left his position. Towards the middle of the season, he was involved in two further controversies: he struck Málaga defender Weligton in the head, causing an injury which required medical stitches, and was sent off against Sevilla Atlético for diving and dissent, leaving his team to fight for a draw without him. The loyal strike partner of Quincy Owusu-Abeyie despite the pair not sharing a common language, he was dropped for Cypriot Ioannis Okkas. On 23 March 2008, Costa scored both Celta goals in a 2–1 win at Numancia, the latter after a long dribble; but later on in the campaign, he was sent off against Tenerife at Balaídos, after which Celta went from winning 2–0 to drawing 2–2. The team barely avoided relegation, and Costa earned a reputation for being a disruptive influence. ### Albacete Despite earning a poor reputation for his conduct, Costa attracted interest from Salamanca, Gimnàstic de Tarragona and Málaga after his loan at Celta; García Pitarch ruled out any approach from the latter, fearing how Costa would behave on the Costa del Sol. After attending Atlético's pre-season tour of Mexico, he signed on loan for Albacete, also of Segunda División, on 22 August 2008, signing a contract which would have a lower fee depending on how many games he played. He initially threatened to terminate his deal with the Castile-La Mancha team, on account of the quality of his teammates and the city's lack of a beach. Nine days after signing, he scored a late winner in a 2–1 victory over Sevilla's reserves at the Estadio Carlos Belmonte. The Queso Mecánico suffered with financial problems during Costa's loan, with him threatening to strike unless their non-playing staff were paid in full. He was dropped to the bench by manager Juan Ignacio Martínez for the home game against Real Sociedad on 13 December as punishment for an argument with goalkeeper Jonathan, but came on as a substitute to score another late winner. Costa was known for misbehaviour on and off the pitch while at Albacete. He was sent off away to Tenerife, after which he slandered the referee's mother and confronted his opponents. He pulled practical jokes on his teammates and employers, earning him the moniker "that fucking Brazilian". However, he was a central figure as they avoided relegation, assisting twice in a 3–0 win at high-flying Rayo Vallecano on 2 May 2009, despite missing a penalty. ### Valladolid In the summer of 2009, Costa was desired by Barcelona for their reserve team, an approach which Atlético rejected, citing that he remained in their plans. Frustrated by his lack of opportunities, however, a now overweight Costa argued with his management and attempted to negotiate a move to Brazil's Esporte Clube Vitória. On 8 July 2009, Costa was sold to Real Valladolid as part of the deal that sent goalkeeper Sergio Asenjo in the opposite direction, with the transfer including a €1 million buy-back option that could be activated by Atlético at the end of the season. García Pitarch confessed that there was a verbal agreement that Costa would definitely return at the end of the campaign, and that the deal had been made to look permanent in order to give Costa more commitment to his new club. Initially, Costa had competition up front from fellow new signings Alberto Bueno and Manucho, signed from Real Madrid and Manchester United respectively; he eventually forged a friendship with the latter, a fellow lusophone, from Angola. He started strong for the Castile and León side, scoring 6 times in his first 12 games, but only found the net once in the following five-and-a-half months as the campaign eventually ended in relegation from La Liga. He was sent off in a goalless draw against Espanyol on 24 March 2010 for a stamp on Dídac Vilà in the first half. ### Atlético Madrid #### 2010–13 In June 2010, Costa returned to the Colchoneros, initially as a backup to Sergio Agüero and Diego Forlán – Atlético also paid an undisclosed sum to Braga to buy all the residual 30% economic rights (the former also had to pay in excess of €833,000 in agent's fees to Gestifute). He was an unused substitute as Atlético won the 2010 UEFA Super Cup on 27 August. On 26 September, with the injured Agüero on the substitutes bench, Costa scored the game's only goal at home against Real Zaragoza. On 3 April of the following year, already as a starter after manager Quique Sánchez Flores demoted Forlán from his position, Costa scored all of his team's goals in a 3–2 win at Osasuna. In July 2011, during Atlético's pre-season, Costa suffered a serious knee injury, going on to miss the majority of the season. The injury prevented him from passing a medical at Turkish club Beşiktaş, having already agreed to transfer to them. On 23 January 2012, Costa was loaned to fellow league club Rayo Vallecano until June; he scored four goals in his first three appearances, including two in a 5–3 away win against Levante, eventually finishing his loan spell with 10 goals from 16 games. For the second time in his career, Costa was an unused substitute as Atlético won the UEFA Super Cup on 1 September 2012. That December, Costa was involved in several on-field altercations in two separate matches. The first was in a 0–2 local derby loss against Real Madrid where he avoided disciplinary action after spitting incidents between him and Sergio Ramos. He was sent off in the following game at Viktoria Plzeň in the UEFA Europa League for headbutting opponent David Limberský, and was handed a four-match ban by UEFA. This, however, did not deter coach Diego Simeone from continuing to start him, and he responded by scoring three goals in two home contests, against Deportivo de La Coruña in the league (6–0) and Getafe in the season's Copa del Rey (3–0). After the Copa del Rey semi-finals against Sevilla, Costa took his goal tally in the competition to seven in as many matches, having scored three times in the tie. In the first leg he scored two penalties in a 2–1 win and, in the second at the Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán, scored one after an individual effort and assisted Radamel Falcao in the other, also being involved in incidents which resulted in two opposing players – Gary Medel and Geoffrey Kondogbia – being sent off in the 2–2 draw. Costa scored Atlético's equalising goal in the Copa del Rey final clash against city rivals Real Madrid on 17 May 2013, contributing to the 2–1 triumph – the first in 25 games in a streak stretching back to 1999 – and the tenth win in the tournament, confirmed by Miranda's extra-time header. He and opponent Cristiano Ronaldo had gone into the match as joint top scorers in the tournament, and thus Costa's eighth goal made him the top scorer. #### 2013–14 season In August 2013, Costa was heavily linked with a move to Liverpool, who allegedly matched his release clause of €25 million and offered him three times his salary at Atlético. Costa, however, chose to stay at the club and renewed his contract until 2018, while also doubling his wages; a few days after this, in the first match of the new season on 19 August, he scored a brace in a 3–1 win at Sevilla. On 24 September, Costa scored both goals in a 2–1 home triumph over Osasuna to help his team stay level on points with league leaders Barcelona through six games. Four days later, in the Madrid derby, he scored the only goal of the game to record a second win over Real at the Santiago Bernabéu in under five months. For his performances, he was crowned the inaugural La Liga Player of the Month for September 2013. By his 25th birthday on 7 October, he had scored ten goals in eight league matches, equalling his tally from the previous season. All of those matches were won by Atlético, setting a new record for the best start to a season. On 23 November 2013, Costa scored an overhead volley from a cross by Gabi in a win over Getafe; the goal was nominated for the FIFA Puskás Award. On 22 October 2013, Costa marked his UEFA Champions League debut with two goals against Austria Wien, the first coming after a fine individual effort in an eventual 3–0 group stage away win. On 19 February 2014, in the first knockout round's first leg, he scored the game's only goal at Milan, scoring seven minutes from time after a corner kick from Gabi; he added a further two in the second match, helping Atlético to a 4–1 victory that put them into the quarter-finals for the first time in 17 years. On 30 April 2014, Costa won and converted a penalty in the second leg of the Champions League semi-final against Chelsea, as Atlético won 3–1 at Stamford Bridge and advanced to the final of the competition for the first time since 1974. He finished the league season with 27 league goals to become the third highest scorer, and the team won the title for the first time since 1996, but he was substituted after 16 minutes of the last match of the season against Barcelona due to a hamstring injury. Atlético sought to cure this injury before the upcoming Champions League final against Real Madrid by sending him to Belgrade for treatment with a horse placenta, and he was included in the starting line-up for the decisive match. However, he left the pitch after eight minutes in an eventual 1–4 loss; manager Diego Simeone later admitted a personal mistake in selecting the player to start the final despite his recent injury. Costa scored eight goals during the Champions League campaign, equalling the record held by Vavá since 1959 for most in a season by an Atlético player, and in his entire career was in the top ten Atlético players by goal average. At the season's LFP Awards, he was nominated for the league's Best Forward, losing out to Cristiano Ronaldo. ### Chelsea Having completed his medical in June, Chelsea announced on 1 July 2014 that they had agreed to meet the £32 million buy-out clause in Costa's contract. On 15 July, Chelsea confirmed the completion of the signing of Costa, who signed a five-year contract on a salary of £150,000 a week. On signing, Costa said, "I am very happy to sign for Chelsea. Everybody knows it is a big club in a very competitive league, and I am very excited to get started in England with a fantastic coach and team-mates. Having played against Chelsea last season I know the high quality of the squad I am joining". Following the departure of former Chelsea striker Demba Ba, Costa inherited his number 19 shirt, the same number he wore at the 2014 World Cup for Spain and previously at Atlético. #### 2014–15 season Costa scored on his Chelsea debut on 27 July, running onto a through ball from Cesc Fàbregas in a 2–1 friendly win against Slovene club Olimpija. His first competitive match was Chelsea's first game of the league season, away to Burnley on 18 August, scoring the team's equaliser in a 3–1 victory. He scored in his third consecutive match on 30 August, the first and last goals of a 6–3 win at Everton, the first goal coming after 35 seconds. Costa was given the Premier League Player of the Month award for August 2014. He completed his first Premier League hat-trick in his fourth game of the season against Swansea City as Chelsea continued their perfect start to the season with a 4–2 win. With seven, Costa holds the record for most goals in his first four Premier League matches, surpassing the tally of six by both Sergio Agüero and Micky Quinn. In spite of his form at the start of the season, Costa had been suffering from a recurring hamstring problem which limited his participation in training; manager José Mourinho said that it would not heal until mid-November. Costa scored his tenth goal of the league season to give Chelsea a 2–1 win away to Liverpool on 8 November, preserving their unbeaten start to the campaign. In January, Costa was charged by the FA in relation to a stamp on Emre Can during Chelsea's win over Liverpool in the League Cup semi-finals, and was given a three-match ban. Costa won his first trophy for Chelsea on 1 March, as they defeated Tottenham Hotspur 2–0 to win the League Cup at Wembley Stadium; he scored the second goal of the game. On 26 April, Costa was chosen of one of two forwards for the season's PFA Team of the Year, alongside Tottenham's Harry Kane. Five of Costa's Chelsea teammates were also in the selection. Due to injury, he was due to miss the remainder of the season, in which Chelsea won the league title with a 1–0 home win over Crystal Palace on 3 May. However, he featured in their last match of the season on the 24th, replacing the injured Didier Drogba after half an hour against Sunderland. Seven minutes later, he scored his 20th goal of the league campaign, an equalising penalty in an eventual 3–1 home win. With reports speculating that Costa wanting to leave Chelsea, Costa affirmed on 2 June 2015 after Chelsea's post-season tour that he had no desire to leave London, saying, "It's always a bit more difficult in the first season for adaptation, but I have no reason to leave this place, I love it, the fans love me, and I want to stay. It's really good to come in the first season [to Chelsea] and win two things [the Premier League and the League Cup titles]. Next year I'll be ready to come back and, hopefully, win a couple more trophies." #### 2015–16 season Due to injury, Costa missed the 2015 FA Community Shield, which Chelsea lost 1–0 to rivals Arsenal. On 23 August, he scored his first goal of the campaign in a 2–3 win at West Bromwich Albion, which was Chelsea's first victory of the campaign, set up by international teammate Pedro. He scored his first Champions League goal for the team on 16 September, a volley from a Cesc Fàbregas ball in a 4–0 win over Maccabi Tel Aviv. Three days later, Costa was involved in controversy in a 2–0 home win over Arsenal; he repeatedly slapped Laurent Koscielny and chest-bumped him to the ground, and then confronted Gabriel, who allegedly tried to kick him and was sent off, though footage from ESPN Brazil later showed that little to no contact actually took place. He escaped any punishment at the time. His conduct was deemed "disgusting" by visiting manager Arsène Wenger, and teammate Kurt Zouma initially reacted by saying, "Diego likes to cheat a lot," but later clarified that he meant that "Diego is a player who puts pressure on his opponents". As a consequence, on 21 September, he was charged with violent conduct by the FA. and the following day he was given a three-match suspension. Gabriel's red card was also rescinded, although he was given a one-match ban and £10,000 fine for improper conduct after failing to leave the pitch immediately. After this incident, the Daily Express wrote that Costa was "named as [the] Premier League's dirtiest player". After a 1–0 defeat at Stoke City on 7 November, a Britannia Stadium steward made an allegation of assault against Costa, which was resolved without further action. Also that month, Costa was again involved in a skirmish with Liverpool's Martin Škrtel, where he appeared to dig his boot into the Slovak defender's chest, but escaped punishment by the FA. On 29 November, Costa was an unused substitute in a match against Tottenham and threw his bib on the floor when Ruben Loftus-Cheek was sent on at his expense. Mourinho told the media that, "For me his behaviour is normal. A top player on the bench will not be happy." Costa, Oscar and Fàbregas were targeted by Chelsea supporters as the players whose poor form led to the dismissal of popular manager José Mourinho in December 2015. Costa scored twice in the first game under interim replacement Guus Hiddink, a 2–2 home draw against Watford. Costa, who played in a protective mask after breaking his nose in training, improved his form under the Dutchman, scoring seven times in his first eight games under the new management. On 12 March 2016, Costa received his first red card in a Chelsea shirt near the end their 2–0 FA Cup quarter-final defeat to Everton for confronting opponent Gareth Barry. Footage appeared to show Costa biting Barry during that confrontation after clashing heads. Earlier in the match, Costa appeared to spit in the direction of the referee after he was yellow carded for a clash with Barry. Later, both Costa and Barry denied that the bite occurred. Costa's two-match ban was extended to three, and he was fined £20,000. On 2 May, as Chelsea drew 2–2 against Tottenham to deny them the title, Costa was gouged in the eyes by Mousa Dembélé during a mass brawl; the Belgian received a retrospective six-match ban. #### 2016–17 season On 15 August 2016, Costa scored a late winner against West Ham United to give Chelsea a 2–1 win in their season opener. During the match, he caught opposing goalkeeper Adrián with a late challenge when already on a yellow card, but did not receive a second yellow and went on to score the winner; Adrián stated after the match that he was fortunate not to be seriously injured. On 15 October, he scored in a 3–0 over reigning Premier League champions Leicester City, and on 20 November Costa became the first player to reach ten league goals for the season, with the only one of the game at Middlesbrough. With two goals and two assists for league leaders Chelsea, he was voted Premier League Player of the Month for the second time in November 2016, with his manager Antonio Conte picking up the equivalent. In January 2017, Costa fell out with Conte and was dropped from the team, amidst interest from the Chinese Super League. A potential move to Tianjin Quanjian F.C. was curtailed by the league limiting the number of foreign players in each team. He returned to Chelsea's starting line-up on 22 January, opening a 2–0 win over Hull City, his 52nd goal on his 100th appearance. Costa was Chelsea's top scorer with 20 goals as they regained the Premier League title. On 27 May, he scored an equaliser in the 2017 FA Cup Final against Arsenal, a 2–1 loss. #### 2017–18 season In June 2017, Costa was told by Conte that he was not part of his plans for the coming season and that he was free to move to another team via text message. Although Costa was linked to potential moves to the likes of Milan, Monaco, and Everton, he stated that he would only be open to moving back to his former team Atlético Madrid. Costa attempted to find a legal solution through his lawyer in pushing for a move back to Madrid, and said that Chelsea were treating him like a "criminal" by demanding a high transfer fee for his exit. He was excluded from training with the first-team, but was named in the Premier League squad, yet left out of the Champions League squad.

### Return to Atlético Madrid On 21 September 2017, Chelsea announced that Costa would return to Atlético at the start of the next transfer window in January 2018. On 26 September 2017, it was announced that after passing medical tests Costa signed a contract with Atlético. He was registered and became eligible to play after 1 January 2018, due to a transfer ban imposed on Atlético. On 3 January 2018, he scored on his return game against Lleida Esportiu in the Copa del Rey round of 16, just five minutes after being substituted on for Ángel Correa in the 64th minute. Three days later in his first league game back, he started in a 2–0 win over Getafe at the Wanda Metropolitano and scored the second goal. However, having already been cautioned for a stray elbow on Djene Dakonam, he was cautioned for a second time for charging into the stands to celebrate his goal, thus being sent off. ESPN FC credited Costa as being a key element in Antoine Griezmann's return to form, opining that Costa's "physical presence at centre-forward has understandably distracted opposition defenders quite a lot. Griezmann has now taken up a roaming No. 10 role, with freedom to go where he feels best"; Atlético manager Diego Simeone namechecked three of Atlético's players in particular–Costa, Koke, and Filipe Luís–who had helped Griezmann perform. Costa scored the only goal of Atlético's 1–0 home win in over Arsenal in the second leg of the Europa League semi-finals, sending them into the 2018 UEFA Europa League Final 2–1 on aggregate. He played in the final in Lyon, a 3–0 win over Olympique de Marseille. In Atlético's first match of 2018–19, the UEFA Super Cup at the Lilleküla Stadium in Estonia, Costa scored twice – including in the first 50 seconds – in a 4–2 win after extra time against Real Madrid. In April 2019, he was handed an 8-match ban for abusing a referee. On 18 June 2020, Costa marked his 200th club appearance for Los Colchoneros when he started in a huge 5–0 away win against Osasuna. Costa scored his fifth goal of the season in a 1–0 home victory against Real Betis to ensure his team a top four finish and qualification for next season's Champions League. On 29 December 2020, Costa and Atlético agreed to terminate their contract, making Costa a free-agent. ### Atlético Mineiro On 14 August 2021, Costa joined Brazilian club Atlético Mineiro, signing a deal until December 2022. He scored on his debut on 29 August, coming off the bench in the second half and settling a 1–1 league draw to Red Bull Bragantino. On 16 January 2022, after only playing 19 times and scoring 5 goals, Diego Costa terminated his contract and became a free agent. ### Wolverhampton Wanderers On 12 September 2022, Costa joined Premier League club Wolverhampton Wanderers until the end of the 2022–23 season. On 1 October 2022, Costa made his debut for the club, coming on in the 58th minute in a 2–0 league defeat to West Ham United at the London Stadium. Costa made his 100th appearance in the Premier League, his 11th for Wolves, as a second-half substitute against Bournemouth at Molineux on 18 February 2023. He suffered a knee injury in the first-half of Wolves's 1–0 home win against Tottenham Hotspur in the Premier League on 4 March 2023 and was carried off the pitch on a stretcher. On 15 April, Costa scored his first goal for Wolves in a 2–0 home win against Brentford, his first goal in English football in nearly six years. On 3 June, Wolves announced that Costa was one of many players who would leave at the end of their contract. ### Botafogo On 12 August 2023, Costa signed for Brazilian club Botafogo. ## International career ### Brazil On 5 March 2013, Costa was called up to the Brazil national team by head coach Luiz Felipe Scolari for friendlies with Italy in Geneva and Russia in London, both taking place late in that month. He made his debut in the first match on 21 March, replacing Fred midway through the second half of the 2–2 draw. Four days later at Stamford Bridge, he replaced Kaká for the last 12 minutes of a 1–1 draw with Russia. ### Request to change teams In September 2013, the Royal Spanish Football Federation made an official request to FIFA for permission to call up Costa for the Spain national team. He had been granted Spanish nationality in July. FIFA regulations currently permit players with more than one nationality to represent a second country if, like Costa, he had only represented his first country in friendly matches. On 29 October 2013, Costa declared that he wished to play international football for Spain, sending a letter to the Brazilian Football Confederation (CBF). Following the news, Scolari commented, "A Brazilian player who refuses to wear the shirt of the Brazilian national team and compete in a World Cup in your country is automatically withdrawn. He is turning his back on a dream of millions, to represent our national team, the five-time champions in a World Cup in Brazil." The CBF judicial director, Carlos Eugênio Lopes, said, "It's obvious that the reason he made that choice was financial. The chairman [of the CBF, José Maria Marin] authorised me to open a legal action at the Justice Ministry requesting that he loses his Brazilian citizenship, which Diego Costa has rejected... The chairman told me that Costa has proved he's not fit to be part of the Scolari family, that he would contaminate the family because he's not committed to Brazil, but to Spain. He rejected his Brazilian citizenship. Marin has asked me to study the situation deeply in order to keep him from ever playing for Spain. He told me that, from now on, Costa is 'persona non grata' at the national team and that the players themselves wouldn't welcome him because of that episode". ### Spain On 28 February 2014, Spain manager Vicente del Bosque included Costa in the squad for a friendly against Italy. He finally made his debut on 5 March, playing the full 90 minutes at his club ground, the Vicente Calderón Stadium, as the hosts won 1–0. Costa was named in Spain's 30-man provisional squad for the 2014 World Cup, as well as the final list which was named on 31 May. He returned from the injury which had ended his club season by starting in a warm-up game against El Salvador, winning a penalty in a 2–0 victory. In the first match of the tournament, against the Netherlands, he again won a penalty, conceded by Stefan de Vrij and converted by Xabi Alonso for a 1–0 lead but in an eventual 1–5 defeat; he was booed by Brazilian fans during the match. Costa then started in a 0–2 loss to Chile making little impact as he was substituted for Fernando Torres for the second consecutive match, and Spain were eliminated. He was an unused substitute in the team's third match, a 3–0 defeat of Australia. Costa scored his first goal for Spain with the third in a 4–0 UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying win away to Luxembourg on 12 October 2014. He did not feature again for Spain until 5 September 2015, when he was fouled by Slovakia goalkeeper Matúš Kozáčik for a penalty, which Andrés Iniesta converted for a 2–0 qualifying win at the Estadio Carlos Tartiere in Oviedo. He was booed when he was substituted for Paco Alcácer later in the match. Del Bosque defended Costa from criticism, saying that he performed well against the Slovak defence. However, he was not included in the final squad for the tournament. On 5 September 2016, Costa scored his first international goals for nearly two years, in an 8–0 win over Liechtenstein at the Estadio Reino de León for Spain's opening match of 2018 World Cup qualification, the first being a header from a free-kick by his former Atlético teammate Koke. In May 2018, Costa was called up to Spain's squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. In their opening game on 15 June in Sochi, he scored his two first World Cup goals to help Spain secure a 3–3 draw against Portugal. Five days later, he scored the winning goal of the match against Iran. ## Player profile ### Style of play and reception Friends and family recalled how Costa's style of play changed little over time, with his father stating how as a child, Costa would be furious whenever his team lost. Atlético scout Javier Hernández, on watching 17-year-old Costa play for Penafiel, was impressed by the young forward's determination and power, although found it evident that he was not observing a healthy lifestyle. Costa's Penafiel manager Rui Bento, who was at Sporting CP when Cristiano Ronaldo broke into the team, rated Costa in the same calibre as the Portuguese winger. According to Atlético director Jesús García Pitarch, Costa ranks as one of the best signings of his career, alongside Mohamed Sissoko, Miranda and Ricardo Oliveira. While on loan at Celta de Vigo, Costa drew comparisons to their former Egyptian striker Mido, who was also known for his temper. During his spell at Albacete, Costa was nicknamed after bullfighter Curro Romero and the Tasmanian devil. His manager Juan Ignacio Martínez conceded that Costa played as a model professional for 89 minutes per match, with only one minute per match being his downfall. Costa refers to José Luis Mendilibar as his greatest manager because of his fatherlike "tough love", respecting his talents while keeping strict discipline, once sending Costa to work in a vineyard as a punishment. Earlier in his Atlético Madrid career, Costa's physical play was used in support of Radamel Falcao, thus ensuring a lower goalscoring rate. After Falcao was sold in 2013, the attack was restructured around Costa by manager Diego Simeone. Simeone, who like Costa was known for his competitiveness and aggression, found ways to enhance his discipline while retaining his determination. In 2014, his club teammate Diego Godín described Costa as the team's "heartbeat", commenting that he "gives us everything," also adding: "Sometimes things aren't going well and he is able to open up the game with his strength and technique." Nick Dorrington of Bleacher Report described him as a "battering ram of a striker: Strong, quick and tireless in his pursuit of the ball," while the club's manager Simeone lauded his work-rate as being "contagious". Ahead of his competitive debut for Chelsea in August 2014, BBC Sport pundit Robbie Savage described Costa as "the missing piece in the jigsaw" for the "clear favourites" who "could end up winning the title by five or six points". He explained that Chelsea's defence was already the strongest in the league, but a poorer rate of shot-to-goal conversion had cost them the title. He praised Costa's stature and physical style of play which "suits the Premier League down to the ground" in the same role that Didier Drogba previously played at Chelsea, an opinion also voiced by the league's top scorer of all-time, Alan Shearer. Costa has also been attributed with a greater ability to keep possession of the ball than any Chelsea striker since Drogba first left the club in 2012. That same year, Henry Winter of The Telegraph noted that Costa "...has the technique, the strength and the burst of acceleration to destroy defences." Costa's size, technique, and strength, coupled with his link-up play and ability to hold up the ball with his back to goal allow him to be an effective target-man; moreover, his constant movement and powerful running in the centre-forward role allows him to distract opponents and in turn create space for teammates. Although he was initially known to be inconsistent in the earlier part of his career, due to his low goalscoring rate, he later established himself as a good finisher as his career progressed, which along with his composure in front of goal and ability inside the penalty box, made him a prolific goalscorer, and even saw him regarded by several pundits and managers as one of the best strikers in the world at his peak. In 2018, Simeone lauded Costa for the "enthusiasm" and "aggression" he brings to Atlético Madrid, as well as his "speed, decisiveness, and physical strength." ### Discipline and controversies Costa has been the source of much controversy in his career due to confrontations with opponents, and has received multiple violent conduct charges from The Football Association of England. Opposing managers have also opined that Costa himself intends to provoke his opponents. Danny Murphy of Match of the Day has stated that Costa is targeted by players who "wind him up," but he "remains calm", and is justified to taunt opponents who taunt him. Pat Nevin, a former Chelsea winger, believes that Costa's style of play is likely to cause himself "a few injuries". In August 2014, he was criticised by Everton manager Roberto Martínez for taunting Everton's Séamus Coleman following his own goal, and stated Costa needed "to understand the ethics" of the Premier League. In October 2014, he clashed with Slovakia's Martin Škrtel in a Euro 2016 qualifier. In January 2015, following two stamp incidents involving Costa and Liverpool players for which Costa received a three-match ban by the FA, Liverpool manager Brendan Rodgers stated that he thought Costa had fouled his players when "he could easily have hurdled over the player" and "there's no need to do it". Costa described his style of play as "strong but noble", and refuted allegations that he deliberately aims to injure opponents. In late 2015, Costa was the subject of scrutiny for his comparatively poor start to his second season at Chelsea and his low scoring rate for Spain. French newspaper L'Equipe named Costa as the most hated footballer in December 2015, based on his provocative and violent behaviour. ## Career statistics ### Club ### International Appearances and goals by national team and year As of match played 20 June 2018. Spain score listed first, score column indicates score after each Costa goal. ## Honours Atlético Madrid - La Liga: 2013–14, 2020–21 - Copa del Rey: 2012–13 - UEFA Europa League: 2017–18 - UEFA Super Cup: 2010, 2012, 2018 - UEFA Champions League runner-up: 2013–14 Chelsea - Premier League: 2014–15, 2016–17 - Football League Cup: 2014–15 - FA Cup runner-up: 2016–17 Atlético Mineiro - Campeonato Brasileiro Série A: 2021 - Copa do Brasil: 2021 Individual - La Liga Player of the Month: September 2013 - La Liga Team of the Season: 2013–14 - Trofeo EFE: 2013–14 - UEFA Champions League Team of the Season: 2013–14 - Zarra Trophy: 2013–14 - Premier League Player of the Month: August 2014, November 2016 - PFA Team of the Year: 2014–15 Premier League Records - Fastest goal in the UEFA Super Cup: 2018 (49 seconds in against Real Madrid) ## See also - List of Spain international footballers born outside Spain

South Jordan, Utah

City in Salt Lake County, Utah, United States

South Jordan is a city in south central Salt Lake County, Utah, United States, 18 miles (29 km) south of Salt Lake City. Part of the Salt Lake City metropolitan area, the city lies in the Salt Lake Valley along the banks of the Jordan River between the 10,000-foot (3,000 m) Oquirrh Mountains and the 11,000-foot (3,400 m) Wasatch Mountains. The city has 3.5 miles (5.6 km) of the Jordan River Parkway that contains fishing ponds, trails, parks, and natural habitats. The Salt Lake County fair grounds and equestrian park, 67-acre (27 ha) Oquirrh Lake, and 37 public parks are located inside the city. As of 2020, there were 77,487 people in South Jordan. Founded in 1859 by Mormon settlers and historically an agrarian town, South Jordan has become a rapidly growing bedroom community of Salt Lake City. Kennecott Land, a land development company, has recently begun construction on the master-planned Daybreak Community for the entire western half of South Jordan, potentially doubling South Jordan's population. South Jordan was the first municipality in the world to have two temples of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Jordan River Utah Temple and Oquirrh Mountain Utah Temple), it now shares that distinction with Provo, Utah. The city has two TRAX light rail stops, as well as one commuter rail stop on the FrontRunner. ## History ### Pre-European The first known inhabitants were members of the Desert Archaic Culture who were nomadic hunter-gatherers. From 400 A.D. to around 1350 A.D., the Fremont people settled into villages and farmed corn and squash. Changes in climatic conditions to a cooler, drier period and the movement into the area of ancestors of the Ute, Paiute, and Shoshone, led to the disappearance of the Fremont people. When European settlers arrived, there were no permanent Native American settlements in the Salt Lake Valley, but the area bordered several tribes – the territory of the Northwestern Shoshone to the north, the Timpanogots band of the Utes to the south in Utah Valley, and the Goshutes to the west in Tooele Valley. The only recorded trapper to lead a party through the area was Étienne Provost, a French Canadian. In October 1824, Provost's party was lured into an Indian camp somewhere along the Jordan River north of Utah Lake. The people responsible for the attack were planning revenge against Provost's party for an earlier unexplained incident involving other trappers. Provost escaped, but his men were caught off-guard and fifteen of them were killed. ### Early Mormon settlement On July 22, 1847, an advanced party of the first Mormon pioneers entered the valley and immediately began to irrigate land and explore the area with a view to establishing new settlements. Alexander Beckstead, a blacksmith from Ontario, Canada, moved his family to the West Jordan area in 1849, and became the first of his trade in the south Salt Lake Valley. He helped dig the first ditch to divert water from the Jordan River, powering Archibald Gardner's flour mill. In 1859, Beckstead became the first settler of South Jordan by moving his family along the Jordan River where they lived in a dugout cut into the west bluffs above the river. The flood plain of the Jordan was level, and could be cleared for farming if a ditch was constructed to divert river water along the base of the west bluff. Beckstead and others created the 2.5-mile (4.0 km) "Beckstead Ditch", which is still in use for irrigation of city parks and Mulligan's golf course. In 1863, the South Jordan LDS Branch was organized as a branch of the West Jordan Ward, giving South Jordan its name. The Branch consisted of just nine families. A school was built in 1864 out of adobe and also served as the LDS Meetinghouse for the South Jordan Branch. As South Jordan grew, a new and larger building was constructed in 1873 on the east side of the site of the present-day cemetery. It had an upper and lower entrance with a granite foundation using left-over materials brought from the granite quarry at the mouth of Little Cottonwood Canyon. The upper story was made of oversized adobe bricks. The main hall had curtains which could be pulled to section off the hall for classes. The meetinghouse also served as the "ward" school when it was held during the fall and winter months. It came to be known as the "Mud Temple", and was in use until 1908. In 1876, work was completed on the South Jordan Canal which took water out of the Jordan River in Bluffdale and brought it above the river bluffs for the first time. As a result of the new canal, most of the families moved up away from the river onto the "flats" above the river which they could now irrigate. In 1881, the Utah and Salt Lake Canal was completed. It runs parallels to the west side of today's Redwood Road. With the completion of the canal system, greater acreage could be farmed, which led to the area's population increasing. ### Twentieth century In the late 1890s, alfalfa hay was introduced and took the place of tougher native grasses which had been used up to that point for feed for livestock. In good years, alfalfa could produce three crops that were stored for winter. Sugar beets were introduced to South Jordan around 1910. Farmers liked sugar beets because they could be sold for cash at the Utah-Idaho Sugar Company factory in West Jordan. A big celebration was held on January 14, 1914, to commemorate the arrival of electrical power, the addition of a water tank and supply system for indoor pumping and a new park for South Jordan. By the 1930s, the area needed a water tank to store water for residents living further west. The only way to get a federal grant was to incorporate and become a city. Citizens voted to incorporate on November 8, 1935, and immediately issued bonds to obtain money for the water tank. The city was initially governed by a Town Board with responsibilities over parks, water and the cemetery. In 1978, the city moved to a mayor-council form of government and assumed local supervision of police, fire, road and building inspections from Salt Lake County. One of the worst school bus accidents in United States history occurred on December 1, 1938. A bus loaded with 38 students from South Jordan, Riverton, and Bluffdale crossed in front of an oncoming train that was obscured by fog and snow. The bus was broadsided killing the bus driver and 23 students. The concern about bus safety from the South Jordan accident led to changes in state and eventually federal law mandating that buses stop and open the doors before proceeding into a railroad crossing. The same railroad crossing was the site of many other crashes in the following years with the last deadly crash occurring on December 31, 1995, when three teens died while crossing the tracks in their car. The crossing was finally closed, but not until crashes occurred in 1997 and 2002. In 1950, Salt Lake County had 489,000 acres (198,000 ha) devoted to farming. But by 1992, due to increasing population, land devoted to farming had decreased to 108,000 acres (44,000 ha). As a result of this urbanization, South Jordan's economy went from agrarian to being a bedroom community of Salt Lake City. Kennecott Land began a development in 2004 called Daybreak, which is a 4,200-acre (1,700 ha) planned community that will contain more than 20,000 homes and includes commercial and retail space. In 2022, the remaining 1,300-acre (530 ha) undeveloped land was sold to Larry H. Miller Group. In 1981, the LDS Jordan River Utah Temple was completed. In 2009, the LDS Oquirrh Mountain Utah Temple was completed and became the second temple to be built in South Jordan. South Jordan was the first city in the world to have two LDS Temples, Oquirrh Mountain Utah Temple and the Jordan River Utah Temple, the second city being Provo, Utah. ## Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 22.22 square miles (58 km²), of which 0.09 square miles (0.23 km²), 0.4 percent, is water. The relative flatness of South Jordan is due to lacustrine sediments of a pleistocene lake called Lake Bonneville. Lake Bonneville existed from 75,000 to 8,000 years ago; at its peak some 30,000 years ago, the lake reached an elevation of 5,200 feet (1,600 m) above sea level and had a surface area of 19,800 square miles (51,000 km²). The elevation of South Jordan ranges from approximately 4,300 feet (1,300 m) near the Jordan River in the east and rises gently to the foothills of the Oquirrh Mountains at 5,200 feet (1,600 m). ## Demographics According to estimates from the U.S. Census Bureau, as of 2020, there were 77,487 people in South Jordan. The racial makeup of the city was 84.7% non-Hispanic White, 1.0% Black, 0.2% Native American, 3.8% Asian, 0.8% Pacific Islander, and 2.6% from two or more races. 7.1% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. As of the 2010 census, there were 50,418 people residing in 14,333 households. The population density was 2,278 people per square mile (880/km²). There were 14,943 housing units at an average density of 675.3 per square mile (260.8/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 91.5% White, 0.2% African American, 0.2% Native American, 2.6% Asian, 0.9% Pacific Islander, and 2.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.0% of the population. The racial makeup of Salt Lake County was 81.2% White, 1.6% African American, 0.9% Native American, 3.1% Asian, 1.4% Pacific Islander, and 1.9% from two or more races. Hispanic of any race was 16.4%. The racial makeup of Utah was 92.9% White, 1.3% African American, 1.4% Native American, 3.3% Asian, 1.5% Pacific Islander, and 3.1% from two or more races. Hispanic of any race was 13%. There were 14,433 households, out of which 46.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 76.5% were married couples living together, 6.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 14.1% were non-families. 11.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.83 compared to 2.94 for Salt Lake County and 3.03 for Utah. In the city, the population was spread out, with 37.8% under the age of 20, 6.0% from 20 to 24, 25.3% from 25 to 44, 21.7% from 45 to 64, and 7.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 29.9 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.3 males. The median income for a household in the city was \$104,597, Salt Lake County was \$74,865 and Utah was \$71,621. Males had a median income of \$65,722 versus \$41,171 for females. The per capita income for the city was \$39,453. About 1.6% of families and 2.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.7% of those under age 18 and 2.4% of those age 65 or over. In Salt Lake County, 9.0% of the population were below the poverty line and 8.9% of the population in Utah was below the poverty line. Of those people 25 years and older in the city, 97.1% were high school graduates compared to 90.8% in Salt Lake County and 87.5% in Utah. Those over 25 with a Bachelor's degree or higher weas 42.2% of South Jordan's population. There were 22,368 people employed over the age of 16 with 17,258 people working in the private sector, 2,744 in the government sector, 1,186 self-employed and 32 unpaid family workers. The mean travel time to work was 23.8 minutes. There were 4,153 people employed in educational services, health care and social assistance. There were 2,862 people employed in professional, scientific, management, administrative and waste management services. There were 2,420 people employed in finance, insurance, real estate and rental and leasing. There were 2,316 people employed in retail trade, 1,633 in construction and 2,050 in manufacturing. ### Crime For the year 2019, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) reported the city had 73 violent crimes reported to law enforcement, up from 27 in 2010 and 1,124 reports of property crimes, up from 1,050 in 2010. The violent crime rate was 94 per 100,000 people compared to a national average of 379 and 236 for Utah. The property crime rate was 1,148 per 100,000 compared to a national rate of 2,110 and 1,682 for the State. The FBI defines violent offenses to include forcible rape, robbery, murder, non-negligent manslaughter, and aggravated assault. Property crimes are defined to include arson, motor vehicle theft, larceny, and burglary.

For the year 2020, statistics published by the Utah Department of Public Safety's Bureau of Criminal Identification showed South Jordan had a total of 60 police officers for a rate of .75 officers per 1,000 residents. City police made a total of 998 arrests, up from 910 in 2010. Total crimes reported were 3,338, up from 2,096 crimes in 2010. Total crimes contain categories that include everything from murder, rape and assault to disorderly conduct and DUI. The index crime rate per 1,000 people was 19.17, down from 21.42 in 2010. ## Parks and recreation The city has 35 municipal parks and playgrounds that includes areas for baseball, softball, football, soccer, and lacrosse, volleyball, pickleball, tennis and skateboarding. Other recreational facilities owned by South Jordan City include the Aquatic and Fitness center, Community Center providing the senior programs, three fishing ponds stocked with rainbow trout and catfish by the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, and Mulligan's two miniature golf and two nine-hole executive golf courses. Salt Lake County operates two regional parks inside the city. The 120-acre (49 ha) Equestrian Park that sits adjacent to South Jordan City Park. The park grounds contain a horse racing track, a polo and dressage field, indoor arenas and stables. The Salt Lake County Fair is held every August at the park. The 65-acre (26 ha) Bingham Creek Regional Park includes multi-purpose sport fields, a destination playground, a disc golf course, and biking and other multi-use trails along the creek. A 90-acre (36 ha) addition is in the planning stages that will include areas for BMX, basketball, pickleball, tennis and volleyball. The 67-acre (27 ha) Oquirrh Lake sits inside 137 acres (55 ha) of park and wetlands located at the Daybreak Community. Recreational opportunities include fishing, sail boating, kayaking and canoeing. The lake has been stocked with trout, bigmouth bass, channel catfish, and bluegill. In addition to the lake, the Daybreak community includes 22 miles (35 km) of trails, 37 parks and five swimming pools. The lake, parks and pools are privately owned by Daybreak's home owners association and are for residents only. Privately owned, but open to the public, Glenmoor Golf course is inside city limits. Salt Lake County-owned Mountain View Golf Course is 0.3 miles (0.48 km) north in West Jordan and Sandy-owned River Oaks Golf Course borders the Jordan River. ## Government South Jordan has a six-member council form of government. The council, the city's legislative body, consists of five members and a mayor, each serving a four-year term. The council sets policy, and the city manager oversees day-to-day operations. As of 2022, the mayor is Dawn R. Ramsey. The city council meets the first and third Tuesdays of each month at 6:30 PM. Utah is one of the country's most Republican states and South Jordan follows Utah's trend with only Republican state and federal elected officials. South Jordan is part of Utah's 4th congressional district of the United States House of Representatives. For the state government between 2023 and 2033, the city is part of Utah Senate's 17th district, and parts of the 39th, 44th, 45th, 46th and 48th districts in the Utah House of Representatives. ## Education South Jordan lies within Jordan School District. The district has seven elementary schools (Daybreak, Eastlake, Elk Meadows, Golden Fields, Jordan Ridge, Monte Vista, and South Jordan Elementaries), three middle schools (South Jordan and Elk Ridge, and Mountain Creek) and two high schools (Bingham High School and Herriman High School) serving the students of South Jordan. In addition, there is Paradigm public charter high school, Early Light Academy and Hawthorne Academy public charter elementaries and two private schools (American Heritage and Stillwater Academy). Salt Lake Community College's Jordan Campus is located on the border of West Jordan and South Jordan. The Jordan Campus offers general education classes as well as all of the college's health science courses. Jordan School District's Applied Technology Center is also located on campus. Salt Lake Community College's Miller Campus is located in Sandy on the border with South Jordan and is home to the college's Automotive Training Center, Culinary Institute, Miller Business Resource Center for corporate training programs, and training facilities for the Utah Department of Public Safety. Roseman University of Health Sciences, a private university, houses schools of pharmacy, dentistry, and nursing. ## Transportation Interstate 15, a twelve-lane freeway, is located on the eastern edge of the city and provides two interchanges inside city limits at 10600 South and 11400 South. Bangerter Highway (State Route 154), a six-lane expressway, traverses the center of the city with interchanges at 9800 South, 10400 South and 11400 South. The Mountain View Corridor, an eventual ten-lane freeway, is located on the western edge of the Daybreak Community. South Jordan is served by the Utah Transit Authority (UTA) bus system and UTA's TRAX light rail Red Line. The Red Line connects the TRAX line running to downtown Salt Lake City and the University of Utah. Two TRAX stations, with park and ride lots, are located inside the Daybreak Community. The South Jordan Parkway Station is located at approximately 10600 South and has 400 shared park and ride spaces. The Daybreak Parkway Station is located at 11400 South and has 600 park and ride spaces. Two other stations are located inside West Jordan at the city boundary with South Jordan, the 5600 West Old Bingham Highway Station and the 4800 West Old Bingham Highway Station. The travel time between the Daybreak Parkway Station to downtown Salt Lake City is approximately 60 minutes. UTA's FrontRunner commuter rail system has a station at South Jordan's eastern edge at 10200 South. The FrontRunner extends north to Ogden and south to Provo. ## Infrastructure Electric service to South Jordan residents is provided by Rocky Mountain Power. Natural gas service is provided by Questar. High-speed internet connections are provided by Comcast, Qwest and Google. South Jordan city owns the water distribution system. Drinking water is provided by Jordan Valley Water Conservancy District. Secondary water, a non-potable water used for landscaping, is provided from the canals running through the city. South Valley Sewer District operates the sewer system. South Jordan City contracts out to Ace Recycling and Disposal for curbside pickup of household garbage and recycling. Intermountain Healthcare Riverton Hospital is a 87-bed, full-service hospital in Riverton. Steward Jordan Valley Medical Center is a 171-bed, Level 3 trauma center located in West Jordan. University of Utah and Veterans Affairs operate large clinics in the city. ## Economy According to South Jordan's 2020 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the principal employers in the city are: ## Notable people - Edward J. Fraughton - (b. 1939), is an American artist, sculptor, and inventor. - Harvey Langi - (b. 1992), is an NFL linebacker for the Denver Broncos. - Star Lotulelei - (b. 1989), is a Tongan NFL defensive tackle who played for the Buffalo Bills. - Dax Milne - (b. 1999), is an NFL wide receiver and return specialist for the Washington Commanders. - Apolo Ohno - (b. 1982) is a retired Winter Olympics short track speed skating competitor and member of the U.S. Olympic Hall of Fame (inducted 2019). - Denise Parker - (b. 1973) is an American Olympics archer who was a member of the American squad. ## See also - List of cities and towns in Utah

Hypericum sechmenii

Species of flowering perennial herb in the family Hypericaceae

Hypericum sechmenii, or Seçmen's St John's wort, is a rare species of flowering plant of the St John's wort family (Hypericaceae) that is found only in the Eskişehir Province of central Turkey. Its appearance and characteristics were first described in 2009 by Turkish botanists Atila Ocak and Onur Koyuncu, who named the species in honor of Özcan Seçmen, a fellow botanist. After this description, the species was incorporated into the organization of the genus Hypericum by Norman Robson, who placed H. sechmenii into section Adenosepalum. It is a perennial herb which grows in clusters of stems 3–6 centimetres (cm) tall and blooms in June and July. The stems of the plant are smooth and lack hairs, while the leaves are leathery and do not have leafstalks. Its flowers are arranged in clusters that form a flat-topped shape known as a corymb, and each flower possesses five bright yellow petals. There are several species that are similar in appearance to H. sechmenii, with only minor physical differences that set them apart. The most closely related of these are Hypericum huber-morathii, H. minutum, and H. thymopsis. Found among limestone rocks, Hypericum sechmenii has an exceptionally limited known distribution. Its approximate extent is less than 10 square kilometres, and it is estimated that there are fewer than 250 living members of the species. Despite containing druse crystals and toxic chemicals that are thought to deter herbivory, the species is threatened by overgrazing from livestock, as well as by other factors like climate change and habitat loss. ## Description Hypericum sechmenii is a flowering perennial herb that grows in dense clusters of upright stems typically 3–6 cm, sometimes to 8 cm. It has five-petalled yellow flowers that usually bloom in June and July. ### Roots The outside of its roots has a very thick cuticle, a waterproof protective covering made of fats and wax. Directly beneath the cuticle are one to two bark-like layers of periderm which are composed of several layers of dead cells. Beneath the periderm are several layers of thin-walled tissue cells called a cortex. The tissue of the roots is completely covered in elements of water transport tissue called xylem. ### Stems The numerous smooth and hairless stems of Hypericum sechmenii have multiple layers. On the outside is a thin cuticle that covers a single layer of epidermis. Beneath this epidermis, there are several layers of oval-shaped peridermal cells. These contain a waxy substance called suberin that helps to waterproof the stems. Some cells in the periderm of the stems also contain inorganic minerals known as druse crystals, which a 2020 paper theorized could deter herbivory because of their toxicity. Beneath the periderm is the main growth tissue called the vascular cambium which produces xylem and another transport tissue called phloem. ### Leaves The leaves of Hypericum sechmenii attach directly to the stems and lack leafstalks. They are roughly 2–5 millimetres (mm) long, and densely overlap each other. The texture of the leaves is described as coriaceous, or somewhat leathery. The shape of the leaves is either egg-like (ovate) with a broader base, or elliptic with rounded tips and pointed bases (cuneate). There are numerous pale glands on the surfaces of the leaves, and a few black glands can be found on their edges. These glands are large enough to be seen by the naked eye, but to see the pale glands the leaf may need to be held up to a light. The pale glands contain and excrete essential oil compounds, while the dark glands contain red-staining phenolic compounds (anthraquinone derivatives) that deter some herbivorous insects. On the top and bottom sides of the leaves there are pores that regulate gas exchange, called stomata, and there is tightly packed photosynthetic tissue just below the epidermis. Some of the cells in this tissue also contain druse crystals. The central vein of the leaf is noticeably larger and more prominent than the lateral veins, giving the leaves a visibly distinct midrib. ### Flowers The flower clusters known as inflorescences grow on the ends of the stems and typically have three to five flowers each. The flowers are arranged such that there are longer flower stems (pedicels) on the outer flowers than on the inner ones. This gives the cluster a flat top and forms a structure called a corymb. The specialized bract leaves which surround the flowers are long and have glands and small hairs called cilia. The leafy structures which provide support for the petals, called the sepals, are roughly 2 mm long, are an oval shape, and can either be pointed or rounded. Their edges also have glands and small hairs, similar to the bracts. However, they may have a few black or amber dots and amber lines which the bracts lack. The petals are bright yellow, like most species of Hypericum, and grow in a pentagon of five on each flower. They are 4–7 mm long and have amber glands that are shaped like dots or short lines. On the edges of the petals there are a few black glands in addition to the amber ones. The pollen grains of Hypericum sechmenii have three grooves in a triangular layout, and the overall shape of the grain is a slightly elongated sphere. An individual grain is 17.2 micrometres (μm) long and 11.5 μm wide. Each surface groove is 12.2 μm long and 2.4 μm wide, and the space where the grooves meet is 1.7 μm in diameter. There are pores on the surface of the pollen that are 2.5 μm long and 2.2 μm wide. Surrounding the grain is a tough outer wall that is 1.5 μm thick and has an outer layer with a net-like pattern. The seed capsules are 3–4 mm long and oval in shape, and their ovaries have a few oil cavities that run lengthwise along the capsule. The seeds themselves have tiny, regularly-spaced pits that form patterns similar in appearance to small lines or ladders. ### Similar species Hypericum sechmenii is similar in outward appearance to other Turkish species of Hypericum. In its original description, its similarity to Hypericum huber-morathii and Hypericum minutum was noted, and it has also been closely compared to Hypericum thymopsis. When compared to Hypericum minutum and H. huber-morathii, Hypericum sechmenii has differences in its leaves, flowers, and pollen grains. Its leaves are adjacent on one another and overlap, while the leaves of H. minutum and H. huber-morathii are placed on opposite sides of the stem. Hypericum sechmenii has more flowers on an inflorescence (3–5) than H. minutum (1–3), but usually has fewer than H. huber-morathii (3–12). The glands on its petals are also different; H. sechmenii has amber dots and lines, whereas H. minutum has amber dots with no lines and H. huber-morathii only has black dots, or no visible glands at all. Pollen grains are another way to tell the three species apart. Hypericum minutum has tiny protrusions on the surface of its pollen called microspinae, which H. sechmenii lacks, and H. minutum has far fewer distinct grooves on its surface. H. sechmenii pollen grains are larger than those of H. minutum and smaller than those of H. huber-morathii. H. huber-morathii has a slightly larger region on its end where the grooves meet. Anatomically, Hypericum sechmenii is also similar to H. thymopsis despite not being as closely related. Both species have similar adaptations in their stomata which make them able to thrive in dry climates, and both have stomata on the upper and lower sides of their leaves. However, the structure of the species' stem tissue sets them apart. H. sechmenii has a thinner layer of palisade tissue and its inner stem tissue is made up solely of xylem, whereas H. thymopsis has softer, spongy pith tissue as well. ## Taxonomy Hypericum sechmenii was first observed and collected by Turkish botanist Atila Ocak in 2006. The holotype of the species was first collected in that same year by Ocak in the district of Günyüzü and is now housed at Eskişehir Osmangazi University. Three years later, in December 2009, the species was formally described in volume 46 of the peer-reviewed journal Annales Botanici Fennici. Hypericum sechmenii was described by Atila Ocak and Onur Koyuncu alongside Filiz Savaroglu and Ismuhan Potoglu. Ocak and Koyuncu gave the species the specific epithet sechmenii as an homage to the prominent Turkish taxonomist and ecologist Özcan Seçmen. In Turkish, the plant is called seçmen kantaronu, translated as Seçmen's St John's wort. The species was incorporated into the Flora of Turkey endemic species registry in 2011 alongside another recently described Hypericum species, Hypericum musadoganii. In 1977, British taxonomist Norman Robson began a genus-wide monograph of Hypericum. He divided the genus into 36 sections, with almost every species in the genus being placed into one of these sections based on their morphology and phylogeny. However, Hypericum sechmenii was omitted from this original monograph, as it had not yet been identified as a unique species. After Hypericum sechmenii was described, it was then placed into the overall framework of the genus Hypericum by Robson in a later addition to his monograph. Robson corroborated the findings of Ocak and Koyuncu that H. sechmenii was its own species, taking note of its similarities to other Anatolian species of Hypericum, specifically Hypericum minutum and Hypericum huber-morathii. Because of this, Robson placed the species in a clade called the Huber-morathii Group. The group comprises five Turkish species of Hypericum and lies within the large section Adenosepalum. The placement of H. sechmenii was summarized by Robson as follows:

Hypericum : Hypericum subg. Hypericum : : Hypericum sect. Adenosepalum : : : subsect. Adenosepalum : : : subsect. Aethiopica : : : subsect. Caprifolia : : : Huber-Morathii Group : : : : H. decaisneanum : : : : H. formosissimum : : : : H. huber-morathii : : : : H. minutum : : : : H. sechmenii ## Distribution and habitat Hypericum sechmenii is one of numerous species of Hypericum that are endemic to Turkey. Specifically, the species is endemic to central Turkey in northwestern Anatolia, within Eskişehir Province. The species is only known from two separate localities, one near the peak of Arayit Mountain, and the other between the towns of Kaymaz and Sivrihisar. The area of distribution on Arayit Mountain is estimated to be 2 square kilometres (km²). The area of the Kaymaz to Sivrihisar locality is estimated to be smaller. The species' habitat is usually in and among the crevices of limestone rocks and outcroppings. The holotype of the species was collected at about 1,800 metres (m), and the general elevation of the species is 1,750–1,820 m. Several other specimens of H. sechmenii have been collected since the species' discovery, being preserved at various Turkish herbariums. ## Ecology Very little research has been conducted regarding the ecology of Hypericum sechmenii and its relationship with its environment. The plant usually flowers from June to July, and it fruits in July. The leaves of Hypericum sechmenii contain xeromorphic stomata, pores that have adaptations to allow the plant to better survive in its arid, steppe habitat of Central Anatolia, defined as the Irano-Turanian floristic region. H. sechmenii has adaptations of the genus Hypericum which deter grazing, especially from herbivorous insects. The first is the presence of numerous dark glands on the leaf margins that contain compounds which are toxic to creatures attempting to consume the plant. The second is the presence of druse crystals in many cells of the stem and leaf tissue. These contain minerals that are thought to deter some insects from grazing. Hypericum sechmenii is found in and among a number of other plant species. Specifically, it grows alongside small shrubs and perennial herbs like stonecress (Aethionema subulatum), woodruff (Asperula nitida), harebell (Asyneuma compactum), small toadflax (Chaenorhinium minus), Kotschy's damask flower (Hesperis kotschyi), flax (Linum cariense), restharrow (Ononis adenotricha), dandelions (Scorzonera tomentosa), Turkish catchfly (Silene falcata), and wood betony (Stachys lavandulifolia). It is found among only one other Hypericum species, that being Hypericum confertum. ## Conservation It is estimated that there are fewer than 250 members of the species within an area smaller than 10 km². The species is under threat from both abiotic factors, especially climate change, and human impact from agriculture and the grazing of domesticated animals. Because of these threats and the unsustainably small population size of Hypericum sechmenii, biologists from the Eskişehir Osmangazi University recommended that the species be classified as Critically Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, although no conservational measures had been taken as of 2013.

