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Greig cephalopolysyndactyly is a very rare autosomal dominant disorder. The syndrome is characterized by physical abnormalities of the head, face, fingers and toes. Distinct features include extra fingers and/or toes; a large and unusual shape of the skull; a high, prominent forehead; and widely spaced eyes. The range and severity of symptoms may vary greatly between individuals. Some individuals with Greig cephalopolysyndactyly require medical or surgical intervention to manage these problems. The syndrome is familial and in most cases is transmitted as an autosomal dominant trait. The disorder is named for D. M. Greig (pronounced Gregg), a Scottish physician, who first described the features of this syndrome in 1926. He saw a mother and her daughter who had a peculiar shape of the skull (cephalus) and polysyndactyly of the hands and feet. Polysyndactyly means both extra digits (toes, fingers) as well as webbing (syndactyly) between the digits. Dr. Greig described them as having a high forehead and widely spaced eyes. Thus, the syndrome was termed Greig cephalopolysyndactyly. Greig cephalopolysyndactyly (GCPS) can be found in several generations of a family. It is an autosomal The search to find the causative gene took a number of years. The first clue came in 1989, when an 11-month old infant was found to have a deletion of genetic material on chromosome 7. The infant had a large head and polysyndactyly of the hands and feet. Other reports soon followed, with small deletions and translocations of chromosome 7. Then, in 1991, investigators began to study a gene called GLI-3 as the candidate gene. This gene was found in the region of chromosome 7p13, which was missing in these individuals. The GLI-3 gene was also suspect because of previous studies done in mice. The mouse gene GLI-3 normally functions in the design of the skeleton and limbs in the embryo. The GLI-3 gene also works in the developing brain. Mice lacking both copies of the gene die before birth. Many have severe birth defects of the brain, skeleton and central nervous system. However, mice with just one non-working copy of the GLI-3 gene do not die. They have minor birth defects, most notably extra digits, often of the hind feet. The mice also have a duplicated bone in their front feet, and an enlarged bone in the front portion of the skull. This combination of birth defects is unusual, but common to both Xt mice and individuals with Greig cephalopolysyndactyly. With this in mind, the GLI3 gene was scanned for alterations (mutations) in individuals with GCPS. Of interest, both small and large mutations were found throughout the coding gene regions of the gene. As none of these mutations was found in unaffected individuals, this proved that the GLI3 gene was the cause of the condition. In addition to GSPC, Pallister-Hall syndrome and post-axial polydactyly type A (PAP-A), two other disorders of human development, are caused by alterations in the GLI3 gene. The common feature of each disorder is polydactyly of the hands and feet. However, individuals with Pallister-Hall syndrome have additional growth problems and severe mental retardation. Extra fingers and toes are the primary feature of PAP-A, and thus, the most mild in expression of the three conditions. Scientists have used animal models and the fruit fly Drosophila to study the function of the GLI3 gene. The normal function of the GLI3 protein is to bind to the DNA helix at specific places. By doing so, it helps to regulate which genes are activated or "turned on." Many of the mutations identified so far seem to interfere with the protein binding function. In effect, other genes that would normally be activated during development of the embryo may in fact not be turned on. It is known that the limbs (arms, legs, fingers, toes) develop between the fourth and eighth week of pregnancy. The limb defects seen in GCPS must occur during this crucial period of development. Greig cephalopolysyndactyly affects both males and females equally. It most likely occurs in every race and ethnic group. In all, less than 100 individuals have been described worldwide. Therefore, it is a very rare condition. Signs and symptoms Most individuals with Greig cephalopolysyndactyly have a large head circumference (the distance as measured around the cranium). The forehead is high and wide, and slightly rounded in front (frontal bossing). This is due to the cranial sutures closing later than normal, causing the bones of the forehead to remain apart. The widening The hands are quite distinctive in appearance. Most individuals with GCPS have extra fingers on each hand. The extra finger is rarely on the thumb side (pre-axial polydactyly). It is most often on the pinky finger side (post-axial polydactyly). Some individuals have an extra finger on each side of the hand, and thus, the possibility of 14 fingers. However, the extra finger may or may not include bone, and could just be a skin tag. The thumbs are frequently quite wide in appearance. Sometimes the bones of the thumb are duplicated or split at the tip. There may also be duplication or fusion in some of the bones that make up the hand, which can be seen on x ray. Their hands are still quite functional, although surgery may be necessary. Many of these patients will have extra toes. What is unusual is that the extra toe is most often on the great toe side, opposite to what is found in the hands. The toes may also be short. Syndactyly (extensive webbing of the skin) is a constant finding in these patients. The webbing is usually between the toes, but may involve the hands. The webbing can vary from being mild, to complete joining of the digits, with skin up to the nail. Sometimes, just a few of the digits are fused together; in others, all of the toes are webbed. The webbing may also be present alone, without extra toes, although this is uncommon. The syndactyly may also occur on just one foot, and can be quite variable. Foot mobility and walking is usually not a problem. There are other occasional problems seen in GCPS. These include craniosynostosis (premature fusion of the skull bones), mild mental retardation, hernia of the abdominal (stomach) muscles, and lesser birth defects of the urinary tract system, such as hypospadias. Each individual with Greig cephalopolysyndactyly is affected somewhat differently. The features are usually quite variable, even within the same family. The facial features can be mild, with most individuals only having a high and broad forehead. Therefore, the polysyndactyly of the hands and feet remains the most distinctive feature of the syndrome. With the use of x rays, changes in the bones of the hands and feet can be seen. The diagnosis of GCPS is suspected when the physician identifies the extra digits on the outside of the hands and on the inside of the foot, along with the broad forehead. This is usually seen at birth. The availability of direct gene testing allows for a definitive diagnosis for these patients. Using a blood sample, a direct gene test looking for alterations (mutations) in the GLI3 gene can be done. An identifiable gene mutation would confirm the diagnosis in sporadic (noninherited) patients as well. Treatment and management Very often, the physical characteristics of the face do not require surgical treatment. Sometimes, the facial appearance even improves as the child grows. However, if the cranial sutures in the forehead close either very early or very late, there may be fairly severe disfigurement to the face. This would require surgery from a specialized craniofacial medical team. Craniofacial surgery rearranges or reconstructs the bones of the face to correct the abnormal fusion of the cranial bones. Some degree of surgery will also be needed for the polydactyly of the hands and feet. The extra digits that are just skin tags (no bone within) are tied off at the base, and allowed to self-amputate. This is usually done at birth. For those digits that include bone, most surgeons would save the digit that would have the best use. The other digit (or digits) would then be surgically removed, usually around one year of age. Surgery is often done to release the webbing of the fingers and toes, and can be quite extensive. Most individuals with Greig cephalopolysyndactyly appear to have a normal life span. AboutFace International. 123 Edwards St., Suite 1003, Toronto, ONT M5G 1E2. Canada FACES: The National Craniofacial Association. PO Box 11082, Chattanooga, TN 37401. (423) 266-1632 or (800) 332-2373. [email protected]. <http://www.faces-cranio.org/>. About Face. <http://www.aboutface2000.org>. Alliance of Genetic Support Groups. <http://www.geneticalliance.org.htm>. Let's Face It. <http://www.faceit.org>. Kevin M. Sweet, MS, CGC

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2013-05-19T11:19:33Z

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en

Refsum disease is an inherited disorder in which the enzyme responsible for processing phytanic acid is defective. Accumulation of phytanic acid in the tissues and the blood leads to damage of the brain, nerves, eyes, skin, and bones. Refsum disease was first characterized by the Norwegian physician, Sigvald Refsum, in the 1940s and is known by other names, such as classical Refsum disease, adult Refsum disease, phytanic acid alpha-hydroxylase deficiency, phytanic acid storage disease, hypertrophic neuropathy of Refsum, heredopathia atactica polyneuritiformis, and hereditary motor and sensory neuropathy IV. Refsum disease should not be confused with infantile Refsum disease, which was once thought to be a variant of the disorder but is now known to be a genetically and biochemically distinct entity. Sometimes infantile Refsum disease is simply referred to as "Refsum disease," furthering the confusion. Living bodies are made up of millions of individual cells that are specifically adapted to carry out particular functions. Within cells are even smaller structures, called organelles, that perform jobs and enable the cell to serve Phytanic acid is a substance found in foods, such as dairy products, beef, lamb, and some fish. Normally, phytanic acid is processed by a set of enzymes within the cell to convert it to another form. In the past, scientists were unsure where in the cell this process took place, hypothesizing that it may occur in the peroxisome or another organelle, called the mitochondrion. However, recent research has definitively determined that the enzymes responsible for processing phytanic acid are located in the peroxisome. Refsum disease is an inherited disorder in which one of the peroxisomal enzymes, phytanic acid hydroxylase (also called phytanic acid oxidase, or phytanyl CoA hydroxylase), is defective, resulting in unprocessed phytanic acid. Consequently, high levels of phytanic acid build up in the tissues of the body and the bloodstream, causing damage to different organ systems. Refsum disease is a genetic condition and can be inherited or passed on in a family. The genetic defect for the disorder is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait, meaning that two abnormal genes are needed to display the disease. A person who carries one abnormal gene does not display the disease and is called a carrier. A carrier has a 50% chance of transmitting the gene to his or her children. A child must inherit the same abnormal gene from each parent to display the disease. Refsum disease is caused by a deficiency in an enzyme, phytanic acid hydroxylase. The gene encoding for this enzyme, called PAHX or PHYH, was identified in 1997 and mapped to human chromosome 10 (locus: 10pter-p11.2). Several common mutations have been identified in the gene that result in Refsum disease. Refsum disease is rare, but the exact incidence and prevalence of the disorder in the general population is not known. Refsum disease may not be distributed equally among geographical areas or different ethnic groups, as most of the diagnosed cases have been found in children and young adults of Scandinavian heritage. Signs and symptoms Patients with Refsum disease generally do not show obvious defects at birth, and growth and development initially appears normal. The onset of clinical symptoms varies from early childhood to age 50, but symptoms usually appear before 20 years of age. The manifestations of Refsum disease primarily involve the nervous system, the Phytanic acid deposits in the fatty sheaths surrounding nerves, causing damage and resulting in peripheral neuropathy in 90% of patients with Refsum disease. Peripheral neuropathy is the term for dysfunction of the nerves outside of the spinal cord, causing loss of sensation, muscle weakness, pain, and loss of reflexes. Nerves leading to the nose and ears can also be affected, resulting in anosmia (loss of the sense of smell) in 35% of patients and hearing loss or deafness in 50% of patients. Finally, Refsum disease results in cerebellar ataxia in 75% of patients. Cerebellar ataxia is a defect in a specific part of the brain (the cerebellum), resulting in loss of coordination and unsteadiness. In contrast to infantile Refsum disease, people with Refsum disease do not show mental retardation and generally have normal intelligence. Accumulation of phytanic acid also results in disorders of the eye. The most common finding is retinitis pigmentosa, a degeneration of the retina resulting in poor nighttime vision and sometimes blindness. Disorders of pupil movement and nystagmus (uncontrollable movements of the eye) may also be present due to related nervous system damage. Other eye manifestations of Refsum disease may include glaucoma (abnormally high pressure in the eye, leading to vision loss) and cataracts (clouding of the lens of the eye). People with Refsum disease often develop dry, rough, scaly skin. These skin changes, called ichthyosis, can occur over the entire body, but sometimes will appear only on the palms and soles of the feet. In addition to these skin abnormalities, 60% of affected people may experience abnormal bone growth, manifesting as shortened limbs or fingers, or abnormal curvatures of the spine. Patients with Refsum disease usually first present to a physician complaining of weakness in the arms and legs, physical unsteadiness and/or nightblindness or failing vision. The symptoms associated with Refsum disease are progressive and, if untreated, will become more numerous and severe as the patient ages. For reasons that are not completely understood, clinical deterioration can be sometimes be interrupted by periods of good health without symptoms. Refsum disease is diagnosed though a combination of consistent medical history, physical exam findings, and laboratory and genetic testing. When patients with Refsum disease present to their physicians complaining of visual problems or muscle weakness, physical signs of retinitis pigmentosa, peripheral neuropathy, cerebellar ataxia, or skin and bone changes (as discussed above) are often noted. These findings raise suspicion for a genetic syndrome or metabolic disorder, and further tests are conducted. Laboratory tests reveal several abnormalities. Normally, phytanic acid levels are essentially undetectable in the plasma. Thus, the presence of high levels of phytanic acid in the bloodstream is highly indicative of Refsum disease. If necessary, a small portion of the patient's connective tissue can be sampled and grown in a laboratory and tested to demonstrate a failure to process phytanic acid appropriately. Other associated laboratory abnormalities include the presence of high amounts of protein in the fluid that bathes the spinal cord, or abnormal electrical responses recorded from the brain, muscles, heart, ears, retina, and various nerves as a result of nervous system damage. Genetic testing can also be performed. When a diagnosis of Refsum disease is made in a child, genetic testing of the PAHX/PHYH gene can be offered to determine if a specific gene change can be identified. If a specific change is identified, carrier testing can be offered to relatives. In families where the parents have been identified to be carriers of the abnormal gene, diagnosis of Refsum disease before birth is possible. Prenatal diagnosis is performed on cells obtained by amniocentesis (withdrawal of the fluid surrounding a fetus in the womb using a needle) at about 16–18 weeks of pregnancy or from the chorionic villi (a part of the placenta) at 10–12 weeks of pregnancy. Treatment and management There is no cure for Refsum disease, thus treatment focuses on reducing levels of phytanic acid in the bloodstream to prevent the progression of tissue damage. Phytanic acid is not made in the human body and comes exclusively from the diet. Restriction of phytanic acid-containing foods can slow progress of the disease or reverse some of the symptoms. Patients are advised to maintain consumption of phytanic acid below 10 mg/day (the normal intake is approximately 100 mg/day). Sources of high levels of phytanic acid to be avoided include meats (beef, lamb, goat), dairy products (cream, milk, butter, cheese), and some fish (tuna, cod, haddock). Plasma levels of phytanic acid can be monitored periodically by a physician to investigate the effectiveness of the restricted diet and determine if changes are required. As a result of dietary restriction, nutritional deficiencies may result. Consultation with a nutritionist is recommended to assure proper amounts of calories, protein, and vitamins are obtained through the diet, and nutritional supplements may be required. Because phytanic acid is stored in fat deposits within the body, it is important for patients with Refsum disease to have regular eating patterns; with even brief periods of Another useful adjunct to dietary treatment is plasmapheresis. Plasmapheresis is a procedure by which determined amounts of plasma (the fluid component of blood that contains phytanic acid) is removed from the blood and replaced with fluids or plasma that do not contain phytanic acid. Regular utilization of this technique allows people who fail to follow a restricted diet to maintain lower phytanic acid levels and experience less tissue damage and symptoms. Patients with Refsum disease should be seen regularly by a multidisciplinary team of health care providers, including a pediatrician, neurologist, ophthalmologist, cardiologist, medical geneticist specializing in metabolic disease, nutritionist, and physical/occupational therapist. People with Refsum disease, or those who are carriers of the abnormal gene or who have an relative with the disorder, can be referred for genetic counseling to assist in making reproductive decisions. The prognosis of Refsum disease varies dramatically. The disorder is slowly progressive and, if left untreated, severe symptoms will develop with considerably shortened life expectancy. However, if diagnosed early, strict adherence to a phytanic acid-free dietary regimen can prevent progression of the disease and reverse skin disease and some of the symptoms of peripheral neuropathy. Unfortunately, treatment cannot undo existing damage to vision and hearing. "Peroxisomal Disorders." In Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. Edited by R. E. Behrman. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, 2000, pp 318-384. Weinstein, R. "Phytanic acid storage disease (Refsum's disease): Clinical characteristics, pathophysiology and the role of therapeutic apheresis in its management." Journal of Clinical Apheresis 14 (1999): 181-184. "Entry 266500: Refsum Disease." OMIM—Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man. <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/htbinpost/Omim/dispmim?266500>. Oren Traub, MD, PhD

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By Devon Nespica Listen up: if you think hearing loss is just an age-related problem, think again. Hearing loss can occur suddenly or progressively at any point in life. A variety of factors can cause people of all ages to develop hearing loss in one or both ears. While loud noise and music are often the most commonly recognized causes, there are other influences that can have you asking, "Can you repeat that?" Here are five lesser-known offenders: As if you needed another reason to kick the habit, now researchers are warning that smoking can affect your hearing. Nicotine causes blood vessels to constrict and shrink, including the blood vessels that bring blood and oxygen to the inner ear. Without adequate blood flow, the cochlea can quite literally "suffocate," resulting in hearing loss. What soothes your aches and pains may be damaging your ears. A study in the American Journal of Epidemiology showed that taking ibuprofen or acetaminophen two or more days per week resulted in an increased risk of hearing loss. Researchers suspect that the drugs reduce blood flow to the cochlea (an essential hearing mechanism), thereby impairing its function. Other drugs that have been linked to hearing loss include antibiotics, oxycodone and certain types of chemotherapy. Stress and Anxiety There's no doubt that hearing loss can make a person feel stressed and anxious, but doctors say that stress and anxiety may be risk factors for developing hearing disorders in the first place. Studies have shown a correlation between stress levels and hearing ability. Because researchers have established a connection between stress and illness, it's thought that stressed individuals may have a higher incidence of illness and infection, which in turn may lead to hearing impairment. Sniffing and sneezing aren't the only effects of seasonal allergies. Experts say that people with allergies are also susceptible to hearing loss. They believe that high pollen levels can cause an allergic reaction in the inner ear, which causes swelling and an increase in fluid and wax accumulation. Luckily, many people find that as their allergies subside, so do their hearing problems. The jury is still out on this one, but some specialists say cell phone use may cause hearing impairment. Practitioners are seeing more young people in their twenties for conditions such as tinnitus (ringing in the ear) and hearing loss, and studies suggest that the electromagnetic radiation given off by cell phones may damage the cochlea and auditory cortex. They found that hearing problems sometimes develop in the ear that is favored most frequently when using a cell phone. Using a landline, Bluetooth earpiece or a headset is thought to be a safer option. New Technology for Better Hearing If you have difficulty hearing, all is not lost. Educating yourself about how to prevent and treat hearing loss is the best first step, and there are many new technologies available that can improve your hearing. Contact a hearing professional near you to learn more about the latest options. Devon Nespica is a medical writer with a specialty in bone conduction hearing systems.

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Archaeological deposits exposed on the eroding face Rachel Darmody, NZHPT The archaeological excavation at Cook's Cove will salvage information from a site that is threatened by coastal erosion. The site is located on the southern bank of the river mouth at Cook's Cove. It is an early site, probably dating to the 14th or early 15th century AD, based on the types of artefacts and midden material visible along the exposed edge. The age can also be assumed due to the presence of Loisels Pumice, and this site was one of Harold Wellman's type sites for his 1962 publication Holocene of the North Island of New Zealand. Such sites are rare and because this site is currently being actively eroded by the sea a decision was made to carry out an excavation to retrieve valuable information prior to the total destruction of the site - an event that is not far off. The landowner is Hauiti Incorporation, and the iwi is Te Aitanga a Hauiti. Both parties have consented to the excavations and authority to undertake the investigations has been granted by the NZHPT, in accordance with the requirements of the Historic Places Act 1993. The work is being funded by the NZHPT, The University of Otago and the Gisborne Branch Committee of the NZHPT. It is being carried out in partnership with Te Aitanga a Hauiti. Aims of the Research Targeted excavations on the site aim to retrieve midden (prehistoric food remains), material culture and radiocarbon samples. The midden will be used to reconstruct subsistence activities and some environmental information. The material culture will assist in defining site function and relationships with other early New Zealand sites. The radiocarbon samples will provide information on the exact age of the site. We will also attempt to expose large enough areas to identify features such as house floors and oven or cooking areas. For questions about the Cook's Cove excavation, contact [email protected]

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2013-05-19T10:53:11Z

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On March 3, 1875, indoor ice hockey makes its public debut in Montreal, Quebec. After weeks of training at the Victoria Skating Rink with his friends, Montreal resident James Creighton advertised in the March 3 edition of the Montreal Gazette that "A game of hockey will be played in the Victoria Skating Rink this evening between two nines chosen from among the members." Prior to the move indoors, ice hockey was a casual outdoor game, with no set dimensions for the ice and no rules regarding the number of players per side. The Victoria Skating Rink was snug, so Creighton limited the teams to nine players each. Hockey, traditionally played on grass with a stick and a ball, has its roots in ancient Greece, Egypt and Persia. In this form, the game spread north to Europe and then west to the Americas, and is still popular in the Southern Hemisphere as well as in North America, where it is called field hockey. North America's indigenous people were playing games with a stick and ball long before the French and English crossed the Atlantic. Cherokee, Ojibwe and Mohawk tribes all had different names for what the French branded "lacrosse," as did the Iroquois native to Quebec. Meanwhile, ice skating was popularized by skating on sharpened animal shinbones in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, and games played on ice included a Dutch version of golf and an on-ice version of hurling, an Irish stick-and-ball game. Ice hockey was initially thought too dangerous a game to play, as the ball was difficult to control on the ice. For the 1875 Montreal game, the ball was replaced with a wooden disc, now known as a puck. The disc was less likely to fly off the ice, and was less dangerous to both players and spectators. Creighton also instituted an early off-sides rule, mandating that there be no forward passing ahead of the player with the puck. The Montreal Gazette reported the next day that the first ice hockey game at Victoria Skating Rink attracted 40 spectators. Ice hockey then caught fire in Montreal, and in 1877 Creighton published rules to the game, known as Montreal Rules. Canada's now legendary national passion for ice hockey was ignited, and the new sport began to spread across the country. Years later, in 1994, bill C-212, making ice hockey the official winter sport of Canada, was made law by Canada's parliament. Lacrosse—which had been Canada's national sport since 1859—remained the country's official summer game.

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2013-05-19T11:09:17Z

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The normal skull consists of several plates of bone that are separated by sutures. The sutures (fibrous joints) are found between the bony plates in the head. As the infant grows and develops, the sutures close, forming a solid piece of bone, called the skull. Craniosynostosis is a condition in which the sutures close too early, causing problems with normal brain and skull growth. Premature closure of the sutures may also cause the pressure inside of the head to increase and the skull or facial bones to change from a normal, symmetrical appearance. What causes craniosynostosis? Craniosynostosis occurs in one out of 2,200 live births and affects males slightly more often than females. Craniosynostosis is most often sporadic (occurs by chance). In some families, craniosynostosis is inherited in one of two ways: - Autosomal Recessive Autosomal recessive means that two copies of the gene are necessary to express the condition, one inherited from each parent, who are obligate carriers. Carrier parents have a one in four, or 25 percent, chance with each pregnancy, to have a child with craniosynostosis. Males and females are equally affected. - Autosomal Dominant Autosomal dominant means that one gene is necessary to express the condition, and the gene is passed from parent to child with a 50/50 risk for each pregnancy. Males and females are equally affected. Craniosynostosis is a feature of many different genetic syndromes that have a variety of inheritance patterns and chances for reoccurrence, depending on the specific syndrome present. It is important for the child as well as family members to be examined carefully for signs of a syndromic cause (inherited genetic disorder) of craniosynostosis such as limb defects, ear abnormalities, or cardiovascular malformations.

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http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/neurology_neurosurgery/specialty_areas/pediatric_neurosurgery/conditions/craniosynostosis/

2013-05-19T10:54:38Z

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Please note: The FAQ pages at the HPCVL website are continuously being revised. Some pages might pertain to an older configuration of the system. Please let us know if you encounter problems or inaccuracies, and we will correct the entries. The working principle of MPI is perhaps best illustrated on the grounds of a programming example. The following program, written in Fortran 90 computes the sum of all square-roots of integers from 0 up to a specific limit m: end module mpi end module cpuids call mpi_init( ierr ) integer:: m, i real*8 :: s, mys write(*,*)'how many terms?' write(*,*)'rank:', myid,'mys=',mys, ' m:',m write(*,*)'total sum: ', s Some of the common tasks that need to be performed in every MPI program are done in the subroutine mpiinit in this program. Namely, we need to call the routine mpi_initto prepare the usage of MPI. This has to be done before any other MPI routine is called. The two routine calls to mpi_comm_size and call mpi_comm_rank determine how many processes are running and what is the unique ID number of the present, i.e. the calling process. Both pieces of information are essential. The results are stored in the variables totps and myid, respectively. Note that these variables appear in a module cpuids so that they may be accessed from all routines that "use" that module. The main work in the example is done in the subroutine demo02. Note that this routine does use the module cpuids. The first operation is to determine the maximum integerm in the sum by requesting input from the user. The if-clause "if(myid.eq.0) then" serves to restrict this I/O operation to only one process, the so-called "root process", usually chosen to be the one with rank (i.e. unique ID number) zero. After this initial operation, communication has become necessary, since only one process has the right value of m. This is done by a call to the MPI collective operation routine mpi_bcast. This call has the effect of "broadcasting" the integer m. This call needs to be made by all processes, and after they have done so, all of them know m. The sum over the square root is then executed on each process in a slightly different manner. Each term is added to a local variable mys. A stride of totps (the number of processes) in the do-loop ensures that each process adds different terms to its local sum, by skipping all others. For instance, if there are 10 processes, process 0 will add the square-roots of 0,10,20,30,..., while process 7 will add the square-roots of 7,17,27,37,... After the sums have been completed, further communication is necessary, since each process only has computed a partial, local sum. We need to collect these local sums into one total, and we do so by calling mpi_reduce. The effect of this call is to "reduce" a value local to each process to a variable that is local to only one process, usually theroot process. We can do this in various ways, but in our case we choose to sum the values up by specifying mpi_sum in the function call. Afterwards, the total sum resides in the variable s, which is printed out by the root process. The last operation done in our example is finalizing MPI usage by a call tompi_finalize, which is necessary for proper program completion. In this simple example, we have distributed the tasks of computing many square roots among processes, each of which only did a part of the work. We used communication to exchange information about the tasks that needed to be performed, and to collect results. This mode of programming is called "task parallel". Often it is necessary to distribute large amounts of data among processes as well, leading to "data parallel" programs. Of course, the distinction is not always clear.

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en

When Apollo 11 stood on its launch pad in July 1969, NASA and contractor engineers had done everything they could to make sure it was ready for a lunar landing. In the eight years since President Kennedy had issued his challenge, thousands of persons had designed, developed, and figured out how to use the millions of pieces that made up the launch. vehicle and spacecraft.1 Confidence in this hardware had come from several flights, one of them to within a few kilometers of the target. By and large, then, worries about the last stage of the journey should have been few. Such an expectation, however, did not prove true. Many of the prelaunch activities were peculiar to the Apollo 11 mission. Landing on the moon, walking on its alien surface, and then leaving it (all new experiences) affected other areas. For example, the lack of knowledge about the problems a crewman might encounter as he moved about in low gravity in the "third spacecraft" - a bulky suit and backpack - raised numerous questions. What would he do? How long would he stay? How far would he explore? And what kind of experiments would he set up for scientific interests? Some scientists worried that the astronauts might bring back pathogens to contaminate the earth. So the Lunar Receiving Laboratory became a quarantine facility as well as a place in which to store and study lunar soil and rocks. A precise protocol was drafted to keep the astronauts isolated from other Earthlings and to move them and their cargo from a Pacific splashdown to a special building in Houston with dispatch. Crew training, already complicated by the need to master the controls of two different and very complex spacecraft, took on new dimensions, principally in learning how to set a 14.5-metric-ton lunar module safely down on the moon. The astronauts practiced this task on fixed-base lunar module simulators in Houston and at the Cape, on a swinging suspension device at the Langley Research Center, and on a free-flight apparatus called a lunar landing training vehicle - a set of rocket motors laced together and supported by an odd-looking arrangement of pipes - at Ellington Air Force Base, Texas. Landing men on the moon raised national and international issues never before faced in space flight. In the past, an explorer had implanted his country's flag on new soil to symbolize a territorial claim. When an astronaut raised the banner of the United States over lunar ground, would he be claiming the moon for America? Other symbolic acts and articles also prompted questions about man's first visit to the earth's moon. What tokens should he take with him, what should he leave there and what should he bring back, what memorable words should he say, and what ceremonies should he enact? NASA public affairs officials, more accustomed to responding to queries than to using the high-pressure selling tactics of public relations promoters, realized that they would have to answer these new questions almost before they were asked. They also recognized that public interest in Apollo might wane after the first landing. Apollo 11 must, therefore, tell NASA's story aggressively while a worldwide audience watched and listened. From almost any vantage point, Apollo 11 was unique - a totally different venture from any the earth's people had ever embarked upon. But the men and women most directly responsible for this flight focused on mission techniques, crew training, space vehicles, and qualification of an extravehicular mobility unit, with only fleeting thoughts for what this mission might mean to the world. 1. Jane Van Nimmen and Leonard C. Bruno, with Robert L. Rosholt, NASA Historical Data Book, 1958-1968, vol. 1, NASA Resources, NASA SP-4012 (Washington, 1976), p. 10; "Interesting Information on Apollo Program and U.S. Space Programs," typescript by unknown author, 27 May 1969.

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http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch13-1.html

2013-05-19T10:43:22Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697420704/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094340-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Ideas about purpose, audience and structure that apply to writing essays also apply to research writing; however, a research project asks students to spend more time on the collection of materials and to develop their sense of purpose, audience and structure as their growing knowledge about the subject becomes more complex. The most important thing for students to remember about completing a research project is that, in the end, most professors are interested in the way students can combine their use of outside sources with their own personal insights about the topic. It should not be a regurgitation of facts and ideas from other sources. It should be the careful integration of those sources with the ideas students have developed as a result of their reading and thinking. Students certainly do need to use skills of summary and synthesis as they share with their audience the various ideas they have learned about in their research, but merely summarizing and synthesizing material from others is not research. Instead, the research project should represent a higher level of abstract thinking, one that illustrates an ability to summarize, connect, find patterns, critique, and ultimately take a carefully considered position. The seven research steps listed here can be integrated into a course schedule so that students have opportunities for feedback at important points in the research process. The best kind of research projects emerge from personal interests and/or commitment to a specific area of study. In the best case scenario, then, students will have time to explore various ideas within a particular course, perhaps doing some informal writing in order to discover interests. Active reading and discussion in the classroom, combined with regular note taking and perhaps conversations with the professor, can help students figure out a particular interest worth the time and effort of research. Students do not always have to feel drawn to a topic positively, however, to make it a good research project. Sometimes topics that we feel negative or neutral about can provide a strong starting point as well. A good research question is one that a student probably hasn?t been able to answer from the classroom sources or one that lingers and feels unresolved. Students need to use the library and browse the web, keeping track of key ideas and information on note cards or in a research log (see documentation format). The most general way to begin is through broad reference sources like bibliographic entries such as the Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature, the Book Review Digest, or the New York Times Index. Specific indexes for specific disciplines can also be found with the librarian's help or with suggestions from the professor. Encyclopedias and internet search sites are also useful for initial, general references. These sources should help students refine the process and lead to more specific sources and a refinement of the research question. Remember that internet research can never replace print research because only a fraction of the world's printed resources can be found electronically. Distinguish between primary and secondary sources. If an author has direct knowledge of the topic in question, if an author was a participant or observer to an event, such a source is primary. Authors with indirect knowledge of topics or event are secondary sources, such as biographies, literary criticism, historical surveys and textbooks. Practice critical reading: Students need to develop critical reading habits for either primary or secondary sources since both types can exhibit personal and interpretive bias that must be considered when completing research. Preview the entire source first through its table of contents, introduction, headings, conclusion, and bibliography.Does the author's background suggest a particular point of view? What is the author's stance on the topic? Does the author seem passionate, angry, neutral? As students think about sources in this way, they can determine the reliability of what they are reading, taking special care to note similarities and differences among the sources they are using and to discover connections that may exist between sources. Be cautious with electronic sources: Students need to be cautious about using electronic research sites since much that they can retrieve might actually be questionable or irrelevant to their projects. Often web material is outdated or connected to hyperlinks that are outdated. An excellent resource for evaluating online sources is "Assessing the Credibility of Online Sources." Develop a list of all sources at the same time that the sources are consulted. For a source within the library, make sure to include the library call number for easy reference later if the source must be consulted again. Briefly annotating the content of the source is also important for future reference. Source note cards can provide direct quotations or paraphrases. Brenda Spatt, in Writing From Sources, Chapter 12, (St. Martin's Press), provides the following helpful information about using quotations and paraphrases: If you want to use another author?s ideas in support of your own, if another author's language is especially vivid, or if you want to use another author's words in order to comment on them, then a direct quotation is appropriate.To paraphrase means to offer a point-by-point description of another author's ideas, expressed in your own words. A paraphrase reports on a short passage and covers everything in the passage accurately, fully, and in the same sequence of ideas. Research projects can be written up from a variety of rhetorical contexts. Depending on the area of study and the specifics of the course assignment, students need to develop a sense of the role they need to play for the particular research assignment. For example, if the research requires reporting on various sides of a controversial issue, a student?s role may be to review the controversy. Here the role is informative. A more challenging role would be taken on if the student is also expected to analyze and evaluate the controversy in question. Here the role is evaluative. Another challenging role would ask that the student argue or advocate for a particular position related to the controversy. Here the role is persuasive. Develop an Initial Thesis, Organize Note Cards, and Outline By now, students probably have more information than they need and have been thinking about their opening research question in a variety of ways, leading to some initial ideas that can be used as an initial thesis statement. The act of writing will help students refine the central point of their project; so, even if the opening thesis appears sketchy, writing with it and from it will help students continue to draft. A good way to begin is to review sources that have been used and to reflect on how they work together. Once students have done an informal review of sources, they may find a suitable working thesis will emerge and give them a starting point. Note cards can be reviewed again after a working thesis is established. Students can then organize them into categories that seem to best represent the way the thesis can be developed and from this set of categories, a working outline can be devised. Provide a heading for each note card and then group them as you prepare to begin writing. If working from an outline is desirable or required, students can either sketch the main sections of their paper into topics and subtopics or develop a formal outline using the following skeleton: And so on . . . keeping in mind that no matter how much time is spent developing an outline in advance, writing the draft will inevitably lead to changes. - First Major topic - First Subtopic - first minor subtopic - second minor subtopic - Second Subtopic - first minor subtopic - second minor subtopic - Second Major topic Write a rough draft Students have now completed research on a topic of interest to them, developed a group of note cards, composed a working thesis and outline, and are now ready to begin drafting. Students should, in fact, begin feeling like they have developed a certain amount of expertise with which to begin. To begin writing, they can simply follow the outline and write sections in order, or they can begin in the middle and wait until they have composed quite a bit of the paper before going back to the introduction. Either way, it?s a good idea to write sections at a time and take a break to let the material sit, to go back and review it, and then write some more. Writing the rough draft will require integrating quotations and paraphrases into the paper. Brenda Spatt, in her book Writing from Sources, recommends that students use quotes sparingly. An overuse of quotes will make it seem that students have nothing to say. Also remember to let quotes make their points and to avoid following them with explicit summaries of what was just quoted. Likewise, paraphrases of an author should never be the controlling force in the paper. The best rule of thumb is for students to use a combination of summary, quotation, and paraphrase as a way of supplementing or helping to substantiate their own ideas. Spatt also points out that it is important for students to remember to quote accurately and exactly and to tailor quotations to fit their own writing. For example: When you delete words from a direct quotation, make sure to use the conventional symbol for deletion: three spaced dots called an ellipsis. Here's an example from Brenda Spatt's Writing from Sources: THE EXACT QUOTE: It is not true that suffering ennobles the character: happiness does that sometimes, but suffering, for the most part, makes men petty and vindictive. (W. Somerset Maugham) USE OF ELLIPSIS WITH EXACT QUOTE: Maugham believes, "It is not true that suffering ennobles the character; . . . suffering, for the most part, makes men petty and vindictive." * If you want to add a word or phrase to a direct quotation in order to make it fit your own writing, then use brackets. You insert the information inside the quotation and place it in square brackets. Here's an example: THE EXACT QUOTE: As long as there are sovereign nations possessing great power, war is inevitable. Albert Einstein USE OF BRACKETS WITH EXACT QUOTE: Einstein said that when sovereign nations "[possess] great power, war is inevitable." Share drafts in a peer workshop: Identify places in the paper where you would like specific advice. Ask for positive feedback and criticism. Ask if readers can understand the overall point of the paper. Ask if all the parts relate to the whole/overall point of the paper. Revise based on feedback. Then Polish documentation format, grammar and style. Always proofread. Next, visit Documentation Format for helpful advice on working with sources.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.hws.edu/academics/ctl/writes_research.aspx

2013-05-19T10:42:13Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697420704/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094340-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Detecting the Silent Menace: Atoms Support the Search for Landmines - United Nations Development Programme on Mine Action - UN Landmine Ban Treaty - Landmine Action Links - International Campaign to Ban Landmines - US State Department Office of Humanitarian Demining - International Committee of Red Cross Landmine Action - IAEA General Conference Resolution on Basic Human Needs (pdf file) People living in more than 70 countries, mostly in the developing world, daily face the "silent menace" posed by an estimated 60 million buried and abandoned landmines. Nuclear techniques may help the search to find them before the explosives claim more human lives. IAEA-supported projects in Croatia and other countries are helping to point the way forward. Landmines left behind from armed conflicts kill about 26,000 people every year and maim even more. Most victims are women, children and farmers in developing countries. To put an end to tragic losses, global efforts have intensified to ban landmines and to boost assistance to countries to clear their land of buried explosives. Such "humanitarian demining" is difficult and dangerous, requiring the complete removal of all mines and the return of the cleared minefields to normal use. Most humanitarian demining today is done using portable metal detectors and trained dogs. Yet a major problem remains discriminating between a "dummy" object and a landmine. New technologies may improve the chances of detecting explosive objects buried in the ground. Methods include analysis by neutron irradiation for elemental characterization of hidden objects. Developments indicate that demining operations could be done considerably faster and more efficiently using neutron-based techniques. Countries are assessing the potential through a research project that the IAEA is supporting on the application of nuclear techniques to landmine identification. Twelve research groups from around the world are involved. In Europe, a selected neutron-based system is being tested under field conditions through IAEA-supported technical cooperation projects, one with a regional focus and another targeted nationally in Croatia, where a laboratory is being established to study nuclear-based demining methods. Nearly 7000 square kilometers of Croatia are thought to house buried landmines and unexploded ordnance. The twin projects aim to significantly improve national and regional capabilities to reduce the threats that abandoned explosives pose to human life.

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http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/2001/08132001_news01.shtml

2013-05-19T10:54:43Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697420704/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094340-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Many proponents of intelligent design have cited the bacterial flagellum as an example of intelligent design and irreducible complexity in the cell. Graphic courtesy of the Access Research Network (ARN.org). Our mission statement states that the IDEA Center aims to: - "At the heart of our advocacy is to promote intelligent design theory purely on its scientific merits." - "Our other advocacy goals include to challenge mechanistic and undirected scientific explanations for the origin and diversification of life, to challenge the philosophical assumptions underlying methodological naturalism..." These aspects of our mission statement will be explained briefly below: Intelligent Design Theory in a Nutshell The Science Behind Intelligent Design Introduction to Intelligent Design Intelligent Design Jargon Explained Evidence for Design of the Universe through Anthropic Principles 2. Deficiencies in Naturalistic Explanations of Life's Origins 1. Intelligent Design Theory: Intelligent design is a scientific theory which says that some aspects of nature are best explained by an intelligent cause. Intelligent design begins with observations about how intelligent agents act when they design things. In short, intelligent design theory makes inferences based upon observations about the types of complexity that are produced by the action of intelligent agents. Intelligent design begins with observations about the types of information that we observe being produced by intelligent agents in the real world. Even the atheist zoologist Richard Dawkins says that intuitively, "[b]iology is the study of complicated things that give the appearance of having been designed for a purpose." Dawkins would say that natural selection is what actually did the "designing," however intelligent design theorist Stephen C. Meyer rightly notes that, "[i]ndeed, in all cases where we know the causal origin of 'high information content,' experience has shown that intelligent design played a causal role." Thus, like any true scientific theory, intelligent design theory begins with empirical observations from the natural world. When intelligent agents act, they tend to produce high levels of "complex-specified information" (CS) and in our experience, complex-specified information is always the product of the action of intelligent design. From observing intelligent agents in the natural world, we know produce machines containing high levels of complex and specified information. CSI is a mathematical concept employed by William Dembski, philosopher/mathematician. In our experience, CSI is always the product of ID. The origin of CSI cannot be explained by any naturalistic process, such as evolution. To better understand complex specified information, consider this analogy: If you saw a mountainside in South Dakota bearing a striking resemblance to four famous presidents, you would not be tempted to comment "Look what the wind and rain did!" It would be clear that the likenesses arose by design, even though you did not see the design occur, and know nobody claiming to be the sculptor. We intuitively recognize the mountainside was designed because it contains complex information (the shape of the mountainside) that conforms to specific pattern (the likeness of the presidents). When we look at biology, very complex machine-like entities exist, which must be exactly as they are, or they cease to function properly. They have CSI because they are specified in that they conform to a particular pattern of arrangement organization which is necessary for them to function, and complex because they have an unlikely arrangement of many interacting parts. The high level of complex-specified information in these biological machines makes them "irreducibly complex": they have many interacting parts (making them complex) which must be EXACTLY as they are in order for the machine to work properly (making them specified). In irreducible complexity, any change in the nature or arrangement of these parts would destroy their function and make the machine stop working. They are irreducibly complex in that they could not be any less complex and still function. Importantly, irreducibly complex structures cannot be built up through a Darwinian evolutionary process, because Darwinian evolution says that a biological structure must be functional along every small-step of its evolution, and "reverse engineering" of these structures shows that they cease to function if changed even slightly. Because these structures exhibit complex-specified information, a quality known only to be produced by intelligent design, we conclude that these irreducibly complex structures are intelligently designed. There is also no known natural mechanism to explain the origin of these "irreducibly complex" biological structures, firming up the inference to design. In all of this, there have been no mentions of God, religion, or adherence to any religious text but rather intelligent design is seen to rely solely upon observations about how intelligent design works in the present to look at aspects of the natural world to see if they were designed. Intelligent design theory is based solely upon applying observations about intelligent action and principles of information theory to the construction of biological systems, and nothing more. There is nothing mystical, supernatural, religious, or non-scientific about intelligent design theory. Intelligent design theory makes no statements beyond which are possible to make using inferences from the available observations of the natural world. The IDEA Center believes that intelligent design is a potent and compelling scientific theory which can explain the origin of much of life on Earth. For more information about intelligent design theory please see: The IDEA Center believes that there are many problems with naturalistic explanations for the origin and diversification of life. Naturalistic explanations are those which assume that there were no forces involved in the history of life other than matter, energy, and the chemical and physical laws governing their interactions. Naturalistic explanations assume that there were no intelligent agents which could have influenced life in the past. To explain very briefly, problems in naturalistic explanations go down to the very beginning of the universe. There is no explanation for the "fine-tuning" of the physical laws of universe which allows life to exist and flourish on Earth. Models for the natural chemical origin of life face major evidential problems, such as how a "primordial soup" might have formed, or how the irreducible complexity of the simplest cell could arise. Once life does form, the fossil record indicates that biological complexity typically appears with a "bang" and that rapid increases in biological diversity stretch Darwin's theory of evolution beyond what can be accounted for through naturalistic mechanisms of evolutionary change. Furthermore, there appear to be few plausible examples of transitional forms in the fossil record, a major line of evidence counting against naturalistic evolutionary transitions in the history of life. Many lines of evidence that supposedly support a natural evolutionary history seem to be deficient. Methods of producing evolutionary family trees or "phylogenies" provide weak evidence for common descent as comparisons of different characteristics commonly lead to conflicting trees. Developmental biology is forced to resort to extreme examples of convergent evolution as supposedly analogous body parts are produced by the same genes in different organisms! Similarly many supposedly "homologous" organs are produced via different developmental pathways, bringing into question claims of evidence for common ancestry. Additionally, many development biologists has accepted that a famous line of evidence supposedly supporting evolution, the notion that "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny" (the development of an organism replays its evolutionary history), is not supported by developmental data. Perhaps most importantly, many recently-discovered examples of biological complexity exhibit "irreducible complexity" which could not be built in the step-by-step manner envisioned by Darwin. As our understanding of the cell expands, it is becoming increasingly apparent that Darwinism is incapable of explaining the origin of much biological complexity. This increased knowledge is also forcing scientists to discard what once were thought to be examples of genetic "junk DNA" and vestigial organs which supposedly provide evidence of an undesigned naturalistic evolutionary history. Current trends in biology are revealing complexity beyond that which evolution can produce--the cell is a finely tuned micro-city reflecting what we would expect to be produced by intelligent design. The IDEA Center believes that naturalistic explanations have their place in explaining the origin of some biological complexity. Evolutionary theory does have some explanatory power, and its useful scope is primarily limited to microevolutionary processes. However, for the most part, naturalistic explanations are incapable of accounting for much of life on Earth. For more information about problems with naturalistic explanations for the origin and diversification of life, please see: Problems with the Origins of Life Problems with Evolutionary Explanations of the Fossil Record Evolution and the Problem of Non-Functional Intermediates Design vs. Descent: A War of Predictions 3. Darwinism, Naturalism, and Materialistic Philosophy: The fact that science supports a theory which fails to explain so much of the data can only be explained by the fact that a philosophy is preventing scientists from considering new ideas to explain the origin and diversification of life. This philosophy is called "materialism" and is it holds that there were no forces involved in the history of life other than matter, energy, and the chemical and physical laws governing their interactions. Naturalistic explanations often assume that there were no intelligent agents which could have influenced life in the past. We believe that science should follow the evidence wherever it leads, and should not be constrained by any philosophical presuppositions. Natural explanations may indeed be the best way to explain the origin and diversification of life on Earth. But such hypotheses should be tested--and not assumed. If they are tested with a skeptical mindset, then investigating the origins of life becomes an exciting endeavor where we can test between intelligent design theory and other mechanistic theories of life's origins. The IDEA Center hopes to contribute to this debate and encourage others to participate in this investigation.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.ideacenter.org/about/mission_science.php

2013-05-19T11:18:05Z

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en

Supervoids and superclusters To find the largest structures we could in the Universe, we used a catalog of extremely bright galaxies from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. They occupy a vast volume; the most distant galaxies in the sample are about 10 billion light-years away, and the survey occupies about 1/4 of the sky. Using Voronoi tessellation-based algorithms called VOBOZ and ZOBOV, we found gentle supervoids, with relatively few galaxies in them, and superclusters, places slightly over-populated with galaxies over these distances. Conventional clusters of galaxies are about 10 times smaller and differ in that they are held together by gravity, while galaxies in supervoids and superclusters are riding large density waves, and are more affected by dark energy than gravity. The supervoids and superclusters we found are likely similar to those in the picture at left (red=cluster, blue=void). This shows what the distribution of galaxies on very large scales might be like, using data from the Millennium simulation. This picture measures some seven billion light-years across. On the scale of this picture, our whole Milky Way galaxy, already unimaginably big on a human scale, would span less than a hundredth of a pixel! There is lots of smaller-scale structure in the simulation, but there really aren’t structures identifiable as voids and clusters much larger than the superstructures we’ve circled. The movie at left (click on it for a larger version) starts at a representation of the Milky Way (it’s not to scale; really the Milky Way is much smaller), and zooms out, and then flies through the superclusters and supervoids. Each dot in the superstructures is a whole galaxy. We’ve left out the galaxies inbetween the superstructures for clarity.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/cosmowave/supervoids/superstructures/

2013-05-19T11:25:43Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697420704/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094340-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

HIMACHAL PRADESH BOARD OF SCHOOL EDUCATION. Syllabus of plus two (12th) examination Higher Secondary is the most crucial stage of school education because at this juncture specialized discipline based, content-oriented courses are introduced. Students reach this stage after 10 years of general education and opt for Chemistry with a purpose of pursuing their career in basic sciences or professional courses like medicine, engineering, technology and study courses in applied areas of science and technology at tertiary level. Therefore, there is a need to provide learners with sufficient conceptual background of Chemistry, which will make them competent to meet the challenges of academic and professional courses after the higher secondary stage. The new and updated curriculum is based on disciplinary approach with rigour and depth taking care that the syllabus is not heavy and at the same time it is comparable to the international level. The knowledge related to the subject of Chemistry has undergone tremendous changes during the past one decade. Many new areas like synthetic materials, bio-molecules, natural resources, industrial chemistry are coming in a big way and deserve to be an integral part of chemistry syllabus at senior secondary stage. At international level, new formulations and nomenclature of elements and compounds, symbols and units of physical quantities floated by scientific bodies like IUPAC and CGPM are of immense importance and need to be incorporated in the updated syllabus. The revised syllabus takes care of all these aspects. Greater emphasis has been laid on use of new nomenclature, symbols and formulations, teaching of fundamental concepts, applications of concepts in chemistry to industry/technology, logical sequencing of units, removal of obsolete content and repetition etc. The broad objectives of teaching Chemistry at Senior Secondary Stage are to help the learners : c To promote understanding of basic facts and concepts in chemistry while retaining the excitement of chemistry. c To make students capable of studying chemistry in academic and professional courses (such as medicine technology) at tertiary level. c To expose the students to various emerging new areas of chemistry and apprise them with their relevance in their future studies and their application in various spheres of chemical sciences and technology. c To equip students to face various changes related to health, nutrition, environment, population, weather, industries and agriculture. c To develop problem solving skills in students. c To expose the students to different processes used in industries and their c To apprise students with interface of chemistry with other disciplines of science such as physics, biology, geology, engineering etc. c To acquaint students with different aspects of chemistry used in daily life. c To develop an interest in students to study chemistry as a discipline. One Paper Time: 3 Hours 60 Marks Unit No. Title Marks Unit I Solid State 3 Unit II Solutions 4 Unit III Electrochemistry 5 Unit IV Chemical Kinetics 4 Unit V Surface chemistry 3 Unit VI General Principles and processes of Isolation of Elements 2 Unit VII p-Block Elements 6 Unit VIII d-and f-Block Elements 5 Unit IX Coordination Compounds 3 Unit X Haloalkanes and Haloarenes 4 Unit XI Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers 4 Unit XII Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic acids 5 Unit XIII Organic Compounds containing Nitrogen 4 Unit XIV Biomolecules 3 Unit XV Polymers 3 Unit XVI Chemistry in Everyday life 2 Unit I : Solid State (Periods 12) Classification of solids based on different binding forces : molecular, ionic, covalent and metallic solids, amorphous and crystalline solids (elementary idea), unit cell in two dimensional and three dimensional lattices, calculation of density of unit cell, packing in solids, voids, number of atoms per unit cell in a cubic unit cell, point defects, electrical and Unit II : Solutions (Periods 12) Types of solutions, expression of concentration of solutions of solids in liquids, solubility of gases in liquids, solid solutions, colligative properties - relative lowering of vapour pressure, elevation of B.P. depression of freezing point, osmotic pressure, determination of molecular masses using colligative properties, abnormal molecular mass. Unit III : Electrochemistry (Periods 14) Redox reactions, conductance in electroytic solutions, specific and molar conductivity variations of conductivity with concentration, Kohlrausch's Law, electrolysis and laws of electrolysis (elementary idea), dry cellelectroytic cells and Galvanic cells; lead accumulator, EMF of a cell standard electrode potential, Nernst equation and its application to chemical cells, fuel cells ; corrosion. Unit IV : Chemical Kinetics (Periods 12) Rate of a reaction (average and instantaneous), factors affecting rates of reaction; concentration, temperature, catalyst; order and molecularity of a reaction; rate law and specific rate constant, integrated rate equations and half life (only for zero and first order reactions); concept of collision theory (elementary idea, no mathematical treatment) Unit V : Surface Chemistry (Periods 8) Adsorption - physisorption and chemisorption factors affecting adsorption of gases of solids; catalysis : homogenous and heterogeneous activity and selectivity : enzyme catalysis; colloidal state : distinction between true solutions colloids and suspensions; lyophilic, lyophobic multimolecular, and macromolecular colloids; properties of colloids; Tyndall effect, Brownian movement, electrophoresis, coagulation; emulsion - types of Unit VI : General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements Principles and methods of extraction - concentration, oxidation, reduction electrolytic method and refining; occurrence and principles of extraction of aluminium, copper, zinc and Iron. Unit VII : p-Block Elements (Periods 16) Group 15 Elements : General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, oxidation states, trends in physical and chemical properties; nitrogen - preparation, properties and uses ; compounds of nitrogen; preparation, properties of ammonia and nitric acid, oxides of nitrogen (structure only); Phosphorous-allotropic forms ; compounds of phosphorous: preparation and properties of phosphine, halides (PCI3, PCI5) and oxoacids (elementary idea only) Group 16 Elements : General introduction, electronic configuration, oxidation states, occurrence, trends in physical and chemical properties; dioxygen: preparation, properties and uses; simple oxides; Ozone. Sulphur- allotropic forms; compounds of sulphur : preparation, properties and uses of sulphur dioxide; sulphuric acid: industrial process of manufacture, properties and uses, oxoacids of sulphur (structures only). Group 17 Elements : General introduction, electronic configuration, oxidation states, occurrence, trends in physical and chemical properties; compounds of halogens : Preparation, properties and uses of chlorine and hydrochloric acid, interhalogen compounds, oxoacids of halogens Group 18 Elements : General introduction, electronic configuration. Occurrence, trends in physical and chemical properties, uses. Unit VIII : d and f-Block Elements (Periods 14) General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrene and characteristics of transition metals, general trends in properties of the first row transition metals - metallic character, ionization enthalpy, oxidation states, ionic radii, colour catalytic property, magnetic properties, interstitial compounds, alloy formation. Preparation and properties of K2 Cr2 O7 Lanthanoids – Electronic configuration, oxidation states, chemical reactivity and lanthanoid contraction. Actinoids – Electronic configuration, oxidation states. Unit IX : Coordination Compounds (Periods 12) Coordination Compounds - introduction, ligands and coordination number, colour, magnetic properties and shapes, IUPAC nomenclature of mononuclear coordination compounds. Bonding; isomerism, importance of coordination compounds (in qualitative analysis, extraction of metals and biological systems). Unit X : Haloalkanes and Haloarenes. (Periods 12) Nomenclature, nature of C-X bond, physical and chemical properties, meachanism of substitution reactions. Nature of C-X bond, substitution reactions (directive influence of halogen for monosubstituted compounds only) Uses and environmental effects of -dichloromethane, trichloromethane, tetrachloromethane, iodoform, freons, DDT. Unit XI : Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers (Periods 12) Alcohols : Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties (of primary alcohols only); identification of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols; mechanism of dehydration, uses, some important compounds-methanol and ethanol. Phenols : Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, acidic nature of phenol, electrophillic substitution reactions, uses of phenols Ethers : Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemcial Unit XII : Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids (Periods 12) Aldehydes and Ketones : Nomenclature, nature of carbonyl group, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties and mechanism of nucleophilic addition, reactivity of alpha hydrogen in aldehydes; uses. Carboxylic Acids : Nomenclature, acidic nature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties; uses. Unit XIII : Organic Compounds containing Nitrogen (Periods 10) Amines : Nomenclature, classification, structure, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, uses, identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines. Cyanides and Isocyanides : will be mentioned at relevant places in Diazonium salts : Preparation, chemical reactions and importance in synthetic organic chemistry. Unit XIV : Biomolecules (Periods 12) Carbohydrates : Classification, (aldoses and ketoses) monosaccharides, (glucose and fructose), oligosaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose), polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, glycogen); importance. Proteins : Elementary idea of a-amino acids: peptide bond, polypeptides, proteins, primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structures and quaternary structure (qualitative idea only), denaturation of proteins; Vitamins : Classification and functions Nucleic Acids : DNA & RNA. Unit XV : Polymers (Periods 8) Classification : natural and synthetic, methods of polymerization (addition and condensation), copolymerization. Some important polymers : natural and synthetic like polythene, nylon, polyesters, bakelite, rubber. Unit XVI : Chemistry in Everyday Life (Periods 8) 1. Chemicals in medicines : analygesics, tranquilizers, antiseptics, disinfectants, antimicrobials, antifertility drugs, antibiotics, antacids, 2. Chemics in food : preservatives, artificial sweetening agents, 3. Cleansing agents : soaps and detergents, cleansing action. EVALUATION SCHEME FOR EXAMINATION MARKS Volumetric Analysis 8 Marks Salt Analysis 6 Marks Content Based Experiment 3 Marks Class Record and Viva 4 Marks Investigatory Project 4 Marks Total 25 Marks A. Surface Chemistry (Periods 6) (a) Preparation of one lyophilic and one lyophobic sol. Lyophilic sol-Starch, egg albumin and gum. Lyophobic sol - aluminium hydroxide, ferric hydroxide, arsensious (b) Study of the role of emulsifying agent in stabilizing the emulsions of B. Chemical Kinetics (Periods 4) (a) Effect of concentratiion and temperature on the rate of reaction between sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid. (b) Study of reaction rates of any one of the following : (i) Reaction fo iodide ion with hydrogen peroxide at room temperatue using different concentration of iodide ions. (ii) Reaction between potassium iodate, KIO3 and sodium sulphite : (Na2 SO3) using starch solution as indicator (clock reaction). C. Thermochemistry (Periods 6) (a) Any one of the following experiments : (i) Enthalpy of dissolution of copper sulphate or potassium nitrate. (ii) Enthalpy of neutralization of strong acid (HCI) and strong base (iii) Determination of enthalpy change during interaction (Hydrogen bond formation) between acetone and chloroform. D. Electrochemistry (Periods 2) Variation of cell potential in Zn/Zn2+||CU2+/Cu with change in concentration of electrolytes (CuSO4 or ZnSO4) at room temperature. E. Chromatography (Periods 2) (i) Separation of pigments from extracts of leaves and flowers by pap chromatography and determination of Rf values. (ii) Separation of constituents present in an inorganic mixture containing cations only (constituents having wide difference in Rf values to be F. Preparation of Inorganic Compounds (Periods 4) (i) Preparation of double salt of ferrous ammonium sulphate or potash (ii) Preparation of potassium ferric oxalate. G. Preparation of Organic Compounds (Periods 4) Preparation of any two of the following compounds (ii) Di-benzal acetone (iv) Aniline yellow or 2- Napthol aniline dye. H. Test for the functional groups present in organic compounds : Unsaturation, alcoholic, phenolic, aldehydic, ketonic, carboxylic and amino (Primary groups). I. Study of Carbohydrates, fats and proteins in pure form and detection of their presence in given food stuffs. (Periods 4) J. Determination of concentration/molarity of KMnO4 solution by titrating it against a standard solution of : (Periods 8) (i) Oxalic acid (ii) Ferrous ammonium sulphate. (Students will be required to prepare standard solutions by weighing K. Qualitative analysis (Periods 16) ?? Determination of one cation and one anion in a given salt Cations - Pb2+, Cu2+, As3+, AI3+, Fe3+ Mn2+, Zn2+, Co2+, Ni2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Mg2+, NH4+ Anions - CO32–, S2–, 2 2 - 3 SO3 ,SO4 , NO2, NO3 ,Cl ,Br , I ,PO4; C2O4 (Note Insoluble salts excluded) Scientific investigations involving laboratory testing and collecting information from other sources. A Few suggested Projects Study of presence of oxalate ions in guava fruit at different stages of Study of quantity of casein present in different samples of milk. Preparation of soybean milk and its comparison with the natural milk with respect to curd formation, effect of temperature, etc. Study of the effect of potassium bisulphate as food preservative under various conditions (temperature, concentration, time etc.) Study of digestion of starch by salivary amylase and, effect of PH and temperature on it. Comparative study of the rate of fermentation of following mateials: wheat flour, gram, flour, Potato juice, carrot juice etc. Extraction of essential oils present in Saunf (aniseed), Ajwain (carum), Study of common food adulterants in fat, oil butter sugar, turmeric powder, chilli powder and pepper. Note : Any other investigatory project, which involves about 10 period of work, can be chosen with the approval of the teacher. BOOKS RECOMMENDED : Published by N.C.E.R.T., NEW DELHI.

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flight simulator, device providing a controlled environment in which a flight trainee can experience conditions approximating those of actual flight. A simulator generally consists of an enclosure housing a working replica of the interior of the cockpit of an aircraft. This replica has all the usual instruments and is mounted in such a way that it can be moved to simulate the rolling, pitching, and yawing motions of an aircraft. The instrument readings, the student's control inputs, the position of the simulator, information about the characteristics of the aircraft being simulated, and information about the terrain over which it is supposed to be flying are coordinated by a computer so that the student experiences everything but the accelerations of actual flight. In early simulators, all visual information was provided by the instruments. Thus the student received practice in flying blind. The recent use of sophisticated computers has made it possible to provide realistic video displays of conditions outside the cockpit. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. More on flight simulator from Infoplease: See more Encyclopedia articles on: Aviation: General

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Thanks to the good work of Ying Guo a 24-year-old Community Healthcorps member (Americorps) working with Bronx Health REACH these kids will experience growing some fresh food in the Bronx. All they needed was some space in the sun because she had the good sense to use EarthBox type portable micro gardens to create this kids garden. There was no need for tillable soil access. Sub-irrigated planters (SIPs) like the EarthBox and DIY versions are an ideal way to introduce children to the wonders of growing some of their own food in a harsh city environment where there is lots of concrete and city soil that is often contaminated with toxic heavy metals such as lead. Small children are particularly susceptible to lead poisoning and these self-contained EarthBox micro gardens will protect them from it. I am sure by now that the children have had what was likely their first taste of freshly harvested vegetables. Every child should have this experience early in life. more photos WHY — While working with Bronx Health REACH in the South Bronx, it was not hard to recognize the environmental challenges to living a healthy lifestyle. Kids have access to fast food on every corner; fresh produce is hard to find. They grow up without understanding where food comes from, and many do not know what fresh produce tastes like. WHAT — Our project Growing Gardens Growing Kids will help kids start a community garden in the South Bronx to increase access to fresh fruits and vegetables, provide hands-on learning so they understand where food comes from, and to teach them nutrition and healthy habits. HOW — I will be developing a curriculum for Head Start supervisors to help pre-K children plant their own produce using EarthBoxes, a high-tech, low-maintenance growing system. Lesson plans will teach the children with where food comes from and about healthy eating.

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How We Fall Asleep For many people with insomnia, the most difficult thing is actually falling asleep in the first place. Understanding how this process works in healthy people can help you to identify the origin of your problems and work toward solving them. As scientists learn more about it, it is hoped that new treatments can be developed for people with ongoing problems. The Chemical Processes of SleepHow we sleep is regulated by a number of different chemicals in the body. There are three main substances responsible:- - Cortisol - nicknamed 'the stress hormone', this is the main substance our bodies use to stay awake. Over the course of the day, levels decline, leading us to feel more relaxed and sleepy. - Melatonin - a special signalling chemical influenced by the amount of light we are exposed to, this substance is usually released into the brain in large quantities to trigger falling asleep. - Adenosine triphosphate - the 'food' through which energy is distributed to cells throughout the body, this builds up whilst we're awake and is released by brain cells at bedtime in order to trigger the separate processes that switch off different areas of our brains. Muscle RelaxationThe first thing that happens on an easily observed, physical level as we start to fall asleep is that our muscles relax. In order to do this, muscles may first need to work out cramps and knots. This is why you may find your limbs jerking unexpectedly as you doze off. Don't be alarmed when it happens - if it's persistent, stretching and massaging sore muscles will help you fall asleep. The relaxation of muscles can lead to a sensation of losing control, which is why we often imagine we're falling just as we start to fall asleep. This can trigger panic in some people. You may dream that you're falling and keep snapping back into wakefulness as you fear hitting the ground. The best way to resolve this is to teach yourself to associate the feeling with something safe and pleasant. Imagine you're falling into a big fluffy bed and your dreams may become less alarming. Subjective Sleep SensationsJust as falling asleep triggers a relaxation of the muscles, it also leads to a decrease in nerve signalling - fewer messages are passed around the body. This includes a decrease in brain wave activity. You may be aware of your thoughts slowing down and may find it hard to keep hold of a thread in those thoughts. Resist the temptation to recover that thread, which would lead to you struggling back to wakefulness. Tell yourself it doesn't matter and that now is a time to let go. As sleep develops, the body temperature naturally drops. This is why it's important to be warm in bed. If you're not properly insulated, your body can notice the cold and panic, propelling you back to wakefulness. At the other extreme, if your bed is too warm, your body may refuse to enter sleep properly because it is unable to cool itself in the usual way. Falling asleep naturally slows metabolic processes including digestion. You can make this easier by using the toilet just before you go to bed, and by avoiding spicy foods at bedtime, as they can speed up your digestive system. Warm milk, because it relaxes your insides, can have a real physical effect in terms of helping you to doze off. Understanding the sleep process is sometimes all you need to fix your sleep problems. Learning to relax and accept sleep, with all the odd changes it brings, can be the key to an untroubled life.

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During the last decade magnesium and magnesium alloys (MA) were the centre of a large number of studies especially in Europe [1-3] and Asia [4-6]. The main focus of these studies was to evaluate the use of magnesium and MA as basic material for clinical applications. For the treatment of bone fractures, orthopaedic implants made of surgical steel or titanium are used when weight bearing bones are affected. The major disadvantage of these materials is that they need to be removed in a second surgery due to implant loosening or intolerance after longer implantation times resulting in higher costs and stress for the patient. Therefore resorbable implant materials are needed which complementarily provide sufficient stability for weight bearing applications. Magnesium is a light metal which is known to corrode in aqueous solution. Its density is 1.74 g/cm3 at room temperature and therewith 1.6 fold resp. 4.5 fold lower than aluminium or steel . With prospect of orthopaedic use, its advantages are its appropriate compressive and tensile strengths as well as its Young’s Modulus (41-45 GPa), which is considerably closer to cortical bone compared to other metallic implant materials [7-9]. The corrosion rate ranges between aluminium and unalloyed steel . Magnesium as a mineral occurs naturally in the body and is eliminated through the kidneys [11,12]. Due to their high excretion ability hypermagnesaemia is rare . Severe symptoms like arrhythmia, feeling of faintness up to paralyses and/or cardiac or respiratory arrest are only seen in the course of therapeutical intravenous application [11,14]. Therefore, magnesium and MA are intensively investigated to develop a basic material for the production of degradable osteosynthesis implants e.g. plates, screws or intramedullary nails. Alloying with other elements such as lithium, aluminium, zinc or rare earth metals aims to adjust the corrosion resistance and mechanical properties of magnesium [9,15-18]. In engineering applications Aluminium (Al) as another light metal is often used as alloying component in MA for its beneficial effect of strength, hardness and castability improvement . For an optimum balance between strength and ductility the authors claim a content of 6 wt%. Contents between 1-9 wt% are classified as corrosion protective, whereof the higher the content the better the protection . Many groups investigated MA containing Al [20-27], despite its questionable biocompatibility .High concentrations are considered to be neurotoxic and implicated in pathologies such as dementia, senile dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease . However according to reference the uptake of even high amounts of Al results in physiological neutral behaviour and exceptional low quantities are absorbed. Formerly, different groups reported on high corrosion rates of Mg-Al-alloys [20-22], but recently a decrease in corrosion rate could be shown in comparison to pure Mg or other MA, especially when further elements e.g. zinc [26,27] or Rare Earth Metals [23,31] are added. Besides aluminium, Lithium (Li) could be added to increase the ductility and the corrosion resistance with a simultaneous decrease in strength [8,19,32]. However, the engineering application is limited . In medicine, Li is therapeutically used for the treatment of manic-depressive disorders. However, a correlation with teratogenicity, nephrotoxicity and mania is discussed . Zinc is often used in combination with aluminium to improve strength at room temperature . In combination with zirconium or rare earths it is used to produce MA hardenable by precipitations and with superior strength. Regarding the corrosion behaviour, zinc lowers the corrosive effect of iron and nickel impurities . In the body zinc belongs to the essential trace elements and is excreted mainly via the faeces. It plays an important role in numerous processes e.g. protein synthesis, nucleic acids synthesis, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism . Zinc deficiency is associated with an increase in bone mass and osteoblast DNA synthesis [35,36]. The main reason for the addition of Zirconium to MA is the purpose of grain refinement. Although it is a powerful grain refiner it cannot be used in Al-containing MAs because it is removed from solid solution due to the formation of stable compounds . Such compounds are also formed with elements like manganese, iron, silicon, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen or hydrogen when they are present within the melt . Hence, the amount of soluble zirconium is the important factor rather than the total amount. Zirconia implants have excellent resistance to corrosion and wear, good biocompatibility and high bending strength and fracture toughness . The usual addition of Rare Earths (RE) in engineering applications is performed as mischmetal or didymium, whereof the mischmetal contains 50 wt% cerium and the rest principally neodymium and lanthanum . REs aim to increase the strength of MA and to decrease weld cracking and porosity during the casting procedure . Regarding the development of a resorbable implant material it is important, that the addition of RE can achieve an increase of the corrosion resistance [23,38-40]. However, this also depends on the other alloying elements. In reference was reported on a decrease of the corrosion resistance in vitro after combining Al and Neodymium with Mg as main alloying component. There are controversial reports about the effect and toxicity of REs. Especially high concentrations are considered to have toxic effects [42-45].On the other hand a bone-protective effect and an increase in bone density could be shown after a six months feeding trial . Low amounts of REs in MA were appraised as well tolerable in reference . In reference the short-term effect of REs in vitro was evaluated. The authors assessed the responses of different cell lines after the addition of the single RE elements and found differences between light (Lanthanum (La), Cerium (Ce), Praseodymium (Pr)) and medium to heavy (Neodymium (Nd), Europium (Eu), Gadolinium (Ga) and Dysprosium (Dy)) RE elements: light RE elements showed toxic effects at lower concentrations . They concluded that La and Ce should be used only when absolutely necessary. Most of the contemporarily published in vivo examinations used MA with low amounts of REs, which were added as mischmetal [2,9,40,47-50]. This mischmetal can actually differ depending on the time and/or date of purchase. For example, determined the RE mixture of WE43 to be mainly Nd, Gd and Dy whereas in the most commercially available RE composition metals Ce, Nd and La form the major fraction [44,51]. In in vivo examinations, LAE442, a MA with 4 wt% lithium, 4 wt% aluminium and 2 wt% REs showed generally good biocompatibility with slow and homogenous degradation properties [1,2,23,47]. Nevertheless, in reference was pointed out, that from a medical point of view the addition of such a content-varying mixture has to be seen very critically since reproducibility is one of the main requirements for medical devices. Hence, they examined the in vivo degradation behaviour of this repeatedly used MA LAE442 in comparison to LACe442 which replaced the RE mixture by the single RE element Cerium. The outcome of this in vivo study supported the simultaneously performed examinations described in reference as this replacement led to a severe increase of the degradation rate with subsequent tissue reactions. Therefore the authors concluded that Ce could not supersede the RE composition. So far unknown regulative effects between the different RE elements seem to exist. But despite the good results of LAE442, the effort to replace the mixture by a single element is still reasonable to achieve a most accurate implant device. Since in reference Nd was classified as suitable, referring to LAE442, LANd442 was developed as well as Nd2 and their in vitro corrosion behaviour was assessed . They showed that the corrosion rate for Nd2 was lower than for LANd442. However, the application of a MgF2-coating lowered the corrosion rate of LANd442. After these positive results, LANd442 was introduced into in vivo experiments. Parts of this study will be included in the next subchapter. Some groups reported on the fact that in vitro and in vivo degradation properties could differ considerably [6,24]. Thus, besides profound in vitro tests like bending tests, corrosion tests or microstructure characterisation to identify and adjust the material properties, the in vivo degradation behaviour and biocompatibility has to be investigated thoroughly. 2. In vivo experiments To investigate the clinical applicability of different RE containing MA the rabbit (female New Zealand White rabbits, body weight > 3 kg) was chosen as animal model. Partially, the results of the following data have already been published or submitted [55-57]. Extruded, cylindrical pins (length 25 mm, diameter 2.5 mm) were produced and washed in acetone for eliminating fabrication residues. Sterilization was carried out by gamma irradiation. Ten implants of three different RE containing MA were produced: LAE442, LANd442 and ZEK100. These cylinders were randomly implanted into the middle third of the tibial medullary cavity (Fig 1), one in each hind leg. The follow up period was six months. Clinical examinations were performed regularly to assess the clinical tolerance of the implants. µ-Computed tomography is a non-destructive analysing method to assess changes within the structure of either engineering components or medical implants [2,40,58,59]. It can also be used to evaluate the reactions of the surrounding tissue to implanted orthopaedic devices after in vivo examinations [57,60,61]. However, the laboratory animals have to be sacrificed for these investigations. To evaluate the proceeding degradation and to perform a proper initial-to-end-value comparison in vivo µ-computed tomography scans have been introduced recently [50,55,57,60,62]. Further they allow for a reduction of laboratory animals as the results after different implantation periods could be gained from the same animal. For the presented study an XtremeCT (Fa. Scanco Medical, Zurich, Switzerland) was used. The animals were scanned in general anaesthesia and in supine position (Fig.2). The scan was performed from the knee joint space up to approx. 5 mm beneath the implant (Fig.1) with a resolution of 41 µm, 1000 projections at 0-180° and an integration time of 100 ms. The electron energy used was 60 kVp and the intensity was 900 µA. In the first eight weeks the rabbits were scanned biweekly, afterwards every four weeks. The µ-computed tomography evaluation included three parts: First, the implant itself was assessed (changes in structure and volume of the pins as well as their corrosion morphology). For each implant material a specific threshold was determined which represented the pin most accurately (LAE42 and LANd442: 138, ZEK100: 127).The implants were subsequently manually outlined and measured by means of the software µCT evaluation program V6.1 (XtremeCT, Fa. Scanco Medical, Zurich, Switzerland). To further quantify the corrosion rate and the corrosion morphology, the direct 3D thickness of the volumes of interest (VOIs) was calculated. Therefore, the structure was filled with overlapping spheres of maximal diameter. The diameter of the spheres at tach location denotes the local thickness. The average thickness was determined by averaging over the whole structure resulting in histograms of bin sizes with an average 3D thickness and a standard deviation for each implant. A low average bin size with a low standard deviation indicates a high degree of uniform corrosion. A high standard deviation of the histogram is caused by an irregular shape of the remaining implant and therefore it is an indicator for the extent of pitting corrosion . Second the gas which emerged during the degradation process of magnesium implants was assessed. The corrosion mechanism of pure Mg and MA consists of two electrochemical parts: the anodic partial reaction forms Mg2+ and 2e-, whereas the cathodic partial reaction evolves hydrogen and 2OH- from the reaction of water with the 2e- [10,63,64]. In vitro corrosion tests of MA which quantify the amount of emerging gas utilize this mechanism . Many in vivo studies reported on the emergence of gas during the course of MA-implant degradation either as diffuse accumulation or palpable and non-palpable gas bubbles underneath the skin [23,55,58,65]. It is a continuous discussion, if these bubbles actually contain hydrogen. Hence, as a supplementary investigation a gas-tight syringe was used to gather the emerged gas (approx. 0.5 ml) out of a large subcutaneous gas bubble. It was sent to the Institute of Organic Chemistry, Technical University Braunschweig, and analyzed. However, it was not possible to verify pure hydrogen. The most likely explanation is that the highly volatile gas undergoes rapid exchange with the surrounding tissue. From the authors’ point of view there is no need to doubt that the degrading magnesium implants are the source of the gas independent on the actual composition in the bubbles as faster degrading alloys subjectively generate higher amounts of gas. This leads to the matter of quantifying the gas volume. So far, no method has been described to report on the quantity of gas emerged particularly over the course of time. So within this second part of the µCT evaluation a method for quantifying the gas volume using the XtremeCT was established. Within the 2D-slices of the µCT-scans of the LAE442 group, the occurring gas was manually outlined and measured by means of the software µCT evaluation program V6.1. The threshold of the grey values was determined to be between -1000 and 25. With proceeding degradation the corrosion products influence the surrounding tissue. The smaller the impact of the implant the better is its biocompatibility. On the one hand it could be generally said, that an implant is biocompatible when its functionality is achieved without inducing a foreign body reaction . On the other hand, according to the Conference 1984 of the European Society for Biomaterials, biocompatibility is the ability of a material to fulfil its purpose for a specific application with an appropriate host response . This definition includes the fact that every inserted implant actually could/will influence the surrounding tissue in one or another way and emphasize on the adequacy. The reactions which are described are either foreign body reactions ([3,57,60,65] or structural changes of the bone [2,57,61]. To assess cellular reactions histological examinations have to be carried out. However, µCT is a well-established tool to evaluate structural changes of the bone. Thus, as a third part of the µCT evaluation the impact of the degrading implant on the adjacent bone was evaluated by a quantitative determination of the bone density (in mg HA/cm3), the bone volume (in mm³/slice) and the bone porosity (in percent). The bone volume which was included into the evaluation was defined by choosing those slices in which also the implant was seen. Hence, the bone directly adjacent to the implant was manually outlined. The threshold value for the subsequent evaluations was determined to be 160 and the same software was used as for the implant and gas evaluation. Due to internal processing, the latest investigation time for ZEK100 was week 20. 2.1. Pin degradation The density is given in the unit mg HA/mm³ (milligram hydroxyapatite per cubic millimetre) which is the unit the XtremeCT gives for the density of mineralized tissue such as bone. Therefore, the indicated density values do not correspond to common used alloy density values but allow for a comparison of the three alloys investigated among each other. Their density differed from the beginning of the implantation period. LAE442 density was higher than LANd442. ZEK100 showed the lowest density (Fig. 3). Besides the varying alloying components different grain sizes of the alloy could influence the density and therefore cause the detected differences. During the course of degradation LAE442 showed only a slight decrease in density with a very low standard deviation. Also the density of LANd442 implants diminished slightly, however the standard deviation was obviously higher implying a more inhomogeneous procedure. ZEK100 implants showed the highest loss in density. The initial volume of all alloys ranged in similar values. According to the density, LAE442 implants showed only a minor decrease over the implantation period and demonstrated again a low standard deviation. The changes of volume in LANd442 implants also matched the results of the density. A slight decrease could be found with a higher standard deviation in comparison to LAE442. ZEK100 pins demonstrated an obvious loss of volume particularly from the 12th week on with an exceptional high standard deviation in the later scan weeks (Fig. 3). These results indicate a slow and uniform degradation of LAE442 implants. LANd442 pins also degraded slowly but less uniformly. ZEK100 showed an equally slow degradation within the first weeks of implantation. This process accelerated distinctly resulting in inhomogeneous pin geometries. The examination of the true 3D-thickness confirmed these findings (Fig. 4). Corresponding to the volume and density changes, the average diameter of the spheres and thus the true 3D-thickness of LAE442 implants underlay only minor changes in the course of degradation. The low and uniform variance of diameter is a sign for a very homogeneous degradation. LANd442 implants showed a slight decrease of the true 3D-thickness. The variance of diameter increased in the course of implantation moderately. Taken together both results it could be said that LANd442 pins degraded slowly but faster and more inhomogeneous than LAE442. ZEK100 displayed the most obvious changes. From the 8th week on the average diameter of the spheres decreased continuously while the variance of diameters showed a profound increase. Consequently, ZEK100 implants degraded fast and irregularly. The colour mapping of the degraded implants after six months implantation duration in comparison to an undegraded implant visualized the differences of the pin geometry (Fig. 5). 2.2. Gas volume In outlining and evaluating the occurring gas within the marrow cavity it was possible to quantify the gas volume during the course of degradation. It is noteworthy that a distinct proceeding decrease in volume was found until week 12 followed by a continuous increase. This could be explained by the fact that a certain amount of gas was brought into the marrow cavity due to the surgical procedure. This gas volume is reabsorbed by the organism in the subsequent time. Corresponding to the beginning degradation of the implant, which is represented by the volume and density changes (Fig. 6 and 7), the amount of gas which is emerged exceeded the absorption capacity of the organism resulting in the increase of gas volume. Fig. 8 shows a 3D-evaluation of the bone (transparent) with implanted MA-cylinder (blue) and surrounding gas (brown). For further examinations, this method can be used to compare the gas volume with possible occurring changes of the surrounding tissue. 2.3. Changes in bone structure The bone adjacent to all three types of implanted MA pins lost density during the course of degradation (Fig. 9). For LAE442 implants the decrease in density was more pronounced in the first weeks of implantation and slowed down in the following period. From week 12 on only a negligible further decrease could be seen. LANd442 also showed a moderate decrease in bone density up to week 12 followed by an increase in the next four weeks and subsequent steady state until week 24. Due to the lower number of investigations the density course of ZEK100 implants appeared to be different. They induced a proceeding reduction of the bone density over the total investigation period. However, a higher number of investigations could reveal a similar pattern as for LAE442 and LANd442. The bone volume (specified per slice) increased over the investigated time period. No distinct differences could be found for the different MA cylinders (Fig. 10). In contrast to the aforementioned results the changes in porosity of the bone showed no regular pattern (Fig. 11). The bone porosity adjacent to LAE442 implants first increased up to week 4, followed by a decrease up to week 12. Afterwards the bone porosity again increased up to the end of the investigation period but slower than in the beginning. LANd442 implants showed only minor changes within the first 12 weeks. After that the porosity increased first moderately up to week 16 and from then on intensely till the end of investigation. However this increase in the LANd442 mean value is particularly caused by one implant which degraded severely faster than all other implants of the same group without any obvious explanation. The high standard deviation for the scans in week 16 and 24 illustrated this fact. If this cylinder would be excluded from the evaluation the mean porosity of the LANd442 pins would steadily decrease from week 8 on up to week 24. After the implantation of ZEK100 cylinders a distinct increase in bone porosity could be seen in the first eight weeks followed by a moderate decrease up to week 20. Taken into account all gathered results the µ-computed tomography evaluation of the bone structure illustrated the bone remodelling processes well. The increase in bone volume indicated endosteal and periosteal new bone growth. The simultaneous decrease in bone density can be explained by the fact that this newly formed bone is not as dense as the mature bone. The varying porosity depends on two different factors. On the one hand the state of the bone remodelling process influences this value. The newly formed bone is not as much structured as the mature bone and therefore shows a higher porosity. Since the bone of LAE442 implants showed a higher increase in bone volume accompanied by the most distinct decrease in density particularly in the first weeks of implantation the ascending porosity at this time could be explained. On the other hand the two-dimensional evaluation which was not included here showed that the faster degrading ZEK100 implants induced more bone cavities than the slower degrading alloys . This is probably the cause for the initial increase in porosity. To which extend the decreasing density influences the computation of the porosity remains to be shown as the further degrading ZEK100 cylinders should continuously increase the porosity instead of the determined however slight decrease. After considering both the accessible literature and the presented results, REs seem useful and maybe even necessary alloying components in MA basis material for the production of orthopaedic implants. It could be shown that the addition of REs lead to mostly biocompatible, degradable implants with however different degradation characteristics. LAE442 proved to be the slowest degrading alloy with the lowest influence on the surrounding tissue. The replacement of the RE composition metal by the single element Nd did not result in improvement of the biocompatibility nor of the degradation behaviour. Contrary, these LANd442 implants showed a less regular corrosion process than LAE442 cylinders. Therefore LAE442 implants should be favoured over LANd442. Therewith, two alloys which aimed to replace the RE composition by a single element (LANd442, LACe442 ) failed in exceeding the good degradation behaviour and biocompatibility of LAE442. ZEK100 as a completely different approach to develop an alloy for orthopaedic implant production clearly showed inferior results by degrading inhomogeneously and causing significant structural changes in the adjacent bone and tissue . In principal, a slow degrading MA should be developed as a faster degradation is correlated with a reduced clinical tolerance and an increased impact on the adjacent bone: the implant in the right leg of one LANd442 rabbit degraded significantly faster than the other implants. The animal showed a moderate to severe lameness of the affected leg and an obvious increase in bone porosity. Also in reference was reported on the poor biocompatibility of LACer442 which degraded very fast. Altogether, the perfect composition of a degradable MA implant material has not been developed yet. Regarding the biocompatibility, Li-Al-RE-containing MA turned out to be very promising. However, to satisfy the high standards for the production of medical devices efforts to replace the RE composition metal by one or even a couple of the single RE elements should not be abandoned with further focus on a slow and homogenous degradation behaviour.