Ethel Maynard

American politician

Ethel Reed Maynard (November 23, 1905 – May 20, 1980) was an American politician, activist, and registered nurse who served in the Arizona House of Representatives as a member of the Democratic Party. She was the first black woman to serve in the Arizona Legislature. Maynard was born in Waterbury, Connecticut, and spent eighteen years as a registered nurse in Harlem, New York, before moving to Tucson, Arizona, in 1946. During the 1950s she served as an officer in the Arizona NAACP and was active in the Arizona Democratic Party, serving as a committee-member on the precinct and ward level, and attending the 1956 Democratic National Convention. In 1966, she was elected to the Arizona House of Representatives and served until she was defeated in the 1972 elections. ## Early life Ethel Reed Maynard was born in Waterbury, Connecticut, on November 23, 1905. She worked as a registered nurse in Harlem, New York, for eighteen years before moving to Tucson, Arizona, in 1946. After moving to Tucson she started working at the Tucson Medical Center where she would work for over twenty years. She married Aubre de Lambert Maynard on August 15, 1928, with whom she had one child before divorcing in 1930. ## Career Maynard was selected to serve as second vice-president of the Arizona NAACP in 1951. She also served as vice-president of the Tucson Council for Civic Unity, a civil rights organization. She founded the Safford Area Council of the Tucson Committee for Economic Opportunity and served on its board of executives. Maynard also served on the board of Planned Parenthood. In 1954, she was elected as a Democratic state committee-member from the sixth precinct. In 1955, she was elected as a committee-member from the 1st ward in Tucson, Arizona. During the 1956 presidential election she served as a delegate to the Democratic National Convention. She was appointed to the advisory board of the Tucson Democratic Central Committee by chairman W. Evans Bagley in 1957, and later named to the board of directors of the Tucson Democratic Central Committee in 1959. On July 19, 1963, Maynard announced that she would seek the Democratic nomination for a seat on the Tucson city council from ward one, but placed fourth out of four candidates. In the general election she received twenty write-in votes for city council and three in the mayoral election.

### Arizona House of Representatives In July 1966, Maynard announced that she would seek the Democratic nomination for a seat in the Arizona House of Representatives from the 7th district. She won in the general election, becoming the first black woman elected to the Arizona legislature. She was reelected in 1968 and 1970. Maynard unsuccessfully sought a fourth term in 1972. During her tenure in the Arizona House of Representatives, Maynard served on the Judiciary, Suffrage and Elections, and Public Health and Welfare committees. Maynard was appointed to serve on the public health and welfare and state government committees during the 28th session of the Arizona legislature in 1967. She and Leon Thompson introduced legislation to reestablish Arizona's Commission on the Status of Women, which had been originally established by Governor Samuel Pearson Goddard Jr. in 1966, before being disestablished in 1967, leaving Arizona as one of two states without such a commission. Maynard served as a member of the 1968 Tucson Commission on Human Relations which oversaw racial integration in multiple areas. ## Death and legacy On May 20, 1980, Maynard died from heart failure. She was inducted into the Arizona Women's Hall of Fame in 2006. Since her tenure twenty-one black people have been elected to the Arizona House of Representatives, with six being female and fifteen being male. ## See also - Female state legislators in the United States - List of African-American U.S. state firsts - List of first African-American U.S. state legislators

Black Swan (song)

2020 single by BTS

"Black Swan" is a song by South Korean boy band BTS from their fourth Korean-language studio album, Map of the Soul: 7 (2020). The song was written by RM, August Rigo, Vince Nantes, Clyde Kelly and Pdogg, with the latter of the five also handling production. It was released on January 17, 2020, as the first single by Big Hit Entertainment as a countdown to the album. Musically, it was described as an emo hip hop song featuring cloud rap and trap drum beats. The song uses lo-fi-style guitar instrumentation and contains a "catchy" hook. The lyrics are introspective and find BTS confessing, as artists, the fear of losing their passion for music. "Black Swan" received widespread acclaim from music critics for its "honest and raw" lyrics and dark production, with comparisons being drawn to the band's 2018 single, "Fake Love". Commercially, the former debuted at number seven on South Korea's Gaon Digital Chart and at number one on the US Billboard World Digital Song Sales chart. The song debuted at number 46 on the UK Singles Chart and number 57 on the US Billboard Hot 100, in addition to entering record charts in several other territories. Two accompanying music videos, both inspired by Darren Aronofsky's 2010 movie of the same name, were directed by YongSeok Choi of Lumpens. The first one premiered simultaneously with the release of the single in the form of an "art film," including an interpretive dance performance by Slovenian-based modern dance troupe MN Dance Company. The second video, released without any prior announcements, is choreography-heavy and depicts BTS transforming into eponymous black swans on the stage of a theatre. The debut of "Black Swan", on The Late Late Show with James Corden, received positive reviews from critics, who praised the band's "impassioned" performance and "intricate" choreography. Following the release of Map of the Soul: 7, BTS promoted the song with televised live performances on several South Korean music programs, including M! Countdown, Music Bank, and Inkigayo. ## Background and release Following the release of their sixth extended play Map of the Soul: Persona (2019), BTS took an "extended period of rest and relaxation" in the midst of their Love Yourself World Tour to "recharge and prepare to present themselves anew as musicians and creators" and "enjoy the lives of young people "in their 20s." On January 7, 2020, the band announced a return to music with the release of their fourth Korean-language studio album Map of the Soul: 7, on February 21 of that year. A "comeback map" for the album was released on January 8, 2020, revealing a schedule split into four phases. The map featured multiple dates, including the release dates for the album's two singles. Details on the first single, including its title and artwork, were revealed in conjunction with the release of the song. "Black Swan", the first single from Map of the Soul: 7, was made available for digital download and streaming in various countries on January 17, 2020, by Big Hit Entertainment. The song was written by RM, August Rigo, Vince Nantes, Clyde Kelly, and Pdogg. It was produced by Pdogg, while mixed by DJ Riggins, Jaycen Joshua, Jacob Richards and Max Seaberg. The song was released one week after BTS teased the track "Interlude: Shadow" from the album, performed by band member Suga. The release was in line with the band's global public art project, Connect, BTS, bringing together 22 contemporary artists across the world for curating works that resonate BTS' philosophy. ## Composition and lyrics "Black Swan" has been described as an emo hip hop song that derives its style from trap drum beats and "doleful" lo-fi-style guitar instrumentation. Featuring cloud rap and a "catchy" hook, the song is built around an instrumental refrain. Some music critics identified it as an R&B ballad. In terms of music notation, the song is composed in the key of D minor, with a tempo of 147 beats per minute, and has a length of 3:18. Two versions of the song were released, a studio version on digital streaming platforms and an orchestral version accompanying an "art film." The latter features a capella vocals layered over "stripped-down" string-heavy instrumental production. In its composition, the studio version incorporates "synth-y guitar riffs" and a "pounding beat." The blend of trap beats with "mournful" instrumentals during production was used to create an "atmospheric" and "haunting" mood. Jason Lipshutz, writing for Billboard, noted that the instrumentation accentuates "the interwoven hooks, rap verses and falsetto exclamations." The song opens with distinctly East Asian riffs built over a rhapsodic melody, accompanied by distorted vocals. Pitchfork's Sheldon Pearce noted the heavy use of Auto-Tune in the song. Meanwhile, Evening Standard's Jochan Embley noted that the track incorporated the traditional 12-stringed Korean instrument gayageum. Throughout the song, BTS' vocals are "layered and processed" to make them "indistinguishable" from each other, showing how they are one unit of seven people, while the minimalist sounds represent a subdued inner. At several points, the voices of the band sound like "an inner monologue torn between pushing through and carrying on as normal" or "being riddled with uncertainty and hesitation." Critics have compared the song to BTS' 2018 single "Fake Love". According to Yonhap News Agency, "Black Swan" continues the theme of exploring one's ego from BTS' previous album, Map of the Soul: Persona, inspired by Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung's theories of human psychology. The Korea Times's press release described the song as "a confession of an artist who has truly learned what music means to himself," in which "BTS dives deep into their inner selves as artists and faces the shadows they had once hidden." In an interview with Zach Sang, the band described the song as "very personal" in which they wanted to talk about their shadows. In the trap ballet, BTS use introspective lyrics to confess the fear of losing passion for music. "Black Swan" details the relationship artists have with their craft, comparing the harrowing feeling of loss of love for the craft to death, with lyrics such as "If this can no longer resonate, no longer make my heart vibrate, then like this may be how I die my first death." ## Reception "Black Swan" was met with acclaim from music critics. In her review for Consequence of Sound, Hannah Zwick complimented the song's "beautiful blend of trap drumbeats and strings, rap and vocals, that creates an atmosphere of anxiety before you even read the lyrics" and chose the song as a highlight of Map of the Soul: 7. Stereogum critic Chris DeVille felt that the version accompanying the art film "infuses it with classical elements to go along with the video’s modern dance routine." Writing for MTV, Crystal Bell regarded the song as BTS' "darkest single" since "Fake Love" in 2018, adding that the song characterizes "BTS at their most raw and unflinching," and is "deeper and more painful." So Seung-Geun from IZM viewed it as "heavy and philosophical" and described the song's production as "dark and serious." Calling the sound "mature," he rated the song four out of five stars, writing that "two completely different elements of Oriental Classic and Western Trend are compatible and entangled in an enlarged position, embodying the inner desire to fly much like a feather." In his review of Map of the Soul: 7 for the Los Angeles Times, August Brown described "Black Swan" as "foggy," "arty" and "catchy as hell" and stated that, "If 7 has a statement of purpose, it’s probably this cut. It shows the biggest band in the world as attentive students of trippy modern hip-hop, but aware of the meticulousness and skill they bring to it as well." Raisa Bruner of Time magazine listed "Black Swan" amongst the five best songs of the week and praised BTS' "focus on detail" for crafting "a maze of connected narratives that blend visuals with song lyrics and sound" and further added, "BTS' desire in this phase to express their passion for their art and its impact on their lives has never been more evident." Labelling "Black Swan" as "honest and raw," Rhian Daly from NME called it "a haunting, melancholy curveball" that deviates "from an immediate, radio-friendly choice", putting "artistry ahead of mass appeal". Sophia Simon-Bashall of The Line of Best Fit favoured the production incorporating modern trap beats with traditional Korean instruments while also appreciating the song's lyrical content and wrote, "It speaks to anyone who has been through depression, the uniquely crushing experience of losing interest in what once gave meaning. It reaches out a hand to acknowledge that pain and provides a reminder to fight." In his review for Clash, Robin Murray regarded the track as "a stunning return, steering their infinitely appealing pop template into left-field landscapes." Vannessa Jackson of E! Online deemed it their "most dramatic song yet." Initially, "Black Swan" debuted at number 7 on the Gaon Digital Chart for the issue date of January 25, 2020, ultimately reaching number 10 following the release of Map of the Soul: 7. The song debuted and peaked at number two on the Gaon Download Chart, remaining in the top five for two consecutive weeks. "Black Swan" was the 11th best-performing song of the February 2020 issue of the Gaon Monthly Digital Chart, based on streaming, digital sales and downloads. The song debuted at number 57 on the US Billboard Hot 100 becoming BTS' eighth entry on the chart, and ranked at number 46 on the UK Singles Chart. Additionally, it debuted atop the US Billboard World Digital Song Sales chart for the issue date of February 1, 2020, becoming the band's 18th chart-topper, and the song entered the US Digital Song Sales chart at number 2. The song charted at number 63 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart and number 9 on the New Zealand Hot Singles chart, an extension to the New Zealand Top 40 chart. The song was also moderately successful in several other territories including Australia, Germany, Japan, Switzerland, Ireland and Flemish region of Belgium. ### Accolades The song achieved substantial popularity, earning the Melon Popularity Award for five consecutive weeks. ## Music videos

### Art film A music video for "Black Swan" was directed by YongSeok Choi of Lumpens and premiered simultaneously with the song's release on YouTube. Hyunwoo Nam of GDW was credited as the director of photography and Tiffany Suh as the producer. The video is in the form of an "art film," featuring an interpretive dance performance by Slovenian-based modern dance troupe MN Dance Company, danced to the orchestral version of the song. The video was inspired by the movie Black Swan (2010). The art film opens with a quote from American dancer Martha Graham, "A dancer dies twice — once when they stop dancing, and this first death is more painful", a quote which echoes the theme of the song. The video then fades to an abandoned mall where seven dancers, in a straight line, walk into the frame. The following scene shows one shirtless lead dancer standing apart from the rest, who are dressed in over-sized suits. The video runs for five minutes and showcases symbolic contemporary choreography that "gets more intense, combative" as the lead dancer, turning into the "black swan", tries to escape from the clutches of the other six shadowed figures and break free from the cage of light. In some scenes, the dancer is entirely alone, dancing for himself. The performance ends with the lead dancer being raised towards the sky by the others, alongside him flapping his arms like a bird. Visually, the clip explores "the grappling of conflicting emotions" offered in the lyrics, as reinterpreted by the dancers. Commenting on why the art film was chosen, Jimin stated that "It was a new experience for us [...] ‘Black Swan’ is a confession by artists, so we wanted to focus on bringing out an artistic atmosphere." NPR's Stephen Thompson called the art film "lavishly choreographed" and pointed out how it "nicely reflects the song's message — about artists' fraught relationship with the work that sustains them." Christie D'Zurilla, writing for the Los Angeles Times, labelled the visual "artsy". Entertainment Weekly's Nick Romano called it as "honest and raw" as the Black Swan film. Reviewing for Clash, Robin Murray deemed the video as "a riveting watch." Corey Atad of Entertainment Tonight Canada echoed similar sentiments and acknowledged the "gorgeous interpretive dance." Ellie Nicholas of Celebmix connected the music video with the song's lyrics and gave a positive review, writing "The phenomenal choreography meshed with the orchestral instrumental and lyrics created a truly moving atmosphere to really bring to life the meaning of the track." ### Music video A second accompanying music video was uploaded to Big Hit's official YouTube channel on March 4, 2020, without any prior announcements. It was also directed by YongSeok Choi, and co-directed by Guzza, both from Lumpens, while the video was shot in the Los Angeles Theatre. The music video is dark and choreography-heavy, seeing BTS transforming into eponymous black swans. The visual opens with BTS clad in white, standing on the dark stage of an intimate theatre. In the following scenes, the members are seen delivering their verses while surrounded by an ornate vaulted ceiling and gilded fixtures. The video alternates between close-ups of each member interacting with their shadows and group-shots of them performing "intricate" choreography on an empty stage. Suga is seen rapping in the backdrop of mural paintings when his shadow breaks free from his body and dances in the background. Several solo shots of Jimin's elegant choreography are shown; at one point, he spreads his wings like a bird. Jin is seen contemplating his reflection in a hall of mirrors, as he is haunted by himself. Throughout the video, BTS switch from white to black outfits, matching the "Black Swan" concept photos of the album. This is a metaphor for portraying the perception of good and evil as shadows play a central part in the video, alluding to the recurring theme of Map of the Soul: 7 and visual representation of the song's lyrics. The video draws heavy references to "Jungian shadows", Darren Aronofsky's 2010 psychological thriller of the same name, as well as Tchaikovsky's ballet Swan Lake (1876). In her review for Vulture, Rebecca Alter called the video "perfect." Lake Schatz of Consequence of Sound wrote that "the group’s bold and exquisite dance work is captivating in itself, but also symbolizes a swan-like transformation, as BTS eventually swap their crisp white suits for black ones." Paper magazine's Matt Moen called it "positively breathtaking." ## Live performances BTS performed "Black Swan" for the first time on The Late Late Show with James Corden on January 28, 2020. For the performance, choreography by Brazilian-born choreographer Sergio Reis was commissioned. Big Hit had seen performances by Reis' Netherlands-based dance crew CDK, which "had a similar 'dark' feel to" what was wanted for "Black Swan". During the song's well-received performance, the band members were barefoot on stage, dressed in black suits. The performance set was elaborate, bolstered by an LCD-screen waterfall that made it look like they were performing in the backdrop of a darkened forest or on a frosty lake. Writing for Rolling Stone, Emily Zemler praised the performance, saying that "it was a notably impressive and energized rendition of the track and featured some impassioned barefoot choreography." Tom Breihan of Stereogum lauded the band's "intricate" choreography and wrote: "As pure pop spectacle, it was magnificent." Alyssa Bailey of Elle called it "one of the most breathtaking performances" and wrote, "one of the most mesmerizing aspects is the group's ability to perform elaborate, high-energy choreography while being perfectly in sync with each other and singing." Following the release of the album in February 2020, BTS performed "Black Swan" on several South Korean music programs, including Mnet's M! Countdown, KBS's Music Bank and SBS's Inkigayo. ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from Tidal and the liner notes of Map of the Soul: 7. - BTS – primary vocals - RM - songwriting - J-Hope – chorus - Jungkook – chorus - Pdogg – production, songwriting, keyboard, synthesizer, vocal arrangement, rap arrangement, recording engineer - August Rigo – songwriting - Vince Nantes – songwriting - Clyde Kelly – songwriting - DJ Riggins – mix engineer - Jaycen Joshua – mix engineer - Jacob Richards – mix engineer - Max Seaberg – mix engineer - Hiss noise – digital editing ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Monthly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history ## See also - List of number-one songs of 2020 (Malaysia) - List of top 10 singles in 2020 (France)

New York State Route 812

State highway in the North Country of New York, USA

New York State Route 812 (NY 812) is a state highway in the North Country of New York in the United States. The southern terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 12 and NY 26 in the Lewis County village of Lowville. Its northern terminus is at the Canada–United States border in Ogdensburg, where it crosses the Ogdensburg–Prescott International Bridge and connects to Highway 16 in Ontario. While most of NY 812 passes through rural areas of the North Country, the route also serves several villages and small communities. The GPS services company Geotab has named it the quietest highway in New York due to its low traffic counts. The origins of NY 812 date back to the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York, when the portion of modern NY 812 from Lowville to Croghan became part of NY 26A and the segment of modern NY 812 between De Kalb and Ogdensburg was designated as the northernmost portion of New York State Route 87. NY 87 originally extended as far south as Harrisville; however, it was truncated north to Edwards in the 1940s and farther north to De Kalb in the 1970s. On July 1, 1977, all of NY 87 and the Lowville–Croghan leg of NY 26A were replaced with NY 812, a new route that began in Lowville and passed through Croghan, Harrisville, Gouverneur, and De Kalb before ending near Ogdensburg. At the time, two sections of the route—from the Croghan village line to a point west of Harrisville and from Harrisville to Fowler—were maintained by the counties that they passed through, and a piece between NY 126 and the Croghan village line was maintained by the village itself. The state of New York assumed maintenance of the Croghan–Harrisville segment in 1980 and took over the Harrisville–Fowler section in 1982. ## Route description ### Lewis County NY 812 begins at an intersection with NY 12 and NY 26 in the center of village of Lowville, which is located in the town of the same name. NY 26, concurrent with NY 12 south of this point, leaves NY 12 and follows NY 812 for several blocks along North State Street before NY 812 turns northeast onto Bostwick Street. Just before Bostwick ends at East State Street, NY 812 turns off and begins its progression northward through a largely rural area of the North Country. As it exits the village of Lowville (but remains in the town of the same name), it begins to parallel the western bank of the Black River. The two entities remain close for roughly 1 mile (1.6 km) before NY 812 crosses over the river and enters New Bremen. In the hamlet of New Bremen, NY 812 intersects County Route 33 (CR 33), a riverside roadway bypassing both Croghan and Beaver Falls along the east bank of the Black River, southwest of Duflo Airport. NY 812 continues onward, crossing the Black Creek as it enters Croghan, a village situated on the New Bremen–Croghan town line. At the center of the community, NY 812 meets the eastern terminus of NY 126. Outside of Croghan, NY 812 traverses the Beaver River just north of the village line. The route and the river continue northward along parallel routings for a brief distance before the two separate near the hamlet of High Falls. While the river curves east toward the hamlet, NY 812 presses northward through the rural hamlets of Indian River and Dutton Corners into the town of Diana, where NY 812 starts to parallel the west branch of the Oswegatchie River as both continue north through the town. At Tylers Corners, NY 812 intersects NY 3 and joins the route eastward into Harrisville, where the conjoined routes cross over the Oswegatchie. Northeast of Harrisville in extreme southwestern St. Lawrence County, NY 812 breaks from NY 3 and heads northwest through Pitcairn (crossing over the Oswegatchie once more in the process).

### St. Lawrence County From Harrisville, NY 812 travels north through an area of Pitcairn and Fowler. This area contains numerous small lakes and rivers and is predominantly rural in nature. Within Fowler, the route serves the hamlet of Balmat (located on the eastern edge of Sylvia Lake) before intersecting NY 58 in the hamlet of Fowler. Here, NY 812 joins NY 58 northeast along the southern bank of the now-unified Oswegatchie River to the village of Gouverneur, located in the town of the same name, where NY 812 leaves NY 58 but joins U.S. Route 11 (US 11) at the heart of the community. Outside of the village, US 11 and NY 812 head northeast, roughly paralleling the Oswegatchie once more into the De Kalb village of Richville. The routes quickly exit the village and separate shortly thereafter south of the hamlet of De Kalb, with the Oswegatchie leaving the path of US 11 and following NY 812. NY 812 heads north, serving De Kalb and crossing over the Oswegatchie south of an intersection with CR 14, a connector leading to Rensselaer Falls that was once NY 186. Here, NY 812 begins to the northwest as it approaches the village of Heuvelton. Within the village, located in the town of Oswegatchie, NY 812, here known as State Street, intersects NY 184 just before traversing the Oswegatchie one final time. The name remains for three blocks before NY 812 departs the village. Farther north, NY 812 passes by the Ogdensburg International Airport before meeting NY 37 at an interchange just south of the Ogdensburg city limits. NY 812 joins NY 37 here, following the route through the southern reaches of the city. The conjoined routes intersect NY 68 before separating near the northeastern city limits. Past NY 37, NY 812 continues onto the Ogdensburg–Prescott International Bridge over the St. Lawrence River, where it becomes Highway 16 upon crossing the Canada–United States border into Ontario. ## History In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York, what is now NY 812 between Lowville and Croghan became the southern leg of NY 26A, an alternate route of NY 26 between Lowville and Carthage. Farther north, the portion of modern NY 812 between De Kalb and Ogdensburg became part of NY 87, a route extending from Harrisville to Ogdensburg via Edwards, Russell and De Kalb. From Harrisville to Fowler, NY 87 followed a parallel alignment to modern NY 812 along Hands Flats, Stone, and Pitcairn roads, and CR 24. Between Fowler and De Kalb, NY 87 used what is now NY 58, CR 24, and CR 17 before following current NY 812 north to Ogdensburg. The portion of NY 87 between De Kalb Junction and De Kalb was concurrent with US 11. Both US 11 and NY 87 were shifted south onto a new highway c. 1936, at which time the former routing of US 11 between the new road and De Kalb became part of NY 87. NY 87 was gradually truncated northward over time. The first change to the route's southern end came in the early 1940s when it was moved northeastward to the eastern terminus of its former overlap with NY 58 in Edwards. It was moved once more, this time to what was the west end of its overlap with US 11 in De Kalb, in the early 1970s. In 1975, officials from New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT) Region 7 proposed eliminating NY 87 in favor of NY 812, a new route that would extend from Lowville to Ogdensburg via Croghan, Harrisville, Gouverneur, and De Kalb. The designation would also supplant NY 26A south of Croghan. The proposed route was part of a larger plan to connect the Delaware River at Deposit to the Ogdensburg–Prescott International Bridge over the Saint Lawrence River by way of as few numbered routes as possible. All of the suggested changes were implemented on July 1, 1977. When NY 812 was first assigned, it was locally maintained from NY 126 in Croghan to NY 3 in Diana and from NY 3 in Pitcairn to NY 58 in Fowler. The section of the route between NY 126 and the Croghan village line was maintained by the village of Croghan; however, the rest of the two locally maintained sections were maintained by Lewis and St. Lawrence counties. Most of the Lewis County-owned section was co-designated as CR 11; however, the short piece between the Croghan village line and Belfort Road was part of CR 10. In St. Lawrence County, NY 812 was overlaid on the existing CR 73 from NY 3 to Stone Road, CR 99 between Stone Road and Balmat, and CR 56 from Balmat to Fowler. The state of New York assumed ownership and maintenance of NY 812 between Croghan and Diana on April 1, 1980, as part of a highway maintenance swap between the state and Lewis County that transferred NY 194 to the county. Ownership of NY 812 from Pitcairn to Fowler was transferred to the state on September 1, 1982, as part of a highway maintenance swap between the state and St. Lawrence County. ## Major intersections ## See also

Space Channel 5: Part 2

2002 video game

is a music video game developed by United Game Artists. A direct sequel to the 1999 game Space Channel 5, the game was published for Dreamcast and PlayStation 2 in Japan in February 2002 by Sega. The PS2 version released worldwide in 2003 by SCEE (Mainland Europe) and Agetec (North America). The game later received a high-definition port to Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 in 2011 from Sega. In a space age future, reporter Ulala takes on a group called the Rhythm Rogues and their leader Purge when they unleash a dancing madness on the galaxy. As Ulala, players engage in rhythm-based combat through scripted levels where Ulala mimics the actions of rivals in time to musical tracks. Alongside the single-player story campaign, there exists an endurance mode called Ulala's Dance and a multiplayer option for both modes. Part 2 was produced over two years by many of the same staff; it was the team's last game prior to being merged with Sonic Team, and the last produced by Tetsuya Mizuguchi prior to leaving Sega in 2003. Shifting to 3D graphics from the pre-rendered videos of the first game, Mizuguchi included several features based on the team's wishes and feedback from the first game. The music was composed over the course of a year, and spawned four soundtrack albums. Part 2 was a critical and commercial success, with many critics citing it as superior to the original due to its polished mechanics and soundtrack. ## Synopsis and gameplay In the music video game Space Channel 5: Part 2, players take on the role of Ulala, a reporter working for the titular news channel in a 1960s-styled science fiction future filled with competing news channels. After a gang called the Rhythm Rogues led by Purge and his subordinate Shadow attack people with a dancing madness, Ulala is sent to both report on events, while clashing with rival reporters and local authorities, and defeat the Rhythm Rogues' plans. The Rhythm Rogues kidnap Space President Peace, steal transmitters from other news stations to amplify their dancing signal, and destroy Space Channel 5's base. After defeating Shadow, revealed to a former ally under hypnosis, Ulala defeats Purge. Players control Ulala through six 3D levels, with some levels having specific gimmicks such as band instrument-based battles or mimicking picture poses. The aim in each level is to defeat enemies, win boss encounters, and rescue citizens. All gameplay has Ulala mimicking the movements and vocalisations of her opponents (compared by journalists to the game Simon Says). There are six buttons that match actions on-screen; the directional pad buttons, and two action buttons which are presented with the respective vocalizations "chu" and "hey". Levels are divided into dancing and shooting areas; during the shooting sections, Ulala uses "chu" to defeat enemies and "hey" to free hostages. There are many variations present during these sections; button prompts must be timed in some songs with lyrics, and some long notes require the player to hold down a button. Alongside standard battles, Ulala has battle-style sections where she uses a musical instrument. During these sections, the player pressing "down" on the directional pad and action buttons. Ratings, shown in the bottom left-hand corner of the screen, increase with each good performance and discovering secret moves. Ulala's health is represented as hearts in standard gameplay, with the game ending if Ulala runs out of hearts. The heart count can be increased with good performance. The rate of success during any section changes Ulala's dancing and backing music to reflect this, with more rescues and successful dances increasing Ulala's party and musical variety, while errors cause Ulala's dancing to flag and the music to simplify. During boss encounters, the current rating is converted into stars which act as a health meter, and remaining stars at the end of a boss fight are converted into ratings. An additional mode outside the main campaign is "Ulala's Dance", a 100-stage endurance battle where Ulala only has a single heart. Successful performance in Ulala's Dance, in addition to finding hidden moves in standard levels, unlocks costumes and accessories for Ulala. Part 2 also supports multiplayer; one player controls the directional pad, while the other controls the action buttons. ## Development A sequel to Space Channel 5 was planned from an early stage, but production was put on hold until Western sales figures came in. Despite these low sales, it was much easier for Tetsuya Mizuguchi to pitch the sequel to Sega as they were now familiar with the genre and gameplay. As with the first game, production was handled by Sega's subsidiary studio United Game Artists. Production lasted around two years. Returning staff included Mizuguchi as producer, original art director Yumiko Miyabe as director, lead designer and writer Takumi Yoshinaga, and artist Mayumi Moro as art director. During its development, the team knew Sega's console production days would end with the Dreamcast. While the original game was developed first for Dreamcast and production was focused on this version, Part 2 saw simultaneous development for Dreamcast and PS2 and was the second game developed by the team for Sony's console. Space Channel 5: Part 2 was the last title developed by United Game Artists prior to Sega's internal restructuring in 2003, when it was incorporated into the newly-formed Sonic Team studio. It was also Mizuguchi's last game at Sega prior to leaving following the restructure and founding Q Entertainment. The original atmosphere, described as "retro sci-fi", was retained for the sequel. Several early planned elements, such as a censorship group which would interrupt broadcasts they deemed unsuitable and the main villain being a galaxy-conquering alien force, were cut from the game as they made the plot overly large and complicated. Ulala's outfit saw a color change from its original orange to white. While the first game used polygonal real-time models over FMV sequences, the environments in Part 2 were fully 3D. There were several given reasons for this; the team were more familiar with the Dreamcast hardware and so were able to create 3D environments, they wanted to shift away from the pre-rendered style of Space Channel 5 which Mizuguchi described as "really tough" to create, and they wanted to create a more cinematic experience for players. Based on feedback from the first game, the team added more extras such as alternate costumes and accessories. A notable new element to gameplay was the instrument-based battles, which proved difficult for the developers to fine-tune.

To ensure creative control over the voice performances and foreseeing last-minute changes, the game's staff voiced the characters as with the first game. The voice actors performed their lines alongside the musical tracks to get the timing right. The process was handled by the game's sound team and overseen by Mizuguchi. The game featured an appearance from Michael Jackson, who played himself as a character called Space Michael and is voiced only in English across both the Japanese and English voices. Having previously appeared in the first game as a brief cameo after being impressed by a pre-release version, he was given a much-expanded role in the sequel. The first game's director, Takashi Yuda, returned to voice the character Fuze; as did Ulala's respective actresses in Japanese (United Game Artists staff member Mineko Okamura) and English (Apollo Smile). ### Music The music for Part 2 was co-composed by Naofumi Hataya, Kenichi Tokoi, Tomoya Ohtani and Mariko Nanba. Hataya and Tokoi returned from the first game, with Hataya also acting as sound producer. The game was Ohtani's third project as a composer after his work on Sonic Adventure 2 and ChuChu Rocket!. Nanba was brought aboard the project in May 2001, and was initially overwhelmed by both the project and the game's musical style. Same as with the first game, the music was influenced by big band jazz of the 1960s and 70s. Production of the music lasted an entire year due to its core part in the gameplay, and the multiple adjustments. It proved so turbulent at times that Hataya was off sick for a week with stomach troubles, and there were several periods of overtime. The main theme was "Mexican Flyer", composed by Ken Woodman in 1966, returning from the first game. The lyrics for the songs were written by Yoshinaga. For battles, rival characters were given different instruments. The first rhythm battle created was against rival reporter Pudding, who uses a guitar. Earlier concepts were planned for a percussion opening, having a faster tempo than the released version; Hataya and Yoshinaga collaborated on the track for a long time. The percussion was moved to a different boss character called Pine. The ending theme "This is my Happiness" was composed by Hataya, who was given the direction by Mizuguchi for a low-key theme about happiness. The lyrics were written in English by Tomoko Sasaki. The soundtrack saw multiple album releases; two of the originals had three of the six reports, additionally from tracks from Ulala's Dance mode with vocals. The songs retained their lyrics for the album release, although they would have given musical elements. The two albums, respectively titled Chu!! and Hey!!, were published on April 10 and 24, 2002 by Marvelous Entertainment and distributed by VAP. Two remix albums were also released, featuring both arrangements of tracks from Part 2 and short audio dramas; Uki Uki Non-Stop Mega Mix on June 21 and Moji Moji Can't Stop Remix on June 24. Tracks from Part 2 were included in the compilation album Space Channel 5 20th Anniversary: Gyungyun Selection by UMA on December 18, 2019. ## Release The game was officially announced by Sega for both Dreamcast and PS2 in October 2001 shortly before that year's Tokyo Game Show. Sega organized several events to promote the game at demo events across Japan. The game was released in Japan on February 14, 2002, for both Dreamcast and PS2. The Dreamcast version was sold as an exclusive to the Sega's online store Dreamcast Direct. A pre-order bonus was a pair of earphones trimmed with pale fur and a special case for the GD-ROM disc. The PS2 version later received a budget PS2 the Best release on December 12. The Dreamcast version remains exclusive to Japan, and in the years since its release has become a collector's item fetching high resale prices. The localization was troublesome for Sega due to the song lyrics; they needed to translate it into English while keeping the meaning and roughly the same number of syllables. The PS2 version was co-published in Europe as a standalone release by Sega and Sony. The PS2 version released in mainland Europe on February 12, 2003. It received a limited edition in the region, featuring a pair of silver headphones and carrying case. Its UK and Ireland release was canceled by Sony and Sega, who originally gave no clear explanation. Later, it was revealed that the regional release was cancelled due to resurgent publicity surrounding abuse allegations against Jackson. Part 2 only released in North America as part of the Special Edition release including the original Space Channel 5. This version was published by Agetec on November 18, 2003. Part 2 later received a high definition port as part of Sega's Dreamcast Collection. This version released on Microsoft Windows and Xbox 360 on February 22, 2011 in North America and February 25 in Europe. The Windows version also offered a standalone purchase option via Steam. This release was the game's first appearance in the UK. The game later received a standalone digital release for 360 on October 4 and PlayStation 3 on October 5. The console version released in Japan for both platforms on October 5. The Steam version was patched in 2014, fixing technical and control issues, and including achievements. ## Reception Upon its debut in Japan, Part 2 reached the top of sales charts. According to Mizuguchi, the game sold around 50,000 copies during its first week, then remained steady in the charts in subsequent weeks rather than the expected sharp drop-off of other games experiences. Unlike both Space Channel 5 and the studio's other title Rez, Part 2 for the PS2 was a commercial success; 150,000 units were sold in Japan alone. The game received positive reviews from critics, receiving praise for its major improvements compared to its predecessor. Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu gave both versions of the game a score of 35 points out of 40. The magazine also inducted the game into their Platinum Hall of Fame. Game Informer writer, Justin Leeper, complimented the game for being harder than its predecessor and offering more replay value. Andrew Reiner provided a second opinion for Game Informer stating that Part 2—while not as memorable as the original—was still highly enjoyable. Brad Shoemaker of GameSpot, despite mechanical similarities, cited Part 2 as the better entry of the two due to added mechanics and the broader range of music despite uneven voice acting and singing. Shoemaker cited the guitar battle between Ulala and Pudding as one of the game's more amusing and noticeable highlights. Christian Nutt, writing for GameSpy, praised the sequel for an improved visual style and musical variety; he particularly noted Jackson's inclusion, saying the cameo highlighted his professional skill. Nich Maragos of 1UP.com praised the music, stating it was better than its predecessor for providing more variety and matching the music to the tone of its scenes. Maragos further elaborated when reviewing the game for GMR calling the music tighter, and the animation and gameplay improved to the point that he wished the first game had been similar. GamePro said that Agetec should be lauded for their efforts in bringing both games over in a single package. IGN's Douglass Perry said that Part 2 fixed the first game's faults and added new elements to enhance the gameplay. He praised the more ambitious presentation, expanded musical styles and greater scope of content. Peter Garden of Play Magazine enjoyed the sequel far more than its predecessor, citing the upgrade to full 3D graphics and improvements to input responses. Reviewers of the Special Edition release in North America praised this version due to including both games for a low price. Reviews of the Dreamcast Collection version were less positive, though most criticisms focused on the collection as a whole. IGN's Levi Buchanan called the game's tone forced compared to its predecessor as it tried outdoing the earlier game's "weird" tone. Keza MacDoland, writing for Eurogamer, complained of subpar sound quality and technical issues, which were present on the entire collection. By contrast, Jahanzeb Khan of PALGN cited it as the best game in the collection, but was disappointed that it was not the true original Dreamcast version and that the collection did not include the original game.

Lexa (The 100)

Character from The CW's TV series The 100

Lexa is a fictional character from the post-apocalyptic science fiction television series The 100, portrayed by Alycia Debnam-Carey. The recurring character does not appear in the books on which the series is loosely based. The commander of the allied Grounder clans, Lexa is portrayed as a reasonable leader and strong warrior. She considers love a weakness, a view significantly impacted by the murder of her former girlfriend. Although she starts to show romantic feelings for Clarke Griffin and takes her views into consideration, Lexa puts her people first, even at the expense of Clarke's trust. Lexa's progressive leadership places her in conflict with her people, especially after changes to her coalition. Lexa has been acclaimed by critics, and is considered one of television's most interesting and complex female characters as well as a notable figure of LGBTQ representation in fiction. A fan-favorite, she has been a source of frequent debate, particularly for how she was written out of the series. Her relationship with Clarke, which was viewed as compelling and important, significantly impacted the LGBTQ community and many viewers embraced it as a positive and tempestuous depiction of friendship, love and adversity. The conclusion of the character and the relationship, however, was criticized by viewers and media for being unnecessarily tragic, leading to a national debate about the "bury your gays" trope and international fan-led initiatives. ## Appearances ### Season 2 The survivors from the Ark, a space habitat for descendants of humans who survived a nuclear apocalypse, crash landed on Earth and have been in conflict with the Grounders, descendants of humans on Earth who survived the nuclear apocalypse, who call them the Sky People. After Ark survivor Finn's massacre of a Grounder village, Jaha and Kane, two former Ark leaders, are told that one must kill the other in order to speak with the commander of the Grounders. When Kane attempts to take his own life rather than kill Jaha, a Grounder witness reveals herself to be the commander, Lexa, who tells them she believes their wish for peace is sincere. She allows Jaha to leave with a message to their camp: leave within two days, or die. Clarke, an Ark survivor and leader of the Sky People's camp, cures Lincoln, a Grounder who was turned by Mount Weather, a former military facility, into a reaper (a mindless, cannibalistic killer). Clarke offers information about curing reapers to Commander Lexa and proposes that the two groups work together. Lexa grants Clarke the truce on the condition that Finn dies. Although the camp is divided on whether to turn him in, Finn eventually gives himself up to the Grounders. Lexa refuses to grant him mercy, but allows Clarke to say goodbye. After saying goodbye, Clarke stabs him, giving him a quick death. Several of the Grounders are angered by this mercy-kill, but Lexa declares the demands have been met and the truce will stand. Lexa, Clarke and others from the camp travel to the Grounder village, where Finn and his victims are cremated. Lexa reveals to Clarke that her past love, Costia, was tortured and killed by Lexa's enemy, and tells Clarke that love is weakness. At a dinner, Lexa is the victim of an attempted poisoning. Clarke first believes it was Raven, Finn's former girlfriend, whom Lexa nearly kills as punishment; however, Clarke figures out that one of Lexa's people must have been responsible. The culprit is revealed to be Gustus, Lexa's right-hand man, who believes that an alliance with the Sky People would be destructive for Lexa. He is executed by Lexa, and Clarke resolves to infiltrate Mount Weather. After Clarke informs Lexa and Grounder councilors of the plan, one of them attempts to kill Clarke in the forest. Clarke is saved by Lexa, who is injured while they escape a giant mutated gorilla. Bellamy, Clarke's spy inside Mount Weather, learns of Mount Weather's plan to fire a missile to destroy any chance of peace between their people and the Grounders. Lexa persuades Clarke that warning anyone would compromise Bellamy's assignment and safety. The two secretly escape, but Clarke returns to rescue her mother, Abby, who arrives just before the missile strike. Clarke sets off with Lexa to kill Mount Weather's spotter who targeted the strike. Lexa and Clarke discuss the plan of attack on Mount Weather, and Lexa tells Clarke that Clarke was born for leadership. After Bellamy's sister Octavia realizes that Lexa and Clarke knew about the missile strike, Lexa attempts to have her killed, but Clarke stops it. Clarke confronts Lexa, and Lexa reveals she has feelings for her. Clarke asks Lexa to trust her, and says that if another attempt on Octavia's life is made she will inform everyone that they knew of the missile. Lexa later tells Clarke that she does trust her and will not harm Octavia, although the Grounder ways are focused on survival. She kisses Clarke, who reciprocates but says that she is not ready to be with anyone. When Mount Weather's acid fog is disabled, they march with the combined Arker-Grounder forces to war. Soldiers from Mount Weather open fire on the army, who manage to destroy the lock of the facility's doors. However, when they pull the door open, Lexa reveals that she has made a deal with Mount Weather and commands her people to stand down. The Grounders retreat and the Sky People soon follow, leaving behind a betrayed Clarke, who later irradiates the bunker, killing all its inhabitants. ### Season 3 Lexa's trusted warrior Indra warns her that the Ice Nation, a Grounder clan, is hunting Clarke, who has been a fugitive for three months because of her actions at Mount Weather. Lexa assigns the bounty hunter Roan, a banished Ice Nation prince, to capture Clarke before the Ice Nation does and bring her to Polis, the Grounder capital. Having vowed revenge on Lexa for her betrayal, Clarke struggles with her desires for vengeance and forgiveness. Lexa is dealing with political turmoil and proposes to Clarke initiating the Sky People into her coalition as the thirteenth clan, which would protect them. Clarke believes Lexa wants this because Clarke's defeat of Mount Weather made Lexa look weak. Lexa is advised by her right-hand man and former mentor Titus to kill Clarke, whom he believes has weakened Lexa's rule. At the same time, Roan asks Clarke to kill Lexa, but she cannot do it. Lexa apologises for her betrayal, and Clarke agrees to the Sky People becoming the thirteenth clan, bowing to Lexa in the presence of other clan ambassadors. In private, Lexa vows that she will treat Clarke and the Sky People's needs as her own. Queen Nia of the Ice Nation attempts to stage a coup against Lexa's leadership and selects Roan to fight her in a duel. Lexa defeats him, but instead kills Nia and proclaims Roan the Ice Nation king. Clarke tends to her wounds and they bond. Lexa, Clarke, other Grounders discover an army of dead Grounders, slain by Pike, the new and destructive leader of the Sky People, and his followers. Lexa is informed by a wounded Indra that the Sky People have rejected joining the coalition. Lexa allows Clarke to return to convince Bellamy to step down. Clarke fails but convinces Lexa to end the cycle of violence to gain eventual peace, although Lexa worries that by not retaliating she is betraying the actions of her predecessors. Lexa tells Clarke to decide the fate of Emerson, the last survivor of Mount Weather, whom Clarke decides to banish. As the Grounders celebrate their holy Ascension Day, a captured Octavia is brought in by a Grounder who says that the Sky People destroyed his village. Lexa ignores Titus' advice to start open warfare and instead orders that the Sky People be besieged and any trespasser on Grounder territory killed. The Grounder attempts to kill Lexa, and is killed by Titus. Titus tells Lexa that Clarke's presence endangers her and reminds Lexa of Costia. An angry Lexa reminds him that she can separate feelings from duty, having accepted the Ice Nation into her coalition after they beheaded Costia. Lexa understands that Clarke must go back to her people. Clarke suggests that maybe someday they will owe nothing more to both their peoples, and kisses Lexa; they have sex. After hearing gunshots, Lexa runs to Clarke's room and is accidentally shot by Titus, who had intended to kill Clarke. As Clarke attempts to save her, Lexa realises she will die and tells Clarke to not be afraid. She orders Titus to never harm Clarke again and to serve the next commander as he served her. Lexa tells Clarke that her spirit will find a new commander, that her fight is over and that Clarke was right in that life should be about more than just surviving. When Lexa dies, Titus extracts a device called "the Flame" from her neck. It is revealed to be Lexa's "spirit", an AI, and how commanders are chosen. Later, on a mission to stop a holographic AI named ALIE from world domination, Clarke is implanted with the Flame, the AI Lexa once carried. ALIE controls its subjects by forcing them to swallow a chip that removes all pain and connecting them to a virtual reality called "the City of Light", where the minds of those who have died live on. In distress after entering the City, Clarke subconsciously calls upon Lexa. Lexa's consciousness, saved in the Flame, appears in the City of Light and saves Clarke. Before Lexa sacrifices herself to get Clarke to safety, Clarke tells Lexa that she loves her. Lexa says that her spirit will always be with Clarke. ### Later seasons In the fifth season, it is revealed that Lexa's consciousness is still in the Flame. The new Commander, a young girl named Madi, tells Clarke that Lexa abandoning her at Mount Weather was her greatest regret. In season seven, The Flame is permanently destroyed by a geneticist, taking with it the consciousnesses of the Commanders stored within, Lexa included. In the series finale "The Last War", a being known as the Judge, who judges a species on whether they are worthy of Transcendence or extermination, takes on the form of several humans in the final test for humanity. Appearing to an individual as their greatest teacher, greatest failure, or greatest love, the Judge appears as Lexa before Clarke and discusses Clarke's actions and the decisions of her friends. The Judge in Lexa's form has the last words in the series, stating: "a curious species, indeed". ## Development ### Casting and creation Show creator Jason Rothenberg said he and others involved with the series were aware of Debnam-Carey while casting Clarke in 2014; although the chance for her to portray Clarke did not materialize, her name was brought up for the casting of Lexa. Debnam-Carey was offered the role, which Rothenberg called a "no-brainer". At the time, she was also being considered for the role of Alicia Clark on AMC's Fear the Walking Dead, with her casting announced on December 1, 2014. "That's always a concern when you have an actor in your show that is popping—that someone else is going to grab them and make them a series regular if you don't", stated Rothenberg. Debnam-Carey was able to continue work on both shows. With "such an iconic look and distinct wardrobe", Lexa was an unusual role for Debnam-Carey. She said that the character allowed for a multifaceted dynamic, and called Lexa her favorite character she had portrayed thus far. "Thankfully, Jason [Rothenberg], the creative team, the writers, and the hair and make-up are very collaborative", she said. "We've been able to embrace it and really make it our own, and that's been wonderful". Lexa does not appear in the books on which the series is loosely based. Introduced in the sixth episode of the second season, "Fog of War", which Kira Snyder wrote, Lexa was created through discussions Snyder had in the writer's room. When developing the character further, the idea of her being romantically interested in women was pitched. Rothenberg read the script for episode nine, where Lexa tells Clarke of her former female love, Costia, "the first reference to her sexuality". He thought, "let me talk to the writers about this and see where we're going", and decided it "made perfect sense". The CW was also supportive of the character. "The fact that it’s taken off the way it [has is] really cool", Rothenberg stated. "It’s been a good phenomenon to watch happen". Rothenberg said he and his crew did some research on depicting different societies, such as the Grounders, but most of what is shown is based on his personal tastes. "Getting to create this universe from the language to the wardrobe to the tattoos ... we obviously get pretty deep into what the grounder spirituality is and means", he stated. "We do some research as to how societies have evolved in the past but for the most part it's fiction". Debnam-Carey felt that the Grounder culture—the language, wardrobe, makeup and "all the symbolic meaning behind that"—was "one of the highlights" for her. "We explored it as much as we could as actors to break down its meaning, but the best thing about this was finally finding out all this backstory and fully creating this world", she stated, adding they "had three sets built just for the Grounders". In 2015, two commander jackets were described as being "made out of leather, metal, and fur". Dany Roth of Syfy was impressed by the show's costume designs, stating that they are "possibly the best on TV right now. Each costume tells the story of the world, of the people, of the specific character". He said that, like Mad Max, The 100 "understands that the Grounders are repurposing tools and clothing from a time long dead. But the costumes are far from uniform. The people who lived on the ark, the people who live in the forest, the people who live in a frozen tundra, they all dress differently". Although "there's fashion here that makes the clothes exciting", it is the clothes that tell the story. Maureen Ryan of Variety, stated that the "most enduring image of Lexa is one of her sitting on a throne made of intertwined branches, her enigmatic eyes looking out from a face half-covered in elaborate war paint". Debnam-Carey said, "I'm lucky they put me in such a badass costume and makeup. We did a whole day of tests with that makeup." She and the wardrobe and makeup department collaborated with Rothenberg on the look of the character, and fans were encouraged to contribute their versions of the designs on social media. ### Personality and portrayal The writers conceived Lexa as a proud and wise warrior who keeps her feelings very guarded, and someone who is usually unable to show she cares for people. The vulnerability that results from caring, and particularly loving a person, is something she views as a weakness. This was significantly exacerbated by the death of her girlfriend, Costia; the anger, grief and later dissipation of the grief hardened her further. In addition, being selected as commander involved Lexa going through a brutal process, as is her society's custom; if she shows weakness in her duties as a commander, she can lose the respect of her warriors. Lexa has a soft spot for the next generation of warriors and leaders she trains, but "she has to keep her distance because she knows that the moment she weakens is the moment that everything falls." Debnam-Carey said figuring out how to portray all these aspects of the character was the most challenging part. "For me, it was about finding that mix between vulnerability and tension and a wiseness beyond her years", she said. A director in one of her first episodes had advised her that less is more. She developed further Lexa's personality and mannerisms, some unconsciously; "Someone was like, 'Is it a thing you've chosen to do, to not blink all the time?' I was like, 'Wow!' When it comes to Lexa, she's very steely-gazed. There's a presence about her and a knowingness, and she's always observant. I started to pick up all these traits ... that I didn’t expect." The character is "very stand offish and aloof and it's hard to read her", Debnam-Carey said. Making sure she was not robotic and inhuman was difficult; "she has those qualities. That was definitely the hardest thing but it’s coming through." Debnam-Carey did not view Lexa as a teenager, and did not assign her an age, stating, "It's almost like she skipped that period. She was placed in a position where suddenly she was forced to make a lot of hard choices that most people never have to make, no matter what their age is. Lexa is the first Grounder leader to seek peace, which Debnam-Carey described as "somewhat difficult" for the other Grounders to understand because of their "rough and aggressive" culture. She is also "the first person to unite the 12 clans and to actually have the option of an alliance". Throughout, she is extremely loyal, but more so to her own people, putting them first regardless of the cost. Debnam-Carey said "it's in [Lexa's] blood" to put her people first because they "are so close to her, that's what she's been groomed to be. She comes from a really harsh culture and she has huge responsibilities". The character is "brutal" and a "pragmatist", "but not out of unkindness. It's all she's ever known". By making calculated choices, she is used to getting what she wants. Debnam-Carey said Lexa makes choices "based on necessity" and is "very logical about [them] but she’s not immune to the consequences. She realizes the consequences, but will deal with them when they come." She adapts to the circumstances, and has "a control and a fluidity through situations". ### Relationship with Clarke Lexa's relationship with Clarke is depicted as intense, complex, and the one thing that softens Lexa's outlook on life. Debnam-Carey said the characters' progression from being allies to becoming romantic "stems from a connection that they both share—which is similar experiences and similar positions"; they are "both very young leaders with great authority, a lot of responsibility. They have to lead a huge amount of people [and] have a lot of expectations riding on them". She said the sudden responsibilities they faced, the need to make the right decisions, and having grieved over past lovers helped connect them further, and it is a connection they did not have with others. Rothenberg initially stated that while he would not go as far to say that it was love at first sight for Lexa, "it definitely was a bit of a thunderbolt moment for her when she first saw Clarke". He said Clarke's attraction to Lexa "developed a little bit more slowly, but by the end [...] they were very much intrigued at the possibility of a romantic relationship". He later said "Lexa was definitely smitten—like love at first sight, probably", but maintained it took longer for Clarke to develop romantic feelings for Lexa. Writer Kira Snyder stated, "we're really happy to have that storyline and really gratified that it's sparked the fan response and press response that it has. It just goes down to the issues of representation [...] that's something I'm very pleased to be involved with." Debnam-Carey appreciated the fact the writers did not make a big deal of defining either characters' sexuality or their romantic relationship on the show. Rothenberg said labels and gender are not a factor in the series, which Debnam-Carey viewed as true to the story. "It's a world where people love people for who they are and not what they are and that creates such a broad variety of characters. [...] it also doesn't make it out to be this statement", she said. "In this world, some things are a little better after the apocalypse [...] It kind of represents, in a way, an ideal place where people love people and it doesn't have to be a thing, which I think is really great". Debnam-Carey considered the characters being "very adaptable" as one of the interesting aspects of their dynamic. Sacrifices Lexa and Clarke make are "for a much greater goal in the end". They have also "taken characteristics from each other", with Lexa becoming more trusting and learning that love can be empowering, and Clarke becoming more ruthless. "It's very interesting to see the way they ebb and flow with each other", she said. Of Lexa possibly putting Clarke first instead of her own people, she said perhaps if "Clarke was able to assimilate to their culture as well and become more of a right-hand man, then maybe I think Lexa could—then that would be a merger of two people". Lexa's weaknesses, as indicated by Debnam-Carey, are her feelings for her people and Clarke. Regarding the decision to have Lexa betray Clarke, a significant moment that strained the characters' relationship, Rothenberg said Lexa was under the impression that Clarke would likely die in the battle and Mount Weather would possibly remain to keep her people united. "She was probably—master strategist that she is—thinking several moves ahead. Thinking she could keep her alliance together, the 12 clans, because they would still have this evil empire out there to unite them", he stated. Lexa was not expecting Clarke to win and to subsequently become a legend. "Everywhere she goes it's like, 'I heard it was 5,000 people! No, I heard it was 10,000 people!'", said Rothenberg. "Certainly it means that her alliance now no longer has a real reason to be held together". Rothenberg said Clarke would eventually come to terms with the likelihood that, if she had been in a similar position as Lexa, she would have done the same thing: Protect her own people at all costs. He said she did as much in the season two finale. "That was kind of the theme of the entire season, which was how far can you go and still be the good guy in order to save your people. Lexa had that choice. Obviously, it landed very emotionally for both of them, but especially on Clarke", he stated. "Clarke had a similar choice and I hope that over the course of the first part of [season 3], Clarke will eventually come to see it that way. If she can't, then they'll never figure out a way to make peace with each other". Debnam-Carey viewed the betrayal and abandonment as a release for herself as an actor, and as a "very honest" and "open" moment for Lexa. "It's the first real time you get to see—apart from [them sharing a kiss]—this is a scene where she makes a really strong choice, but you can see that it's hard for her to do, and she does care", she stated. To Debnam-Carey, Lexa "showing that she cared, even in that moment of betrayal" was her being real. Snyder said that Lexa "obviously has a lot of sort of baggage—not just with Clarke but everybody". Debnam-Carey argued that even though Lexa was upset by the betrayal, she is a very hardened person and her people continued to be her main concern. She does not think Lexa was preoccupied with the repercussions. Unlike Rothenberg, Debnam-Carey felt Lexa "always knew [Clarke] was going to [survive]. Now those cards are back on the table, if she wants to restart an alliance or whatever else". In the series finale, the Judge taking on Lexa's form served to confirm that Lexa was in fact Clarke's greatest love.