<urn:uuid:96705b6f-78be-41aa-9602-b936a07cbd32>

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http://www.intechopen.com/books/new-features-on-magnesium-alloys/rare-earth-metals-as-alloying-components-in-magnesium-implants-for-orthopaedic-applications

2013-05-19T11:18:45Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697420704/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094340-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

|Scientific Name:||Pocillopora danae| |Species Authority:||Verrill 1864| |Red List Category & Criteria:||Vulnerable A4ce ver 3.1| |Assessor/s:||Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M.| |Reviewer/s:||Livingstone, S., Polidoro, B. & Smith, J. (Global Marine Species Assessment)| This species is widespread and uncommon throughout its range. However, it is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, crown-of-thorns starfish predation, and extensive reduction of coral reef habitat due to a combination of threats. Specific population trends are unknown but population reduction can be inferred from declines in habitat quality based on the combined estimates of both destroyed reefs and reefs at the critical stage of degradation within its range (Wilkinson 2004). Its threat susceptibility increases the likelihood of being lost within one generation in the future from reefs at a critical stage. Therefore, the estimated habitat degradation and loss of 38% over three generation lengths (30 years) is the best inference of population reduction and meets the threshold for Vulnerable under Criterion A4ce. It will be important to reassess this species in 10 years time because of predicted threats from climate change and ocean acidification. |Range Description:||In the Indo-West Pacific, this species occurs in the Northern Indian Ocean, the Central Indo-Pacific, eastern Australia, and the oceanic west Pacific. The species has also been reported by other authors from the Indo-West Pacific including Easter Island (Reyes-Bonilla 2002, Glynn et al. 2003, Glynn et al. 2007). Solomon Islands (Veron and Turak 2006) Palau and Marianas (Randall 1995) According to Reyes-Bonilla (2002), Colombia is the only location where Pocillopora danae is found at the Eastern Tropical Pacific region. However, this coral is not listed by Zapata and Vargas-Angel (2003). Moreover, Glynn et al. (2007), listed this species as present in the Society Islands, Tuamotus and Marquesas in French Polynesia, and at Easter Island, Chile. Native:Australia; Chile; India; Indonesia; Malaysia; New Caledonia; Northern Mariana Islands; Palau; Papua New Guinea; Philippines; Singapore; Solomon Islands; Sri Lanka; Thailand; Vanuatu |FAO Marine Fishing Areas:|| Indian Ocean – eastern; Pacific – northwest; Pacific – southeast; Pacific – southwest; Pacific – western central |Range Map:||Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.| This species is usually uncommon. There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is particularly susceptible to bleaching, disease, and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future. The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. Follow the link below for further details on population decline and generation length estimates. |Habitat and Ecology:|| This species occurs in shallow, tropical reef environments on partly protected reef slopes. The maximum size is over 1 m across. This species is found to 15 m. Pocilloporid corals, presumably including P. danae, are generally amongst the strongest coral competitors with relatively high rates of calcification (Glynn 2001). However, coral species exhibiting high rates of calcification usually have relatively high mortality rates (Glynn 2000). Pocilloporid corals also usually predominate at shallow depths (1-15 m). Amongst the reef building corals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, pocilloporid species have the highest growth rates (Guzmán and Cortes 1993). They are the principal framework builders on Panamanian reefs (Glynn 2002). Pocillopora species are preyed on by at least nine groups of consumers. These vary in their consumption patterns, but include: a) Species that bite off colony branch-tips: pufferfishes (Arothron), parrotfishes (Scaridae), filefishes (Monacanthidae) (Glynn 2002). b) Species that scrape skeletal surface: hermit crabs (Trizopagurus, Aniculus, and Calcinus) (Glynn 2002). c) Species that remove tissues but leave the skeleton intact: gastropods (Jenneria pustulata and Quoyula sp. (Glynn 2002)), buterflyfishes, angelfishes, damselfish (Stegastes acapulcoensis), and Acanthaster planci (Glynn 2002). d) Species that abrade tissues and skeleton: Eucidaris galapagensis (Glynn 2001). Jenneria and Acanthaster can kill whole, relatively large (approx. 30 cm in diameter) colonies of Pocillopora (Glynn 2002). Pocilloporid species can have crab (Trapezia sp.) and alpheid shrimp as mutualistic symbionts that protect the coral from the attack of the crown-of-thorns sea star A. planci (Glynn 2001). Pocillopora genus is particularly susceptible to bleaching. Pocilloporid species as well as other major reef building corals within the Eastern Tropical Pacific region (Porites, Pavona, Gardinoseris) catastrophically declined in the Galápagos Archipelago and Cocos Island after 1983. Recovery observed since that time was in large part nullified by the 1997-98 ENSO event (Glynn 2000). According to Glynn et al.(1988), pocilloporid coral mortality in the eastern Pacific was high, ranging from 51% at Caño Island to 76-85% in Panama and 97-100% in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn et al. 1988). Glynn (1994) suggests that the sea urchin Eucidaris galapagensis (syn. E. thouarsii) provides important biotic control of pocilloporid reef development. This urchin is the most persistent corallivore in the Galapagos Islands, where it is often observed grazing on pocilloporid corals (Glynn 2001). Overfishing is probably responsible for some ecological imbalance on coral reefs that could prolong recovery from other disturbances (Glynn 2001). Moreover, Edgar et al.(unpublished manuscript) reported that over-exploitation of sea urchin predators (lobsters and fishes), along with ENSO, has a major effect in the condition and distribution of corals in the Galapagos Islands, by increasing the grazer and bioerosion pressure on corals. Coral mortality associated with phytoplankton blooms has been reported from Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, in 1985; where mortality of pocilloporid species (especially P. capitata and P. elegans) was in the order of 100% and 13% respectively at 3 m depth (Guzmán et al. 1990). According to Glynn (2001), pocilloporid coral harvesting is an important threat in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region, specially along the continental coast. This activity has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001). Nevertheless, this activity is now largely excluded from Costa Rica and Panama (Guzmán pers. comm.). Bryant et al. (1998), based on four anthropogenic factors (coastal development; overexploitation and destructive fishing practice; inland pollution and erosion, and marine pollution), estimated a high threat to coral reefs along the coasts of Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia. High levels of siltation caused by accelerated coastal erosion have degraded coral reefs in Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador (Glynn 2001). Other threats include: a) predation principally by Acanthaster and Jenneria (Glynn 2002, 1994, 2000), and b) harvesting for the curio trade, an activity that has virtually eliminated pocilloporid corals from Acapulco (Mexico), Bahia Culebra (Costa Rica), Taboga Island (Panama), and parts of the coast of Ecuador (Glynn 2001). In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil et al. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter et al. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland et al. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter et al. 2001, Patterson et al. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis et al. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the GBR were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis et al. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse. Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known. All corals are listed on CITES Appendix II. Parts of the species’ range fall within Marine Protected Areas. Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity. Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia. |Citation:||Hoeksema, B., Rogers, A. & Quibilan, M. 2008. Pocillopora danae. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 19 May 2013.| |Feedback:||If you see any errors or have any questions or suggestions on what is shown on this page, please fill in the feedback form so that we can correct or extend the information provided|

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http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/133097/0

2013-05-19T11:00:12Z

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en

Appearance▲ Back to topFemales grow to approximately 2 cm and are larger and less active than males that grow to approximately 1.5 cm. Both sexes are flightless. In females the wing cases extend only a short way down the abdomen while males have longer wing cases extending to almost the tip of the abdomen. They can be variable in colour with green, brownish, purple-red and pink forms recorded, although green forms are most common. Colour forms are genetically determined and some populations can show high frequency of pink grasshoppers. ''Chorthippus parallelus'' is told from similar species by the approximately parallel nature of the bars on the back of the neck which gives the species its name. Distribution▲ Back to topThe range of the Meadow Grasshopper extends from the Atlantic coast of Europe to the Urals. It is found from Scandinavia in the north to southern Spain and Anatolia in the south. It prefers moist vegetation and in southern regions is typically found in river valleys and at altitude , not being found in arid areas. Source: Wikipedia. Some rights reserved.

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http://www.jungledragon.com/specie/718/chorthippus-parallelus-.html

2013-05-19T11:18:09Z

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en

Dr. Arlene King, Ontario's Chief Medical Officer of Health, is reminding Ontarians to get immunized against pertussis, also known as whooping cough. There have been recent outbreaks of pertussis in Southwestern Ontario with approximately 240 cases reported since November 2011. Pertussis vaccine is available as part of Ontario's publicly funded immunization program. Children should receive their full series of pertussis vaccine and a booster shot in their teen years to provide protection into adulthood. Adults, especially those who are in regular contact with children (such as day care workers, parents, and babysitters), are also encouraged to get immunized. It provides protection not only to the adult, but will also help to prevent the spread the infection to children and infants. Pertussis is a highly contagious bacterial disease that spreads from an infected person to others through coughing or sneezing. Symptoms are initially mild, and then develop into severe coughing fits. This cough can last for weeks and makes it hard for a child to eat, drink or even breathe. Pertussis can also cause prolonged cough illness in adolescents and adults. Violent coughing can cause a person to vomit or stop breathing for a short period of time. Infants are at a greater risk of serious complications which include pneumonia, brain damage and seizures. Immunization is the best defence against pertussis. Ontarians are advised to talk to their health care provider or call their local public health unit for more information about getting immunized.

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http://www.kathleenwynne.onmpp.ca/mDocument/765?l=EN

2013-05-19T11:17:10Z

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en

SAN LUIS OBISPO, Calif. - A bird found in Paso Robles tested positive for the West Nile virus. It's the first confirmed West Nile virus activity in San Luis Obispo County. According to a news release, the California Department of Public Health has notified the San Luis Obispo Public Health Department that a bird collected on August 5th in the City of Paso Robles and a bird collected on September 10th in Atascadero have tested positive for West Nile Virus. These birds represent the first confirmation of West Nile Virus activity in north San Luis Obispo County for 2012. The bird detected in Atascadero was a wild turkey, and was a recent infection. The bird collected in Paso Robles was a hawk that had a chronic infection, which indicates unknown time of infection. West Nile Virus has been detected in 38 other counties in California, with 126 human cases and 6 deaths since the beginning of the year. Throughout the United States, a total of 3,142 human cases have been reported to the CDC, the highest number of cases reported through the third week of September since 2003. "West Nile Virus activity continues to increase in the State and San Luis Obispo County" said Dr. Penny Borenstein, Health Officer for San Luis Obispo County. "It is important to protect yourself and your family from mosquito bites by eliminating mosquito habitat around your home, avoiding mosquitos, and wearing appropriate clothing with mosquito repellant as necessary". West Nile Virus is transmitted to people by the bite of an infected mosquito. Mosquitoes become infected when they feed on infected birds and can then transmit the virus to other animals and humans. Approximately 80 percent of people infected with West Nile Virus will not show any symptoms. For those persons who do develop illness, they usually begin experiencing symptoms from 5 to 15 days after they are bitten by an infected mosquito. Symptoms may include fever, headache, body aches, while a small number may develop severe illness. To reduce the risk of being bitten by mosquitoes: - Many mosquitoes are active in the evening and morning. Avoid spending time outside if possible at those times of day. - If you do go outside, be sure to wear long sleeved clothing and apply insect repellant. - Avoid areas of heavy mosquito activity To reduce mosquito breeding areas: - Eliminate standing water on your property - Keep window and door screens in good repair - Change water in bird baths and pet dishes (at least weekly) - Keep children's wading pools empty when not in use To report dead birds or squirrels, call the California State dead bird helpline at 1-877-968-2473. For more information, go to http://westnile.ca.gov or http://cdc.gov/westnile/. To fill out an online report of a dead bird or squirrel, go to http://westnile.ca.gov Saturday, May 18 2013 11:14 PM EDT2013-05-19 03:14:07 GMT BRIDGEPORT, CT -- Federal investigators are in Connecticut inspecting the scene of a commuter train crash. Officials said it could take days before the busy section of track reopens. During the FridayMore >> Federal investigators are in Connecticut inspecting the scene of a commuter train crash. Officials said it could take days before the busy section of track reopens.More >> Saturday, May 18 2013 11:08 PM EDT2013-05-19 03:08:19 GMT DAMASCUS, VA -- According to the Associated Press, a car drove into a group of hikers at a parade in Damascus, a small Virginia town. Around 50 to 60 people were hurt, according to reports. No fatalitiesMore >> According to the Associated Press, a car drove into a group of hikers at a parade in Damascus, a small Virginia town.More >> Saturday, May 18 2013 9:08 PM EDT2013-05-19 01:08:42 GMT SANTA MARIA, Calif. -- The 4-H kids program trains future leaders in agriculture and community service across the Santa Barbara County but it is in danger of being cut altogether. The 4H program receivesMore >> The 4H program receives $143,000 from the county which is scheduled to decide if it will continue or cut the funding this June 10th.More >> Saturday, May 18 2013 9:06 PM EDT2013-05-19 01:06:55 GMT PISMO BEACH, Calif. -- Some like to show off vintage cars while others in Pismo Beach like to show off vintage trailers. The Pismo Beach community got a blast from the past as more than 300 vintage trailersMore >> The Pismo Beach community got a blast from the past as more than 300 vintage trailers rolled through Pismo Coast Village this weekend. More >> Saturday, May 18 2013 11:15 AM EDT2013-05-18 15:15:59 GMT LOMPOC, Calif. - The Lompoc Fire Department held its lottery on Friday morning for local groups to sell "safe and sane" fireworks for its upcoming Fourth of July celebration. Fire officials held a blindMore >> LOMPOC, Calif. - The Lompoc Fire Department held its lottery on Friday morning for local groups to sell "safe and sane" fireworks for its upcoming Fourth of July celebration.More >>

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http://www.kcoy.com/story/19596835/west-nile-virus-found-in-birds-in-northern-slo-county

2013-05-19T11:17:25Z

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en

Greenland explorer's home office North-east of Hundested Harbour is Knud Rasmussen's House. The impressive thatched building was built in 1916-18 in the English cottage style. Knud Rasmussen commissioned the building, but architect Helge Boisen-Møller designed it. Knud Rasmussen was a prolific… From Greenland to The Hague Knud Rasmussen had a huge impact on research on Greenland. His seven expeditions have been of great scientific benefit. His team of researchers from various specialist fields helped map Greenland. They were experts in botany, geology, meteorology, cartography, ethnography and archaeology. Knud Rasmussen himself was a consultant for the Danish government during the international trials in the Hague when Denmark and Norway each claimed the right to Greenland. Denmark won the case, not least thanks to the internationally respected efforts of Knud Rasmussen. His life's ambition was to help develop the Greenland community so that Greenlanders could rule their own affairs. Contribute to Knud Rasmussen's House Contribute with a story about this place? Contribute with one or more pictures Contribute with videos Contribute with links

<urn:uuid:a79c5129-9f3e-44f1-991c-1f9039476491>

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http://www.kulturarv.dk/1001fortaellinger/en_GB/knud-rasmussen-s-house

2013-05-19T10:54:00Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697420704/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094340-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

What is C++11? On August 12, 2011, the ISO (International Organization for Standardization) approved a new version of C++, called C++11. C++11 adds a whole new set of features to the C++ language! Use of these new features is entirely optional — but you will undoubtedly find some of them helpful. We will only cover a portion of the new features here (those you are mostly likely to actually use). Note that because C++11 is new (as of the time of writing), only modern compilers support it, and most of them only support it partially. I’ll be using Visual Studio 2010 Express Edition for sample code. Compatibility with other compilers may vary. If you are using an older version of Visual Studio, now’s a good time to upgrade to Visual Studio 2010 Express, even though it’s support for C++11 is spotty at best at the time of writing. The goals and designs of C++11 Bjarne Stroustrup characterized the goals of C++11 as such: - Build on C++’s strengths — rather than trying to extend C++ to new areas where it may be weaker (eg. Windows applications with heavy GUI), focus on making it do what it does well even better. - Make C++ easier to learn, use, and teach — provide functionality that makes the language more consistent and easier to use. To that end, the committee that put the language together tried to obey the following general principles: - Maintain stability and compatibility with older versions of C++ and C wherever possible. Programs that worked under C++03 should generally still work under C++11. - Keep the number of core language extensions to a minimum, and put the bulk of the changes in the standard library (an objective that wasn’t met very well with this release) - Focus on improving abstraction mechanisms (classes, templates) rather than adding mechanisms to handle specific, narrow situations. - Add new functionality for both novices and experts. A little of something for everybody! - Increase type safety, to prevent inadvertent bugs. - Improve performance and allow C++ to work directly with hardware. - Consider usability and ecosystem issues. C++ needs to work well with other tools, be easy to use and teach, etc… Since C++11 isn’t a large departure from C++03, it really doesn’t need any more introduction. We’ll just dive right into the new features in the next lesson. |B.2 — Long long, auto, decltype, nullptr, and enum classes| |A.6 — Fixed-width integers|

<urn:uuid:42dc7cab-e832-4576-8f10-c6cd42c01ed0>

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http://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/b-1-introduction-to-c11/

2013-05-19T11:09:02Z

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en

Definition of Indiana 1. Noun. A state in midwestern United States. Group relationships: Corn Belt, Middle West, Midwest, Midwestern United States, America, The States, U.s., U.s.a., United States, United States Of America, Us, Usa Generic synonyms: American State Terms within: Bloomington, Evansville, Fort Wayne, Gary, Capital Of Indiana, Indianapolis, Lafayette, Muncie, South Bend, Wabash, Wabash River 2. Noun. United States pop artist (born 1928). Definition of Indiana 1. Proper noun. A (USstate) Capital and largest city: Indianapolis. ¹ ¹ Source: wiktionary.com Click the following link to bring up a new window with an automated collection of images related to the term: Indiana Images Lexicographical Neighbors of Indiana Literary usage of Indiana Below you will find example usage of this term as found in modern and/or classical literature: 1. The Federal and State Constitutions: Colonial Charters, and Other Organic by Francis N. Thorpe, United States (1909) "TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT OF indiana—1814« [THIRTEENTH CONGRESS. SECOND SESSION] An Act to establish the mode of laying off the Territory of indiana into ..." 2. United States Supreme Court Reports by Lawyers Co-operative Publishing Company, United States Supreme Court (1912) "By the Code of indiana, any equitable defense may be joined with a legal one ... These defenses, therefore, are not in indiana separate and distinct suit; ..." 3. The Constitution of the United States of America: With an Alphabetical by William Hickey, United States (1847) "An act to enable the people of the indiana territory to form a constitution and State government, &c., by which that Stale was allowed one Representative, ..." 4. The Phi Delta Kappan by Phi Delta Kappa (1916) "indiana At the indiana State Teacher's Association held in indianapolis, ... Dr. JW Todd, Professor of Educational Psychology in indiana University, ..." 5. The Cumulative Book Index by H.W. Wilson Company (1911) "McDonald, D: Treatise on the laws of indiana pertaining to the powers and duties of and practice and procedure before justices of the peace, etc. 3d ed. ..." 6. The German Element in the United States with Special Reference to Its by Albert Bernhardt Faust (1909) "In indiana the Swiss settlement of Vevay was founded, in 1796. ... The settlement (in present Switzerland County, indiana) perhaps dates from 1802, ..."

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http://www.lexic.us/definition-of/indiana

2013-05-19T11:08:25Z

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The sign for "write" uses a quick scribbling movement across the palm of the left hand. The tip of the index finger is touching the dip of the thumb. This sign can also be done using a "downward" writing movement instead of a sideward movement. The non-dominant hand does not move. You could use a quick, downward movement of the dominant hand to sign write as in, "I wrote a paper." Or you could use a couple of repeated movements. Sample sentence: Do you like to write research papers? However, if you wanted to sign "write your name" you would use a sideward movement and do it a bit more carefully. Dr. Bill's new iPhone "Fingerspelling Practice" app is available now for just 99 GET IT HERE! NEW! Online "ASL Training Center!" (Premium Subscription Version of ASLU) ** CHECK IT OUT ** Also available: "ASLUniversity.com" (a mirror of Lifeprint.com less traffic, fast access) ** VISIT NOW **

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A popular treatment for children with autism is the “autism diet” or the gluten free, casein free diet (GFCF diet) because some parents, doctors and researchers say that children have shown mild to dramatic improvements in speech and/or behavior after these substances were removed from the diet. The effectiveness of the diet has become hotly debated – while many researchers claim that there is no scientifically validating data that indicates the “autism diet” benefits large numbers of individuals with autism, antidotal reports from families indicate that some behavioral issues are reduced with this diet, making it difficult for many parents to determine fact from fiction. Gluten and gluten-like proteins are found in wheat and other grains, including oats, rye, barley, bulgar, durum, kamut and spelt, and foods made from those grains. Casein is a protein found in milk and foods containing milk, whey and even some brands of margarine. It also may be added to non-milk products such as soy cheese and hot dogs in the form of caseinate. Early studies suggested that the Gluten- and Casein-Free diet may produce favorable outcomes but did not have strong scientific designs. Better controlled research published since 2006 suggests there may be no educational or behavioral benefits for these diets. Further, potential medically harmful effects have begun to be reported in the literature. (National Standards Project, 2010) The National Autism Center’s National Standards Project was designed to identify the level of research support currently available for educational and behavioral interventions used with people under the age of 22 with autism. These interventions address the core characteristics of this neurological disorder. Knowing levels of research support is an important component in selecting treatments that are appropriate for individuals on the autism spectrum. © 2012-2013 Little Star Center, Inc. All rights reserved.

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en

An Introduction to Dopamine Dopamine is a monoaminergic neurotransmitter. Monoamines are a class of neurotransmitters which also include Serotonin and Norepinephrine (or noradrenaline). A further classification of monoamines is catecholamines. Both norepinephrine and dopamine are catecholamines. Both these catecholamines are produced within the body by chemically converting Tyrosine, an essential amino acid, into L-Dopa and then to dopamine. Dopamine is then chemically converted to norepinephrine. This chemical process is outlined simply in the following figure. Dopamine can have either an excitatory or inhibitory effect on the postsynaptic potential. In other words, when dopamine leaves the presynaptic neuron and goes into the synapse, it can then bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. After dopamine is bound to the postsynaptic cell, it can either facilitate an action potential or inhibit it. Neurotransmitters are the messengers within the central nervous system. They are responsible for communicating with other neurons either through chemical or electrical signals. A neuron that classically releases dopamine is called a dopaminergic neuron. A series of neurons that are connected by synapses forms a pathway called a dopaminergic pathway. (Kind of makes sense, huh?) There are three dopaminergic pathways: Before I explain what each system is responsible for, I would like to explain that systems or tracts in the Central Nervous System (CNS) usually have names that tell you where the neurons begin, (where the cell bodies are located) and where the axons terminate (and therefore what structures it serves). With that information in mind, the nigrostriatal system begins in the Substantia Nigra and projects it's axons to the striatum which is made up of two structures: the caudate and the putamen. This system is concerned with the intiation and maintenance of motor behaviors. The striatum and the Substantia Nigra are both key players in a group of structures called the basal ganglia. The basal ganglia, as well as the cerebellum, is the key area of motor coordination, movement and initiation of movement. The Substantia Nigra are a group of pigmented cells in the midbrain that are damaged in Parkinson's Disease, an illness that impairs the initiation of movement. The mesolimbic system will be referred to a lot in this site, as it is the main focus of dopamine's involvement with drugs. The mesolimbic system begins in the ventral tegmental area (in the midbrain) and projects to parts of the limbic system including the nucleus accumbens, the amygdala, the septal area and the hippocampus. The nucleus accumbens is the site in this system where there is a reinforcing effect. In other words, the nucleus accumbens is thought of as the reward center. When one partakes in alcohol, marijuana, and even chocolate, dopaminergic neurons in the nucleus accumbens are releasing dopamine. The mesocortical system has cell bodies located in the ventral tegmental area as well, but this pathway terminates on the prefrontal cortex. These neurons have an excitatory effect on the frontal cortex and thus affect such functions as formation of short term memories, planning, strategy and preparations for problem solving. The mesolimbic and mesocortical systems appear to be important in the initiation and maintenance of goal directed and reward mediated behaviors. This would include the maintaining of cognitive sets, or logical thought. A disruption of this system alters the normal association process and leads to a breakdown in the proper perceptual functioning of certain areas of the frontal lobe. This results in the inability to ignore or screen nonmeaningful stimuli. There are a number of possible consequences including delusional perceptions and a looseneing of associations. There is possibly a link between the dopamine system and the regulation of affective expression.

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http://www.macalester.edu/academics/psychology/whathap/UBNRP/Dopamine/intro.html

2013-05-19T11:09:19Z

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en

Women’s rights are human rights. Thirty years after the adoption of CEDAW, many women and girls still do not have equal opportunities to realize rights recognized by law. The African Union in 2003 passed The Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (Maputo Protocol), which guarantees comprehensive rights to women including the right to take part in the political process, to social and political equality with men, to control of their reproductive health and an end to female genital mutilation. As of July 2010, 46 countries have signed the Protocol and 28 have ratified it. What needs to be done now is how to better incorporate the rights enshrined in the Protocol into domestic law and how to educate women about the protocol so they can fully enjoy these rights. In Africa, in some countries, women are denied the right to own property or inherit land. They face social exclusion, “honor killings”, FGM, trafficking, restricted mobility and early marriage, among others. Society needs to be fixed so that girls and women can have equal access to health information and services, education, employment and political positions. Against a backdrop of increasing conflicts, repressive governments and social fundamentalism and cultural backlash, African women have taken on the mantle as human rights defenders over the past two decades.They seek the promotion and protection of civil and political rights as well as the promotion, protection and realization of economic, social and cultural rights. They campaign against torture, domestic violence, equal treatment at work or for land rights and access to credit Human rights defenders expose violations and campaign for redress for victims. They are all too often both the champions of progress, as well as the victims of repression. Whether as individuals, groups or organs of society, the activities that they carry out in promoting human rights standards is very important. They do all this at enormous risk to their lives and are thus very courageous and their work needs to be highlighted. In 1998, the United Nations adopted the Declaration on Human rights Defenders, the first UN instrument that recognized the work of human rights defenders as well as their need for protection. Both states and non-state actors have a duty to ensure their protection. However, according to the Banjul Declaration (2010) women are still considered victims of the constraints of culture, traditional and the patriarchal structure of the society which confine them to a limited role and stigmatize them in their daily activities and highlighted the need to undo the specific threats and attacks faced by women human rights defenders in their daily work. Mechanisms have been specifically established at the international and regional level for the protection of defenders, and on women human rights defenders and they include but are not limited to; The mandate of the UN Special Rapporteur on human rights defenders (2000) The mandate of the Special Rapporteur of the African Commission on Human and People’s Rights on human rights defenders (2004) The Human Rights Defenders Unit of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (2001) The European Union Guidelines on human rights defenders (2004) For more information on human rights defenders, please look at the following websites: www.ishr.ch – International service for human rights Frontline Protection of Human Rights Defenders. www.frontlinedefenders.org International Federation for human rights. www.fidh.org World Organization against torture. www.omct.org/human-right-defenders/ The Carter Center-Human Rights defenders Initiative. www.cartercenter.org

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2013-05-19T10:58:59Z

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en

CausesBy Mayo Clinic staff CLICK TO ENLARGE Airplane ear occurs when an imbalance in the air pressure in the middle ear and air pressure in the environment prevents your eardrum (tympanic membrane) from vibrating as it should. Air pressure regulation is the work of a narrow passage called the eustachian tube. One end is connected to the middle ear. The other end has a tiny opening where the back of the nasal cavity and the top of the throat meet (nasopharynx). When an airplane climbs or descends, the air pressure in the environment changes rapidly, and your eustachian tube doesn't react quickly enough. Swallowing or yawning activates muscles that open the eustachian tube and allow the middle ear to replenish its air supply, often eliminating the symptoms of airplane ear. Problems similar to airplane ear Ear barotrauma also may be caused by: - Scuba diving - Being slapped or hit on the ear - Explosions nearby You may also experience a minor case of barotrauma while riding an elevator in a tall building or driving in the mountains. - Vernick DM. Ear barotrauma. http://www.uptodate.com/home/index.html. Accessed July 29, 2010. - Ears and altitude. American Academy of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery. http://www.entnet.org/HealthInformation/earsAltitude.cfm. Accessed Aug. 19, 2010. - Travel safety tips. American Academy of Pediatrics. http://www.aap.org/advocacy/releases/travelsafetytips.cfm. Accessed Aug. 19, 2010. - Bentz BG, et al. Barotrauma. American Hearing Research Foundation. http://www.american-hearing.org/disorders/barotrauma/. Accessed Aug. 19, 2010.

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2013-05-19T10:43:50Z

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New findings suggest that signs of dyslexia, a developmental disorder that usually isn’t diagnosed until elementary school that makes recognizing processing words and symbols difficult, may begin even before the child starts to read. Co-author Andrea Facoetti, assistant professor of psychology at the University of Padova said while it is accepted that reading disorders arise from a spoken language problem, the latest findings suggest that visual attention is plays a critical role in learning to read, and therefore may be more foretelling of potential reading disorders. "Visual attention deficits are surprisingly way more predictive of future reading disorders than are language abilities at the pre-reading stage," Facoetti said in a statement released on Thursday. According to the latest statistics from the National Institutes of Health, dyslexia is the most common cause of reading and writing difficulties and it is estimated that up to 15 percent of the population may have dyslexia. Scientists studied 96 Italian children for three years between kindergarten to second grade, and found that children who had trouble making out certain symbols within patterns and sentences had a harder time reading later on. Facoetti explains because the ability to filter out relevant versus irrelevant information and recognize certain visual information amid distractions is crucial in isolating single letters or syllables in words to translate into speech, he believes that treatment and early identification should take into account such visual information cues, like simple visual-attention tasks. "This is a radical change to the theoretical framework explaining dyslexia," Facoetti said. "It forces us to rewrite what is known about the disorder and to change rehabilitation treatments in order to reduce its impact." Facoetti believes that by applying the latest findings to treatment and identification of dyslexia would dramatically reduce the reading disorder, improve quality of life for dyslexia patients and decrease governmental costs. However critics say that the Italian study might not translate to U.S. children because the orthography, or the relationship between sounds and spelling, is more complicated in the English language. "I would caution that the study was conducted on Italian children," Hines told ABC News. "The prevalence of dyslexia in Italy is lower than in the U.S." Published by Medicaldaily.com

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2013-05-19T11:27:09Z

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Data availability is a term used by some computer storage manufacturers and storage service providers (SSPs) to describe products and services that ensure that data continues to be available at a required level of performance in situations ranging from normal through "disastrous." In general, data availability is achieved through redundancy involving where the data is stored and how it can be reached. Some vendors describe the need to have a data center and a storage-centric rather than a server-centric philosophy and environment. In large enterprise computer systems, computers typically access data over high-speed optical fiber connection to storage devices. Among the best-known systems for access are ESCON and Fibre Channel. Storage devices often are controlled as a redundant array of independent disks (RAID). Flexibility for adding and reconfiguring a storage system as well as automatically switching to a backup or failover environment is provided by a programmable or manually-controlled switch generally known as a director. Two increasingly popular approaches to providing data availability are the storage area network (SAN) network-attached storage (NAS) . ata availability can be measured in terms of how often the data is available (one vendor promises 99.999 per cent availability) and how much data can flow at a time (the same vendor promises 3200 megabytes per second).

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Colors of the Innermost Planet - View 1 This colorful view of Mercury was produced by using images from the color base map imaging campaign during MESSENGER's primary mission. These colors are not what Mercury would look like to the human eye, but rather the colors enhance the chemical, mineralogical, and physical differences between the rocks that make up Mercury's surface. Release Date: February 18, 2013 Image Credit: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington

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2013-05-19T10:43:46Z

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The Burj Khalifa in Dubai may be the world's tallest building, but not for long. China and Saudi Arabia already have plans to build taller skyscrapers. How long can this go on? Is there a physical limit to how high you can build a tower? Architect Tim Johnson of the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat thinks the only real limits are practicality and money, as engineers can always find a way around physical limits. For a Middle East-based client he's not allowed to identify, Johnson worked on a project back in the late 2000s designing a building that would have been a mile-and-a-half tall, with 500 stories. Somewhat of a theoretical practice, the design team identified between 8 and 10 inventions that would have had to take place to build a building that tall. Not innovations, Johnson says, but inventions, as in completely new technologies and materials. "One of the client's requirements was to push human ingenuity," he says. Consider them pushed. With those inventions and the hollow, Eiffel Tower-like base, Johnson says the design could have worked. The project was canned as a result of the crash of the real estate market in the late 2000s (and probably at least a little good old-fashioned pragmatism). But if things were to change, that building could be built, he says. "We proved that it is physically and even programmatically possible to build a building a mile-and-a-half tall. If somebody would have said 'Do it two miles,' we probably could have done that, too," Johnson says. "A lot of it comes down to money. Who’s going to have that kind of capital?" Other architects, engineers, and planners share their opinions on the limits of construction at the Atlantic. Link -via the Presurfer (Image credit: Jeddah Economic Company/Adrian Smith/Gordon Gill Architecture)

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2013-05-19T11:19:52Z

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A titular archiepiscopal see of Greece. The origin of Corinth belongs to prehistoric legend. About 1100 B.C. this city, delivered from the Argives by the Dorian invasion, became the centre of the Heracleid rule in Peloponnesus; at this time it waged successful wars against neighbouring cities, including Athens. A little later, under the tyranny of the Bacchiadae (750-657 B.C.), it founded many colonies, among them Corcyra and Syracuse. About 657 B.C. a revolution substituted for tyranny a government based on popular election; from that time Corinth took no great part in Greek history, except as the scene of the Isthmian games and by the transit duty it imposed on all goods passing by its citadel. Its name is scarcely mentioned during the Medic wars, and after beginning the Peloponnesian war (432-404) it handed the direction of it over to Sparta and later on abandoned its ally. The foreign policy of this submissive vassal of Philip (later the federal centre, but not the inspirer, of the Achaean league) was never positive and domestic; its true glory was its luxury, riches, and artistic culture. It gave its name to the third and most ornamental of the orders of Greek architecture. Corinth was captured and plundered by Mummius (146 B.C.), restored and embellished again by Caesar and Hadrian, and ravaged in turn by the Heruli, Visigoths, and Slavs. In 1205 it was captured by the French, who gave it up to the Venetians, by whom it was held, excepting brief intervals, until 1715. The Turks left it in 1821, and in 1858, after a severe earthquake, it was transferred to the western shore of the gulf. The new town, in the provinces of Argolis and Corinthia, has about 4500 inhabitants, and exports dried currants, oil, corn, and silk. The ancient site is now occupied by a wretched village, Palaeo-Corinthos, or Old Corinth, with five churches, probably built where temples had formerly stood. Near by are the lofty Acropolis (Acro-Corinthus) and ruins of a temple and amphitheatre. The ship canal between the bay of Corinth and the gulf of Ægina, about four miles in length, was opened 8 November, 1893; it had been begun by Nero, and is in great part cut through the solid rock. St. Paul preached successfully at Corinth, where he lived in the house of Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:1), where Silas and Timothy soon joined him. After his departure he was replaced by Apollo, who had been sent from Ephesus by Priscilla. The Apostle visited Corinth at least once more. He wrote to the Corinthians in 57 from Ephesus, and then from Macedonia in the same year, or in 58. The famous letter of St. Clement of Rome to the Corinthian church (about 96) exhibits the earliest evidence concerning the ecclesiastical primacy of the Roman Church. Besides St. Apollo, Lequien (II, 155) mentions forty-three bishops: among them, St. Sosthenes (?), the disciple of St. Paul, St. Dionysius; Paul, brother of St. Peter, Bishop of Argos in the tenth century; St. Athanasius, in the same century; George, or Gregory, a commentator of liturgical hymns. Corinth was the metropolis of all Hellas. After the Byzantine emperors had violently withdrawn Illyricum from Papal direction, Corinth appears as a metropolis with seven suffragan sees; at the beginning of the eighteenth century there were only two united in one title. Since 1890 Corinth, for the Greeks, has been a simple bishopric, but the first in rank, Athens being the sole archbishopric of the Kingdom of Greece. Lequien (III, 883) mentions twenty Latin prelates from 1210 to 1700, the later ones being only titular. But Eubel (I, 218; II, 152) mentions twenty-two archbishops for the period from 1212 to 1476. LEBAS AND FOUCART, Inscriptions du Péloponnèse; BEULÉ, L'art grec avant Périclès; PERROT AND CHIPIEZ, Hist. de l'art dans l'antiquité; SPON, Voyage d'Italie, de Dalmatie, de Grèce et du Levant (Amsterdam, 1679), II, 223 sq.; SMITH, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (London, 1878), I, 674-86. APA citation. (1908). Corinth. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04363b.htm MLA citation. "Corinth." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04363b.htm>. Transcription. This article was transcribed for New Advent by Fr. Paul-Dominique Masiclat, O.P. Ecclesiastical approbation. Nihil Obstat. Remy Lafort, Censor. Imprimatur. +John M. Farley, Archbishop of New York. Contact information. The editor of New Advent is Kevin Knight. My email address is feedback732 at newadvent.org. (To help fight spam, this address might change occasionally.) Regrettably, I can't reply to every letter, but I greatly appreciate your feedback — especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads.