## Reception ### General Lexa, and her relationship with Clarke, has received acclaim from critics and fans, with Debnam-Carey receiving praise for her portrayal of the character. Maureen Ryan, writing for The Huffington Post, stated that Lexa stood out in a show "packed with morally compromised characters", leading "a tribe of Earth inhabitants with a combination of deftness, intelligence and unhesitating ferocity". She "does not suffer fools gladly, yet Debnam-Carey made Lexa's vulnerability and her attraction to Clarke not just believable, but engrossing". IGN's Eric Goldman noted that Lexa "conveyed strength and confidence, tempered with a more progressive - by Grounder standards - viewpoint". Hypable.com's Selina Wilken deemed Lexa a "strong and compassionate" leader and praised the subtle introduction of her sexuality, asserting that, unlike many LGBT characters being "defined mainly by their sexuality", having her "casually reveal that she’s queer and then carry on with her day sends a strong message", while her sexuality "is the least interesting thing about her." Linda Ge of TheWrap referred to her as a fan-favorite, and Goldman called her "a standout, highly popular character" who "just pops in every way" and was a "terrific inclusion" for the show. The staff for SheWired declared that Lexa "had the best character introduction ever and never stopped being great", proving to be "endlessly engaging, even when she's making choices that make us want to crawl into a ball and cry". Dana Piccoli of AfterEllen described Lexa as a "mysterious queer character", and complimented the "chemistry and increasing bond" between her and Clarke, noting that both are smart, young women who "manage to see the bigger picture" and are "leading their people to salvation or at least as close to salvation as they can get". Of Lexa's introduction in the season two episode "Fog of War", Nick Hogan of TVOvermind felt she "stole the show", impressed by how she "contrasted between an innocent girl doing a terrible task and an undercover grounder commander". For the following episode, Goldman stated that "a very thoughtful, intense energy" from Debnam Carey "helped sell this young woman as the Commander others would follow without hesitation." Lisa Steinberg of The Huffington Post said that the pact between the Grounders and Sky People showcases Lexa as "one of the show's most compelling characters", and "if looks could kill, Debnam-Carey's portrayal of Lexa would be a lethal weapon." Reviewing "Bodyguard of Lies", The A.V. Club's Kyle Fowle remarked that Debnam-Carey and Taylor as Clarke have a "magnetism about them that injects their conversations with significant weight, and makes their characters feel like natural leaders." Amanda Festa of TV Fanatic praised Debnam-Carey "perfectly portraying the cracking of Lexa's carefully constructed facade." Wilken felt the scene in which Lexa "finally begins to crack" was "brilliant", lauding the actress's performance. Den of Geek wrote that Debnam-Carey shows Lexa's "own crumbling resolve exclusively on her face as her feelings for Clarke open her up to seeing another way of thinking." Many viewers were upset by Lexa abandoning Clarke and her people at the end of season two, resulting in debates about why she may have done it. TVLine's Andy Swift was indignant, commenting "Lexa, please meet a fiery death. ASAP." Ryan McGee of ScreenCrush said Lexa's betrayal is "as complex as their kiss", which suggested "that it's not enough in a world in which survival is far from guaranteed". Applauding the complexity and nuance of their relationship, McGee felt this development "only strengthened [his] love of this pair". Goldman wrote that if viewers had not invested in Lexa and Clarke's circumstances, "it could easily have damaged the central storyline", and Debnam-Carey and Taylor "expertly embody two people who had every reason to be on guard around each other, but sensed something similar bringing them together." McGee deemed Lexa and Clarke the "most interesting character dynamic on television". The "genius" of the season, he observed, is placing the two actresses "into the roles traditionally associated with men and not commenting on this fact at all". Ryan in The Huffington Post declared Debnam-Carey "fantastic" in the season, and hoped for the character to return next season. Goldman said the actress "was a real find in this role, giving a terrific performance playing a very guarded character, who lived by a "love is a weakness" code that she couldn't quite actually follow." Fowle stated that Lexa and Clarke are a "tangle of emotions and motivations" and "recognize the burden of responsibility" they each have. "Clarke's relative forgiveness of Lexa" in the third season "makes sense within the context of the war of her people, and the larger political conflict at hand", and their reconciliation is "loyalty informed by weeks of patient storytelling". Mariya Karimjee of Vulture considered their confrontation "emotionally grounded and real", while the heavy, emotional struggle came from both characters, with Clarke feeling "something complicated and messy with Lexa", later realizing that "Lexa is the only person who understands her". Entertainment Weekly's Jeff Jensen regarded the characters' bond as "arguably the show’s most compelling relationship", adding that Debnam-Carey "shows bolder shades as Lexa fends off conspiracies and pines for renewed connection with Clarke." Goldman stated, "Considering how reserved and stoic Lexa is, it’s a testament to Debnam-Carey that she manages to convey all of these intense feelings, without getting too verbal or openly emotional." Dened Rey of Talk Nerdy With Us proposed that Lexa is a character that "will be remembered in many years to come" and she and Clarke have a relationship "admired by many because of how complex and breathtaking their journey has been", with the actresses giving "bone-chilling performances" that "enthrall whenever they share a scene". Writing for Variety, Ryan observed that Lexa's return in the third season "has only been improved by getting to witness the games being played at her court", writing that Debnam-Carey "has been impressive since day one" and "watching Lexa handle insurrection, deal with complicated political realities and throw dudes off balconies has been a treat." Sam Joseph of Film-Book.com complimented the "goodnight" scene between Lexa and Clarke, as "more came across between those two in what wasn't said or done than what could’ve been. Points go to Debnam-Carey for subtly." In her review of the fourth episode, Wilken declared Lexa her favorite character "possibly on television in general", commending her qualities and being "sensible in a sea of short-sighted, war-hungry men and women", as well as her battle with Roan. Fowle felt that the "strength and nuance of the storytelling" in Lexa and Clarke's connected storyline "elevates the show", regarding it "thematically complex and thoughtful", with their actresses "turning in truly outstanding performances". Variety listed Lexa and Clarke's relationship as one of "30 TV Relationships That Make Us Believe in Love", stating: "Both women have had to make difficult, life-altering decisions to protect their people, but despite the blood on their hands, there's an enduring respect between the two that only makes their bond stronger and more compelling to watch." Wilken wrote that Lexa's face throughout the fifth episode "held so many emotions. Betrayal, disappointment, anger, and exhaustion are all warring for control inside her, and Debnam-Carey's understated performance was perfect." Reviewing the seventh episode of the season, "Thirteen", Fowle said Lexa and Clarke's relationship "has always been more than romance, defined instead by strong convictions and a sense of duty". Despite Lexa dealing with "people with firmly-held, deeply-rooted beliefs [...] she knows that change needs to happen. It's complex thematic territory that uncomfortably resonates in our current political climate." Goldman praised the "really touching" final moments from Lexa in her dying scene, which was "beautifully played by Debnam-Carey and Taylor". Caralynn Lippo of TV Fanatic said the actresses' chemistry was "on at full force during "Thirteen"" and viewed Lexa's dying scene as "one of the show's most powerful and moving moments to date". Vox's Caroline Framke felt that although Lexa's death scene was performed "beautifully", the "rush" to get her and Clarke together "only to immediately kill Lexa off, was jarring". Lexa was "an incredibly powerful leader, and a casually queer woman", she added. "These two things rarely go together onscreen", making her an important figure for "non-token representation." Wilken called Lexa "one of the best and, yes, most divisive characters in recent TV history". A character "wonderful in no small part because she was such a fully realized individual, with both strengths and flaws", who made certain decisions "for reasons that made sense for her and her people, but which complicated her character for the audience, and made her more than just Clarke’s knight in shining armor." Fowle contemplated that Lexa's resolve while facing the realities of protecting the Sky People and risking an uprising from her clans "is exactly what makes her one of the better characters on TV, which also makes her death sting that much more." Hailing Debnam-Carey's "stunning, visceral performance", Fowle stated "her steady presence on The 100 will be sorely missed." Ryan wrote that Debnam-Carey "has always been an incredibly important part of the show" and Lexa's presence and storyline in the series was a fruitful direction. Megan Logan of Inverse stated that "Lexa's overwhelming popularity wasn’t only about her character’s richness and complexity, or the dimension she added to the Grounders", she is "also unlike any other character on The 100 — or on any other show, for that matter." Writing for Collider, Carla Day proclaimed Lexa "a fierce and masterful leader" and "one of TV’s greatest characters" who "will be missed, but may her spirit live on." After the series' conclusion, Kevin Pantoja of Screen Rant wrote in 2021, > "Lexa has a very good case for actually being the best character on the show overall. [...] She surprised many by being a young woman leading these warriors [...] [and] holding her own against anyone. She would listen to Clarke and partner up with her when she needed to but she also knew how to put her people first like a true leader. The romance between Clarke and Lexa is still adored by fans and there's a reason why the character returned for a few appearances after her death, including for the series finale." ### LGBT community Lexa and her relationship with Clarke had a significant impact on the LGBT community. Writing for Inverse, Megan Logan said the relationship was important to "people whose representation is limited" as it was "exciting, built on respect and trust, and seemed to have the effort and thought usually reserved for relationships between two main heterosexual characters." Selina Wilken of Hypable.com appreciated that the show had "subtly introduced [its] first queer character" with Lexa and that it is free of the other "big issues in today's society", like gender stereotyping, racism or misogyny, but felt the writers had been heteronormative with their romances before that point. "In a media landscape where gay, lesbian and bisexual characters are still often defined mainly by their sexuality, having Lexa — one of the show's strongest, most well-liked characters — casually reveal that she's queer and then carry on with her day sends a strong and important message to young viewers." Wilken stated that fans have been pleased with seeing "a strong female character not only take on a position of leadership [...] but to off-handedly reveal that she was once in a relationship with a woman." Dalene Rovenstine of Entertainment Weekly noted that the series "featured unexpected twists, the shocking deaths of multiple main characters, and amounts of blood and gore you wouldn't expect to be approved on network TV. But none of those moments have created a stir quite like [...] when [Clarke and Lexa] locked lips". The kiss was trending on Twitter after it aired, and many fans created artwork of the characters and couple as the series progressed; others engaged in cosplay of Lexa. Debnam-Carey was surprised by the attention. She was new to Twitter and Instagram, and did not know what fandom shipping meant; she saw that fans had given the pairing the portmanteau "Clexa". She called the fan fervor and character artworks "an honor" and "flattering to bring a character to life that people find their self expression in and a safety with", adding that "It's one of the first shows that really has two characters in the cast that are gender and sexually fluid and embraces that. There are no labels. It’s a wonderful thing to be a part of." At Paleyfest 2016, she was made aware of fans raising money in Lexa's name for The Trevor Project, an organization for LGBT teenagers in need, and the fact that, at the time, \$46,000 dollars had been raised. As of July 13, 2016, over \$135,000 dollars have been raised. ### Exit from the series #### Fan reaction and impact With Debnam-Carey's limited role on the series, Rothenberg contemplated how best to end Lexa's story. When he chose to kill her off, this resulted in much animosity among the fanbase, with viewers and critics debating whether she was killed off due to her same-sex relationship and whether she was killed off the right way. Many also felt the decision was a blow or slight to the LGBT community because of the view that it reinforced the "dead lesbian syndrome" (or "bury your gays") trope, which posits that a lesbian couple (or other same-sex couple) on television or in film can never be happy for long, if at all, because one or both of them will soon die. This was compounded by the character being killed off with a stray bullet moments after consummating her relationship with her female partner. Some fans compared Clarke and Lexa's final moments together to the 2002 death scene involving Willow Rosenberg and Tara Maclay from Buffy the Vampire Slayer, finding both moments problematic and that little has changed since then. A number of factors contributed to the ensuing backlash: The misleading of fans by representatives of the show prior to the character's death; the self-promotion for the show as a proponent of progressive LGBTQ storytelling; the long silence from showrunner Rothenberg on the controversy despite frequent social media engagement; and the "betrayal fans felt at what they perceived to be a meaningless death for one of TV's few well-developed lesbian characters, incited a kind of revolt." Viewers expressed their thoughts and anger on Twitter, Tumblr, and other social media sites. A small fraction of fans threatened to dox the writers and made death threats, while some were suicidal and engaged in self-harm after watching the episode. Many fans expressed their confusion and disappointment with the death on social media and blogs, and attempted to communicate the issues with media writers. People associated with the show later responded, attempting to ease their thoughts and defending the series by stating characters die on the show all the time. The show continuously "sought deep and frequent engagement with its fans" every season, and Rothenberg had given multiple interviews on their forward-thinking LGBTQ representation and retweeted stories from various publications that praised its representation. "Aided by the enthusiasm of the show's many LGBTQ viewers, the outreach campaign worked." Many marginalized teens and young adults "were feeling engaged, feeling represented, and feeling hopeful ... which inherently puts you in a position of power over them." Fans noted they had "constant reassurance from the writers and showrunner that [they] could trust them not to screw up these characters, that they were aware of the [dead lesbian] trope and would avoid it" even if the actress left the show. Fans had long speculated about the character's screen time and future survival chances due to the actress being on another series. Rothenberg mentioned in interviews that AMC was "awesome" with scheduling for Debnam-Carey to film for The 100. In early 2016, Rothenberg touted Debnam-Carey's appearance in the season finale on Twitter, telling fans that they were welcome to visit the set in downtown Vancouver, and tweeting a picture of her and Taylor on set eating "rainbow" candy. Videos and tweets from fans near the set confirmed the actress' presence, spreading on social media that the character made it to the season finale. However, Lexa had been killed off months earlier, when the seventh episode filmed in the fall of 2015. The "trumpeting of her appearance at the end of the season prompted many viewers ... to keep hope alive". In the lead up to the episode of the death, Rothenberg and other writers were "ramping up expectations online, urging fans to watch live and to be ready for something extraordinary." In online conversations after the episode, and especially due to the manner of the death, fans expressed that they felt used and betrayed by the show. Variety recounted, "once it was clear that it had set off an ever-expanding array of firestorms, especially among LGBTQ fans, many of the powers that be associated with the show acted as if nothing were particularly amiss", with Ruthenberg live-tweeting next week's episode "as if thinkpieces and damning critiques were not still being churned out". In the few initial interviews he did alongside the death episode, Ruthenberg gave "little indication that he [understood] the depth of the sense of betrayal or the multitude of reasonable objections to the death story line." Co-executive producer and writer Javier Grillo-Marxuach engaged with fans, sympathizing and aiming to understand their thoughts on the issues. The episode following Lexa's death was the lowest-rated in the series' history. Instead of watching, fans began trending and organizing. International fan-led initiatives such as "Lexa Deserved Better" and "LGBT Fans Deserve Better" emerged, initially dominating Twitter, and the "bury your gays" trope rose to a national debate. Fans put up billboards across major cities, while The Trevor Project, a charity that assists LGBTQ teens in crisis, received significant attention, with fans raising "more than \$30,000 (£21,000) in just a few hours". By July 13, 2016, over \$135,000 dollars had been raised. In response to viewers' outrage and requests, cosmetics company Maybelline stated in March 2016 that it decided "to no longer advertise on that show", and Target stated in April, "We can confirm that we don't plan to run ads during this show". The fan outcry and discussions in media over Lexa's death led several screenwriters and producers to sign the Lexa Pledge, which requests that creators treat gay and lesbian characters with consideration of their emotional and cultural impact, including not "killing a queer character solely to further the plot of a straight one" and avoiding "story choices that perpetuate the toxic [Bury Your Gays] trope". Some have argued that this stifles creativity and the freedom to develop characters and stories, while others have welcomed the debate, even if they have not signed the pledge. According to The Washington Post, one of the individuals who ran the website for LGBT Fans Deserve Better, stated: "LGBT fans get so little quality representation in the form of complex characters. [...] The message [in the way Lexa died] was pretty clear. [...] Minorities aren’t disposable characters. We don’t accept marginalized storylines. We’re not a focus group that you can pander to to use for ratings and then throw away the storylines". LGBT characters, characters of color and disabled characters are often "given secondary or tertiary storylines that can be thrown away. We’re getting to a point where we can’t accept that anymore." In retrospective analyses, media outlets observed the impact of Lexa's death on the series, LGBT viewers, and lesbian representation in television. Tell-Tale TV wrote that while there were "highlights since then", the series hit "its obvious decline with the death of Lexa" in the third season, concluding that "When all is said and done, Lexa's legacy will likely be the thing that most of the general public remembers about The 100." Screen Rant noted that the show's "ratings never recoved from Lexa's death." TV Guide and TVLine said in 2020 that the character's death is still a subject of discussion for viewers to date. Gay Times defined the death as "arguably one of the most devastating for queer fans everywhere". Culturess recounted that while many lesbians had died on television before Lexa, her death "was met with fan outrage beyond anything anyone had seen before". Occurring in "a particularly violent and deadly year" for lesbians on television, Lexa's death was "the straw that broke the camel's back". Since the death controversy in 2016, Culturess stated in 2022 that some improvements have been made in lesbian representation on television, including more lesbian stories being told than before and fewer deaths. While "quantity doesn't always mean quality", representation today "isn't perfect", and a show having a queer character "doesn't mean they get to live to see the end", it is a significant sign of progress that "the landscape for lesbian representation on television ... went from almost 20 sapphic characters killed on screen in 2016 to one in 2021", igniting "hope that representation will only continue to get better." #### Critical analyses Calling Lexa's death "gut wrenching" and the uproar messy, Caroline Framke of Vox wrote that while the death "unexpectedly brought together several disparate story strands", Lexa was "an openly queer woman leading 12 armies, a rare sight for LGBTQ representation on television." Framke condemned the trope of "killing gay women off for shock value" and the show killing Lexa immediately after having sex and pillow talk with Clarke. Eric Goldman of IGN argued similarly, adding that this setup was "really trite and cliché", and while he thinks the writers did not intend to "imply 'sex = death', it ended up coming off that way". Goldman felt the manner of death is "unseemly and demeaning for a character of her status and significance", and remarked that fans of the couple "were truly manipulated and treated poorly". Variety'''s Maureen Ryan, who called the couple's love and deathbed scenes on their own "spectacular", said the season had been rushed and Lexa's death after sex with Clarke "was another case of the show compressing a timeline to an unfortunate degree". The way a character dies matters, Ryan argued, particularly for communities under-represented and misrepresented in the media. Bethonie Butler of The Washington Post stated that part of what fueled the outrage is that The 100 was thought to be "progressive in its treatment of LGBT characters", so the death led to feelings of betrayal, and the controversy "reveals the pitfalls of a show misunderstanding its audience and the politics of minority representation onscreen". Hypable.com's Selina Wilken wrote that the season built Lexa up "before her fall, turning her into an almost King Arthur-like figure of salvation in this broken world, at least partly in an effort to blind-sight and devastate the audience when she died. (And... mission accomplished, all too well.)" The A.V. Club's Kyle Fowle lamented the loss of the complex character, and felt that while it is "frustrating to see one of TV's prominent lesbian characters written off so hastily", the show made Lexa's death significant to other storylines as the episode deepened the mythology of The 100. Damian Holbrook of TV Insider argued that television writers and producers never hastily kill off a character and are "ultimately telling a story". In the Variety article "What TV Can Learn From 'The 100' Mess", Ryan stated that Lexa "happened to be one of the few well-developed and complex lesbians on TV", and contended that "on a story and thematic level", her "badly conceived" death "had little resonance and almost no meaning", and the "blithe manipulation of LGBTQ fans and the show's willingness to deploy harmful cliches about gay characters remain the things that rankle most." Liz Shannon Miller of IndieWire wrote, "The outrage over the show falling prey to the 'lesbian death trope' was epic—in a season full of death, Lexa became an icon for how LGTBQ characters and characters of color seem to die an awful lot more than others". TV Guide listed the death as one of the most important television moments of 2016, noting that Lexa "was critically important to a portion of the population who watched the show: a strong, proudly LGBT character whose sexuality was only a part of who she was – a rarity on TV", and her death "sparked a year-long discussion about how, and why, this trope must change". Ryan proposed: "What has occurred since March 3 is not just a problem for The 100 and the CW, it's a cautionary tale for all of television." It is a "reminder that every story turn and promotional effort should be thoroughly thought through. Sloppy, dismissive and tin-eared moves by a show or its personnel aren't easy to bury or ignore these days, and fan engagement is a collaboration, not a spigot to be turned off whenever things get inconvenient." #### Showrunner and portrayer response When it came to whether or not the series would end with Clarke and Lexa together, Rothenberg said in January 2016 that he would not comment on the matter and knew where he wanted the series to go, but he was always open to a better idea. In March, Rothenberg said he had not always planned on killing Lexa, but the fact that Debnam-Carey was simultaneously on another show (Fear the Walking Dead) and was therefore unlikely to ever become a series regular on The 100, he felt use of the character would be limited or absent in the future. The writers decided to craft a death scene for her to propel the story forward. "As we were breaking the season, we talked about reincarnation in the Grounder world and how that was how commanders were selected. I didn't want to throw that out as nonsense [...] but I also didn't want to say that it was real reincarnation", he said. He had been reading The Singularity Is Near by Ray Kurzweil, which gave him the idea for incorporating a "technological reincarnation" storyline. "Lexa was just the most recent recipient of this artificial intelligence augmentation of her consciousness. So once we came up with that idea, that was the point at which everything jelled and sort of came together storytelling-wise", he stated. "And of course, if you're dealing with a story about reincarnation, you've got to die before you can be reincarnated. So Lexa dying became a very tragic necessity". Rothenberg said Clarke was in love with Lexa, that they were soulmates, and Lexa's death will haunt Clarke." Debnam-Carey posted on social media, thanking everyone on the show and the fans: "It has been an honour to portray [Lexa]. To envelop myself in her skin. To be given the freedom to represent a moment in our cultural and social zeitgeist—she has left a great imprint on me. I will miss her. May we meet again". While at Paleyfest 2016 promoting Fear the Walking Dead, she publicly addressed Lexa's death controversy for the first time. In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, she said she was "surprised by the intensity and the fury" that came from fans and she did not think "anyone on the show expected such social outcry". To Debnam-Carey, "any attention we can draw to a movement like that is an amazing thing, and is a great thing to pursue and keep working towards". She added that Lexa's death never came from a place of hate or negativity from anyone in the show and the death was purely a creative decision made due to her obligations to Fear the Walking Dead''. "I know obviously that it's hard when there are social issues going on and maybe they were dealt with in an insensitive way [...] And I hate that people feel like that. That's really awful if people feel ostracized or targeted". At her second Q&A panel at Copenhagen Comic-Con, she remarked, "It saddens me to think that this was an event that tarnished the show". Regarding the character's impact, Debnam-Carey said that it opened her eyes "to something I don't think I was truly aware of, that a character was able to inspire and galvanize people", and she felt proud of the way fans positively channeled their energies into action; "That’s incredible ... It became a positive thing, which is really the most important thing about it all." Rothenberg said that although he was "very sorry for not recognizing [the "bury your gays" trope] as fully as [he] should have", he would have still killed off Lexa but written it in a way that does not perpetuate the trope, such as death after sex. He added that while he understands the argument that Lexa should have had a heroic death, he thought having such a powerful character die by a stray bullet was more realistic because it signifies that anyone can be in the wrong place at the wrong time. Rothenberg also said that, in retrospect, he would not have misleadingly boasted the relationship on social media. Javier Grillo-Marxuach, who wrote the episode, said, "I don't think that the failure here was to discuss [Lexa's death], the failure was to recognize the cultural impact it would have outside the show [...] I am grateful for the tidal wave that came down on me. The activism that goes on online is [very] important". Regarding the unannounced appearance from Debnam-Carey as the judge embodying Lexa in the series finale, Rothenberg said he had to have multiple conversations with her "to explain exactly what we were going for and that we weren’t doing it in an exploitive way". According to Rothenberg, Debnam-Carey was keen on having "closure", and they agreed on not hyping her return, that it would be "better as a reveal, as a surprise". He was "grateful" that she agreed to return, and that he was able to direct the scenes with her and Taylor. He felt "a lot of pressure, as the director, having the responsibility of honoring that character", while knowing that "it wasn't actually Lexa [and] we had to find the line of how much Lexa to bring to it". Rothenberg and the writers had unanimously agreed to bring Debnam-Carey back to portray the being. "I’m hoping that the fans get some closure", Rothenberg said. "It won’t satisfy everybody, but it was lovely to have her back." After the episode, Debnam-Carey posted on her social media that it was "an honour to put on the costume one last time and be reunited with \#the100 family for the final episode", and "This was our ode to the love that Clarke and Lexa shared. A nod to how important they were to one another." She said that with any potential opportunities over the years for Lexa to re-appear, she "never wanted it to feel like it was a slap in the face to bring her back and take her away again." When Rothenberg informed her what the concept and purpose was, she felt "this is the only point that it makes sense." She said she wanted to do it "specifically for the fans and to have a little closure to finally feel like there was a positive spin that had happened. I know it was Lexa as the Judge and it wasn't necessarily Lexa as herself, but I still thought the sentiment was important." ## See also - ClexaCon - Media portrayal of LGBT people - Media portrayal of lesbianism

Ye Qianyu

Chinese painter, manhua artist

Ye Qianyu (or Yeh Ch'ien-yü; 31 March 1907 – 5 May 1995) was a Chinese painter and pioneering manhua artist. In 1928, he cofounded Shanghai Manhua, one of the earliest and most influential manhua magazines, and created Mr. Wang, one of China's most famous comic strips. Ye was also a master of traditional Chinese painting and served as the head of the Department of Chinese Painting of the China Central Academy of Fine Arts. During the Cultural Revolution he was persecuted and imprisoned for seven years. Ye was married three times. His first two marriages, to Luo Caiyun and dancer Dai Ailian, ended in divorce. His third marriage, to movie star Wang Renmei, lasted more than 30 years until Wang's death. ## Early life Ye Qianyu was born Ye Lunqi (葉綸綺) in Tonglu county, Zhejiang province in 1907. Although he loved to paint since childhood, he had neither the money nor the opportunity to seek professional training, forcing him to teach himself how to paint. ## Career in Shanghai At age 18 Ye moved to Shanghai, where he found work at a small, short-lived journal Sanri Huabao (Three Day Pictorial). The journal shut down when Chiang Kai-shek's Northern Expedition army reached Shanghai in April 1927. Out of work, Ye Qianyu, then 20 years old, together with fellow cartoonists Huang Wennong and Lu Shaofei released a publication dedicated to manhua, called Shanghai Manhua (or Shanghai Sketch). The first effort looked like a propaganda poster and was a failure. Undeterred, the original three, joined by eight more artists including Zhang Guangyu, Ding Song, and Wang Dunqing, formed the Shanghai Sketch Society (also translated as Shanghai Cartoon Association) in the autumn of 1927. It was China's first association dedicated to manhua, and its debut was a major event in the history of Chinese comics. Under the leadership of Zhang Guangyu, who recruited the wealthy poet Shao Xunmei as a sponsor, the association successfully relaunched the Shanghai Manhua on 21 April 1928. Ye drew several covers for the magazine and the back page of the publication carried his comic strip, Mr. Wang. Inspired by the American strip Bringing Up Father and portraying the daily life of the middle and lower classes of Shanghai, Mr. Wang became one of China's most famous cartoons, eventually being made into 11 films in the 1930s and 40s. In June 1930 Shanghai Manhua was merged into Modern Miscelleny (or Modern Pictorial, 时代画报), of which Ye became an editor while continuing his Mr. Wang series. In September 1936, Ye Qianyu, Lu Shaofei, and Zhang Guangyu organized the First National Cartoon Exhibition in Shanghai. It displayed over 600 cartoons from all over the country. After the overwhelming success of the exhibition, the artists formed the National Association of Chinese Cartoonists in the spring of 1937. The blossoming movement, however, was brought to a halt by the Japanese invasion a few months later. ## Second Sino-Japanese War When Japan invaded China and occupied Shanghai in 1937, Ye Qianyu, together with a group of fellow Shanghai cartoonists, formed the "National Salvation Cartoon Propaganda Corps", which included well-known artists Zhang Leping, Lu Zhixiang, Te Wei, and Hu Kao. Ye's lover, Liang Baibo, was the only female member. Funded by the Kuomintang government, the corps left Shanghai for the interior to spread anti-Japanese propaganda. They first went to Wuhan, but were forced to leave when that city fell at the end of 1938. They then travelled to Changsha, Guilin, and eventually to the wartime capital Chongqing. They published 15 issues of Resistance Cartoons before the government discontinued funding. Ye went to Hong Kong prior to its fall to the Japanese in December 1941, and traveled through Guizhou, Guangxi, and Vietnam. In 1943 he temporarily worked for the US General Joseph Stilwell as a war correspondent in India. Throughout his travels he drew many sketches of wartime scenes, including a series entitled Escape from Hong Kong. ## After World War II After the surrender of Japan in 1945, Ye Qianyu went to the United States, where he held a series of exhibitions to show and sell his artworks.

In 1947, Ye became a professor at the Beiping (Beijing) Art Academy. After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, he remained at the academy, which was transformed into the China Central Academy of Fine Arts. He was also elected vice-chairman of the China Artists Association. In 1954, he was appointed head of the Chinese Painting Department of the academy. He painted prolifically in the 1950s, including such representative works as Indian Dancing, Autumn of the Summer River, and The Liberation of Beiping. When the Cultural Revolution began in 1966, Ye Qianyu was accused of being a Kuomintang (KMT) agent for having drawn propaganda paintings and cartoons for the KMT government during the Japanese invasion. The Red Guards labeled him as a KMT "Major General" because he was better paid than a real general. He was imprisoned for seven years. After his release in 1975, he was allowed to return to work at the Central Academy of Fine Arts, as a janitor. He nearly died of a heart attack the following year, and underwent a major operation in 1978. His wife Wang Renmei supported the family during this period. Ye Qianyu was politically rehabilitated in 1979. In 1981 he was appointed Vice President of the Research Institute of Chinese painting, and re-elected vice-chairman of the China Artists Association and member of the National Committee of the CPPCC. He died in 1995 in Beijing, aged 88. ## Personal life Ye Qianyu was married three times. At age 23, he married Luo Caiyun (罗彩云), who was from a prominent family in his hometown Tonglu. The marriage was arranged by their parents. She gave birth to a son Ye Shen (叶申) and a daughter Ye Mingming (叶明明). In 1935, while he was an editor with the Modern Sketch magazine, Ye fell in love with Liang Baibo, one of the first female Chinese cartoonists and creator of the comic strip Miss Bee. Luo Caiyun rejected Ye's request for divorce, but they agreed to become legally separated. At the start of the Sino-Japanese War, Liang Baibo joined Ye's Salvation Cartoon Propaganda Corps and went to Wuhan with him. However, Liang met and fell in love with an air force pilot in Wuhan, eventually following him to Taiwan. She suffered from mental illness in her later years and committed suicide circa 1970. In 1940 Ye Qianyu met the dancer Dai Ailian in Hong Kong. An overseas Chinese born in Trinidad, Dai had come to Hong Kong to support the war effort. Although Dai could not speak Chinese and Ye spoke little English, they fell in love and got married within a few weeks. Soong Ching-ling, the widow of President Sun Yat-sen, presided over their wedding. Because of a botched surgery in Hong Kong, Dai was unable to have children. According to Ye Qianyu's daughter Mingming, who lived with her father and was initially hostile to her stepmother, Dai treated her as if she had been her own child. In 1950 Ye spent more than half a year in Xinjiang. When he returned to Beijing, Dai Ailian unexpectedly asked for divorce, because she had fallen in love with her dance partner. Ye was devastated; the divorce was finalized in 1951. Dai Ailian lived until 2006, and is now known as the "Mother of Chinese ballet". Ye's last wife was Wang Renmei, a famous actress who had been previously married to the "Film Emperor" Jin Yan. Introduced by mutual friends, they got married in 1955. The marriage was stormy from the beginning, but it lasted more than 30 years, through the turmoil of the Cultural Revolution, until Wang's death in 1987. Luo Caiyun, Ye Qianyu's first wife, lived with their son Ye Shen in Wuxi, Jiangsu. When Ye Qianyu was accused of being a KMT agent and thrown into prison during the Cultural Revolution, Luo was persecuted for being his ex-wife. She committed suicide in 1970. ## Selected works ## See also - Feng Zikai

Hepatitis C

Human viral infection

Hepatitis C is an infectious disease caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV) that primarily affects the liver; it is a type of viral hepatitis. During the initial infection period, people often have mild or no symptoms. Early symptoms can include fever, dark urine, abdominal pain, and yellow tinged skin. The virus persists in the liver, becoming chronic, in about 70% of those initially infected. Early on, chronic infection typically has no symptoms. Over many years however, it often leads to liver disease and occasionally cirrhosis. In some cases, those with cirrhosis will develop serious complications such as liver failure, liver cancer, or dilated blood vessels in the esophagus and stomach. HCV is spread primarily by blood-to-blood contact associated with injection drug use, poorly sterilized medical equipment, needlestick injuries in healthcare, and transfusions. In regions where blood screening has been implemented, the risk of contracting HCV from a transfusion has dropped substantially to less than one per two million. HCV may also be spread from an infected mother to her baby during birth. It is not spread through breast milk, food, water or casual contact such as hugging, kissing and sharing food or drinks with an infected person. It is one of five known hepatitis viruses: A, B, C, D, and E. Diagnosis is by blood testing to look for either antibodies to the virus or viral RNA. In the United States, screening for HCV infection is recommended in all adults age 18 to 79 years old. There is no vaccine against hepatitis C. Prevention includes harm reduction efforts among people who inject drugs, testing donated blood, and treatment of people with chronic infection. Chronic infection can be cured more than 95% of the time with antiviral medications such as sofosbuvir or simeprevir. Peginterferon and ribavirin were earlier generation treatments that proved successful in \<50% of cases and caused greater side effects. While access to the newer treatments was expensive, by 2022 prices had dropped dramatically in many countries (primarily low-income and lower-middle-income countries) due to the introduction of generic versions of medicines. Those who develop cirrhosis or liver cancer may require a liver transplant. Hepatitis C is one of the leading reasons for liver transplantation, though the virus usually recurs after transplantation. An estimated 58 million people worldwide were infected with hepatitis C in 2019. Approximately 290,000 deaths from the virus, mainly from liver cancer and cirrhosis attributed to hepatitis C, also occurred in 2019. The existence of hepatitis C – originally identifiable only as a type of non-A non-B hepatitis – was suggested in the 1970s and proven in 1989. Hepatitis C infects only humans and chimpanzees. ## Signs and symptoms ### Acute infection Acute symptoms develop in some 20% of those infected. When this occurs, it is generally 4–12 weeks following infection (but it may take from 2 weeks to 6 months for acute symptoms to appear). Symptoms are generally mild and vague, and may include fatigue, nausea and vomiting, fever, muscle or joint pains, abdominal pain, decreased appetite and weight loss, jaundice (occurs in \~25% of those infected), dark urine, and clay-coloured stools. Acute liver failure due to acute hepatitis C is exceedingly rare. Symptoms and laboratory findings suggestive of liver disease should prompt further tests and can thus help establish a diagnosis of hepatitis C infection early on. Following the acute phase, the infection may resolve spontaneously in 10–50% of affected people; this occurs more frequently in young people and females. ### Chronic infection About 70% of those exposed to the virus develop a chronic infection. This is defined as the presence of detectable viral replication for at least six months. Though most experience minimal or no symptoms during the initial few decades of a chronic infection, chronic hepatitis C can be associated with fatigue and mild cognitive problems. After several years, chronic infection may cause cirrhosis or liver cancer. The liver enzymes measured from blood samples are normal in 7–53%. (Elevated levels indicate liver cells are being damaged by the virus or other disease). Late relapses after apparent cure have been reported, but these can be difficult to distinguish from reinfection. Fatty changes to the liver occur in about half of those infected and are usually present before cirrhosis develops. Usually (80% of the time) this change affects less than a third of the liver. Worldwide hepatitis C is the cause of 27% of cirrhosis cases and 25% of hepatocellular carcinoma. About 10–30% of those infected develop cirrhosis over 30 years. Cirrhosis is more common in those also infected with hepatitis B, schistosoma, or HIV, in alcoholics, and in those of male sex. In those with hepatitis C, excess alcohol increases the risk of developing cirrhosis 5-fold. Those who develop cirrhosis have a 20-fold greater risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. This transformation occurs at a rate of 1–3% per year. Being infected with hepatitis B in addition to hepatitis C increases this risk further. Liver cirrhosis may lead to portal hypertension, ascites (accumulation of fluid in the abdomen), easy bruising or bleeding, varices (enlarged veins, especially in the stomach and esophagus), jaundice, and a syndrome of cognitive impairment known as hepatic encephalopathy. Ascites occurs at some stage in more than half of those who have a chronic infection. ### Extrahepatic complications The most common problem due to hepatitis C but not involving the liver is mixed cryoglobulinemia (usually the type II form) – an inflammation of small and medium-sized blood vessels. Hepatitis C is also associated with autoimmune disorders such as Sjögren's syndrome, lichen planus, a low platelet count, porphyria cutanea tarda, necrolytic acral erythema, insulin resistance, diabetes mellitus, diabetic nephropathy, autoimmune thyroiditis, and B-cell lymphoproliferative disorders. 20–30% of people infected have rheumatoid factor – a type of antibody. Possible associations include Hyde's prurigo nodularis and membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis. Cardiomyopathy with associated abnormal heart rhythms has also been reported. A variety of central nervous system disorders has been reported. Chronic infection seems to be associated with an increased risk of pancreatic cancer. People may experience other issues in the mouth such as dryness, salivary duct stones, and crusted lesions around the mouth. ### Occult infection Persons who have been infected with hepatitis C may appear to clear the virus but remain infected. The virus is not detectable with conventional testing but can be found with ultra-sensitive tests. The original method of detection was by demonstrating the viral genome within liver biopsies, but newer methods include an antibody test for the virus' core protein and the detection of the viral genome after first concentrating the viral particles by ultracentrifugation. A form of infection with persistently moderately elevated serum liver enzymes but without antibodies to hepatitis C has also been reported. This form is known as cryptogenic occult infection. Several clinical pictures have been associated with this type of infection. It may be found in people with anti-hepatitis-C antibodies but with normal serum levels of liver enzymes; in antibody-negative people with ongoing elevated liver enzymes of unknown cause; in healthy populations without evidence of liver disease; and in groups at risk for HCV infection including those on hemodialysis or family members of people with occult HCV. The clinical relevance of this form of infection is under investigation. The consequences of occult infection appear to be less severe than with chronic infection but can vary from minimal to hepatocellular carcinoma. The rate of occult infection in those apparently cured is controversial but appears to be low. 40% of those with hepatitis but with both negative hepatitis C serology and the absence of detectable viral genome in the serum have hepatitis C virus in the liver on biopsy. How commonly this occurs in children is unknown. ## Virology The hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a small, enveloped, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus. It is a member of the genus Hepacivirus in the family Flaviviridae. There are seven major genotypes of HCV, which are known as genotypes one to seven. The genotypes are divided into several subtypes with the number of subtypes depending on the genotype. In the United States, about 70% of cases are caused by genotype 1, 20% by genotype 2 and about 1% by each of the other genotypes. Genotype 1 is also the most common in South America and Europe. The half life of the virus particles in the serum is around 3 hours and may be as short as 45 minutes. In an infected person, about 10¹² virus particles are produced each day. In addition to replicating in the liver the virus can multiply in lymphocytes. ## Transmission Percutaneous contact with contaminated blood is responsible for most infections; however, the method of transmission is strongly dependent on both geographic region and economic status. Indeed, the primary route of transmission in the developed world is injection drug use, while in the developing world the main methods are blood transfusions and unsafe medical procedures. The cause of transmission remains unknown in 20% of cases; however, many of these are believed to be accounted for by injection drug use. ### Drug use Injection drug use (IDU) is a major risk factor for hepatitis C in many parts of the world. Of 77 countries reviewed, 25 (including the United States) were found to have a prevalence of hepatitis C of between 60% and 80% among people who use injection drugs. Twelve countries had rates greater than 80%. It is believed that ten million intravenous drug users are infected with hepatitis C; China (1.6 million), the United States (1.5 million), and Russia (1.3 million) have the highest absolute totals. Occurrence of hepatitis C among prison inmates in the United States is 10 to 20 times that of the occurrence observed in the general population; this has been attributed to high-risk behavior in prisons such as IDU and tattooing with non-sterile equipment. Shared intranasal drug use may also be a risk factor. ### Healthcare exposure Blood transfusion, transfusion of blood products, or organ transplants without HCV screening carry significant risks of infection. The United States instituted universal screening in 1992, and Canada instituted universal screening in 1990. This decreased the risk from one in 200 units to between one in 10,000 to one in 10,000,000 per unit of blood. This low risk remains as there is a period of about 11–70 days between the potential blood donor's acquiring hepatitis C and the blood's testing positive depending on the method. Some countries do not screen for hepatitis C due to the cost. Those who have experienced a needle stick injury from someone who was HCV positive have about a 1.8% chance of subsequently contracting the disease themselves. The risk is greater if the needle in question is hollow and the puncture wound is deep. There is a risk from mucosal exposures to blood, but this risk is low, and there is no risk if blood exposure occurs on intact skin. Hospital equipment has also been documented as a method of transmission of hepatitis C, including reuse of needles and syringes, multiple-use medication vials, infusion bags, and improperly sterilized surgical equipment, among others. Limitations in the implementation and enforcement of stringent standard precautions in public and private medical and dental facilities are known to have been the primary cause of the spread of HCV in Egypt, the country that had the highest rate of infection in the world in 2012, and currently has one of the lowest in the world in 2021. For more, see HONOReform (Hepatitis Outbreaks National Organization for Reform). ### Sexual intercourse Sexual transmission of hepatitis C is uncommon. Studies examining the risk of HCV transmission between heterosexual partners, when one is infected and the other is not, have found very low risks. Sexual practices that involve higher levels of trauma to the anogenital mucosa, such as anal penetrative sex, or that occur when there is a concurrent sexually transmitted infection, including HIV or genital ulceration, present greater risks. The United States Department of Veterans Affairs recommends condom use to prevent hepatitis C transmission in those with multiple partners, but not those in relationships that involve only a single partner. ### Body modification Tattooing is associated with two to threefold increased risk of hepatitis C. This could be due to either improperly sterilized equipment or contamination of the dyes being used. Tattoos or piercings performed either before the mid-1980s, "underground", or nonprofessionally are of particular concern, since sterile techniques in such settings may be lacking. The risk also appears to be greater for larger tattoos. It is estimated that nearly half of prison inmates share unsterilized tattooing equipment. It is rare for tattoos in a licensed facility to be directly associated with HCV infection. ### Shared personal items Personal-care items such as razors, toothbrushes, and manicuring or pedicuring equipment can be contaminated with blood. Sharing such items can potentially lead to exposure to HCV. Appropriate caution should be taken regarding any medical condition that results in bleeding, such as cuts and sores. HCV is not spread through casual contact, such as hugging, kissing, or sharing eating or cooking utensils, nor is it transmitted through food or water. ### Mother-to-child transmission Mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis C occurs in fewer than 10% of pregnancies. There are no measures that alter this risk. It is not clear when transmission occurs during pregnancy, but it may occur both during gestation and at delivery. A long labor is associated with a greater risk of transmission. There is no evidence that breastfeeding spreads HCV; however, to be cautious, an infected mother is advised to avoid breastfeeding if her nipples are cracked and bleeding, or if her viral loads are high. ## Diagnosis There are a number of diagnostic tests for hepatitis C, including HCV antibody enzyme immunoassay (ELISA), recombinant immunoblot assay, and quantitative HCV RNA polymerase chain reaction (PCR). HCV RNA can be detected by PCR typically one to two weeks after infection, while antibodies can take substantially longer to form and thus be detected. Diagnosing patients is generally a challenge as patients with acute illness generally present with mild, non-specific flu-like symptoms, while the transition from acute to chronic is sub-clinical. Chronic hepatitis C is defined as infection with the hepatitis C virus persisting for more than six months based on the presence of its RNA. Chronic infections are typically asymptomatic during the first few decades, and thus are most commonly discovered following the investigation of elevated liver enzyme levels or during a routine screening of high-risk individuals. Testing is not able to distinguish between acute and chronic infections. Diagnosis in infants is difficult as maternal antibodies may persist for up to 18 months. ### Serology Hepatitis C testing typically begins with blood testing to detect the presence of antibodies to the HCV, using an enzyme immunoassay. If this test is positive, a confirmatory test is then performed to verify the immunoassay and to determine the viral load. A recombinant immunoblot assay is used to verify the immunoassay and the viral load is determined by an HCV RNA polymerase chain reaction. If there is no RNA and the immunoblot is positive, it means that the person tested had a previous infection but cleared it either with treatment or spontaneously; if the immunoblot is negative, it means that the immunoassay was wrong. It takes about 6–8 weeks following infection before the immunoassay will test positive. A number of tests are available as point-of-care testing (POCT), which can provide results within 30 minutes. Liver enzymes are variable during the initial part of the infection and on average begin to rise at seven weeks after infection. The elevation of liver enzymes does not closely follow disease severity. ### Biopsy Liver biopsies are used to determine the degree of liver damage present; however, there are risks from the procedure. The typical changes seen are lymphocytes within the parenchyma, lymphoid follicles in portal triad, and changes to the bile ducts. There are a number of blood tests available that try to determine the degree of hepatic fibrosis and alleviate the need for biopsy. ### Screening It is believed that only 5–50% of those infected in the United States and Canada are aware of their status. Routine screening for those between the ages of 18 and 79 was recommended by the United States Preventive Services Task Force in 2020. Previously, testing was recommended for those at high risk, including injection drug users, those who have received blood transfusions before 1992, those who have been incarcerated, those on long-term hemodialysis, and those with tattoos. Screening is also recommended for those with elevated liver enzymes, as this is frequently the only sign of chronic hepatitis. As of 2012, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends a single screening test for those born between 1945 and 1965. In Canada, a one-time screening is recommended for those born between 1945 and 1975. ## Prevention As of 2022, no approved vaccine protects against contracting hepatitis C. A combination of harm reduction strategies, such as the provision of new needles and syringes and treatment of substance use, decreases the risk of hepatitis C in people using injection drugs by about 75%. The screening of blood donors is important at a national level, as is adhering to universal precautions within healthcare facilities. In countries where there is an insufficient supply of sterile syringes, medications should be given orally rather than via injection (when possible). Recent research also suggests that treating people with active infection, thereby reducing the potential for transmission, may be an effective preventive measure. Hepatitus C vaccine phase 1 clinical trials are set to begin in the summer of 2023.

## Treatment Those with chronic hepatitis C are advised to avoid alcohol and medications that are toxic to the liver. They should also be vaccinated against hepatitis A and hepatitis B due to the increased risk if also infected. Use of acetaminophen is generally considered safe at reduced doses. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are not recommended in those with advanced liver disease due to an increased risk of bleeding. Ultrasound surveillance for hepatocellular carcinoma is recommended in those with accompanying cirrhosis. Coffee consumption has been associated with a slower rate of liver scarring in those infected with HCV. ### Medications More than 95% of chronic cases clear with treatment. Treatment with antiviral medication is recommended for all people with proven chronic hepatitis C who are not at high risk of death from other causes. People with the highest complication risk, which is based on the degree of liver scarring, should be treated first. The initial recommended treatment depends on the type of hepatitis C virus, if the person has received previous hepatitis C treatment, and whether the person has cirrhosis. Direct-acting antivirals are the preferred treatment and have been validated by testing for virus particles in patients' blood. #### No prior treatment - HCV genotype 1a (no cirrhosis): 8 weeks of glecaprevir/pibrentasvir or ledipasvir/sofosbuvir (the latter for people who do not have HIV/AIDS, are not African-American, and have less than 6 million HCV viral copies per milliliter of blood) or 12 weeks of elbasvir/grazoprevir, ledipasvir/sofosbuvir, or sofosbuvir/velpatasvir. Sofosbuvir with either daclatasvir or simeprevir may also be used. - HCV genotype 1a (with compensated cirrhosis): 12 weeks of elbasvir/grazoprevir, glecaprevir/pibrentasvir, ledipasvir/sofosbuvir, or sofosbuvir/velpatasvir. An alternative treatment regimen of elbasvir/grazoprevir with weight-based ribavirin for 16 weeks can be used if the HCV is found to have antiviral resistance mutations against NS5A protease inhibitors. - HCV genotype 1b (no cirrhosis): 8 weeks of glecaprevir/pibrentasvir or ledipasvir/sofosbuvir (with the aforementioned limitations for the latter as above) or 12 weeks of elbasvir/grazoprevir, ledipasvir/sofosbuvir, or sofosbuvir/velpatasvir. Alternative regimens include 12 weeks of ombitasvir/paritaprevir/ritonavir with dasabuvir or 12 weeks of sofosbuvir with either daclatasvir or simeprevir. - HCV genotype 1b (with compensated cirrhosis): 12 weeks of elbasvir/grazoprevir, glecaprevir/pibrentasvir, ledipasvir/sofosbuvir, or sofosbuvir/velpatasvir. A 12-week course of paritaprevir/ritonavir/ombitasvir with dasabuvir may also be used. - HCV genotype 2 (no cirrhosis): 8 weeks of glecaprevir/pibrentasvir or 12 weeks of sofosbuvir/velpatasvir. Alternatively, 12 weeks of sofosbuvir/daclatasvir can be used. - HCV genotype 2 (with compensated cirrhosis): 12 weeks of sofosbuvir/velpatasvir or glecaprevir/pibrentasvir. An alternative regimen of sofosbuvir/daclatasvir can be used for 16–24 weeks. - HCV genotype 3 (no cirrhosis): 8 weeks of glecaprevir/pibrentasvir or 12 weeks of sofosbuvir/velpatasvir or sofosbuvir and daclatasvir. - HCV genotype 3 (with compensated cirrhosis): 12 weeks of glecaprevir/pibrentasvir, sofosbuvir/velpatasvir, or if certain antiviral mutations are present, 12 weeks of sofosbuvir/velpatasvir/voxilaprevir (when certain antiviral mutations are present), or 24 weeks of sofosbuvir and daclatasvir. - HCV genotype 4 (no cirrhosis): 8 weeks of glecaprevir/pibrentasvir or 12 weeks of sofosbuvir/velpatasvir, elbasvir/grazoprevir, or ledipasvir/sofosbuvir. A 12-week regimen of ombitasvir/paritaprevir/ritonavir is also acceptable in combination with weight-based ribavirin. - HCV genotype 4 (with compensated cirrhosis): A 12-week regimen of sofosbuvir/velpatasvir, glecaprevir/pibrentasavir, elbasvir/grazoprevir, or ledipasvir/sofosbuvir is recommended. A 12-week course of ombitasvir/paritaprevir/ritonavir with weight-based ribavirin is an acceptable alternative. - HCV genotype 5 or 6 (with or without compensated cirrhosis): If no cirrhosis is present, then 8 weeks of glecaprevir/pibrentasvir is recommended. If cirrhosis is present, then a 12-week course of glecaprevir/pibrentasvir, sofosbuvir/velpatasvir, or ledipasvir/sofosbuvir is warranted. More than 95% of people with chronic infection can be cured when treated with medications; this could be expensive, but by 2022 prices had dropped dramatically. The combination of sofosbuvir, velpatasvir, and voxilaprevir may be used in those who have previously been treated with sofosbuvir or other drugs that inhibit NS5A and were not cured. Prior to 2011, treatments consisted of a combination of pegylated interferon alpha and ribavirin for a period of 24 or 48 weeks, depending on HCV genotype. This treatment produces cure rates of between 70 and 80% for genotype 2 and 3, respectively, and 45 to 70% for genotypes 1 and 4. Adverse effects with these treatments were common, with 50 to 60% of those being treated experiencing flu-like symptoms and nearly a third experiencing depression or other emotional issues. Treatment during the first six months of infection (the acute stage) is more effective than when hepatitis C has entered the chronic stage. In those with chronic hepatitis B, treatment for hepatitis C results in reactivation of hepatitis B about 25% of the time. ### Surgery Cirrhosis due to hepatitis C is a common reason for liver transplantation, though the virus usually (80–90% of cases) recurs afterwards. Infection of the graft leads to 10–30% of people developing cirrhosis within five years. Treatment with pegylated interferon and ribavirin post-transplant decreases the risk of recurrence to 70%. A 2013 review found no clear evidence as to whether antiviral medication is useful if the graft became reinfected. ### Alternative medicine Several alternative therapies are claimed by their proponents to be helpful for hepatitis C, including milk thistle, ginseng, and colloidal silver. However, no alternative therapy has been shown to improve outcomes for hepatitis C patients, and no evidence exists that alternative therapies have any effect on the virus. ## Prognosis The responses to treatment is measured by sustained viral response (SVR), defined as the absence of detectable RNA of the hepatitis C virus in blood serum for at least 24 weeks after discontinuing treatment, and rapid virological response (RVR), defined as undetectable levels achieved within four weeks of treatment. Successful treatment decreases the future risk of hepatocellular carcinoma by 75%. Prior to 2012, sustained response occurred in about 40–50% of those with HCV genotype 1 who received 48 weeks of treatment. A sustained response was seen in 70–80% of people with HCV genotypes 2 and 3 following 24 weeks of treatment. A sustained response occurs for about 65% of those with genotype 4 after 48 weeks of treatment. For those with HCV genotype 6, a 48-week treatment protocol of pegylated interferon and ribavirin results in a higher rate of sustained responses than for genotype 1 (86% vs. 52%). Further studies are needed to determine results for shorter 24-week treatments and for those given at lower dosages. ### Spontaneous resolution Around 30% (15–45%) of those with acute HCV infections will spontaneously clear the virus within six months, before the infection is considered chronic. Spontaneous resolution following acute infection appears more common in females and in patients who are younger, and may be influenced by certain genetic factors. Chronic HCV infection may also resolve spontaneously months or years after the acute phase has passed, though this is unusual. ## Epidemiology The World Health Organization estimated in a 2021 report that 58 million people globally were living with chronic hepatitis C as of 2019. About 1.5 million people are infected per year, and about 290,000 people die yearly from hepatitis C-related diseases, mainly from liver cancer and cirrhosis. Hepatitis C infection rates increased substantially in the 20th century due to a combination of intravenous drug abuse and the reuse of poorly sterilized medical equipment. However, advancements in treatment have led to notable declines in chronic infections and deaths from the virus. As a result, the number of chronic patients receiving treatment worldwide has grown from about 950,000 in 2015 to 9.4 million in 2019. During the same period, hepatitis C deaths declined from about 400,000 to 290,000. Previously, a 2013 study found high infection rates (\>3.5% population infected) in Central and East Asia, North Africa and the Middle East, intermediate infection rates (1.5–3.5%) in South and Southeast Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, Andean, Central and Southern Latin America, Caribbean, Oceania, Australasia and Central, Eastern and Western Europe; and low infection rates (\<1.5%) in Asia-Pacific, Tropical Latin America and North America. Among those chronically infected, the risk of cirrhosis after 20 years varies between studies but has been estimated at \~10–15% for men and \~1–5% for women. The reason for this difference is not known. Once cirrhosis is established, the rate of developing hepatocellular carcinoma is \~1–4% per year. Rates of new infections have decreased in the Western world since the 1990s due to improved screening of blood before transfusion. In Egypt, following Egypt's 2030 Vision, the country managed to bring down the infection rates of Hepatitis C from 22% in 2011 to just 2% in 2021. It was believed that the high prevalence in Egypt was linked to a discontinued mass-treatment campaign for schistosomiasis, using improperly sterilized glass syringes. In the United States, about 2% of people have chronic hepatitis C. In 2014, an estimated 30,500 new acute hepatitis C cases occurred (0.7 per 100,000 population), an increase from 2010 to 2012. The number of deaths from hepatitis C has increased to 15,800 in 2008 having overtaken HIV/AIDS as a cause of death in the US in 2007. In 2014, it was the single greatest cause of infectious death in the United States. This mortality rate is expected to increase, as those infected by transfusion before HCV testing become apparent. In Europe, the percentage of people with chronic infections has been estimated to be between 0.13 and 3.26%. In the United Kingdom, about 118,000 people were chronically infected in 2019. About half of people using a needle exchange in London in 2017/8 tested positive for hepatitis C of which half were unaware that they had it. As part of a bid to eradicate hepatitis C by 2025, NHS England conducted a large procurement exercise in 2019. Merck Sharp & Dohme, Gilead Sciences, and Abbvie were awarded contracts, which, together, are worth up to £1 billion over five years. The total number of people with this infection is higher in some countries in Africa and Asia. Countries with particularly high rates of infection include Pakistan (4.8%) and China (3.2%). Since 2014, extremely effective treatments have been available to eradicate the disease within 8–12 weeks in most people. In 2015, about 950,000 people were treated while 1.7 million new infections occurred, meaning that overall the number of people with HCV increased. These numbers differ by country and improved in 2016, with some countries achieving higher cure rates than new infection rates (mostly high income countries). By 2018, twelve countries are on track to achieve HCV elimination. While antiviral agents will curb new infections, it is less clear whether they impact overall deaths and morbidity. Furthermore, for them to be effective, people need to be aware of their infection – it is estimated that worldwide only 20% of infected people are aware of their infection (in the US, fewer than half were aware). ## History In the mid-1970s, Harvey J. Alter, Chief of the Infectious Disease Section in the Department of Transfusion Medicine at the National Institutes of Health, and his research team demonstrated how most post-transfusion hepatitis cases were not due to hepatitis A or B viruses. Despite this discovery, international research efforts to identify the virus, initially called non-A, non-B hepatitis (NANBH), failed for the next decade. In 1987, Michael Houghton, Qui-Lim Choo, and George Kuo at Chiron Corporation, collaborating with Daniel W. Bradley at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, used a novel molecular cloning approach to identify the unknown organism and develop a diagnostic test. In 1988, Alter confirmed the virus by verifying its presence in a panel of NANBH specimens, and Chiron announced its discovery at a Washington, DC Press conference in May, 1988. At the time, Chiron was in talks with the Japanese health ministry to sell a biotech version of the Hepatitis B vaccine. Simultaneously, Emperor Hirohito had developed cancer and required numerous blood transfusions. The Japanese health ministry placed a screening order for Chiron's experimental NANBH test. Chiron's Japanese marketing subsidiary, Diagnostic Systems KK, introduced the term "Hepatitis C" in November, 1988 in Tokyo news reports publicizing the testing of the emperor's blood. Chiron sold a screening order to the Japanese health ministry in November 1988, earning the company US\$60 million a year. However, because Chiron had not published any of its research and did not make a culture model available to other researchers to verify Chiron's discovery, Hepatitis C earned the nickname "The Emperor's New Virus." In April 1989, the "discovery" of HCV was published in two articles in the journal Science. Chiron filed for several patents on the virus and its diagnosis. A competing patent application by the CDC was dropped in 1990 after Chiron paid \$1.9 million to the CDC and \$337,500 to Bradley. In 1994, Bradley sued Chiron, seeking to invalidate the patent, have himself included as a co-inventor, and receive damages and royalty income. The court ruled against him, which was sustained on appeal in 1998. Because of the unique molecular "isolation" of the Hepatitis C virus, although Houghton and Kuo's team at Chiron had discovered strong biochemical markers for the virus and the test proved effective at reducing cases of post-transfusion hepatitis, the existence of a hepatitis C virus was essentially inferred. In 1992, the San Francisco Chronicle reported that the virus had never been observed under an electron microscope. In 1997, the American FDA approved the first hepatitis C drug on the basis of a surrogate marker called "Sustained Virological Response." In response, the pharmaceutical industry established a nationwide network of "Astro-Turf" patient advocacy groups to raise awareness (and fear) of the disease. Hepatitis C was finally "discovered" in 2005 when a Japanese team was able to propagate a molecular clone in a cell culture called Huh7. This discovery enabled proper characterization of the viral particle and rapid research into the development of protease inhibitors replacing early interferon treatments. The first of these, sofosbuvir, was approved on December 6, 2013. These drugs are marketed as "cures;" however, because they were approved on the basis of surrogate markers and not clinical endpoints such as prolonging life or improving liver health, many experts question their value. After blood screening began, a notable hepatitis C prevalence was discovered in Egypt, which claimed six million individuals were infected by unsterile needles in a late 1970s mass chemotherapy campaign to eliminate schistosomiasis (snail fever). On October 5, 2020, Houghton and Alter, together with Charles M. Rice, were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work. ## Society and culture World Hepatitis Day, held on July 28, is coordinated by the World Hepatitis Alliance. The economic costs of hepatitis C are significant both to the individual and to society. In the United States, the average lifetime cost of the disease was estimated at US\$33,407 in 2003 with the cost of a liver transplant as of 2011 costing approximately US\$200,000. In Canada, the cost of a course of antiviral treatment is as high as 30,000 CAD in 2003, while the United States costs are between 9,200 and US\$17,600 in 1998. In many areas of the world, people are unable to afford treatment with antivirals as they either lack insurance coverage or the insurance they have will not pay for antivirals. In the English National Health Service treatment rates for hepatitis C were higher among less deprived groups in 2010–2012. Hepatitis C-infected Spanish anaesthetist Juan Maeso was jailed for the maximum possible period of 20 years for infecting 275 patients between 1988 and 1997, as he used the same needles to give both himself and the patients opioids. ## Special populations ### Children and pregnancy Compared with adults, infection in children is much less understood. Worldwide the prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in pregnant women and children has been estimated to 1–8% and 0.05–5% respectively. The vertical transmission rate has been estimated to be 3–5% and there is a high rate of spontaneous clearance (25–50%) in the children. Higher rates have been reported for both vertical transmission (18%, 6–36%, and 41%) and prevalence in children (15%). In developed countries, transmission around the time of birth is now the leading cause of HCV infection. In the absence of virus in the mother's blood, transmission seems to be rare. Factors associated with an increased rate of infection include membrane rupture of longer than 6 hours before delivery and procedures exposing the infant to maternal blood. Cesarean sections are not recommended. Breastfeeding is considered safe if the nipples are not damaged. Infection around the time of birth in one child does not increase the risk in a subsequent pregnancy. All genotypes appear to have the same risk of transmission. HCV infection is frequently found in children who have previously been presumed to have non-A, non-B hepatitis and cryptogenic liver disease. The presentation in childhood may be asymptomatic or with elevated liver function tests. While infection is commonly asymptomatic, both cirrhosis with liver failure and hepatocellular carcinoma may occur in childhood. ### Immunosuppressed The rate of hepatitis C in immunosuppressed people is higher. This is particularly true in those with human immunodeficiency virus infection, recipients of organ transplants, and those with hypogammaglobulinemia. Infection in these people is associated with an unusually rapid progression to cirrhosis. People with stable HIV who never received medication for HCV, may be treated with a combination of peginterferon plus ribavirin with caution to the possible side effects. ## Research As of 2011, there are about one hundred medications in development for hepatitis C. These include vaccines to treat hepatitis, immunomodulators, and cyclophilin inhibitors, among others. These potential new treatments have come about due to a better understanding of the hepatitis C virus. There are a number of vaccines under development and some have shown encouraging results. The combination of sofosbuvir and velpatasvir in one trial (reported in 2015) resulted in cure rates of 99%. More studies are needed to investigate the role of the preventive antiviral medication against HCV recurrence after transplantation. ### Animal models One barrier to finding treatments for hepatitis C is the lack of a suitable animal model. Despite moderate success, research highlights the need for pre-clinical testing in mammalian systems such as mouse, particularly for the development of vaccines in poorer communities. Chimpanzees remain the only available living system to study, yet their use has ethical concerns and regulatory restrictions. While scientists have made use of human cell culture systems such as hepatocytes, questions have been raised about their accuracy in reflecting the body's response to infection. One aspect of hepatitis research is to reproduce infections in mammalian models. A strategy is to introduce liver tissues from humans into mice, a technique known as xenotransplantation. This is done by generating chimeric mice and exposing the mice to HCV infection. This engineering process is known to create humanized mice, and provide opportunities to study hepatitis C within the 3D architectural design of the liver and evaluating antiviral compounds. Alternatively, generating inbred mice with susceptibility to HCV would simplify the process of studying mouse models. ## See also - PSI-6130, an experimental drug treatment