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2013-05-19T11:25:40Z

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New Findings Indicate HIV/AIDS Pandemic Began Earlier than Previously Thought New research indicates that the most pervasive global strain of HIV began spreading among humans closer to the turn of the century, not during the 1930s, as previously reported. Balintfy: New research indicates that the most pervasive global strain of HIV began spreading among humans closer to the turn of the century, not during the 1930s, as previously reported. The research, led by Dr. Michael Worobey, of the University of Arizona in Tucson, was co-sponsored by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Young: What Dr. Worobey was able to do is take samples that had been stored in a laboratory in Kinshasa and develop a technique to isolate DNA and RNA from it. Balintfy: Dr. Janet Young, from NIAID explains that Dr. Worobey was able to compare the HIV samples. Young: He was able to show first of all that they differed by twelve percent, showing that they were related, but that a considerable amount of evolution had taken place. Balintfy: Roughly 40 years of evolution. Dr. Young comments that by knowing that HIV entered the human population earlier than previously thought, between 1884 and 1924, researchers will be better informed in their efforts to develop a vaccine. Dr. Rosemary McKaig, also with NIAID, concurs: Dr. McKaig: By knowing the circumstances around that entry, we might be able to somehow evaluate better how to deal with it in the human population both through prevention and treatment, because it continues to evolve. Balintfy: Dr. McKaig emphasizes that Dr. Worobey's HIV discovery is significant for both viral evolution, and human evolution. McKaig: And as we attack our problems today, we need to, one, look at other viruses that might be entering into the population, that are quiescent right now; but we can also look at this virus and say, "there was a time in history when it wasn't here" and "what was it about humans that changed that made it explode into our population." And he has some great concepts that he's thinking through about those issues because they relate to our prevention techniques now and how we might be able to actually finally get this virus out of our population because that's really what we'd like to do, whether it's eradicate it, or treat it out, or where we no longer have effective transmissions.Balintfy: For more information on this study, Dr. Worobey's paper in Nature magazine, and HIV research, visit www.niaid.nih.gov. This is Joe Balintfy, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland. About This Audio Report Reporter: Joe Balintfy Sound Bite: Dr. Rosemary McKaig, Dr. Janet Young, NIAID Topic: HIV, AIDS, pandemic, virus, origin

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NJRF home > The 6 Essentials Phonics: Understanding the relationships between written letters and spoken sounds. Phonics instruction teaches children the relationships between the letters (graphemes) of written language and the individual sounds (phonemes) of spoken language. The goal of phonics instruction is to help children learn and use the alphabetic principle. Children who have attained an understanding of this know that there is a predictable relationship between the phonemes and the graphemes and thus are able to "sound out" words they have not encountered before... (continue reading from New Jersey's Reading First Program Grant Application). More Reading on this Topic: The Classroom - Audio! Vowel Sound Essentials from Tampareads.com (uses RealPlayer) For the Parent

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http://www.nj.gov/education/readfirst/five/phonics.shtml

2013-05-19T11:00:31Z

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en

Manipula math with Java : Hyppocrates' lunar This applet leads students through a proof of how the area of two lunar sections is equal to the area of a triangle inscribed in a semicircle. The illustration uses color-coded sections and gives students hints to help find the theorem. The proof uses the Pythagorean theorem to establish the relationship between the lunar sections and the triangle. A separate sequence of diagrams shows the outline of the proof to simplify it. Copyright 2005 Ohio State University Learning math : Measurement This college level course, developed for elementary and middle school teachers, begins with the fundamentals of measurement, then examines standard units in the metric and customary systems. Online workshop sessions cover measurement of a circle, area and volume formulas, angle measurement, and indirect measurement encountered in trigonometry. The final session explores ways to apply these concepts to K-8 classroom teaching. Each of its ten sessions contains video programming, problem-solving ac Science Sampler: Multiple Intelligences and Lab Groups Science teachers who are committed to excellence in the classroom continually seek ways to improve teaching and learning, and the concept of multiple intelligences holds promise as a method for accomplishing this. Acknowledging these intelligences offers teachers an interesting opportunity to appeal to the different personalities and learning styles that are present in the classroom. In this research project, the theory of multiple intelligences was integrated into a seventh grade science curric An Earth Science Scrapbook Project as an Alternative Assessment Tool Scrapbooking is a popular hobby and as such, has found its way into educational settings, primarily in middle and elementary school levels. This article describes a scrapbook project that is used both as a means of demonstrating the connections between geology and students daily lives and as an alternative form of assessment. The project was developed for an introductory Earth Science class for middle school and high school pre-service teachers. 1900 Air Pollution Examine this graph from FRONTLINE/NOVA: Whats Up with the Weather? Web site to see dramatic increases in three greenhouse gases over the last two hundred years. Compare and contrast warm and cold fronts This pair of Earth science animations show students what happens at cold and warm fronts as clouds are formed by the interaction of warm air and cool air. The cool front animation depicts cumulonimbus clouds forming as a cold front moves into a region of warm air and forces the warm air to rise. In contrast, the warm front animation shows how warm air, moving over cold air, causes a progression of nimbostratus to cirrus clouds to form. Movie controls allow students to repeat, pause, or step thro Like any museum, this website called the Mathematics Museum provides some interesting visuals and explanations of various aspects of its subject, in this case mathematics. For example, the Fractal 3D Gallery includes video footage of 3D fractals and an FAQ section that provides some basic information on fractals. The Kodawari house includes some interesting math games and instruction for children as well as more advanced mathematics. Visitors can browse images created using Mathematica software The Need for Ocean Literacy in the Classroom - Part I : An overview of efforts to promote ocean lite Society is largely ocean illiterate and a basic understanding of the key concepts needed for sound decision making on matters related to sustainability and the health of humankind is lacking. At present, a network of approximately 100 members of the ocean science and education communities are working together to make understanding the ocean part of the formal K-12 curriculum. The emergent consensus among the members of the group has resulted in a definition of ocean literacy that is supported by Ten preparation steps for a successful group presentation This resource informational piece, part of a series about the future of energy, introduces students to the process of making a successful group presentation. It lists 10 steps for students to follow when making presentations. These include: research and gather information, focus the group's efforts, create a story line, and self-evaluate, among others. Students are given guided questions and checklists for each of the 10 steps to self-evaluate whether they have successfully completed the step. A Observe images of advection fog This Earth science resource presents six photographs depicting examples of advection fog along various coastal areas in the United States. The introduction explains how advection fogs form and provides a brief explanation of how they differ from radiation fogs. Students are instructed to click on each labeled image to see an enlarged version of it. Each enlarged version includes a caption that describes the location of the fog relative to local landmarks in the picture. Copyright 2005 Eisenhower Quick take on area and volume This one-page document highlights online resources with virtual manipulatives that can help make area and volume real for students. Be sure to check out the sites these resources are from; the sites contain many other interesting and useful mathematics learning resources. Conan the Bacterium This on-line news article reveals the defense strategy of radiation-resistant Deinococcus radiodurans to be a tightly packed ring of DNA. The article explores the hypothesis of some that indicates the microbe originated on Mars and describes the actions of others that used experiments to show resistance is not attributed to repair enzymes, as was once believed. The article details the implications of these findings and concludes with future studies regarding the organism. Keeping Cool at Deep-Sea Vents This Astrobiology Magazine article reports that a research team of marine scientists has determined that water chemistry controls the location and distribution of two species of weird worms inhabiting deep-sea hydrothermal vent sites: the tubeworm (Riftia pachyptila) and Pompeii worm (Alvinella pompejana). The article includes color images of the worms and monitoring equipment, links to related web pages and other astrobiology resources, and an MP3 machine text-to-speech function. Wisconsin Fast Plants Program This is the homepage of the Fast Plants organization. Fast Plants are inexpensive seeds which take approximately 2 weeks from planting to flowering. The website includes seed ordering, growing directions, and activities. Matter: Atoms from Democritus to Dalton This web page provides an overview of atomic theory from Democritus to Dalton and reviews John Dalton's 4 basic theories on matter. The page is also available in Spanish. This online news article discusses the ability of tardigrades to withstand harsh conditions. The article covers the history, biology and significance of tardigrades, as well as the different types of cryptobiosis. It includes detailed images of the organisms and links to related web pages. POP Goes Antarctica? As students explore this Web site, they will learn how scientists work together to answer questions. This site follows several scientists to Antarctica where they are doing research on Persistent Organic Pollutants. A daily journal, glossary, and learning activities will help incorporate this into classroom lesson plans. The Metric System : Metric and Scientific Notation This lesson describes the history and basic operation of the metric system as well as scientific notation. Metric to English conversions and examples of unit conversions by moving the decimal are included. National Centre for Biotechnology Education Genetically Modified Food Following the recent decision of Bayer CropScience to withdraw its herbicide-tolerant fodder maize, Chardon LL, the soonest we are likely to see commercial cultivation of any GM crop in the UK is 2008 . This mini-site examines the history of GM food in the UK. This content is appropriate for teachers or as an extension. The science of light : funhouse mirrors background This page briefly describes and illustrates the laws of reflection. It includes a short section on pedagogy and it relates the content to standards.

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http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/xpert/scoreresults.php?keywords=Career%20skills%20i&start=5900&end=5920

2013-05-19T11:09:26Z

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en

Birds - American Avocet ( Originally Published 1904 ) Called also: BLUE STOCKING; WHITE SNIPE; SCOOPER. Length—16 to 20 inches. Male and Female: In summer—White, changing into cinnamon, on neck and head; shoulders and wings brownish black, except the middle coverts, the tips of the greater ones, and part of the secondaries, which are white. Very long, excessively slender black bill, curved upward. Legs very long and of a dull blue. In winter: Similar, but head and neck ashy or pearl gray like the tail. Range—Temperate North America, nesting from Texas north-ward to Great Slave Lake, and wintering in Central America and the West Indies. Rare in the eastern United States. Irregularly common in the interior. Season—Summer resident or spring and autumn migrant. The avocet, like the skimmer, the sea parrot, and the curlew, possesses one of the most extraordinary bills any bird wears. Slowly swinging it from side to side, as a farmer moves his scythe, the eccentric looking bird wades about in the shallows, feeling on the bottom for food that cannot be seen through the muddy water. Often the entire head and neck must be immersed to probe the mud for some small shell fish and worms that the sensitive, needle-like bill dislodges. A leader usually directs the motions of a small flock that follows him through thick and thin, mud and water; or, if the water suddenly deepens, off swim the birds until their feet strike bottom again, and the mowing motion is resumed, while the sickle bills feel and probe and jerk as the mowers move along deliberately and gracefully. The curlew's tool, the true sickle-bill, curves downward, just the reverse of the avocet's; neither is it used under water. The avocet is, perhaps, the best swimmer among the waders, owing to its webbed toes. The thick, waterproof plumage of its under parts keeps its body dry. When about to alight it chooses either water or land, indifferently; but it is al-ways especially abundant in or about the alkaline marshes of the interior. Not at all shy of man, it pays little attention to him unless positively pestered, when, springing into the air, and trailing its long legs stiffly behind to balance its outstretched neck, it flaps leisurely away to no great distance, calling back click, click, click, a sharp and plaintive cry. A long sail on motionless wings, and a drift downward, brings the bird to the ground again, but tottering at first, as if it took time to regain its equilibrium, just like a stilt. On alighting, it strikes an exquisite pose, lifting its wings till they meet over its back, like the terns and plovers, before folding them away under the feathers on its side. The nest is a mere depression in the ground, in a tuft of thick grass growing in some marshy place, and it may be lined with fine grasses, though such luxury is not customary. Three or four pale olive or yellowish clay colored eggs, thickly spotted with chocolate brown, are a complement. Near such a spot, the birds become clamorous and excitable, the entire colony resenting any liberty taken by an intruder carrying no more alarming weapon than a field glass. Still, a male avocet, lost in rose colored day dreams as he paces up and down near his nest, like the willet, on sentinel duty, rarely sees any-thing that is not directly in his way.

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http://www.oldandsold.com/articles21/birds-208.shtml

2013-05-19T11:00:03Z

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Students of online education should, from the very beginning be well aware of the precise results they can expect from online education, in order to avoid over expectations and subsequently, disappointment. By being informed of the extent of benefits they can realistically expect, they can eventually determine for themselves the gains they have made from their online lessons. Students need to be tested for all the knowledge thay have gained from the education. This will help determine whether they have been able to achieve the objectives set initially or not. This makes it important that online testing or alternative methods of testing and assessment are a part and parcel of the online course. Based on this, feedback can be generated. Proper utilization of learning materials should be available and organized into proper sequence for the learning process. The sequence itself could be progress from simple to complex, known to unknown and kniowledge to application. Feedback is crucial, as students can make it the basis for assessing their performance and making the necessary alterations if required. Athabasca University reports: Learners should be told the explicit outcomes of the learning so that they can set expectations and can judge for themselves whether or not they have achieved the outcome of the online lesson. Learners must be tested to determine whether or not they have achieved the learning outcome. Online testing or other forms of testing and assessment should be integrated into the learning sequence to check the learner's achievement level and to provide appropriate feedback.

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http://www.onlineuniversityrankings.com/2005/12/

2013-05-19T10:59:51Z

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Beginners Setup for Arduino and Processing From Open Circuits This writeup is specifically for the Westport High School Westport High School Page but should be useful for other beginners as well. This is an unfinished draft, but should be useful for a start. Setup for the Arduino and Processing falls into two major groups, setting up your PC ( most operating system ) and setting up the hardware needed. Both are discussed in the sections that follow. Hardware Setup The real basics: - Arduino board. You need at least one. There are many. Some distinctions are: - USB or older style Serial - Kit or prebuilt - Compatible with Shields Shields are hardware extensions for the Arduino. Really nice to have. We will have a writeup on them soon. - Easily pluggable to a ProtoBoard This may conflict with compatible with shields, it would be nice to have it be both, we will work on it. - Speed more speed is usually better than less. - Voltage Most of our other circuity will probably be 5 v so 5 v is fine. the 3.3v parts are useful if used with other 3.3 v parts. Despite the different voltages there are ways to connect them together. - Processor two processors are the 168 and the 368, typically the 368 is more capable, but very little more expense lean towards it. - Connection between PC and Arduino -- Mr H. will bring some, but you should get one to go with your Arduino. Different PCs and Arduino have different port for connection. You need a cable that will connect the two. Before you buy your Arduino board you should figure out the cable as well. Start by finding out what connections you have on your PC. - "Older Style Serial" actually RS232 serial. Has a 9 pin socket on the PC For some information on what boards are available see: Buy an Arduino board We will also discuss this during our meetings and probably place a group order. - a Protoboard -- Mr H. will bring some and the components used with them. See Solderless protoboard - Misc. electronic components LEDs, displays, sensors, motors and so on. -- Mr H. will have a bunch, we will get more as we need them. PC Setup This can be a Windows machine, a Mac, or Linux. I only have a Windows PC so you may have to modify some of these directions for other operating systems. For Windows you will need to unzip some files. If you do not know how to do this try the following: - How do you unzip a file? - Customize Help How To Unzip A File - Q108326: How Do I Unzip a File in Windows XP? - How to Unzip a File Arduino Software The software you need will allow you to write programs for the Arduino and move them from the PC to the Arduino. Go to Arduino Download the Arduino Software and pick the right version of the software for your PC. Then go to Guide to Getting Started with Arduino and follow the directions for set up. Note that you can do most of this without having an Arduino Board. After you get the board you may need to go back and do a bit more setup. For the first time through the important part is to get the environment running and see if you can open some of the examples. You could also try to write a short program and save it. See if you can compile a program. You cannot upload it without having a an Arduino and cable. A note on saving files: Your files are saved in the so-called sketchbook. "sketchbook" is not the name of the directory the actual name can be set by you using Files->Preferences->Sketchbook Location. Because we will probably be moving between computers it is probably useful to make this a location on your flash drive. I would recommend something like F:/MyRobotics/Arduino/. Each sketch will get its own directory under this location. Test your setup: try writing a new program, save it, close the Arduino software, reopen the program using the File->Sketchbook menu choice. Look at your flash drive to make sure the file end up where it should be. Processing Software Processing is the language for the PC side of PC <-> Arduino communications. Down load it from Download Processing. Like the Arduino language you will need to unzip it for installation. It will run from the location it is unzipped to. The file to run is: processing.exe. After installing, run it. To get started with it see: Getting Started. Welcome to Processing! A note on saving files: As with the Arduino Software your files are saved in the so-called sketchbook. "sketchbook" is not the name of the directory the actual name can be set by you using Files->Preferences->Sketchbook Location. Because we will probably be moving between computers it is probably useful to make this a location on your flash drive. I would recommend something like F:/MyRobotics/Processing/. Each sketch will get its own directory under this location. Test your setup: try writing a new program, save it, close the Arduino software, reopen the program using the File->Sketchbook menu choice. Look at your flash drive to make sure the file ended up where it should be.

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http://www.opencircuits.com/Beginners_Setup_for_Arduino_and_Processing

2013-05-19T11:26:16Z

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en

An O Without a Figure: King Lear and the Mask of the Fool In the topical abundance or superabundance of Shakespeares King Lear, almost all major thematic patterns, images, and symbols are linked to Lears enigmatic companion, the Fool. The Fool surpasses Shakespeares other fools when he is given a major role, yet he is more than a major figure: he is the pivot for action and interpretation. The presence and the importance of the Fool are emphasized further when almost half of Lears characters are referred to as fools. The stark, barren hinterland of Lear is shot through by the conspicuously forceful presence of folly. The fools propensity for misrule coupled with his centrality to the text results in a dramatic structure that itself breaks the rules. King Lear is the most generically puzzling play in Shakespeares corpus. Lear, a tragedy, draws upon comedy, history, romantic comedy, romance, and morality in indefinable and unparalleled ways. Just as form is juxtaposed in Lear, religious systems or identities are also contrasted. Pagan, Christian, existential, nihilistic, and moralistic interpretations are readily discernable. The fool, a potential nexus for structural questions, may also be at the heart of the question of spiritual identity. To locate the fool at the source of both structural and spiritual problems, and to discern why the fool factors so prominently especially in a play viewed as Shakespeares darkest, are the two endeavours of this thesis. Advisor:Parkinson, David J. School:University of Saskatchewan School Location:Canada - Saskatchewan Source Type:Master's Thesis Keywords:silenus folly mask fool king lear genre Date of Publication:10/04/2004

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http://www.openthesis.org/documents/iAn-O-Without-King-Lear-217862.html

2013-05-19T11:18:41Z

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en

In November 2010, the scientific journal Icarus published a paper by astrophysicists John Matese and Daniel Whitmire, who proposed the existence of a binary companion to our sun, larger than Jupiter, in the long-hypothesized "Oort cloud" -- a faraway repository of small icy bodies at the edge of our solar system. The researchers use the name "Tyche" for the hypothetical planet. Their paper argues that evidence for the planet would have been recorded by the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE). This colorful picture is a mosaic of the Lagoon nebula taken by NASA’s Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, or WISE. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCLA WISE is a NASA mission, launched in December 2009, which scanned the entire celestial sky at four infrared wavelengths about 1.5 times. It captured more than 2.7 million images of objects in space, ranging from faraway galaxies to asteroids and comets relatively close to Earth. Recently, WISE completed an extended mission, allowing it to finish a complete scan of the asteroid belt, and two complete scans of the more distant universe, in two infrared bands. So far, the mission's discoveries of previously unknown objects include an ultra-cold star or brown dwarf, 20 comets, 134 near-Earth objects (NEOs), and more than 33,000 asteroids in the main belt between Mars and Jupiter. Following its successful survey, WISE was put into hibernation in February 2011. Analysis of WISE data continues. A preliminary public release of the first 14 weeks of data is planned for April 2011, and the final release of the full survey is planned for March 2012. Frequently Asked Questions Q: When could data from WISE confirm or rule out the existence of the hypothesized planet Tyche? A: It is too early to know whether WISE data confirms or rules out a large object in the Oort cloud. Analysis over the next couple of years will be needed to determine if WISE has actually detected such a world or not. The first 14 weeks of data, being released in April 2011, are unlikely to be sufficient. The full survey, scheduled for release in March 2012, should provide greater insight. Once the WISE data are fully processed, released and analyzed, the Tyche hypothesis that Matese and Whitmire propose will be tested. Q: Is it a certainty that WISE would have observed such a planet if it exists? A: It is likely but not a foregone conclusion that WISE could confirm whether or not Tyche exists. Since WISE surveyed the whole sky once, then covered the entire sky again in two of its infrared bands six months later, WISE would see a change in the apparent position of a large planet body in the Oort cloud over the six-month period. The two bands used in the second sky coverage were designed to identify very small, cold stars (or brown dwarfs) -- which are much like planets larger than Jupiter, as Tyche is hypothesized to be. Q: If Tyche does exist, why would it have taken so long to find another planet in our solar system? A: Tyche would be too cold and faint for a visible light telescope to identify. Sensitive infrared telescopes could pick up the glow from such an object, if they looked in the right direction. WISE is a sensitive infrared telescope that looks in all directions. Q: Why is the hypothesized object dubbed "Tyche," and why choose a Greek name when the names of other planets derive from Roman mythology? A: In the 1980s, a different companion to the sun was hypothesized. That object, named for the Greek goddess "Nemesis," was proposed to explain periodic mass extinctions on the Earth. Nemesis would have followed a highly elliptical orbit, perturbing comets in the Oort Cloud roughly every 26 million years and sending a shower of comets toward the inner solar system. Some of these comets would have slammed into Earth, causing catastrophic results to life. Recent scientific analysis no longer supports the idea that extinctions on Earth happen at regular, repeating intervals. Thus, the Nemesis hypothesis is no longer needed. However, it is still possible that the sun could have a distant, unseen companion in a more circular orbit with a period of a few million years -- one that would not cause devastating effects to terrestrial life. To distinguish this object from the malevolent "Nemesis," astronomers chose the name of Nemesis's benevolent sister in Greek mythology, "Tyche." JPL manages and operates the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer for NASA's Science Mission Directorate, Washington. The principal investigator, Edward Wright, is at UCLA. The mission was competitively selected under NASA's Explorers Program managed by the Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md. The science instrument was built by the Space Dynamics Laboratory, Logan, Utah, and the spacecraft was built by Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp., Boulder, Colo. Science operations and data processing take place at the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. Caltech manages JPL for NASA. Whitney Clavin 818-354-4673 |Last Updated on Friday, 18 February 2011 18:28| Solar System News February 18, 2011 What would our solar system look like if visitors from other worlds took a series of pictures? NASA's MESSENGER spacecraft did just that by piecing together… Read More February 18, 2011 Background In November 2010, the scientific journal Icarus published a paper by astrophysicists John Matese and Daniel Whitmire, who proposed the existence of… Read More February 12, 2011 On February 11, 2010, at 10:23 in the morning, NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) launched into space on an Atlas rocket from Cape Canaveral. A year… Read More February 06, 2011 It's official: The sun is a sphere. On Feb. 6th, NASA's twin STEREO probes moved into position on opposite sides of the sun, and they are now beaming back… Read More February 04, 2011 Every day is a bad-air day on Saturn's largest moon, Titan. Blanketed by haze far worse than any smog belched out in Los Angeles, Beijing or even Sherlock… Read More February 03, 2011 Sand dunes in a vast area of northern Mars long thought to be frozen in time are changing with both sudden and gradual motions, according to research using… Read More We have 1813 guests online |Can WISE Find the Hypothetical 'Tyche'?| Written by NASA - Media Contact: Whitney Clavin (Jet Propulsion Laboratory) Friday, 18 February 2011 18:23

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http://www.oriondeepspace.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=406:can-wise-find-the-hypothetical-tyche&catid=36:our-solar-system-cat&Itemid=59

2013-05-19T10:53:54Z

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en

The discovery of the New World by Christopher Columbus was a turning point in world history. His discovery ushered in an age of exploration and conquest that made Spain the most powerful country in the world. The flow of silver, gold and precious stones that started out as a trickle, became a torrent that brought about an economic revival throughout all of Europe. The west coast of South America was one of Spain’s richest possessions. What was once the Vice-Royalty of Peru are today the countries of Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela. Throughout the colonial period the Spaniards located and exploited rich silver and gold mines throughout the Andes Mountains. These sources were so rich that various mints were established over the centuries for the production of coinage. Mints at Lima, Cuzco, and Potosi produced coinage that became the national currency for many nations of the world, including the American colonies and eventually the early United States. As these sources of precious metals were exploited, the treasure, in coin, ingot and jewelry form, was loaded aboard ships of the “South Seas Armada”. These ships would travel the western coast of South America to pick up and deliver goods to ports along the coast. The principal route taken by these galleons would see them start at the south and stop at ports along the coast while making their way to Panama for final delivery of all the treasure that had been collected from the mints and mines. From there the treasure would be transported across the isthmus by mule train where it would be picked up by the Tierra Firme Armada and shipped back to Spain. Over the centuries hundreds of ships were lost along the west coast of South America as they sailed the coast laden with treasure and other merchandise. The South Sea Expeditions Project, working in cooperation with the Governments of Ecuador, Peru and Chile, will continue to locate and recover treasure from these lost Spanish galleons.

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http://www.orrvweb.com/south-seas-2

2013-05-19T11:09:27Z

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en

Summary: CHEN 3600 - Lab Assignment 6 Programming with MATLABR Use "Cell Mode" and "Publish" to make a printout of your solution. Paste in the relevant command window output as comment within the appropriate cell. Paste in any function files you create outside of this script as comment within the appropriate cell. 1. Write a MATLABR script to plot the function y = 10(1 - e-t/4 ) over the interval 0 t tmax where tmax is the value of t for which y is 9.90. Use a while loop to determine tmax (approximately, say to within 0.002) and label the plot axes adequately. The variable y represents a force in Newtons, and the variable t represents time in seconds and t 0 only. 2. As a follow-on to Question 1, write a script that will identify the value of t for which y will attain 99.9 percent of its ultimate (maximum) value, and report that t value, accurate to at least 6 significant digits. 3. Prepare a MATLABR script that creates a matrix A that has m rows and n columns. Each element of A is to be a randomly selected integer that ranges from 2 to Nmax, and further m and n are to be random integers that range from 1 to Nmax. After the A matrix is completely created and populated with values, prepare another matrix B

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2013-05-19T10:53:17Z

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Despite overwhelming evidence that screening test can save lives, many African Americans still are not following recommendations from the American Cancer Society for early detection of colorectal cancer (commonly referred to as colon cancer). March is Colon Cancer Awareness Month and the American Cancer Society is urging men and women 50 and older to get tested. An estimated 16,000 African Americans in the United States will be diagnosed with colon cancer, which is the third most common cancer in both African American women and men. "Many people 50 and over do not know they are at risk and that they need to be tested," said Donald R. Henderson, M.D., M.P.H, American Cancer Society volunteer and Los Angeles area gastroenterologist. "If we can increase awareness and compliance to the level we've achieved with the Pap test for cervical cancer and the mammogram for breast cancer, we will have a tremendous opportunity to save thousands of lives through prevention and early detection of colon cancer." The American Cancer Society estimates that 150,000 Americans will be diagnosed with colon cancer and more than 50,000 will die of the disease in 2009. More specifically, African American men and women are diagnosed with and die from colon cancer at a higher rate than any other U.S. racial or ethnic group. One of the most powerful weapons in preventing colon cancer is regular colorectal cancer screening or testing. Regular colon cancer screening can, in many cases, prevent colon cancer altogether. Because most colon cancers start as polyps, which are non-cancerous growths in the lining of the colon or rectum it usually takes about 10 to 15 years for them to develop into colorectal cancer. Testing often finds these polyps, and allows them to be removed before they have the chance to turn into cancer. Los Angeles area resident and colon cancer survivor Claudine Robinson urges people to get tested regularly. "Talk to your doctor and be honest, so you can catch a problem early," she said. "You have to be honest with yourself and talk about it because catching it early can save your life." When colon cancer is detected at an early stage, patients have a more than 90-percent survival rate. Still fewer than four in 10 of these cancers are discovered at this stage. According to the American Cancer Society, increasing colon cancer testing among adults age 50 and over represents the single greatest opportunity to decrease colon cancer death rates in this country. The American Cancer Society is dedicated to eliminating cancer as a major health problem by saving lives, diminishing suffering and preventing cancer through research, education, advocacy and service. Founded in 1913 and with national headquarters in Atlanta, the Society has 13 regional Divisions and local offices in 3,400 communities, involving millions of volunteers across the United States. For more information anytime, call toll free 1-800-ACS-2345 or visit www.cancer.org.

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http://www.pasadenajournal.com/health-a-lifestyle/147-colon-cancer-test-encouraged-by-american-cancer-society-prevention-and-early-detection-can-save-lives

2013-05-19T11:01:48Z

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Cryptococcosis in Dogs Cryptococcosis is a localized or systemic fungal infection caused by the environmental yeast, Cryptococcus. This fungus grows in bird droppings and decaying vegetation, and is generally associated with Eucalyptus trees. However, it is found worldwide and some areas of southern California, Canada and Australia have been found to be more prone to the fungus. The fungus is contracted through the dog's nasal passages and then passes into the brain, eyes, lungs, and other tissues. It is usually rare in dogs. The condition or disease described in this medical article can affect both dogs and cats. If you would like to learn more about how this disease affects cats, please visit this page in the PetMD health library. Symptoms will vary and depend greatly on the organ systems affected by the fungus. However, animals may have a history of problems for weeks or months, be especially sluggish, and (in less than 50 percent of animals) have a mild fever. Other symptoms include: - Nervous system signs — seizures, wobbly, uncoordinated or “drunken” movements weakness, blindness - Skin ulceration - Enlarged lymph nodes - Vomiting and diarrhea - Lack of appetite - Nasal discharge The Cryptococcus yeast is usually inhaled through the nasal passages. Occasionally, these organisms may reach the terminal airways, although it is unlikely. It can also infect the stomach and the intestines, entering through the gastrointestinal tract. Your veterinarian will be making a diagnosis based on findings from the following tests: - Samples will be taken from the nasal passages, or a biopsy from the bumpy tissue that protrudes from the nasal passages; flushing the nose with saline may dislodge infected tissue - Biopsy of skin lesions of the head - Aspirates of affected lymph nodes - Blood and urine cultures - Blood tests to detect the presence of Cryptococcus antigens - If your dog is showing symptoms of neurological disease, a spinal tap and examination of cells will need to be done Any nervous systems shown in your animal may require inpatient supportive care. Outpatient care is used when the dog is stable. Surgery is recommended if the dog has nodular (granulomatous) masses in its nose and throat; removal of these masses will alleviate breathing difficulties. Living and Management Monitor blood work (liver enzymes) monthly in dogs receiving antifungal drugs. Improvement in clinical signs, resolution of lesions, improvement in well being, and return of appetite measure response to treatment. Conduct blood tests that detect the presence of antigens of Cryptococcus. Anticipated duration of treatment is three months to one year; patients with central nervous system disease may require lifelong maintenance treatment. Measure the presence of antigens of Cryptococcus every two months, and up until six months after completion of treatment (or until the antigen is no longer detectable). If patient maintains low titers -- the amount of medicine or antibodies found in a patient's blood – for several months after all signs of disease have resolved, continue the treatment for at least three months. If titers suddenly rise after treatment, resume the therapy. Something that is related to the whole body and not just one particular part or organ A type of fungus that produces buds Small structures that filter out the lymph and store lymphocytes The feces of an animal The process of removing tissue to examine it, usually for medical reasons. Any substance or item that the body of an animal would regard as strange or unwanted; a foreign disease or virus in the body (toxin, etc.) The digestive tract containing the stomach and intestine

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When recommending OTC products for these common ailments, a careful patient assessment is an important first step. Stopping the Symptoms of Cough, Cold, and Flu Although there is no cure for the common cold, a quick scan of pharmacy shelves reveals a host of nonprescription products formulated to manage and treat its symptoms. Pharmacists are in a pivotal position to assist patients in the selection and proper use of these OTC products, and can provide patients with updates and changes regarding the products on the market. The common cold is often considered the leading cause of physician office visits and absences from work and school. Typically, 1 billion colds occur annually, which makes colds 1 of the top 5 illnesses diagnosed in the United States. 1,2 According to the National Center of Health Statistics, an estimated 20 million days of school and 22 million days of work are lost due to the common cold each year.2 The signs and symptoms of the common cold are often confused with those of the influenza virus or other respiratory viruses. 1,2 The Table 3-5 lists the symptoms commonly associated with each condition. Although colds may occur throughout the year, the cold season in the United States typically occurs from late August through early April. In general, patients may present with cold symptoms within 1 to 3 days after incubation.1,2 Sore throat is typically the first symptom to manifest, followed by nasal symptoms such as sneezing, rhinorrhea, and nasal congestion. Patients may also experience cough by day 4 or 5.1,2 Patients may also experience fatigue and a low-grade fever; however, colds rarely present with a fever greater than 100ºF.1,2 The average duration of the common cold ranges from 7 to 14 days.1,2 Influenza season typically occurs between October and May, with the peak of the flu season occurring between late December and March. 6 In a typical year, approximately 5% to 20% of the general population gets the seasonal flu.2 Patients typically experience flu symptoms rapidly and often present with a fever, body aches, dry cough, and extreme fatigue.1,3 Finding OTC Relief Decongestants, antihistamines, expectorants, cough suppressants, and antipyretics/analgesics can help patients manage their cold and flu symptoms. Cough, cold, and flu products are available in many dosage forms, including liquids; tablets; caplets and capsules; orally disintegrating tablets; soft chews; nasal swabs, strips, and sprays; topical vapor patches; and dissolvable medicated strips. Many of these formulations provide convenient administration, accurate dosing, and easy-to-use drug delivery systems. Factors to consider when selecting products include the patient’s symptoms, medical conditions, allergy history, and current drug regimen, as well as lifestyle and personal preferences. Products formulated for the diabetic patient population are free of sugar, alcohol, dextrose, sucrose, sorbitol, sodium, fructose, glycerin, and dyes. Products for patients with hypertension, such as Coricidin HP products (Schering-Plough HealthCare), are decongestant free. Homeopathic and alternative medications, such as echinacea, high-dose vitamin C, and zinc, are marketed as shortening the duration of and/or preventing the common cold. Patients with medical conditions and those taking any other medications should always discuss the use of these products with their primary health care provider. Colds and Kids The proper use of OTC cold products in pediatric patients has been a topic of debate for many years. Currently, the FDA does not recommended the use of these products in patients younger than 2 years.1,7 Manufacturers have voluntarily updated their product labels to include this statement: “Do not use this product in children under the age of 4 years.” 1,7 Warnings are also included against the use of antihistamine-containing products for sedation purposes.1,7 Due to concerns about inaccurate dosing, the FDA released new guidelines for liquid nonprescription drugs in May 2011. The key recommendations include 1,8 : 1. Dosage delivery devices should be included for all orally ingested OTC liquid drug products. 2. Measuring devices should be marked with calibrated units of liquid measurement (eg, teaspoon, tablespoon, or milliliter) that are the same as the units of liquid measure specified in the directions for the product, and there should not be any unnecessary markings on the device. 3. Manufacturers should ensure that dosage delivery devices are used only with the products with which they are packaged. 4. Liquid measure markings on dosage delivery devices should be clearly visible and not obscured when the liquid product is added to the device. Choosing a Decongestant Decongestants are used to treat sinus and nasal congestion and are indicated for the temporary relief of nasal and Eustachian tube congestion and cough associated with post-nasal drip. 1 Pseudoephedrine and phenylephrine are common ingredients in systemic OTC decongestants. Both pseudoephedrine and phenylephrine have short half-lives, and peak concentrations for both agents occur 0.5 to 2 hours after oral administration.1 Common adverse effects associated with the use of oral decongestants include insomnia, restlessness, anxiety, nervousness, palpitations, and tachycardia.1 The use of decongestants may exacerbate certain medical conditions that are sensitive to adrenergic stimulation (ie, hypertension, diabetes, coronary artery disease, prostatic hypertrophy, and elevated intraocular pressure). 1 Patients currently on medication or those with medical conditions should be advised to consult with their primary health care provider before using any of these products. 1 Some decongestant products are combined with an antihistamine. Because antihistamines and decongestants interact with several medications and are contraindicated in various patient populations, pharmacists should screen for possible drug interactions or contraindications prior to recommending these products. For example, decongestants and antihistamines are contraindicated in those patients taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors. 1 OTC intranasal decongestants include short-acting ingredients such as ephedrine, epinephrine, levmetamfetamine, naphazoline, phenyleprhine, tetrahydrozoline, and long-acting decongestants such as oxymetazoline. 1 Patients should be reminded that the overuse of topical decongestants is associated with rhinitis medicamentosa (rebound congestion), and their use should be limited to 3 to 5 days. 1 Systemic analgesics are used for relief of pain, headache, and fever associated with the common cold and the flu. Caution should be used in patients with a history of gastrointestinal (GI) upset, renal or hepatic impairment, and those taking pharmacologic agents with known interactions with these agents. 1 Because many combination products contain analgesics such as aspirin, acetaminophen, ibuprofen, or naproxen, patients should be advised to always check the ingredients of cold medications to avoid therapeutic duplications, unnecessary drug use, possible drug–drug interactions, or contraindications. An April 2011 report from the FDA’s Center for Drug Evaluation and Research found that due to different concentrations of liquid acetaminophen products, there was confusion that could lead to overdosing. 9 In an effort to avoid dosing errors, manufacturers of liquid acetaminophen products voluntarily changed nonprescription liquid acetaminophen formulations to 1 concentration of 160 mg/5 mL for all children younger than 12 years. 1,9 Concentrated infant drops (80 mg/0.8 mL; 80 mg/mL) began to be phased out in mid- 2011. 1,9 The less-concentrated 160-mg/5 mL liquid acetaminophen products for infants contain new dosing instructions and new dosing devices in the boxes. Despite their discontinuation, some of the more concentrated infant products may still be in some homes or in distribution. For this reason, the FDA issued a warning to parents/caregivers to avoid potential dosing errors. 9,10 On December 22, 2011, the FDA released a consumer update urging parents to carefully read the labels of liquid acetaminophen marketed for infants to avoid administering the incorrect dose. 8-10 Oral antitussives, expectorants, and topical antitussives are indicated for the treatment and management of cough. These products are available as syrups, capsules, tablets, granules, medicated thin strips, liquid-filled capsules, topical creams, ointments, lozenges, vapor inhalants, and patches that contain the antitussive products camphor and menthol. 11 Guaifenesin is the only FDA-approved expectorant and is indicated for the symptomatic relief of acute ineffective productive cough. 10 Although the use of guaifenesin is not associated with any drug–drug interactions and is generally well tolerated, patients may report adverse effects such as nausea, vomiting, and GI upset. 11 FDA-approved nonprescription oral antitussives include codeine, dextromethorphan, and diphenhydramine. 11 At antitussive dosages, codeine is classified as a Schedule C-V narcotic and is available without a prescription in 33 states. 11 Codeine is indicated for the suppression of nonproductive cough caused by chemical or mechanical respiratory tract irritation. 11 Codeine acts centrally on the medulla to increase the cough threshold, and when used at antitussive doses, it has low toxicity and little risk of addiction. 11 The majority of nonprescription cough suppressants contain dextromethorphan, which is indicated for the suppression of nonproductive cough caused by chemical or mechanical respiratory tract irritation. 11 Nausea, vomiting, GI discomfort, dizziness, and constipation are the most common adverse effects associated with the use of dextromethorphan. 11 Diphenhydramine is classified as a nonselective first-generation antihistamine with significant sedating and anticholinergic properties. 11 It acts centrally in the medulla to increase cough threshold. 11 Diphenhydramine is indicated for the suppression of nonproductive cough caused by chemical or mechanical respiratory tract irritation. Camphor and menthol are the only 2 FDA-approved topical antitussives. 11 Prior to recommending any of these products, pharmacists should always screen for potential allergy sensitivities, drug– drug interactions, and possible contraindications. To prevent medication errors, patients should always be reminded to read labels prior to administration, review ingredients to avoid therapeutic duplications, and always check the expiration dates prior to administration. Patients should be reminded to adhere to the recommended dosages, administration guidelines, and duration of use. When administering these products to pediatric patients, parents/caregivers should be reminded to always use calibrated measuring devices when administering liquids and read all labels carefully prior to administering. Parents/caregivers should only give children those products manufactured specifically for the pediatric population, and should always consult their pediatrician or pharmacist when in doubt regarding the appropriateness or dose of the medication. Pharmacists can also stress the importance of nonpharmacologic measures when treating cough, cold, and the flu, especially among the pediatric patient population. Vaporizers or humidifiers, saline nasal sprays such as Little Noses Saline Mist for children or Ocean Nasal Spray, or nonmedicated Breathe Right strips can help relieve symptoms. Obtaining adequate hydration and rest is also important. Patients should be encouraged to seek medical attention from their primary health care provider if symptoms appear to worsen or linger, or if they experience high fever or signs of infection. Patients should be reminded to get their annual flu vaccine and should be prompted to take preventive measures for potentially decreasing or preventing transmission, such as routine hand-washing, use of hand sanitizers when soap and water are not available, avoiding direct contact with an individual with a cold or the flu, and always sneezing or coughing into a tissue and not into the hand. PT 1. Scolaro K. Disorders related to colds and allergy. In: Krinsky D, Berardi R, Ferreri S, et al, eds. Handbook of Nonprescription Drugs. 17th ed. Washington, DC: American Pharmacists Association; 2011:1710-1810. 2. Common cold. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases website. www3.niaid.nih.gov/topics/commonCold. Accessed December 28, 2011. 3. Flu season. FluFACTS website. www.flufacts.com/about/season.aspx. Accessed December 28, 2011. 5. Cold and flu: what’s the difference? Tylenol product website. www.tylenol.com/page.jhtml?id=tylenol/cold/subfdiff.inc. Accessed December 27, 2011. 6. Flu symptoms. Tamiflu website. www.tamiflu.com/about/pc_flu.jsp. Accessed December 28, 2011. 7. An important FDA reminder for parents: do not give infants cough and cold products designed for older children. FDA website. www.fda.gov/Drugs/ResourcesForYou/SpecialFeatures/ucm263948.htm. Accessed December 28, 2011. 8. FDA issues final guidance for liquid OTC drug products with dispensing devices. FDA website. www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm254029.htm. Accessed December 28, 2011. 9. Know concentration before giving APAP to infants. FDA website. www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm284563.htm. Accessed December 28, 2011. 10. New infant’s liquid APAP products hit store shelves. American Academy of Family Physicians website. www.aafp.org/online/en/home/publications/news/news-now/health-of-the-public/20111223infantacetamin.html. Accessed December 28, 2011. 11. Tietze K. Cough. In: Krinsky D, Berardi R, Ferreri S, et al, eds. Handbook of Nonprescription Drugs. 17th ed. Washington, DC: American Pharmacists Association; 2011:205-216. Ms. Terrie is a clinical pharmacy writer based in Haymarket, Virginia.