Gypsy (Shakira song)

"Gypsy" is a song by Colombian singer-songwriter Shakira, from her eighth studio album She Wolf (2009). The song was chosen as the fourth and final single from the album by Epic Records. It was released internationally on 26 March 2010; in the United States, "Gypsy" was released as a CD single on 12 April 2010. The Spanish-language version "Gitana" was released as a digital promotional single on 1 March 2010. Written by Amanda Ghost with adittional composition by Shakira, Carl Sturken and Evan Rogers, the lyrics of the song describe one's life travelling as a "gypsy". The song draws heavy influences from Indian bhangra music. Upon its release, "Gypsy" received generally positive reviews from music critics, many of whom complimented its production. The single was commercially successful and peaked within the top 10 of the charts of countries including Germany, Hungary, Mexico and Spain. In the United States, "Gypsy" peaked at number 65 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, while "Gitana" reached number six on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart. "Gypsy" was certified platinum and gold in Spain and Mexico, respectively. An accompanying music video for the song was directed by Jaume de Laiguana, and stars Spanish professional tennis player Rafael Nadal as Shakira's love interest. The music video also generated a favourable response from critics, and was praised for the chemistry between Shakira and Nadal. Shakira appeared on a number of television shows, such as German-language entertainment show Wetten, dass..? and The Ellen DeGeneres Show, and award ceremonies to promote the song. It was also a part of the setlist of her Sun Comes Out World Tour. ## Background and composition "Gypsy" was released as the fourth and final single from Shakira's eighth studio album, She Wolf (2009). "Gypsy" was written by Amanda Ghost with additional composition by Shakira, Ian Dench, Carl Sturken and Evan Rogers, and produced by Shakira, Ghost, Lukas Burton and Future Cut. Written in a ballad-like form, the lyrics of the song describe life travelling on the road as a "gypsy". Shakira explained the song, saying "(The song represents my) way of living and seeing life. I've been on the road since I was very young so that's where the gypsy metaphor comes from." Musically, "Gypsy" is heavily influenced by Indian bhangra music, and features instrumentation from the mandolin, banjo, sitar and tabla. According to the music sheet published at Musicnotes.com by Sony/ATV Music Publishing, "Gypsy" is a midtempo song written in the key of D flat major, with a metronome of 100 beats per minute. Shakira's vocal range on the song spans from A3 to C5. The original English version of the song was released worldwide on 26 March 2010. In the United States, it was released as a CD single on 12 April 2010. A Spanish-language version of the song titled "Gitana" features additional lyrical contributions from Jorge Drexler and was released on 1 March 2010, as a digital promotional single. ## Critical response "Gypsy" received generally positive reviews from music critics. While reviewing the album, Ayala Ben-Yehuda from Billboard singled out the song as an album highlight and called it "the closest thing to an acoustic song on the album". Fraser McAlpine from the BBC Chart Blog also reviewed the song positively and praised its versatility, claiming it manages to be both "conservative acoustic music" and "radical exotic world music" at the same time. Robert Copsey from Digital Spy appreciated the acoustic-instrumentation of "Gypsy", noting it to be "by far the most organic-sounding offering from her She Wolf LP", but he also felt that the song is not "as instantly infectious as some of her classic singles". Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic felt the song was representative of the entire album, picking it as an album highlight. Evan Sawdey from PopMatters, however, disliked the concept of the "Gypsy", saying the "metaphors don't work very well" on the song. The song was nominated for "Top Latin Song" at the 2011 Billboard Music Awards. Two other songs by Shakira, "Loca" and "Waka Waka (This Time for Africa)", were also nominated, and the award was won by the latter song. At the 2011 Annual Latin Music Awards hosted by ASCAP, Jorge Drexler won an award in the "Pop/Ballad" category for his composition of "Gitana". ## Commercial performance "Gypsy" attained international chart success. In Austria, it entered and peaked at number 11 on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 chart, spending a total of 10 weeks on the chart. In the Dutch-speaking Flanders region of Belgium, the song peaked at number four on the Ultratip chart, spending a total of six weeks on the chart. In the French-speaking Wallonia region of Belgium, the song entered and peaked at number 40 on the Ultratop 50 chart, spending a total of one week on the chart. In Germany, the song peaked at number seven on the Media Control Charts, remaining on the position for one week. In Spain, the song entered the Spanish Singles chart at number 47 and peaked at number three, spending a total of 38 weeks on the chart. "Gypsy" was certified platinum by the Productores de Música de España (PROMUSICAE) for sales of 40,000 units. In Switzerland, the song entered and peaked at number 12 on the Schweizer Hitparade chart, spending a total of 18 weeks on the chart. In Mexico, "Gitana" topped the Monitor Latino chart. It was certified gold by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas (AMPROFON) after it shipped 30,000 units in the country. In the United States, "Gypsy" peaked at number 65 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, spending a total of three weeks on the chart. On the Hot Digital Songs chart, the song peaked at number 48, and remained on the chart for a total of one week. "Gitana" peaked at number six on the US Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart, and stayed on the chart for a total of 20 weeks. On the Latin Pop Airplay chart, the song peaked at number one, and remained on the chart for a total of 25 weeks. On the Tropical Songs chart, the song peaked at number 18, and remained on the chart for a total of 20 weeks. In Canada, the song peaked at number 80 on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 chart, and remained on it for a total of one week. ## Music video The accompanying music video for "Gypsy" was directed by Jaume de Laiguana, who had previously worked with Shakira on the videos for songs such as "No". The video stars Spanish professional tennis player Rafael Nadal, who portrays Shakira's love interest in the video. When asked about the reason for starring Nadal in the video, Shakira said she "thought that maybe I needed someone I could in some way identify with. And Rafael Nadal is a person who has been totally committed to his career since he was very young, since he was 17, I believe." The music videos for "Gypsy" and the Spanish-language version "Gitana" were released on 27 February 2010. The video begins with Shakira playing the harmonica, dressed in a black halter top and a long black skirt. The next scenes mainly consist of Shakira interacting with Nadal in different ways, such as dancing for him and laying together on the ground. The video ends with the duo sharing a kiss. The video received positive reviews from critics. Melanie Bertoldi from Billboard praised Shakira's appearance in the video, saying "the Colombian firebird looks hotter than ever". The HuffPost review of the video labelled it as a "steamy affair". Alek & Steph from OhlalaMag praised the chemistry between Shakira and Nadal, calling it "flirtatious and playful". Jocelyn Vena from MTV praised the video for its "organic vibe" and commented that "while she (Shakira) claims that she's willing to wear her lover's clothes if they fit, she looks much hotter in the sheer black halter top and long black skirt that she sports at one point in the clip". Another review of the video complimented the duo's chemistry and called them both "equally-stunning".

## Live performances On 29 September 2009, Shakira appeared on the Later... with Jools Holland show to promote her album She Wolf and performed "Gypsy", along with "She Wolf" and "Why Wait". On 16 November, Shakira performed "Gypsy" live on the show The View, accompanied by a tabla and sitar. On 24 November 2009, she performed "Gypsy" on The Rachael Ray Show. On 23 December 2009, she appeared on A Home for the Holidays With Faith Hill to perform the song. On 27 March 2010, Shakira performed "Gypsy" on the German-language entertainment show Wetten, dass..? in Salzburg, Austria. On 28 April 2010, Shakira performed "Gypsy" on The Ellen DeGeneres Show. The same day, she performed the song as a duet with Rascal Flatts lead-vocalist Gary LeVox on American Idol. Shakira opened and closed the performance while playing the harmonica. Shakira also performed "Gypsy" in Rock in Rio Lisboa and Madrid on 21 May 2010 and 5 June 2010. On 15 July 2010, Shakira performed the song at the opening of the 2010 Premios Juventud awards ceremony, along with her smash hit "Waka Waka (This Time for Africa)". "Gypsy" and "She Wolf" were the only two singles from the album to be included in the setlist of The Sun Comes Out World Tour. The song was performed with a "folk lilt" and Shakira's vocals were backed by "accordion, fiddles and the rhythm section". ## Usage in media Shakira guest-starred as herself in the eighth episode of the season four of Ugly Betty titled "The Bahamas Triangle", which aired on 4 December 2009. The episode featured the songs "Gypsy" and "Give It Up to Me" running in the background. She sang "Gypsy" in a duet with Selena Gomez in the twelfth episode of the season three of Wizards of Waverly Place, titled "Dude Looks Like Shakira". In the episode, the main characters of the show, Alex (Gomez), Justin (David Henrie), and Max (Jake T. Austin), are shocked to find out that Shakira is no one but their Uncle Kelbo (Jeff Garlin), who is abusing one of the magic laws concerning fame and fortune. The episode aired on 16 April 2010. ## Formats and track listings - CD Single ("Gypsy") 1. "Gypsy" – 3:16 2. "Gypsy" (Freemasons Remix) – 3:26 - Digital download ("Gitana") 1. "Gitana" – 3:26 - Digital download EP 1. "Gypsy" – 3:18 2. "Gypsy" (Freemasons Remix) – 3:26 3. "Gypsy" (DMC Radio Mix) – 3:17 4. "Gitana" – 3:26 ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## See also - List of number-one songs of 2010 (Mexico) - List of number-one Billboard Hot Latin Pop Airplay of 2010

History of the Rhodesian Light Infantry (1972–1977)

Late history of the Rhodesian Light Infantry

The 1st Battalion, The Rhodesian Light Infantry, commonly the Rhodesian Light Infantry (1RLI or RLI), served in the Rhodesian Bush War as part of the Rhodesian Security Forces between 1964 and 1979, under the unrecognised government of Rhodesia following its 1965 Unilateral Declaration of Independence from Britain. During the second half of 1979 it fought for Zimbabwe Rhodesia, a black majority-ruled version of the same state which also failed to win international recognition. After an interim period under British control from December 1979 to April 1980, the RLI briefly remained active within the armed forces of Zimbabwe, but did not see action under this government. It disbanded on 31 October 1980. The Bush War involved counter-insurgency operations by the Rhodesian Security Forces against two rival guerrilla armies, the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA) attached to the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), and the military wing of the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA). Following its reorganisation as a specialised commando unit starting in late 1964, the RLI played a major role in the war during its early phase, effectively countering ZANLA and ZIPRA incursions. After ZANLA spent 1971 and 1972 covertly subverting the local black population of north-eastern Rhodesia to their side in the Maoist fashion, it attacked two white farms near the north-eastern village of Centenary in December 1972. The RLI was one of the first units despatched to counter the infiltration, and Operation Hurricane, a major counter-insurgency action, was started in the country's north-east soon after. Hurricane would last for the rest of the war, eventually just one of seven operational areas defined across Rhodesia by the security forces—Operations Thrasher, Repulse and Tangent followed in 1976, Grapple began a year later and Splinter, covering Lake Kariba, started in 1978. SALOPS ("Salisbury Operations") covered the Rhodesian capital. Fireforce, a vertical envelopment tactic based around the use of helicopter-borne troops, was first executed by the RLI in early 1974 and soon became the main action of the Regiment. The quick reaction time made possible by Fireforce, combined with the observational capacity of the new Selous Scouts deep cover reconnaissance unit, helped the security forces to counter ZANLA's new Maoist tactics. After the Rhodesians won back considerable ground, a South African-brokered ceasefire in December 1974 allowed the nationalists to regroup; the independence of Mozambique under a communist government in 1975 also assisted the guerrillas. Two abortive rounds of talks took place across Victoria Falls in August 1975 and in Geneva, Switzerland between October and December 1976. While the latter conference was going on, the RLI played a key role in one of the security forces' biggest victories in the war thus far, at "Hill 31" in the Honde Valley on 15 November 1976. During this period the RLI reinforced the reputation it had carved for itself during the 1960s; on 25 July 1975 it received the Freedom of the City of Salisbury. Its successful execution of the new Fireforce procedure from 1974 leads Chris Cocks to describe the RLI of 1976 as a "crack unit". The official Fireforce doctrine published by the security forces names the "well-trained" RLI and Rhodesian African Rifles as the only two suitable regiments. The Rhodesia Herald's defence reporter, Chris Reynolds, described the Battalion's performance in the Battle of "Hill 31" as "spectacular". Many individual RLI soldiers won official recognition for their combat actions between 1972 and 1977, with 14 gaining operational commendations and 10 winning the Bronze Cross of Rhodesia. One, Sergeant Peter NcNeilage, won the Silver Cross of Rhodesia on 13 September 1974, having displayed "personal courage, example and outstanding leadership, without concern for his own safety" during Operation Hurricane. ## The conflict winds up again ### ZANLA gathers its strength The Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA) reorganised itself thoroughly during 1971 and 1972 with the help of the Liberation Front of Mozambique (FRELIMO), which had won numerous victories against Portuguese security forces south of the Zambezi and was now in a more viable position to assist. FRELIMO leader Samora Machel provided logistical support to ZANLA, and offered the same to the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA), but ZIPRA leader Joshua Nkomo refused. "ZANLA made careful preparation for their coming campaign," writes Wood: "politicising the rural people in their Maoist fashion, establishing local committees, contact men, feeders, security procedures, and infiltration and exit routes." The ZANLA commanders split Rhodesia into several "provinces", each of which was referred to by the name of the adjacent Mozambican province, and marked out tactical sectors which they named after tribal leaders, spirits and places. The basic unit of the ZANLA forces was a section of 10 to 12 men, which included a political commissar tasked with establishing base camps at regular intervals as the squad moved. The follow-up units of 20 to 30 men would assemble in Mozambique and infiltrate once the subverted area in question had been prepared, with base camps ready and local contact men waiting. "In order not to frighten recruits," Wood goes on, "Rhodesian firepower was not mentioned. Thus a first contact could be traumatic to the new cadres and contributed to their poor performance in fire fights." ### Operation Sable The RLI underwent extensive training during 1972, running a classical war exercise from March to April and then coordinating a larger-scale exercise of the same nature with the Rhodesia Regiment for two months starting in June. Two weeks of counter-insurgency training followed, starting in early September 1972. This proved appropriate for what was to come immediately after: Operation Sable, the RLI's first battalion-size operation in Mozambique, which began in late September. Sable followed on from a Rhodesian Special Air Service (SAS) action in the same area against several local FRELIMO base camps, which were fighting the Portuguese Armed Forces and at the same time assisting ZANLA. The plan called for 2 and 3 Commandos and Support Group, RLI to march due north from where the Ruya River met the border with Rhodesia and set up a stop line about 30 kilometres (19 mi) in. After this 1 Commando would be deployed to the east and sweep in towards the line. The RLI troops entered Mozambique led by Major Rod Tarr, officer commanding of 3 Commando, and moved by night, resting during the day. The terrain, littered with hidden gullies and patches of thick bush, slowed the advance down considerably, as did the loss of Tarr on the first day. "During the first day's lay-up Rod Tarr somehow got boiling water in his boot and had to be casevaced," writes Ian Buttenshaw, then an RLI lieutenant. "The second night was just as bad ..." Although the RLI did not contact any insurgents during its advance, several deserted, but well-established camps were discovered. The Battalion found many more such bases during September and October but all were vacant, the cadres having become aware of the RLI presence and pulled out of the area. The RLI was ultimately withdrawn from Mozambique without having encountered any guerrillas, and the operation was abandoned. Buttenshaw continues: "Although no kills were achieved, a lot of valuable lessons were learned, which would eventually be of use when planning future 'externals'. The major effect of the operation was that it certainly delayed the terr incursions and build-up in the area east of the Ruya River." ## Chimurenga: the Bush War begins in earnest ### ZANLA attacks Altena and Whistlefield Farms Rhodesian intelligence, which had been monitoring ZANLA's activity and preparations, grew curious when over a four-week period in November 1972 sources of information suddenly began to "dry up", in the words of historian Alexandre Binda. "They sensed that something was afoot, but their superiors brushed off their fears," Binda says. "The senior Rhodesian authorities had been lulled into a sense of arrogant self-confidence based on the security forces' past successes." This false veneer of security was smashed on 21 December 1972 when a group of ten ZANLA cadres led by Rex Nhongo attacked the white-owned Altena Farm near the north-eastern village of Centenary, about 30 kilometres (19 mi) west of Mount Darwin. ZANLA had planned for four attacks to take place simultaneously but in the event only Nhongo's men did so. According to historian Elaine Windrich, Nhongo was a former employee of the tobacco farm's 37-year-old owner, Marc de Borchgrave, and held a grudge against him. The cadres shot up the farm house with AK-47 assault rifles and threw grenades through the windows, then retreated and hid amongst the local population. Nobody was killed in the attack but the farmer's eight-year-old daughter, Jane, was wounded in the foot. The isolated house had no telephone or any other means of contacting neighbours, and de Borchgrave was wary of being ambushed should he drive his car out, so after a short time comforting the children he set out across country on foot to seek help and alert the authorities. This done, he returned and took his wife and children to another farm nearby, Whistlefield, which was owned by Archie Dalgluish and his family. Despite the warnings of their intelligence officers, the security chiefs were caught completely by surprise. The RLI headquarters and all three Commandos were deployed in the Zambezi valley on routine border-control duty, and Support Group was at Cranborne Barracks. A troop of Support Group men under Second Lieutenant Ian Buttenshaw was despatched to Centenary the next day along with a troop of SAS, led by Bert Sachse. In their preliminary sweep around Altena Farm they discovered a land mine planted in the road, but no insurgents. While the security forces were patrolling around Altena, Nhongo's men approached Whistlefield Farm in the late evening of 22 December and, as at Altena, attacked the farm house with rifle fire, grenades and an RPG-7 rocket launcher, which was aimed into the bedroom in which de Borchgrave was sleeping. The rocket hit the window frame and lightly wounded the tobacco farmer and his nine-year-old daughter Anne. The ZANLA cadres then retreated and hid themselves. News of the second attack reached Buttenshaw and Sachse around midnight, and they deployed immediately, but having discovered a mine near Altena they disembarked from the vehicles 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) from Whistlefield and made the final approach on foot. Anne was evacuated by helicopter as the RLI and SAS men secured the area for the night. The next morning, on 24 December 1972, two tracking teams arrived at Whistlefield to assist Buttenshaw and Sachse in a 360-degree search: one was from the SAS, and led by Ron Marillier, while the other was a British South Africa Police (BSAP) team including tracking dogs. The security forces searched for tracks while also investigating reported sightings. The tracks of the ZANLA fighters were discovered on 27 December on the western side of the farm and the trackers asked Buttenshaw and Sachse to bring the vehicles carrying the heavy equipment around to meet them. On the way the truck carrying Buttenshaw ran over a mine with one of its rear wheels, causing it to detonate. Buttenshaw himself, who was sitting on the bonnet of the vehicle, was thrown clear but Corporal Norman Moore and Trooper Pete Botha, sitting in the back, were not as fortunate, taking the brunt of the blast. Captain Gordon Holloway, behind the wheel, and Trooper Rod Boden in the passenger seat went into severe shock but were ultimately unharmed. Moore, on the other hand, died two days later from his wounds, while Botha survived but lost both legs. In their haste, Nhongo's cadres had not attempted to conceal their tracks as they headed west, towards the Musengezi river—Buttenshaw's pursuant RLI men therefore realised how quickly the guerrillas were moving and sped up their chase. The Rhodesians stopped for the night in a rocky area near a stream, replenished their scanty water supply and continued at dawn. About half an hour after setting off they crossed a vlei to discover a recently vacated guerrilla camp. "The fire was still burning and the food still warm," Buttenshaw writes. "From the abandoned kit a hurried departure appeared evident." Support was summoned from the SAS, who were tasked to set up stops along the Musengezi to the west. Buttenshaw's men reached the top of the Musengezi valley to see Rhodesian helicopters dropping the SAS soldiers at regular intervals along the river, as well as the ZANLA cadres, who were moving straight towards one of the SAS stops. The stop opened fire and killed some; the rest of the guerrillas scattered and ran. Buttenshaw's RLI men were then withdrawn from the follow-up for a day and a half and placed in stop positions. The chase was temporarily taken over by the SAS under Lieutenant Chris Schulenburg before Buttenshaw's men returned on 30 December 1972. Soon after setting out that morning they discovered an unarmed, wounded ZANLA fighter who had been shot in the arm by the SAS in the initial contact two days earlier. He had hidden himself after being abandoned by his comrades, and since then had lost a great deal of blood. After two years of patient preparation, the farm attacks by ZANLA near Centenary marked the effective start of its "Second Chimurenga" against the Rhodesian government. The effectiveness of ZANLA's adopted Maoist tactics was demonstrated in particular by the element of surprise they were now able to use against the security forces, and by the ability they had achieved to melt seamlessly into the local population between strikes. The rural black people in the north-east of the country were now, in Binda's words, "almost totally subverted and intimidated" by ZANLA and provided the guerrillas with food, shelter and manpower. Rather than having the tribesmen actively volunteer information about insurgent movements and locations, as had happened during previous infiltrations, the Rhodesian Security Forces now met an increasingly silent and sometimes hostile welcome from the rural blacks. More farm attacks took place over the following weeks, during December 1972 and January 1973, leading the security forces to set up Operation Hurricane in northern Mashonaland. This counter-insurgency operation would continue right up to 1980. "It was the start of a whole new ball game," writes Lieutenant-Colonel R. E. H. Lockley. "The war proper had started." ### Cordon sanitaire—protected villages and minefields As another part of their tactical shift the Rhodesians set up protected villages (PVs) to protect tribesmen and their families and deny the insurgents access to them. Starting in May 1974, they also set up a so-called "cordon sanitaire"—a vast mine field along the borders with Zambia and Mozambique, about 1,400 kilometres (870 mi) long and varying between 8 kilometres (5 mi) and 30 kilometres (19 mi) wide. ZANLA eventually estimated that during the entire war it lost 8,000 of its fighters to the minefield while attempting to cross it. Lieutenant-Colonel A. N. O. MacIntyre was replaced as commanding officer of the RLI on 17 April 1973 by Lieutenant-Colonel R. W. Southey. ZANLA cadres attacked the school at St Albert's Mission between Centenary and Mount Darwin in July 1973 and abducted 292 pupils and staff, whom they force-marched north into the Zambezi valley and towards Mozambique. They were intercepted by the Rhodesian Security Forces and all but eight of the children and staff were recovered. Similar abductions were repeated over the following years and the security forces found themselves increasingly unable to prevent them. The captured schoolchildren would be marched to ZANLA bases in Mozambique where they would undergo "political 're-education'" (Abbott's and Botham's words) and guerrilla training. The security forces attempted to prevent the rural blacks from cooperating with ZANLA by instituting collective punishment on villages where cadres were known to have received assistance: for example, curfews would be imposed, and schools and stores closed. A more extreme example came in April 1974 when nearly 200 local people from the Madziwa Tribal Trust Lands were resettled to another part of the country "as punishment for assisting terrorists." "At this stage the majority of the local population were not necessarily supporters of either ZANU or ZAPU," writes historian Jakkie Cilliers. "Collective punishment measures such as these could only have had serious negative effects on the attitude of the black rural masses." The Protected Village Programme started on 27 July 1974, when Operation Overload began in the Chiweshe Tribal Trust Lands, where according to Reid-Daly "apparent support for the ZANLA cause was, without doubt, overwhelming". Over the course of six weeks, 49,960 rural people were moved into 21 protected villages. People in the northern Chiweshe area had been subject to violent political intimidation by ZANLA, and so for the most part moved willingly, but in the southern part of the area, where support for the cadres was stronger, resistance was encountered. The security forces destroyed the old huts after their occupants had moved. "In the short term, benefits seemed substantial," says Cilliers, "as insurgent activities were severely disrupted in Chiweshe for the following six months." The security forces immediately set about a similar operation called Overload Two in the Madziwa Tribal Trust Lands, which met with further success. This combined with the effectiveness of the recently formed Selous Scouts to reduce ZANLA influence in the area and force the cadres back to the north, towards Mozambique. After their lapse in concentration the security forces had begun to regain control. ### The birth of Fireforce The doctrine which became the RLI's characteristic action, Fireforce, had first been discussed by RLI and Rhodesian Air Force (RhAF) officers in the early 1970s. The security forces considered how to contact the guerrillas on their own terms; the new ZANLA tactics were based around deliberately avoiding confrontation so far as was possible and hiding amongst the local population, so it was difficult for the Rhodesians to fight them face-to-face. Chasing the nationalists with trackers was ineffective as the tracker, in order to find the guerrilla's tracks, had to move slower, and air pursuit, when used alone, was deemed similarly ineffective. A tactic which combined the two was developed jointly, given the name "Fireforce" by Lieutenant Chris Pearce of the RLI, and first deployed in January 1974, at Mount Darwin. When it was first used in action a month later, on 24 February 1974, the RLI and RhAF air support eliminated a ZANLA group. Fireforce was a variant on the vertical envelopment tactic in which ground troops would be carried directly to the target by air and dropped. It was designed to react instantly to guerrilla ambushes, farm attacks and sightings, and could also be called upon by members of the security forces as reinforcements. Preparatory deployment was very flexible: all that was required for a base was an airstrip. There would usually be three main Fireforces in operation at each time, each of which would be handled by a company-sized body of men, usually one of the RLI Commandos or a company of the Rhodesian African Rifles. The unit in question would be posted at a forward airfield for six weeks (though sometimes for longer) and given responsibility for thousands of square kilometres of Rhodesian countryside. The Selous Scouts' hidden forward observation posts (OPs) allowed for instant reactions by Fireforce to sightings of the enemy guerrillas.

When an attack, contact or sighting was reported a siren would sound throughout the base and the troopers would rush out to react in two "Waves". The First Wave of 32 soldiers would be transported to the area aboard Alouette III helicopters, commonly called "G-cars", and would be accompanied by a further Alouette III, acting as command gunship (or "K-car") and a Cessna Skymaster (or "Lynx") light support aircraft. Each Alouette could carry a "stick" of four soldiers, so on Fireforce the First Wave was organised into eight four-man "stops". The remainder of the Commando, the Second Wave, would either be carried by the same aircraft, which returned to collect them, or move by truck at the same time as the First Wave. The object of Fireforce was to quickly trap and wipe out guerrilla groups before they could evacuate the area, so the element of surprise was important, but this was difficult to maintain because of the noise of an Alouette III's jet engine; on a windy day in the quiet bush, an Alouette III can be heard downwind many kilometres away. Hearing the Fireforce coming from this distance would give the cadres plenty of time to hide themselves, so the RhAF pilots would attempt to approach their targets heading upwind to minimise this effect. Fireforce, used in conjunction with the Selous Scouts' methods, proved very effective for the security forces, who began to gain the upper hand; the doubling of the length of National Service from six to 12 months also contributed, as it gave the Rhodesians more troops. Conscripted men had first entered the RLI ranks in 1973 and were used in increasing numbers to make up shortages in manpower. Under the leadership of a new commanding officer, Lieutenant-Colonel David Parker—nicknamed "The King" by the RLI men—the Battalion also embarked on a large and successful overseas recruitment drive starting in 1974, seeking foreign volunteers from Europe, the Americas and Oceania. The security forces struck back strongly against ZANLA during 1974, killing 345 of its guerrillas and 75% of its leadership; during October and November 1974 the Rhodesians killed more insurgents than they had during the entire previous two years. Less than 300 ZANLA cadres remained in the country at the end of that year, with Cilliers giving an official Rhodesian figure of 70. All were confined to north-eastern Rhodesia and were retreating towards Mozambique. ## Political complications overseas affect the conflict ### Portuguese support for Rhodesia is withdrawn; that of South Africa wavers The impact of the security forces' decisive counter-campaign was to be undone by two drastic changes to the geopolitical situation in 1974 and 1975, each relating to one of the Rhodesian government's two main backers, Portugal and South Africa. In Lisbon, a military coup on 25 April 1974 replaced the right-wing Estado Novo administration with a leftist government opposed to the unpopular Colonial War in Angola, Mozambique and Portugal's other African territories. Following this coup, which became known as the Carnation Revolution, Portuguese leadership was hurriedly withdrawn from Lisbon's overseas territories, each of which was earmarked for an immediate handover to communist guerrillas. Brief, frenzied negotiations with FRELIMO in Mozambique preceded the country's independence on 25 June 1975; FRELIMO took power without contesting an election, while Machel assumed the presidency. Now that Mozambique was under a friendly government, ZANLA could freely base themselves there with the full support of Machel and FRELIMO, with whom an alliance had already existed since the late 1960s. The Rhodesian Security Forces, on the other hand, now had a further 1,100 kilometres (680 mi) of border to defend and had to rely on South Africa alone for imports. The government of South Africa, however, had already altered its stance in late 1974, when it had adopted a doctrine of "détente" with the Frontline States. In an attempt to resolve the situation in Rhodesia, South African Prime Minister B. J. Vorster negotiated a deal: Zambian President Kenneth Kaunda would prevent infiltrations by Rhodesian guerrillas and in return Rhodesian Prime Minister Ian Smith would agree to a ceasefire and "release all political detainees"—the leaders of ZANU and ZAPU—who would then attend a conference in Rhodesia, united under a single banner and led by Bishop Abel Muzorewa and his African National Council (ANC). Vorster hoped that if this were successful the Frontline States would grant recognition to South Africa, despite the continuation of apartheid, and enter full diplomatic relations. Under pressure from Pretoria to accept the terms, the Rhodesians agreed on 11 December 1974 and followed the terms of the ceasefire; Rhodesian military actions were temporarily halted and troops were ordered to allow retreating guerrillas to leave unhindered. Vorster withdrew some 2,000 members of the South African Police (SAP) from forward bases in Rhodesia, and by August 1975 had pulled the SAP out of Rhodesia completely. The nationalists used the sudden cessation of security force activity as an opportunity to regroup and re-establish themselves both inside and outside the country. Guerrilla operations continued: an average of six incidents a day were reported inside Rhodesia over the following months. Far from being seen as a gesture of potential reconciliation, the ceasefire and release of the nationalist leaders gave the message to the rural population that the security forces had been defeated and that the guerrillas were in the process of emulating FRELIMO's victory in Mozambique. The détente terms led to the Victoria Falls Conference of August 1975, which collapsed after nine-and-a-half hours, each side blaming the other for the break-up. ### An unsuccessful Fireforce for 2 Commando, 19 July 1975 Unsuccessful contacts were the exception rather than the norm for the RLI, particularly on Fireforce. An example is an encounter with guerrillas in the Kandeya Tribal Trust Lands, north of Mount Darwin, on 19 July 1975. On that day a Territorial Force (TF) unit engaged a group of cadres near a river and killed two without suffering casualties. The nationalist fighters retreated into a defensive ambush position on the banks, beneath the roots of some overhanging trees. The Territorials then summoned a Fireforce made up of 7 and 10 Troops, 2 Commando from Mount Darwin, and on arrival made a sweep of the river line, accompanied by 10 Troop. When the Rhodesians rounded a bend in the stream the concealed insurgents opened fire, immediately killing a Territorial sergeant and RLI Rifleman Hennie Potgieter. Rifleman Ken Lucas, an FN MAG gunner, suffered a wound to his leg. After the initial burst of fire, the insurgents remained behind their cover and waited, concealed from security force eyes. Judging from the silence and inactivity that the guerrillas had fled, and thinking that the two downed men were still alive, Major Hank Meyer told Lieutenant Joe du Plooy to sweep around the river with two 7 Troop sticks and send a medic out to give treatment. Lieutenant du Plooy took his men around the bend behind cover, then sent his American medic, Corporal John Alan Coey of Columbus, Ohio, out into the open streambed to render medical assistance. Though his prominent Red Cross flag was clearly visible, the hidden cadres immediately opened fire on Coey, who was killed almost instantly by a shot through the head. His body fell at du Plooy's feet. The stand-off continued for the rest of the day, during which time du Plooy and one other RLI man were wounded. The security forces were only able to gather their dead for evacuation when darkness fell. During the night, the Rhodesians deployed stops in ambush positions around the insurgents' position to prevent an escape. When the guerrillas attempted to sneak through the security force perimeter in the early hours, they ran into Corporal Jannie de Beer's RLI men and a fire fight ensued; guerrillas shot de Beer dead and wounded one of his troopers as they broke through and quickly left the area. The morale of 2 Commando's men took a noticeable hit after this unsuccessful Fireforce in which the cadres had killed four Rhodesian soldiers and wounded four more. ### Freedom of the City, 25 July 1975; the RLI "on the town" The RLI received the Freedom of the City of Salisbury in a ceremony on 25 July 1975 in recognition of its achievements in the field. After the ceremony at the Town House, the RLI performed their first parade since 1970, marching through the streets of the capital with bayonets fixed. The men stood in line as Parker reviewed the troops, followed by Majors Charlie Aust, "Boet" Swart and Pat Armstrong. The scroll bestowing the Freedom of the City was then paraded past the men, followed by the regimental colours, which were carried by Lieutenant Richard Passaportis. The awarding of the Freedom of the City was controversial in some quarters because of the far-from-clean reputation of RLI soldiers while off duty. "The RLI's own brand of mayhem and havoc", in Binda's words, was infamous—while they were on rest and recuperation, alcohol-fuelled fights would routinely erupt in Salisbury bars and nightclubs between RLI men and their civilian counterparts over women, perceived bad service or simple misunderstandings. These sometimes led to the summoning of the police, but the soldiers' vehement, combative refusal to be arrested made this step somewhat counter-productive. Apart from these violent confrontations with civilian men and policemen, stunts pulled by off-duty RLI men often took the form of immature pranks on women: for example, soldiers would defecate in a girl's handbag while she was on the dancefloor, or sneak into the ladies' lavatories to rub extremely itchy buffalo beans on the seats and paper. Sometimes they went even further; on one occasion, two men were given a lift back to Cranborne Barracks by an elderly lady, whose handbag they then stole. On another night, an RLI soldier tossed a fragmentation grenade into a taxi, then ran away. In the most extreme cases, men would be disciplined, but the Regiment's officers would often turn a blind eye to less serious incidents as they were so common. The presence of the RLI's two conflicting reputations—excellent in the field, but appalling at home—is evident from the line of reporting taken by The Rhodesia Herald on 25 July 1975. Alongside the front-page article announcing the award and the day's parade through Salisbury, there prominently appears a cartoon satirising the RLI's off-duty antics. Two RLI officers in dress uniform are portrayed in a Salisbury street, both turning angrily to see a uniformed RLI trooper chasing a crowd of terrified, screaming young women across the road. One of the officers barks his disapproval, which is spelt out in the caption underneath: "Freedom of the City doesn't mean you can do that, Van Schalkwyk!" ### Helicopter accident near Cashel: key Rhodesian officers are killed Lieutenant-Colonel David Parker ended his tenure as RLI commanding officer on 30 November 1975, when he was promoted to the rank of Colonel. Less than a month later, on 23 December, he was killed in a helicopter crash near Cashel, just south of Umtali, along with three other officers: Major-General John Shaw, Captain John Lamb and Captain Ian Robinson. A South African Air Force Alouette III piloted by Air Sub-Lieutenant Johannes van Rensburg was flying the four officers from Umtali to Melsetter, with Sergeant Pieter van Rensburg (no relation) also aboard as flight technician. Flying at low altitude, in keeping with procedure, the helicopter flew into a rusty, long forgotten hawser cable, unmarked on any maps and years before used to pass logs down a steep slope. The aircraft broke up, spun out of control and crashed. All on board were killed except for the pilot, who was seriously injured, losing one of his legs. The Historians Hannes Wessels and P. J. H. Petter-Bowyer agree that the deaths of these men, and Parker in particular, affected the course of the conflict in the guerrillas' favour: Shaw was Rhodesia's "next Army Commander", says Petter-Bowyer, and Parker "its finest field commander". The Colonel was "earmarked for bigger things", Wessels writes, "... his loss was a considerable blow to the [Rhodesian] war effort." ## After the failure of détente, the war resumes and escalates ### The opening of Operations Thrasher, Repulse and Tangent Lieutenant-Colonel Peter Rich took over the command of the RLI on the same day as the accident near Cashel. One of his first acts was to make Support Group a Commando in its own right: the new "Support Commando" was created on 6 January 1976, under the command of Major Pat Armstrong, and moved out of Base Group headquarters into its own offices directly next door. Guerrilla incursions renewed in the first months of 1976, with three waves of nationalists crossing from Mozambique between January and April. The first group of 90 fighters crossed the border south of Nyamapanda on 21 January, and was immediately repulsed, four cadres being killed and one captured by the security forces. The attack on Nyamapanda was supposed to be one part of a three-pronged invasion, but the nationalist operation did not go to plan: the second group of 130 guerrillas attacked the Melsetter area five weeks later and the third assault, in Rhodesia's south-east, did not take place until another seven weeks after that, in April 1976—three months behind schedule. Smith addressed the nation on the evening of 6 February 1976, warning that "a new terrorist offensive has begun and, to defeat it, Rhodesians will have to face heavier military commitments." Mozambique formally declared a state of war with Rhodesia a month later, on 3 March. With security force reports indicating that around 1,000 fighters were active within Rhodesia, with a further 15,000 encamped in various states of readiness in Mozambique, three more Rhodesian operational areas were defined in addition to Operation Hurricane. Operation Thrasher, covering Rhodesia's eastern highlands, was designated in February 1976, and Operations Repulse and Tangent, handling the south-east and west respectively, followed in May and August. The ZANLA and ZIPRA cadres were officially working together, but in reality the armies' relationship was fraught with tension. As well as tribal lines—ZANLA's men were predominantly Shona, whilst ZIPRA's were mostly Ndebele—there were political issues and differences of opinion regarding doctrine. ZANLA favoured a continuation of their existing Maoist tactics, spreading themselves amongst the rural people and politicising them "by fair means or foul", as Wood says, while ZIPRA preferred to overtly recruit fighters and train them overseas for conventional invasions. ZIPRA's relative inactivity in the war since 1970 also contributed to the sentiment amongst some ZANLA cadres that their supposed allies in the chimurenga were not pulling their weight. As ZANLA were superior in number to ZIPRA, their men began to usurp positions of command and authority at the joint training facilities abroad, which made the strain yet more potent. The mutual ill-feeling finally boiled over into open clashes at two training camps in Tanzania, Mugagao and Morogoro, in early 1976; in one incident, 400 nationalists were killed, while in another 200 died. Despite the continued animosity, combined guerrilla groups continued to enter Rhodesia, usually made up of eight ZANLA and two ZIPRA men; according to Lockley, the ZIPRA fighters so disliked their ZANLA comrades that they would sometimes deliberately become separated, desert and go home rather than fight alongside them. ### The Rhodesian "foreign legion": the RLI ranks are bolstered by conscripts and foreign volunteers The RLI's drive for foreign volunteers, launched in earnest in 1974, proved very successful, attracting hundreds of recruits from all over the world. The increased inclusion of conscripted men combined with this to gradually change the character and dynamics of the Regiment. A "watershed in the history of the RLI", says Cocks, is Intake 150, which passed out in May 1976. RLI Intake 150 was the largest ever, and was made up mostly of 18-year-old national servicemen, "many of whom", Cocks continues, "simply did not want to be there". The foreign volunteers alongside them were greater in number than ever before, and the absorption of men from overseas would increase yet further as the war went on. Whereas conscripted men had previously been of a small enough volume that they could be gently assimilated into the combat ranks over time, Intake 150 gave the RLI so many new, inexperienced rookies that they would often outnumber the veterans in the field. Casualties were unusually high amongst Intake 150 members during their first month in action, and this trend continued for inexperienced men for the rest of the Battalion's history—in the most extreme case, on 10 June 1979, Trooper Robbie Francis was killed on his first day as a member of 3 Commando. P. K. van der Byl, the Minister of Defence, reviewed the new recruits and addressed them with fiery vigour as they passed out, then answered questions from the press in a similar vein. When the possibility of open Cuban military intervention on the side of the guerrillas was raised, Van der Byl declared that the Rhodesian Army would "beat the life and soul out of them". Soldiers from overseas serving in the Rhodesian forces received the same pay and conditions of service as locally based regulars. Almost all of them mustered into the RLI, though some joined the SAS. Many were professional soldiers, attracted by the Regiment's reputation: most prevalent were former members of the British Armed Forces, and Vietnam veterans from the United States, Australian and New Zealand forces. The seasoned foreigners "soon became an integral part of the Battalion", Cocks writes, contributing to the RLI's fine reputation and also passing their experience onto the young, recently conscripted men. Some foreign volunteers had no military experience and found themselves in a similar situation to the Rhodesian teenagers. These foreigners were generally motivated to enlist by anti-communist political views, hunger for adventure, turbulent personal lives in their home countries or some combination of these factors. The Canadian Mathew Charles Lamb joined 3 Commando, RLI in 1973, having just spent six years in a psychiatric hospital. In June 1966, aged 18, he had killed two strangers in a shooting spree in his home-town, but avoided the death penalty on a court ruling that at the time of the incident he had been insane. Keeping his past life a secret, he became a popular and well-regarded soldier in 3 Commando, and eventually rose to the rank of Lance-Corporal, taking command of a Fireforce stick on Operation Thrasher shortly before he was killed in action on 7 November 1976 by an errant shot from one of his own men. ### The Battle of "Hill 31" Call sign 81A of K Company, Rhodesia Regiment (RR), patrolling the Mutasa North Tribal Trust Lands on Operation Thrasher, spotted a group of insurgents about 30 to 40 strong at 04:45 on 15 November 1976, just south of a kraal in the Honde Valley, about 55 kilometres (34 mi) north of Umtali and 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) from the Mozambique border. The guerrillas were marching south in single file along a steep slope on the western side of a rugged, bush-covered kopje, which was tall and littered with gullies and other natural obstacles. Call sign 81A called up Fireforce, and 3 Commando, RLI soon arrived, commanded from the K-car by Captain Chris "Kip" Donald. The 3 Commando men were dropped to the west of the area and four Territorial Force trackers, headed by Sergeant Laurie Ryan, came down beside the RR men and followed the insurgents' tracks to the south along a footpath. They found two cadres lying down in the grass, about 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) away from the path, and shot and killed both. As they continued around the mountain, Ryan's men ran straight into the main group of nationalists at about 05:45. A succession of frantic contacts followed at extremely close range as Donald's RLI sticks swept around and in towards the area. An armed insurgent was discovered in hiding by one of the sticks, and flushed out; as he ran, he pointed his AK-47 behind him and let off a burst of blind shots. One of these hit and killed Trooper Francisco Deart da Costa of 11 Troop, 3 Commando, RLI, a 31-year-old man from Portugal who had recently volunteered because of unemployment in his home country. His body was casevaced to Ruda, the local Special Branch base, as the battle continued, turning swiftly in the security forces' favour. The MG 151/20 20 mm cannon mounted on the K-car "proved extremely effective", Binda says, firing down on the cadres to cut off escape routes, and killing several of them as the Rhodesian soldiers advanced in from all directions. Support Company of the Rhodesian African Rifles (RAR) was called as backup. Donald's stick leaders were all performing well, with the leader of Stop 3, Trooper Pete Garnett, moving forward particularly aggressively. RLI Rifleman Grobler was lightly wounded and evacuated to Ruda, as were two privates of the RAR, Philip Chagwiza and Chikoto Saxon, who were both hit by small arms fire from the ground while still in the helicopters. The cadres had taken up a defensive position near the top of the western side of the mountain and were directing almost all of their rifle fire at the aircraft. An RPG was fired, which narrowly missed a Rhodesian G-car carrying troops and exploded only 20 metres (66 ft) behind it; another helicopter was forced to land by damage caused by insurgent rifle fire. The RLI and RAR sticks, who now had the nationalist fighters surrounded, continued to close in throughout the day, and by the end of the battle at 20:00 31 cadres had been killed and one captured; the rest escaped. The security forces recovered 21 AK-47 assault rifles, 11 SKS semi-automatic rifles, one RPD light machine-gun, one RPG-2 rocket launcher (with 21 rockets), 19 boxes of ammunition and a landmine. Of the Rhodesian units involved in the battle, the most prolific in terms of kills was 3 Commando, RLI. The kopje was informally dubbed "Hill 31" by the Rhodesian troopers, after the number of guerrillas killed. Donald was widely applauded for his conduct of the Rhodesian action, with Sergeant Laurie Graham telling The Rhodesia Herald that "It was a well commanded operation by Captain Donald ... at times exhilarating." Cocks agrees. "I remember how awed I was by Kip Donald's control of the battle," he writes. "He was controlling a good couple of hundred troops—RLI, RAR and TF, all spread out over several square kilometres, on all sides of the mountain." More cadres had been killed in the battle than in any other internal contact up to that point, but after "Hill 31", encounters such as this became more regular: as the war intensified and the size of the guerrilla incursions grew, the security forces would regularly engage groups of 50 insurgents or more inside Rhodesia.