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2013-05-19T10:43:51Z

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Major Crops of Sirsa District: Crops are shown on 5.90 lakh hectares of Sirsa-district. The major crops of the district are cotton, paddy, grams and mustard. Major Crops of Ambala District: The total cultivable land area of this district is 2,29, 000 hectares. Nearby 52.8 per cent of the cultivable land is irrigated, the rest of the land is sandy. Wheat, paddy, maize and sugarcane are the chief crops of this district. Currently, crops are being shown on 1.96 lakh hectares of land area. Foodgrain production has gone up to 4.62 lakh tonnes as a result. The average production per hectare (in this district) is 23.57 quintals. Major Crops of Bhiwani District: This district is adjacent to the Rajasthan border. Hence, its soil is predominantly sandy. There are many low and high sand dunes in the district. In 1975-76, water fountains were used to irrigate these dunes. So, it is now possible to sow crops in this area-too. The total cultivable land in the district is 4-12 lakh hectares; crops are shown on 3.47 lakh hectares of this land. Dry land farming is done on 60 per cent of the land area of the district. Nearly 40 per cent of the land area is fed by canals and tubcwells. Major Crops of Sonepat District: The soil of this district is domut, sandy but fertile. Wheat and paddy are the major crops. Besides, sugarcane, millet, barley, pulses, oil- producing crops, sunflower and mushrooms are also grown here. Mango, Malta, lemon, sweet lemon and guava are also grown. In the Khadar area (near the river Yamuna) is used for growing watermelons and musk melons. Some farmers have also grown grapes here. This district is leading the nation in terms of mushroom production. Major Crops of Yamunanager District: The total land area of this district is 1,72,626 hectares. Out of this, 1,26,946 hectares are used for cultivation purposes. Wheat, sugarcane, gram, maize and paddy are the major crops. Sunflower is also grown by many farmers. The production of fruits and vegetables is in large quantities. Popular fruits grown here are watermelon, muskmelon, mango, apricot etc. Major Crops of Rohtak District: Three-fourth of the area of this district is used for crop cultivation. Major crops include barley, millet, sugarcane, oat, wheat, cotton and gram. Major Crops of Gurgaon District: The major crops of this district are barley, millet, oat and gram. Oat is the chief Kharif Crop of this area. It is used as green fodder for animals.^ Vegetables are also grown here. The farmers of this district also sow mustard, toria and taramira, which are cash crops. Major Crops of Kurukshetra District: Wheat and paddy are the two major crops of the district. Sugarcane is a cash crop. A sugar mill in Shahabad Markanda accepts the sugarcane °"tputs of the areas in its vicinity. Major Crops of Faridabad District: More than 60 per cent of the population of this district is associated, overtly or covertly, with agriculture. Major crops are wheat, millet and mustard. The cultivable land of the district is 1, 63,000 hectares. Major Crops of Karnal District: More than 70 per cent of the population of this district is associated overtly, or covertly, with agriculture. The economy of the district has its roots in agriculture. The Basmati rice produced here is exported to many countries. That is why, it is also known as the "rice bowl". Sugarcane production has touched new marks in this district. New techniques and good-quality seeds have also contributed to a growth in the production of sunflower. Major Crops of Hissar District: Cotton, millet, maize, paddy, wheat, gram and mustard are the major crops of this district. Farmers are also taking interest in the production of sunflower and soyabean. Pulses and oil-producing crops are also being grown with the help of advanced agricultural techniques and latest seeds. Major Crops of Kaithal District: The total cultivable land of this district is 20,095 hectares. Wheat and Basmati rice are cultivated in abundance. The rice mills of the district export rice to the Gulf countries. Major Crops of Jind District: The total cultivable land of this district is 2,72,00 hectares. Paddy, millet, barley, pulses, cotton, sugarcane, oil-producing crops and wheat are the major crops of this district. Sunflower is also grown in this district. Major Crops of Panipat District: The area of the district is 1, 75,000 hectares. The cultivable land is 1, 63,000 hectares and the total sowed land is 1, 55,000 hectares. The chief Rabi Crop is wheat whereas the chief Kharif Crop is paddy. Sunflower is also being grown here. Major Crops of Mahendragarh District: This district is rain-dependent in terms of agricultural work. Only 50 percent of its land area is irrigated. However the Department of Agriculture of the State as well as the farmers of this district has worked very hard to enhance the agricultural output in the district. That is why; this district has already become a leader in the field of mustard production. It is also trying to emulate Karnal and Kurukshetra districts in terms of wheat production. The major Kharif Crop is barley. The major Rabi Crops are wheat, gram, and mustard. Cash crops, like cotton and sunflower, are also being grown here. Major Crops of Rewari District: Agriculture is major occupation of the people of this district. Due its proximity to Rajasthan, the soil of this area is sandy. The effects of poor rainfall, dust storms and high temperature affect the agriculture of this district in an adverse manner. However, irrigation facilities have increased in number in this district after the formation of the Haryana state. Wheat, paddy and sugarcane are its major crops. Major Crops of Jhajjar, Fatehabad and Panchkula Gram, wheat and paddy are grown in most of the land areas of these districts. Do you like this site? If you enjoy reading PreserveArticles.com, please share this site with your friends.?

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The word udhiyah means an animal of the ‘an’aam class (i.e., camel, cow, sheep or goat) that is slaughtered during the days of Eid al-Adha because of the Eid and as an act of worship, intending to draw closer to Allaah thereby . Al-Udhiyah (the offering of a blood sacrifice) is one of the great rituals of Islam, in which we remember the oneness of Allaah, His blessings upon us and the obedience of our father Ibraaheem to his Lord, and in this act of udhiyah there is great benefit and blessing. So the Muslim must pay attention to its great importance. The following is a brief look at this important ritual. Al-Udhiyah refers to the animal (whether a camel, cow or sheep) that is sacrificed as an act of worship to Allaah, in the country in which the person offering the sacrifice lives, during the period from after the Eid prayer on the Day of Nahr (Eid al-Adhaa) until the last of the Days of Tashreeq (the 11th, 12th and 13th day of Dhu’l-Hijjah), with the intention of offering sacrifice . This is one of the rituals of Islam prescribed in the Book of Allaah and the Sunnah of His Messenger (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him), and according to the consensus of the Muslims. In the Qur’aan: 1 ‒ Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning): “Therefore turn in prayer to your Lord and sacrifice (to Him only)”[al-Kawthar 108:2] 2 ‒ Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning): “Say (O Muhammad): Verily, my Salaah (prayer), my sacrifice, my living, and my dying are for Allaah, the Lord of the ‘Aalameen (mankind, jinn and all that exists). He has no partner. And of this I have been commanded, and I am the first of the Muslims” [al-An’aam 6:162] The word nusuk (translated here as sacrifice) means sacrifice; this is the view of Sa’eed ibn Jubayr. And it was said that it means all acts of worship, including sacrifice, which is more comprehensive. 3 ‒ Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning): “And for every nation We have appointed religious ceremonies, that they may mention the Name of Allaah over the beast of cattle that He has given them for food. And your Ilaah (God) is One Ilaah (God Allaah), so you must submit to Him Alone (in Islam). And (O Muhammad) give glad tidings to the Mukhbitoon [those who obey Allaah with humility and are humble from among the true believers of Islamic Monotheism]” [al-Hajj 22:34] In the Sunnah: 1 ‒ It was narrated in Saheeh al-Bukhaari (5558) and Saheeh Muslim (1966) that Anas ibn Maalik (may Allaah be pleased with him) said: “The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) sacrificed two white rams speckled with black. He slaughtered them with his own hand, said ‘Allaahu akbar’ and put his foot on their necks.” 2 ‒ It was narrated that ‘Abd-Allaah ibn ‘Umar (may Allaah be pleased with him) said: “The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) stayed in Madeenah for ten years, offering sacrifice (every year on Eid).” Narrated by Ahmad, 4935; al-Tirmidhi, 1507; classed as hasan by al-Albaani in Mishkaat al-Masaabeeh, 1475. 3 ‒ It was narrated from ‘Uqbah ibn ‘Aamir (may Allaah be pleased with him) that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) shared out sacrificial animals amongst his companions, and ‘Uqbah got a sheep that was six months old. He said, “O Messenger of Allaah, I got a sheep that is six months old.” He said, “Offer it as a sacrifice.” Narrated by al-Bukhaari, 5547. 4 ‒ It was narrated from al-Baraa’ ibn ‘Aazib (may Allaah be pleased with him) that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Whoever offers a sacrifice after the prayer has completed his rituals (of Eid) and has followed the way of the Muslims.” Narrated by al-Bukhaari, 5545. The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) offered sacrifices, as did his companions (may Allaah be pleased with them). And he said that sacrifice is the way of the Muslims. Hence the Muslims are unanimously agreed that it is prescribed in Islam, as was narrated by more than one of the scholars. But they differed as to whether it is Sunnah mu’akkadah (a confirmed Sunnah) or it is obligatory and it is not permissible to omit it. The majority of scholars are of the view that it is Sunnah mu’akkadah. This is the view of al-Shaafa’i, Maalik and Ahmad according to his most well-known view. Others were of the view that it is obligatory. This is the view of Abu Haneefah and one of the views narrated from Ahmad. This was also the view favoured by Ibn Taymiyah who said: “This is one of the views narrated in the madhhab of Maalik, or it appears to be the view of Maalik.” From Risaalat Ahkaam al-Udhiyah wa’l-Dhakaah by Ibn ‘Uthaymeen (may Allaah have mercy on him). Shaykh Muhammad ibn ‘Uthaymeen (may Allaah have mercy on him) said: “Udhiyah is Sunnah mu’akkadah for the one who is able to do it, so a person should offer the sacrifice on behalf of himself and the members of his household.” Fataawa Ibn ‘Uthaymeen, 2/661 Definition of udhiyah and ruling thereon - IslamQA Rulings of Udhiyah (Sacrifice) - Sheikh Muhammad Salih al-Munajjid A sheep suffices as a sacrifice for one man and the members of his household and his children, because of the hadeeth of Abu Ayyoob: “At the time of the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him), a man would sacrifice a sheep on behalf of himself and the members of his household, and they would eat from it and give some of it to others.” (Reported by Ibn Maajah and al-Tirmidhi, who classed it as saheeh) The kinds of animals prescribed for sacrifice are camels, cows and sheep. Some of the scholars said that the best sacrifice is camels, then cows, then sheep, then a share in a she-camel or cow, because the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said concerning Friday prayers: “Whoever goes to [Friday prayers] early, it is equivalent to him sacrificing a camel.” This is the opinion of the three imaams Abu Haneefah, al- Shaafa'i and Ahmad. On this basis, a sheep is better than one seventh of a camel or cow. Maalik said that the best is a young sheep, then a cow then a camel, because the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) sacrificed two rams, and he never did anything but that which was the best. The response to that is that he (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) always chose what was more appropriate out of kindness towards his ummah, because they would follow his example, and he did not want to make things difficult for them. (Fataawa al-Shaykh ‘Abd al-‘Azeez ibn Baaz). A camel or cow suffices for seven people, because of the report narrated by Jaabir (may Allaah be pleased with him) who said: “We sacrificed at al-Hudaybiyah with the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him), a camel for seven and a cow for seven.” According to one version: “The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) commanded us to share camels and cattle, each seven men sharing one animal.” According to another version: “So a cow would be sacrificed on behalf of seven men and we would share it.” (Reported by Muslim) "Rulings of Udhiyah" by Muhammad Salih al-Munajjid The animal should have reached the required age, which is six months for a lamb, one year for a goat, two years for a cow and five years for a camel. It should be free of any faults, because the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “There are four that are unacceptable for sacrifice: a one-eyed animal whose defect is obvious, a sick animal whose sickness is obvious, a lame animal whose limp is obvious and an emaciated animal that has no marrow in its bones.” (Saheeh, Saheeh al-Jaami’, no. 886). There are milder defects that do not disqualify an animal, but it is makrooh to sacrifice such animals, such as an animal with a horn or ear missing, or an animal with slits in its ears, etc. Udhiyah is an act of worship to Allaah, and Allaah is Good and accepts only that which is good. Whoever honours the rites of Allaah, that is a sign of the piety (taqwa) of the heart. It is forbidden to sell it. If an animal has been selected for sacrifice, it is not permissible to sell it or give it away, except in exchange for one that is better. If an animal gives birth, its offspring should be sacrificed along with it. It is also permissible to ride it if necessary. The evidence for this is the report narrated by al-Bukhaari and Muslim from Abu Hurayrah (may Allaah be pleased with him), who said: “The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) saw a man leading his camel and told him, “Ride it.” He said, “It is for sacrifice.” He said, “Ride it” a second or third time.” It should be sacrificed at the specified time, which is from after the prayer and khutbah of Eid – not from when the time for the prayer and khutbah starts – until before sunset on the last of the days of Tashreeq, which is the 13th day of Dhu’l-Hijjah. The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Whoever sacrifices before the prayer, let him repeat it.” (Reported by al-Bukhaari and Muslim). ‘Ali (may Allaah be pleased with him) said: “The days of Nahr (Sacrifice) are the day of al-Adhaa and the three days following it.” This is also the opinion of al-Hasan al-Basri, ‘Ata’ ibn Abi Rabaah, al-Oozaa’i, al-Shaafa'i and Ibn al-Mundhir, may Allaah have mercy on them all. "Ruling of the Udhiyah" by Muhammad Salih al-Munajjid The time for offering the sacrifice begins after the Eid prayer on Eid al-Adha and ends when the sun sets on the thirteenth of Dhu’l-Hijjah. So there are four days of sacrifice: the day of Eid al-Adha and the three days after it. It is better to hasten to offer the sacrifice after the Eid prayer, as the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) used to do, then the first thing he would eat on the day of Eid would be meat from his sacrifice. Ahmad (22475) narrated that Buraydah (may Allaah be pleased with him) said: The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) did not go out on the day of (Eid) al-Fitr until he had eaten, and he did not eat on the day of (Eid) al-Adha until he came back, then he would eat from his sacrifice. Al-Zayla’i narrated in Nasb al-Raayah (2/221) that Ibn al-Qattaan classed it as saheeh. Ibn al-Qayyim (may Allaah have mercy on him) said in Zaad al-Ma’aad (2/319): ‘Ali ibn Abi Taalib (may Allaah have mercy on him) said: “The days of sacrifice are the Day of Sacrifice (yawm al-nahr) and the three days after it.” This is the view of the imam of the people of Basra, al-Hasan; the imam of the people of Makkah, ‘Ata’ ibn Abi Rabaah; the imam of the people of Syria, al-Awzaa’i; and the imam of the fuqaha’ of hadeeth, al-Shaafa’i (may Allaah have mercy on him). It was also the view favoured by Ibn al-Mundhir. The three days are specified because they are the days of Mina, the days of stoning (the Jamaraat) and the day of al-Tashreeq. It is forbidden to fast on these days. It was narrated via two isnaads, one of which supports the other, that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “All of Mina is the place of sacrifice, and all the days of al-tashreeq are days of sacrifice.” End quote. The hadeeth was classed as saheeh by al-Albaani in al-Silsilah al-Saheehah, 2476 Shaykh Ibn ‘Uthaymeen said in Ahkaam al-Udhiyah, concerning the time for offering the sacrifice: It is from after the Eid prayer on the Day of Sacrifice until the sun sets on the last of the days of al-tashreeq, which is the thirteenth of Dhu’l-Hijjah. So there are four days of sacrifice: the day of Eid after the prayer, and three days after that. Whoever slaughters his sacrifice before the Eid prayer is over, or after the sun sets on the thirteenth, his sacrifice is not valid … but if he has an excuse for delaying it until after the days of al-tashreeq, such as if the animal ran away with no negligence on his part, and he did not find it until after the time was over, or if he delegated someone to do it on his behalf and his deputy forgot until the time was over, then there is nothing wrong with offering the sacrifice after the time has ended, because there is an excuse, by analogy with the fact that one who sleeps and misses a prayer or forgets it should offer the prayer as soon as he wakes up or remembers it. It is permissible to offer the sacrifice during that time by night or by day, but it is better during the day, and the day of Eid after the two khutbahs is the best time. Each day is better than the following day, because that is hastening to do good. End quote. It says in Fataawa al-Lajnah al-Daa’imah (11/406): The days of sacrifice for pilgrims performing qiraan or tamattu’, and for offering the sacrifice (udhiyah) are four: the day of Eid and the three days after that. The time for sacrifice ends when the sun sets on the fourth day, according to the soundest scholarly opinion. Shaykh Muhammad ibn ‘Uthaymeen (may Allaah have mercy on him) said: “Udhiyah is Sunnah mu’akkadah for the on who is able to do it, so a person should offer the sacrifice on behalf of himself and the members of his household.” Fataawa Ibn ‘Uthaymeen, 2/661 [Definition of udhiyah and ruling thereon - IslamQA] The person who scarify should be able to afford it's cost which has to be more than what he needs to spend on himself and his family. The prophet said: "من كان له سَعة ولم يضح فلا يقربن مصلانا) رواه ابن ماجه ( 3123 ) وحسنه الألباني في " صحيح ابن ماجه) (whoever is able to spend money and doesn't scarify, he should not come close to our masjid (mosque)) Narrated by Ibn Majjah and corrected by Al Albani in "Sahih Ibn Majah" The Ruling on a Woman's Slaughter It is permissible for a woman to slaughter an animal, the same as a man, as has been confirmed by the Sunnah from the Messenger of Allaah sallallaahu 'alaihi wa sallam. It is permissible to eat from the animal she has slaughtered, if she is a Muslim or one of the People of the Scripture and the animal was slaughtered according to the Islamic Law, even if a man was available to do it for her. It is not a condition for the permissibility of her sacrificial animal that there be no man present. Shaykh `Abdul-`Azeez Bin Baz. Fatawa Islamiyah, Darussalam, vol 6, page 315 It is preferable (mustahabb) for the one who intends to sacrifice not to eat anything on that day before he eats from his sacrificial animal, if this is possible, because of the hadeeth: “Let every man eat from his sacrifice.” (Classed as saheeh in Saheeh al-Jaami’, 5349). This eating should be after the Eid prayer and khutbah (sermon). This is the opinion of the scholars, including ‘Ali, Ibn ‘Abbaas, Maalik, al-Shaafa'i and others. The evidence for this is the hadeeth of Buraydah (may Allaah be pleased with him): “The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) would not go out on the day of Fitr until he had eaten, and he would not eat on the day of Adhaa until he had slaughtered (his sacrifice).” (Al-Albaani said: its isnaad is saheeh. Al-Mishkaat, 1/452). It is better for a person to slaughter the sacrifice himself, but if he does not, it is mustahabb for him to be present when it is slaughtered. It is mustahaab to divide the meat into three: one third to be eaten, one third to be given as gifts and one third to be given in charity. This was the opinion of Ibn Mas’ood and Ibn ‘Umar (may Allaah be pleased with them). The scholars agreed that it is not permissible to sell anything from its meat, fat or skin. In a saheeh hadeeth, the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Whoever sells the skin of his udhiyah, there is no udhiyah for him (i.e., it is not counted as udhiyah).” (Classed as hasan in Saheeh al-Jaami’, 6118). The butcher should not be given anything of it by way of reward or payment, because ‘Ali (may Allaah be pleased with him) said: “The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) commanded me to take care of the sacrifice and to give its meat, skin and raiment (covering used for protection) in charity, and not to give anything of it to the butcher as a compensation. He said, ‘We will give him something from what we have.’” (Agreed upon). It was said that it is permissible to give the butcher something as a gift, and that it is permissible to give some of it to a kaafir if he is poor or a relative or a neighbour, or in order to open his heart to Islam. (Fataawa al-Shaykh ‘Abd al-‘Azeez ibn Baaz). The Sunnah indicates that the one who wants to offer a sacrifice must refrain from taking anything from his hair, nails or skin from the first day of Dhu’l-Hijjah until he offers his sacrifice, because the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “When you see the new moon of Dhu’l-Hijjah, if any one of you wants to offer a sacrifice, let him not remove anything from his hair or nails until he has offered his sacrifice.” According to another report: “Let him not touch any part of his hair or nails.” (Reported by Muslim with four isnaads, 13/146). This command implies obligation and the prohibition implies that it is forbidden, according to the most correct opinion, because these are absolutes with no exceptions. If a person deliberately takes something (from his hair or nails), he must seek the forgiveness of Allaah, but he does not have to pay any fidyah (penalty), and his udhiyah is still valid. Whoever needs to remove some of his hair or nails because leaving it will cause him harm, such as a torn nail or a wound in a site covered by hair, should remove it, and there is no sin on him if he does so. This is not more serious than the muhrim (person in ihraam for Hajj or ‘Umrah) who is allowed to shave if not doing so will cause him harm. There is nothing wrong with men and women washing their hair during the first ten days of Dhu’l-Hijjah, because the Prophet (peace andblessings of Allaah be upon him) only forbade removing hair, and because the muhrim is allowed to wash his head. The Wisdom behind the prohibition The wisdom behind the prohibition on removing hair and nails is because the one who is going to offer a sacrifice is like the one who is in ihraam for Hajj and ‘Umrah with regard to some rituals, which is the offering of a sacrifice in order to draw closer to Allaah. Thus some of the rulings of ihraam apply to the one who wants to offer a sacrifice, so he should not touch his hair and nails until he has slaughtered his sacrifice, in the hope that Allaah will release him from the fire of Hell. And Allaah knows best. If a person removes some of his hair and nails during the first ten days of Dhu’l-Hijjah because he is not planning to offer a sacrifice, then he decides to sacrifice, he should refrain from cutting his hair or nails from the moment he takes the decision. There are some women who delegate their brothers or sons to do the sacrifice on their behalf so that they can cut their hair during the first ten days of Dhu’l-Hijjah. This is not correct, because the ruling applies to the one who is making the sacrifice, whether he or she delegates someone else to do the actual slaughter or not. The prohibition does not apply to the person appointed, it applies to the person who wants to offer a sacrifice on behalf of himself, as is indicated by the hadeeth. As for the person who is doing the sacrifice on behalf of another, whether because of a will or because he has been delegated to do so, the prohibition does not apply to him. It is apparent that this prohibition applies to the one who is offering the sacrifice, and does not extend to his wife or children, unless one of them is offering a sacrifice on his or her own behalf. The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) used to sacrifice on behalf of the family of Muhammad, and it was not reported that he forbade them to remove anything of their hair or nails. Whoever is planning to offer a sacrifice, then decides to go for Hajj, should not remove anything of his hair or nails when he wants to enter ihraam, because this is Sunnah only when there is a need for it. But if he is doing Hajj “tamattu’” [where one performs ‘Umrah, then ends ihraam and enters a new state of ihraam for Hajj], he should shorten his hair when he finishes ‘Umrah because that is part of the ritual. The things that are forbidden for the person who wants to offer a sacrifice are reported in the hadeeth quoted above. It is not forbidden for him to wear perfume or to have intercourse with his wife or to wear sewn garments and so on. And Allah knows best. "Ruling of Udhyiah" by Muhammad Salih al-Munajjid

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Converting from one sample type to anotherConversion is done as a simple linear mapping of one sample range to the other, such that the minimum/maximum value of the source maps to the minimum/maximum value of the destination. More... |struct||psynth::sound::sample_converter< SrcSampleV, DstSampleV >| |A unary function object converting between sample types. More...| |Same as sample_converter, except it takes the destination sample by reference, which allows us to move the templates from the class level to the method level. More...| Convert one unsigned/floating point sample to another. |template<typename DstSample , typename SrcSample >| |sample_traits< DstSample >| |psynth::sound::sample_convert (const SrcSample &src)| |Converting from one sample type to another. | Converting from one sample type to another Conversion is done as a simple linear mapping of one sample range to the other, such that the minimum/maximum value of the source maps to the minimum/maximum value of the destination. One implication of this is that the value 0 of signed samples may not be preserved! When creating new sample models, it is often a good idea to provide specializations for the sample conversion algorithms, for example, for performance optimizations. If the new model is an integral type that can be signed, it is easier to define the conversion only for the unsigned type ( sample_converter_unsigned) and provide specializations of detail::sample_convert_from_unsigned to convert between the signed and unsigned type. // bits32f is a floating point sample with range [0.0f ... 1.0f] bits32f src_sample = sample_traits<bits32f>::max_value(); assert(src_sample == 1); // bits8 is 8-bit unsigned integral sample (typedef-ed from unsigned char) bits8 dst_sample = sample_convert<bits8>(src_sample); assert(dst_sample == 255); // max value goes to max value |sample_traits<DstSample>::value_type psynth::sound::sample_convert||(||const SrcSample &||src||)|| Converting from one sample type to another.

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en

The dryer types of sand oak woods are called steppe oak woods, the more humid, more closed variation is called closed lowland steppe oak woodlands. Special characteristics of steppe oak woods are the more or less thinning foliage, and the scrub and grass storey developing underneath. In the dryer habitats the woody vegetation alternates with the open, Pannonic sand steppes. At every level rich diversity of species can be found. The wide crowned Pedunculate Oak (Quercus robur) dominates the crown level of Steppe Oak Woods, but two of our poplar species Grey Poplar (Populus canescens) and White Poplar (Populus alba) are also typical. Less frequent are English Elm (Ulmus campestris), Field Maple (Acer campestris), Wild Pear (Pyrus pyraster) and occasionally Silver Birch (Betula pendula). Due to the favourable light conditions and the sufficient water supply European Privet (Ligustrum vulgare) and Common Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) are frequent at the well-developed scrub level, while Common Hazel (Corylus avellana), European Spindle (Euonymus europaeus) and Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) also appear. In the rather shady lowland steppe oak woods the massive presence of Wood Bluegrass (Poa nemoralis) and Slender False Brome (Brachypodium sylvaticum) is typical. Abundant herbaceous plants are Scented and Broadleaf Solomon's-seal (Polygonatum odoratum, P. latifolium), Violet (Viola sylvestris), Creeping Gromwell (Lithospermum purpureo-coeruleum) and Lily of the Valley (Convallaria majalis) also known from home gardens. Under the more open steppe oak woods and in the patches of grass between groups of trees species characteristic for Pannonic sand steppe and forests vary: Festuca vaginata, Festuca rupicola, Poa pratensis ssp. angustifolia and Feather Grass species (Stipa spp.). Hungarian Iris (Iris variegata), Bloody Cranesbill (Geranium sanguineum), Sedum maximum, Dropwort (Filipendula vulgaris), Broad-leaved Spignel (Peucedanum cervaria), Wall Germander (Teucrium chamaedrys), White Swallowwort (Vincetoxicum hirundinaria), Germander Speedwell (Veronica chamaedrys) are typical. Sand steppe relict species such as the community importance species Long-lasting Pink (Dianthus diutinus), and Sand Iris (Iris arenaria), Pulsatilla (Pulsatilla nigricans), Achillea ochroleuca, Mountain Germander (Teucrium montanum) and Stipa borysthenica play an important role.

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en

Quesnel's Historic Fraser River Footbridge For many years the only means of crossing the Fraser River at Quesnel was a canoe which operated as a ferry. In 1911 the provincial government financed the construction and operation of a reaction ferry. As the community grew, citizens and the board of trade continued to lobby for a bridge. After the provincial election in 1928 the new Conservative government lived up to their election promise to see the work carried forward, and within 10 days, the contractor in charge of building the substructure arrived in Quesnel. Pile driving for the piers commenced on August 20 and the crew began to pour concrete for the first pier on October 13. A relatively mild winter allowed the work to continue, with the last pier poured in January. This schedule resulted in one fatality, however, as Stuart Wilson, who was employed dynamiting the large cakes of ice as they approached the bridge work, was killed on January 23 due to an ill-timed or defective fuse On January 28 the river froze completely, making the construction of the superstructure easier. A second accident occurred in February when a timber fell from the top of the bridge hitting the deck and knocking over Joe Rousseau who fractured his ankle and his ribs. These events remind us of the very different working conditions of the 19th and early 20th centuries. If you look carefully at the photos of the men working on the bridge, no-one is wearing a safety harness or a hard hat. The original proposal had called for a steel bridge but by early 1928 the decision had been made to use wood. Although the Kersley Farmers’ Institute had petitioned to have the timber for the bridge cut locally, it was prepared in Vancouver and shipped by rail. Each piece was cut to size and shape according to a plan and numbered to identify where it was to be placed. The timbers were also treated with creosote. Unfortunately the foreman in charge of the framing was discharged before the bridge was built and took the key with him. Bert Allcock, who later became the Department of Public Works’ General Foreman for the Cariboo District, was able to recreate the key based on the numbered timbers and copies of plans for the Howe trusses. He was also responsible for filling the western approach to the bridge. In his memoirs he recorded that they had two dump trucks and loaded the dirt by hand from a nearby side hill a few hundred yards away. They moved enough dirt to make a flat piece of land large enough that subsequently two houses were built on it. The early years The bridge opened to the public on March 8th and the official opening was incorporated into the annual May Day celebrations. At the time it was built, traffic was limited to pedestrians, horse-drawn vehicles and only the occasional motor vehicle so the load capacity of 10 tons was more than adequate. The bridge served the community’s needs for many years. The fall cattle drive was an annual event, when ranchers from Nazkko, Chilcotin, Batnuni and beyond, drove as many as 400 cattle across the bridge to auction. Quesnel was the northern terminus of the Pacific Great Eastern Railway. During the Second World War, birch was harvested from the west side of the Fraser and was shipped from Quesnel to make plywood for Mosquito bombers. The construction of the bridge had stimulated the growth of West Quesnel. As the lumber industry grew in the post-war period, the bridge became inadequate for the increased traffic and large logging trucks. In 1954 stop lights, the first in Quesnel, were installed at each end of the bridge to allow one lane of traffic to cross at a time. An aging community link Apart from being re-planked in 1941 the bridge received very little maintenance. In 1948 the Fraser River rose to within a foot of the decking and in 1961 the ice once again had to be blasted with dynamite to break up the huge floes and save the structure. By the early ’60s it was badly in need of repair, as well as being too narrow. Erlene Wilkins and Bernice O’Connor wrote a satirical poem capturing the inadequacies of the bridge. Bob Lebeck, a high school student and local performer set the poem to music and played it on air at CKCQ. The song was a hit and became part of the campaign to secure a government commitment to build a replacement. The promise was made in 1966 and the Moffat Bridge was opened in 1971. The bridge today The original bridge was maintained for pedestrian use and as a backup for emergency vehicles. The footbridge is now the centerpiece of the Riverfront Trail system and recognized as the longest wood truss walking bridge in the world. In 2010 this valued community asset required further structural repair. Much of the decking and many of the truss members and metal connectors were replaced and a programmable lighting array was installed. The bridge at a glance - Built in 1928 - Opened to the public on March 8 - Supported on five concrete piers. - Three spans are 177 feet long and two are 150. - Total length = 831 feet. - Power required to operate the new lighting system? Less than that needed for two hair dryers. The first public use As the bridge was nearing completion the ice on the river began to break up. Mrs. Sydney Allen and her newborn son Frank were the first citizens of Quesnel to make use of the bridge. Mrs. Allen had crossed on the ice bridge from her home in West Quesnel to reach the local hospital, but when it was time to return home the ice was unsafe. She and the baby were loaded onto a sleigh and escorted across the newly completed decking. The bridge opened to the public on March 8. The famous "Bridge Song" By the early ’60s the bridge was badly in need of repair, as well as being too narrow. Erlene Wilkins and Bernice O’Connor wrote a satirical poem which delightfully captures the inadequacies of the bridge. Gill McCall, an announcer at the local radio station CKCQ, persuaded Bob Lebeck, a high school student and local performer to set the poem to music and played it on air. The song was an immediate hit and became an effective weapon in the campaign to secure a government commitment to build a replacement. The promise was made in 1966 and the Moffat Bridge was opened in 1971. To listen to the song, click here. A sign of the times The bridge was the site of the first posted speed limit in Quesnel. A sign, preserved in the Quesnel & District Museum and Archives, indicates that “HORSES MUST NOT EXCEED WALKING PACE.” In the Howe Truss system the members are not bolted but are pinned and held together by balancing the forces of compression and tension. There was a concern that galloping horses could set in motion vibrations which would weaken the structure. Invest in Quesnel

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Alcohol withdrawal refers to symptoms that may occur when a person who has been drinking too much alcohol every day suddenly stops drinking alcohol. Alcohol withdrawal usually occurs in adults, but it may occur in teenagers or children as well. It can occur when a person who often uses alcohol excessively suddenly stops drinking alcohol. Withdrawal usually occurs within 5 - 10 hours after the last drink, but it may occur days later. The more heavily you drink every day, the more likely you will be to develop alcohol withdrawal symptoms when you stop drinking. The likelihood of developing severe withdrawal symptoms also increases if you have certain other medical problems. Alcohol withdrawal may involve psychological and physical symptoms. Mild-to-moderate psychological symptoms: Mild-to-moderate physical symptoms: When evaluating you for alcohol withdrawal, your health care provider will check for: A toxicology screen may be performed, as well as other blood tests. The goals of treatment are to reduce the immediate withdrawal symptoms, prevent complications, and begin long-term therapy to promote abstinence (no drinking at all). People with moderate-to-severe symptoms of alcohol withdrawal may need inpatient treatment at a hospital or other facility that treats alcohol withdrawal. Others who may need inpatient treatment include those who: Treatment at an inpatient center will include medical monitoring and treatment of alcohol symptoms. People with mild-to-moderate alcohol withdrawal symptoms can often be treated in an outpatient setting. They should have a person who commits to staying with them throughout the process and is able to monitor them closely. Daily visits to a health care provider are needed until the patient is stable. Blood tests are drawn periodically. Patients are given sedative drugs to help them with withdrawal symptoms. As withdrawal symptoms become manageable: It is important that the patient goes to a living situation that helps support them in staying sober. Some areas have housing that provide a supportive environment for those trying to stay sober. Permanent and life-long abstinence from alcohol is the best treatment for those who have gone through withdrawal. For additional resources, see alcoholism support group. Alcohol withdrawal may range from a mild and uncomfortable disorder to a serious, life-threatening condition. Symptoms usually begin within 5 - 10 hours of the last drink. The symptoms peak in 48 - 72 hours and may persist for weeks. Symptoms such as sleep changes, rapid changes in mood, and fatigue may last for months. People who continue to drink excessively may develop many medical conditions such as liver and heart disease. Most people who go through alcohol withdrawal make a full recovery; however, a small percentage of alcohol withdrawal cases end in death, especially if delirium tremens is present. For those who recover from alcohol withdrawal, the long-term outlook depends on how much organ damage has occurred and whether the person can stop drinking completely. Alcohol withdrawal is a serious condition that may rapidly become life threatening. Call your health care provider or go the emergency room if you think you might be in alcohol withdrawal, especially if you were using alcohol often and recently stopped. Call for an appointment with your health care provider if symptoms persist after treatment. Go to the emergency room or call the local emergency number (such as 911) if seizures, fever, severe confusion, hallucinations, or irregular heartbeats occur. Minimize or avoid the use of alcohol. In people with alcoholism, total abstinence from alcohol may be necessary. O’Connor PG. Alcohol abuse and dependence. In: Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Cecil Medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2007:chap 31. In the clinic. Alcohol use. Ann Intern Med. 2009;150:ITC3-1-ITC3-15. Schuckit MA. Alcohol-use disorders. Lancet. 2009;373:492-501.