Homer vs. Patty and Selma

"Homer vs. Patty and Selma" is the seventeenth episode of the sixth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 26, 1995. In the episode, Homer loses all his money in pumpkin futures and must turn to Patty and Selma for a loan. Meanwhile, Bart takes up ballet lessons, with an instructor voiced by actress Susan Sarandon. The episode was written by Brent Forrester and directed by Mark Kirkland, with David Mirkin serving as the executive producer. Sarandon had wanted to guest star on The Simpsons because her children were fans of the show; she made a later appearance in the series in the episode "Bart Has Two Mommies" as the voice of a computer. Mel Brooks also makes an appearance in "Homer vs. Patty and Selma", and had previously accompanied his wife Anne Bancroft to the recording studio when she had a role in the episode "Fear of Flying". Chris Turner cites scenes from the episode in describing Homer's characteristic qualities in his book Planet Simpson: How a Cartoon Masterpiece Documented an Era and Defined a Generation. Turner notes that the episode illustrates Homer's impulsiveness, silliness, and "physical stupidity". Contributor Raja Halwani writes in the compilation work The Simpsons and Philosophy that the episode shows Homer's tendency to habitually lie to Marge, and cites Homer's covering for Patty and Selma when they are caught smoking as a positive aspect of his character. The episode also received positive mention from Turner in Planet Simpson, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood in their book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, and Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide. ## Plot Homer invests in pumpkins, but loses his entire investment. Late on a mortgage payment, he tries to borrow money, to no avail. After Patty and Selma receive promotions at the DMV, Homer realizes they are his last resort. They agree to lend him money on the condition that he becomes their humble servant. Homer begs Patty and Selma to help conceal his money woes from Marge, who soon finds out after seeing his IOU note to her sisters. Homer becomes a chauffeur to earn more money, but is stopped by Chief Wiggum for not having a chauffeur's license. Homer visits the DMV with Marge to apply for one; Patty and Selma are his evaluators. The two mercilessly fail his driving and written test. To celebrate Homer's failure, they light up cigarettes but are caught by their supervisor, who threatens to demote them for smoking on the job. After seeing Marge's dismay at the situation, Homer reluctantly covers for them by claiming the lit cigarettes are his. To thank Homer for helping them avoid demotion, Patty and Selma forgive the loan. In the subplot, Bart is late for school on the day students choose their physical education classes. When he arrives, ballet is the only class that is available. Despite his initial reluctance, Bart soon discovers he is a talented dancer and is invited to star in a school ballet. After his performance, school bullies chase Bart, intending to beat him. He tries to escape by jumping over a trench but injures himself after failing the leap. Seeing that Bart is hurt from the fall, the bullies leave without pummeling him. Lisa tells Bart she is proud of him for showing his sensitive side. ## Production The script for "Homer vs. Patty and Selma" was written by Brent Forrester and was the first time he received a writing credit on The Simpsons. Executive producer David Mirkin describes it as a very grounded and emotional episode that seems very "sitcomy". Bart's ballet teacher was voiced by Susan Sarandon, and was designed to look a little bit like her. Sarandon had wanted to guest star on the show because her children were big fans; she brought them with her to the recording session. Due to a traffic jam, she was late for the recording session, but once she arrived, she fell into character and worked very hard on getting her accent accurate. Sarandon would later have a cameo appearance as the voice of a computer in the season 17 episode "Bart Has Two Mommies". Mel Brooks has a cameo appearance as himself. His wife Anne Bancroft had played a role in the episode "Fear of Flying" and Brooks had accompanied her to the recording session. Mirkin realized that Brooks was "dying to do the show" and asked him if he would be willing to do a guest part, and he agreed. Many of the writers were fans of Brooks, and Matt Groening described the chance to have him guest star as "an incredible honor". The episode was directed by Mark Kirkland who was a fan of Patty and Selma, having previously directed the season two episode "Principal Charming", which also focuses on the duo. When directing the sequences where Bart does ballet dancing, Kirkland assigned the scenes to animators who were familiar with dancing. ## Themes

Chris Turner writes in his book Planet Simpson: How a Cartoon Masterpiece Documented an Era and Defined a Generation that the episode illustrates how Homer Simpson is "an organism of considerable complexity". Turner comments, "Homer is carrying the full symbolic weight of twentieth-century America on his shoulders, and no garden-variety doofus could manage that task." Turner discusses a moment from the episode where Marge tells her sisters, "Homer doesn't mean to be rude, he's just a very complicated man", after which Homer breaks a plate over his head and shouts "Wrong!" Turner writes that this "revelatory moment" is illustrative of "several of the best-known aspects of Homer's character: his impulsiveness, his inherent silliness, his evident, even physical stupidity". In the compilation work The Simpsons and Philosophy: The D'oh! of Homer, edited by William Irwin, Mark T. Conrad, and Aeon J. Skoble, the episode is cited as an example where, as contributor Raja Halwani writes, "Homer is a habitual liar, he lacks honesty." In addition to "lying about his financial losses in investments" in the episode, Halwani notes Homer lied to Marge in "The Front" about "the fact that he never graduated from high school", and in the episode "The Cartridge Family", Homer lied to Marge about getting rid of the gun he had purchased. However, Halwani later highlights positive aspects of Homer's character, noting that in the episode, Homer "pretended he was the one smoking so that Patty and Selma would not get fired for smoking at their workplace". ## Reception ### Critical reception Chris Turner wrote in Planet Simpson that the scene where Homer "smashes a dinner plate over his head" is one of his favorite Homer moments. "I'd like to say it's the defining Homer moment, but that would do a grave injustice to the extraordinary dramatic achievement that is Homer J. Simpson", Turner comments. Writing in I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood said, "Patty and Selma have rarely been more evil than here — they are fabulously cruel." In a review of the sixth season of The Simpsons, Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide writes, "Homer’s disdain for Marge’s sisters – and vice versa – has always led to terrific sparks, and “Vs.” provides another great round in their eternal battle. It's hilarious to see Homer indebted to the Terrible Two..." In Latin America, "Niño Rata", the Spanish equivalent of "Ratboy" (the nickname Homer ascribes to Bart in a scene in this episode), became an Internet meme, particularly on YouTube. The phrase is used to refer to irate, inexperienced and underage fans of such video games as Minecraft, Call of Duty, FIFA, Grand Theft Auto Online and Fortnite; it is also used to designate YouTube users who troll other users in the comments bar. ### Ratings In its original broadcast, "Homer vs. Patty and Selma" finished 38th in ratings for the week of February 20–26, 1995, with a Nielsen rating of 11.1, equivalent to approximately 10.6 million viewing households. It was the third highest-rated show on the Fox network that week, following Beverly Hills, 90210 and Married... with Children.

CSS Muscogee

Confederate river warship of American Civil War

CSS Muscogee was an casemate ironclad built in Columbus, Georgia for the Confederate States Navy during the American Civil War. Her original paddle configuration was judged a failure when she could not be launched on the first attempt in 1864. She had to be rebuilt to use dual propeller propulsion. Later renamed CSS Jackson and armed with four 7-inch (178 mm) and two 6.4-inch (163 mm) cannons. She was captured while still fitting out and was set ablaze by Union troops in April 1865. Her wreck was salvaged in 1962–1963 and turned over to the National Civil War Naval Museum in Columbus for display. The ironclad's remains were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970. ## Background and description Muscogee was originally built as a sister ship to the casemate ironclad paddle steamer CSS Missouri, to a rough design by the Chief Naval Constructor, John L. Porter, as a sternwheel-powered ironclad. She proved to be too heavy to be launched on January 1, 1864 and had to be reconstructed and lengthened to a modified CSS Albemarle-class design, based on Porter's advice during his visit to the ironclad on January 23. As part of the reconstruction, the ironclad was lengthened to 223 feet 6 inches (68.1 m) overall after a new fantail was built on the stern. She had a beam of 59 feet (18 m) and a draft of 8 feet (2.4 m). The removal of her sternwheel allowed her casemate to be shortened by 54 feet (16.5 m), which saved a considerable amount of weight. The ironclad had a gross register tonnage of 1,250 tons. As originally designed, Muscogee was propelled by a sternwheel that was partially enclosed by a recess at the aft end of the casemate; the upper portion of the paddle wheel protruded above the casemate and would have been exposed to enemy fire. The sternwheel was probably powered by a pair of inclined two-cylinder direct-acting steam engines taken from the steamboat Time using steam provided by four return-flue boilers to the engines. As part of her reconstruction, Time's engines were replaced by a pair of single-cylinder, horizontal direct-acting steam engines from the adjacent Columbus Naval Iron Works, each of which drove a single 7-foot-6-inch (2.3 m) propeller; the original boilers appear to have been retained. Muscogee's casemate was built with ten gun ports, two each at the bow and stern and three on the broadside. The ship was armed with four 7-inch (178 mm) and two 6.4-inch (163 mm) Brooke rifles. The fore and aft cannons were on pivot gun mounts. The 7-inch guns weighed about 15,300 pounds (6,900 kg) and fired 110-pound (50 kg) shells. The equivalent statistics for the 6.4-inch gun were 10,700 pounds (4,900 kg) with 95-pound (43 kg) shells. The casemate was protected by 4 inches (102 mm) of wrought-iron armor, and the armor plates on the deck and sides of the fantail were 2 inches (51 mm) thick.

## History Muscogee was laid down during 1862 at the Columbus Naval Yard at Columbus, Georgia, on the banks of the Chattahoochee River. The first attempt to launch her failed on January 1, 1864, despite the high water on the river and the assistance of the steamboat Mariana. Porter came down afterwards to examine the ironclad and recommended that she be rebuilt with screw propulsion rather than the sternwheel. She was finally launched on December 22, having been renamed Jackson at some point during the year. A shortage of iron plate greatly hindered the ironclad's completion. On April 17, 1865, after the Union's Wilson's Raiders captured the city during the Battle of Columbus, Georgia, Jackson was set ablaze by Union troops while still fitting out and had her moorings cut. The ship drifted downriver some 30 miles (48 km) and ran aground on a sandbar. She was not thought to be worth salvaging because of the fire damage, but the Army Corps of Engineers dredged around her wreck in 1910 and salvaged her machinery. A Union cavalry officer's report of the ironclad's condition at the time of her capture said that she had four cannon aboard and had a solid oak ram 15 feet (4.6 m) deep. The only detail about her armor that he recorded was that it curved over the edge of the deck and extended below the waterline. ### Recovery CSS Jackson's remains were raised in two pieces; the 106-foot (32.3 m) stern section in 1962 and the 74-foot (22.6 m) bow section the following year. They were then placed on exhibit at the National Civil War Naval Museum in Columbus. A thick metal white frame outline, indicating the various dimensions of Jackson's original fore and aft deck arrangements and armored casemate, is now erected directly above the hull's wooden remains to simulate for visitors the ironclad's original size and shapes. The ship's fantail, which was stored outside in a pole barn, was partially destroyed in a fire on 1 June 2020. The ironclad was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 13, 1970. ## See also - Bibliography of American Civil War naval history

Battle of Fontenoy

1745 battle

The Battle of Fontenoy took place on 11 May 1745 during the War of the Austrian Succession, near Tournai, then part of the Austrian Netherlands, now in Belgium. A French army of 50,000 under Marshal Saxe defeated a Pragmatic Army of roughly the same size, led by the Duke of Cumberland. By 1745, five years of war had brought France close to financial bankruptcy, and the Austrian Netherlands seemed to offer the best opportunity for a decisive victory which would end it. In April 1745, Saxe besieged Tournai, a key strategic town on the upper Scheldt, compelling the main Allied army to march to its relief. Leaving 22,000 men to continue the siege, Saxe placed his main force about 8 kilometres (5 mi) away in the villages of Antoing, Vezon and Fontenoy, along a naturally strong feature strengthened with defensive works. After several unsuccessful flank assaults which incurred heavy casualties, an Allied infantry column of 15,000 attacked the French centre, before being repulsed. Covered by their cavalry, they retreated toward Brussels, abandoning Tournai which fell shortly afterwards. Many British troops were withdrawn in October to suppress the Jacobite rising of 1745, leaving France in control of the Austrian Netherlands. However, Fontenoy failed to end the war, and in May 1746, Louis XV initiated peace talks, but negotiations dragged on for the next two years. Despite further French victories at Rocoux in 1746 and Lauffeld in 1747, their economic position continued to deteriorate. The war ended in November 1748 with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, under which France relinquished its gains in the Austrian Netherlands. ## Background The immediate cause of the War of the Austrian Succession was the death in 1740 of Emperor Charles VI, the last male Habsburg in the direct line. The Habsburg monarchy was governed by Salic law, thus excluding his eldest daughter Maria Theresa from the throne, a condition waived by the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713. The closest male heir was Charles of Bavaria, who challenged the legality of Maria Theresa's succession. A family inheritance dispute became a European issue because the Monarchy dominated the Holy Roman Empire, a federation of mostly German states, headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. Technically an elected position, in January 1742 Charles became the first non-Habsburg Emperor in 300 years, supported by France, Prussia and Saxony. Maria Theresa was backed by the so-called Pragmatic Allies; Austria, Britain, Hanover, and the Dutch Republic. The main beneficiary from four years of conflict was Prussia, which captured the Austrian province of Silesia during the 1740–1742 First Silesian War. The richest province in the Empire, Silesian taxes provided ten per cent of total Imperial income and contained large mining, weaving and dyeing industries. Regaining it was a priority for Maria Theresa and led to the 1744–1745 Second Silesian War. Shortly after Charles died in January 1745, the Austrians over-ran Bavaria and defeated a Franco-Bavarian force at Pfaffenhofen on 15 April. Charles' son, Maximilian III Joseph, now sued for peace and supported the election of Maria Theresa's husband, Francis Stephen, as the new Emperor. With Bavaria out of the war, Austria could focus on Silesia, while France was released from its involvement in Germany, and could concentrate on Italy and the Low Countries. ### 1745 Campaign Plans In the first half of 1744, France made significant advances in the Austrian Netherlands, before being forced to divert resources to meet threats elsewhere. For the 1745 campaign, Maurice de Saxe persuaded Louis XV it was the best place to inflict a decisive defeat on Britain, whose financial resources were central to the Allied war effort. His plan was to bring the Allies to battle on a ground of his choosing, before British financial strength could be used to fund extra troops and negate the current French superiority in numbers. Saxe also benefitted from a unified command and strategy, unlike the Allies who were often deeply divided over objectives and priorities. Most of the fighting in this region took place in what is often referred to as Flanders, a compact area 160 kilometres (100 mi) wide, its highest point only 100 metres (110 yd) above sea level and dominated by rivers running southwest to northeast. Until the advent of railways in the 19th century, bulk goods and supplies were transported by water, and wars in this region were fought for control of major waterways, including the rivers Lys, Sambre and Meuse. The most important of these was the Scheldt, which began in Northern France and ran for 350 kilometres (220 mi) before entering the North Sea at Antwerp. Saxe planned to attack Tournai, a town close to the French border which controlled access to the upper Scheldt basin, making it a vital link in the trading network for Northern Europe. With a garrison of over 8,000, it was also the strongest of the Dutch Barrier Forts in the Austrian Netherlands, factors Saxe hoped would force the Allies to fight for it. In March 1745, George Wade was replaced as Allied commander in Flanders by the 24-year-old Duke of Cumberland, advised by the experienced Earl Ligonier. In addition to British and Hanoverian troops, the Pragmatic Army included a large Dutch contingent, commanded by Prince Waldeck, with a small number of Austrians, led by Count Königsegg-Rothenfels. However, a coherent Allied strategy was undermined by internal disputes and different objectives; the British and Hanoverians resented and mistrusted each other, Austria did not consider Flanders a military priority and Waldeck was unpopular with his subordinates, who often disputed his orders. These divisions were exacerbated by Cumberland's inexperience, lack of diplomatic skill and tendency to ignore advice. On 21 April, a French cavalry detachment under D'Estrées feinted towards Mons and Cumberland prepared to march to its relief. Although it soon became clear this was a diversion, French intentions remained unclear until the siege of Tournai began on 28 April. Combined with faulty intelligence that estimated Saxe had less than 30,000 men, this meant the Allies advanced on Tournai with only their field army of 50,000, leaving large garrisons at nearby Namur and Charleroi. Having confirmed the Allies were approaching from the south-east, on 7 May Saxe left 22,000 men to continue the siege, and placed his main force of 50,000 around the villages of Fontenoy and Antoing, eight kilometres (5 mi) from Tournai. ## Battle As Saxe considered his infantry inferior to their opponents, he placed them behind defensive works and fortified the villages. The French line ran along the crest of a plateau, with the right flank resting on the Scheldt, the left stationed behind the Bois de Barry, with the Redoubt d'Eu and Redoubt de Chambonas covering the gap between the wood and their centre in the village of Fontenoy. The Chemin de Mons sloped down from Fontenoy to the small hamlets of Vezon and Bourgeon below, exposing any direct attack on the village to prolonged fire from in front and the flanks.

The Allies made contact with the French outposts on the evening of 9 May, but a hasty reconnaissance by Cumberland and his staff failed to spot the Redoubt d'Eu. On 10 May, British and Hanoverian cavalry under James Campbell pushed the French out of Vezon and Bourgeon. Campbell's deputy, the Earl of Crawford, then recommended that infantry be sent to clear the Bois de Barry, while the cavalry swung around it to outflank the French left. Unfortunately, this plan was abandoned when Dutch hussars reconnoitring the route were fired on by French troops in the wood and withdrew. The attack was postponed until the following day, both armies camping overnight on their positions. At 4:00 a.m. on 11 May, the Allies formed up, British and Hanoverians on the right and centre, Dutch on the left, with the Austrians in reserve. The Dutch were ordered to take Fontenoy and Antoing, while a brigade under Richard Ingoldsby captured the Redoubt de Chambonas, and cleared the Bois de Barry. Once both flanks were engaged, massed Allied infantry in the centre under Ligonier would advance up the slope, and dislodge the main French army. As soon as it was light, the Allied artillery opened fire on Fontenoy, but the bombardment had little effect on the dug-in French infantry. Because Cumberland had badly under-estimated French numbers, he assumed their main force was in the centre, and failed to appreciate the strength of the flanking positions. This meant the true strength of the French left only became apparent when Ingoldsby ran into the Redoubt d'Eu. He requested artillery support, and the advance halted while his men skirmished in the woods with light troops known as Harquebusiers de Grassins. These numbered no more than 900 but uncertain of their strength, Ingoldsby hesitated; given the earlier failure to detect the redoubt, his caution was understandable but delayed the main attack. Growing impatient, at 7:00 a.m., Cumberland ordered Ingoldsby to abandon his assault on the Redoubt d'Eu and join the main column, although he failed to inform Ligonier. As the Dutch advanced on Fontenoy, they were fired on by French troops in the nearby walled cemetery and fell back with heavy losses. At 9:00 a.m., Ligonier sent an aide instructing Ingoldsby to attack the Redoubt d'Eu immediately and was apparently horrified when Ingoldsby shared his change of orders. At 10:30 a.m., the Dutch assaulted Fontenoy again, supported by the 42nd Foot; after some initial success, they were forced to retreat, and at 12:30 p.m., Cumberland ordered the central column forward. Thought to comprise some 15,000 infantry, the column advanced up the slope led by Cumberland and Ligonier, and despite heavy casualties reached the French position still in formation. After halting to dress their lines, the Guards in the first rank allegedly invited the Gardes Françaises to open fire. First reported by Voltaire in 1768, there is some doubt as to the reliability of this anecdote, but the opening volley was considered so important that commanders often preferred their opponents to go first, particularly if their own troops were well disciplined and thus able to absorb it without losing cohesion. Thus goaded, the Gardes fired prematurely, greatly reducing the impact of their first volley, while that of the British killed or wounded 700 to 800 men. The French front line broke up in confusion; many of their reserves had been transferred to meet the Dutch attack on Fontenoy, and the Allies now advanced into this gap. Seeing this, Noailles, who was observing the fighting from a position near Notre Dame de Bois along with Louis XV and his son, implored the king to seek safety. However, Saxe assured Louis the battle was not lost, while Löwendal ordered a series of cavalry attacks, which although poorly co-ordinated forced the Allies back. Isolated in the middle of the column, Cumberland had lost control of the main battle and made no attempt to relieve pressure on the Allied centre by ordering fresh attacks on Fontenoy or the Redoubt d'Eu. Under fire from both flanks and in front, the column formed itself into a hollow, three sided square, reducing their firepower advantage. Their cavalry charges gave the French infantry time to reform, and at 14:00 Saxe brought up his remaining artillery, which began firing into the Allied square at close range. This was followed by a general assault, with the regiments d'Aubeterre, du Roi, Royal and de la Couronne attacking from the right, the Irish Brigade, regiments des Vaisseaux, Normandie, d'Eu and two battalions of the Gardes françaises the left. The assault cost the Aubeterre regiment 328 wounded or killed, while the four battalions of the Régiment Royal lost a total of 675, including 30 officers, and the Irish Brigade 656, including 25 per cent of their officers. Led by Saxe and Löwendal, the Gardes Françaises attacked once more, while D'Estrées and Richelieu brought up the elite Maison du roi cavalry, forcing the column back with heavy losses. The Hanoverian Böselager regiment suffered 377 casualties, the largest of any single Allied unit, the 23rd Foot lost 322, and the three Guards regiments over 700 in total. Despite this, discipline and training allowed the Allied infantry to make an orderly withdrawal, the rearguard halting at intervals to fire on their pursuers. On reaching Vezon, the cavalry provided cover as they moved into columns of march, before withdrawing 180 kilometres (110 mi) to Ath, largely undisturbed by the French. The decision to retreat was opposed by Waldeck and other Dutch officers, who were reluctant to abandon their garrison in Tournai; one of them later wrote that "We were repulsed without being [defeated but ...] our hasty retreat makes us look beaten ...[while] we have left [much] baggage and many wounded". Next day, a cavalry detachment led by D'Estrées captured 2,000 wounded Allied soldiers left behind at Leuze, 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) from the battlefield. Forty-four abandoned pieces of artillery were also taken, along with122 supply wagons. ## Aftermath Fontenoy was the bloodiest battle in Western Europe since Malplaquet in 1709. French losses were an estimated 7,000 to 8,000 killed and wounded, those of the Allies between 7,400 to 12,000, including prisoners. Victory restored French battlefield pre-eminence in Europe, although the best of the Allied infantry remained superior to their opponents. Since his presence technically made him senior commander, Louis became the first French king able to claim a battlefield victory over the English since Saint Louis. This fact was emphasised in a propaganda campaign, which included a laudatory poem by Voltaire, titled La Bataille De Fontenoy. It also cemented Saxe's reputation as one of the leading generals of the period, although his domestic opponents attacked him for not pursuing with more vigour. In response, he pointed out his troops were exhausted while the Allied cavalry and large parts of their infantry remained intact and fresh. These critics did not include either Louis XV or Frederick the Great, who viewed Fontenoy as a tactical masterpiece and invited Saxe to Sanssouci to discuss it. His victory was also achieved despite being in great pain from edema or "dropsy", and forced to exercise command from a wicker chair carried round the battlefield. On the other hand, Cumberland performed poorly as a commander, ignoring advice from his more experienced subordinates, failing to ensure the Bois de Barry was properly cleared and issuing Ingoldsby with conflicting orders. Although praised for his courage, the inactivity of the Allied cavalry was partly due to his participation in the infantry attack, and loss of strategic oversight. Ligonier and others viewed Fontenoy as a "defeat snatched from the jaws of victory" and although understandable for a 24-year-old in his first major engagement, the same faults were apparent at the Battle of Lauffeld in 1747. In the recriminations that followed, Ingoldsby was court martialled for the delay in attacking the Redoubt d'Eu, although his claim to have received inconsistent orders was clearly supported by the evidence. He himself was wounded, while the largest casualties of any units involved were incurred by two regiments from his brigade, the 12th Foot and Böselager's. The court concluded his actions arose 'from an error of judgement, not want of courage', but he was forced out of the army, a decision many considered unjust. Cumberland and some of his staff also blamed the Dutch for not relieving pressure on the centre by continuing their attack on Fontenoy. Dutch cavalry commander Casimir van Schlippenbach echoed this criticism, although failure was largely due to the confusion caused by Cumberland himself, while the Dutch infantry retreated in good order. Regardless, Waldeck was critical of the lack of initiative displayed by his troops, as was Isaac Cronström, head of the Dutch infantry. Born in 1661, the latter fought at Malplaquet, where the Dutch had continued to attack French entrenchments despite incurring very heavy casualties. In a letter to Grand Pensionary Anthonie van der Heim, he noted "these troops are [not] like those in the previous war", while in his official report to the States General, Waldeck claimed "the famous old Dutch courage" had gone. These conclusions led to an intensive programme of retraining, and the Dutch performed significantly better at Rocoux in 1746. However, the war confirmed the decline of the Dutch Republic as a Great Power; Newcastle, whose foreign policy had assumed the opposite, later berated himself for his "ignorance, obstinacy, and credulity", in believing otherwise. With no hope of relief, Tournai surrendered on 20 June, followed by the loss of Ostend and Nieuport; in October, the British were forced to divert resources to deal with the Jacobite rising of 1745, allowing Saxe to continue his advance in 1746. Despite the presence of Dutch troops in the Pragmatic Army, France did not declare war on the Dutch Republic itself until 1747. This decision made their financial situation even worse, since French merchants had evaded the British naval blockade by transporting their goods in "neutral" Dutch ships. By the end of 1747, France had occupied most of the Austrian Netherlands and was on the verge of advancing into Dutch territory, but their economy was being strangled by the blockade, which was also causing widespread food shortages. Peace was a matter of extreme urgency and despite the huge military and financial costs incurred, under the 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle Louis XV agreed to evacuate the Austrian Netherlands for minimal return, leading to a popular French phrase "as stupid as the Peace". ### Legacy The participation of the Irish Brigade and the casualties incurred led 19th and early 20th-century Irish nationalists to portray Fontenoy as the "pinnacle of Irish military valour", with the battle giving its name to a variety of streets, buildings and athletic clubs. In 1905, nationalist author Richard Barry O'Brien founded a committee to fund an Irish Brigade memorial in the village of Fontenoy, where it still features in annual commemorations of the battle. When surveying the battlefield, Louis XV reportedly said: "See how much blood a triumph costs. The blood of our enemies is still the blood of men. The true glory is to save it." In 1968, the French army installed a memorial in the neighbouring town of Vezon which bears this quotation.

Cantor's first set theory article

First article on transfinite set theory

Cantor's first set theory article contains Georg Cantor's first theorems of transfinite set theory, which studies infinite sets and their properties. One of these theorems is his "revolutionary discovery" that the set of all real numbers is uncountably, rather than countably, infinite. This theorem is proved using Cantor's first uncountability proof, which differs from the more familiar proof using his diagonal argument. The title of the article, "On a Property of the Collection of All Real Algebraic Numbers" ("Ueber eine Eigenschaft des Inbegriffes aller reellen algebraischen Zahlen"), refers to its first theorem: the set of real algebraic numbers is countable. Cantor's article was published in 1874. In 1879, he modified his uncountability proof by using the topological notion of a set being dense in an interval. Cantor's article also contains a proof of the existence of transcendental numbers. Both constructive and non-constructive proofs have been presented as "Cantor's proof." The popularity of presenting a non-constructive proof has led to a misconception that Cantor's arguments are non-constructive. Since the proof that Cantor published either constructs transcendental numbers or does not, an analysis of his article can determine whether or not this proof is constructive. Cantor's correspondence with Richard Dedekind shows the development of his ideas and reveals that he had a choice between two proofs: a non-constructive proof that uses the uncountability of the real numbers and a constructive proof that does not use uncountability. Historians of mathematics have examined Cantor's article and the circumstances in which it was written. For example, they have discovered that Cantor was advised to leave out his uncountability theorem in the article he submitted — he added it during proofreading. They have traced this and other facts about the article to the influence of Karl Weierstrass and Leopold Kronecker. Historians have also studied Dedekind's contributions to the article, including his contributions to the theorem on the countability of the real algebraic numbers. In addition, they have recognized the role played by the uncountability theorem and the concept of countability in the development of set theory, measure theory, and the Lebesgue integral. ## The article Cantor's article is short, less than four and a half pages. It begins with a discussion of the real algebraic numbers and a statement of his first theorem: The set of real algebraic numbers can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the set of positive integers. Cantor restates this theorem in terms more familiar to mathematicians of his time: The set of real algebraic numbers can be written as an infinite sequence in which each number appears only once. Cantor's second theorem works with a closed interval [a, b], which is the set of real numbers ≥ a and ≤ b. The theorem states: Given any sequence of real numbers x₁, x₂, x₃, ... and any interval [a, b], there is a number in [a, b] that is not contained in the given sequence. Hence, there are infinitely many such numbers. Cantor observes that combining his two theorems yields a new proof of Liouville's theorem that every interval [a, b] contains infinitely many transcendental numbers. Cantor then remarks that his second theorem is: > the reason why collections of real numbers forming a so-called continuum (such as, all real numbers which are ≥ 0 and ≤ 1) cannot correspond one-to-one with the collection (ν) [the collection of all positive integers]; thus I have found the clear difference between a so-called continuum and a collection like the totality of real algebraic numbers. This remark contains Cantor's uncountability theorem, which only states that an interval [a, b] cannot be put into one-to-one correspondence with the set of positive integers. It does not state that this interval is an infinite set of larger cardinality than the set of positive integers. Cardinality is defined in Cantor's next article, which was published in 1878. Cantor only states his uncountability theorem. He does not use it in any proofs. ## The proofs ### First theorem To prove that the set of real algebraic numbers is countable, define the height of a polynomial of degree n with integer coefficients as: n − 1 + \|a₀\| + \|a₁\| + ... + \|a_n\|, where a₀, a₁, ..., a_n are the coefficients of the polynomial. Order the polynomials by their height, and order the real roots of polynomials of the same height by numeric order. Since there are only a finite number of roots of polynomials of a given height, these orderings put the real algebraic numbers into a sequence. Cantor went a step further and produced a sequence in which each real algebraic number appears just once. He did this by only using polynomials that are irreducible over the integers. The following table contains the beginning of Cantor's enumeration. ### Second theorem Only the first part of Cantor's second theorem needs to be proved. It states: Given any sequence of real numbers x₁, x₂, x₃, ... and any interval [a, b], there is a number in [a, b] that is not contained in the given sequence. To find a number in [a, b] that is not contained in the given sequence, construct two sequences of real numbers as follows: Find the first two numbers of the given sequence that are in the open interval (a, b). Denote the smaller of these two numbers by a₁ and the larger by b₁. Similarly, find the first two numbers of the given sequence that are in (a₁, b₁). Denote the smaller by a₂ and the larger by b₂. Continuing this procedure generates a sequence of intervals (a₁, b₁), (a₂, b₂), (a₃, b₃), ... such that each interval in the sequence contains all succeeding intervals — that is, it generates a sequence of nested intervals. This implies that the sequence a₁, a₂, a₃, ... is increasing and the sequence b₁, b₂, b₃, ... is decreasing. Either the number of intervals generated is finite or infinite. If finite, let (a_L, b_L) be the last interval. If infinite, take the limits a_∞ = lim_{n → ∞} a_n and b_∞ = lim_{n → ∞} b_n. Since a_n \< b_n for all n, either a_∞ = b_∞ or a_∞ \< b_∞. Thus, there are three cases to consider: Case 1: There is a last interval (a_L, b_L). Since at most one x_n can be in this interval, every y in this interval except x_n (if it exists) is not in the given sequence. Case 2: a_∞ = b_∞. Then a_∞ is not in the sequence since for all n : a_∞ is in the interval (a_n, b_n) but x_n does not belong to (a_n, b_n). In symbols: a_∞ ∈ (a_n, b_n) but x_n ∉ (a_n, b_n). {\| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" ! style="background: f5f5f5;" \|Proof that for all n : x_n ∉ (a_n, b_n) \|- style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top; background: white" \| style="padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em" \| This lemma is used by cases 2 and 3. It is implied by the stronger lemma: For all n, (a_n, b_n) excludes x₁, ..., x_2n. This is proved by induction. Basis step: Since the endpoints of (a₁, b₁) are x₁ and x₂ and an open interval excludes its endpoints, (a₁, b₁) excludes x₁, x₂. Inductive step: Assume that (a_n, b_n) excludes x₁, ..., x_2n. Since (a_n+1, b_n+1) is a subset of (a_n, b_n) and its endpoints are x_2n+1 and x_2n+2, (a_n+1, b_n+1) excludes x₁, ..., x_2n and x_2n+1, x_2n+2. Hence, for all n, (a_n, b_n) excludes x₁, ..., x_2n. Therefore, for all n, x_n ∉ (a_n, b_n). Case 3: a_∞ \< b_∞. Then every y in [a_∞, b_∞] is not contained in the given sequence since for all n : y belongs to (a_n, b_n) but x_n does not. The proof is complete since, in all cases, at least one real number in [a, b] has been found that is not contained in the given sequence. Cantor's proofs are constructive and have been used to write a computer program that generates the digits of a transcendental number. This program applies Cantor's construction to a sequence containing all the real algebraic numbers between 0 and 1. The article that discusses this program gives some of its output, which shows how the construction generates a transcendental. ### Example of Cantor's construction An example illustrates how Cantor's construction works. Consider the sequence: 1/2, 1/3, 2/3, 1/4, 3/4, 1/5, 2/5, 3/5, 4/5, ... This sequence is obtained by ordering the rational numbers in (0, 1) by increasing denominators, ordering those with the same denominator by increasing numerators, and omitting reducible fractions. The table below shows the first five steps of the construction. The table's first column contains the intervals (a_n, b_n). The second column lists the terms visited during the search for the first two terms in (a_n, b_n). These two terms are in red. Since the sequence contains all the rational numbers in (0, 1), the construction generates an irrational number, which turns out to be √2 − 1. ## Cantor's 1879 uncountability proof ### Everywhere dense In 1879, Cantor published a new uncountability proof that modifies his 1874 proof. He first defines the topological notion of a point set P being "everywhere dense in an interval": If P lies partially or completely in the interval [α, β], then the remarkable case can happen that every interval [γ, δ] contained in [α, β], no matter how small, contains points of P. In such a case, we will say that P is everywhere dense in the interval [α, β]. In this discussion of Cantor's proof: a, b, c, d are used instead of α, β, γ, δ. Also, Cantor only uses his interval notation if the first endpoint is less than the second. For this discussion, this means that (a, b) implies a \< b. Since the discussion of Cantor's 1874 proof was simplified by using open intervals rather than closed intervals, the same simplification is used here. This requires an equivalent definition of everywhere dense: A set P is everywhere dense in the interval [a, b] if and only if every open subinterval (c, d) of [a, b] contains at least one point of P. Cantor did not specify how many points of P an open subinterval (c, d) must contain. He did not need to specify this because the assumption that every open subinterval contains at least one point of P implies that every open subinterval contains infinitely many points of P. ### Cantor's 1879 proof Cantor modified his 1874 proof with a new proof of its second theorem: Given any sequence P of real numbers x₁, x₂, x₃, ... and any interval [a, b], there is a number in [a, b] that is not contained in P. Cantor's new proof has only two cases. First, it handles the case of P not being dense in the interval, then it deals with the more difficult case of P being dense in the interval. This division into cases not only indicates which sequences are more difficult to handle, but it also reveals the important role denseness plays in the proof. In the first case, P is not dense in [a, b]. By definition, P is dense in [a, b] if and only if for all subintervals (c, d) of [a, b], there is an x ∈ P such that x ∈ (c, d). Taking the negation of each side of the "if and only if" produces: P is not dense in [a, b] if and only if there exists a subinterval (c, d) of [a, b] such that for all x ∈ P : x ∉ (c, d). Therefore, every number in (c, d) is not contained in the sequence P. This case handles case 1 and case 3 of Cantor's 1874 proof. In the second case, which handles case 2 of Cantor's 1874 proof, P is dense in [a, b]. The denseness of sequence P is used to recursively define a sequence of nested intervals that excludes all the numbers in P and whose intersection contains a single real number in [a, b]. The sequence of intervals starts with (a, b). Given an interval in the sequence, the next interval is obtained by finding the two numbers with the least indices that belong to P and to the current interval. These two numbers are the endpoints of the next open interval. Since an open interval excludes its endpoints, every nested interval eliminates two numbers from the front of sequence P, which implies that the intersection of the nested intervals excludes all the numbers in P. Details of this proof and a proof that this intersection contains a single real number in [a, b] are given below. ## The development of Cantor's ideas

The development leading to Cantor's 1874 article appears in the correspondence between Cantor and Richard Dedekind. On November 29, 1873, Cantor asked Dedekind whether the collection of positive integers and the collection of positive real numbers "can be corresponded so that each individual of one collection corresponds to one and only one individual of the other?" Cantor added that collections having such a correspondence include the collection of positive rational numbers, and collections of the form (a_{n₁, n₂, . . . , n_ν}) where n₁, n₂, . . . , n_ν, and ν are positive integers. Dedekind replied that he was unable to answer Cantor's question, and said that it "did not deserve too much effort because it has no particular practical interest". Dedekind also sent Cantor a proof that the set of algebraic numbers is countable. On December 2, Cantor responded that his question does have interest: "It would be nice if it could be answered; for example, provided that it could be answered no, one would have a new proof of Liouville's theorem that there are transcendental numbers." On December 7, Cantor sent Dedekind a proof by contradiction that the set of real numbers is uncountable. Cantor starts by assuming that the real numbers in $[0,1]$ can be written as a sequence. Then, he applies a construction to this sequence to produce a number in $[0,1]$ that is not in the sequence, thus contradicting his assumption. Together, the letters of December 2 and 7 provide a non-constructive proof of the existence of transcendental numbers. Also, the proof in Cantor's December 7th letter shows some of the reasoning that led to his discovery that the real numbers form an uncountable set. Dedekind received Cantor's proof on December 8. On that same day, Dedekind simplified the proof and mailed his proof to Cantor. Cantor used Dedekind's proof in his article. The letter containing Cantor's December 7th proof was not published until 1937. On December 9, Cantor announced the theorem that allowed him to construct transcendental numbers as well as prove the uncountability of the set of real numbers: > I show directly that if I start with a sequence > (1) ω₁, ω₂, ... , ω_n, ... > I can determine, in every given interval [α, β], a number η that is not included in (1). This is the second theorem in Cantor's article. It comes from realizing that his construction can be applied to any sequence, not just to sequences that supposedly enumerate the real numbers. So Cantor had a choice between two proofs that demonstrate the existence of transcendental numbers: one proof is constructive, but the other is not. These two proofs can be compared by starting with a sequence consisting of all the real algebraic numbers. The constructive proof applies Cantor's construction to this sequence and the interval [a, b] to produce a transcendental number in this interval. The non-constructive proof uses two proofs by contradiction: 1. The proof by contradiction used to prove the uncountability theorem (see Proof of Cantor's uncountability theorem). 2. The proof by contradiction used to prove the existence of transcendental numbers from the countability of the real algebraic numbers and the uncountability of real numbers. Cantor's December 2nd letter mentions this existence proof but does not contain it. Here is a proof: Assume that there are no transcendental numbers in [a, b]. Then all the numbers in [a, b] are algebraic. This implies that they form a subsequence of the sequence of all real algebraic numbers, which contradicts Cantor's uncountability theorem. Thus, the assumption that there are no transcendental numbers in [a, b] is false. Therefore, there is a transcendental number in [a, b]. Cantor chose to publish the constructive proof, which not only produces a transcendental number but is also shorter and avoids two proofs by contradiction. The non-constructive proof from Cantor's correspondence is simpler than the one above because it works with all the real numbers rather than the interval [a, b]. This eliminates the subsequence step and all occurrences of [a, b] in the second proof by contradiction. ## A misconception about Cantor's work Akihiro Kanamori, who specializes in set theory, stated that "Accounts of Cantor's work have mostly reversed the order for deducing the existence of transcendental numbers, establishing first the uncountability of the reals and only then drawing the existence conclusion from the countability of the algebraic numbers. In textbooks the inversion may be inevitable, but this has promoted the misconception that Cantor's arguments are non-constructive." Cantor's published proof and the reverse-order proof both use the theorem: Given a sequence of reals, a real can be found that is not in the sequence. By applying this theorem to the sequence of real algebraic numbers, Cantor produced a transcendental number. He then proved that the reals are uncountable: Assume that there is a sequence containing all the reals. Applying the theorem to this sequence produces a real not in the sequence, contradicting the assumption that the sequence contains all the reals. Hence, the reals are uncountable. The reverse-order proof starts by first proving the reals are uncountable. It then proves that transcendental numbers exist: If there were no transcendental numbers, all the reals would be algebraic and hence countable, which contradicts what was just proved. This contradiction proves that transcendental numbers exist without constructing any. The correspondence containing Cantor's non-constructive reasoning was published in 1937. By then, other mathematicians had rediscovered his non-constructive, reverse-order proof. As early as 1921, this proof was called "Cantor's proof" and criticized for not producing any transcendental numbers. In that year, Oskar Perron gave the reverse-order proof and then stated: "... Cantor's proof for the existence of transcendental numbers has, along with its simplicity and elegance, the great disadvantage that it is only an existence proof; it does not enable us to actually specify even a single transcendental number." As early as 1930, some mathematicians have attempted to correct this misconception of Cantor's work. In that year, the set theorist Abraham Fraenkel stated that Cantor's method is "... a method that incidentally, contrary to a widespread interpretation, is fundamentally constructive and not merely existential." In 1972, Irving Kaplansky wrote: "It is often said that Cantor's proof is not 'constructive,' and so does not yield a tangible transcendental number. This remark is not justified. If we set up a definite listing of all algebraic numbers ... and then apply the diagonal procedure ..., we get a perfectly definite transcendental number (it could be computed to any number of decimal places)." Cantor's proof is not only constructive, it is also simpler than Perron's proof, which requires the detour of first proving that the set of all reals is uncountable. Cantor's diagonal argument has often replaced his 1874 construction in expositions of his proof. The diagonal argument is constructive and produces a more efficient computer program than his 1874 construction. Using it, a computer program has been written that computes the digits of a transcendental number in polynomial time. The program that uses Cantor's 1874 construction requires at least sub-exponential time. The presentation of the non-constructive proof without mentioning Cantor's constructive proof appears in some books that were quite successful as measured by the length of time new editions or reprints appeared—for example: Oskar Perron's Irrationalzahlen (1921; 1960, 4th edition), Eric Temple Bell's Men of Mathematics (1937; still being reprinted), Godfrey Hardy and E. M. Wright's An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers (1938; 2008 6th edition), Garrett Birkhoff and Saunders Mac Lane's A Survey of Modern Algebra (1941; 1997 5th edition), and Michael Spivak's Calculus (1967; 2008 4th edition). Since 2014, at least two books have appeared stating that Cantor's proof is constructive, and at least four have appeared stating that his proof does not construct any (or a single) transcendental. Asserting that Cantor gave a non-constructive argument without mentioning the constructive proof he published can lead to erroneous statements about the history of mathematics. In A Survey of Modern Algebra, Birkhoff and Mac Lane state: "Cantor's argument for this result [Not every real number is algebraic] was at first rejected by many mathematicians, since it did not exhibit any specific transcendental number." The proof that Cantor published produces transcendental numbers, and there appears to be no evidence that his argument was rejected. Even Leopold Kronecker, who had strict views on what is acceptable in mathematics and who could have delayed publication of Cantor's article, did not delay it. In fact, applying Cantor's construction to the sequence of real algebraic numbers produces a limiting process that Kronecker accepted—namely, it determines a number to any required degree of accuracy. ## The influence of Weierstrass and Kronecker on Cantor's article Historians of mathematics have discovered the following facts about Cantor's article "On a Property of the Collection of All Real Algebraic Numbers": - Cantor's uncountability theorem was left out of the article he submitted. He added it during proofreading. - The article's title refers to the set of real algebraic numbers. The main topic in Cantor's correspondence was the set of real numbers. - The proof of Cantor's second theorem came from Dedekind. However, it omits Dedekind's explanation of why the limits a_∞ and b_∞ exist. - Cantor restricted his first theorem to the set of real algebraic numbers. The proof he was using demonstrates the countability of the set of all algebraic numbers. To explain these facts, historians have pointed to the influence of Cantor's former professors, Karl Weierstrass and Leopold Kronecker. Cantor discussed his results with Weierstrass on December 23, 1873. Weierstrass was first amazed by the concept of countability, but then found the countability of the set of real algebraic numbers useful. Cantor did not want to publish yet, but Weierstrass felt that he must publish at least his results concerning the algebraic numbers. From his correspondence, it appears that Cantor only discussed his article with Weierstrass. However, Cantor told Dedekind: "The restriction which I have imposed on the published version of my investigations is caused in part by local circumstances ..." Cantor biographer Joseph Dauben believes that "local circumstances" refers to Kronecker who, as a member of the editorial board of Crelle's Journal, had delayed publication of an 1870 article by Eduard Heine, one of Cantor's colleagues. Cantor would submit his article to Crelle's Journal. Weierstrass advised Cantor to leave his uncountability theorem out of the article he submitted, but Weierstrass also told Cantor that he could add it as a marginal note during proofreading, which he did. It appears in a remark at the end of the article's introduction. The opinions of Kronecker and Weierstrass both played a role here. Kronecker did not accept infinite sets, and it seems that Weierstrass did not accept that two infinite sets could be so different, with one being countable and the other not. Weierstrass changed his opinion later. Without the uncountability theorem, the article needed a title that did not refer to this theorem. Cantor chose "Ueber eine Eigenschaft des Inbegriffes aller reellen algebraischen Zahlen" ("On a Property of the Collection of All Real Algebraic Numbers"), which refers to the countability of the set of real algebraic numbers, the result that Weierstrass found useful. Kronecker's influence appears in the proof of Cantor's second theorem. Cantor used Dedekind's version of the proof except he left out why the limits a_∞ = lim_{n → ∞} a_n and b_∞ = lim_{n → ∞} b_n exist. Dedekind had used his "principle of continuity" to prove they exist. This principle (which is equivalent to the least upper bound property of the real numbers) comes from Dedekind's construction of the real numbers, a construction Kronecker did not accept. Cantor restricted his first theorem to the set of real algebraic numbers even though Dedekind had sent him a proof that handled all algebraic numbers. Cantor did this for expository reasons and because of "local circumstances". This restriction simplifies the article because the second theorem works with real sequences. Hence, the construction in the second theorem can be applied directly to the enumeration of the real algebraic numbers to produce "an effective procedure for the calculation of transcendental numbers". This procedure would be acceptable to Weierstrass. ## Dedekind's contributions to Cantor's article Since 1856, Dedekind had developed theories involving infinitely many infinite sets—for example: ideals, which he used in algebraic number theory, and Dedekind cuts, which he used to construct the real numbers. This work enabled him to understand and contribute to Cantor's work. Dedekind's first contribution concerns the theorem that the set of real algebraic numbers is countable. Cantor is usually given credit for this theorem, but the mathematical historian José Ferreirós calls it "Dedekind's theorem." Their correspondence reveals what each mathematician contributed to the theorem. In his letter introducing the concept of countability, Cantor stated without proof that the set of positive rational numbers is countable, as are sets of the form (a_{n₁, n₂, ..., n_ν}) where n₁, n₂, ..., n_ν, and ν are positive integers. Cantor's second result uses an indexed family of numbers: a set of the form (a_{n₁, n₂, ..., n_ν}) is the range of a function from the ν indices to the set of real numbers. His second result implies his first: let ν = 2 and a_{n₁, n₂} = n₁/n₂. The function can be quite general—for example, a_{n₁, n₂, n₃, n₄, n₅} = (n₁/n₂)^1/n₃ + tan(n₄/n₅). Dedekind replied with a proof of the theorem that the set of all algebraic numbers is countable. In his reply to Dedekind, Cantor did not claim to have proved Dedekind's result. He did indicate how he proved his theorem about indexed families of numbers: "Your proof that (n) [the set of positive integers] can be correlated one-to-one with the field of all algebraic numbers is approximately the same as the way I prove my contention in the last letter. I take n₁² + n₂² + ··· + n_ν² = $\mathfrak{N}$ and order the elements accordingly." However, Cantor's ordering is weaker than Dedekind's and cannot be extended to $n$-tuples of integers that include zeros. Dedekind's second contribution is his proof of Cantor's second theorem. Dedekind sent this proof in reply to Cantor's letter that contained the uncountability theorem, which Cantor proved using infinitely many sequences. Cantor next wrote that he had found a simpler proof that did not use infinitely many sequences. So Cantor had a choice of proofs and chose to publish Dedekind's. Cantor thanked Dedekind privately for his help: "... your comments (which I value highly) and your manner of putting some of the points were of great assistance to me." However, he did not mention Dedekind's help in his article. In previous articles, he had acknowledged help received from Kronecker, Weierstrass, Heine, and Hermann Schwarz. Cantor's failure to mention Dedekind's contributions damaged his relationship with Dedekind. Dedekind stopped replying to his letters and did not resume the correspondence until October 1876. ## The legacy of Cantor's article Cantor's article introduced the uncountability theorem and the concept of countability. Both would lead to significant developments in mathematics. The uncountability theorem demonstrated that one-to-one correspondences can be used to analyze infinite sets. In 1878, Cantor used them to define and compare cardinalities. He also constructed one-to-one correspondences to prove that the n-dimensional spaces Rⁿ (where R is the set of real numbers) and the set of irrational numbers have the same cardinality as R. In 1883, Cantor extended the positive integers with his infinite ordinals. This extension was necessary for his work on the Cantor–Bendixson theorem. Cantor discovered other uses for the ordinals—for example, he used sets of ordinals to produce an infinity of sets having different infinite cardinalities. His work on infinite sets together with Dedekind's set-theoretical work created set theory. The concept of countability led to countable operations and objects that are used in various areas of mathematics. For example, in 1878, Cantor introduced countable unions of sets. In the 1890s, Émile Borel used countable unions in his theory of measure, and René Baire used countable ordinals to define his classes of functions. Building on the work of Borel and Baire, Henri Lebesgue created his theories of measure and integration, which were published from 1899 to 1901. Countable models are used in set theory. In 1922, Thoralf Skolem proved that if conventional axioms of set theory are consistent, then they have a countable model. Since this model is countable, its set of real numbers is countable. This consequence is called Skolem's paradox, and Skolem explained why it does not contradict Cantor's uncountability theorem: although there is a one-to-one correspondence between this set and the set of positive integers, no such one-to-one correspondence is a member of the model. Thus the model considers its set of real numbers to be uncountable, or more precisely, the first-order sentence that says the set of real numbers is uncountable is true within the model. In 1963, Paul Cohen used countable models to prove his independence theorems. ## See also - Cantor's theorem

Tropical Storm Andrea (2013)

Atlantic Tropical storm in the 2013

Tropical Storm Andrea brought flooding to Cuba, the Yucatan Peninsula, and portions of the East Coast of the United States in June 2013. The first tropical cyclone and named storm of the annual hurricane season, Andrea originated from an area of low pressure in the eastern Gulf of Mexico on June 5. Despite strong wind shear and an abundance of dry air, the storm strengthened while initially heading north-northeastward. Later on June 5, it re-curved northeastward and approached the Big Bend region of Florida. Andrea intensified and peaked as a strong tropical storm with winds at 65 mph (105 km/h) on June 6. A few hours later, the storm weakened slightly and made landfall near Steinhatchee, Florida later that day. It began losing tropical characteristics while tracking across Florida and Georgia. Andrea transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over South Carolina on June 7, though the remnants continued to move along the East Coast of the United States, until being absorbed by another extratropical system offshore Maine on June 10. Prior to becoming a tropical cyclone, the precursor to Andrea dropped nearly 12 inches (300 mm) of rainfall on the Yucatán Peninsula. In Cuba, the storm brought flooding, especially in Pinar del Río Province. Over 1,000 people fled their homes, mainly along the Cuyaguateje River. A tornado was also spawned in the area, damaging three homes. In Florida, the storm brought heavy rainfall to some areas, causing localized flooding. There were nine tornadoes in Florida, the worst of which touched down in The Acreage and downed power lines and trees, causing significant roof damage to several houses; there was also one injury. After Andrea transition into an extratropical storm, the remnants that also spawned one tornado in North Carolina, though damage was minor. Additionally, minor flooding was reported in some areas of the Northeastern United States. Three fatalities occurred due to weather-related traffic accidents in Virginia and New Jersey. There was a direct death reported after a surfer in South Carolina went missing and was presumed to have drowned. The remnants of Andrea also brought gusty winds to Atlantic Canada, causing thousands of power outages in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. ## Meteorological history At the end of May 2013, a broad and diffuse cyclonic disturbance developed over eastern Mexico and northern Central America, incorporating the remnants of eastern Pacific Hurricane Barbara. As a tropical wave approached from the east, an inverted trough developed on the northern edge of the active region on June 2, setting the stage for the formation of a weak surface low pressure system over the southern Gulf of Mexico the next day. The National Hurricane Center (NHC) began monitoring the system in their Tropical Weather Outlooks, and bulletins were issued every six hours regarding the probability of tropical cyclone formation within 48 hours. A nearby upper trough created unfavorable conditions for tropical cyclogenesis, subjecting the low to wind shear and abundant dry air that kept it indistinct and disorganized. On June 5, the environment became less hostile, and the system began to improve in structure. On June 5, a Hurricane Hunters flight found a closed center and winds of 40 mph (64 km/h). In response, the NHC initiated advisories on Tropical Storm Andrea later that day, while centered about 310 miles (500 km) southwest of St. Petersburg, Florida. Due to somewhat unfavorable conditions, significant strengthening was initially considered unlikely. Early on June 6, deep convection was displaced well to the east and southeast of the center as a result of wind shear up to 29 mph (47 km/h). Despite this, Andrea intensified to attain peak winds of 65 mph (105 km/h) at 1200 UTC that day. Thereafter, unfavorable conditions, including dry air entrainment caused the storm to weaken slightly. At 2200 UTC on June 6, Andrea made landfall in Dixie County, Florida about 10 miles (16 km) south of Steinhatchee. Simultaneously, the storm attained its minimum barometric pressure of 992 mbar (29.3 inHg). After moving inland on June 6, the NHC noted that extratropical transition was likely within 24 hours and that it "could occur sooner if the convective structure does not improve." By later on June 7, most of the convection became displaced to the northwest due to dry air. Around that time, the storm began accelerating northeastward at 26 mph (42 km/h) due to an approaching mid-latitude trough. Based on ground observations and Doppler radar, the system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone at 1800 UTC on June 7, while located over northeastern South Carolina. The remaining thunderstorms around Andrea became indistinguishable from those associated with a frontal zone over North Carolina. Due to a policy created in response to Hurricane Sandy, the NHC continued to issue advisories on the remnants of Andrea as it remained a threat to the East Coast of the United States. On June 8, it moved rapidly northeastward across the Mid-Atlantic and New England. Because gale-force winds were located well to the southeast of the center, the NHC ceased advisories on the remnants of Andrea. Upon reaching the Gulf of Maine, the extratropical remnants of Andrea were absorbed by another extratropical low pressure area around 0000 UTC on June 10. ## Preparations Multiple tropical cyclone warnings and watches were posted along both the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States in association with Tropical Storm Andrea. At 2200 UTC on June 5, a tropical storm warning was issued from Boca Grande to the mouth of the Ochlockonee River in Florida. Additionally, a tropical storm watch was put into effect for Flagler Beach, Florida to Surf City, North Carolina. At 0900 UTC on June 6, the tropical storm warning was extended from the mouth of the Ochlockonee River to Indian Pass, Florida. Simultaneously, another tropical storm warning was issued from Flagler Beach, Florida to Cape Charles Light in Virginia. Early on June 7, the tropical storm warning on the Gulf Coast of Florida was expanded to include Boca Grande to the Steinhatchee River in Florida, before being canceled a few hours later. At 0900 UTC on June 7, the tropical storm warning from Flagler Beach to Surf City was modified to Altamaha River, Georgia to Cape Charles Light. Throughout that day, the tropical storm warning was progressively retracted northward, with the southern terminal being at the Savannah River in Georgia at 1200 UTC, the Santee River in South Carolina at 1500 UTC, the Little River Inlet in South Carolina at 1800 UTC, and finally Surf City at 2100 UTC. Early on June 8, all tropical cyclone warnings and watches were discontinued. The United States Coast Guard urged marine interests and boaters in Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina to take precaution to protect their lives and vessels. In Florida, the Gulf Islands National Seashore closed their campground and a beach front road. Additionally, several states parks were closed and campers were evacuated. At Pensacola Beach, condominium associations asked residents to remove furniture from high balconies due to the anticipation of strong winds. A state of emergency was issued for Taylor County, where two shelters were opened. ## Impact Becoming a tropical storm on June 5, Andrea marked the fourth consecutive season with a named storm in the month of June, following Hurricane Alex in 2010, Tropical Storm Arlene in 2011, and Hurricane Chris and Tropical Storm Debby in 2012. This was over a month earlier than the 1966–2009 average date of the first named storm, July 9. The precursor disturbance to Andrea dropped nearly 12 inches (300 mm) of rain on the Yucatán Peninsula in a 24-hour period. In Cuba, the Civil Defense issued a weather alarm for Pinar del Río Province from June 5 to June 6. There was also a lower-level "alert" in the adjacent provinces of Artemisa and Mayabeque. Over 1,000 people fled their homes due to flooding, especially along the Cuyaguateje River in Pinar del Río Province. The city of Las Martinas received more than 10 inches (250 mm) of rainfall in 24 hours; a few other locations reported over 8 inches (200 mm) of rain. Of the 24 dams in Pinar del Río Province, six had already filled by June 5. The disturbance spawned a tornado in that area, which damaged three homes. ### Florida Along the Florida coast, storm surge produced by Andrea remained relatively minor, with surge heights ranging from 2–4 ft (0.61–1.22 m) across the state's Gulf coast. These measurements peaked in Cedar Key, where a station documented a storm surge height of 4.08 ft (1.24 m); the same station recorded a storm tide height of 6.26 ft (1.91 m). The highest wind measurement was at a mesonet site in Davis Islands, which observed sustained winds of 47 mph (76 km/h). A total of 10 tornadoes were spawned in Florida. Near Myakka City, a tornado damaged the roofs of three single family homes, six pole barns, and four outbuildings. One horse and six chickens were killed, and another horse and two dogs were injured. Significant piles of debris and downed power lines covered State Road 70 in Myakka City. Damage was estimated at \$50,000. Another twister spawned in Sun City Center downed trees and damaged lanais, fascia and shingles. Damage reached approximately \$36,000.

Andrea dropped locally heavy rainfall in some areas of West Central Florida, with a Community Collaborative Rain, Hail and Snow Network (CoCoRaHS) station observing 6.17 inches (157 mm) inches of precipitation near Chiefland. Minor street flooding was reported in several counties. Near the city of Coachman, the weight of saturated leaves on the roof of a dog kennel at the Pinellas County Humane Society caused a large section of the roof to collapse. In East Central Florida, the storm produced about 2–3 inches (51–76 mm) of rain, with isolated totals of 5–6 inches (130–150 mm) over a three-day period in Orange, Osceola, and Volusia counties. In North Florida, the storm spawned a tornado at the Naval Station Mayport in Jacksonville. A number of "non-critical" structures suffered minor impact, while other buildings experienced damaged roofs and broken windows. Strong winds were also observed in the area, with gusts up to 83 mph (134 km/h) at the Jacksonville Beach Pier; this was the strongest wind gust associated with the storm. Another tornado was spawned on Amelia Island in Fernandina Beach, though it caused minimal damage. Of the ten tornadoes in Florida, three were spawned in the southern portions of the state. In The Acreage, an EF-1 tornado caused minor to moderate roof damage to several homes, mainly in the form of shingles and roof covering torn off. Numerous trees were uprooted or snapped near the trunk, along with several branches falling; this resulted in broken windows in several homes. At one home, the garage door was damaged, causing the door to blow in, which in turn led to the roof being damaged above the garage. An 85-year-old woman was injured after being struck by a falling branch of an oak tree, which broke through her bedroom window. A few vehicles were moved from their original locations, while a 30 feet (9.1 m) boat was flipped on its side. Another tornado in Belle Glade damaged an awning and downed trees and several power lines. Further south, a tornado touched down in Broward County and entered Palm Beach County before lifting back up; it resulted in no damage. A convective band associated with Tropical Storm Andrea moved slowly across South Florida, prompting flash flood warnings for Broward and Miami-Dade County Counties. Precipitation peaked at 14.27 inches (362 mm) in North Miami Beach, 13.96 inches (355 mm) of which fell in a 24-hour period. Roads became impassable in the Waterways community in Aventura, leaving over 50 vehicles disabled. In nearby Golden Beach, hundreds of people became stranded in their vehicles, according to city officials. At the Biscayne Bay Campus of Florida International University, 11.71 inches (297 mm) of rain was observed. A number of stalled vehicles and impassable roads were reported in North Miami, while 24 families were forced to evacuate due to flooding. Further north in Broward County, the city of Hollywood was particularly hard hit, with 9 inches (230 mm) of rain observed. Several vehicles became disabled after retention ponds overflowed. ### Elsewhere in North America Along the coast of Alabama, 13 swimmers were rescued due to strong rip currents. In Georgia, the storm brought gusty winds to the coast, reaching 32 mph (51 km/h) at Fort Pulaski. Wind damage was minor, limited to mostly downed trees and power lines in several counties; in Chatham County, a falling tree struck a house. Generally light rainfall was reported across much of southern and eastern Georgia, though up to 5.34 inches (136 mm) fell near Richmond Hill. In Chatham County, a portion of U.S. Route 25 was temporarily closed due to flooding. Along the coast of South Carolina, a storm surge of 3.55 feet (1.08 m) was observed in Beaufort County. A surfer in Horry County went missing and was later presumed to have drowned. In several counties along the coast or just inland, trees and power lines were downed. Andrea dropped light rainfall in the state, peaking at 4.9 inches (120 mm) near Cordova. The storm brought significant amounts of rainfall to North Carolina in short periods of time, with a peak amount of 7.41 inches (188 mm) near Cameron. In Raleigh, 5.14 inches (131 mm) of rain fell in 24 hours, which broke the highest daily precipitation record for the city. Additionally, this total exceeded the average rainfall amount for the month of June. Many streams, creeks, and river overflowed in eastern North Carolina, resulting in numerous street closures in several counties. The Crabtree Valley Mall in Raleigh was closed after the parking lots became inundated. A number of low-lying and creek-side communities in Apex, Cary, Clayton, Durham, and Raleigh were flooded. A tornado was spawned near Varnamtown, where it downed several trees and damaged a large storage building. The storm produced over 5 inches (130 mm) of rain in southeastern Virginia, with up to 7.73 inches (196 mm) in Williamsburg. Several roads in Accomack County were left impassable due to high water. One indirect death occurred due to a car accident in southwestern Virginia on June 7. In Maryland, rainfall in the eastern portion of the state was generally between 3 and 6 inches (76 and 152 mm). Poor drainage in some areas resulted in multiple road closures in Caroline and Talbot counties, the latter of which reported about 20 roads shutdown. Radar estimates of precipitation in Delaware were between 2 and 4 inches (51 and 102 mm), while 5.19 inches (132 mm) was observed in Smyrna. Flash flooding occurred in areas of poor drainage, causing several road closures, especially in central Delaware. Radar estimates of precipitation in eastern Pennsylvania ranged from 2 to 4 inches (51 to 102 mm), with a peak of 4.09 inches (104 mm) in Langhorne. There, the Neshaminy Creek reached 9 feet (2.7 m) above flood stage. In Delaware County, flooding was reporting along the Chester Creek. Heavy rainfall was reported in New Jersey, amounting to more than 5 in (130 mm) in Oceanport. The heavy precipitation resulted in traffic jams and caused flooding along the Millstone and Raritan rivers. Three car accidents were blamed on the storm, two of which were fatal. Numerous roads flooded across the state, leading to several high-water rescues. Overflowing rivers and streams in Bergen and Union counties flooded low-lying and poor drainage areas. The Rockaway River at Boonton reached 5 feet (1.5 m) above flood stage from the afternoon of June 8 until the following morning. Winds of 35 mph (56 km/h) downed some trees and power lines, leaving 500–2,000 residences without power. A plane traveling from Palm Beach, Florida to Boston, Massachusetts had to make an emergency landing at Newark Liberty International Airport after being struck by lightning. In New York, 4.77 inches (121 mm) fell at Central Park in New York City in only a few hours, causing flash flooding in some areas. Train 3 on the New York City Subway briefly suspended service from 96th Street station to the 148th Street station. In Connecticut, the storm dropped up to 6.64 inches (169 mm) in Gales Ferry, causing flash flooding in Fairfield and New London counties. About 3 to 5 inches (76 to 127 mm) of precipitation fell throughout Rhode Island, flooding many streets, several basements, and stranding a number of cars, particularly in Providence County. An exit ramp of Interstate 95 in Providence was flooded with 1.5 feet (0.46 m) of water. An estimated 3 and 5 inches (76 and 127 mm) of precipitation fell in eastern Massachusetts. A number of roads were inundated in Bristol County, including Routes 24 and 79 and the ramps onto Interstate 95. Many cars were stranded in about 2 feet (0.61 m) of water in Fall River. Several basements were flooded in New Bedford, while several streets were flooded or left impassable. Elsewhere in New England, light rainfall was observed in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. As a post-tropical cyclone, Andrea brought rain and gale-force winds to Atlantic Canada. Officials closed the Confederation Bridge to high-profile vehicles due to the blustery conditions. More than 4,000 customers in Nova Scotia and parts of New Brunswick lost power as the storm moved through on June 8. ## See also - Tropical Storm Alberto (2006) - Tropical Storm Barry (2007) - Tropical Storm Colin (2016) - Timeline of the 2013 Atlantic hurricane season

UEFA Euro 1968 final

European football tournament final match

The UEFA Euro 1968 final consisted of two football matches at the Stadio Olimpico, Rome, on 8 and 10 June 1968, to determine the winner of the UEFA Euro 1968 tournament. It was the third UEFA European Championship final, UEFA's top football competition for national teams. The match was contested by Italy and Yugoslavia. En route to the final, Italy finished top of their qualifying group which included Romania, Cyprus and Switzerland. After beating Bulgaria over a two-legged tie in the quarter-finals, they progressed to the final, winning a coin toss which decided the outcome of the semi-final against the Soviet Union which ended goalless after extra time. Yugoslavia won their qualifying group which included Albania and West Germany, before beating France 6–2 on aggregate in the two-legged quarter-final and England 1–0 in the single-match semi-final. The final was played at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome on 8 June 1968 in front of a crowd of 68,817 and was refereed by Gottfried Dienst. Six minutes before half-time, Dragan Džajić gave Yugoslavia the lead after he scored from a Dobrivoje Trivić cross. With ten minutes of the match remaining, Giovanni Lodetti was fouled on the edge of the Yugoslavia penalty area by Blagoje Paunović. Domenghini's subsequent right-footed free kick went through the wall and past Ilija Pantelić, the Yugoslavia goalkeeper, and levelled the score at 1–1. Extra time brought no change to the scoreline and the match ended in a draw thus the result of the final would need to be determined in a replay. The replay was played two days later at the Stadio Olimpico in front of a crowd of 32,866. Gigi Riva opened the scoring for Italy in the 13th minute before Pietro Anastasi flicked the ball up and volleyed it into the corner of the Yugoslavia goal to double Italy's lead in the 31st minute. Italy missed several subsequent chances to score and the match ended 2–0, with Italy winning their first European Championship title. Italy finished the subsequent international tournament, the 1970 FIFA World Cup, as losing finalists where they were defeated 4–1 by Brazil. Yugoslavia failed to progress to the tournament finals in Mexico as they ended their qualification campaign second to Belgium in Group 6. ## Background UEFA Euro 1968 was the third edition of the UEFA European Championship, UEFA's football competition for national teams. Qualifying rounds were played on a home-and-away round-robin tournament basis prior to the semi-finals and final taking place in Italy, between 5 and 10 June 1968. A third-place play-off match took place before the final, on the same day. Italy had been knocked out in the 1964 European Nations' Cup in the round of 16, losing to the eventual tournament runners-up the Soviet Union. Similarly, Yugoslavia, who lost in the 1960 final, had been eliminated in the round of 16 in the 1964 tournament by Sweden. In the 1966 FIFA World Cup, Italy had failed to progress beyond the group stage, losing to both the Soviet Union and North Korea. Yugoslavia did not participate in the 1966 FIFA World Cup finals having failed to qualify from their group. The UEFA Euro 1968 Final was the third competitive match between Yugoslavia and Italy, with the sides having twice played each other in the Central European International Cup in 1955 and 1957. ## Road to the final ### Italy Italy commenced their UEFA Euro 1968 campaign in Qualifying Group 6 where they faced three other teams in a home-and-away round robin tournament. Their first fixture was against Romania at the Stadio San Paolo in Naples on 26 November 1966, where two goals from Sandro Mazzola and one from Virginio De Paoli secured a 3–1 victory. Their next opponents were Cyprus who they faced at the GSP Stadium in Nicosia on 22 March 1967. Angelo Domenghini scored midway through the second half before Giacinto Facchetti doubled Italy's lead for a 2–0 win. Italy's return match against Romania was played on 25 June 1967 at the Stadionul 23. August in Bucharest. Mario Bertini scored with nine minutes of the game remaining to give Italy a 1–0 victory. Next, Italy faced Cyprus at the Stadio San Vito-Gigi Marulla in Cosenza where they won 5–0 with two goals from Mazzola and a hat-trick from Gigi Riva. Italy's final opponents in the group were Switzerland, the first match against whom was played at the Wankdorf Stadium in Bern on 18 November 1967. René-Pierre Quentin gave the home side the lead eleven minutes before half-time but Riva equalised midway through the second half. Fritz Künzli restored Switzerland's lead two minutes later but a penalty from Riva five minutes before the end of the match resulted in a 2–2 draw. The return fixture was held on 23 December 1967 at the Stadio Amsicora in Cagliari where goals from Mazzola, Riva and Domenghini gave Italy a 3–0 half-time lead. Domenghini scored his second midway through the second half to secure a 4–0 win and assured Italy's qualification for the quarter-finals with them finishing at the top of the qualifying group. There they faced Bulgaria in a two-legged tie, the first match of which was held at the Vasil Levski National Stadium in Sofia on 6 April 1968. After eleven minutes, Nikola Kotkov was tripped and struck the subsequent penalty past Enrico Albertosi in the Italy goal to give Bulgaria the lead. Italy's Armando Picchi was injured after a collision with Dimitar Yakimov but made to continue by Ferruccio Valcareggi, his manager. Fifteen minutes into the second half, Stancho Bonchev saved from Rivera but Dimitar Penev scored an own goal from the rebound to level the score. Dinko Dermendzhiev then scored from a corner during which Albertosi was injured and had to be replaced by Lido Vieri. Petar Zhekov then gave Bulgaria a two-goal lead when he chipped the ball over Vieri in the 73rd minute before Pierino Prati scored on his debut for Italy and the match ended 3–2. The second leg was played on 20 April 1968 at the Stadio San Paolo in Naples in front of 95,000 spectators. Prati put Italy ahead in the 14th minute with a diving header before Domenghini scored with a free kick that deflected in off the post. The match ended 2–0 and Italy progressed to the finals that they themselves would host with a 4–3 aggregate victory. Italy's semi-final opponents were the Soviet Union, the 1960 European Nations' Cup champions, with the match taking place at the Stadio San Paolo in Naples on 5 June 1968 in heavy rain. The Soviet Union were denied a penalty after the ball struck Antonio Juliano's hand, before Prati's shot was close. Albert Shesternyov's strike was then saved by Italy's goalkeeper Dino Zoff. Early in the second half, Anatoliy Banishevskiy struck Anatoliy Byshovets' low cross wide of the Italy goal. Mazzola was then brought down by Volodymyr Kaplychnyi but no penalty was awarded before Zoff made a late save from Aleksandr Lenyov, and regular time ended 0–0, sending the match into extra time. The Soviet Union goalkeeper Yuri Pshenichnikov saved from Facchetti and Prati, while Domenghini's strike hit the inside of the Soviet Union goalpost. The referee blew the final whistle and the result was determined via a coin toss in the dressing room: Facchetti called tails and won, and returned to the pitch to celebrate Italy's progression to the final with his supporters. ### Yugoslavia Yugoslavia were in the three-team UEFA Euro 1968 qualifying Group 4 and played their first match against West Germany on 3 May 1967 at the Crvrna Zvezda in Belgrade. After a goalless first half, Josip Skoblar scored to give Yugoslavia a 1–0 win. Eleven days later they faced Albania at the Qemal Stafa Stadium in Tirana. One goal in each half from Yugoslavia's Slaven Zambata secured a 2–0 victory. They then travelled to the Volksparkstadion in Hamburg where they faced West Germany on 7 October 1967. Hannes Löhr gave West Germany an early lead before Zambata equalised just after half-time. Second-half goals from Gerd Müller and Uwe Seeler resulted in a 3–1 defeat for Yugoslavia. The final group match saw Yugoslavia face Albania at Stadion JNA in Belgrade on 12 November 1967. Edin Sprečo scored late in the first half for Yugoslavia before Ivan Osim added two goals and Vojin Lazarević one to give their side a 4–0. They finished as winners of Group 4 and progressed to the quarter-finals. Yugoslavia's opponents in the last eight were France with the first match of the two-legged tie being held on 6 April 1968 at the Stade Vélodrome in Marseille. Yugoslavia were without several players who had moved abroad to play domestic football, rendering them ineligible for the national side. France's Fleury Di Nallo came closest to scoring in the first half but his shot struck the Yugoslavia crossbar. Midway through the second half, Dragan Džajić was fouled by Jean Baeza and took the subsequent free kick himself which Vahidin Musemić headed in to give Yugoslavia the lead. Di Nallo then ran through the Yugoslavia defence with the ball and lifted it over Ilija Pantelić in the Yugoslavia goal, and the match ended 1–1. The return leg took place 18 days later at the Crvena Zvezda Stadium in Belgrade. Three minutes into the game, Džajić's cross when met by Ilija Petković with a diving header to make it 1–0 to Yugoslavia. Musemić then doubled the lead with a deflected shot in the 13th minute before Džajić made it 3–0 a minute later. Petković dribbled past two France players before scoring and although Di Nallo scored for France, Musemić made it 5–1 from a Džajić cross, and Yugoslavia progressed to the semi-final with a 6–2 aggregate victory. The semi-final saw Yugoslavia drawn against the 1966 FIFA World Cup champions England with the one-off match being played on 5 June 1968 at the Stadio Comunale in Florence. The game was marred by ill-discipline with the referee awarding 49 fouls over its course. Norman Hunter injured Osim early in the first half before Džajić was fouled from behind by Alan Mullery. Alan Ball Jr. struck the first attempt to score of the game over the Yugoslavia crossbar after half an hour, while Bobby Charlton's volley also went high just before half time. The second half continued in a similar way with few chances to score being created but numerous fouls being made. With two minutes remaining, Yugoslavia took the lead when Džajić lifted the ball over Gordon Banks. Mullery then kicked Dobrivoje Trivić and was sent off becoming the first player to be expelled in a European Championship finals game and the first England international ever to be dismissed. Yugoslavia won the match 1–0 and progressed to their second European Championship tournament final. ## Match

### Pre-match The referee for the match was Gottfried Dienst from Switzerland. He had also officiated over the 1966 FIFA World Cup Final. Italy were without the injured Rivera and Mazzola was rested. The Yugoslavia team had an average age of 23. ### Summary The final was played at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome on 8 June 1968 in front of a crowd of 68,817. Giorgio Ferrini's long-range shot was fumbled by Pantelić but cleared by his defence before Ferrini dropped a cross and was forced to make a close-range save from Facchetti. Prati then made a run down the left side of the pitch before striking a shot off-target. Domenghini struck the ball with his thigh and went wide of the Yugoslavia goal. Six minutes before half-time, Džajić gave his side the lead. Trivić made a run down the right wing and crossed for Džajić whose control was initially poor but was still able to get a shot away into the Italy net. Five minutes after half-time, Džajić struck a shot but it was saved by Zoff at the near post. Juliano then headed Giovanni Lodetti's corner down but the ball was stuck under Pietro Anastasi's feet before being cleared by Mirsad Fazlagić. Zoff pushed out a low cross from Džajić and the ball fell to Musemić who opted to pass instead of shoot into an empty net. With ten minutes of the match remaining, Lodetti was fouled on the edge of the Yugoslavia penalty area by Blagoje Paunović. Domenghini's subsequent right-footed free kick went through the wall and past Pantelić who did not move, and levelled the score at 1–1. Extra time brought no change to the scoreline and the match ended in a draw, the result of the final would need to be determined in a replay. ### Details ## Replay ### Pre-match The referee for the replay was José María Ortiz de Mendíbil who had also officiated over Yugoslavia's semi-final victory over England. Osim and Ilija Petković were unavailable for Yugoslavia, while Italy replaced Ferrini with Sandro Salvadore, Roberto Rosato and Giancarlo De Sisti came in to the midfield and Mazzola was recalled. Gigi Riva was also selected having been out for an extended period with a broken leg. ### Summary The replay was played at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome on 10 June 1968 in front of a crowd of 32,866. Riva took possession of a loose ball in the 12th minute and struck a low shot with his left foot which Pantelić pushed round the Yugoslavia goalpost. From the resulting corner, Domenghini's shot struck Riva's legs and he hit the ball on the turn to open the scoring for Italy in the 13th minute. Roberto Rosato then fouled Idriz Hošić and from Džajić's subsequent free kick, Musemić headed wide. In the 31st minute, Domenghini passed to De Sisti who kicked the ball to Anastasi. He flicked the ball up and volleyed it into the corner of the Yugoslavia goal to double his side's lead. In the second half, Riva headed wide from around 6 yards (5.5 m). His close-range shot blocked after Pantelić dropped Mazzola's cross and although Anastasi scored from the rebound, he and Riva were deemed to have been offside and the goal was disallowed. Pantelić then fumbled another cross from Mazzola but Riva's shot was high over the crossbar. The match ended 2–0 and Italy claimed their first European title. ### Details ## Post-match All but three of UEFA's team of the tournament had featured in the final, including five Italy and three Yugoslavia players. Referring to the late goal for Italy in the initial final, Zoff admitted that "to be honest, we didn't deserve to draw". He went on to suggest that his side's performance in the replay was "perfect" and that they "definitely deserved to win that game." Italy finished the subsequent international tournament, the 1970 FIFA World Cup, as losing finalists where they were defeated 4–1 by Brazil. Yugoslavia failed to progress to the tournament finals in Mexico as they ended their qualification campaign second to Belgium in Group 6. ## See also - Italy at the UEFA European Championship - Yugoslavia at the UEFA European Championship

Action of 15 November 1810

Minor naval engagement during the French Revolutionary Wars

The action of 15 November 1810 was a minor naval engagement fought during the British Royal Navy blockade of the French Channel ports in the Napoleonic Wars. British dominance at sea, enforced by a strategy of close blockade, made it difficult for the French Navy to operate even in their own territorial waters. In the autumn of 1810, a British squadron assigned to patrol the Baie de la Seine was effectively isolating two French squadrons in the ports of Le Havre and Cherbourg-en-Cotentin. On 12 November, the squadron in Le Havre, consisting of frigates Elisa and Amazone attempted to reach Cherbourg at night in order to united the squadrons. This squadron was spotted in the early hours of 13 November by the patrolling British frigates HMS Diana and HMS Niobe, which gave chase. The French ships took shelter at the heavily fortified Iles Saint-Marcouf, sailing the following morning for the anchorage at Saint-Vaast-la-Hougue. For two days the British frigates kept watch, until two ships of the line from the blockade of Cherbourg, HMS Donegal and HMS Revenge, arrived. On 15 November, the British squadron attacked the anchored French ships, which were defended by shore batteries at La Hougue and Tatihou. After four attempts to close with the French the British squadron, under heavy fire, withdrew. During the night, the British commander, Captain Pulteney Malcolm, sent his ship's boats close inshore to attack the French ships with Congreve rockets, a newly issued weapon. None are recorded as landing on target, but by morning both frigates had been forced to change position, becoming grounded on the shore. The French ships were later refloated, and Malcolm's squadron maintained the blockade until 27 November when Amazone successfully escaped back to Le Havre. The damaged Elisa remained at anchor until 6 December, when an attack by a British bomb vessel forced the frigate to move further inshore, becoming grounded once more. Elisa remained in this position until 23 December, when the boats of Diana entered the anchorage at night and set the beached ship on fire, destroying her. ## Baie de la Seine in 1810 By 1810 the French Navy fleet based in the Atlantic ports had been prevented from launching any major operations for four years, penned into harbour by the British strategy of close blockade. A failed attempt by a French fleet to sail had been defeated at the Battle of Basque Roads in 1809, and the main operations still carried out by the Navy were undertaken by privateers and frigate squadrons operating commerce raiders operating from smaller ports, such as those on the English Channel. In November 1810 squadrons were based at Cherbourg, with two ships of the line and the newly built frigate Iphigénie, and Le Havre, with the frigates Elisa and Amazone, commanded by Captains Louis-Henri Fraycinet-Saulce and Bernard-Louis Rosseau respectively. To blockade these squadrons, the Royal Navy's Channel Fleet had assigned the ships of the line HMS Donegal under Captain Pulteney Malcolm and HMS Revenge under Captain Charles Paget to patrol the entrance to Cherbourg, while frigates HMS Diana under Captain Charles Grant and HMS Niobe under Captain John Wentworth Loring kept watch on Le Havre. The blockade had achieved some minor successes; in October 1810 Revenge had captured the privateer Vengeur from Dieppe, and on 6 November Donegal ran down and seized the privateer Surcouf from Cherbourg.

### Pursuit of Amazone and Elisa At 22:00 on 12 November Amazone and Elisa sailed from Le Havre to unite with the force at Cherbourg, hoping to evade the blockade in the darkness. They successfully passed the patrolling Diana and Niobe but were spotted sailing northwest at 00:30 by the British ships which gave chase, Niobe turning inshore in an attempt to cut off the French line of advance. With the wind in the northeast, the French frigates were unable to pass Cape Barfleur under pursuit, and Rosseau instead turned his squadron towards the Iles Saint-Marcouf at 04:00, using superior local knowledge to bypass the pursuing British ships. The heavily fortified islands had been under British control during the French Revolutionary Wars, but reverted to the French at the Peace of Amiens in 1802. Diana and Niobe attempted to intercept the French frigates before they came under the shelter of the guns, but were only able to fire two long-distance broadsides at the trailing Elisa. At 11:00, Rosseau gave orders for the French frigates to sail once more, slipping away from the British ships which had drifted to the north and anchoring safely between the batteries at Saint-Vaast-la-Hougue and the island of Tatihou. Observing the strong position the French frigates had taken up, Grant sent messages to Malcolm's force at Cherbourg requesting reinforcements. Malcolm brought Donegal and Revenge to support the frigates on 14 November, maintaining position off the anchorage despite a strong gale which caused Elisa to drag her anchors. Captain Fraycinet-Saulce was forced to throw much of the ship's stores overboard to prevent his frigate from being wrecked on the shore. The following day, Diana took advantage of the rising tide to attack the anchored Amazone, Captain Rosseau withdrawing deeper into the sheltered anchorage under protection from the batteries. Twice more Grant launched probing attacks on the French frigate, each time beaten off by heavy fire from the batteries. Joined by Malcolm and the remainder of the British force, four successive attacks were launched against Amazone, each one driven back by cannon fire. At 13:00, with the tide falling, the British squadron was compelled to retreat to deeper water, out of range of the French. All four British ships had suffered under fire, with two killed and five wounded on Revenge, three wounded on Donegal and one wounded on Diana. French losses were a single man killed on Amazone. On the evening of 15 November Malcolm ordered the ship's boats of the squadron to approach the anchorage under cover of darkness, commanded by Lieutenant Joseph Needham Taylor. The boats had been equipped with Congreve rockets, a recently invented artillery system which was not then widely in use by the Royal Navy. None of the rockets fired during the night appeared to have hit their targets, but they seem to have panicked the French crews; dawn the following morning revealed that both frigates had cut their anchors and drifted onto the shore, Elisa in particular had struck hard and heeled over onto her side. Both ships were however successfully refloated by the rising tide on 16 November, and the situation reached an impasse, with Malcolm's forces blockading Saint-Vaast-la-Hougue to prevent the French from sailing. ### Destruction of Elisa For nearly two weeks the French frigates remained at anchor, Malcolm and Grant drawing up plans for an attack with fireships, when Amazone successfully slipped out of harbour on 27 November, returning successfully to Le Havre before dawn the following day. With Amazone gone, Grant maintained a closer watch on Elisa, calling up a bomb vessel to attack the anchorage on 6 December. This proved no more accurate than the rockets, but Elisa was again driven into shallow waters to avoid the attack, this time becoming irretrievably grounded on a shoal. Over the next two weeks Elisa remained grounded, the frigate gradually being reduced to the state of a total wreck. On 23 December Grant sent his boats, commanded by Lieutenant Thomas Rowe, into the anchorage under cover of darkness and set the wreck on fire to ensure that the frigate's stores could not be salvaged. With the destruction of Elisa, the British squadrons returned to their blockade duties off Cherbourg and Le Havre. The blockade remained in place throughout the remainder of the Napoleonic Wars; Rosseau in Amazone made another attempt to join the squadron in Cherbourg in March 1811, only to be run down and destroyed by a squadron led by the ship of the line HMS Berwick. The new Iphigénie survived a little longer, being intercepted and captured in the Atlantic during a raiding mission in January 1814.

Jonas Quinn

Fictional character from the Stargate franchise

Jonas Quinn is a fictional character in the Canadian-American television series Stargate SG-1, a science fiction show about a military team exploring the galaxy via a network of alien transportation devices. Played by Corin Nemec, Jonas is introduced in the season 5 episode "Meridian." Jonas fills Daniel Jackson's empty spot on the SG-1 team in season 6 and the beginning of season 7, and last appears in the mid-season 7 episode "Fallout". Nemec's character replaced Daniel Jackson (portrayed by Michael Shanks) during season 6 after Shanks had left the show amid controversy after season 5. The producers based Jonas' motivation to join Stargate Command on his momentary reluctance to actively prevent Daniel's death, and his feelings of responsibility afterwards. Jonas was slowly integrated into the story in a prolonged transition stage over the first half of season 6. Nemec was open to continue playing Jonas Quinn after season 6, but a new contract was reached with Michael Shanks for Daniel to return in season 7. The role of Jonas was reduced to recurring status in season 7. ## Role in Stargate SG-1 ### Character arc Jonas Quinn is introduced in the season 5 episode "Meridian" as a scientist of the human nation of Kelowna on Langara, a planet with an industrial level comparable to Earth of the 1940s, and that is also locked in a cold war with two rival states. He is an exceptionally quick learner, which becomes useful in memorizing SG mission reports and earth culture. The Kelownans are experimenting with naqahdriah (an unstable but extremely powerful native element related to naqahdah) to build a bomb against their two rival nations, Terrania and the Andari Federation. Jonas is present when SG-1 team member Daniel Jackson gets radiation-poisoned with naqahdriah in an attempt to prevent a catastrophe in Kelowna, but when the Kelownan leaders respond with indifference to Daniel's imminent death and glee with regards to the destructive power of the naqahdriah, Jonas steals a small amount of naqahdriah and offers it to Earth for more peaceful uses. Still wracked by guilt in the season 6 premiere "Redemption" over his hesitation to step in, Jonas helps Major Samantha Carter find a solution to save Earth from an attack by the Goa'uld Anubis. Although Colonel Jack O'Neill is reluctant to add a new fourth member to SG-1, he allows Jonas to join the team, partly to prevent a Russian from being assigned. After several missions with SG-1, Jonas is confronted with his past in "Shadow Play" and learns more of the effects of naqahdriah on people. In "Metamorphosis", the Goa'uld Nirrti learns via an Ancient DNA Resequencer that Jonas is different from other humans, but she is killed before this is further investigated. In "Prophecy", Nirrti's experiments cause clairvoyant visions in Jonas, and the doctors remove a potentially lethal tumor from his brain. After SG-1 finds the de-ascended Daniel on another planet in the season 7 premiere "Fallen"/"Homecoming", Jonas and Daniel join forces and succeed in driving Anubis away from Kelowna. The three Langaran nations agree to meet for peace talks for the greater good of the planet, and Jonas decides to become a peace negotiator for his people. While Jonas returns to his planet, Daniel rejoins SG-1. Jonas last appears in season 7's "Fallout" to ask Earth for help saving his homeworld from the destructive powers of naqahdriah in the planet's core. Season 10's "Counterstrike" mentions that the Ori conquered Langara, Jonas's homeworld. Langara's story arc is resumed in Stargate Universe's "Seizure", where Earth eventually agrees to protect Langara from the Lucian Alliance, while the Langarans remove the Stargate from their facility. ### Characterization and relationships After Daniel's death and Jonas' subsequent move to Earth, Major Carter is the SG-1 team member around whom Jonas Quinn feels most comfortable. Nevertheless, Amanda Tapping (Carter) felt that "there is a hesitancy on [Carter]'s part to be too familiar with Jonas [or] make this big emotional investment" in him because he is not Daniel. Jonas hopes that Carter and the alien SG-1 member Teal'c can persuade Colonel O'Neill to give him a chance to prove himself worthy of a place on the SG-1 team, but according to Richard Dean Anderson (O'Neill), "O'Neill feels that Jonas is directly responsible for the demise or at least the damaging of Daniel Jackson [and thus] harbors some resentment towards Jonas". Although O'Neill is suspicious of aliens in general (except of Teal'c), O'Neill begins to accept Jonas at the end of "Redemption" yet finds it hard to ever significantly warm up to Jonas, something which Nemec felt "makes things much more interesting". Tapping added that Jonas inadvertently brings the three remaining SG-1 members closer together again. Jonas's "easy-going nature" later helps him to also establish relationships with the supporting characters Dr. Janet Fraiser and General George Hammond, whom Nemec regarded "very much [as] a father figure in Jonas's eyes". ## Conceptual history

When actor Michael Shanks (Daniel Jackson) announced his decision to leave Stargate SG-1 at the end of season 5 for concerns over being under-utilized, the Sci Fi Channel wanted to fill the void with a new character for season 6. Corin Nemec happened to be at the courtyard of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's Santa Monica offices rehearsing audition dialog for an independent film when some casting agents recognized him from previous projects. They briefly mentioned Stargate SG-1 to him and informed Nemec's manager of their strong interest in him the same afternoon. Although Nemec was familiar with the Stargate film, he had never watched the television show and was sent videotapes to familiarize himself with the series. Nemec was cast for the penultimate season 5 episode "Meridian" after several more meetings, but both sides agreed to await the character's look on film before deciding on a long-term involvement. Producer Brad Wright announced in September 2001 that an actor had been cast and that the new character would be someone whom fans would recognize. An MGM Sci-Fi newsletter revealed Corin Nemec to play the role of Liander [sic] Quinn in "Meridian" in November 2001, fueling fan speculation of the identity of the new character. Soon afterwards, producer Joseph Mallozzi revealed that Nemec's character appears in the first five episodes of season 6. Meanwhile, Nemec started to work out six days a week in-between seasons and gained about 25 pounds (11 kg) to look bigger around the tall SG-1 cast. Mallozzi stated before the airing of season 6 that "Jonas will bring a unique alien perspective and ability to the team [that] will allow him to contribute in areas of expertise usually owned by [Carter] and Daniel." Brad Wright hoped that "what Corin, as Jonas, will bring to the show is a renewed sense of amazement" of traveling around the galaxy although older characters have grown accustomed to it. The season 6 opening two-parter "Redemption" intended to establish Jonas as a team player who can contribute ideas, although writer Robert C. Cooper felt the need to acknowledge and not "trivialize what the [Daniel Jackson] character meant to the team and to the show for five seasons". The writers incorporated the initial viewer resistance to the change by making O'Neill the most resistant to Jonas' presence, allowing viewers to grieve Daniel and gradually come to terms with his absence. The producers based Jonas' motivation to join SG-1 on his former reluctance to shut off the machine that indirectly killed Daniel, and his feelings of responsibility for Daniel's death. Jonas was slowly integrated into the story in a prolonged transition stage over the first half of season 6. Nemec was open to continue playing Jonas Quinn after season 6 or in a feature film or a spin-off series, but a new contract was reached with Michael Shanks for Daniel to return in season 7. The role of Jonas was therefore reduced to recurring status in season 7. Nemec welcomed the producers' openness for story pitches and offered several story ideas. He wrote the mid-season-7 episode "Fallout" and considered pitching more stories afterwards, but he became busy with other projects. Jonas is seldom mentioned in the series after this point but after Season 10's "Counterstrike" stated that the Ori conquered Jonas' homeworld, Stargate producer Joseph Mallozzi said in his blog that "in [his] mind, Jonas went underground and is still alive somewhere, resisting the Ori army." ## Reception The audience reception of Jonas Quinn was sparked with controversy over Michael Shanks' departure from the show. When rumors began late in 2001 that Showtime would also not be renewing Stargate SG-1 after its fifth season, panicking fans rallied to save the show and Daniel's character, starting massive write-in campaigns and setting up websites such as the "Save Daniel Jackson" site. The SciFi Channel eventually ordered a sixth season of the show, but the character of Jonas continued to be distrusted by loyal fans, who were concerned that Daniel's death might cause the SG-1 team to lose its moral compass. Robert C. Cooper summarized that "there's been quite a bit of ire directed by fans towards Daniel's replacement" after the airing of "Meridian", but he hoped that the character would grow on fans eventually. Producer Joseph Mallozzi claimed at the beginning of season 6 to still get the "odd incoherent rambling death threat passed along to me from the [Save Daniel Jackson] site". Amanda Tapping admitted that it had been easier to establish relationships with her co-stars at the beginning of the series, comparing Nemec's situation to "being the new kid in school; we're still trying to make [Corin] comfortable, but it's not the same". Nevertheless, the Stargate SG-1 actors and producers complimented Corin Nemec and the character. Richard Dean Anderson was impressed with Nemec's performance in "Meridian", saying "he really struck me as a bright guy, very respectful of the dynamic of the set, but with an awareness of what he wanted to bring." Don S. Davis (General Hammond) noted during the filming of season 6 that "Corin is a wonderful [and well-liked] young man with a tremendous personality and he's had a great deal of experience in the business", agreeing with writer Robert C. Cooper that Nemec had done a "fine" and "wonderful" job. TV Zone's Jan Vincent-Rudzki expected Jonas to be "pushed out of the way" in season 7's "Fallen"/"Homecoming", but considered the character's departure as "keeping with previous events" and "quite plausible". The writers' decision to team up Jonas with Daniel for a significant part of the two-part episode "gives credence to Jonas's exit", although "it's a great shame that this new 'partnership' couldn't have continued" since "the two [characters] worked so well together". Nemec stated in a 2008 interview that "the initial backlash from a very small core, outspoken group of the fandom had a bit of a volatile reaction to it, which is totally natural... I'd say 95-plus percent of the fan base grew to like the character and accepted the character overall. Especially by the time season 6 ended, I think people were pretty much, 'Eh, OK — I'm cool with that.' For the most part."

Love (Destiny)

"Love (Destiny)" (stylized as "LOVE \~Destiny\~") is a song recorded by Japanese recording artist Ayumi Hamasaki, serving as the second single for her second studio album, Loveppears (1999). It was released by Avex Trax in Japan and Taiwan on April 14, 1999, and through Avex Entertainment Inc. worldwide in September 2008. The track was written by Hamasaki herself, while production was handled by long-time collaborator Max Matsuura. Three versions of the recording have been made available—a ballad version arranged by Tsunku, an edited version with vocals by Tsunku, and a dance-influenced version included on Loveppears. Upon its release, "Love (Destiny)" received near universal acclaim from music critics, praising her vocal performance, with some highlighting the single as one of Hamasaki's best work. Commercially, the recording experienced success in Japan, reaching number one on the Oricon Singles Chart and TBS' Count Down TV chart, her first song to do so on either charts. It also became Hamasaki's first single to sell over 500,000 units, and was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ) for shipments of 400,000 copies. Due to the single's success, it was re-released as a CD single and re-entered both charts. An accompanying music video was directed by Wataru Takeishi, and featured Hamasaki in a large skyscraper while singing to the song in different areas. In order to promote the single, it appeared on several remix and greatest hits compilation albums, and live concert torus conducted by Hamasaki. It was also used as the theme song for Japanese television show SemiDouble (1999). To date, the recording remains one of her highest-selling singles according to Oricon Style. ## Background ### Versions and composition Three versions of the recording have been made available for purchase. "Love (Destiny)" initially served as Hamasaki's second single for her album Loveppears but did not appear on the album for unknown reasons. Written by the singer, the production process was handled by Max Matsuura whilst it was composed by Japanese musician and businessman Tsunku, who worked as the producer for Japanese group Morning Musume and vocalist of Sharan Q at that time. The composition was then arranged by Shingo Kobayashi and Yasuaki Maejima, and mixed by Atsushi Hattori. The second version, "Love (Since 1999)", portrayed a duet with Tsunku and featured songwriting credits by him during the English chorus. Being arranged by Takao Konishi and mixed by Koji Uchikado, the track appeared as an A-side single in Japan and Taiwan during its April 1999 release. The final counterpart of the recording was titled "Love (Refrain)", and was similarly composed by Tsunku, but arranged by Naoto Suzuki and programmed by Takahiro Iida. "Love (Refrain)" was added to the track list of Loveppears, and is musically a dance song, a genre that heavily influences the album. According to the demo sheet music published at Ultimate Guitar Archive, the recording is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 89 beats per minute. Lyrically, each song was written in third person perspective, a trait that is shared with the rest of the tracks on Loveppears. The lyrical content of the songs delves on a lonely woman who wants to find love. ### Release and formats "Love (Destiny)" was released by Avex Trax in Japan and Taiwan on April 14, 1999, and through Avex Entertainment Inc. worldwide in September 2008. The mini CD format featured a total of four tracks, with the first two being original recordings accompanied instrumentals. Subsequently, on February 28, 2001, Avex Trax distributed a CD single including the four tracks from the mini CD, plus two remixes of Hamasaki's single "Kanariya" (1999) and one remix of a previous album track, "From Your Letter". The artwork of the CD and digital format was shot by Toru Kumazawa, and featured an image of Hamasaki hugging an unidentified male. ## Reception Upon its release, "Love (Destiny)" received widespread acclaim from music critics. A reviewer at Amazon was positive towards the songwriting, and praised Hamasaki's "painful" and "love[ly]" performance. In 2015, Japanese website Goo.ne.jp hosted a 24-hour only poll for audiences in Japan to vote for their favorite single released by Hamasaki; as a result, "Love (Destiny)" ranked at number six, with a rating of 43.9 average percent. Commercially, "Love (Destiny)" experienced success in Japan. It debuted inside the top ten on the Oricon Singles Chart, selling 70,540 in its first week of availability. The recording then went to number one, becoming Hamasaki's first number one single on that chart. It lasted 26 weeks, marking the singer's longest-charting release. Charting together as "Love (Destiny)"/"Love (Since 1999)", both tracks debuted at number one on the Count Down TV chart hosted by Tokyo Broadcasting System (TBS), having become her first number one there as well, and similarly spent 26 weeks within the top 100. By the end of 1999, "Love (Destiny)" sold over 650,790 units in Japan, thus being ranked at number 30 on Oricon's Annual 1999 chart behind two fellow releases of the singer, "Boys & Girls" (1999) and her extended play A (1999). Likewise, it charted at number 28 on TBS' Annual Chart. In July 1999, the single was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ) for shipments of 400,000 units. As of July 2016, "Love (Destiny)" marks the singer's 12th highest-selling song based on Oricon Style's database. Following the CD single release, "Love (Destiny)" charted at number 20 on the Oricon Singles Chart, the highest result from her re-released maxi CDs. It lasted four weeks within the top 100, and sold 39,080 units. Additionally, the song reached number 100 on TBS Count Down TV chart on May 14, 2001, her lowest entry to date. ## Music video and promotion An accompanying music video for the single was directed by Wataru Takeishi. It opens with Hamasaki watching her previous music videos on several television screens. Sitting in a small room, she exits it and finds a large number of fans and paparazzi bombarding her; scenes interspersed through the main plot feature her looking towards a mirror. Following the first chorus, Hamasaki is shown riding through Tokyo city, including her appearance at a recording studio singing the song, and on top of a skyscraper at night. The frames subsequently re-appear throughout the visual, with it ending with a blurry shot of Hamasaki looking away from the mirror, and the TV screens from the first shot displaying the logo of Avex Trax. The music video was included on several DVD compilations released by Hamasaki: A Clips (2000), A Complete Box Set (2004), the digital release of A Clips Complete (2014), and the DVD and Blu-Ray re-release edition of her 2001 compilation album A Best (2016). It was additionally used as the theme for Japanese television show Semi Double (1999). "Love (Destiny)" has been heavily promoted on compilation albums conducted by Hamasaki. It has been included on one of the singer's remix compilation album, Ayu-mi-x 7 Version Acoustic Orchestra (2012). A remix produced by Todd Okawa appeared on the maxi CD for her single "Boys & Girls", and it was re-recorded for her 10th anniversary in 2008 on her single release "Days/Green". The single has also been featured on two of Hamasaki's greatest hits albums, A Best (2001), and A Complete: All Singles (2007). "Love (Destiny)" has further been included on one of the singer's major concert tours, part one and part two of her 2000 concert tour. ## Track listings - Mini CD

1. "Love (Destiny)" – 4:55 2. "Love (Since 1999)" – 4:39 3. "Love (Destiny)" (instrumental) – 4:55 4. "Love (Since 1999)" (instrumental) – 4:39 - CD single 1. "Love (Destiny)" – 4:55 2. "Love (Since 1999)" – 4:39 3. "Kanariya" (Big Room mix) – 7:34 4. "Kanariya" (H∧L's mix) – 4:22 5. "From Your Letter" (Pandart Sasanooha mix) – 5:41 6. "Love (Destiny)" (instrumental) – 4:55 7. "Love (Since 1999)" (instrumental) – 4:39 - Digital download EP \#1 1. "Love (Destiny)" – 4:55 2. "Love (Since 1999)" – 4:39 3. "Love (Destiny)" (instrumental) – 4:55 4. "Love (Since 1999)" (instrumental) – 4:39 - Digital download EP \#2 1. "Love (Destiny)" – 4:55 2. "Love (Since 1999)" – 4:39 3. "Kanariya" (Big Room Mix) – 7:34 4. "Kanariya" (H∧L's Mix) – 4:22 5. "From Your Letter" (Pandart Sasanooha Mix) – 5:41 6. "Love (Destiny)" (instrumental) – 4:55 7. "Love (Since 1999)" (instrumental) – 4:39 - US and Canada digital download 1. "Love (Destiny)" – 4:55 2. "Love (Since 1999)" – 4:39 ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Yearly charts ## Certification and sales ## Release history ## See also - List of Oricon number-one singles of 1999

KQQZ

Radio station in Fairview Heights, Illinois (1968–2020)

KQQZ was a commercial AM radio station that was licensed to serve Fairview Heights, Illinois, on , and broadcast from 1968 to 2020. KQQZ first broadcast in 1968 as KHAD, a station licensed to De Soto, Missouri. For its first 30 years, KHAD primarily broadcast country music and talk shows. A potential sale to the Rev. Larry Rice was terminated in 2000 after a fire destroyed KHAD's studios and transmitter. Eventually, the Radio Free Texas Trust bought KHAD, changed its call sign to KRFT, and operated KRFT as a sports talk station. The sports format continued until 2010, when financial losses and the Great Recession forced the owners to sell the station. The station's license, and the licenses of three other co-owned stations in Greater St. Louis, were revoked by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) on March 20, 2020, after it was revealed that the principal ownership—Entertainment Media Trust—was set up as a shell company for a convicted felon, Robert S. Romanik, who operated the stations under the "Insane Broadcasting Company" name. Despite the cancellation, Romanik continued to broadcast without a valid license on the frequency until April 12, 2020. While having carried a classic country format to the end of its existence, KQQZ also aired a controversial daily talk radio show hosted by Romanik, the content of which led to additional license challenges for having potentially violated federal law against broadcasting obscenities. The former station's transmitter site is located in the town of Pontoon Beach, Illinois. ## History ### Early years in De Soto This station began operations as KHAD on November 1, 1968, originally licensed to serve De Soto, Missouri. KHAD was a 1,000-watt daytime-only station owned by the DeSoto Broadcasting Company, a six-person partnership whose principals included Pinkney Cole. In 1969, KHAD broadcast 20 hours of country music a week. By 1970, KHAD affiliated with the Mutual Broadcasting System and played 70 hours of country music a week. By 1974, KHAD added middle of the road music and talk shows to its lineup. In 1976, KHAD had news and talk shows in addition to country music. On December 13, 1977, KHAD strengthened its power from 1,000 to 5,000 watts and remained a daytime-only station. KHAD was sold in 1981 to the Jefferson County Broadcasting Company—a joint operation between Pinkney and Judy Cole and Erich and Arlene Schafermeyer. The company maintained the previous Mutual Broadcasting System affiliation, with talk shows and middle of the road music through the end of the decade. The station was sold again in 1990 to Jefferson Communications. As of 1992, KHAD had a talk and country music format, with 12 hours of gospel and three hours of bluegrass weekly. In 1993, KHAD was sold to Big River Broadcasting, and to Schafermeyer Broadcasting in 1996 after Erich and Arlene Schafermeyer purchased the remaining shares owned by the Coles; son Kim Schafermeyer assumed the role of principal owner and handled the day-to-day operations of both KHAD and FM adjunct KDJR, which took to the air in 1990. The 1997 Broadcasting Yearbook listed KHAD as a "traditional country" music station. Following months of negotiations in the fall of 1999, Schafermeyer Broadcasting reached an agreement to sell KHAD to the Rev. Larry Rice, founder and then-owner of St. Louis television station KNLC, for \$225,000. Rice had planned to change KHAD's call sign to KCBW and have the station be operated in tandem with a free store in De Soto that his New Life Evangelistic Center ministry was planning to open. On January 27, 2000, the day before the sale was to have closed, an early-morning fire destroyed the studios and transmitter facilities, resulting in the deal being postponed, then called off entirely. Arson was suspected as a likely cause for the fire by area law enforcement, but no arrests were made. Shortly after the fire, the general manager for both stations filed a complaint with the Jefferson County, Missouri, prosecuting attorney after her last paycheck had bounced; Rice had also been approached by people in phone calls and letters regarding debts owned by the stations. An attorney representing Erich and Arlene Schafermeyer admitted to the debts, but did not specify the exact amounts owed. Kim Schafermeyer had been estranged from his parents since the preceding June over real estate matters; consequently, neither parent had any involvement—nor were informed about—the sales for either station, and both considered the deals "fishy" and "messed-up". ### Move to St. Louis Silenced in the wake of the arson attack, the Radio Free Texas Trust acquired the license to KHAD in April 2000 for \$125,000, changing the call sign to KRFT. The station's transmitter was relocated to a new five-tower site near Collinsville, Illinois, and changed its city of license to University City, serving the Greater St. Louis area. The facility changes were possible after WOWO in Fort Wayne, Indiana, relinquished their Class I-B clear channel status in favor of a regional Class B status, thus removing a direct obligation for this station to adjust their service contours or sign off at night to protect WOWO's nighttime skywave. While KRFT was also capable of adding nighttime service, this required a separate array of towers to be constructed and additional authorization by the FCC, which was not deemed feasible at the time. Missouri Sports Radio, headed by Greg Marecek and which operated KFNS and KFNS-FM, entered into a local marketing agreement (LMA) to operate KRFT with intent to purchase for \$1.6 million. KRFT formally returned to the air on May 13, 2002, as "The Sports Explosion", carrying the Fox Sports Radio lineup around the clock as a complement to KFNS's predominantly local lineup. All three stations were acquired by Big League Broadcasting—then the operators of WQXI in Atlanta—in May 2004 for a combined \$11.5 million, \$6.5 million of which was used to pay down debt. Following the sale, KRFT's Fox Sports Radio affiliation was transferred to KFNS and KFNS-FM, while KRFT took the Sporting News Radio affiliation, the lone holdover on the lineup being The Jim Rome Show. In September 2004, Missouri Sports Radio and two other companies reached a \$158,000 settlement with the federal government over charges that KRFT and other radio stations profited off illegal gambling activities conducted from 2000 to 2003. Despite being owned by a company that specialized in sports radio, KRFT flipped to talk radio in March 2006 with a lineup consisting of both syndicated conservative and progressive hosts, a move characterized by the St. Louis Post-Dispatch as "an unusual radio experiment". Programs on KRFT included Imus in the Morning; The Al Franken Show; 2 Live Stews and The Dave Ramsey Show; and shows hosted by Clark Howard, Neal Boortz and Jim Cramer. KRFT switched formats back to sports radio on January 1, 2008, carrying the entire ESPN Radio lineup again as an all-syndicated compliment to KFNS and KFNS-FM; after WXOS acquired the affiliation rights to ESPN Radio, KRFT reverted to Sporting News Radio programming. During this period, KRFT also carried play-by-play broadcasts KFNS and KFNS-FM were unable to carry due to schedule conflicts, or had declined to run altogether. ### Romanik era #### Insane Broadcasting Company In part due to the aftereffects of the Great Recession locally, Big League Broadcasting began selling off all their assets, having lost more than \$9 million in the market over five years. Entertainment Media Trust (EMT)—whose officer, director and trustee was identified as Dennis J. Watkins—acquired KRFT for \$600,000 in a transaction filed on September 25, 2009. EMT had previously acquired WIL () from Bonneville International in early 2008, then the third oldest-surviving radio station in Greater St. Louis, renaming it KZQZ. The purchase of KRFT was immediately followed with the purchase of WFFX () from KSLG () owner Simmons Media Group, both KRFT and WFFX were valued at over \$1 million. EMT's ownership interests also included WQQW () in Highland, Illinois, which was acquired in September 2006 from the Rev. Larry Rice's New Life Evangelistic Center and initially held the WXOZ calls.