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ReadWriteThink couldn't publish all of this great content without literacy experts to write and review for us. If you've got lessons plans, activities, or other ideas you'd like to contribute, we'd love to hear from you. Find the latest in professional publications, learn new techniques and strategies, and find out how you can connect with other literacy professionals. Teacher Resources by Grade |1st - 2nd||3rd - 4th| |5th - 6th||7th - 8th| |9th - 10th||11th - 12th| Draw a Story: Stepping from Pictures to Writing |Grades||K – 1| |Lesson Plan Type||Standard Lesson| |Estimated Time||Four 40-minute sessions| - Published Comments February 14, 2013 Thank you very helpful. - Post a Comment Have you tried this lesson? If so, what worked well for you? Did you make any changes? Do you have different resources to recommend? Share your thoughts here. - Send Us Feedback We are always working to improve our content. Please contact us to share your thoughts about this lesson plan, including any concerns or suggestions.

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ReadWriteThink couldn't publish all of this great content without literacy experts to write and review for us. If you've got lessons plans, activities, or other ideas you'd like to contribute, we'd love to hear from you. Find the latest in professional publications, learn new techniques and strategies, and find out how you can connect with other literacy professionals. Teacher Resources by Grade |1st - 2nd||3rd - 4th| |5th - 6th||7th - 8th| |9th - 10th||11th - 12th| 3-2-1 Vocabulary: Learning Filmmaking Vocabulary by Making Films |Grades||6 – 8| |Lesson Plan Type||Unit| |Estimated Time||Ten 45- to 60-minute instruction sessions plus one 60-minute evaluation session.| MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY - Digital video cameras (one camera per group of 3–5 students) capable of communicating with iMovie or Windows Movie Maker (some mini DV cameras will not upload files into these programs) - Digital still cameras (optional, for use with Celtx software for creating a storyboard) - Computers (one per student or one per group) with video editing software (iMovie or Windows Movie Maker) and printing capability - Tripods for video cameras (recommended) - LCD projector or document projector - Smartboard or chart paper Grades 1 – 12 | Student Interactive | Organizing & Summarizing The Plot Diagram is an organizational tool focusing on a pyramid or triangular shape, which is used to map the events in a story. This mapping of plot structure allows readers and writers to visualize the key features of stories. Grades K – 12 | Student Interactive | Organizing & Summarizing This tool allows students to complete crossword puzzles on a variety of grade-appropriate topics, and also create and print their own crossword puzzles. - Types of Shots - Types of Angles - Filmmaking Vocabulary Words - Filmmaking Vocabulary Words With Definitions - Sample Script - Sample Storyboard - Movie Project Planning Sheet - Storyboards (optional) - Filmmaking Rubric - Let’s Make Movies: Extras—Support Materials - Let’s Make Movies: Films - Internet Movie Database (IMDb) Movie Terminology Glossary - Glossary of Film Terms - The “Grammar” of Television and Film - Tips on Shooting Sequences - Camera Shots Lesson - Types of Video Transition - Digital Video Editing Using Windows Movie Maker - Tips for Using Movie Maker - Tech-Ease: Video Tutorials - Pretest your video cameras to make sure they will communicate with iMovie or Windows Movie Maker. Some mini DV cameras will not upload files into editing programs. It is best to use either a camera that records on either a hard drive or mini DV tapes. - If you plan to use Celtx for scriptwriting, download the free program and go through the tutorials at http://celtx.com/walkthru/. - If necessary, schedule access to student computers for Sessions 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, and 10. If you use Celtx for Storyboarding, you will also need computers for Session 7. - Familiarize yourself with the materials on the following websites: - Review the terms on the Filmmaking Vocabulary Words printout. - For each student, make a copy of the Filmmaking Vocabulary Words printout, Types of Shots, Types of Angles, Sample Script, Movie Project Planning Sheet, and Sample Storyboard, and Storyboards (optional). - Familiarize yourself with the digital video editing program you will be using. For Windows Movie Maker, see Digital Video Editing Using Windows Movie Maker and Tips for Using Movie Maker. For iMovie, see Tech-Ease: Video Tutorials. On this site, first find the link for your version of iMovie. For example, on a Mac with the Snow Leopard operating system, you would be using iLife 09; select iMovie 09. If you are using an older version equipped with iMovieHD, go down to the iLife 06 section and click on iMovie HD. The newer versions appear as a star-shaped icon on your computer. The HD version appears as a clapboard icon. - Familiarize yourself with the ReadWriteThink tools used in this lesson.

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- The Mapuche nation is situated in what is known as the Southern Cone of South America, in the area now occupied by the Argentine and Chilean states. - 1 Mapuche Protest, Environmental Conflict, and Social Movement - territories of the Mapuche Indians since redemocratization. - On the Loci of Agreement: Inversion Constructions in Mapudungun - and by interviewing members of the Mapuche community in General Roca and Junin de los Andes,. Argentina. - The Dynamics of Indigenous Identity: The Mapuche and the State J - Florencia E. Mallon, Courage Tastes of Blood: The Mapuche. - Chile: Movement seeks social justice through education - Indigenous Mapuche people living in rural areas have to contend with an inferior education as well as a lack of inter-cultural awareness. Students are demanding the state assumes responsibility to provide free education and broader access to education. - Mapuche: Case to Go Before the Inter-American Court on Human Rights - The conviction of two Mapuche leaders under the Pinochet-era antiterrorism law in 2003 will be reviewed by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights regarding claims of deprivation of liberty without due process. - Mapuche: Students Demand Indigenous University - Mapuche students in Chile have brought the issue of a Mapuche University with a focus on indigenous knowledge and history to the attention of the entire nation, and garnered support from certain Chilean leaders and government officials. - Mapuche: Communities Remember Jaime Mendoza Collio - On August 12, 2009 a 24-year-old Mapuche man named Jaime Mendoza Collío was shot and killed by Miguel Patricio Jara Muñoz, a Chilean police officer (carabinero). The shooting occurred in the context of a land dispute over traditional Mapuche territory. - Mapuche: Rising Violence in Ercilla Refocuses Greater Conflict - A lawsuit against a landowner's son for allegedly shooting a Mapuche youth rekindles tensions about reclaiming traditional lands. - Mapuche - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - The Mapuche are a group of indigenous inhabitants of south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina. - Mapuche International Link - Raising awareness of the Mapuche, indigenous people of Chile and Argentina, and their struggle for self-determination. - Who are the Mapuche? - The Mapuche people are the largest ethnic group in Chile and constitute approximately 10% (more than 1.000.000 people) of the Chilean population. Mapuche is described in multiple online sources, as addition to our editors' articles, see section below for printable documents, Mapuche books and related discussion. Suggested Pdf Resources Suggested News Resources Suggested Web Resources Great care has been taken to prepare the information on this page. Elements of the content come from factual and lexical knowledge databases, realmagick.com library and third-party sources. We appreciate your suggestions and comments on further improvements of the site. Related searchespeking protocol brimfield massachusetts demographics thaddeus stevens death thor other names the tuck method

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TNRTB Archive - Retained for reference information New research into the extinction of the Australian fauna between 50,000 and 45,000 years ago makes sense in light of Genesis 3:17-20. This passage teaches that the earth is cursed because of humanity’s sin. It seems self-evident that human behavior has caused widespread ecological disaster. This study describes another historical example. Researchers conclude that when the first humans occupied Australia, they caused wide-scale extinctions of animals. These humans apparently fired the landscape, which converted trees, shrubs, and grasslands into desert scrub. This rapid and destructive transformation of the landscape drove many animal species to extinction. While such behavior provided no evolutionary advantage, the Bible provides a powerful explanatory framework that accounts for humanity’s impact on planet Earth. o Gifford H. Miller et al., “Ecosystem Collapse in Pleistocene Australia and a Human Role in Megafaunal Extinction,” Science 309 (2005): 287-90.

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There are two sides to MIDI 1.0: the hardware transport specification describing the electrical and mechanical connection, and the message format specification. The MIDI standard consists of a communications messaging protocol designed for use with musical instruments, as well as a physical interface standard. It consists physically of a one-way (simplex) digital current loop serial communications electrical connection signaling at 31,250 bits per second. 8-N-1 format, i.e. one start bit (must be 0), eight data bits, no parity bit and one stop bit (must be 1), is used. Only one end of the loop is referenced to ground, with the other end "floating", to prevent ground loops which may otherwise cause interference and hum in analog audio signals. The current loop on the transmitter side drives the LED of an opto-coupler on the receiver side. This means the devices are, in fact, optically isolated. The opto-coupler must be a high-speed type. As most opto-couplers have asymmetrical positive-going and negative-going slew rates, they slightly alter the signal's duty cycle. If several MIDI devices are connected in series by daisy-chaining the MIDI THRU to the next device's MIDI-IN, the signal gets more and more distorted, until receive errors occur due to pulse narrowing. At the physical layer (MIDI cable), a pair of wires carry the MIDI signal. The voltage difference is normally 0 volts (both at positive potential referenced to ground) in the idle state, which is seen as a '1' at the MIDI receiver due to logic inversion by the opto-coupler. A MIDI message start bit (0) causes a voltage differential on the wire pair (current loop) which is seen at the MIDI receiver as a '0'. The 8 data bits can be either '0' (low) or '1' (high) with the stop bit (1) seen at the MIDI receiver as a '1'. To summarize: MIDI connectors are standard 5-pin 180° DIN connectors which at one time were a de facto European standard for audio interconnection. Over time the simpler American RCA phono jack has left MIDI as the only place where DIN is commonly encountered in modern equipment. Only two of the five pins (pins 4 and 5) are used for MIDI signal transmission. Some computers or their sound cards have 15-pin D-subminiature connectors, called game ports, that can be used for MIDI IN/MIDI OUT. The connector supports both MIDI and analog joystick functions. Access to the MIDI signals is provided by a short adapter cable that converts the D-subminiature pinout into DIN connectors. The recommended method of connecting two 5-pin DIN cables to a 15-pin D-subminiature computer port can be found at the MIDI.org web site The MIDI specification very conservatively states that the maximum distance MIDI can be transmitted is 15 meters (50 feet), but it can normally go much further Most MIDI capable instruments feature a MIDI IN, MIDI OUT, and occasionally a MIDI THRU connection in the form of five-pin DIN connectors. In order to build a two-way physical connection between two devices, a pair of cables must be used. The MIDI THRU jack simply echoes the signal entering the device at MIDI-IN. This makes it possible to control several devices from a single source. The 1985 Atari ST was the first home computer to sport the original five-pin DIN format, making it a very popular platform for running MIDI sequencer software. Most PC soundcards from the late 1990s had the ability to terminate a MIDI connection, usually through a MIDI IN/MIDI OUT converter on the game port. The game port has been supplanted in the modern PC by USB devices, and so typically a PC owner will need to purchase a MIDI interface that attaches to the USB or FireWire port of their machine to use MIDI. Every MIDI connection is a one-way connection from the MIDI Out connector of the sending device to the MIDI In connector of the receiving device. Each such connection can carry a stream of MIDI messages, with most messages representing a common musical performance event or gesture such as note-on, note-off, controller value change (including volume, pedal, modulation signals, etc.), pitch bend, program change, aftertouch, channel pressure. All of those messages include channel number. There are 16 possible channels in the protocol. The channels are used to separate "voices" or "instruments", somewhat like tracks in a multi-track mixer. The ability to multiplex 16 "channels" onto a single wire makes it possible to control several instruments at once using a single MIDI connection. When a MIDI instrument is capable of producing several independent sounds or "voices" simultaneously (a multitimbral instrument), MIDI channels are used to address these sections independently. (This should not be confused with "polyphonic"; the ability to play several notes simultaneously in the same "voice".) In more detail, MIDI 1.0 defines several basic message types of channel messages: In addition to the channel-based messages, there are system-related messages not addressed to any particular channel. These include: MIDI can be used to provide facilities for playing in musical tunings different from the 12 tone per octave, equal-tempered tuning used in most western musical traditions. However, apart from using pitch-bend to control each note, these features have not been implemented by all instrument manufacturers. MIDI messages are extremely compact, due to the low bandwidth of the connection, and the need for real-time accuracy. Most messages consist of a status byte (channel number in the low 4 bits, and an opcode in the high 4 bits), followed by one or two data bytes. However, the serial nature of MIDI messages means that long strings of MIDI messages take an appreciable time to send, at times even causing audible delays, especially when dealing with dense musical information or when many channels are particularly active. To further optimize the data stream, "Running status", a convention that allows the status byte to be omitted if it would be the same as that of the previous message, helps to mitigate bandwidth issues somewhat.

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Hypoparathyroidism: A condition where the parathyroid glands don't produce enough parathyroid hormone for normal body functioning. The primary function of these hormones is to regulate body calcium levels. More detailed information about the symptoms, causes, and treatments of Hypoparathyroidism is available below. Symptoms of Hypoparathyroidism See full list of 23 symptoms of Hypoparathyroidism Treatments for Hypoparathyroidism Read more about treatments for Hypoparathyroidism Home Diagnostic Testing Home medical testing related to Hypoparathyroidism: Wrongly Diagnosed with Hypoparathyroidism? Hypoparathyroidism: Related Patient Stories Read more about Deaths and Hypoparathyroidism. Diagnostic Tests for Hypoparathyroidism Read more about tests for Hypoparathyroidism Read more about complications of Hypoparathyroidism. Causes of Hypoparathyroidism See full list of 32 causes of Hypoparathyroidism More information about causes of Hypoparathyroidism: Disease Topics Related To Hypoparathyroidism Research the causes of these diseases that are similar to, or related to, Hypoparathyroidism: Hypoparathyroidism: Undiagnosed Conditions Commonly undiagnosed diseases in related medical categories: Misdiagnosis and Hypoparathyroidism Calcium disorder a hidden cause of depression-like symptoms: Another uncommon endocrine disorder that can be misdiagnosed as depression is hypocalcemia (low blood calcium), which is usually due to a disorder of the ...read more » Cluster of diseases with difficult diagnosis issues: There is a well-known list of medical conditions that are all somewhat difficult to diagnose, and all can present in a variety of different severities. Diseases in this group...read more » Alzheimer's disease over-diagnosed: The well-known disease of Alzheimer's disease is often over-diagnosed. Patients tend to assume that any memory loss or forgetulness symptom might be Alzheimer's, whereas there are many other...read more » Dementia may be a drug interaction: A common scenario in aged care is for a patient to show mental decline to dementia. Whereas this can, of course, occur...read more » Rare type of breast cancer without a lump: There is a less common form of breast cancer called inflammatory breast cancer. Its symptoms can be an inflammation of the breast tissue, such as with a breast rash with redness and warmth...read more » Tremor need not be Parkinson's disease: There is the tendency to believe that any tremor symptom, or shakiness, means Parkinson's disease. The reality is that there are various...read more » Rare diseases misdiagnosed as Parkinson's disease: A rare genetic disorder is often misdiagnosed as Parkinson's disease for men in their 50's. The disease Fragile X...read more » Thyroid disorders greatly under-diagnosed: One study found that about 10% of people had undiagnosed thyroid disorders, mostly hyperthyroidism, but also hypothyroidism. The symptoms of thyroid disorders...read more » Read more about Misdiagnosis and Hypoparathyroidism Hypoparathyroidism: Research Doctors & Specialists Research related physicians and medical specialists: - Diabetes & Endocrinology Specialists: - Pregnancy & Fertility Health Specialists: - Womens Health Specialists: - Immune-Related Disease Specialists (Immunology): - Senior Health Specialists (Geriatrics): - more specialists...» Other doctor, physician and specialist research services: Hospitals & Clinics: Hypoparathyroidism Research quality ratings and patient safety measures for medical facilities in specialties related to Hypoparathyroidism: Hospital & Clinic quality ratings » Choosing the Best Hospital: More general information, not necessarily in relation to Hypoparathyroidism, on hospital performance and surgical care quality: Hypoparathyroidism: Rare Types Rare types of diseases and disorders in related medical categories: Latest Treatments for Hypoparathyroidism See full list of 6 latest treatments for Hypoparathyroidism Research about Hypoparathyroidism Visit our research pages for current research about Hypoparathyroidism treatments. Clinical Trials for Hypoparathyroidism The US based website ClinicalTrials.gov lists information on both federally and privately supported clinical trials using human volunteers. Some of the clinical trials listed on ClinicalTrials.gov for Hypoparathyroidism include: Read more about Clinical Trials for Hypoparathyroidism Statistics for Hypoparathyroidism Hypoparathyroidism Message Boards Related forums and medical stories: User Interactive Forums Read about other experiences, ask a question about Hypoparathyroidism, or answer someone else's question, on our message boards: Definitions of Hypoparathyroidism: Inadequate secretion of parathyroid hormone resulting in abnormally low levels of calcium in the blood - (Source - WordNet 2.1) Hypoparathyroidism is listed as a "rare disease" by the Office of Rare Diseases (ORD) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). This means that Hypoparathyroidism, or a subtype of Hypoparathyroidism, affects less than 200,000 people in the US population. Source - National Institutes of Health (NIH) Contents for Hypoparathyroidism: User Surveys and Discussion Forums » Next page: What is Hypoparathyroidism? Medical Tools & Articles: Tools & Services: Forums & Message Boards - Ask or answer a question at the Boards:

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Even if the name of Alsace appeared first in the 7th Century, the origin of the name of this province is unsure. It might be of German origin (Alis-lauti-sat : a founding in a foreign country), of of Celtic origin (Alis-atia : the area at the bottom of a mountain), or it might derive from the words Ell (Ill river) Sass (inhabitant in old German). The Romans occupied the plain of Alsace and they were followed by the Alamanni after the Great Invasions which happened as soon as the 4th Century. The Alamanni imposed their language and transformed the roman city of Argentoratum into Stratebourg or 'city of the roads'. After the invasion by the Huns and Barbarian tribes, the Alamanni reorganized the region with the help of the Church. In 842, the Oath of Strasbourg written in Old German and in Old French was the starting point of the division of Charlemagne's Europe. Alsace was part of the Holy Roman Empire from the 9th Century until 1648 when it became part of France. From the 12th Century, many peasants leave their fields and they become craftsmen or shopkeepers in towns which are growing. Strasbourg liberates itself of the protection of its bishop, and becomes a free city in 1262. Colmar, Sélestat and Obernai are surrounded by walls. In 1354, the towns of Munster, Turckheim, Kaysersberg, Sélestat, Obernai, Rosheim, Wissembourg, Haguenau, Colmar and Mulhouse join together to form a league, the Decapole, which is put under the imperial protection, but remains however independant. The region suffers many disasters like the invasion of troops during the Hundred Years War, a Black Death outbreak in 1349, and everlasting feudal From 1519 in Strasbourg, thanks to Gutenberg, printing presses can be used to publish Luther's works. As soon as the end of the 15th Century, the flaws of the society, more particularly those of the clergy, are fought against. The Reformation spreads. In the country, a rebellion roars among the peasants who hope for an improvement in their condition. Armed bands muster and a bloody war occurs, ending in 1525 after the slaughter of 18,000 peasants. In 1555, the Peace of Augsbourg clarifies the distribution of Catholics and Protestants across the country : your religion is the religion of the lord who owns the land you live in. Between 1618 and 1648, Alsace becomes a battlefield for the armies of the Thirty Years War. The soldiers ransack villages and slaughter their inhabitants. The region loses more than half its population. In 1648, Alsace, broken up into many lordly territories, becomes French by the Treaty of Westphalia. However Alsace keeps many particularities in its institutions and in its traditions. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes was not applied and the use of the French language was not made compulsory, even if German was the usual written language of most Alsatians. However French becomes the official language, and the Catholic religion becomes the only acknowledged religion, but predominent Catholics cohabit with Lutheran or reformed Protestants, all of them having their parishes. The capitulation of Strasbourg occurs in 1681 and sets the city as a part of France, but its privileges in local administration and in religion matters are still preserved. The Treaty of Ryswick, drawn up in 1697, confirms the annexation of Alsace to France. During the French Revolution, on July 21st 1789 as the people hears of the fall of the Bastille, the city hall of Strasbourg is ransacked. The departements of Bas-Rhin and of Haut-Rhin are created in 1790. The Revolution puts Alsace under the same laws as the rest of France, overturning habits and mentalities. During the Napoleonian wars, Alsace provided many soldiers, generals (Kellermann, Kléber, Rapp, Lefèvre...) and supplies to the armies. After 1815 et the allied occupation, the region suffered from a major economic crisis and Alsace had to wait for the industrial rise to get out of recession about 1850. Between 1870 and 1918, the region, except an area that will become later the Territoire de Belfort, is annexed by the Germans. Alsace becomes an "Imperial Territory" (Reichsland) and gains a particular regime in many domains. The province returns to France at the end of the First World War, and remains French until 1940. Annexed to the third German Reich during the Second World War, Alsace returns to France when it is liberated on March 20th, 1945. Celtic tribes lived in Lorraine before the Romans occupied the region. Divodurum, which will become Mettis, and later Metz, is one of the main towns of the Roman Gaul. After the invasion of the Huns, Franks and Alamanni tribes cohabit in Lorraine with Gallo-Romans. From this time, a language frontier which will survive until nowadays, splits Lorraine between Germanic people, who live mainly in the north of the region, and Gallo-Romanic people in the south. The origin of the placenames Celtic origin : ending in Roman origin : ending in 'acus', 'acum' changed in 'y' (Floracium=Fleury ; Commerciacum=Commercy) Frank origin : ending in 'curtis' (Murici Curtis= German origin : ending in 'ing' or 'ingen' sometimes changed to 'ange' or 'ache' ; ending in 'dorf', 'strof' or 'heim' Lorraine forms part of the Kingdom of Austrasia which includes regions today called Belgium, Holland, Champagne, Rhineland and Alsace. This kingdom, which lies at the center of Charlemagne's Empire, goes to Lothar I, and becomes Lothringen in 855 when it becomes the kingdom of Lothar II. In 959, the territory is split into two parts: the Dukedom of Lower Lorraine which spreads from the North Sea to Luxembourg, and the Dukedom of Upper Lorraine which is almost what will be later the province of Lorraine, the region of Trier added. The cities of the Three Dioceses - Metz, Toul and Verdun - are excluded from this share. The County of Bar is founded and it goes to the Duke of Upper Lorraine. From 1047, the dynasty which begins with Gérard of Alsace will provide sovereigns to the Dukedom of Lorraine for more than three centuries. In 1301, the "moving Barrois" is created on the left bank of the Meuse river under the protection of the King of France. In 1354, the County of Bar becomes a Dukedom. René II, Count of Vaudémont opposes Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, who dies near Nancy in 1477. Metz and some lords of the German Lorraine are in favour of the Reformation, but Lutheranism and Calvinism have only a limited audience in the Dukedom. Antoine, son of René II, encourages the Counter Reformation. In 1525, he defeats the revolted peasants in Saverne. In 1552, France occupies the cities of Metz, Toul and Verdun, putting an end to the independance of the Three Dioceses. After 1630, the population of Lorraine is decimated by war and plague. In 1648, the Three Dioceses - Metz, Toul and Verdun - are integrated into the Kingdom of France. In 1670, the Dukedom is invaded by French troops. The Treaty of Ryswick, drawn up in 1697, returns Lorraine to the Duke Léopold I who must give up Longwy and Dillingen. In 1766, at the death of Stanislas Leszczynski, father-in-law of Louis XV the King of France, Lorraine becomes part of France. Three territories which belong to German families become foreign enclaves : the abbey of Senones which belongs to the Princes of Salm, the County of Dabo which belongs to the Leiningen family, and Drulingen which belongs to the Counts of Nassau-Sarrebrück. In 1790, Lorraine is divided into four departements: Meurthe, Meuse, Moselle and Vosges. The annexation of some foreign enclaves takes place in 1793. In 1815, Lorraine loses Sarrelouis and Sarrebrück to the benefit of Prussia. In 1871 after the French defeat, almost all the departement of Moselle and a part of the departement of Meurthe are annexed by Germany. According to the Treaty of Franckfurt, the inhabitants of Lorraine may choose to keep their French nationality and leave the annexed territories before October 31st 1872. In Metz, twenty per cent of the population left Between 1914 and 1918, the first World War devastates the agricultural areas around Verdun and Pont-à-Mousson, but the industrial areas are preserved. The annexed territories return to France at the end of the war. Between 1940 and 1944, Moselle is re-annexed by Germany. More than 100,000 French speaking people have to leave. Eventually Moselle returns to France in 1945. Alsace and partly Lorraine became German after the French defeat of 1870. It was only from 1871 when the Treaty of Frankfurt which stated the split of Lorraine was signed, that the expression Alsace-Lorraine (Imperial Territory of Alsace-Lorraine - Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen) was used. From Lorraine, the Prussians annexed a territory which is nowadays the departement of Moselle. The whole territory of what is now the French region of Alsace was annexed too. On May 10th 1871, the Treaty of Frankfurt confirms the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine by the Prussians, and states that its inhabitants will be allowed to declare that they want to keep their French nationality and leave the region before October 31st 1872. After this date, they would become German. About 159,000 inhabitants of Alsace-Lorraine chose to keep their French nationality. More than 50,000 of them left their friends and their home behind them. But many others remained and protested against their incorporation to the German Empire without their consent. Under German administration, the province is divided into three regions : Lorraine (Lothringen), Upper Alsace (Oberelsasz) and Lower Alsace (Unterelsasz). These regions become the departements of Moselle, of Haut-Rhin and of Bas-Rhin when they return to France in 1918. The annexation of Alsace-Lorraine to the German Empire give to this province institutions copied from the German system or kept from the French system, and some which are completely new. Local law, to which Alsatians are so devoted and which relates to domains like real estate, social insurance, religion and education, hunting or associations, will remain into effect after the return to France in 1918, and even after During the First World War, about 250,000 soldiers of Alsace-Lorraine are mobilized in the German army, but 17,000 volunteers join the French troops and they are then followed by many deserters. After November 1918, the return of Alsace-Lorraine to France takes place with some difficulties: expulsion of about 110,000 inhabitants of full or of partial German origin, blunders of the French administration which aggravate autonomist feelings.

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Louis Armstrong's stage personality matched his flashy cornet and trumpet playing. Armstrong is also known for his raspy singing voice. |Born||August 4, 1901| New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S. |Died||July 6, 1971(1971-07-06) (aged 69)| Corona, Queens, New York City, U.S. |Genres||Dixieland, jazz, swing, traditional pop| |Instruments||trumpet, cornet, vocals| |Years active||c. 1914–1971| |Associated acts||Joe "King" Oliver, Ella Fitzgerald, Kid Ory| Louis Armstrong (August 4, 1901 – July 6, 1971), nicknamed Satchmo or Pops, was an American jazz trumpeter and singer from New Orleans, Louisiana. Coming to prominence in the 1920s as an "inventive" trumpet and cornet player, Armstrong was a foundational influence in jazz, shifting the focus of the music from collective improvisation to solo performance. With his instantly-recognizable gravelly voice, Armstrong was also an influential singer, demonstrating great dexterity as an improviser, bending the lyrics and melody of a song for expressive purposes. He was also skilled at scat singing (vocalizing using sounds and syllables instead of actual lyrics). Renowned for his charismatic stage presence and voice almost as much as for his trumpet-playing, Armstrong's influence extends well beyond jazz music, and by the end of his career in the 1960s, he was widely regarded as a profound influence on popular music in general. Armstrong was one of the first truly popular African-American entertainers to "cross over", whose skin-color was secondary to his music in an America that was severely racially divided. He rarely publicly politicized his race, often to the dismay of fellow African-Americans, but took a well-publicized stand for desegregation during the Little Rock Crisis. His artistry and personality allowed him socially acceptable access to the upper echelons of American society that were highly restricted for a black man. Armstrong often stated that he was born on July 4, 1900, a date that has been noted in many biographies. Although he died in 1971, it was not until the mid-1980s that his true birth date of August 4, 1901 was discovered by researcher Tad Jones through the examination of baptismal records. Armstrong was born into a very poor family in New Orleans, Louisiana, the grandson of slaves. He spent his youth in poverty, in a rough neighborhood of Uptown New Orleans, known as “Back of the Town”, as his father, William Armstrong (1881–1922), abandoned the family when Louis was an infant and took up with another woman. His mother, Mary "Mayann" Albert (1886–1942), then left Louis and his younger sister Beatrice Armstrong Collins (1903–1987) in the care of his grandmother, Josephine Armstrong, and at times, his Uncle Isaac. At five, he moved back to live with his mother and her relatives, and saw his father only in parades. He attended the Fisk School for Boys, where he likely had early exposure to music. He brought in some money as a paperboy and also by finding discarded food and selling it to restaurants, but it was not enough to keep his mother from prostitution. He hung out in dance halls close to home, where he observed everything from licentious dancing to the quadrille. For extra money he also hauled coal to Storyville, the famed red-light district, and listened to the bands playing in the brothels and dance halls, especially Pete Lala's where Joe "King" Oliver performed and other famous musicians would drop in to jam. After dropping out of the Fisk School at age eleven, Armstrong joined a quartet of boys who sang in the streets for money. But he also started to get into trouble. Cornet player Bunk Johnson said he taught Armstrong (then 11) to play by ear at Dago Tony's Tonk in New Orleans, although in his later years Armstrong gave the credit to Oliver. Armstrong hardly looked back at his youth as the worst of times but instead drew inspiration from it, “Every time I close my eyes blowing that trumpet of mine—I look right in the heart of good old New Orleans... It has given me something to live for.” He also worked for a Lithuanian-Jewish immigrant family, the Karnofskys, who had a junk hauling business and gave him odd jobs. They took him in and treated him as almost a family member, knowing he lived without a father, and would feed and nurture him. He later wrote a memoir of his relationship with the Karnofskys titled, Louis Armstrong + the Jewish Family in New Orleans, La., the Year of 1907. In it he describes his discovery that this family was also subject to discrimination by "other white folks' nationalities who felt that they were better than the Jewish race... I was only seven years old but I could easily see the ungodly treatment that the White Folks were handing the poor Jewish family whom I worked for." Armstrong wore a Star of David pendant for the rest of his life and wrote about what he learned from them: "how to live—real life and determination." The influence of Karnofsky is remembered in New Orleans by the Karnofsky Project, a non-profit organization dedicated to accepting donated musical instruments to "put them into the hands of an eager child who could not otherwise take part in a wonderful learning experience." Armstrong developed his cornet playing seriously in the band of the New Orleans Home for Colored Waifs, where he had been sent multiple times for general delinquency, most notably for a long term after firing his stepfather's pistol into the air at a New Year's Eve celebration, as police records confirm. Professor Peter Davis (who frequently appeared at the Home at the request of its administrator, Captain Joseph Jones) instilled discipline in and provided musical training to the otherwise self-taught Armstrong. Eventually, Davis made Armstrong the band leader. The Home band played around New Orleans and the thirteen-year-old Louis began to draw attention by his cornet playing, starting him on a musical career. At fourteen he was released from the Home, living again with his father and new stepmother and then back with his mother and also back to the streets and their temptations. Armstrong got his first dance hall job at Henry Ponce’s where Black Benny became his protector and guide. He hauled coal by day and played his cornet at night. He played in the city's frequent brass band parades and listened to older musicians every chance he got, learning from Bunk Johnson, Buddy Petit, Kid Ory, and above all, Joe "King" Oliver, who acted as a mentor and father figure to the young musician. Later, he played in the brass bands and riverboats of New Orleans, and began traveling with the well-regarded band of Fate Marable, which toured on a steamboat up and down the Mississippi River. He described his time with Marable as, "going to the University," since it gave him a much wider experience working with written arrangements. In 1919, Joe Oliver decided to go north and resigned his position in Kid Ory's band; Armstrong replaced him. He also became second trumpet for the Tuxedo Brass Band, a society band. On March 19, 1918, Louis married Daisy Parker from Gretna, Louisiana. They adopted a 3-year-old boy, Clarence Armstrong, whose mother, Louis' cousin Flora, died soon after giving birth. Clarence Armstrong was mentally disabled (the result of a head injury at an early age) and Louis would spend the rest of his life taking care of him. Louis' marriage to Parker failed quickly and they separated. She died shortly after the divorce. Through all his riverboat experience Armstrong’s musicianship began to mature and expand. At twenty, he could read music and he started to be featured in extended trumpet solos, one of the first jazzmen to do this, injecting his own personality and style into his solo turns. He had learned how to create a unique sound and also started using singing and patter in his performances. In 1922, Armstrong joined the exodus to Chicago, where he had been invited by his mentor, Joe "King" Oliver, to join his Creole Jazz Band and where he could make a sufficient income so that he no longer needed to supplement his music with day labor jobs. It was a boom time in Chicago and though race relations were poor, the “Windy City” was teeming with jobs for black people, who were making good wages in factories and had plenty to spend on entertainment. Oliver's band was the best and most influential hot jazz band in Chicago in the early 1920s, at a time when Chicago was the center of the jazz universe. Armstrong lived like a king in Chicago, in his own apartment with his own private bath (his first). Excited as he was to be in Chicago, he began his career-long pastime of writing nostalgic letters to friends in New Orleans. As Armstrong’s reputation grew, he was challenged to “cutting contests” by hornmen trying to displace the new phenom, who could blow two hundred high C’s in a row. Armstrong made his first recordings on the Gennett and Okeh labels (jazz records were starting to boom across the country), including taking some solos and breaks, while playing second cornet in Oliver's band in 1923. At this time, he met Hoagy Carmichael (with whom he would collaborate later) who was introduced by friend Bix Beiderbecke, who now had his own Chicago band. Armstrong enjoyed working with Oliver, but Louis' second wife, pianist Lil Hardin Armstrong, urged him to seek more prominent billing and develop his newer style away from the influence of Oliver. Armstrong took the advice of his wife and left Oliver's band. For a year Armstrong played in Fletcher Henderson's band in New York on many recordings. After playing in New York, Armstrong returned to Chicago, playing in large orchestras; there he created his most important early recordings. Lil had her husband play classical music in church concerts to broaden his skill and improve his solo play and she prodded him into wearing more stylish attire to make him look sharp and to better offset his growing girth. Lil’s influence eventually undermined Armstrong’s relationship with his mentor, especially concerning his salary and additional moneys that Oliver held back from Armstrong and other band members. Armstrong and Oliver parted amicably in 1924. Shortly afterward, Armstrong received an invitation to go to New York City to play with the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra, the top African-American band of the day. Armstrong switched to the trumpet to blend in better with the other musicians in his section. His influence upon Henderson's tenor sax soloist, Coleman Hawkins, can be judged by listening to the records made by the band during this period. Armstrong quickly adapted to the more tightly controlled style of Henderson, playing trumpet and even experimenting with the trombone and the other members quickly took up Armstrong’s emotional, expressive pulse. Soon his act included singing and telling tales of New Orleans characters, especially preachers. The Henderson Orchestra was playing in the best venues for white-only patrons, including the famed Roseland Ballroom, featuring the classy arrangements of Don Redman. Duke Ellington’s orchestra would go to Roseland to catch Armstrong’s performances and young hornmen around town tried in vain to outplay him, splitting their lips in their attempts. During this time, Armstrong made many recordings on the side, arranged by an old friend from New Orleans, pianist Clarence Williams; these included small jazz band sides with the Williams Blue Five (some of the best pairing Armstrong with one of Armstrong's few rivals in fiery technique and ideas, Sidney Bechet) and a series of accompaniments with blues singers, including Bessie Smith, Ma Rainey, and Alberta Hunter. Armstrong returned to Chicago in 1925 due mostly to the urging of his wife, who wanted to pump up Armstrong’s career and income. He was content in New York but later would concede that she was right and that the Henderson Orchestra was limiting his artistic growth. In publicity, much to his chagrin, she billed him as “the World’s Greatest Trumpet Player”. At first, he was actually a member of the Lil Hardin Armstrong Band and working for his wife. He began recording under his own name for Okeh with his famous Hot Five and Hot Seven groups, producing hits such as "Potato Head Blues", "Muggles", (a reference to marijuana, for which Armstrong had a lifelong fondness), and "West End Blues", the music of which set the standard and the agenda for jazz for many years to come. The group included Kid Ory (trombone), Johnny Dodds (clarinet), Johnny St. Cyr (banjo), wife Lil on piano, and usually no drummer. Armstrong’s bandleading style was easygoing, as St. Cyr noted, "One felt so relaxed working with him, and he was very broad-minded . . . always did his best to feature each individual." His recordings soon after with pianist Earl "Fatha" Hines (most famously their 1928 Weatherbird duet) and Armstrong's trumpet introduction to "West End Blues" remain some of the most famous and influential improvisations in jazz history. Armstrong was now free to develop his personal style as he wished, which included a heavy dose of effervescent jive, such as "whip that thing, Miss Lil" and "Mr. Johnny Dodds, Aw, do that clarinet, boy!" Armstrong also played with Erskine Tate’s Little Symphony, actually a quintet, which played mostly at the Vendome Theatre. They furnished music for silent movies and live shows, including jazz versions of classical music, such as "Madame Butterfly," which gave Armstrong experience with longer forms of music and with hosting before a large audience. He began to scat sing (improvised vocal jazz using non-sensical words) and was among the first to record it, on "Heebie Jeebies" in 1926. The recording was so popular that the group became the most famous jazz band in the United States, even though they had not performed live to any great extent. Young musicians across the country, black or white, were turned on by Armstrong’s new type of jazz. After separating from Lil, Armstrong started to play at the Sunset Café for Al Capone's associate Joe Glaser in the Carroll Dickerson Orchestra, with Earl Hines on piano, which was soon renamed Louis Armstrong and his Stompers, though Hines was the music director and Glaser managed the orchestra. Hines and Armstrong became fast friends as well as successful collaborators. Armstrong returned to New York, in 1929, where he played in the pit orchestra of the successful musical Hot Chocolate, an all-black revue written by Andy Razaf and pianist/composer Fats Waller. He also made a cameo appearance as a vocalist, regularly stealing the show with his rendition of "Ain't Misbehavin'", his version of the song becoming his biggest selling record to date. Armstrong started to work at Connie's Inn in Harlem, chief rival to the Cotton Club, a venue for elaborately staged floor shows, and a front for gangster Dutch Schultz. Armstrong also had considerable success with vocal recordings, including versions of famous songs composed by his old friend Hoagy Carmichael. His 1930s recordings took full advantage of the new RCA ribbon microphone, introduced in 1931, which imparted a characteristic warmth to vocals and immediately became an intrinsic part of the 'crooning' sound of artists like Bing Crosby. Armstrong's famous interpretation of Hoagy Carmichael's "Stardust" became one of the most successful versions of this song ever recorded, showcasing Armstrong's unique vocal sound and style and his innovative approach to singing songs that had already become standards. Armstrong's radical re-working of Sidney Arodin and Carmichael's "Lazy River" (recorded in 1931) encapsulated many features of his groundbreaking approach to melody and phrasing. The song begins with a brief trumpet solo, then the main melody is stated by sobbing horns, memorably punctuated by Armstrong's growling interjections at the end of each bar: "Yeah! ..."Uh-huh" ..."Sure" ... "Way down, way down." In the first verse, he ignores the notated melody entirely and sings as if playing a trumpet solo, pitching most of the first line on a single note and using strongly syncopated phrasing. In the second stanza he breaks into an almost fully improvised melody, which then evolves into a classic passage of Armstrong "scat singing". As with his trumpet playing, Armstrong's vocal innovations served as a foundation stone for the art of jazz vocal interpretation. The uniquely gritty coloration of his voice became a musical archetype that was much imitated and endlessly impersonated. His scat singing style was enriched by his matchless experience as a trumpet soloist. His resonant, velvety lower-register tone and bubbling cadences on sides such as "Lazy River" exerted a huge influence on younger white singers such as Bing Crosby. The Depression of the early Thirties was especially hard on the jazz scene. The Cotton Club closed in 1936 after a long downward spiral, and many musicians stopped playing altogether as club dates evaporated. Bix Beiderbecke died and Fletcher Henderson’s band broke up. King Oliver made a few records but otherwise struggled. Sidney Bechet became a tailor and Kid Ory returned to New Orleans and raised chickens. Armstrong moved to Los Angeles in 1930 to seek new opportunities. He played at the New Cotton Club in Los Angeles with Lionel Hampton on drums. The band drew the Hollywood crowd, which could still afford a lavish night life, while radio broadcasts from the club connected with younger audiences at home. Bing Crosby and many other celebrities were regulars at the club. In 1931, Armstrong appeared in his first movie, Ex-Flame. Armstrong was convicted of marijuana possession but received a suspended sentence. He returned to Chicago in late 1931 and played in bands more in the Guy Lombardo vein and he recorded more standards. When the mob insisted that he get out of town,[why?] Armstrong visited New Orleans, got a hero’s welcome and saw old friends. He sponsored a local baseball team known as “Armstrong’s Secret Nine” and got a cigar named after himself. But soon he was on the road again and after a tour across the country shadowed by the mob, Armstrong decided to go to Europe to escape. After returning to the United States, he undertook several exhausting tours. His agent Johnny Collins’ erratic behavior and his own spending ways left Armstrong short of cash. Breach of contract violations plagued him. Finally, he hired Joe Glaser as his new manager, a tough mob-connected wheeler-dealer, who began to straighten out his legal mess, his mob troubles, and his debts. Armstrong also began to experience problems with his fingers and lips, which were aggravated by his unorthodox playing style. As a result he branched out, developing his vocal style and making his first theatrical appearances. He appeared in movies again, including Crosby's 1936 hit Pennies from Heaven. In 1937, Armstrong substituted for Rudy Vallee on the CBS radio network and became the first African American to host a sponsored, national broadcast. He finally divorced Lil in 1938 and married longtime girlfriend Alpha. After spending many years on the road, Armstrong settled permanently in Queens, New York in 1943 in contentment with his fourth wife, Lucille. Although subject to the vicissitudes of Tin Pan Alley and the gangster-ridden music business, as well as anti-black prejudice, he continued to develop his playing. He recorded Hoagy Carmichael's Rockin' Chair for Okeh Records. During the subsequent thirty years, Armstrong played more than three hundred gigs a year. Bookings for big bands tapered off during the 1940s due to changes in public tastes: ballrooms closed, and there was competition from television and from other types of music becoming more popular than big band music. It became impossible under such circumstances to support and finance a 16-piece touring band. Following a highly successful small-group jazz concert at New York Town Hall on May 17, 1947, featuring Armstrong with trombonist/singer Jack Teagarden, Armstrong's manager Joe Glaser dissolved the Armstrong big band on August 13, 1947 and established a six-piece small group featuring Armstrong with (initially) Teagarden, Earl Hines and other top swing and dixieland musicians, most of them ex-big band leaders. The new group was announced at the opening of Billy Berg's Supper Club. This group was called Louis Armstrong and his All Stars and included at various times Earl "Fatha" Hines, Barney Bigard, Edmond Hall, Jack Teagarden, Trummy Young, Arvell Shaw, Billy Kyle, Marty Napoleon, Big Sid Catlett, Cozy Cole, Tyree Glenn, Barrett Deems, Joe Darensbourg and the Filipino-American percussionist, Danny Barcelona. During this period, Armstrong made many recordings and appeared in over thirty films. He was the first jazz musician to appear on the cover of Time Magazine on February 21, 1949. In 1964, he recorded his biggest-selling record, "Hello, Dolly!" The song went to No. 1 on the pop chart, making Armstrong (age 63) the oldest person to ever accomplish that feat. In the process, Armstrong dislodged The Beatles from the No. 1 position they had occupied for 14 consecutive weeks with three different songs. Armstrong kept up his busy tour schedule until a few years before his death in 1971. In his later years he would sometimes play some of his numerous gigs by rote, but other times would enliven the most mundane gig with his vigorous playing, often to the astonishment of his band. He also toured Africa, Europe, and Asia under sponsorship of the US State Department with great success, earning the nickname "Ambassador Satch." While failing health restricted his schedule in his last years, within those limitations he continued playing until the day he died. Armstrong died of a heart attack in his sleep on July 6, 1971, a month before his 70th birthday, and 11 months after playing a famous show at the Waldorf-Astoria's Empire Room. He was residing in Corona, Queens, New York City, at the time of his death. He was interred in Flushing Cemetery, Flushing, in Queens, New York City. His honorary pallbearers included Bing Crosby, Ella Fitzgerald, Dizzy Gillespie, Pearl Bailey, Count Basie, Harry James, Frank Sinatra, Ed Sullivan, Earl Wilson, Alan King, Johnny Carson and David Frost. Peggy Lee sang The Lord's Prayer at the services while Al Hibbler sang "Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen" and Fred Robbins, a long-time friend, gave the eulogy. Armstrong was a colorful character. His own biography vexes biographers and historians, because he had a habit of telling tales, particularly of his early childhood, when he was less scrutinized, and his embellishments of his history often lack consistency. He was not only an entertainer. Armstrong was a leading personality of the day who was so beloved by America that gave even the greatest African American performers little access beyond their public celebrity, that he was able to live privately a life of access and privilege accorded to few other African Americans. He tried to remain politically neutral, which gave him a large part of that access, but often alienated him from members of the black community who looked to him to use his prominence with white America to become more of an outspoken figure during the Civil Rights Era of U.S. history. The nicknames Satchmo and Satch are short for Satchelmouth. Like many things in Armstrong's life, which was filled with colorful stories both real and imagined, many of his own telling, the nickname has many possible origins. The most common tale that biographers tell is the story of Armstrong as a young boy dancing for pennies in the streets of New Orleans, who would scoop up the coins off of the streets and stick them into his mouth to avoid having the bigger children steal them from him. Someone dubbed him "satchel mouth" for his mouth acting as a satchel. Another tale is that because of his large mouth, he was nicknamed "satchel mouth" which became shortened to Satchmo. Early on he was also known as Dipper, short for Dippermouth, a reference to the piece Dippermouth Blues. and something of a riff on his unusual embouchure. The nickname Pops came from Armstrong's own tendency to forget people's names and simply call them "pops" instead. The nickname was soon turned on Armstrong himself. It was used as the title of a 2010 biography of Armstrong by Terry Teachout. Armstrong was largely accepted into white society, both on stage and off, a privilege reserved for very few African-American public figures, and usually those of either exceptional talent and fair skin-tone. As his fame grew, so did his access to the finer things in life usually denied to a black man, even a famous one. His renown was such that he dined in the best restaurants and stayed in hotels usually exclusively for whites. It was a power and privilege that he enjoyed, although he was very careful not to flaunt it with fellow performers of color, and privately, he shared what access that he could with friends and fellow musicians. That still did not prevent members of the African-American community, particularly in the late 1950s to the early 1970s, from calling him an Uncle Tom, a black-on-black racial epithet for someone who kowtowed to white society at the expense of their own racial identity. He was criticized for accepting the title of "King of The Zulus" for Mardi Gras in 1949. In the New Orleans African-American community it is an honored role as the head of leading black Carnival Krewe, but bewildering or offensive to outsiders with their traditional costume of grass-skirts and blackface makeup satirizing southern white attitudes. Some musicians criticized Armstrong for playing in front of segregated audiences, and for not taking a strong enough stand in the civil rights movement. Billie Holiday countered, however, "Of course Pops toms, but he toms from the heart." The few exceptions made it more effective when he did speak out. Armstrong's criticism of President Eisenhower, calling him "two-faced" and "gutless" because of his inaction during the conflict over school desegregation in Little Rock, Arkansas in 1957 made national news. As a protest, Armstrong canceled a planned tour of the Soviet Union on behalf of the State Department saying "The way they're treating my people in the South, the government can go to hell" and that he could not represent his government abroad when it was in conflict with its own people. Six days after Armstrong's comments, Eisenhower ordered Federal troops to Little Rock to escort students into the school. The FBI kept a file on Armstrong, for his outspokenness about integration. When asked about his religion, Armstrong would answer that he was raised a Baptist, always wore a Star of David, and was friends with the Pope. Armstrong wore the Star of David in honor of the Karnofsky family, who took him in as a child and lent him the money to buy his first cornet. Louis Armstrong was, in fact, baptized as a Catholic at the Sacred Heart of Jesus Church in New Orleans, and he met popes Pius XII and Paul VI, though there is no evidence that he considered himself Catholic. Armstrong seems to have been tolerant towards various religions, but also found humor in them. Armstrong was also greatly concerned with his health and bodily functions. He made frequent use of laxatives as a means of controlling his weight, a practice he advocated both to personal acquaintances and in the diet plans he published under the title Lose Weight the Satchmo Way. Armstrong's laxative of preference in his younger days was Pluto Water, but he then became an enthusiastic convert when he discovered the herbal remedy Swiss Kriss. He would extol its virtues to anyone who would listen and pass out packets to everyone he encountered, including members of the British Royal Family. (Armstrong also appeared in humorous, albeit risqué, cards that he had printed to send out to friends; the cards bore a picture of him sitting on a toilet—as viewed through a keyhole—with the slogan "Satch says, 'Leave it all behind ya!'") The cards have sometimes been incorrectly described as ads for Swiss Kriss. In a live recording of "Baby, It's Cold Outside" with Velma Middleton, he changes the lyric from "Put another record on while I pour" to "Take some Swiss Kriss while I pour." The concern with his health and weight was balanced by his love of food, reflected in such songs as "Cheesecake", "Cornet Chop Suey," though "Struttin’ with Some Barbecue" was written about a fine-looking companion, not about food. He kept a strong connection throughout his life to the cooking of New Orleans, always signing his letters, "Red beans and ricely yours..." Though Armstrong married four times and loved children, he had no legitimate offspring. However, in December 2012, 57-year-old Sharon Preston-Folta claimed to be his daughter, from a 1950s affair between Armstrong and Lucille "Sweets" Preston, a dancer at the Cotton Club. Armstrong’s gregariousness extended to writing. On the road, he wrote constantly, sharing favorite themes of his life with correspondents around the world. He avidly typed or wrote on whatever stationery was at hand, recording instant takes on music, sex, food, childhood memories, his heavy "medicinal" marijuana use—and even his bowel movements, which he gleefully described. He had a fondness for lewd jokes and dirty limericks as well. Louis Armstrong was not, as is often claimed, a Freemason. Although he is usually listed as being a member of Montgomery Lodge No. 18 (Prince Hall) in New York, no such lodge has ever existed. Armstrong states in his autobiography, however, that he was a member of the Knights of Pythias, which is not a Masonic group. In his early years, Armstrong was best known for his virtuosity with the cornet and trumpet. The greatest trumpet playing of his early years can be heard on his Hot Five and Hot Seven records, as well as the Red Onion Jazz Babies. The improvisations he made on these records of New Orleans jazz standards and popular songs of the day are unsurpassed by later jazz performers. The older generation of New Orleans jazz musicians often referred to their improvisations as "variating the melody." Armstrong's improvisations were daring and sophisticated for the time, while often subtle and melodic. He often essentially re-composed pop-tunes he played, making them more interesting. Armstrong's playing is filled with joyous, inspired original melodies, creative leaps, and subtle relaxed or driving rhythms. The genius of these creative passages is matched by Armstrong's playing technique, honed by constant practice, which extended the range, tone and capabilities of the trumpet. In these records, Armstrong almost single-handedly created the role of the jazz soloist, taking what was essentially a collective folk music and turning it into an art form with tremendous possibilities for individual expression. Armstrong's work in the 1920s shows him playing at the outer limits of his abilities. The Hot Five records, especially, often have minor flubs and missed notes, which do little to detract from listening enjoyment since the energy of the spontaneous performance comes through. By the mid-1930s, Armstrong achieved a smooth assurance, knowing exactly what he could do and carrying out his ideas to perfection. He was one of the first artists to use recordings of his performances to improve himself. Armstrong was an avid audiophile. He had a large collection of recordings, including reel-to-reel tapes, which he took on the road with him in a trunk during his later career. He enjoyed listening to his own recordings, and comparing his performances musically. In the den of his home, he had the latest audio equipment and would sometimes rehearse and record along with his older recordings or the radio. As his music progressed and popularity grew, his singing also became very important. Armstrong was not the first to record scat singing, but he was masterful at it and helped popularize it. He had a hit with his playing and scat singing on "Heebie Jeebies" when, according to some legends, the sheet music fell on the floor and he simply started singing nonsense syllables. Armstrong stated in his memoirs that this actually occurred. He also sang out "I done forgot the words" in the middle of recording "I'm A Ding Dong Daddy From Dumas." Such records were hits and scat singing became a major part of his performances. Long before this, however, Armstrong was playing around with his vocals, shortening and lengthening phrases, interjecting improvisations, using his voice as creatively as his trumpet. During his long career he played and sang with some of the most important instrumentalists and vocalists of the time; among them were Bing Crosby, Duke Ellington, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, the singing brakeman Jimmie Rodgers, Bessie Smith and perhaps most famously Ella Fitzgerald. His influence upon Bing Crosby is particularly important with regard to the subsequent development of popular music: Crosby admired and copied Armstrong, as is evident on many of his early recordings, notably "Just One More Chance" (1931). The New Grove Dictionary Of Jazz describes Crosby's debt to Armstrong in precise detail, although it does not acknowledge Armstrong by name:Crosby... was important in introducing into the mainstream of popular singing an Afro-American concept of song as a lyrical extension of speech... His techniques—easing the weight of the breath on the vocal cords, passing into a head voice at a low register, using forward production to aid distinct enunciation, singing on consonants (a practice of black singers), and making discreet use of appoggiaturas, mordents, and slurs to emphasize the text—were emulated by nearly all later popular singers. Armstrong recorded three albums with Ella Fitzgerald: Ella and Louis, Ella and Louis Again, and Porgy and Bess for Verve Records, with the sessions featuring the backing musicianship of the Oscar Peterson Trio and drummer Buddy Rich. His recordings Satch Plays Fats, all Fats Waller tunes, and Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy in the 1950s were perhaps among the last of his great creative recordings, both being considered masterpieces. His participation in Dave Brubeck's high-concept jazz musical The Real Ambassadors was critically acclaimed. For the most part, however, his later output was criticized as being overly simplistic or repetitive. Armstrong had many hit records including "Stardust", "What a Wonderful World", "When The Saints Go Marching In", "Dream a Little Dream of Me", "Ain't Misbehavin'", "You Rascal You,"and "Stompin' at the Savoy." "We Have All the Time in the World" was featured on the soundtrack of the James Bond film On Her Majesty's Secret Service, and enjoyed renewed popularity in the UK in 1994 when it featured on a Guinness advert. It reached number 3 in the charts on being re-released. In 1964, Armstrong knocked The Beatles off the top of the Billboard Hot 100 chart with "Hello, Dolly!", which gave the 63-year-old performer a U.S. record as the oldest artist to have a number one song. His 1964 song "Bout Time" was later featured in the film Bewitched. Armstrong performed in Italy at the 1968 Sanremo Music Festival where he sang "Mi Va di Cantare" alongside his friend, the Eritrean-born Italian singer Lara Saint Paul. In February 1968, he also appeared with Lara Saint Paul on the Italian RAI television channel where he performed "Grassa e Bella," a track he sang in Italian for the Italian market and C.D.I. label. In 1968, Armstrong scored one last popular hit in the United Kingdom with the highly sentimental pop song "What a Wonderful World", which topped the British charts for a month; however, the single did not chart at all in America. The song gained greater currency in the popular consciousness when it was used in the 1987 movie Good Morning, Vietnam, its subsequent re-release topping many charts around the world. Armstrong even appeared on the October 28, 1970, Johnny Cash Show, where he sang Nat King Cole's hit "Rambling Rose" and joined Cash to re-create his performance backing Jimmie Rodgers on "Blue Yodel No. 9". Armstrong enjoyed many types of music, from blues to the arrangements of Guy Lombardo, to Latin American folksongs, to classical symphonies and opera. Armstrong incorporated influences from all these sources into his performances, sometimes to the bewilderment of fans who wanted him to stay in convenient narrow categories. Armstrong was inducted into Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as an early influence. Some of his solos from the 1950s, such as the hard rocking version of "St. Louis Blues" from the WC Handy album, show that the influence went in both directions. Armstrong appeared in more than a dozen Hollywood films, usually playing a band leader or musician. His most familiar role was as the bandleader cum narrator in the 1956 musical, High Society, in which he sang the title song and performed a duet with Bing Crosby on "Now You Has Jazz". In 1947, he played himself in the movie New Orleans opposite Billie Holiday, which chronicled the demise of the Storyville district and the ensuing exodus of musicians from New Orleans to Chicago. In the 1959 film, The Five Pennies (the story of the cornetist Red Nichols), Armstrong played himself as well as singing and playing several classic numbers. With Danny Kaye Armstrong performed a duet of "When the Saints Go Marching In" during which Kaye impersonated Armstrong. Armstrong also had a part in the film alongside James Stewart in The Glenn Miller Story in which Glenn (played by Stewart) jammed with Armstrong and a few other noted musicians of the time. He was the first African American to host a nationally broadcast radio show in the 1930s. In 1969, Armstrong had a cameo role in the film version of Hello, Dolly! as the bandleader, Louis, to which he sang the title song with actress Barbra Streisand. His solo recording of "Hello, Dolly!" is one of his most recognizable performances. He was heard on such radio programs as The Story of Swing (1937) and This Is Jazz (1947), and he also made countless television appearances, especially in the 1950s and 1960s, including appearances on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. Many of Armstrong's recordings remain popular. Almost four decades since his passing, a larger number of his recordings from all periods of his career are more widely available than at any time during his lifetime. His songs are broadcast and listened to every day throughout the world, and are honored in various movies, TV series, commercials, and even anime and video games. "A Kiss to Build a Dream On" was included in the video game Fallout 2, accompanying the intro cinematic. It was also used in the 1993 film Sleepless in Seattle and the 2005 film Lord of War. His 1923 recordings, with Joe Oliver and his Creole Jazz Band, continue to be listened to as documents of ensemble style New Orleans jazz, but more particularly as ripperjazz records in their own right. All too often, however, Armstrong recorded with stiff, standard orchestras leaving only his sublime trumpet playing as of interest. "Melancholy Blues," performed by Armstrong and his Hot Seven was included on the Voyager Golden Record sent into outer space to represent one of the greatest achievements of humanity. Most familiar to modern listeners is his ubiquitous rendition of "What a Wonderful World". In 2008, Armstrong's recording of Edith Piaf's famous "La Vie En Rose" was used in a scene of the popular Disney/Pixar film WALL-E. The song was also used in parts, especially the opening trumpets, in the French film Jeux d'enfants (Love Me If You Dare.) Argentine writer Julio Cortázar, a self-described Armstrong admirer, asserted that a 1952 Louis Armstrong concert at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in Paris played a significant role in inspiring him to create the fictional creatures called Cronopios that are the subject of a number of Cortázar's short stories. Cortázar once called Armstrong himself "Grandísimo Cronopio" (The Great Cronopio). Armstrong appears as a minor fictionalized character in Harry Turtledove's Southern Victory Series. When he and his band escape from a Nazi-like Confederacy, they enhance the insipid mainstream music of the North. A young Armstrong also appears as a minor fictionalized character in Patrick Neate's 2001 novel Twelve Bar Blues, part of which is set in New Orleans, and which was a winner at that year's Whitbread Book Awards. There is a pivotal scene in Stardust Memories (1980) in which Woody Allen is overwhelmed by a recording of Armstrong's "Stardust" and experiences a nostalgic epiphany. The combination of the music and the perfect moment is the catalyst for much of the film's action, prompting the protagonist to fall in love with an ill-advised woman. Armstrong was posthumously awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1972 by the Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. This Special Merit Award is presented by vote of the Recording Academy's National Trustees to performers who, during their lifetimes, have made creative contributions of outstanding artistic significance to the field of recording. Recordings of Armstrong were inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least twenty-five years old, and that have "qualitative or historical significance." The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame listed Armstrong's West End Blues on the list of 500 songs that shaped Rock and Roll. In 1995, the U.S. Post Office issued a Louis Armstrong 32 cents commemorative postage stamp. The influence of Armstrong on the development of jazz is virtually immeasurable. Yet, his irrepressible personality both as a performer, and as a public figure later in his career, was so strong that to some it sometimes overshadowed his contributions as a musician and singer. As a virtuoso trumpet player, Armstrong had a unique tone and an extraordinary talent for melodic improvisation. Through his playing, the trumpet emerged as a solo instrument in jazz and is used widely today. He was a masterful accompanist and ensemble player in addition to his extraordinary skills as a soloist. With his innovations, he raised the bar musically for all who came after him. Though Armstrong is widely recognized as a pioneer of scat singing, Ethel Waters precedes his scatting on record in the 1930s according to Gary Giddins and others. Billie Holiday and Frank Sinatra are just two singers who were greatly indebted to him. Holiday said that she always wanted Bessie Smith's 'big' sound and Armstrong's feeling in her singing. Even special musicians like Duke Ellington have praised Armstrong through strong testimonials. Duke Ellington said, "If anybody was a master, it was Louis Armstrong." In 1950, Bing Crosby, the most successful vocalist of the first half of the 20th century, said, "He is the beginning and the end of music in America." On August 4, 2001, the centennial of Armstrong's birth, New Orleans's airport was renamed Louis Armstrong International Airport in his honor. In 2002, the Louis Armstrong's Hot Five and Hot Seven recordings (1925–1928) are preserved in the United States National Recording Registry, a registry of recordings selected yearly by the National Recording Preservation Board for preservation in the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress. The US Open tennis tournament's former main stadium was named Louis Armstrong Stadium in honor of Armstrong who had lived a few blocks from the site. Today, there are many bands worldwide dedicated to preserving and honoring the music and style of Satchmo, including the Louis Armstrong Society located in New Orleans, LA. The house where Louis Armstrong lived for close to 28 years was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1977 and is now a museum. The Louis Armstrong House Museum, at 34-56 107th Street (between 34th and 37th Avenues) in Corona, Queens, presents concerts and educational programs, operates as a historic house museum and makes materials in its archives of writings, books, recordings and memorabilia available to the public for research. The museum is operated by the City University of New York's Queens College, following the dictates of Lucille Armstrong's will. The museum opened to the public on October 15, 2003. A new visitors center is planned. For complete listings, see Louis Armstrong's works by album or song: Not a Member Yet?Join

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Newgrange is the finest of some 26 ancient tribal burial chambers in the Boyne River Valley north of Dublin. A great round tomb with fine rock carvings, Newgrange is about 5,000 years old - making it centuries older than the Great Pyramids of Egypt and a thousand years older than Stonehenge. Newgrange's astronomical alignment, striking round shape and spiral designs all add to the mystery and wonder of this ancient site, and prompting much speculation as to its purpose and meaning. Newgrange has been dated to about 3200 BC (more broadly 3300-2900 BC), during the Neolithic period. It is not known for whom the tomb was built, but it was clearly the burial place of great tribal leaders. The kings were cremated and their ashes were interred here. Scholars are generally agreed that Newgrange was used not only as a tomb but for ceremonial and religious rites. Legend says the mound was dedicated to Dagha, the sun god of pre-Christian Ireland, and later became the burial places of the pagan kings of Tara. Veneration of the sun is certainly suggested by the many carvings of sun symbols on Newgrange stones and the magnificent spectacle of sunrise on the winter solstice (see Astronomical Alignment, below). The mound subsided not long after completion, burying the kerbstones and collapsing the quartz facade, but Newgrange remained an important religious center until the early Bronze Age. A cursus oriented north-south about 100 m east of the tomb was built in the later Neolithic Age, followed a little while later by a henge to the southeast. The standing stones around the mound were probably erected after this. Unfortunately, the tomb has been empty of its original contents since 861 AD, when it was plundered by Viking raiders. More recently, there was a period of over 100 years during which the tomb was discovered but unprotected; it thus suffered further damage from treasure hunters and looters. Myth and Mystery The many mysteries of Newgrange — who built it? what were its purposes? what do the spirals mean? — have prompted a variety of theories about its origin and purpose. Newgrange is especially revered by New Age adherents, who believe it to be a place of great energy and mystical power. The spirals are interpreted as symbols of the journey to the next world, and the tomb is thought to be a solar temple of a prehistoric race of supernatural people. Based on its shape, it has also been suggested that Newgrange is a model of a flying saucer. What to See The Newgrange tomb rises from the meadow in an egg-shaped mound called a tumulus. It is 250 feet across and 40 feet high, and covers an entire acre. The exterior of the mound is decorated with 97 large kerbstones (or curbstones in the American spelling) that are carved with beautiful and intriguing spiral designs. Scholars think these stones were recycled from an earlier burial place. Three of the kerbstones are especially striking: the Threshold Stone or Entrance Stone; Kerbstone 52, located diametrically opposite the entrance on the northwest side; and Kerbstone 67 on the northeast side. The Threshold Stone is elaborately carved with spirals, concentric circles and diamond shapes. Their meaning is not known but theories are plentiful. Some hold that the three main spirals represent the tombs of Newgrange, Knowth and Dowth, with the wavy line below depicting the River Boine. Others think the three spirals represent life, death and eternity. The facade around the perimeter is made of sparkling white quartz brought from 50 miles away, punctuated by egg-shaped granite stones. The facade has been shaped by archaeologists to allow for visitor access; the dark stones that curve inwards were deliberately chosen to show they are not an original feature of the tomb. Originally, the white facade continued over the Entrance Stone, with a narrow recess leading to the roof-box and entrance. The "roof box" allows sunlight in on the winter solstice (see below). The mound itself is made of 200,000 tons of stone brought from 75 miles away, which were then covered with several yards of soil. The boulders were placed with amazing precision that makes the structure watertight; just how this was done remains a mystery. Inside, a 60-foot-long narrow passage leads into a domed chamber almost 20 feet high with three side alcoves for burials. The inner room is made of layered stones forming a corbelled roof or beehive vault, which has held the weight of the mound above without mortar and without leaking water for over 6,000 years. The side alcoves contain mysterious stone basins, whose purpose is not known. They may have been used for washing bodies, receiving funerary offerings, depositing the ashes of cremated remains, or for priestly rituals. The most striking aspect of the Newgrange tomb is its precise astronomical alignment, which allows for a truly spectacular phenomenon at sunrise on the winter solstice (December 19-23, especially the 21st). On this day, the shortest of the year, a shaft of sunlight enters through a large opening above the entrance (called the roof box) and pierces the inner passageway. The sunbeam touches a stone basin at the end of the passageway and lights up a series of spiral carvings inside the chamber, whose meaning is unknown. The event lasts about 17 minutes. The guided tour of the tomb includes an impressive reenactment of this effect, and a lucky few each year also experience the real thing - you can enter your name in a lottery for a chance to join. Twelve standing stones still survive in a circle around the tomb, of which there may have originally been as many as 35. Archaeologists have not been able to determine their date with certainty, but at least one of the standing stones has been shown to post-date the henge south of the mound, which was made in the later Neolithic period. None of these stones are decorated with carvings. Now marked by modern wooden posts, the henge at Newgrange was built several centuries after the main passage tomb. The pit-and-post circle measures about 394 feet (120 m) in diameter and evidence of occupation was found inside it, including almost 800 pieces of flint and pottery from the Grooved Ware and Beaker periods. Some of the pits contained animal bones, which were probably votive offerings. Newgrange cannot be accessed directly; you must visit on a guided tour that leaves from the Brú na Bóinne Visitor Centre. From Dublin: Take the M1 motorway heading north, leave the motorway at the Donore Exit near Drogheda, (Brú na Bóinne is clearly signposted before the exit). There is a toll of 1.50 Euro before the Donore exit. Travel about 6km (4 miles) to the village of Donore, turn right passing Daly's Brú na Bóinne Bar and Restaurant on the right, travel about 1km, the Visitor Centre car park is on the right hand side. Or, take the N2 heading north via Ashbourne towards Slane in Co. Meath. Turn right about 2km south of Slane, the Brú na Bóinne Visitor Centre is 7km (4.5 miles) east towards the village of Donore. For about 3km before the Visitor Centre the road follows the bend in the river Boyne. Alternatively, you can join a guided day tour to Newgrange that leaves from Dublin. From Drogheda: Bus Eireann runs a service to the gate of the Visitors Centre. The journey takes 20 minutes and there are six daily from 10:15am to 4pm. Quick Facts on Newgrange |Names:||Bru na Boinne; Newgrange| |cat:||Graves and Tombs; Temples| |faith:||Prehistoric; New Age| |feat:||Astronomical Alignment; Petroglyphs| |Dates:||c. 3200 BCE| |Visitor and Contact Information| |Coordinates:||53.694661° N, 6.475453° W (view on Google Maps)| |Opening Hours:||Nov-Feb: daily 9:30-5| Mar-Apr and Oct: daily 9:30-5:30 May: daily 9-6:30 Jun to mid-Sep: daily 9-7 mid- to late Sep: daily 9-6:30 |Cost:||Required guided tour and admission to Bru na Boinne Centre: €5.50 adults| |Lodging:||View hotels near this location| Map of Newgrange Below is a location map and aerial view of Newgrange. Using the buttons on the left (or the wheel on your mouse), you can zoom in for a closer look, or zoom out to get your bearings. To move around, click and drag the map with your mouse. - Personal visit (August 28, 2007). - Norbert C. Brockman, Encyclopedia of Sacred Places (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 205. - Colin Wilson, The Atlas of Holy Places and Sacred Sites (DK Publishing, 1996), 72-73. - Claire O'Kelly, Concise Guide to Newgrange (Eden Publications, 1996; reprint 2007). - Andy Halpin and Conor Newman, Ireland: An Oxford Archaeological Guide (Oxford University Press, 2006), 267-68. - Frommer's Ireland 2006 - Lonely Planet Ireland, 7th ed. (January 2006), 524-25. - Newgrange - Knowth.com |Link code:||<a href="http://www.sacred-destinations.com/ireland/newgrange">Newgrange</a>|

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Jonathan Dimbleby hosts a... - Education Professionals During the first term in Key Stage 1, many children have problems with place value. Springfield School in Jersey is pioneering a new teaching method. Teachers identify, for example, 2,000 as a numeral two followed by the word thousand. Children add this technique to their "maths stories". They do the same with hundreds, working up to tens, using the word "ty". Words are adjusted so they don't obscure the logic of the maths. Twenty one is "two-ty-one", thirty two is "three-ty-two". The pupils can add two-ty and three-ty effortlessly. They are introduced to higher numbers, like "four-ty-six" using flashcards. A six is placed over the zero of 40 so that the 0 is obscured, helping pupils visualise that 46 is actually 40 and six. Part of the series: Primary TAs Login to post comments

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Print version ISSN 1413-8670 Braz J Infect Dis vol.8 no.3 Salvador June 2004 Simone B. CalicI; Márcio A.M.GalvãoII,VII; Fátima BacellarVI; Christiane M. B. M. RochaIII; Cláudio L. MafraV; Romário C. LeiteIV; David H. WalkerVII IEzequiel Dias Foundation, Belo Horizonte IIDepartment of Clinical and Social Nutrition IIIFederal University of Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto; Federal University of Lavras IVLavras; Federal University of Minas Gerais, School of Veterinary VDepartment of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology VIFederal University of Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil; National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge VIIÁguas de Moura, Portugal; World Health Organization Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, USA Brazilian spotted fever (BSF) rickettsiosis is the most common and recognized of the human rickettsioses in Brazil. It is difficult to establish the diagnosis of human rickettsiosis infection by routine microbiologic methods, creating a false idea that Rickettsia and Ehrlichia infections are rare and without importance. New tick-borne diseases, like Human Granulocytic Anaplasmosis (HGA) and Human Monocytic Ehrlichiosis (HME), have been described in many countries. These diseases can present symptoms similar to rickettsioses of the spotted fever group, and they are transmitted by ixodid ticks. The first two suspected cases of human ehrlichiosis in Brazil were first considered to be cases of BSF. The differential diagnosis was made at the Minas Gerais Rickettsiosis Public Health Laboratory. The clinical and laboratory findings, with positive serology for the HME agent, indicated suspected cases of human ehrlichioses in Brazil. Key words: Rickettsioses, human ehrlichioses, Brazilian spotted fever, Brazil. Rickettsiae and Ehrlichiae were considered in the past as a form of life between viruses and bacteria. In truth they are Gram-negative bacteria that live inside the cell and do not grow out of the cell in their vectors or mammalian hosts [1,2]. With such a highly evolved niche, it is difficult to establish the diagnosis of human rickettsiosis infection by routine microbiologic methods, creating a false idea that Rickettsia and Ehrlichia infections are rare and without importance . Brazilian spotted fever (BSF) rickettsiosis is the most common and recognized human rickettsiosis in Brazil. Recently, some of these bacteria previously considered as animal parasites, were recognized as pathogenic for humans, causing diseases such as human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA) and human monocytic ehrlichiosis (HME). These diseases can present symptoms similar to spotted fever rickettsiosis, and they are transmitted by ixodid ticks [4,5]. The American medical literature describes patients with human ehrlichiosis who usually visit a physician's office during the first week of the disease subsequent to an incubation period of 5 to 10 days after the tick bite . The symptoms include fever, headache and myalgia. Other signs and symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, cough and mental confusion. In contrast to BSF, the presence of a rash is less common in HME patients. However, renal failure, intravascular coagulation disorders, meningoencephalitis, adult respiratory distress syndrome, and coma may occur in severe cases. Pleocytosis in cerebrospinal fluid is associated with human ehrlichioses [3,7-9]. These diseases have not been described before in humans in Brazil, and Ehrlichia has not been described in arthropod vectors from Brazil. Evidence of antibodies reactive to Ehrlichia chaffeensis was reported for the first time in 2002 in a serologic survey of dogs from a spotted fever endemic region in Minas Gerais state . The implementation of specific techniques that permit distinguishing between the different rickettsioses has been fundamental to elucidate infections such as ehrlichioses and other rickettsial diseases. Materials and Methods The suspected cases were detected by an epidemiological surveillance system in Minas Gerais state as suspected cases of BSF, and the sera of these patients were examined by indirect immunofluorescence assay : Ten microliters of diluted sera were added to each well of the antigen slides for R. rickettsii and E. chaffeensis, which were incubated for 30 min in a humid chamber. The antigen used was obtained from the PANBIO Laboratory. The slides were rinsed once and washed in PBS (pH 7.1) for 10 minutes, twice. Fluorescein isothiocyanate-conjugated goat anti-human IgA, IgG and IgM (H+L) (Biolab Laboratories) was used at the optimal working dilution of 1/100 as the secondary antibody. After incubation for 30 min., the slides were rinsed once in PBS for 10 minutes, then washed in PBS (pH 7.1) containing Evans blue for 5 minutes, and then in sterile water for 5 more minutes. The slides were mounted with 90% glycerin in PBS under coverslips and observed under epifluorescence with an ultraviolet microscope (Zeiss, M C 80 DX) at 40X magnification. End point titers were determined by examination of serial two-fold dilutions of the reactive sera. Results and Discussion A 39 year old man from Monte Carmelo Municipality, Minas Gerais state, Brazil was suspected to have BSF. The outset of the symptoms occurred on May 8, 2001, with fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, myalgia, conjunctivitis, respiratory insufficiency and renal failure. The patient had a clinical history of immunosuppression, pneumonia and chronic renal failure. He had been exposed to a dog that hunted rats. Laboratory results on May 28, 2001: 1,600/mm3white blood cells; 2,800,000/mm3red blood cells; 8.8 g/dL hemoglobin; 25.8% hematocrit; and 42,000/mm3 platelets. The IFA serologic reactions for BSF and murine typhus, macroagglutination test for leptospirosis, and ELISA for yellow fever and dengue revealed no antibodies. The presence of HME and HGA antibodies was determined by IFA, with the following results: IgM 1/64, IgG 1/128 and anti-human IgA, IgG and IgM (H+L) 1/512 to Ehrlichia chaffeensis. HGA antibodies were not detected. Antibiotic therapy with chloramphenicol was initiated on May 29, with a good clinical response observed at 48 hours. A second sample of serum was not collected. A 20-year-old man lived in Ponte Nova Municipality, Minas Gerais State, Brazil. On May 15, 2001, he noted the onset of fever, headache, myalgia, conjunctivitis, nausea and vomiting. He developed icterus, respiratory insufficiency, renal failure, diarrhea, hepatomegaly, malnutrition and mental confusion by May 20. Laboratory results on May 20, 2001, revealed pleocytosis of the CSF, 240 IU/L oxalacetic transaminase, 53 IU/L pyruvic transaminase, 13.85 mg/dL direct bilirubin, and 22.61 mg/dL indirect bilirubin. The serologic reactions for BSF and murine typhus by IFA, leptospirosis by macroagglutination test, and yellow fever and dengue by ELISA revealed no antibodies; but antibodies against E. chaffeensis (IgM 1/64, IgG 1/256 and anti-human IgA, IgG and IgM (H+L) 1/64) were detected, with no reaction to HGA. The patient died on May 25, 2001. These diagnoses of HME were made based on clinical and serologic results. The authors agree that hepatic enzyme changes in patient 2 are due to acute illness. This patient had no history of previous hepatic or hematological diseases, and the possibility of hepatic renal syndrome being responsible for hepatic enzyme changes was also discarded based on clinical findings. The peripheral smears for morula were not reexamined because the physicians were not thinking of this diagnosis when the cases occurred. The serology does not confirm a diagnosis, but it can be suggestive. In our cases, the strong fluorescence by IFA to E. chaffeensis, the negative results for other rickettsioses and the significant titers of antibodies obtained for IgM and IgG to E. chaffeensis collaborate to place these cases in the category of suspected cases. These first reported suspected cases of human ehrlichioses in Minas Gerais State, Brazil, show us the necessity of further studying the epidemiology of vectors and agents involved in this pathology, as well as in other rickettsioses. The finding of these agents in the environment increases the effectiveness of the diagnosis. Also, the correct diagnosis is important to initiate early treatment to significantly reduce the case fatality-ratio. Moreover, this could be important in differential diagnoses of hemorrhagic fevers. 1. Anderson B.E., Dawson J.E., Jones D.C., Wilson K.H. Ehrlichia chaffeensis, a new species associated with human ehrlichiosis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 1991;29(12):2838-42. [ Links ] 2. Wen B., Rikihisa Y., Mott J., et al. Ehrlichia muris sp. nov., identified on the basis of 16S rRNA base sequences and serological, morphological, and biological characteristics. International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology 1995;45:250-4. [ Links ] 3. Walker D.H., Dumler J.S. Emergence of ehrlichioses as human health problems. Emerging Infectious Diseases 1996;2(1):18-29. [ Links ] 4. Eng T.R., Harkess J.R., Fishbein D.B., et al. Epidemiologic, clinical, and laboratory findings of human ehrlichiosis in the United States, 1988. Journal of the American Medical Association 1990;264:251-8. [ Links ] 5. Jacobs R.F. Human monocytic ehrlichiosis: similar to Rocky Mountain spotted fever but different. Pediatric Annals 2002;31(3):180-4. [ Links ] 7. Walker D.H., Dumler J.S. Human monocytic and granulocytic ehrlichioses. Discovery and diagnosis of emerging tick-borne infections and the critical role of the pathologist. Archives of Pathology Laboratory Medicine 1997;121(8):785-91. [ Links ] 8. Devereaux C.E. Human monocytic ehrlichiosis presenting as febrile diarrhea. Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology 1997;25(3):544-5. [ Links ] 9. Ratnasamy N., Everett E.D., Roland W.E., et al. Central nervous system manifestations of human ehrlichiosis. Clinical Infectious Diseases 1996;23:314-9. [ Links ] 10. Galvão M.A.M., Lamounier J.A. , Bonomo E., et al. Emerging and reemerging rickettsiosis in an endemic area of Minas Gerais State, Brazil. Cadernos de Saúde Pública 2002;18(6):1593-7. [ Links ] 11. Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention. Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases: Indirect fluorescent antibody technique for the detection of rickettsial antibodies. Atlanta: National Center for Infectious Diseases, s.d;11, 2001. [ Links ] Dr. Simone Berger Calic Rua Conde Pereira Carneiro, 80, Gameleira Zip code: 30510-010, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil Received on 09 December 2003; revised 15 April 2004

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http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1413-86702004000300011&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en

2013-05-19T10:55:06Z

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Bulletin of the World Health Organization versión impresa ISSN 0042-9686 Recent data suggest that a large number of people are blind in different parts of the world due to high refractive error because they are not using appropriate refractive correction. Refractive error as a cause of blindness has been recognized only recently with the increasing use of presenting visual acuity for defining blindness. In addition to blindness due to naturally occurring high refractive error, inadequate refractive correction of aphakia after cataract surgery is also a significant cause of blindness in developing countries. Blindness due to refractive error in any population suggests that eye care services in general in that population are inadequate since treatment of refractive error is perhaps the simplest and most effective form of eye care. Strategies such as vision screening programmes need to be implemented on a large scale to detect individuals suffering from refractive error blindness. Sufficient numbers of personnel to perform reasonable quality refraction need to be trained in developing countries. Also adequate infrastructure has to be developed in underserved areas of the world to facilitate the logistics of providing affordable reasonable-quality spectacles to individuals suffering from refractive error blindness. Long-term success in reducing refractive error blindness worldwide will require attention to these issues within the context of comprehensive approaches to reduce all causes of avoidable blindness. Palabras llave : Refractive errors [complications]; Refractive errors [etiology]; Refractive errors [etiology].