Under the name Insane Broadcasting Company, Entertainment Media Trust switched KRFT's format to classic country, branded "Kool Killer Kountry" and under the KQQZ call sign, while WFFX was renamed WQQX upon that deal's closure. Robert "Bob" S. Romanik, who identified himself in a 2010 newspaper interview as a "consultant" for Insane Broadcasting, claimed to have been run by his son Stephen Romanik, also hosted a talk show on KZQZ billed as the "Grim Reaper of Radio". This program initially aired on WXOZ starting on September 4, 2006, when Insane assumed control of that station, billed by Romanik as a "verbal Jerry Springer" where listeners could "be able to get things off of their chest". Romanik had also claimed that the stations were not bought to "knock sports off the air" but viewed them as a good business opportunity, while playing down any involvement in Grand Slam Sports (which itself acquired KFNS and KSLG). By November 2010, EMT received approval from the FCC to upgrade KQQZ's nighttime service from 22 watts to 650 watts; included in this was a city of license change for the station to Fairview Heights, Illinois. Despite the initial claims that his son headed Insane Broadcasting, Romanik was effectively seen as the de facto head of the group and having taken a "very hands-on role" to station operations, and had been from the beginning, acting as WXOZ's general manager upon launch. The Rev. Larry Rice later expressed regret at the sale of WXOZ upon realizing the parties involved and at first tried to minister to Romanik, after being reassured that Romanik wanted to own WXOZ to play "some old-time songs", Rice shared with him a copy of I Walk the Line and stepped aside. Veteran broadcaster Kevin Slaten was hired by KQQZ in early March 2013 to host an afternoon-drive program, with plans to ultimately develop a full-time lineup of male-oriented talk programming on the station. When Slaten left KQQZ that June 27 to be part of a start-up venture time-brokered on WGNU, Romanik took to the air in Slaten's time slot the next day, repeatedly attacking him on-air for nearly 15 minutes and claiming "his moral compass is all screwed up"; Slaten responded by calling Romanik "a coward" and that KQQZ had "no future" for failing to acquire any additional air talent. #### Inflammatory on-air content Meanwhile, Romanik's talk show, which had since been moved to KQQZ, began to receive local attention for an increasing usage of pejoratives, racial epithets, misogyny and homophobia against local politicians, ethnic groups and different sexual orientations, in particular targeting elected officials affiliated with the Democratic Party and their families. When Caseyville, Illinois, police chief Jose Alvarez fired Steve Romanik from his position as a probationary patrolman on February 11, 2014, due to insufficient qualifications, Romanik contacted Caseyville mayor Leonard Black, who fired Alvarez the next day. In January 2016, Romanik—via his "St. Clair County Freedom Coalition"—headed an unsuccessful campaign to force three circuit court judges in St. Clair County, Illinois out of their positions; all three judges resigned and immediately ran for their old seats. During an on-air interview Romanik conducted with St. Louis Aldermanic President Lewis E. Reed over the city's attempt to prevent the St. Louis Rams from relocating to Los Angeles, Romanik began verbally attacking Alderman Megan Green after her criticism of the usage of public money to keep the team, making comments about her appearance and saying she should be "flushed down the toilet." In a Washington Post profile written shortly after the Congressional baseball shooting, Romanik admitted it was possible the perpetrator, who like Romanik lived in Belleville, Illinois, likely listened to his program, saying "you'd probably see a lot of people right on the same page (with the shooter) all over the country. But around here, for sure." All of these events, in turn, led to Romanik's background as a former strip club owner, East St. Louis, Illinois, homicide detective, and chief of police in Washington Park, Illinois, drawing additional scrutiny. Following his tenure as Washington Park police chief, Romanik pleaded guilty on March 3, 1997, to obstruction of justice for lying 150 times to a grand jury and was sentenced to a year's probation. Three days before that probation was to have been completed, Romanik was implicated in a bank fraud investigation tied to his strip clubs. After his probation was revoked, Romanik pleaded guilty to those charges on April 14, 1999, and served one year in prison before being released to a halfway house. His private detective license in Illinois was also revoked in 2002, but Steve Romanik had already taken over both that practice and the strip club operations. When running against Francis Slay for Mayor of St. Louis in 2013, Lewis Reed attracted attention after his campaign finance report filings showed Romanik as a substantial donor; Reed denied any knowledge of Romanik's legal past, saying, "I met him about a year ago... I just know him as the radio guy." Throughout 2016, Romanik ran as the Republican nominee for the Illinois House of Representatives' open 114th district seat, notably berating and verbally attacking his African-American opponent, East St. Louis council member LaToya Greenwood, during his radio shows. During the campaign, Romanik paid \$3,900 to an area utility cooperative to cover delinquent electric bills for Horseshoe Lake State Park, Ramsey Lake State Park and Carlyle Lake State Park in a publicity stunt purportedly in Steve Romanik's name, who had died the year before. Greenwood won the election. Following the election, KQQZ flipped formats to talk radio full-time on December 5, 2016, headlined by Romanik's program and a local morning show hosted by a returning Kevin Slaten, along with The Laura Ingraham Show, The Savage Nation, The Jim Bohannon Show and The Glenn Beck Program. KQQZ reverted to classic country in February 2017 after representatives for the syndicated programming contacted the station regarding the content on Romanik's show, this followed his repeated use of a racial slur on-air to refer to rapper Waka Flocka Flame that prompted the St. Louis Post-Dispatch editorial board to advocate for an intervention by the FCC. Romanik publicly asserted that he was in control of the format switch, retorting, "no one's going to tell me what I can and can't say." Both Romanik and Slaten's talk shows were retained, and the station used the branding "Hot Talk/Kool Killer Kountry". #### License challenges Among the people targeted on-air by Romanik was Mark Kern, an elected official in St. Clair County, over repeated claims that Kern did not fully reside in the county. In one incident, Romanik drove to Kern's Belleville home and confronted his wife, who filed a police report; Romanik was arrested several days later on trespassing charges. Kern filed an initial challenge to the license renewals of KQQZ and its sister stations in 2012, alleging that Romanik was actually in control of the stations in violation of federal laws that prohibit felons from owning broadcast stations. This later was expanded to claims Romanik had gone so far as negotiate a local marketing agreement between Entertainment Media Trust and Emmis Communications on September 2016 for WQQX—itself renamed KFTK (). In turn, Romanik frequently accused Kern on-air of cross-dressing and engaged in homophobic slurs to describe him. This was not the first instance of a public figure openly questioning Romanik's involvement; former St. Louis radio personality Mike Anderson accused him of being in control of the group on his media blog as early as November 9, 2009, and called for an invocation of the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act in a May 20, 2011, posting. Romanik threatened litigation against Anderson in April 2010, to which Anderson responded, "check the FCC license to see the names of the owners... I wish Mr. Romanik luck in the development of his (licensed to someone else) radio group". In April 2018, Missouri state senator Jamilah Nasheed sent a letter to FCC Chairman Ajit Pai requesting that Romanik be fined and KQQZ's license be cancelled based on violations of , prohibiting obscene, indecent or profane language on broadcasts. In May 2018, a judge issued an order of protection against Romanik after he gave out another man's home address on his show one day and told his listeners to "visit" the other man; Romanik said that the other man had posted Romanik's home address on Facebook first. At the same time, Missouri representative Bob Burns was expelled from the state's Democratic Party caucus after Burns received criticism for appearing on Romanik's show several times; Burns claimed that audio from the interviews were edited and taken out of context. Burns would later present morning host Kevin Slaten with a resolution from the Missouri House of Representatives proclaiming Slaten the "Best Sportscaster in St. Louis" despite the mounting controversy surrounding Romanik and KQQZ. The FCC requested on May 17, 2018, that Romanik answer a series of detailed questions about the operations of EMT, based in part from paperwork filed that was to have reassigned control of the trust to Katrina Sanders in the wake of Steven Romanik's death; Sanders was found to have the same mailing address as Romanik, and was also the same address used for Insane Broadcasting and his political campaigns. On June 5, 2019, the FCC designated all four EMT stations' licenses for a revocation hearing, having discovered in this investigation that "Romanik established EMT and provided all of EMT's funds for the acquisition of the stations, but was not listed as a party in any of EMT's applications", that "EMT's 2012 trust instrument was executed after EMT acquired the stations and does not appear to contain provisions insulating Romanik from ownership of the stations as required under Commission rules", that Romanik had purported to assign EMT's interests in the radio station to his own girlfriend, and that Romanik listed himself as a radio station owner on several political campaign contribution disclosures. An analysis by communication attorneys Erwin Krasnow and John Wells King for Radio & Television Business Report called the hearing designation order "an eyebrow-raising tale likely unmatched in the history of FCC licensing" and "provides a road map for broadcasters who do not want to jeopardize their station licenses." #### Cancellation and aftermath Following the designation for hearing, EMT filed for bankruptcy protection on September 11, 2019, listing combined assets of \$2 million (\$1.6 million for all four licenses and \$400,000 for equipment and facilities). In a brief filed before bankruptcy court that October 8, trustee Donald Samson claimed that several buyers had emerged for all four stations, and requested the FCC to end their investigations so the divestitures could proceed. In an interview with MetroSTL, bankruptcy attorney Andrew Magdy viewed the filing as both a delay tactic and possible legal maneuver for Romanik to have control over any possible sale of the assets and profit from them, while a license revocation would leave him with nothing but debt. Despite this filing, the FCC assigned administrative law judge Jane Hinckley Halprin to preside over the four stations, and set up a timeline that November for the hearings to proceed, in which the hearing would have ultimately commenced on October 19, 2020; EMT filed to dismiss its bankruptcy action at the same time. Trustee Dennis J. Watkins, who was acting as EMT's legal representative, failed to make a single appearance before Judge Halprin after multiple requests issued to do so, then submitted a pleading in January 2020 which was found to be "procedurally and substantively deficient". This prompted Halprin to issue a ruling admonishing EMT and issuing a deadline of February 10, 2020, for Watkins to explain why the renewals should not be dismissed, writing in her opinion, "the time has come to question whether additional government time and resources should be devoted to this matter". After Watkins failed to submit any rebuttal at that deadline, all four stations had their license renewals dismissed for failure to prosecute, and were ultimately cancelled by the FCC on that March 20. As of March 23, 2020, Kern had filed a proposal with the FCC for the EMT stations to be auctioned after the withdrawal of a proposal by a local black-owned group to take over the stations with the backing of the Multicultural Media, Telecom and Internet Council; the filing also asked the FCC to insure that EMT and Romanik not be allowed to profit from the sale or lease of the stations' towers or equipment. The FCC ruling deleting all four licenses also included a provision protecting the service contours of all four former licenses, pending any future action by the commission. Despite the cancellation of the station's license, transmissions continued on the frequency until April 12, 2020, in defiance of the FCC's order. Unlicensed transmissions also occurred on the frequency formerly occupied by KZQZ that promptly ceased following published newspaper reports about both now-illicit operations. Romanik's final broadcast that April 10 was characterized with the coarse and inflammatory language common with the history of that show; Bob Burns, since term-limited from his Missouri State House seat, called into the program to express support. A St. Louis Post-Dispatch editorial heralded the silencing as "taking (away) Bob Romanik's ability to pollute the public airwaves with his racism and homophobia...gone will be Romanik's constant use of the N-word, including more than 35 times in his 21⁄2-minute closing rap-song segment. Yes, it truly is time for Romanik to drop the mic. His broadcast-ownership days are over." The Riverfront Times critiqued, "now, it appears that a real reaper, in the form of the Federal Communications Commission, has finally done what complaints from politicians and editorials couldn't: End a the (sic) bafflingly long-lived racist radio call-in show." Morning host Kevin Slaten soon moved over to an internet-based morning show operated by Donze Communications, licensee of KSGM and KBDZ in the vicinity of Ste. Genevieve, Missouri. Romanik died on May 7, 2022, at the age of 72 following a prolonged battle with cancer. #### FCC Auction 109 The FCC announced on February 8, 2021, that the former EMT-licensed AM allocations in the St. Louis market, including KQQZ's frequency, would go up for auction on July 27, 2021. No bids were received for any of the four frequencies during the eight-day auction.

Charles A. May

United States Army officer (1818-1864)

Charles Augustus May (1818–1864) was an American officer of the United States Army who served in the Mexican War and other campaigns over a 25-year career. He is best known for successfully leading a cavalry charge against Mexican artillery at the Battle of Resaca de la Palma. May spent most of his career in the Second Regiment of Dragoons, but also had a brief stint in the First Regiment of Dragoons. As a lieutenant, he participated in the Second Seminole War, where he was responsible for the capture of an important tribal chief. During the Mexican War, he commanded a squadron during Zachary Taylor's expedition, and saw action in the Battles of Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, Monterrey, and Buena Vista. He distinguished himself in those actions and was eventually promoted to the rank of brevet colonel, with a permanent rank of major. May later served in various parts of the American frontier, including during the Bleeding Kansas crisis. He resigned his commission in 1861 and took a job as a railroad executive in New York City, but died three years later. His name is included in a verse that commemorates Mexican War heroes from Maryland in the state song, "Maryland, My Maryland". ## Biography ### Early life May was born in Washington, D.C., on August 9, 1818, the son of a doctor in a prominent Baltimore family. He received a civil education, but applied for a commission directly to President Andrew Jackson, who was impressed by his soldierly appearance, bearing, and skill at horsemanship. In 1836, he entered the United States Army as a second lieutenant in the Second Regiment of Dragoons. During the Second Seminole War, May was responsible for the capture of King Philip (Ee-mat-la), the Seminole nation's principal chieftain. He was promoted from first lieutenant to captain on February 2, 1841. ### Mexican War service On March 8, 1846, after a final attempt to pressure Mexico to settle on a boundary for Texas, Secretary of War William L. Marcy ordered Brigadier General Zachary Taylor to move his army, which included May's dragoon squadron, to the Rio Grande. Taylor's destination was the river's north bank, directly opposite the Mexican town of Matamoros, which stood at a natural choke-point and controlled access to well-traveled routes to the south. When Taylor refused to leave the region, Mexican cavalry ambushed a dragoon detachment under Captain Seth B. Thornton on April 25, 1846, which officially commenced hostilities. On May 8, 1846, the two main forces met at the Battle of Palo Alto, where May's squadron was held in reserve and mounted an unsuccessful cavalry charge. #### Battle of Resaca de la Palma Searching for more favorable terrain, the Mexican commander led his army five miles to the south. On May 9, 1846, the pursuing American element met them at the Battle of Resaca de la Palma. General Taylor's force received heavy fire from a battery of eight Mexican artillery pieces, which halted its advance. Taylor ordered Captain May to lead his unit, a squadron consisting of D and E companies of the Second Dragoons, to silence the enemy guns. May told his men to "Remember your Regiment and follow your officers!" Today, the phrase is the unofficial motto of the 2nd Cavalry Regiment, which traces its lineage to May's unit.

He led his cavalry squadron on the charge and, despite heavy casualties, secured the objective and silenced the guns before being forced to withdraw due to a lack of infantry support. The dragoons also captured one of the Mexican commanders, General Rómulo Díaz de la Vega, on the gun line. With the Mexican artillery out of action, the 8th Infantry Regiment and 5th Infantry Regiment were able to maneuver forward and eventually drove the enemy from their positions. Of approximately eighty men, the dragoons lost one lieutenant, seven privates, and twenty-eight horses, with an additional ten privates wounded. Colonel David E. Twiggs, the regimental commander, commented that "After the unsurpassed, if not unequalled charge of Captain May's squadron, the enemy was unable to fire a gun." In his official after-action report, Taylor wrote that "The charge of cavalry against the enemy's batteries on the 9th, was gallantly led by Captain May, and had complete success." After the battle, May received two brevets to the rank of lieutenant colonel. #### Battle of Monterrey After Resaca de la Palma, Mexican forces were cleared from the Texan side of the Rio Grande, but additional operations were required to force Mexico to agree to the border. The Mexican commander, General Mariano Arista, withdrew his forces to Linares, with Taylor in pursuit for sixty miles before returning to Fort Brown for reinforcements. He then marched against Monterrey. The heavily fortified city had a 10,000-man garrison under Arista's replacement, General Pedro de Ampudia, but its supply line running south to Saltillo was vulnerable. Lacking the heavy artillery needed for a siege, Taylor planned a double envelopment, with one division executing a turning movement to cut the supply line and attack from the west and south, and his other two divisions assaulting the north side of the city. May's squadron was attached as a direct-reporting unit to the newly promoted General Twiggs' 1st Texas Division, which was to be committed to the north side of Monterrey. On September 21, Taylor launched his attack on the city, but failed to synchronize his two forces. Poor Mexican leadership allowed the Americans to avert disaster, and after some intense urban fighting, General Ampudia offered Taylor an eight-week ceasefire that was highly favorable to the Mexicans. Taylor accepted, which caused President James K. Polk, furious at the agreement, to transfer most of his forces to Winfield Scott. #### Battle of Buena Vista On February 20, 1847, May led a reconnaissance force that included an attached company of Texas Rangers under Major Ben McCulloch and artillery section of six-pounder guns under Captain J.M. Washington. During the mission, the advanced element encountered small units of Mexican General José Vicente Miñón's cavalry brigade and spotted a dust cloud to the south, presumably produced by a much larger force. Lieutenant Samuel Sturgis was captured during a reconnoiter before May's force caught up with the advanced element, spotted more Mexican lancers, and took up defensive positions. After scouting parties failed to locate the main enemy force, May's unit returned to camp to report to General Taylor. After riding 80 miles in 24 hours, the only fire encountered was from the American sentries as May's force re-entered friendly lines. Three days later, on February 23, 1847, after having moved to better defensive terrain, General Taylor's force was met by General Antonio López de Santa Anna's numerically superior army just south of Saltillo for the Battle of Buena Vista. May's squadron was reinforced with Troops A and E of the First Dragoons and a squadron of Arkansas cavalry under the command of Captain Albert Pike. The American line was thrown into jeopardy when Colonel Bowles of the Second Indiana Regiment ordered his unit to retreat for reasons unknown. With skillful artillery support from Washington's guns, the situation was restored by the Second Illinois Regiment and rallied Indianans. At that point, Taylor arrived with May's dragoons and the First Mississippi Rifles under Colonel Jefferson Davis, which halted General Anastasio Torrejón's cavalry. Miñón's brigade of 1,500 Mexican lancers flanked the American line and assaulted the supply trains guarded by the Kentucky and Arkansas cavalry, and in the process killed former governor Colonel Archibald Yell. The dragoons counterattacked Miñón's flank and routed the Mexican lancers. May was wounded during the action. On May 24, 1848, he was promoted from brevet lieutenant colonel to brevet colonel for his gallantry, backdated to the day of the battle. ### Later years After the Mexican War, May was posted to several parts of the American frontier, including California, New Mexico, and Texas. He served with the First Regiment of Dragoons in the Kansas Territory during its violent abolitionist clashes. On March 3, 1855, he was promoted to major and exchanged positions with another officer to return to his old unit, the Second Dragoons. On October 27, 1855, the regiment marched to Texas, under the command of Albert Sidney Johnson. May resigned his commission as a brevet colonel on April 20, 1861, and moved to New York City, where he served as the vice president of the Eighth Avenue Railroad. He died there on December 24, 1864, at the age of 46. He had a history of heart problems and poor health dating back to at least 1850. May was described variously as a courageous, sometimes reckless, and unpopular officer. Samuel Chamberlain, who served in the First Dragoons and wrote scathing descriptions of most of his contemporaries, was most critical of May. Chamberlain believed May had received unjustified praise for his actions at Resaca de la Palma and referred to him as the "Murat of America" and an "ass in the lion's skin". In 1861, James Ryder Randall referred to "dashing May" alongside other Mexican War heroes from Maryland in a poem that later became the state song, "Maryland, My Maryland".

Virgin Islands at the 2006 Winter Olympics

The United States Virgin Islands (USVI) sent a delegation to compete at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy from 10 to 26 February 2006. The only competitor sent by the USVI was Anne Abernathy, who broke her wrist in a practice run and was therefore unable to compete. ## Background

The Virgin Islands Olympic Committee was first recognized by the International Olympic Committee on 31 December 1966. The USVI have sent competitors to every Summer Olympic Games since, excepting the boycotted 1980 Moscow Olympics. The territory first sent athletes to a Winter Olympic Games in 1988, and competed in every Winter Olympics between 1988 and Turin. The United States Virgin Islands have won a medal in Olympic competition only once, by Peter Holmberg in sailing at the 1988 Summer Olympics. The 2006 Winter Olympics were held in Turin, Italy from 10–26 February 2006; a total of 2,508 athletes participated, representing 80 National Olympic Committees. The team the USVI sent to Turin consisted of a single luger, Anne Abernathy. She was the flag bearer for both the opening ceremony and the closing ceremony. In the closing ceremony, she intended to carry her red racing helmet in one hand, saying "Women of 50 all over the world can participate in life ... I’m passionate about my sport ... I’m not over the hill." ## Luge Anne Abernathy, known by the nickname "Grandma Luge", was 52 years old at the time of the Turin Olympics. Abernathy was the oldest female athlete at these Olympics. About her age, she said, "It's a big deal for a lot of women that someone over 50 is going out there and doing it." She had represented the Virgin Islands at the five proceeding Winter Olympics. She was forced out of the women's singles competition due to a broken wrist suffered in her fifth training run on 12 February. Initially left off the start list entirely, a three-judge panel of the Court of Arbitration for Sport ruled on 17 February 2006 that she should officially be recorded as "Did Not Start". The other female lugers gifted her a signed start number 31, with Michelle Despain of Argentina writing "Thank you for your example, Anne." In the competition, the Germans swept the medals; Sylke Otto won gold; Silke Kraushaar-Pielach took the silver, and Tatjana Hüfner won the bronze. ## See also - Virgin Islands at the Olympics

Hurricane Flossie (2007)

Category 4 Pacific hurricane in 2007

Hurricane Flossie was a powerful Pacific tropical cyclone that brought squally weather and light damage to Hawaii in August 2007. The sixth named storm, second hurricane, first and only major hurricane of the inactive 2007 Pacific hurricane season, Flossie originated from a tropical wave that emerged off Africa on July 21. After traversing the tropical Atlantic, the wave crossed Central America and entered the eastern Pacific on August 1. There, a favorable environment allowed it to become a tropical depression and a tropical storm shortly thereafter on August 8. Tracking generally west-southwestward, the storm entered a stage of rapid deepening on August 10, despite forecasts of an only marginally favorable environment. On August 11, Flossie became a major hurricane, reaching its peak intensity with winds of 140 mph (220 km/h). With cooler sea surface temperatures and high wind shear in its path, the hurricane weakened steadily, deteriorating to a tropical depression by August 16. The storm's center became devoid of strong thunderstorms later that day, indicating Flossie no longer qualified as a tropical cyclone. As a strong storm, Flossie prompted hurricane and tropical storm warnings for the Big Island of Hawaii. Residents were warned by emergency officials to prepare for over a foot of rainfall and wind gusts well within tropical storm force. However, impact was negligible; the peak wind gust on the Big Island of Hawaii reached 39 mph (63 km/h), and rainfall totals remained below 6 inches (150 mm). ## Meteorological history The formation of Hurricane Flossie is attributed to a poorly defined tropical wave that emerged off the western coast of Africa and into the eastern Atlantic Ocean on July 21. Tracking westward, the disturbance remained disorganized and lacked a significant amount of convection – shower and thunderstorm activity – near its center. The wave crossed Central America and entered the eastern Pacific on August 1, where it was met with a much more favorable atmospheric environment for organization and intensification. A consolidated area of shower and thunderstorms developed near the center while the system was situated just south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec on August 2, though no further development occurred thereafter. Two days later, an increase in deep convection was observed on conventional satellite imagery, but like the first, no further organization occurred. On August 6, yet another burst of convection developed near the low-level center, and the National Hurricane Center (NHC) contemplated classifying the disturbance at that time, but yet another wane in shower and thunderstorm activity deferred this. The disturbance tracked westward through August 8, and following another deep burst of convection that persisted itself for an appreciable amount of time, had finally gathered enough organization to be classified as a tropical depression at 1800 UTC on August 8. At this time, the depression was situated roughly 1,700 mi (2,700 km) east-southeast of the Big Island of Hawaii. Within an environment characterized by low vertical wind shear as a result of an anticyclone aloft and warm sea surface temperatures, Tropical Depression Six-E continued its organizational trend, and was declared a tropical storm – earning the name Flossie – six hours after formation. Located on the southwestern periphery of a subtropical ridge situated over southwestern Mexico, Flossie tracked generally west-southwestward after formation while intensifying. Upper-level outflow began to expand in all quadrants of the cyclone and spiral bands became prominent around the center on August 9. An eyewall and associated mid-level eye-feature was observed on microwave imagery, but was obscured on conventional satellite imagery, that evening. Following a series of satellite intensity estimates and the presence of an eye on visible and infrared satellite imagery, Flossie was upgraded to a Category 1 on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale at 1200 UTC on August 10. Despite forecasts of an increasingly unfavorable environment as the cyclone moved towards the Hawaiian Islands, Flossie continued to intensify. The hurricane unexpectedly began a period of rapid deepening during the overnight hours of August 10, and by 0600 UTC on August 11, Flossie attained major hurricane intensity – a Category 3 hurricane – with a quickly falling barometric pressure. Early morning satellite images revealed a 15 nmi (28 km) eye with cloud tops cooler than −75 °C (−103 °F) surrounding the feature. Further intensification ensued as the storm entered the Central Pacific Hurricane Center (CPHC)'s area of responsibility that morning, and Flossie was upgraded to a Category 4 hurricane by 1200 UTC. Two hours later, the cyclone attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 140 mph (220 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 949 mb (hPa; 28.02 inHg), the strongest tropical cyclone of the 2007 Pacific hurricane season.

After peak intensity, Flossie was forecast to gradually weaken as wind shear increased. However, despite prediction of such, Flossie did not weaken at all and in fact remained a Category 4 hurricane for 36 continuous hours. In its discussion during the morning hours of August 13, the Central Pacific Hurricane Center stated that Flossie "was not willing to give up." By the pre-dawn hours of August 14, however, the cyclone began to feel the impacts of increasingly cool sea surface temperatures and higher southerly wind shear. While outflow in the northern semicircle of Flossie remained exceptional, outflow in the southern half of the circulation began to dissipate; additionally, the southern flank of the eyewall began to fall apart. An aircraft reconnaissance flight into the system revealed surface winds of 122 mph (196 km/h) and warming cloud tops, and Flossie was downgraded to a Category 3 hurricane. Further passes through the eyewall of the storm depicted ever-decreasing surface winds and organization with Flossie, and the storm was downgraded once again, to a Category 2 hurricane, by 1200 UTC as it passed south of the Hawaiian Islands. Over 26 kn (30 mph) of vertical wind shear eroded the remainder of the storm's eyewall on August 15; as such, the Central Pacific Hurricane Center downgraded the cyclone to a tropical storm. Further weakening to tropical depression status occurred by 0600 UTC on August 16 as shower and thunderstorm activity over the center faded away. By 1200 UTC, a lone low-level swirl remained on satellite imagery, and the storm dissipated thereafter, while located southwest of the Hawaiian Islands. ## Preparations and impact Shortly after entering the Central Pacific Hurricane Center's area of responsibility, the organization issued a hurricane watch for the Big Island of Hawaii. Within a few days, as the hurricane tracked slightly further to the north and its wind radii expanded, a tropical storm warning was overlaid on the hurricane watch. Heavy rainfall and flooding were expected to be the primary concern; as such, flash flood watches were issued and officials warned residents of the potential for 10 to 15 in (250 to 380 mm) of rainfall. Governor Linda Lingle declared a state of emergency for the Island of Hawaii in advance of the storm, where residents were advised to stock up on necessary supplies. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) dispatched 20 transportation, public works and health experts to the region. Emergency shelters were opened, though were used little. The threat of the storm led to the closure of schools, including the University of Hawaii at Hilo and Hawaii Community College, forcing an estimated 26,000 college students to remain home. Some libraries, parks, private schools, banks and other businesses were also closed. Non-essential state employees were advised to remain at home, and emergency workers were mobilized to quickly assist in the aftermath of the storm. In advance of the storm, many tourists canceled reservations. Forecast heavy rains over the southeast-facing slopes of the Big Island failed to occur, as Flossie turned westward before low-level southeasterly winds had a chance to produce mountain-enhanced rainfall. However, north and northeast-facing slopes received minimal rainfall; 1 to 2 in (0.025 to 0.051 m) of rain was reported in the Hamakua, South Hilo, and Puna Districts. Elsewhere, 1 to 3 in (25 to 76 mm) of precipitation fell at Maui, and 2 to 4 in (51 to 102 mm) fell at the Koolau Range on Oahu, although no significant winds or flooding was reported. Wave action affected the southeast-facing shores, also with little impact. The most significant waves were estimated at 20 ft (6.1 m) in height, while sustained winds of at least 39 mph (63 km/h) were reported at South Point. A large lava bench collapsed into the ocean on August 13, which may have been related to the hurricane's passage, or alternatively, a recent 5.4 magnitude earthquake. ## See also - List of Hawaii hurricanes - Hurricane Jimena (2003) - Hurricane Felicia (2009) - Hurricane Iselle (2014) - Hurricane Hector (2018) - List of Category 4 Pacific hurricanes

Kaunas Fortress

Fortress complex in Kaunas, Lithuania

Kaunas Fortress (Lithuanian: Kauno tvirtovė, Russian: Кοвенская крепость, German: Festung Kowno) is the remains of a fortress complex in Kaunas, Lithuania. It was constructed and renovated between 1882 and 1915 to protect the Russian Empire's western borders, and was designated a "first-class" fortress in 1887. During World War I, the complex was the largest defensive structure in the entire state, occupying 65 km² (25 sq mi). The fortress was battle-tested in 1915 when Germany attacked the Russian Empire, and withstood eleven days of assault before capture. After World War I, the fortress' military importance declined as advances in weaponry rendered it increasingly obsolete. It was used by various civil institutions and as a garrison. During World War II, parts of the fortress complex were used by the Nazi Germany for detention, interrogation, and execution. About 50,000 people were executed there, including more than 60,000 Jewish victims of the Holocaust. Some sections have since been restored; the Ninth Fort houses a museum and memorial devoted to the Jewish victims of Holocaust mass executions. The complex is the most complete remaining example of a Russian Empire fortress. ## Background The city of Kaunas is located at the confluence of two rivers, the Neman and Neris, which link Lithuania's interior and its capital, Vilnius, to the Baltic Sea. The Baltic peoples had created significant domains by the 1st century, and came into conflict with the Scandinavians and the Slavs; the Teutonic Order began targeting Lithuanian lands at the beginning of the 13th century. Since Lithuania was heavily wooded and its lands were often impassable, its interior was most approachable along its rivers when frozen and during the short dry harvest season in late summer. In response to this vulnerability, defensive structures, including a brick castle in Kaunas, were in place at various points on the Nemunas River by the 14th century. The city was first mentioned in written sources in 1361; it received Magdeburg rights, regulating its autonomy and establishing trade protocols, from Vytautas the Great in 1408. An outpost of the Hanseatic League was created there in 1441. By the end of the 16th century Kaunas had become a major regional trade center, but plagues, fires, and wars adversely affected the country and city during the 17th and 18th centuries. Following the partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth at the end of the 18th century, Lithuania was incorporated into the Russian Empire. Two major 19th century projects contributed to the city's revival. The Augustów Canal, completed in 1832, linked the Neman to the Black Sea, and a rail line linking Saint Petersburg, Warsaw, and Germany via Kaunas was completed in 1862; it was part of a limited network of western Russian railways. Russia's western borders needed support, and fortresses existed or were being built in Latvia, Ukraine, and Belarus. The concept of building a fortress in Lithuania was discussed without result in 1796, but became a critical concern after the French invasion of Russia in 1812 led by Napoleon. The Grande Armée managed to cross the Nemunas near Kaunas on its drive towards Moscow without major difficulties. An increasingly unified Germany troubled the Empire during the second half of the century. A fortress in Kaunas would present an obstacle to attacks from the west, preventing further incursions towards Riga and Vilnius. In order to control the region, attackers would need to first neutralize Kaunas. Facing this possibility and evaluating the natural advantages of the city, Russian officials decided to construct a fortress there. After several delays, on July 7, 1879 Tsar Alexander II issued an edict ordering its construction. ## Construction The first design was overseen by Generals Nikolay Obruchev, Konstantin Zverev, and Ivan Volberg. As originally planned, the fortress encompassed a huge site, consisting of seven forts and nine defensive batteries arranged in concentric loops. The plan included support buildings and infrastructures, such as barracks, new roads, and an ammunition depot. Construction began in 1882; about 4,000 workers were mustered for the project. The principal structures were concentrated in Freda, Panemunė, Aleksotas, and the new section of the city. The project significantly affected the daily life of Kaunas residents, and there were plans to detach the fortress into an independent administrative unit governed by a military board; its commandant wrote that "There is no city of Kaunas, there is only the Fortress of Kaunas." The first forts were built using bricks reinforced with thick ramparts of earth, which were incorporated into the surrounding relief, making them harder to breach. They were symmetrical, usually having five faces, with positions for infantry and artillery. These forts were built according to the standard Russian brick fort design of the time. Therefore, the first seven forts were very similar; they differed only in the layout of their interiors, their integration into the surrounding relief, and in some construction details. They would also be renovated in slightly different ways. Batteries were built between adjacent forts; these were fortifications containing various types of artillery, located along the fortress' outer lines and usually erected on the hills. The first construction phase was completed in 1887. The fortress was designated first-class in that year, marking its importance and defensive capabilities, and Otto Klem was named its first commandant. At the same time, administrative rules were established to manage the fortress' impact on the city and its surrounding areas; the height of the fortress' civil buildings was restricted. During 1890 work began on the Eighth fort, known as Linkuva; new construction techniques were introduced, particularly reinforced concrete. The Linkuva fort became the most modern entrenchment, equipped with electricity, sewerage, and casemates for a garrison of 1,000 personnel. At the same time, massive groundworks were laid along with additional defensive structures, effecting the complete enclosure of the city center between the Rivers Nemunas and Neris. By 1890, seven forts had been completed, supporting roads had been constructed, and a railroad bridge over the Nemunas had been adapted for military transport. By now, expenditures on the fortress had amounted to over nine million rubles. The first bricks for a church that would serve the garrison were laid in 1891; it was completed in 1893. The following year construction began on a dedicated narrow gauge railway. The Ninth Fort, begun in 1903, was the first of its kind in the Empire. The structure was a trapezoid, encompassing one infantry rampart, and was equipped with two armored watchtowers, electricity, and ventilation. The walls of its cannon casemates were covered with cork to reduce firing noise. The cost of this single fort was 850,000 rubles. The complex of forts and defensive structures was divided into four sectors. The first followed the left bank of the Nemunas to its confluence with the Jiesia River and included the three earliest forts. The second sector extended from the Jiesia to Pažaislis monastery and included two forts. The third extended from the right to the left bank of the Nemunas; this sector also contained two forts. The fourth and last sector stretched from the right bank of the Neris to the left bank of the Nemunas, comprising two forts, including the newest – the Ninth Fort. As new building and weapons technologies developed, the fortress was repeatedly renovated in order to maintain its military effectiveness. In 1912 an expansion and reconstruction initiative was launched. This project called for twelve new forts along with batteries, support buildings, and defensive structures. Its completion was scheduled for 1917. The older forts were to be completely encircled by the new construction, which was meant to employ the newest military technologies. During the early realization of the plan, new defensive entrenchments were built and the old forts were strengthened with concrete. However, when action began on the Eastern Front during World War I, work on the fortress was halted. In 1915 only one fort, the Ninth, conformed with the new technological criteria, while the Tenth Fort was only partially built. The complex then covered about 65 km² (25 sq mi) and contained a 30 km (19 mi) internal railway, power plant, water supply system, mill, bakery, brewery, food bank, and telegraph. Despite the fact that the fortress' renovations and new construction had not been finished, it presented a formidable challenge to its attackers.

## World War I ## Interwar Lithuania regained its independence on February 16, 1918 and the old fortress was placed under engineering staff supervision. Those materials that had not been taken by the Germans were used to resupply Lithuanian military needs, and for the construction of the armored train Gediminas, named after the 14th century Grand Duke of Lithuania Gediminas. In 1920, the Kaunas Fortress Board was formed and charged with the task of administering the fortress. Due to the development of new military technologies, its reconstruction was seen as a vast and inappropriate expense. The fortress' armament was dismantled and the trenches were filled with scrap iron. Sections of the fortress were given to various civil institutions, while the army occupied the barracks of the former 28th Division. The Sixth and Ninth forts were used as prisons and the Central Archive was located in the Seventh Fort; the Republic's official radio station was based in the fortress; a gas chamber was installed in the gunpowder depot of the First Fort and used to execute condemned prisoners. Some sections were used as housing for the poor. As the city of Kaunas expanded near the complex, its roads became public streets. The structures and layouts of the new sections were influenced by the presence of the fortress. ## World War II Adjustments to the secret protocols of the 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact assigned Lithuania to the Soviet sphere of influence, and it was occupied by the USSR in June 1940. The fortress was then used to conduct interrogations and house political prisoners. The pact was broken when Germany invaded USSR on June 22, 1941. German forces entered Kaunas on June 24. The Sixth Fort became a POW camp for Red Army soldiers. Kaunas's Jewish population numbered between 35,000 and 40,000; few would survive the Holocaust in Lithuania. The Nazis, aided by Lithuanian auxiliaries, began massacring the Jewish population. On July 6, acting under orders of the SS, Lithuanian auxiliary police units shot nearly 3,000 Jews at the Seventh Fort. On August 18, in what came to be known as the "intellectuals action", over 1,800 Jews were shot at the Fourth Fort. On October 28, the "Great Action" took place—the residents of the Kaunas Ghetto were summoned, and over 9,000 men, women and children were taken to the Ninth Fort and executed. During the later course of the occupation, over 5,000 Jewish deportees from Central Europe would be executed at this fort. About 60 escaped in December 1943; they had been assigned to excavate and burn the bodies of earlier victims, as part of Aktion 1005. Thirteen of these escapees were able to document the Aktion's attempt to hide the evidence of the mass murders. When Germany began losing the war and the battlefront approached Lithuania, the German defense began attempts to prepare a defensive in Kaunas, including the use of the fortress. The Nemunas River was labelled "the line of catastrophe", and Adolf Hitler called for its defense at any price. On August 1, 1944 Kaunas was captured by the Red Army. The remaining fortress structures were used for military needs and several of the original structures were demolished or redeveloped. The number of deaths at the fortress during World War II vary by source; the United States Holocaust Museum gives detailed descriptions of the deaths of about 18,500 Holocaust victims. Other sources mention 30,000 Jewish deaths, with total number 50,000. ## Post-war Lithuania remained a Soviet Socialist Republic until 1990. In 1948, the headquarters of the 7th Guards Cherkassy Airborne Division was established in the fortress' commandant's headquarters. The barracks were used by the 108th paratroopers regiment and the Fifth Fort served the air defense regiment. Most of the forts, however, served as depots or housed farming organizations. During the postwar expansion and development of the city, parts of the fortress were dismantled; as part of the construction of Kaunas Polytechnic Institute the ground-level entrenchments of one defensive sector were destroyed. In 1958, the Ninth Fort was dedicated as a museum. During 1959, its first exhibition was opened, memorializing the crimes that had taken place there. The museum later expanded its scope to cover the fortress' entire history. A 32 m (105 ft) tall memorial to the victims was constructed there in 1984. However, the Soviet military occupied most of the fortress until Lithuania re-established its independence. After the withdrawal of Soviet forces, completed in 1993, Lithuanian military bases were established at several forts. As of early 2007, only the Ninth Fort had been partly renovated. It is now devoted to the Holocaust and Lithuania's occupations by the Germans and the Soviets. The museum, which holds over 65,000 artefacts, is sponsored by the Lithuanian Ministry of Culture. Since the early 2000s, it has received about 100,000 visitors per year and hosted Holocaust education seminars and workshops. In 2005, the international project "Baltic Culture and Tourism Route Fortresses" was launched, with support from the European Union. Its goal is the promotion of transnational scientific cooperation in monument protection, along with the creation of strategies to reconstruct and manage fortresses in the region. Kaunas Fortress is a part of this project. In 2007, Seventh fort was sold, new owners started the restoration process, since 2009 Seventh fort is open as a fortification and military museum and is the only brick fort in Kaunas suitable for safe visiting. In the 2000s, a variety of entities owned parts of the complex: the Ministry of Culture, the Ministry of Defence, the State Property Fund, and the City of Kaunas. The site still contains unexploded ordnance, although a 1995 project removed about 1.9 tonnes of explosives. Other restoration issues include uncovered wells, poor drainage and ventilation, erosion, possible chemical contaminants, vegetative overgrowth, and the presence of a protected bat colony. Despite the damage that it has sustained, the Kaunas Fortress complex is the most complete of the surviving Russian Empire fortresses.

Michael Ingham (footballer)

Association football player

Michael Gerard Ingham (born 9 July 1980) is a semi-professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for club Tadcaster Albion. He has played in the Football League for Carlisle United, Darlington, York City, Wrexham, Doncaster Rovers and Sunderland and at senior international level for the Northern Ireland national team. Ingham started his career with Northern Irish club Cliftonville before moving to England with Sunderland in the Premier League in 1999. He was loaned out by the club on eight occasions before eventually joining former loan club Wrexham on a permanent deal in 2005. After leaving the club in 2007 he joined Hereford United, where he made one appearance, and a year later dropped into non-League football with York City. He played for them in the 2009 FA Trophy Final at Wembley Stadium and after gaining the captaincy in 2010 he returned to Wembley Stadium to play in the 2010 Conference Premier play-off final. Ingham was victorious with York in the 2012 FA Trophy Final and the 2012 Conference Premier play-off final at Wembley Stadium, the latter meaning the club was promoted to League Two. Born in England, Ingham has represented Northern Ireland at international level. He was capped once by the under-18 team before winning four caps for the under-21s in 2001. He earned three caps for Northern Ireland, gaining his first against Germany in 2005. He was last capped against Wales in 2007. ## Club career ### Early career Ingham was born in Preston, Lancashire, to a Northern Irish family. Despite being born in England, he was educated in Northern Ireland and studied A-levels at St Malachy's College, Belfast. As a teenager, he lived near the ground of Irish League Premier Division club Cliftonville, and played for amateur clubs Newington Youth Club and Malachians in the Northern Amateur Football League before starting his career with Cliftonville in 1998. He won the Irish FA Charity Shield and made 35 appearances during the 1998–99 season after replacing Paul Reece as the team's goalkeeper. ### Sunderland Having been watched by a number of clubs, Ingham joined newly promoted Premier League club Sunderland on 28 July 1999 for a £30,000 fee following a trial in February. He was loaned out to Third Division club Carlisle United on 1 October 1999, making his Football League debut the following day in a 1–1 home draw against Southend United. He finished the successful spell with seven appearances for Carlisle. He returned to Northern Ireland by rejoining former club Cliftonville on loan for the first three months of 2000–01 on 11 August 2000 to gain more first-team experience, saying "That's why I jumped at the chance of three months back in my old jersey. There was an option to join Lincoln City instead but they were only offering reserve games." He finished this spell with 22 appearances, before being recalled by Sunderland in early January 2001. He made his Sunderland debut by starting in a 4–2 defeat away to Sheffield Wednesday in the League Cup on 12 September 2001, which proved to be his only appearance of 2001–02. This appearance resulted in former club Cliftonville receiving a payment from Sunderland, which was agreed when he was transferred to Sunderland. He joined Stoke City of the Second Division on a one-month loan on 18 December 2001, where he failed to make any appearances after joining as cover for Neil Cutler following an injury to Gavin Ward. Ingham was forced further down the Sunderland pecking order after the signing of Thomas Myhre in July 2002 and he joined Second Division club Stockport County on a one-month loan on 23 August. He made his only appearance in a 3–1 victory away to Lincoln in the League Cup on 10 September 2002 and the loan was extended for a second month, before being recalled by Sunderland in October due to an injury crisis. Despite this, he was forced further down Sunderland's pecking order after they signed Mart Poom on loan from Derby County and after considering handing in a transfer request he joined Third Division club Darlington on a one-month loan on 22 November 2002. He made three appearances before returning to Sunderland in December. He played for Sunderland in a friendly against Hull City for the opening of their new ground, the KC Stadium, which made him the first away goalkeeper at the ground, while also being the last to play at Hull's former ground, Boothferry Park. This was his final appearance for Darlington in a 1–0 victory over Hull, during which he denied Stuart Elliott from scoring on three occasions. He joined Third Division club York City on 24 January 2003 on a one-month loan after goalkeeper Alan Fettis left to join Hull, who Ingham made his debut against a day later in a 0–0 away draw. His loan at York was extended for second and third months in February and March 2003 and he finished the spell, in which he performed well, with 17 appearances. His second Sunderland appearance came in a 4–2 home defeat against Huddersfield Town in the League Cup on 23 September 2003 and in a reserve match in January 2004 he was sent off for head butting West Bromwich Albion's Simon Brown. He was signed by Second Division club Wrexham on 15 March 2004 a one-month loan following an injury to Andy Dibble, which was extended until the end of 2003–04 on 16 April. He finished this spell with 11 appearances for Wrexham, as well as playing in the 4–1 victory over Rhyl in the FAW Premier Cup Final. In May 2004, he threatened to leave Sunderland if he was not guaranteed first-team football the following season. After training with Blackpool, Ingham joined League One club Doncaster Rovers on 1 November 2004 on a one-month loan, playing in two matches. Ingham was set to join Coventry City on transfer deadline day in March 2005, but Sunderland cancelled the transfer due to an injury to Poom. His league debut for Sunderland came in a 2–1 home defeat against Reading on 9 April 2005, which he entered as a 45th-minute substitute for the injured Myhre. Despite suffering a neck injury while on the team bus, he made his first league start in the following match, a 2–2 away draw with Ipswich Town on 17 April 2005. After the match, manager Mick McCarthy said "He knows he's playing for a future elsewhere and I think that overall he's handled a bloody tense situation really well". He finished 2004–05 with two appearances for Sunderland and on 8 May 2005 was released by the club. ### Wrexham and Hereford United Ingham agreed a move to League Two club Wrexham in May 2005 on a two-year contract, and the transfer was completed on 5 July when he signed the contract. He picked up a calf injury after returning to Wrexham, which saw him miss their match against Leyton Orient on 17 September 2005. He suffered another injury on his return against Macclesfield Town on 24 September 2005, which on this occasion was a groin problem. Ingham returned to fitness ahead of their 4–2 home victory over Torquay United on 15 October 2005. He finished 2005–06 with 43 appearances for Wrexham. He underwent an operation on a hernia in May 2006. Ingham made his final appearance of 2006–07 in Wrexham's 2–1 away defeat to Milton Keynes Dons on 17 March 2007, in which he picked up a hamstring injury. He later suffered from a virus in April 2007. He finished the season with 37 appearances, after which he was released by the club, due to his place in the team being taken by Anthony Williams. In July 2007, Ingham had a trial with Scottish Premier League club Gretna, playing in a pre-season friendly against Welsh Premier League club The New Saints. However, he suffered a finger injury and the move to Gretna did not take place. On 17 August 2007, he signed forLeague Two club Hereford United on an initial one-month contract as cover for Wayne Brown, which was later extended until the end of 2007–08. His debut came in the Football League Trophy at home to Yeovil Town on 9 October 2007, which Hereford lost 4–2 in a penalty shoot-out after a 0–0 draw after extra time, with Ingham making "good saves" from Kevin Betsy and Simon Gillett. He picked up a hand injury in March 2008 that was expected to keep him out of the team for six weeks, meaning he finished the season with one appearance. ### York City Ingham was released by Hereford at the end of the season, after which he moved down to the Conference Premier by rejoining former club York City on 14 May 2008 on a two-year contract. He suffered a thigh injury during a pre-season friendly against Harrogate Railway Athletic, meaning he missed York's opening match against Crawley Town on 9 August 2008, which led to the loan signing of Artur Krysiak from Birmingham City. Ingham recovered from his thigh injury ready for York's fourth match of 2008–09 against Northwich Victoria. Despite this, Josh Mimms played in goal and Ingham eventually made his first appearance of the season in a 1–1 home draw against Barrow on 25 August 2008. He saved a penalty kick during a penalty shoot-out against Mansfield Town in the Conference League Cup third round, helping York win the shootout 4–2, which followed a 1–1 home draw after extra time. He picked up a hamstring injury during a 1–1 away draw with Histon on 9 December 2008, and returned in York's next match, a 2–0 away win over Northwich in the FA Trophy on 16 December. Ingham saved the final penalty in a shoot-out victory at home to Kidderminster Harriers in an FA Trophy third round replay on 11 February 2009, giving York the victory 13–12 on penalties. He started in the 2009 FA Trophy Final at Wembley Stadium on 9 May, which York lost 2–0 to Stevenage Borough. Ingham finished his first permanent season at York with 52 appearances. Utook over the captaincy following the absences of Daniel Parslow and David McGurk from the team in March 2010. He signed a new two-year contract with York in the same month. Ingham was named as York's Clubman of the Year for 2009–10 before their final home match of the season prior to play-offs against Grays Athletic. He was also named the Community Player of the Year, which recognised his community work in York. He played in both legs of York's play-off semi-final victory over Luton Town, which finished 2–0 on aggregate. He started in the 2010 Conference Premier play-off final at Wembley Stadium on 16 May, which York lost 3–1 to Oxford. He finished the season with 55 appearances for York. Ingham was replaced as captain in October 2010 following the signing of Chris Smith, with manager Gary Mills commenting "I'm not a fan of goalkeeping captains and that's no disrespect to Michael Ingham. He took the decision on the chin with no problems." Ingham was named the Conference Player of the Month for November 2010 after he kept six clean sheets and conceded one goal throughout that period. He dedicated the award to his defence, saying "The lads have been brilliant all month, in particular the back five. I accept this trophy on behalf of them". He was sent off in the 15th minute of York's 5–0 defeat away to Luton on 18 January 2011 after fouling Claude Gnakpa outside the penalty area. He finished 2010–11 with 51 appearances and in July 2011 signed a new two-year contract with York. Ingham won the 2012 FA Trophy Final with York at Wembley Stadium on 12 May, in which the team beat Newport County 2–0. Eight days later, he played in the 2–1 victory over Luton in the 2012 Conference Premier play-off final at Wembley Stadium on 20 May, seeing the club return to the Football League after an eight-year absence with promotion to League Two. Ingham finished 2011–12 with 55 appearances for York and in July 2012 signed a new two-year contract with the club.

Ingham started York's match away to League One team Doncaster in the League Cup first round on the opening day of 2012–13 on 11 August 2012, which they lost 4–2 in a penalty shoot-out following a 1–1 draw after extra time. He then played in York's first Football League fixture since their promotion, a 3–1 defeat at home to Wycombe Wanderers on 18 August 2012. He finished the season with 51 appearances. Ingham left York after rejecting a new contract in July 2016. ### Tadcaster Albion On 1 August 2016, Ingham signed for newly promoted Northern Premier League Division One North club Tadcaster Albion, having earlier joined i2i Sports, the club's owners, as a goalkeeping coach. He had made 21 appearances in all competitions by the time the 2019–20 season was abandoned and results expunged because of the COVID-19 pandemic in England. ## International career Ingham was capped once for Northern Ireland at under-18 level, making his only appearance in a 2–1 home defeat to the Republic of Ireland on 9 March 1999 in 1999 UEFA European Under-18 Championship qualifying. After being understudy to David Miskelly for two under-21 matches in 2000, Ingham made his debut in a 2–0 home defeat to the Czech Republic on 23 March 2001 in 2002 UEFA European Under-21 Championship qualifying. Having made his last under-21 appearance in a 4–0 defeat to the Czech Republic on 5 June 2001 in another qualifier, his international career at this level concluded with four caps. Ingham was called into the senior Northern Ireland squad in August 2002 after Roy Carroll was released. He was called into the Northern Ireland B squad in May 2003, but was forced to withdraw because of injury. Ingham's form during a loan at Wrexham saw him placed on standby for Northern Ireland's match with Serbia and Montenegro in April 2004. He was named in the Northern Ireland squad for their tour of the Caribbean in May 2004, but dislocated a finger in training in June, which meant he missed out on making his debut. He earned his first cap for Northern Ireland in a 4–1 home defeat against Germany in a friendly on 4 June 2005, the Irish Football Association (IFA)'s 125th anniversary match. He came on as a substitute for Maik Taylor on 76 minutes, conceding one goal scored by Lukas Podolski. On reflection of this match, Ingham said "The reaction of the crowd when I came on was amazing. To be honest I was holding back the tears as I never thought I would get such a reception. I was the proudest man in the ground." For this match, he was offered insurance by the IFA, due to him not yet being under contract at Wrexham. This appearance would result in a £30,000 payment for former club Cliftonville, which came as a part of the deal for Sunderland to sign him, but by August 2005 this had still to be received by the club. The Premier League was called into the situation by Cliftonville, as they had only received the first part of the payment after he made his first-team debut for Sunderland. Ingham himself was also due a £20,000 bonus for this appearance. Ingham was on the bench for Northern Ireland as they beat England 1–0 in a 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifier on 7 September 2005. He received call ups for friendlies against Portugal in November 2005 and Estonia in March 2006, although he only made the bench for both matches. He was named by Northern Ireland in their end-of-season tour of the United States in May 2006, starting in the 1–0 defeat against Uruguay at the Giants Stadium on 21 May. By November 2006, he had established himself as Northern Ireland's third-choice goalkeeper behind Taylor and Carroll. Ingham came on as a substitute for the second half of Northern Ireland's 0–0 draw against Wales in a friendly on 6 February 2007, giving him his third and most recent international cap. ## Personal life Ingham married his wife on 7 June 2008. He was arrested along with York teammates Michael Gash, Craig Nelthorpe and Michael Rankine in August 2009 following an incident involving two other men at a Subway outlet on a night out. The four appeared at York Magistrates' Court on 14 January 2010 after being charged with affray. Ingham pleaded not guilty to the charge of affray and this was accepted after the prosecution deemed his involvement in the incident to be minimal after appearing at York Crown Court on 1 September 2010. ## Career statistics ### Club ### International Source: ## Honours Cliftonville - Irish FA Charity Shield: 1998 York City - Conference Premier play-offs: 2012 - FA Trophy: 2011–12 Individual - York City Clubman of the Year: 2009–10

Gospić massacre

1991 mass killings of civilians in Gospić, Croatia

The Gospić massacre was the mass killing of 100–120 predominantly Serb civilians in Gospić, Croatia during the last two weeks of October 1991, during the Croatian War of Independence. The majority of the victims were ethnic Serbs arrested in Gospić and the nearby coastal town of Karlobag. Most of them were arrested on 16–17 October. Some of the detainees were taken to the Perušić barracks and executed in Lipova Glavica near the town, while others were shot in the Pazarište area of Gospić. The killings were ordered by the Secretary of Lika Crisis Headquarters, Tihomir Orešković, and the commander of the 118th Infantry Brigade of the Croatian National Guard, Lieutenant Colonel Mirko Norac. The killings were publicised in 1997, when a wartime member of Autumn Rains paramilitary spoke about the unit's involvement in killings of civilians in Gospić in an interview to the Feral Tribune. No formal investigation was launched until 2000, after three former Croatian intelligence and military police officers informed the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia about the killings. Five, including Orešković and Norac, were arrested in 2001 and tried. Orešković, Norac and Stjepan Grandić were found guilty of the crime and sentenced to 14, 12 and 10 years in prison respectively in 2004. ## Background In August 1990, an insurrection took place in Croatia centred in predominantly Serb-populated areas, including parts of Lika, near the city of Gospić, which also had a significant ethnic Serb population. The areas were subsequently named SAO Krajina and, after declaring its intention to integrate with Serbia, the Government of Croatia declared it to be a rebellion. By March 1991, the conflict escalated into the Croatian War of Independence. In June 1991, Croatia declared its independence as Yugoslavia disintegrated. A three-month moratorium followed, after which the decision came into effect on 8 October. As the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) increasingly supported SAO Krajina and the Croatian Police was unable to cope with the situation, the Croatian National Guard (ZNG) was formed in May 1991. The development of the military of Croatia was hampered by a UN arms embargo introduced in September, while the military conflict in Croatia continued to escalate—the Battle of Vukovar started on 26 August. By the end of August the fighting intensified in Lika as well, including in Gospic where fighting to control the city continued through much of September. Although Gospić was controlled by Croat forces, it remained under Serbian artillery bombardment after the battle. The fighting resulted in heavy damage to the town and the flight of the bulk of its population after which only about 3,000 residents remainined. Before the war, Gospić had a population of 8,000, including 3,000 Serbs. Many Serbs previously living in the town fled but Croatian authorities urged them to return through television and radio broadcasts. As the civilian population started to return in late September, Gospić chief of police Ivan Dasović proposed that a list of the returning Serbs should be drawn up, ostensibly for security purposes. According to Ante Karić, President of the Lika Crisis Headquarters (krizni stožer), Dasović feared that the returning Serbs might harbour a fifth column, undermining defence of the town. Karić reportedly opposed the move, but the list was compiled on 10 October. A similar list of Serbs returning to nearby Karlobag was prepared on 16 October. Gospić police were subordinated to control by the Lika Crisis Headquarters by dint of an order issued by the then Minister of the Interior Ivan Vekić as were the 118th Infantry Brigade of the ZNG and the military police based in Gospić. In addition, a paramilitary volunteer group, nicknamed "Autumn Rains", controlled by Tomislav Merčep, was deployed to Gospić in September; this unit was formally subordinate to the Ministry of the Interior. ## Killings The Secretary of the Lika Crisis Headquarters, Tihomir Orešković, and the commanding officer of the 118th Infantry Brigade Lieutenant Colonel Mirko Norac, called a meeting of their subordinates and ordered the arrest of Serb civilians, their subsequent detention in the Perušić barracks, and killings. Sources disagree on the exact date of the meeting. According to Dasović, the meeting took place on 15 October, at approximately 9:00 p.m., which he attended along with several other officials. Other sources, including the subsequent criminal inquiry and trial witnesses, indicated the meeting was held on 16 or 17 October. The courts processing the case, including the Supreme Court of Croatia, determined that the meeting took place on 17 October and that Orešković and Norac ordered those in attendance to execute civilians that had been arrested based on the prepared lists. The killing of civilians in Široka Kula by Serbian paramilitaries, which took place on 13 October, was used as a pretext for the executions. Most of the arrests occurred on 16–17 October, both in Gospić and Karlobag. The civilians, especially Serbs, were led away at gunpoint from bomb shelters starting on 16 October. Two days later, residents of Gospić witnessed civilians being loaded aboard eleven military lorries at the town's cattle market, never to be seen again. At least ten civilians were killed at Žitnik in the Gospić area known as Pazarište on 17 October. The killings continued at Lipova Glavica near Perušić on 18 October, where 39 or 40 people were executed by firing squad after being held in the Perušić barracks, where a battalion of the 118th Infantry Brigade was based at the time. Three additional Serb civilians were arrested in Gospić and Karlobag on 25 October. They were also shot and their bodies retrieved in the Ravni Dabar area on 3 December. Many of the victims were prominent Serbian intellectuals including doctors, judges and professors. Like the rest of murdered Serbs, they were loyal to the Croatian state and refused to join the Republic of Serbian Krajina, making their executions all the more heinous. The Croat victims of the massacre are believed to have been dissenters who opposed the state's Anti-Serb measures. ## Aftermath

The massacre in Gospić was the most significant such atrocity committed by Croats during the war. Sources disagree on the total number of fatalities in the Gospić massacre, with estimates ranging from nearly 100 to 120 killed. The official figures indicate that a total of 123 persons went missing in the area of Gospić between 1991–95. Ten victims were dumped in a septic tank and covered with layers of clay and stone rubble in Gospić, later discovered by International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) investigators in May 2000, arousing complaints from the mayor of Gospić and street protests by Croatian veterans. Twenty-four additional corpses had been burnt and disposed of near Duge Njive, a village east of Perušić, but retrieved by the 6th Brigade of the JNA on 25 December 1991, examined and reburied in Debelo Brdo, 15 kilometres (9.3 miles) away from Udbina. Eighteen were buried in a mass grave while six others were buried individually, but these were disinterred and reburied elsewhere by relatives. The mass grave was excavated in December 2000 as a part of a criminal investigation. The victims' homes were looted in the immediate aftermath by the Autumn Rains unit. In 1992, several members of the unit were briefly imprisoned by Croatian authorities, but released without charge. In September 1997, the now defunct Croatian newspaper Feral Tribune published a detailed eyewitness account by Miroslav Bajramović, one of the Autumn Rains troops, who claimed to have been involved in carrying out the massacre. In his interview, Bajramović stated that the unit was ordered to ethnically cleanse Gospić. He also claimed they were occasionally ordered by Tomislav Merčep, who had been an ally of Croatian President Franjo Tuđman, to "terminate" prisoners, and that Vekić was fully aware of their task. Bajramović and three other members of the unit identified in the interview were arrested, while Vekić denied Bajramović's claims and Croatian government officials denied any responsibility in the matter. In turn, the ICTY requested information on the four. Tudjman blamed the massacre on Serbs and foreign agents. He briefly arrested a Croatian militia leader connected to the killings, but later released him and assigned him to the Interior Ministry. By 1998, two Croatian intelligence officers and a military police officer, Milan Levar, Zdenko Bando and Zdenko Ropac, approached the ICTY offering information concerning the events. Levar, who was later murdered, was particularly valuable as a witness as he claimed to have witnessed the deaths of about 50 people in the Gospić area. Ranko Marijan, the Justice Minister in a new government, criticised his predecessors and the police for their failure to pursue the case, but the authorities failed to protect Levar, who was murdered by car bomb on 30 August 2000. The investigation of the killings in Gospić was a contributing factor in the criticism of the government's efforts by seven active duty and five retired Croatian generals who issued the Twelve Generals' Letter making their grievance public. That led to sacking of the seven active duty officers, including by President Stjepan Mesić. The group included Norac, who had held the rank of major general since September 1995. ### Trial of Orešković et al. A formal inquest of the killings in Gospić was launched in late 2000 and warrants for the arrest of Orešković, Norac, Stjepan Grandić, Ivica Rožić and Milan Čanić were issued in February 2001. Norac evaded arrest for two weeks, convinced that the authorities intended to extradite him to the ICTY. Relatives of Grandić, Rožić and Čanić, aided by residents of Gospić, attempted to prevent the police from arresting the three by surrounding the police vans sent to transport the defendants to custody. The opposition to the prosecution culminated in a 150,000-strong street protest in Split on 11 February. The protests were repeated in Zagreb, where 13,000 protesters appeared. Norac surrendered on 21 February after he received assurances that he would be tried in Croatia rather than by the ICTY. A formal indictment was brought forward on 5 March, charging the five with the killing of 50 civilians in Gospić and Karlobag. The case was tried in Rijeka County Court, and included the testimony of 120 witnesses in the Rijeka court, 18 survivors of the 1991 attacks in Gospić who testified in Belgrade, and two Croatian nationals who fled to Germany fearing for their own safety. One of these two, surnamed Ropac, refused to testify because he distrusted government assurances regarding his safety. In March 2003, the Court found the defendants guilty; Orešković was sentenced to 15 years in prison, while Norac received a sentence of 12 years in prison. Grandić was imprisoned for a term of 10 years. Rožić and Čanić were acquitted due to lack of evidence against them. The case was ultimately appealed all the way to the Supreme Court of Croatia in 2004, which upheld the first-instance convictions of Orešković, Norac and Grandić, as well as the acquittals of Rožić and Čanić. A BBC News analysis claimed the trials indicated a willingness on the part of the Croatian government to deal with war crimes committed by its nationals, following a long period of inactivity described by Rijeka County Court judge Ika Šarić as a "conspiracy of silence". Bajramović and four other members of his unit were convicted in an unrelated case of killing and abuse of Serb and Croat civilians committed in Poljana near Pakrac in 1991. They received prison sentences ranging from three to twelve years. As of 2013, Merčep is on trial charged with command responsibility in war crimes committed in Poljana. ## See also - List of massacres in Croatia

Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16)

Series of military conflicts between Germanic tribes and the Romans (12 BC – 16 AD)

The Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16) were a series of conflicts between the Germanic tribes and the Roman Empire. Tensions between the Germanic tribes and the Romans began as early as 17/16 BC with the Clades Lolliana, where the 5th Legion under Marcus Lollius was defeated by the tribes Sicambri, Usipetes, and Tencteri. Roman Emperor Augustus responded by rapidly developing military infrastructure across Gaul. His general, Nero Claudius Drusus, began building forts along the Rhine in 13 BC and launched a retaliatory campaign across the Rhine in 12 BC. Drusus led three more campaigns against the Germanic tribes in the years 11–9 BC. For the campaign of 10 BC, he was celebrated for being the Roman who traveled farthest east into Northern Europe. Succeeding generals would continue attacking across the Rhine until AD 16, notably Publius Quinctilius Varus in AD 9. During the return trip from his campaign, Varus' army was ambushed and almost destroyed by a Germanic force led by Arminius at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest; Arminius was the leader of the Cherusci, had previously fought in the Roman army, and was considered by Rome to be an ally. Roman expansion into Germania Magna stopped as a result, and all campaigns immediately after were in retaliation of the Clades Variana ("Varian disaster"), the name used by Roman historians to describe the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, and to prove that Roman military might could still overcome German lands. The last general to lead Roman forces in the region during this time was Germanicus, the adoptive son of emperor Tiberius, who in AD 16 had launched the final major military expedition by Rome into Germania. ## Background In 27 BC, Augustus became princeps and sent Agrippa to quell the uprisings in Gallia. During the Gallic uprisings, weapons were smuggled into Gaul across the Rhine from Germania to supply the insurrection. At the time, Rome's military presence in the Rhineland was small and its only military operations there were punitive expeditions against incursions. It was seen as more important to secure Gaul and wipe out any signs of resistance there. After Gaul had been pacified, improvements were made to the infrastructure, including those to the Roman road network in 20 BC by Aggripa. Rome increased its military presence along the Rhine and several forts were constructed there between 19 and 17 BC. Augustus thought that the future prosperity of the Empire depended on the expansion of its borders, and Germania had become the next target for imperial expansion. After capturing and executing Roman soldiers east of the Rhine in 17/16 BC, the tribes Sicambri, Usipetes, and Tencteri crossed the river and attacked a Roman cavalry unit. Unexpectedly, they came across the 5th Legion under Marcus Lollius, whom they defeated and whose eagle they captured. This defeat convinced Augustus to reorganize and improve the military presence in Gaul in order to prepare the region for campaigns across the Rhine. An attack soon after by Lollius and Augustus caused the invaders to retreat back to Germania and sue for peace with Rome. From 16 to 13 BC, Augustus was active in Gaul. In preparation for the coming campaigns, Augustus established a mint at Lugdunum (Lyon) in Gaul, to supply a means of coining money to pay the soldiers, organized a census for collecting taxes from Gaul, and coordinated the establishment of military bases on the west bank of the Rhine. ## Campaigns before the Clades Variana ### Campaigns of Drusus Nero Claudius Drusus, an experienced general and stepson of Augustus, was made governor of Gaul in 13 BC. The following year saw an uprising in Gaul – a response to the Roman census and taxation policy set in place by Augustus. For most of the following year he conducted reconnaissance and dealt with supply and communications. He also had several forts built along the Rhine, including Argentoratum (Strasburg, France), Moguntiacum (Mainz, Germany), and Castra Vetera (Xanten, Germany). Drusus first saw action following an incursion by the Sicambri and the Usipetes into Gaul, which he repelled before launching a retaliatory attack across the Rhine. This marked the beginning of Rome's 28 years of campaigns across the lower Rhine. He crossed the Rhine with his army and invaded the land of the Usipetes. He then marched north against the Sicambri and pillaged their lands. Travelling down the Rhine and landing in what is now the Netherlands, he conquered the Frisians, who thereafter served in his army as allies. Then, he attacked the Chauci, who lived in northwestern Germany in what is now Lower Saxony. Around winter, he recrossed the Rhine, and returned to Rome. The following spring, Drusus began his second campaign across the Rhine. He first subdued the Usipetes, and then marched east to the Visurgis (Weser River). Then, he passed through the territory of the Cherusci, whose territory stretched from the Ems to the Elbe, and pushed as far east as the Weser. This was the furthest east into northern Europe that a Roman general had ever traveled, a feat which won him much renown. Between depleted supplies and the coming winter, he decided to march back to friendly territory. On the return trip, Drusus' legions were nearly destroyed at Arbalo by Cherusci warriors taking advantage of the terrain to harass them. He was made consul for the following year, and it was voted that the doors to the Temple of Janus be closed, a sign the empire was at peace. However, peace did not last, for in the spring of 10 BC, he once again campaigned across the Rhine and spent the majority of the year attacking the Chatti. In his third campaign, he conquered the Chatti and other German tribes, and then returned to Rome, as he had done before at the end of the campaign season. In 9 BC, he began his fourth campaign, this time as consul. Despite bad omens, Drusus again attacked the Chatti and advanced as far as the territory of the Suebi, in the words of Cassius Dio, "conquering with difficulty the territory traversed and defeating the forces that attacked him only after considerable bloodshed." Afterwards, he once again attacked the Cherusci, and followed the retreating Cherusci across the Weser River, and advanced as far as the Elbe, "pillaging everything in his way", as Cassius Dio puts it. Ovid states that Drusus extended Rome's dominion to new lands that had only been discovered recently. On his way back to the Rhine, Drusus fell from his horse and was badly wounded. His injury became seriously infected, and after thirty days, Drusus died from the disease, most likely gangrene. When Augustus learned Drusus was sick, he sent Tiberius to quickly go to him. Ovid states Tiberius was at the city of Pavia at the time, and when he had learned of his brother's condition, he rode to be at his dying brother's side. He arrived in time, but it wasn't long before Drusus drew his last breath. ### Campaigns of Tiberius, Ahenobarbus and Vinicius After Drusus' death, Tiberius was given command of the Rhine's forces and waged two campaigns within Germania over the course of 8 and 7 BC. He marched his army between the Rhine and the Elbe, and met little resistance except from the Sicambri. Tiberius came close to exterminating the Sicambri, and had those who survived transported to the Roman side of the Rhine, where they could be watched more closely. Velleius Paterculus portrays Germany as essentially conquered, and Cassiodorus writing in the 6th century AD asserts that all Germans living between the Elbe and the Rhine had submitted to Roman power. However, the military situation in Germany was very different from what was suggested by imperial propaganda. Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus was appointed as the commander in Germany by Augustus in 6 BC, and three years later, in 3 BC, he reached and crossed the Elbe with his army. Under his command causeways were constructed across the bogs somewhere in the region between the Ems and the Rhine, called pontes longi. The next year, conflicts between the Rome and the Cherusci flared up. While the elite members of one faction sought stronger ties with Roman leaders, the Cherusci as a whole would continue to resist for the next twenty years. Although Ahenobarbus had marched to the Elbe and directed the construction of infrastructure in the region east of the Rhine, he did not do well against the Cherusci warrior bands, who he tried to handle like Tiberius had the Sicambri. Augustus recalled Ahenobarbus to Rome in 2 BC and replaced him with a more seasoned military commander, Marcus Vinicius. Between 2 BC and AD 4, Vinicius commanded the 5 legions stationed in Germany. At around the time of his appointment, many of the Germanic tribes arose in what the historian Velleius Paterculus calls the "vast war". However, no account of this war exists. Vinicius must have performed well, for he was awarded the ornamenta triumphalia on his return to Rome. Again in AD 4, Augustus sent Tiberius to the Rhine frontier as the commander in Germany. He campaigned in northern Germany for the next two years. During the first year, he conquered the Canninefati, the Attuarii, the Bructeri, and subdued the Cherusci. Soon thereafter, he declared the Cherusci "friends of the Roman people." In AD 5, he campaigned against the Chauci, and then coordinated an attack into the heart of Germany both overland and by river. The Roman fleet and legions met on the Elbe, whereupon Tiberius departed from the Elbe to march back westward at the end of the summer without stationing occupying forces at this eastern position. This accomplished a demonstration to his troops, to Rome, and to the German peoples that his army could move largely unopposed through Germany, but like Drusus, he did nothing to hold territory. Tiberius' forces were attacked by German troops on the way west back to the Rhine, but successfully defended themselves. The elite of the Cherusci tribe came to be special friends of Rome after Tiberius's campaigns of AD 5. In the preceding years, a power struggle had resulted in the alliance of one party with Rome. In this tribe was a ruling lineage that played a critical role in forging this friendship between the Cherusci and Rome. Belonging to this elite clan, was the young Arminius, who was around twenty-two at the time. Membership in this clan gave him special favor with Rome. Tiberius lent support to this ruling clan to gain control over the Cherusci, and he granted the tribe a free status among the German peoples. To keep an eye on the Cherusci, Tiberius had a winter base built on the Lippe.

It was Roman opinion that by AD 6 the German tribes had largely been pacified, if not conquered. Only the Marcomanni, under king Maroboduus, remained to be subdued. Rome planned a massive pincer attack against them involving 12 legions from Germania, Illyricum, and Rhaetia, but when word of an uprising in Illyricum arrived the attack was called off and concluded peace with Maroboduus, recognizing him as king. Part of the Roman strategy was to resettle troublesome tribal peoples, to move them to locations where Rome could keep better tabs on them and away from their regular allies. Tiberius resettled the Sicambri, who had caused particular problems for Drusus, in a new site west of the Rhine, where they could be watched more closely. ## Campaign of Varus ### Prelude Although it was assumed that the province of Germania Magna had been pacified, and Rome had begun integrating the region into the empire, there was a risk of rebellion during the military subjugation of a province. Following Tiberius's departure to Illyricum, Augustus appointed Publius Quinctilius Varus to the German command, as he was an experienced officer, but not the great military leader a serious threat would warrant. Varus imposed civic changes on the Germans, including a tax – what Augustus expected any governor of a subdued province to do. However, the Germanic tribes began rallying around a new leader, Arminius of the Cherusci. Arminius, who Rome considered an ally, and who had fought in the Roman army before. He accompanied Varus, who was in Germania with the Legions XVII, XVIII, and XIX to finish the conquest of Germania. Not much is known of the campaign of AD 9 until the return trip, when Varus left with his legions from their camp on the Weser. On their way back to Castra Vetera, Varus received reports from Arminius that there was a small uprising west of the Roman camp. The Romans were on the way back to the Rhine anyway, and the small revolt would only be a small detour – about two days away. Varus departed to deal with the revolt believing that Arminius would ride ahead to garner the support of his tribesmen for the Roman cause. In reality, Arminius was actually preparing an ambush. Varus took no extra precautions on the march to quell the uprising, as he was expecting no trouble. ### Victory of Arminius Arminius' revolt came during the Pannonian revolt, at a time when the majority of Rome's legions were tied down in Illyricum. Varus only had three legions, which were isolated in the heart of Germany. Scouts were sent ahead of Roman forces as the column approached Kalkriese. Scouts were local Germans as they would have had knowledge of the terrain, and so would had to have been a part of Arminius' ploy. Indeed, they reported that the path ahead was safe. Historians Wells and Abdale say that the scouts likely alerted the Germans to the advancing column, giving them time to get into position. The Roman column followed the road going north until it began to wrap around a hill. The hill was to the west of the road and was wooded. There was boggy terrain all around the hill, woodland to the east, and a swamp to the north (out of sight of the Roman column until they reached the bend taking the road southwest around the hill's northeastern point). Roman forces continued along the sloshy sandbank at the base of the hill until the front of the column was attacked. They heard loud shouting and spears began falling on them from the woody slope to their left. Spears then began falling from the woods to their right and the front fell into disorder from panic. The surrounded soldiers were unable to defend themselves because they were marching in close formation and the terrain was too muddy for them to move effectively. Within ten minutes, word reached the middle of the column where Varus was. Communication was hampered by the column being packed densely in the narrow road. Not knowing the full extent of the attack, Varus ordered his forces to advance forward to reinforce his forces at the front. This pushed the soldiers at the front further into the enemy, and thousands of German warriors began to pour out of the woods to attack up close. The soldiers at the middle and rear of the column began to flee in all directions, but most of them were caught in the bog or killed. Varus realized the severity of his situation and killed himself with his sword. A few Romans survived and made their way back to the winter quarters at Xanten by staying hidden and carefully travelling through the forests. ## Campaigns after the Clades Variana ### Campaigns of Tiberius It had become clear that German lands had not been pacified. After word reached Rome of Varus' defeat, Augustus had Tiberius sent back to the Rhine to stabilize the frontier in AD 10. Tiberius increased the defensive capabilities of the Rhine fortifications and redistributed forces across the region. He began to improve discipline and led small attacks across the Rhine. Velleius reports Tiberius as having enormous success. He says Tiberius: According to Seager and Wells, Velleius' account is almost certainly an exaggeration. Seager says that Tiberius successfully applied tactics that he had developed in Illyricum, but that his attacks were "no more than punitive raids". Tiberius did not get far in his conquest of Germany, because he was moving slowly as to not risk wasting lives. His advance was cautious and deliberate: he ravaged crops, burned dwellings, and dispersed the population. Suetonius reports that Tiberius' orders were given in writing and that he was to be consulted directly on any doubtful points. Tiberius was joined by his adoptive son Germanicus for the campaigns of AD 11 and 12. The two generals crossed the Rhine and made various excursions into enemy territory, moving with the same caution as Tiberius had the year before. The campaigns were conducted against the Bructeri and the Marsi to avenge the defeat of Varus, but had no significant effect. However, the campaign, combined with Rome's alliance to the Marcommanic federation of Marbod, prevented the Germanic coalition, led by Arminius, from crossing the Rhine to invade Gaul and Italy. In the winter of AD 12, Tiberius and Germanicus returned to Rome. ### Campaigns of Germanicus Augustus appointed Germanicus commander of the forces in the Rhine the following year. In August AD 14, Augustus died and on 17 September the senate met to confirm Tiberius as princeps. Roman writers, including Tacitus and Cassius Dio, mention that Augustus left a statement ordering the end of imperial expansion. It's not known if Augustus actually made such an order, or if Tiberius found it necessary to stop Roman expansion as the costs were too great, both financially and militarily. About one-third of Rome's total military forces, eight legions, were stationed in the Rhine following their redeployment by Tiberius. Four were in lower Germany under Aulus Caecina (the 5th and 21st at Xanten; the 1st and 20th at or near Cologne). Another four were in upper Germany under Gaius Silius (the 2nd, 13th, 16th, and 14th). Between AD 14 and 16, Germanicus led Roman armies across the Rhine into Germany against the forces of Arminius and his allies. Germanicus made great use of the navy, which he needed for logistics given the lack of roads in Germany at the time. The war culminated in AD 16 with the decisive victories of Idastaviso and Angrivarian Wall in which the Germanic coalition under Arminius was destroyed. Arminius himself barely managed to survive the conflict. Rome handed annexed lands over to friendly chieftains and withdrew from most of Germany, as they felt the military effort required to continue was too great in comparison to any potential gain. Tacitus says the purpose of the campaigns was to avenge the defeat of Varus, rather than to expand Rome's borders. ## Aftermath Tiberius decided to suspend all military activities beyond the Rhine, leaving the German tribes to dispute over their territories and fight amongst each other. He was content favoring alliances with certain tribes over the others in order to maintain their conflicts against each other. He achieved less of his objectives in direct involvement than he had with diplomatic relations. In general, it was too risky to go beyond the Rhine, and it was too costly in economic and military resources than Rome could recover even if they had conquered all the lands between the Rhine and the Elbe. It is possible that a new attempt to invade Germania took place during the reign of Claudius, with the expedition of Corbulo in 47, which was stopped in its tracks after initial successes against the Frisians and Chaucis. It is not until Domitian that new territories were acquired, between the high valleys of the Rhine and the Danube, following the campaigns carried out by his generals between 83 and 85 (in what was called the Agri Decumates). In 85, lands on the western side of the Rhine were organized into the Roman provinces of Germania Inferior and Germania Superior, while the province of Raetia had been established to the south in what is now Bavaria, Switzerland and Austria in 15 BC. The Roman Empire would launch no other major incursion into Germania Magna until Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) during the Marcomannic Wars.

Luis Posada Carriles

Cuban terrorist and CIA agent

Luis Clemente Posada Carriles (February 15, 1928 – May 23, 2018) was a Cuban exile militant and Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) agent. He was considered a terrorist by the United States' Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Government of Cuba, among others. Born in Cienfuegos, Cuba, Posada fled to the United States after a spell of anti-Castro activism. He helped organize the Bay of Pigs Invasion, and after it failed, became an agent for the CIA. He received training at Fort Benning, and from 1964 to 1967 was involved with a series of bombings and other covert activities against the Cuban government, before joining the Venezuelan intelligence service. Along with Orlando Bosch, he was involved in founding the Coordination of United Revolutionary Organizations, described by the FBI as "an anti-Castro terrorist umbrella organization". Posada and CORU are widely considered responsible for the 1976 bombing of a Cuban airliner that killed 73 people. Posada later admitted involvement in a string of bombings in 1997 targeting fashionable Cuban hotels and nightspots. In addition, he was jailed under accusations related to an assassination attempt on Fidel Castro in Panama in 2000, although he was later pardoned by Panamanian President Mireya Moscoso in the final days of her term. He denied involvement in the airline bombing and the alleged plot against Castro in Panama, but admitted to fighting to overthrow the Castro regime in Cuba. In 2005, Posada was held by US authorities in Texas on the charge of being in the country illegally: the charges were later dismissed. A judge ruled he could not be deported because he faced the threat of torture in Venezuela. The US government refused to repatriate Posada to Cuba, citing the same reason. His release on bail in 2007 elicited angry reactions from the Cuban and Venezuelan governments. The US Justice Department had urged the court to keep him in jail because he was "an admitted mastermind of terrorist plots and attacks", a flight risk and a danger to the community. The decision was also criticized within the US; an editorial in the Los Angeles Times stated that by releasing Carriles while detaining a number of suspected terrorists in Guantánamo Bay, the US government was guilty of hypocrisy. Posada died in May 2018 in Florida, where hardline elements of the anti-Castro exile community in Miami still regarded him as "a heroic figure". Reporter Ann Louise Bardach called him "Fidel Castro's most persistent would-be assassin, while Peter Kornbluh of the National Security Archive referred to him as "one of the most dangerous terrorists in recent history" and the "godfather of Cuban exile violence." ## Early years (1928–1968) Posada was born in Cienfuegos, Cuba, on February 15, 1928. His family was relatively affluent. He had four siblings. The family moved to Havana when Posada was 17 years old, where he studied medicine and chemistry at the University of Havana. In 1956, he and Antonio Garcia established a pest control enterprise in Cienfuegos called Servicios Exterminadores Fumigadores de Insectos. The station wagon used for their business was destroyed by a bomb while parked on the street on the night of January 3, 1957. Posada worked in 1958 as a supervisor for the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company. He worked initially in Havana, and was transferred to Akron, Ohio, after the Cuban Revolution of 1959. As a student, he had come in contact with Fidel Castro, who had become a figure of some significance in the student politics of the time. Posada later said that Castro was three years ahead of him at the university. Misgivings about the Cuban revolution led Posada to become an activist in open opposition to the new government. After a spell in a military prison, Posada sought political asylum in Mexico. By 1961, Posada had relocated to the United States where he helped to organize the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba. The rest of Posada's family remained in Cuba, and continued to support the Cuban revolution; Posada's sister eventually rose to the rank of Colonel in the Cuban army. When asked in a 1998 interview why he had opposed the Revolution, he stated "All communists are the same. All are bad, a form of evil." Posada was stationed in Guatemala, where he was supposed to participate in a second wave of landings in Cuba. The initial attack on Cuban soil failed, and the operation was called off before Posada's force was to take part. After the failure at the Bay of Pigs, Posada attended officer candidate school at the United States Army's facility in Fort Benning. There, he was trained by the CIA in sabotage and explosives between March 1963 and March 1964. While at Fort Benning, he served in the same platoon as Jorge Mas Canosa, later the founder of the Cuban American National Foundation: the two men became fast friends. He graduated from the training program with the rank of second lieutenant, but he and Mas Canosa left the army when they recognized that the US was unlikely to invade Cuba again. In a 1998 interview, he stated that "the CIA taught us everything ... explosives, how to kill, bomb, trained us in acts of sabotage." Posada received further training in guerrilla tactics in Polk City, Florida. He worked closely with the CIA in Miami and was active in the CIA's Operation 40. He later described his role as that of the agency's "principal agent", informing the organisation about political movements within the exile community and operating anti-Castro activities. In Florida, Posada trained members of the JURE, Junta Revolucionaria Cubana, an anti-Castro militant organization. He was also associated with other militant groups, including RECE (Cuban Representation in Exile). CIA files indicate that Posada was involved in a 1965 attempt to overthrow the Guatemalan government. The same year, the CIA reported that Posada was involved in various bombing plans in association with Mas Canosa. Posada also supplied information about the Cuban exile community to the CIA, and unsuccessfully attempted to recruit his brother to spy for them. In 1968, relations frayed with the CIA when Posada was questioned about his "unreported association with gangster elements". Posada's other associates at the time included Frank Rosenthal, described as a "well-known gangster". Posada relocated to Venezuela, taking with him various CIA-supplied weapons including grenades and fuses. ## Venezuela (1968–1985) In Venezuela, Posada quickly rose through the ranks of Venezuelan intelligence. He became head of the service, known as DIGEPOL and later as DISIP, in 1969. The role involved countering various guerrilla movements supported by Cuba, and Posada threw himself into his work with enthusiasm. He invited Orlando Bosch, another Cuban exile who was then on parole from US federal prison, to join his operations in Venezuela: Bosch accepted his offer in 1974, thereby violating the terms of his parole. Posada was dismissed from the service in 1974 due to ideological differences with the government of Carlos Andrés Pérez, who had assumed office in that year. Posada went on to found a private detective agency in Caracas. At approximately the same time, Posada's relations with the CIA also deteriorated. The agency began to suspect that he was involved in cocaine trafficking and dealing in counterfeit money. Posada was not confronted with these allegations to avoid compromising existing operations, but internal CIA communications referred to him as a serious liability. The Church Committee hearings of 1975, which had been triggered by fears that the CIA were running too many rogue operations, had a significant impact on the agency, and Posada's association was seen to be "not in good odor". In February 1976, the CIA officially broke off relations with Posada. Subsequently, Posada made several efforts to get back into the agency's good graces, including informing on an alleged plot by Bosch to kill Henry Kissinger, then US Secretary of State. ### Coordination of United Revolutionary Organizations Along with Orlando Bosch and Gaspar Jiménez, Posada founded the Coordination of United Revolutionary Organizations (CORU). The group first met in the Dominican Republic in June 1976, and laid plans for more than 50 bombings over the next year. The US Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) described CORU as "an anti-Castro terrorist umbrella organization." CORU was responsible for a number of attacks in 1976. These included a machine gun attack on the Cuban embassy in Bogotá, the assassination of a Cuban official in Mérida, Yucatán, the kidnapping of two Cuban embassy employees in Buenos Aires, the bombing of a Cubana airlines office in Panama City, the bombing of the Guyanese embassy in Port of Spain, and the assassination of former Chilean ambassador Orlando Letelier in Washington, D.C. The information Posada provided the CIA while attempting to reestablish good relations with it included a tip that Cuban exiles were planning to blow up a Cuban airliner. Cubana Flight 455 was a Cubana de Aviación flight departing from Barbados, via Trinidad, to Cuba. On October 6, 1976, two time bombs variously described as dynamite or C-4 planted on the Douglas DC-8 aircraft exploded, killing all 73 people on board, including all 25 members of the 1975 Cuban national fencing team. Investigators from Cuba, Venezuela and the United States traced the planting of the bombs to two Venezuelan passengers, Freddy Lugo and Hernán Ricardo Lozano. Both men were employed by Posada at his private detective agency based in Venezuela. A week later, Posada and Bosch were arrested on charges of masterminding the attack, and were jailed in Venezuela. Declassified FBI and CIA reports also show that the agencies suspected his involvement in the airline bombing within days of its occurrence. According to a declassified CIA document dated October 13, 1976, with information from what the CIA deemed a usually reliable source, Posada – in Caracas at the time – was overheard to say a few days before Cubana flight 455 exploded: "We are going to hit a Cuban airliner ... Orlando has the details". The details were contained in a memorandum sent to Kissinger. The memorandum suggested that Posada was likely to have planned the bombing. Another CIA document, based on a Miami-based informant, also implicated Posada in the conspiracy. Posada, who denied involvement in the Cubana-455 bombing, insisted his "only objective was to fight for Cuba's freedom". In prison, Posada and Bosch learned to paint, and sold their artwork in the US via intermediaries. Posada was found not guilty by a military court; however, this ruling was overturned and he was held for trial in a civilian court. Posada escaped from prison with Freddie Lugo in 1977, and the pair turned themselves in to the Chilean authorities, expecting to be welcomed for their role in the killing of Letelier, who was a target of the government of Augusto Pinochet: however, they were immediately handed back to Venezuela. Posada was held awaiting trial in Venezuela for eight years before escaping in 1985 while awaiting a prosecutor's appeal of his second acquittal in the bombing. His escape is said to have involved a hefty bribe and his dressing as a priest. According to Posada, the escape was planned and financed by Jorge Mas Canosa, who by then had become head of the Cuban American National Foundation. ## Contras and Central America (1985–2005) Posada was met in El Salvador by CIA operative Félix Rodríguez, who told Posada that he was supporting him "at the request of a wealthy Miami benefactor". Rodríguez had overseen the capture of Ernesto "Che" Guevara in 1967. He offered Posada a job as his deputy, ferrying supplies to the Contra rebels in Nicaragua, in an operation directed by Oliver North: the pair were to coordinate drops of military supplies to the rebels, who opposed the Sandinista government. Posada's fortunes rose after the Reagan administration took a more confrontational approach to Cuba and expanded covert operations in Latin America. Posada was given a house and a car, and paid \$3,000 per month, \$750 for each flight he made, and sundry expenses, primarily by US Major General Richard Secord, who was directing operations for North. Posada was responsible for managing supply flights from the Salvadoran base of Ilopango to the Contra rebels at the border. He was also responsible for coordinating between the Contras, their advisers in the US, and their allies in the military forces of El Salvador. Operating with the Salvadoran alias "Ramón Medina", Posada built relationships inside the government of El Salvador, its military, and its infamous death squads. The supply flights to the Contra rebels ceased in 1986, after the Nicaraguan government shot down one of the planes. Two of the crew were killed, including a close friend of Posada's. American pilot Eugene Hasenfus survived, thanks to his oft-mocked habit of wearing a parachute, and was captured by the Nicaraguan government. He confessed to the role of the US government in supporting the Contras, and his story made headlines around the world. Posada was supposed to have been on the flight himself, but missed the flight narrowly. After Hasenfus's capture became known, Posada gathered a group of soldiers and flew to San Salvador, where he emptied the safe houses used by the operation. By getting rid of this evidence, he would later claim, he saved George H. W. Bush and Ronald Reagan from impeachment. Posada was forced to remain in hiding in El Salvador during the Iran-Contra hearings before signing up as a security advisor to the Guatemalan government. He also remained in contact with Cuban exile groups during this period. In February 1990, Posada was shot while sitting in his car in Guatemala City by unknown assailants that Posada believed were Cuban assassins. In his memoir, Posada said that his recovery and medical bills were paid by the Cuban American National Foundation, with additional payments from Secord. Posada recuperated in Honduras, where the FBI believed him to have had a role in 41 bombings in the country. Posada himself admitted to planning numerous attacks against Cuba. His ploys included attempting to use information obtained from a Honduran captain about the movement of Cuban ships to place a mine on a freighter, and using a base in Honduras to launch an attack on Cuba with a force of Cuban exiles. Despite paying large bribes to the Honduran military for their support with the latter scheme, Posada eventually abandoned this plan, believing he could not trust the Honduran military. ### Terrorist bombings of 1997

In 1997, Posada was implicated in a series of terrorist bombings in Cuba intended to deter the growing tourism trade on the island. An Italian-born Canadian national, Fabio di Celmo, was killed and 11 others were wounded as a result. In reaction to di Celmo's death, Posada told reporter Ann Louise Bardach of The New York Times in a 1998 taped interview that "the Italian was in the wrong place at the wrong time, but I sleep like a baby." In a taped interview, Posada said: "It is sad that someone is dead, but we can't stop." He added that Raúl Ernesto Cruz León, the man arrested and charged with the bombings, was a mercenary in his employ. Cruz León was sentenced to death by the Cuban authorities after admitting to the attacks; the sentence was later commuted to 30 years imprisonment. Posada repudiated his statements after being arrested in Panama in 2000. Posada was reportedly disappointed with the reluctance of news organisations in the US to report the bombing attacks, saying "If there is no publicity, the job is useless". In 1998, The New York Times indicated that, even after the US government no longer sponsored Posada's violent activities, Posada may have benefited from a tolerant attitude on the part of US law enforcement. As bombs were being placed in tourist hotels and restaurants in Havana, The New York Times reported, a Cuban-American business-partner of Posada's tried to inform first Guatemalan, then US, law enforcement of Posada's involvement and possible links to Cuban exiles in Union City, New Jersey. Posada himself suggested his friendship with an FBI agent made it unlikely he would be officially implicated; the FBI denied claims of any friendship. According to Posada, much of his funding in this period came through Mas Canosa and the Cuban American National Foundation, and that Mas Canosa was aware of his role in the bombings. The Cuban Ministry of the Interior claimed that on the September 4, 1997, three bomb attacks against hotels in Havana, in which one person was killed, were planned and controlled by CANF. CANF denied the allegations. Jose Antonio Llama, a former board member of CANF, stated in an interview published in 2006 that several of its leaders planned attacks in Cuba during the 1990s. In 1997, CANF published a statement refusing to condemn terrorist attacks against Cuba; the CANF chairman at the time stated that "We do not think of these as terrorist actions". The CANF repeatedly denied links with Posada and his activities after the publication of the 1998 interview, and threatened The New York Times with legal action. Multiple members of the foundation, however, confirmed links with Posada. ### Arrest, conviction and release in Panama In October 1997 Posada was implicated in an assassination attempt on Fidel Castro, after four men were arrested by the US Coast Guard in a boat off the coast of Puerto Rico. He denied any involvement, and called the plot amateurish, but was believed to have been involved by the FBI. On November 17, 2000, Posada was discovered with 200 pounds of explosives in Panama City and arrested for plotting the assassination of Castro, who was visiting the country for the first time since 1959. Three other Cuban exiles were also arrested: Gaspar Jiménez who worked at the Cuban American National Foundation in Miami, Pedro Remón Rodríguez and Guillermo Novo. While in prison, Posada released a statement renouncing terrorism, and stating that he had been framed for the assassination attempt in Panama by the Cuban intelligence services. By mid-2001, \$200,000 had been raised via efforts on Miami radio for a defense fund for Posada and his colleagues. Castro announced the alleged discovery of the plot on international television, describing Posada as "a cowardly man totally without scruples". He also blamed CANF for allegedly orchestrating the plot. Shortly after, Justino di Celmo, the father of Fabio di Celmo, the victim of one of the Havana bombings, appeared on Cuban television to urge the Panamanian authorities to extradite Posada to Cuba. Posada was subsequently convicted and jailed in Panama for the assassination attempt. Bardach described him as "Fidel Castro's most persistent would-be assassin. Posada was convicted of plotting to assassinate Castro; the plot allegedly involved using dynamite to blow up an auditorium full of college students. In August 2004, Posada and the three other convicted plotters were pardoned by outgoing Panamanian president Mireya Moscoso. Moscoso, who had been close to the Bush administration in the US, denied that she had been pressured by US officials to engineer a release of the men, and US officials said they were not involved. "This was a decision made by the government of Panama", said State Department spokesman J. Adam Ereli. "We never lobbied the Panamanian government to pardon anyone involved in this case, and I'd leave it to the government of Panama to discuss the action." President Mireya Moscoso also commented, saying that "No foreign government has pressured me to take the decision", she told reporters. "I knew that if these men stayed here, they would be extradited to Cuba and Venezuela, and there they were surely going to kill them there." Moscoso's decision was condemned by incoming Panamanian president Martín Torrijos, and speculation was rife that the pardon was politically motivated. Cuba expert Julia E. Sweig said the decision "reeks of political and diplomatic cronyism". Immediately after news of the pardon broke, Venezuela and Cuba withdrew diplomatic ties with Panama. ## United States (2005–2018) In 2005, Posada requested political asylum in the United States through his attorney. On May 3, 2005, the Supreme Tribunal of Venezuela approved an extradition request for him. Although he was arrested following international pressure on the administration of George W. Bush to treat him on par with other suspects in the War on Terror, the US refused to extradite him to either Venezuela or Cuba. On September 28, 2005, a US immigration judge ruled that Posada could not be deported because he faced the threat of torture in Venezuela. The Venezuelan government reacted angrily to the ruling, accusing the US of having a "double standard in its so-called war on terrorism". The United States government sought to deport Posada elsewhere, but at least seven friendly nations refused to accept him. Posada was referenced in Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez's address to the United Nations General Assembly on September 20, 2006. Railing against the US for "imperialism" and "hypocrisy", Chávez called Posada "the biggest terrorist of this continent", and said: "Thanks to the CIA and government officials, he was allowed to escape, and he lives here in this country, protected by the government." During a United Nations Security Council meeting to review the work of its three subsidiary counter-terrorism committees, the US was invited by the representatives of Venezuela and Cuba to comment on the evidence (above) in the Posada case. The US representative, Willson, stated that "an individual cannot be brought for trial or extradited unless sufficient evidence has been established that he has committed the offence charged." Willson said removal to Venezuela or Cuba could not be carried out because, she claimed, "it was more likely than not that he would be tortured if he were so transferred." The Venezuelan representative denied the allegation, and pointed to the United States' own record in Abu Ghraib and in Guantánamo as examples of what Venezuela would not do. On May 8, 2007, US district judge Kathleen Cardone dismissed seven counts of immigration fraud and ordered the removal of Posada's electronic bracelet. In a 38-page ruling, Cardone criticized the US government's "fraud, deceit and trickery" during the interview with immigration authorities that was the basis of the charges against Posada. Cardone's ruling was overturned in mid-2008 by the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, which ruled that Posada should be tried for the alleged immigration violation. In 2009, a federal grand jury issued a superseding indictment, which marked the first time Posada was officially linked by the US government to the 1997 bombings in Cuba. On April 9, 2009, the Miami Herald reported: > The superseding indictment from the grand jury in El Paso does not charge Posada, 81, with planting the bombs or plotting the bombings but with lying in an immigration court about his role in the attacks at hotels, bars and restaurants in the Havana area. The perjury counts were added to the previous indictment that accused Posada of lying in his citizenship application about how he got into the United States. Another new charge is obstruction of a US investigation into "international terrorism." ### 2010 Texas trial Posada was accused of lying to US authorities about his entry into the country and about his alleged involvement in bomb attacks in Havana in 1997, and went on trial in Texas. Many of his backers in the Cuban exile community gathered thousands of dollars for his defense during what they termed a "radio marathon" on Radio Mambí. His charges did not relate to his alleged involvement in the bombing of the Cubana airliner, or in the bombings in Havana. Instead, they revolved around lying to immigration agents about his trip to the US and illegally entering the United States. The fact that he was not tried for murder or terrorism was strongly criticized by Cuba and Venezuela, while the Center for Democracy in the Americas described it as "charging Al Capone with tax evasion". Prosecutors alleged that Posada deceived them about his passport and arrived on a boat named the Santrina, not on a bus as he had told the government during interviews. Posada was acquitted on all charges against him in 2011. A spokesman of the US Justice Department expressed disappointment in the outcome, while the Cuban and Venezuelan governments denounced the trial: Venezuela stated that the US was protecting a known terrorist. ## Personal life Posada married in 1955. He separated from his first wife a few years after first moving to the US. He married his second wife, Elina Nieves, in 1963 while at Fort Benning. Nieves and he had a son while still in the US: a daughter was born after the family had moved to Venezuela in 1968. Posada and Nieves lived apart for most of their marriage. He had a lengthy relationship with Titi Bosch, who died of cancer in 2001. Towards the end of his life, Posada lived in Miami, where he often attended fund raisers among the right-wing exile groups, and participated in protests against the government of Fidel Castro. Among Cuban exiles, he was nicknamed "Bambi". A November 2016, El Nuevo Herald newspaper article described Posada in a Miami restaurant celebrating Castro's death. The article reported that the then-88-year-old Posada was a cancer survivor and had suffered a stroke. He died on May 23, 2018, in Miami, aged 90: an obituary in The Washington Post stated that he had been diagnosed with throat cancer five years previously. His lawyer stated that Posada Carriles died at "a government home for veterans". ## See also - Criticism of the War on Terrorism - Cuban Five

New Jersey Route 62

State highway in Passaic County, New Jersey, US

Route 62 is a 0.47-mile-long (0.76 km) state highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey. It begins at the centerline of U.S. Route 46 (US 46) along Union Boulevard (Passaic County Route 646) in the community of Totowa and continues northward to the merge of the Interstate 80 (I-80) westbound off-ramp at Exit 55B, where Route 62 ends. The route continues as Passaic County Route 646 in both directions, heading northbound to Paterson and southbound to Little Falls. Route 62 was originally an alignment of Route S6, which was designated in 1929. The route went from the Caldwells in Essex County to the West Paterson corporate line. Route S6 was decommissioned in the 1953 renumbering and replaced with Route 62, which went from Totowa to West Paterson until being truncated to its current length. ## Route description Route 62 begins at an intersection with the off-ramp from US 46 eastbound and Passaic County Route 646 in the community of Totowa. The highway heads northward along Union Boulevard, intersecting with the on-ramp from Route 62 to US 46 eastbound. The route heads across a long bridge over the eastbound and westbound divided lanes of US 46. After crossing the bridge, Route 62 heads into a small industrial part of Totowa, where it intersects with the off-ramp from the westbound lanes of US 46. The highway continues northward, intersecting with Furler Street and Lackawanna Avenue with jughandles in the northeastern quadrant. Route 62 continues along Union Boulevard, becoming a divided highway. The highway crosses over a Norfolk Southern railroad line before meeting I-80 at interchange 55A, where the route's designation terminates. The route continues into Paterson as County Route 646.

## History Route 62 was the original route of pre-1927 Route 12, and later of Route 6 (the predecessor of Route 46), designated 1927. When in 1929 Route 6 was redefined to bypass Paterson to the south, State Highway Route S6 was also designated to take on its old route west of Paterson. This route headed northbound from Totowa to Paterson following Union Boulevard, Totowa Avenue and McBride Avenue, ending at the Paterson-West Paterson (now Woodland Park) town line for several years, constituting a length of 2.32 miles (3.73 km). Before the bypass of Paterson was completed in 1943, U.S. Route 46 followed Route S6 into the city, following the old Route 6 alignment of McBride Avenue, Spruce Street, and Market Street to its current alignment. In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering on January 1, 1953, Route S6 was renumbered to Route 62. Route 62 remained along this alignment before being truncated by 1980. Route 62 was left out of the Straight Line Diagrams produced by the New Jersey Department of Transportation in 2000, but was returned the next year. Route 62 received improvements of the interchange with US 46 in 2006 at a cost of \$22.748 million (2006 USD) to repair the bridge over US 46, ramp reconfigurations and new resurfaced roadway. ## Major intersections ## See also

A Fish Called Selma

"A Fish Called Selma" is the nineteenth episode of the seventh season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 24, 1996. The episode features Troy McClure, who tries to resurrect his acting career and squelch the rumors about his personal life by marrying Selma Bouvier. Show runners Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein were fans of Phil Hartman and wished to produce an episode that focused on his character McClure. Freelance writer Jack Barth wrote the episode, and Mark Kirkland directed it. Barth's script underwent a substantial rewrite in the show's writing room, including the expansion of the Planet of the Apes musical and addition of the song "Dr. Zaius". The episode ran too long because of the slow pace of Troy and Selma's speech. Consequently, guest star Jeff Goldblum rerecorded his dialogue as MacArthur Parker at a faster speed. The episode received generally positive reviews, with particular praise given to Hartman's performance and the musical sequence. Entertainment Weekly placed the episode eighth on their list of the top 25 The Simpsons episodes. ## Plot Chief Wiggum stops Troy McClure for reckless driving and notices his driver's license requires him to wear corrective lenses. Because of his vanity, Troy dislikes wearing his glasses. He visits Selma Bouvier at the DMV and offers to take her to dinner if she lets him pass the eye test. After dinner, paparazzi photographers see Troy leaving with Selma and the story hits the news. After winning for him the role of George Taylor in a musical stage adaptation of Planet of the Apes, Troy's agent, MacArthur Parker, says that Troy can stage a career comeback if he continues seeing Selma. On his agent's advice, Troy asks Selma to marry him and she agrees. The night before the wedding, a drunken Troy tells Homer that he does not love Selma and is only using her as a sham wife to further his career, with Homer only casually informing Marge after the fact (despite ample opportunity at the wedding to declare it). Marge and Patty try convincing Selma her marriage is a sham, but she accuses them of jealousy. She confronts Troy, who shamelessly admits that their marriage is a sham but claims she has everything she could want and will be "the envy of every other sham wife in town". Selma has her doubts but agrees to remain married to Troy because she fears being alone. Parker thinks he can get Troy the part of McBain's sidekick in McBain IV: Fatal Discharge if he sires children. Troy and Selma prepare to conceive a child, but Troy is uncomfortable sleeping with women because of his "bizarre fish fetish"; rumors of his unconventional sexuality once squelched his career and prevented his comeback. Selma decides that bringing a child into a loveless marriage is wrong and leaves Troy. A tabloid TV show confirms that Troy has turned down the role of McBain's sidekick to direct and star in his own film, The Contrabulous Fabtraption of Professor Horatio Hufnagel, produced by 20th Century Fox. ## Production Show runners Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein were fans of actor Phil Hartman, who had been a recurring guest star since the second season. They decided to produce an episode entirely about his character Troy McClure to give Hartman as much to do as possible. Oakley wanted to explore Troy's character because he had never interacted with the show's other characters before, only appearing on television. The writers chose the plot idea of Troy's marriage to Selma Bouvier because she was "always marrying people". The episode's first draft was written by freelance writer Jack Barth, although the rest of the writing staff rewrote it.

One aspect of the rewrite was the song "Dr. Zaius" from the Planet of the Apes musical, which the staff consider to be one of the greatest musical numbers ever written for The Simpsons. The two songs in the musical were composed by Alf Clausen, who had worked as a copyist on the original film of Planet of the Apes. Weinstein—who had not seen the film at the time—pitched it in the writer's room as "Rock Me Dr. Zaius", in parody of the 1985 song "Rock Me Amadeus" by Falco. It expanded into a full song primarily concocted by George Meyer, who included "corny" aspects of vaudeville. The line "From chimpan-A to chimpan-Z" in the final song of the musical was written by David X. Cohen. Oakley commented that he has heard the line "all over the world". Several of the staffers have commented on how writing the Planet of the Apes parody generated a great deal of enthusiasm in the writer's room: Oakley described it as "one of those rare bursts of creative brilliance. A lot of the things that people remember and love on The Simpsons were horrible late-night grinds, whereas this was just a magic visit from the joke fairy." Director Mark Kirkland was pleased that Troy was the star of the episode; he enjoyed interpreting Hartman's voice performance because it allowed him and the other animators to "open [McClure] up visually as a character". Due to the slow talking speed of Troy and Selma, the episode's audio track was 28 minutes long; which meant that multiple scenes had to be cut, including Troy's bachelor party. After the cast had completed their original recording, guest star Jeff Goldblum rerecorded his dialogue as MacArthur Parker at a faster speed to further shorten it. His character's design was loosely modeled on him, as well as a real-life "sleazy Hollywood agent". The animators watched several of Goldblum's films, including The Tall Guy, in order to get a better representation of his performance. Throughout "A Fish Called Selma", it is hinted that Troy engages in paraphilia. The writers initially did not know what the "unsavory" sexual preference would be, but eventually decided on a fish fetish, a suggestion from executive producer James L. Brooks, since it was "so perverted and strange, that it was over the top". At the episode's table reading, an attendee exclaimed that the line, "from now on she's smoking for two" has "got to go" from the script; however, her request was denied. On the walls of the Pimento Grove restaurant, the animators placed caricatures of every single guest star who had appeared on the show up to that point, as well as pictures of the fictional celebrities of the show. ## Cultural references The episode's title is a reference to the film A Fish Called Wanda, while the opening scene features a parody of The Muppets. McClure appears in a musical version of Planet of the Apes; the song "Dr. Zaius" is a parody of "Rock Me Amadeus" by Falco. Marge calls Troy McClure a perfect gentleman "like Bing Crosby and JFK". The musical's title—Stop the Planet of the Apes. I Want to Get Off!—is a reference to the stage show Stop the World – I Want to Get Off. The scene with Selma and Troy smoking is similar to Now, Voyager. The house that McClure lives in is based on the Chemosphere in California. Troy McClure's car is a DeLorean. McClure being pulled over is a reference to when Johnny Carson was arrested for drunk driving in his DeLorean in 1982. The showbusiness news anchors, voiced by Hank Azaria and Pamela Hayden, are based on Entertainment Tonight hosts John Tesh and Mary Hart, respectively. McClure describes Jub-Jub the iguana as "Everywhere You Want to Be" in reference to a Visa commercial. Ken Keeler pitched the name MacArthur Parker, in reference to the song "MacArthur Park", written by Jimmy Webb and first recorded by Richard Harris. When learning of one possible acting gig being a Paramount-made buddy comedy involving Hugh Grant and Rob Lowe, McClure yells "Those sick freaks!?", in reference to the sex scandals that the two actors were involved in at the time. Selma's costumes are modeled on the clothes of Marilyn Monroe. At the wedding, Homer sings "Rock and Roll Part 2" by Gary Glitter in his head. The rumours of Troy McClure having a bizarre fetish for marine life mirror sex rumours about Richard Gere and a gerbil. ## Reception In its original broadcast, "A Fish Called Selma" finished tied for 66th place in the ratings for the week of March 18–March 24, 1996, with a Nielsen rating of 7.8. It was the sixth-highest-rated show on the Fox network that week. In 2021, Entertainment Weekly placed the episode fifth on their list of the top 25 The Simpsons episodes. Empire, in 2004, called the episode the "high point" of the show's "long-standing love affair with The Planet of the Apes", and cited it as McClure's "finest hour". In 2006, IGN named the episode the best of the seventh season, stating that it seemed the "obvious pick". They called the musical the best moment of the episode and "maybe even the whole show". In a 2008 review, IGN's Robert Canning praised Phil Hartman's performance as "simply the best of any guest appearance on The Simpsons". He concluded by saying: "Sure, [the episode's] writing is smart and the jokes are funny, but without Phil Hartman as Troy McClure, 'A Fish Called Selma' would only be good. With Hartman, it's fantastic!" Also in 2006, Kimberly Potts of AOL Television named the episode the 14th best episode of the series. Dave Foster of DVD Times praised the episode in his 2006 review, as well as Jeff Goldblum's participation on the audio commentary. He stated: "for those yet to witness Troy McClure's musical take on Planet of the Apes, well, you might say you haven't lived! Musical parody at its very best, the visuals and aural delights in this one brief sequence guarantee this season a recommendation being one of the most inspired moments of The Simpsons many seasons." In 2012, Johnny Dee of The Guardian listed it as one of his five favorite episodes in the history of The Simpsons, writing: "Key to The Simpsons longevity is the minor characters who only crop up every season or so. And none more so than Troy McClure." Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, the authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, were pleased that "Troy McClure gets a starring role at last".

Mikoyan-Gurevich I-211

Prototype Soviet high-altitude fighter aircraft

The Mikoyan-Gurevich I-211 was a prototype high-altitude Soviet fighter aircraft built during World War II. It was a version of the Mikoyan-Gurevich I-210, itself a variant of the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-3, fitted with a Shvetsov ASh-82F radial engine. Its development was quite prolonged, although successful, but by the time it finished its manufacturer's trials in early 1944 there was no need for a high-altitude fighter and it was not worth reducing the production of existing fighters to convert a factory over to the I-211. ## Development The I-211 was a direct descendant of the Mikoyan-Gurevich I-210 high-altitude fighter prototype, also known as the MiG-3-82 or MiG-9. Late in 1941, a decision was made to phase out production of the Mikulin AM-35A engine used by the MiG-1 and MiG-3 in favor of the Mikulin AM-38 engine used in the Ilyushin Il-2. The MiG design team had already created a version of the MiG-3 called the I-210, using a Shvetsov ASh-82 radial engine instead of the inline, liquid-cooled engine. A number of changes were made in order to accommodate the larger circumference of the radial engine, but the redesign of the engine cowling was a failure and the I-210 proved to be slower than the Yak-1 or the LaGG-3 when it first flew on 23 July 1941. Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich continued development and another prototype was built, the MiG I-211, or the MiG-9Ye, using the improved ASh-82F engine. Improvements from the I-210 included aerodynamic refinements of the engine cowling, the cockpit was moved aft 24.5 cm (9.6 in), the oil cooler inlets were moved to the wing roots, the oil cooler was moved entirely inside fuselage and a larger tail was fitted. It was armed with two 20 mm (0.79 in) ShVAK cannon. It weighed some 300 kg (660 lb) less than the I-210, possibly due to an all-metal structure, but this cannot be confirmed. These refinements took most of 1942 to design and assembly of the I-211 did not begin until December 1942. Its first flight was on 24 February 1943. The reduction in drag and in weight greatly improved performance over the I-211, with a top speed of 670 km/h (420 mph) at a height of 7,000 m (23,000 ft) and it took only 4.0 minutes to reach an altitude of 5,000 m (16,000 ft). The OKB had originally planned to build ten in the first quarter of 1943, but the manufacturer's trials took an unexpectedly long time to complete and were not finished until the first quarter of 1944. By this time there was little demand for a high-altitude fighter and the project was canceled with only a single aircraft built. ### Nomenclature In a number of older books, the MiG I-211 is called the MiG-5. It is now established that the MiG-5 designation was reserved for the production version of the MiG DIS, a twin-engine fighter that did not enter production. The acronym DIS comes from Dalnij Istrebitel Soprovozhdenya or long-range escort fighter. Similarly, the MiG-9 designation was intended for the production version of the MiG-3 with the ASh-82 radial engine. This name was reused shortly afterwards for the first Mikoyan-Gurevich jet fighter.

## Operators Soviet Union - Soviet Air Force ## Specifications (I-211)