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http://www.scielosp.org/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S0042-96862001000300013&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=en

2013-05-19T11:27:25Z

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July 14, 2009 Though New Orleans residents were told to evacuate days before the arrival of Hurricane Katrina, no one could have predicted the real extent of the devastation. Now researchers from Tel Aviv University say they have found a novel and reliable way to help predict the intensity of the next big flood, using common cell phone towers across the United States. Their model, which analyzes cell phone signals, adds a critical component to weather forecasting never before available. "By monitoring the specific and fluctuating atmospheric moisture around cell phone towers throughout America, we can cheaply, effectively and reliably provide a more accurate 'critical moisture distribution' level for fine-tuning model predictions of big floods," says Prof. Pinhas Alpert, a geophysicist and head of Tel Aviv University's Porter School for Environmental Education. Prof. Alpert and his co-researchers Prof. Hagit Messer Yaron and doctoral fellow Noam David reported on their research in the April 2009 Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. Information the weather girl can use Cell phone towers emit radio waves that are diminished by moisture in the air, a factor that can be used to improve model warnings on flood levels. In addition, the researchers measured the rainfall distributions and were able to accurately estimate the size of impending floods before they struck. This was demonstrated in post-analysis of two case-studies of floods in the Judean Desert in Israel, where cell phone towers — and flash floods — are abundant. Using real data measurements collected from the towers, the researchers demonstrated how microwave links in a cellular network correlated with surface station humidity measurements. The data provided by cell phone towers is the missing link weather forecasters need to improve the accuracy of flood forecasting. The microwave data used in this study was supplied by two cellular providers Cellcom and Pelephone in Israel. Can texting save lives? "Our method provides reliable measurement of moisture fields near the flood zone for the first time," notes Prof. Alpert, who also works with NASA on developing models to study global warming weather patterns. This new tool, he says, can add to the bigger picture of understanding climate change patterns in general. "Accurate predictions of flooding were difficult before because there haven't been enough reliable measurements of moisture fields in remote locations," Prof. Alpert adds. Using the signals collected from cell phone towers as they communicate with base stations and our handsets, weather forecasters will now have a crucial missing piece of information for flood prediction that they never had before. It will permit forecasters and residents alike to more accurately gauge the danger they face from an impending flood. Because hundreds of thousands of cell phone towers are already in place, the Tel Aviv University invention can be adopted quickly. And cell phone companies are already collecting the data anyway, as Americans continue to ramp up their minutes of call time every month. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above. Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/07/090706161304.htm

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June 23, 2011 When natural ecosystems are replaced by roads, homes, and commercial structures, soil is negatively impacted. Studies have shown that, among other issues, distressed urban soils are often significantly compacted, may have alkaline pH, and may contain low amounts of essential organic matter and nutrients. This altered soil is typically not conducive to healthy plant root growth and establishment, leading to challenges for urban landscapes and home gardens. "The management of urban soils often requires a different approach than is applied to natural or agricultural soils, but some management practices that are commonly used in agricultural systems have the potential to improve the quality of urban soils," explained Amy L. Shober, corresponding author of a new report from the University of Florida's Institute of Food and Agricultural Science. Shober, along with graduate student Shawna Loper and their colleagues, designed a study to determine if the addition of compost -- with or without the application of shallow tillage or aeration -- improves soil properties and plant growth in simulated new residential landscapes. According to the report published in HortScience, the researchers established 24 mixed landscape plots designed to simulate new residential landscapes. Each plot was constructed using 10 cm of subsoil fill material over a compacted field soil and planted with St. Augustine grass (Stenotaphrum secundatum) and mixed ornamental plant species. The scientists applied composted dairy manure solids as an organic soil amendment at a depth of 5 cm in combination with two mechanical soil treatments (tillage to 15 cm and plug aeration), then assessed soil physical and chemical properties, plant growth and quality, and plant tissue nutrient concentrations to determine the effects of the different treatments. The data showed that applications of compost significantly reduced soil density and pH and increased soil organic matter, electrical conductivity, and concentrations of phosphorus and potassium. Growth was enhanced in all of the ornamentals (except one) when the plants were cultivated in soil amended with composted dairy manure solids. In most instances, plant tissue nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations were higher for plants grown in soils receiving compost. "We found that composted dairy manure solids can improve soil physical and chemical properties in residential landscapes when sandy fill soils are used. Application of composted dairy manure solids can also enhance the establishment and improve the growth of selected ornamental landscape plants," Shober said. "However, topdressing with composted dairy manure solids enhanced plant growth and quality as much as incorporation of compost to a depth of 20 cm by tillage." The results also showed that shallow tillage and aeration had little effect on soil properties or plant growth. The study showed the benefits of compost additions only during the first year after planting; the authors noted that the increased growth and the subsequent health of plants resulting from applications of compost may also prevent future plant failure. They recommended that future studies be done to evaluate the long-term effects of compost addition after the plant establishment period. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: - Loper, Shawna, Shober, Amy L., Wiese, Christine, Denny, Geoffrey C., Stanley, Craig D., Gilman, Edward F. Organic Soil Amendment and Tillage Affect Soil Quality and Plant Performance in Simulated Residential Landscapes. HortScience, 2010; 45: 1522-1528 [link] Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/06/110623174242.htm

2013-05-19T11:01:26Z

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Mar. 22, 2012 Mothers' exposure during pregnancy to a class of air pollutants called polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) can lead to behavioral problems in their children. PAH are released to air during incomplete combustion of fossil fuel such as diesel, gasoline, coal, and other organic material. The study is the first report of associations between child attentional and behavioral problems among school‐age children and two complementary measures of prenatal PAH exposure: monitored air concentrations of PAH and a PAH-specific biomarker of exposure measured in maternal and umbilical cord blood. The paper, "Prenatal Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) Exposure and Child Behavior at age 6-7," recently published online in Environmental Health Perspectives, adds to rising concerns about the risks associated with exposures to air pollution during pregnancy. The study followed the children of 253 non‐smoking inner‐city women who gave birth between 1999 and 2006. Researchers led by Frederica Perera, DrPH, director of the Columbia Center for Children's Environmental Health at the Mailman School of Public Health, measured two complementary indicators of PAH exposure. One indicator was the PAH concentration in air from personal air sampling which took place during the third trimester of pregnancy. The other was a specific biological marker of exposure-- PAH-DNA adducts measured in maternal blood and newborn umbilical cord blood. When inhaled by the mother during pregnancy, PAH can be transferred across the placenta and bind to the DNA of the fetus, forming "adducts" in blood and other tissues and providing a biologic measure of pollutant exposure. Mothers completed a detailed assessment of their child's behavior (including whether the children experienced symptoms of anxiety, depression, or attention problems. High prenatal PAH exposure, whether characterized by personal air monitoring or maternal and newborn cord adducts, was significantly associated with symptoms of Anxious/Depressed and Attention Problems. In urban air, traffic emissions are a dominant source of the pollutants measured in the study. Illustrating widespread exposure to these pollutants, 100% of the mothers in the Columbia Center for Children's Environmental Health NYC cohort had detectable levels of PAH in prenatal personal air samples, although levels varied widely. The authors accounted for other sources of PAH such as environmental tobacco smoke and diet in their analyses. None of the mothers in the study were smokers. "This study provides evidence that environmental levels of PAH encountered in NYC air can adversely affect child behavior. The results are of concern because attention problems and anxiety and depression have been shown to affect peer relationships and academic performance," said Dr. Perera, the study's lead author. The study was conducted in collaboration with members of the Columbia research team including, Dr. Deliang Tang, Dr. Shuang Wang, Julia Vishnevetsky, Bingzhi Zhang, Diurka Diaz, David Camann, and Dr. Virginia Rauh. The work was supported by funding provided by NIEHS, the EPA and private foundations. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: The above story is reprinted from materials provided by Columbia University's Mailman School of Public Health. - Frederica P. Perera, Deliang Tang, Shuang Wang, Julia Vishnevetsky, Bingzhi Zhang, Diurka Diaz, David Camann, Virginia Rauh. Prenatal Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) Exposure and Child Behavior at age 6-7. Environmental Health Perspectives, 2012; DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1104315 Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/03/120322100211.htm

2013-05-19T11:00:54Z

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Aug. 3, 2012 Screaming through the thin Martian atmosphere at hypersonic speed, the Mars Science Laboratory is about to experience heat and pressure up to three times more intense than when a space shuttle returned to Earth, and NASA engineers hope to soon have the data to prove it. A suite of 14 sensors are embedded in the MSL spacecraft's heat shield, which will protect the Curiosity rover during its seven-minute plunge toward the Red Planet. Seven sensors will measure temperatures within the heat shield during entry, while the remaining seven sensors will measure changes in atmospheric pressure being exerted on the heat shield. All of the measurements will be recorded aboard Curiosity for playback to Earth, both during the entry and descent, and three to four days later after the rover safely touches down. The team responsible for the instruments -- which are called MEDLI, for MSL Entry Descent and Landing Instrumentation -- can't wait. "This will be a first for us," said Jim Pittman, NASA's head of hypersonic research. "We've never had the chance before to collect this kind of high-quality data from a spacecraft entering another planet's atmosphere." Information about what Curiosity's heat shield experiences during entry and how it responds is expected to help engineers design future aircraft and spacecraft to better fly through a planet's atmosphere -- including Earth's -- at hypersonic velocities, or more than five times the speed of sound. MEDLI's data also will be used to develop future Mars entry systems that are safer, lighter weight and more reliable, which in turn would allow future landers to be larger and more scientifically capable. The $28 million experiment managed by NASA's Space Technology Program is the first Technology Demonstration Mission to fly in space. MEDLI originated within the agency's Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/08/120803101532.htm

2013-05-19T11:09:46Z

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By Nell and Loraine, Coastal Studies for Girls We worked together to find the height, width, mass, and color of each individual snail. Although we did not collect all 195 individuals, we still gathered a large amount of data, and had plenty of individuals to determine average characteristics and observe variability. Last Monday, Coastal Studies for Girls took a field trip to the shore by Wolfe’s Neck Farm to do some research in the field and look at variation within a population. The goal was to collect smooth periwinkles (Littorina obtusata) and record data on the snails. The original aim was to collect 195 individuals and to measure size and color for each. When we first arrived at the rocky intertidal zone, we used a sight level and meter stick to determine tidal height, and to divide the rock ledge into three horizontal sections of rocky intertidal habitat. Next, we set loose in teams -- one team in each section. We collected dozens and dozens of snails. Then we quickly and efficiently measured the periwinkles with a compass and ruler. We found their masses using an electronic balance. Last, but certainly not least, we identified the shade of the periwinkles using a color wheel that we had numbered for recording purposes. This field problem was designed mostly to study biological variation within populations in the environment. By keeping data on traits of periwinkles from each section of tidal height, we can test whether traits vary with height in the tidal column. This gives us a close-up look at the raw material that natural selection acts upon. When we continue to work on this lab in class this week, we will discuss what the average size/color is, how it differs from section to section, and why this may be. Hopefully when we do some tests with these data, this field problem will give us an even better understanding of natural selection at work and the range of biological variation. Coastal Studies for Girls is the country’s only residential science and leadership semester school for 10th grade girls. CSG is dedicated to girls who have a love for learning and discovery, an adventurous spirit, and a desire to challenge themselves.

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http://www.sciencefriday.com/blogs/10/12/2011/field-problem-variation-within-a-population.html?series=16&interest=&audience=1&author=

2013-05-19T11:26:52Z

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Consistent with these behavioral findings, two genes implicated in anxiety -- nerve growth factor-inducible clone A (NGF1-A) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) -- were found to be down-regulated in multiple brain regions in the germ-free animals. These changes in behavior were also accompanied by changes in the levels of several neurotransmitters, chemicals which are responsible for signal transmission between nerve cells. The neurotransmitters dopamine, serotonin and noradrenaline were elevated in a specific region of the brain, the striatum, which is associated with the planning and coordination of movement and which is activated by novel stimuli, while there were there were no such effects on neurotransmitters in other brain regions, such as those involved in memory (the hippocampus) or executive function (the frontal cortex). When Pettersson’s team performed a comprehensive gene expression analysis of five different brain regions, they found nearly 40 genes that were affected by the presence of gut bacteria. Not only were these primitive microbes able to influence signaling between nerve cells while sequestered far away in the gut, they had the astonishing ability to influence whether brain cells turn on or off specific genes. How, then, do these single-celled intestinal denizens exert their influence on a complex multicellular organ such as the brain? Although the answer is unclear, there are several possibilities: the Vagus nerve, for example, connects the gut to the brain, and it’s known that infection with the Salmonella bacteria stimulates the expression of certain genes in the brain, which is blocked when the Vagus nerve is severed. This nerve may be stimulated as well by normal gut microbes, and serve as the link between them and the brain. Alternatively, those microbes may modulate the release of chemical signals by the gut into the bloodstream which ultimately reach the brain. These gut microbes, for example, are known to modulate stress hormones which may in turn influence the expression of genes in the brain. Regardless of how these intestinal “guests” exert their influence, these studies suggest that brain-directed behaviors, which influence the manner in which animals interact with the external world, may be deeply influenced by that animal’s relationship with the microbial organisms living in its gut. And the discovery that gut bacteria exert their influence on the brain within a discrete developmental stage may have important implications for developmental brain disorders. Are you a scientist? And have you recently read a peer-reviewed paper that you would like to write about? Please send suggestions to Mind Matters editor Gareth Cook, a Pulitzer prize-winning journalist at the Boston Globe. He can be reached at garethideas AT gmail.com or Twitter @garethideas.

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http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-neuroscience-of-gut&page=2

2013-05-19T10:56:07Z

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Pulmonary arteriovenous fistula is an abnormal connection between an artery and vein in the lungs. As a result, blood passes through the lungs without receiving enough oxygen. Arteriovenous malformation - pulmonary Pulmonary arteriovenous fistulas are usually the result of abnormal development of the blood vessels of the lung. Most occur in patients with Rendu-Osler-Weber disease (ROWD) – now commonly called hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia(HHT). These patients often have abnormal blood vessels in many parts of the body, including the lung. Fistulas also can be a complication of liver disease or lung injury, although this is much less common. Many people have no symptoms. When symptoms occur, they can include: Other possible symptoms include: Tests that may be done include: A small number of patients who have no symptoms may not need treatment. For most patients with fistulas, the treatment of choice is to block the fistula during an arteriogram (embolization). Some patients may need surgery to remove the abnormal vessels and nearby lung tissue. When arteriovenous fistulas are caused by liver disease, the treatment is a liver transplant. The outlook for patients with HHT is not as good as for those without HHT. For patients without HHT, surgery to remove the abnormal vessels usually has a good outcome, and the condition is not likely to return. Major complications after treatment for this condition are unusual. Complications may include: Call your health care provider if you often have nosebleeds or difficulty breathing, especially if you also have a personal or family history of HHT. Because this condition is often genetic, prevention is not usually possible. Marelli AJ. Congenital heart disease in adults. In: Goldman L, Schafer AI, eds. Cecil Medicine. 24th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2011:chap 69. Shovlin CL, Jackson JE. Pulmonary arteriovenous malformations and other vascular abnormalities. In: Mason RJ, Broaddus CV, Martin TR, et al, eds. Textbook of Respiratory Medicine. 5th ed. Philadelphia,Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2010: chap 54. |Search | Site Map|

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2013-05-19T11:09:45Z

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Search sheldonbrown.com and sheldonbrown.org - A brake that can be set so that it will stay on even when the rider lets go of the control lever. This is usually a drum brake operated by a friction-type shift lever. Tandems are often equipped with a drag brake when they are to be used for touring in mountainous terrain. Descending with a heavily-laden tandem using only rim brakes can cause the rims and tires to overheat, leading to blowouts. See my article on Tandem Brakes. - To follow another cyclist (or motor vehicle) so closely that the leading vehicle takes the brunt of the wind resistance, and acts as a windbreak for the drafting cyclist. Since air resistance is the major limitation on bicycle speed, many of the tactics used in bicycle racing are based on exploiting this effect. - British term for a tandem's Keel tube. - Before the invention of the bicycle, a German nobleman named von Drais invented the "draisine" which is like a bicycle without pedals. The rider would use his feet to push along the ground. The draisine walking enhancer, permitting the user to cover more ground with each stride, and to coast down hills. When Pierre Lallement added pedals to a draisine in the 1850s, the bicycle was born. Draisines are still made for small children, intended as a transitional vehicle between a tricycle and a bicycle, but I don't recommend buying these, because you can acheive the same effect by unscrewing the pedals from a real bicycle. See my article on Teaching Children to Ride. - The part of an internal-geared hub or coaster brake that the sprocket attaches to, either by threads or splines. See also threaded driver. - The parts of a bicycle which have to do with generating forward motion. These include the pedals, cranks, chainwheels, bottom bracket, chain, derailers, rear sprocket(s) and rear hub. The drivetrain area of a frame consists of those parts of the frame that are directly stressed by the drive train parts, specifically the chainstays, down tube, and seat tube. - Frame geometry: the difference between the height of the fork ends and the height of the bottom bracket. Smaller drop = a higher bottom bracket. This dimension is often preferred to the bottom-bracket height dimension, because it is the same whatever tires are installed on the bicycle. A bicycle with a shorter drop (higher bottom bracket) will be less at risk of striking a pedal on the ground during high-speed cornering or obstacle jumping. A bicycle with a longer drop (lower bottom bracket) will be slightly faster, and easier to mount/dismount. - Handlebars: the vertical dimension of a drop handlebar, from the horizontal part to the level of the drops. - The lower parts of a drop handlebar, the area below the brake levers. - An offset mounting bolt, to allow a short-reach brake caliper to be used where a long-reach one would otherwise be required. See my Home Made Drop Bolts article. - A drop handlebar is one in which the middle of the bar is the highest point, or nearly. Most bicycles built for fast or long-distance riding have drop handlebars, which provide a range of different grip positions, allowing the rider to change positions for variety and to accommodate different road/wind conditions. The most common style of drop handlebar is the "Mæs" bend. Variations include the "randonneur" and "anatomic" bends. The main advantage of drop handlebars is that they offer several different hand positions. For longer rides, the ability to change positions is very desirable. Riding for a long time in any one position tends to be uncomfortable. People who think they don't like drop handlebars are often actually objecting to the position of the bars on the drop-bar bikes they have tried. Bikes with drop bars often have the bars mounted rather low and far forward, so that the rider has to lean forward quite a lot to reach the bars, especially the lower "drop " position. If these people tried a bike where the drop bars were placed higher, and closer to the saddle, they might find they really liked them. I have an article on this topic, called "Hands Up." Most newer drop handlebars come in either single-groove or double-groove versions, with grooves along the upper section to acommodate brake (and shift) cables running under the handlebar tape. These grooves are totally unnecessary. Indeed, the double-groove variety is often rather uncomfortable due to the rear groove's causing sharp ridges against the rider's hands. - A type of forkend that allows the rear wheel to be removed without derailing the chain first. Track and BMX bicycles do not have rear dropouts; they use fork ends that open to the rear. A current fad has led to the revival of this inferior forkend style for single speed bikes. Rear dropouts come in two styles: - Horizontal dropouts have a longish slot for the rear axle to fit into, which runs more-or-less horizontally along the dropout. They permit the wheel to be placed in various positions front to rear. Horizontal dropouts are necessary for bicycles which don't have derailers, because the axle must be moveable to adjust the chain tension. With horizontal dropouts, it is possible to mis-align the wheel in the frame if it is installed carelessly. The axle nuts or quick-release must be tightened quite securely, or the chain tension may pull the axle askew. - Vertical dropouts have a vertical notch for the axle to go up into, and the axle's position is not adjustable. With vertical dropouts, the axle cannot be pulled out of position, even if it is not properly secured. Vertical dropouts are generally intended for use with derailer gearing, and do not permit any adjustment of the position of the rear wheel, so there's no way to regulate chain tension if you don't have a derailer or pulley type chain tensioner. A few single-speed or internal-hub gear bikes use vertical dropouts with an eccentric bottom bracket to permit chain tension adjustment. White Industries makes a special hub with an eccentric axle, also to permit vertical dropouts to be used with a straight chain run. On derailer-equipped bicycles, the rear derailer is attached to the right rear dropout, either directly to a hanger that is part of the drop out, or by way of an adaptor claw. Dropout spacing varies among different styles of bicycles Not a dropout! - A drum brake is a hand-operated brake which is built into, or attached to the hub of a wheel, with shoes that press against the inside of a cylindrical drum. The drum may be the inside of an oversized hub shell, or may be a separate unit which screws on to the side of the hub, by threads like those to which freewheels attach. Drum brakes are common on automobiles and motorcycles, but fairly rare on bicycles, mainly due to their weight. The greatest advantage of a drum brake is that it is unaffected by rain. Drum brakes are commonly used as drag brakes on tandems. See my article on Tandem Brakes. - "Dry rot" is a fungus that infects cellulose-based materials: wood, paper, cotton and the like. Sometimes people speak of bicycle tires as if they suffer from dry rot, but this is not generally correct. (The exception would be for cotton-cord tires, but those pretty much disappeared by the mid 1960s, at least as far as clinchers are concerned.) What people commonly call "dry rot" is a deterioration of the rubber, usually on the sidewalls. This is particularly common with gumwall tires that have been exposed to ozone damage. (A common cause of this is storing a bicycle near a household furnace. The brush-type motors on such furnaces often create sparks, which in turn create ozone.) This type of damage is ugly, but not structurally significant, as long as the cords (fabric) of the tire are intact. Generally, if a tire isn't lumpy/misshapen when inflated, and has not had the tread area worn too thin, there is no reason to replace it, no matter how ugly the sidewalls get. - For some obscure reason, some writers on bicycle matters seem to have a problem with the terms "right" and "left." Instead of using these easily understood common English words, they have invented the terms "drive-side" for "right" and "non-drive-side" for left. (This relates to the fact that the chain drive is on the right side.) As if this silly jargon were't confusing enough, they sometimes further muddy the waters by abbreviating these phrases as "D.S." and "N.D.S." - A type of sidepull brake caliper. The dual-pivot design was originated by Altenburger in the 1960's, and popularized by Shimano in the 1990's. The main feature of dual-pivot brakes is that they are easier to keep centered, due to the way the arms are linked together. They can have more mechanical advantage (and a resulting rest position closer to the rim) than conventional sidepulls. Newer designs permit fine tuning the centering of the arms by simply turning a screw. The principal disadvantage of dual-pivot brakes is that they don't track imperfect rims as well as single-pivot sidepulls, possibly causing pulsating braking. Mark McMaster for his help with this entry. - Swiss DT is the leading manufacturer of spokes. When DT spokes first became available in the U.S. market in the late 1970's, they revolutionized wheel building. Although stainless spokes had been available previously, the quality of the threading on DT spokes and nipples was quite a lot better than that of brands that had previously been available, allowing wheels to be built at considerably higher spoke tensions than had previously been possible. "DT" stands for "Drahtwerke Tréfilerie." "Drahtwerke" means "wire works" in German; Tréfilerie means the same thing in French. - Refers to a bicycle with suspension for both wheels. - John Boyd Dunlop was born in Ayreshire, Scotland, in 1840. He studied veterinary science at the University of Edinburgh. In 1888,he invented the pneumatic tire, probably the most revolutionary and important invention to come out of the bicycle industry. J. K. Starley's chain-driven "safety" bicycle had been invented three years earlier, but was not fully practical due to the harsh ride of the smaller wheels with solid tires. With Dunlop's pneumatic tire, the modern bicycle was basically complete. No development in bicycle technology since then has been more than a minor refinement on the work of Starley and Dunlop. Because an earlier patent for an inflatable tire had been taken out in France, his 1888 patent was invalid in Scotland, so he moved to Belfast, Northern Ireland, and started manufacturing tires in 1890. The Woods valve is also sometimes referred to as a "Dunlop" valve. The Dunlop tire company which he started still exists, but stopped making bicycle tires in the 1960's. This caused a crisis among cyclists for a couple of years, because Dunlop bicycle tires were incontestibly the finest available. The Dunlop "HPRR" (High Pressure Road Racing) tire was the high-performance "clincher" - Shimano's top-of-the-line parts group for road racing bikes. See Shimano Models and Buzzwords. There are interchangeability issues with older Dura-Ace parts, and I have an article on Dura-Ace interchangeability. - Duralumin is a trade mark name for an early popular structural aluminium (aluminum) alloy, and 'dural' is slang for it. Dural has a poor corrosion resistance, and (I hope) isn't used much for cycle parts nowadays. It needs a paint or lacquer finish if used out of doors in dirty conditions. (Thanks to Mark Irving) - A thin metal, plastic or rubber shield that covers the bearing balls of a conventional cup-and-cone hub. - A plastic or metal cap that screws or snaps into the extactor threads of a cotterless crank. Dyna Drive ® - In the early '80's, Shimano introduced a special crank/pedal set, which used much larger diameter threading where the pedal screwed into the crank. This allowed the bearing to be built into the inside of the pedal thread, eliminating the need for a pedal axle. The purposwas to improve the biomechanics of the pedal by placing the bottom of the foot below the pedal axis. The threading chosen was 1" x 24 tpi, same as a standard 1 inch headset, except that the left side was a left thread. This was rather a good idea, but never caught on. - British term for generator. Technically, the term "generator" is preferred, because "dynamo" primarily refers to a generator of direct current, while bicycle generators all produce alternating current. If you would like to make a link or bookmark to this page, the URL is: If you would like to make a link or bookmark to this glossary, the URL is: If you would like to make a link or bookmark to a specific definition, that's fine too. I am committed to keeping the urls stable, so I won't be breaking your link. Last Updated: by Harriet Fell

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Photo: jdg32373, Flickr They're delicious in shortcake and make amazing ice cream, but a new study suggests strawberries might also have the power to fight cancer. Ohio State University researchers found that freeze-dried strawberries slowed the growth of dysplastic, or precancerous, lesions in people who consumed the fruit for six months, reports The Wall Street Journal. The study was aimed specifically at esophageal cancer, the sixth most frequent cause of cancer death in the world. (There are about 16,000 new cases each year, according to the American Cancer Society.) The research was done in China, where patients consumed 30 grams of freeze-dried strawberries dissolved in a glass of water twice daily for six months, reports the WSJ. The freeze-dried strawberries are about 10 times as concentrated as fresh, but the study's lead researcher suggested people could still benefit from eating whole strawberries on a daily basis. So far, no one has been able to pinpoint exactly what it is in the berries that's battling cancer cells. But until they know, you might want to hedge your bets and throw a few extra strawberries into that smoothie.

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by Staff Writers Seattle WA (SPX) Oct 12, 2011 "Under those frigid conditions, there are not a lot of places where you would expect liquid water and light to occur in the same area, and you need both of those things for photosynthetic algae to survive," said Adam Campbell, a University of Washington doctoral student in Earth and space sciences. A long, narrow body of water such as the Red Sea, about 6.5 times longer than it is wide, would create enough physical resistance to advancing glacial ice that the ice sheet likely could not make it all the way to the end of the sea before conditions cause the ice to turn to vapor. That would leave a small expanse of open water where the algae could survive. "The initial results have shown pretty well that these kinds of channels could remain relatively free of thick glacial ice during a 'snowball Earth' event," Campbell said. He examined the issue using an analytical model that applied basic principles of physics to a simple set of atmospheric conditions believed to have existed at the time. The results were published Saturday (Oct. 8) in Geophysical Research Letters. Co-authors are Edwin Waddington and Stephen Warren, UW professors of Earth and space sciences. Many scientists believe Earth became a giant snowball two or three times between 800 million and 550 million years ago, with each episode lasting about 10 million years. These all preceded the Cambrian explosion about 530 million years ago, when life on Earth rapidly expanded, diversified and became more complex. But simple photosynthetic plankton turn up in the fossil record before and after the "snowball Earth" events, leading scientists to wonder how that could happen if Earth's oceans were completely encased in ice. Campbell said it is assumed the algae survived these episodes, "unless they re-evolved each time, which creates a whole different problem for evolutionary biology." He chose the Red Sea as an example because it is formed from a tectonic process called continental rifting, a process known to have existed at the time of the snowball Earth events, and it lies in an arid region between Egypt and the Arabian Peninsula. Campbell noted that in a snowball Earth event, the open water in such a sea wouldn't have lasted long if it didn't have a way of being replenished - if, for example, the glacial ice acted as a dam and cut off the influx of additional sea water. The open water had to exist on the order of 10 million years for the algae to survive. "Over 10 million years, you could evaporate the deepest lake in the world," Campbell said. "If you're in a desert, you'd have to have a supply of sea water." The paper is available here. University of Washington Beyond the Ice Age Comment on this article via your Facebook, Yahoo, AOL, Hotmail login. Rising CO2 levels at end of Ice Age not tied to Pacific Ocean Corvallis, OR (SPX) Oct 07, 2011 At the end of the last Ice Age, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rose rapidly as the planet warmed; scientists have long hypothesized that the source was CO2 released from the deep ocean. But a new study using detailed radiocarbon dating of foraminifera found in a sediment core from the Gorda Ridge off Oregon reveals that the Northeast Pacific was not an important reservoir of carbon duri ... read more |The content herein, unless otherwise known to be public domain, are Copyright 1995-2011 - Space Media Network. AFP and UPI Wire Stories are copyright Agence France-Presse and United Press International. ESA Portal Reports are copyright European Space Agency. All NASA sourced material is public domain. Additional copyrights may apply in whole or part to other bona fide parties. Advertising does not imply endorsement,agreement or approval of any opinions, statements or information provided by Space Media Network on any Web page published or hosted by Space Media Network. Privacy Statement|

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Save the satellites! The story of a strange and (solar) stormy night . . . It is a sticky August night in Florida. Typical, except for one thing. Bright red and green curtains of light dance in the sky. Is the swamp on fire? No. The Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights, are lighting up the sky. It is 1859, and few people in Florida have ever seen an aurora. They are amazed and frightened. A few days later, on September 1, English astronomer Richard C. Carrington is studying a group of sunspots (through dark filters that protect his eyes, of course). Around 11:00 AM, he sees a sudden flash of intense white light from the area of the sunspots. Seventeen hours later, the night sky in North America and as far south as Panama in Central America lights up like daytime. It is another wave of even brighter Auroras. People read newspapers by the light. Gold miners in the Rocky Mountains wake up and make coffee, bacon and eggs at 1:00 AM, thinking the Sun has risen on a cloudy morning. But stranger things than these are happening. Instruments that measure changes in Earth's magnetism are acting crazy, their needles stuck against the pins at the highest end of the scale. Spikes of electricity surge into the world's telegraph systems, and no one can send a message. What is going on? In 1859, even scientists didn't understand what caused auroras and the electrical and magnetic disturbances that went with them. Eventually they figured out that auroras are caused by violent events on the Sun. These solar storms can blast out huge clouds of electrified gas and dust at up to 2 million miles per hour. If this high-energy blast of particles reaches Earth, it can temporarily distort and disrupt Earth's magnetic field.

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December 9 Severe Weather and Tornadoes A round of severe thunderstorms containing tornadoes, large hail and damaging winds, occurred Tuesday December 9th into Tuesday night across much of the Lower Mississippi River Valley. These storms developed along and ahead of a strong surface cold front and strong upper level disturbance. A surface low developed to our west and tracked eastward increasing the winds and drawing northward deep moisture and instability. The cold front steadily pushed east and clashed with the unstable and highly sheared environment and produced numerous severe thunderstorms as squall line developed and tracked eastward across the region. At this time, 16 tornadoes have been confirmed. Surveys have been ongoing since last Wednesday and more are planned for the rest of this week. This may result in additional tornadoes. Of the 16 tornadoes, 2 were rated EF2, 8 rated EF1, and 6 rated EF0. The worst damage was across Yazoo and Holmes Counties. Several structures were damaged along with numerous trees and power lines. Other heavily damaged areas were in Adams, Rankin, Montgomery, Attala, Copiah, Jefferson Davis, Franklin, Jefferson, Lamar and Jones Counties where many structures were damaged along with trees and power lines down. Historically, these 16 tornadoes rank 2nd all time for the number of tornadoes in the month of December. The record is 19 which occurred during the December of 1988. Additionally, this December 9th event has pushed the yearly total of tornadoes well above 100. This will set a new record for the number of tornadoes in a year. The previous record of 99 was set in 2005. A final count will be available toward the end of the month or by the first week of 2009. The National Weather Service would like to thank local Emergency Management officials and local law enforcement for their assistance in the survey process. As information is collected, the web page will be updated with storm tracks and damage photos. Click here for an image of area rainfall totals.

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Are you Safe in your Classroom? Week #17: What to Establish in Your Classroom to Increase Everyone's Comfort and Peace of Mind Each of the following could be (and might be) its own "Top Ten" in upcoming weeks. For now, though, know that these are ten factors to address for a classroom where you can teach and your students can learn (and vice versa, of course!): 1. Civility. Many of have written about the loss of civility in today's society and certainly, there is no question about the need to remind and or teach students what civililty looks like, sounds like, and feels like in the classroom. Talk about it, model it, and expect it. 2. A sense of urgency. Unless you are teaching your students throughout the rest of their lives, they need to understand that there are times for urgency. Starting class on time (in my mind) has a sense of urgency. Getting assignments completed requires a sense of urgency. Help establish this with your students. Urgency does not mean panic and that may be a lesson they desperately (urgently) need to learn. 3. A way of distinguishing priorities. Graduate students have difficulty determining priorities and undergraduates almost certainly do. Spend some time with your students helping them draw distinctions between and among the various competing demands on their time, energy, and attention. Hmmm...and you might even learn something while you're teaching them some strategies. Just a thought. 4. Respect for you and their fellow classmates (which you model and reciprocate). Depending on your students and from where they have hailed, they may or may not have an understanding of respect in the classroom. It may never have been expected, modeled, or provided. Now that they are in college, it's time to demonstrated respect to their classmates and to you. You are likely to have to deal with this throughout the term in big and small ways, so be prepared. 5. Decorum. What is acceptable and what isn't? Is walking into the classroom with a giant bag of hamburgers, fries, and a muffin and then proceeding to get it out during class (with a fair amount of fanfare) acceptable? Define with the students what will be considered reasonable decorum for your classroom environment. Learning - and everyone's comfort - are paramount in the decision-making. 6. Calm. As a professor, you don't know what might happen in your classroom. Unfortunately, there are too many cases of students having breakdowns or other difficulties (including violence) in classrooms and on campuses. Be aware that there may be a time when calm is called for. You are the one they will turn to instinctively and your attitude can set the tone for what happens next. Be aware that you may have an inner strength and reserve of calm that you aren't conscious of. I hope you never need it for a horrid situation, but think about what you might do "if" and talk to your students here and there about "calm." 7. Safety. If you are a chemistry professor or a mining engineering professor or a faculty member in a number of other disciplines, establishing safety rules and guidelines is a major part of what you do. Everyone, however, needs to be thinking about safety in the classroom. Physical safety. Mental/intellectual safety. Emotional safety. Spiritual safety. Think about it and consider how safe your classroom is (and needs to be). 8. Protocols for _______! Establish protocols for as many different repetitive occurences as you can. You can have protocols for how assignments are submitted. Protocols for getting into groups. Protocols for leaving the classroom better and cleaner than you found it. Establish protocols and everything runs more smoothly and productively. 9. Relationships with your students and among your students. Last week I wrote about beginning to show students that you care about them right from the first day of class. You want to help establish connections between and among your students throughout the semester. I am not advocating the (what I consider over the top fooling around) getting-to-know-you activities that take half a class period every week. It is quite reasonable - and supportive of learning - to make sure that students know at least a few of the other students in the class. Make sure that they are grouped with different students for various in-class activities and that they introduce themselves. You can facilitate connections without forcing them. 10. Guidelines, parameters, policies. Whatever you want to call them...establish the ways that you want the learning (both in and out of the classroom) to flow. You can have policies on emails to you, using the chat board, setting times for appointments, and so forth. You don't always know before the semester what you need but you'll begin to understand more as you proceed - and as you learn what works and what doesn't. Although I've only provided a few sentences on each of these, I believe I'll explore most of them further in upcoming weeks. If you have a set of tips that go along with one of these because you have found that you are GREAT at doing something, please send them along. © 2010 Meggin McIntosh, Ph.D. Meggin was a university professor for over 15 years and spent five of those years working with faculty at the University of Nevada, Reno. Since leaving the full-time academic life, Meggin writes, consults, and does workshops for smart people who want to be more productive, thereby being able to consistently keep their emphasis on excellence. Thus, the name of her company is Emphasis on Excellence, Inc .

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PART 1: LECTURE OUTLINES CHAPTER 1 ORGANIZATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS 1. To define an organization and explain how it creates value in three stages: input, conversion, and output. (1.1) 2. To discuss why organizations exist and how they achieve goals collectively. (1.1) 3. To describe organizational theory, how organizations function, and relate to organizational structure, culture, and design. (1.2) 4. To show how organizational design helps a company gain a competitive advantage, deal with contingencies, manage diversity, increase efficiency, increase innovation, and effectively manage change. (1.2) 5. To illustrate the consequences of poor organizational design and loss of control over structure and culture. (1.2) 6. To discuss the three approaches of evaluating organizational effectiveness: external resource, internal systems, and technical approach. (1.3) 7. To distinguish between official goals and operating goals. (1.3) This chapter discusses organizations, organizational theory, and the importance of organizational design. An organization is a tool for individuals or groups to accomplish goals. An organization creates value at three stages: input, conversion, and output. Organizations exist because people working together to produce goods and services create more value than those working alone. Organizations may exist to increase specialization and the division of labor, to use large-scale technology, to manage the external environment, to economize on transaction costs, and to exert power and control over employees. The components of organizational theory are structure, culture, and design and change. Organizational design helps a company gain a competitive advantage, deal with contingencies, manage diversity, increase efficiency, and increase innovation. Poor organizational design results in company decline, including layoffs and... [continues] Cite This Essay (2010, 05). Organizational Theory and Designs. StudyMode.com. Retrieved 05, 2010, from http://www.studymode.com/essays/Organizational-Theory-And-Designs-325722.html "Organizational Theory and Designs" StudyMode.com. 05 2010. 05 2010 <http://www.studymode.com/essays/Organizational-Theory-And-Designs-325722.html>. "Organizational Theory and Designs." StudyMode.com. 05, 2010. Accessed 05, 2010. http://www.studymode.com/essays/Organizational-Theory-And-Designs-325722.html.

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What are Grid Tie Systems? This is a small solar energy or photovoltaic (PV) system that acquires alternate(back-up) electricity from a the utility when the PV system is not producing enough electricity. And when the system generates too much electricity, the utility is obligated to purchase the excess energy via a net metering and/or rate arrangement. How do these systems work? A solar electric system produces electricity and is interconnected to the utility's distribution system is called a "grid tie" system. Usually, grid tie systems are a series of photovoltaic (PV) panels that convert the sun's energy into electricity. This electricity is in the form of direct current. The direct current is then sent to an inverter that changes the electricity into alternating current that is used by the various electric loads found within the home. This alternating current can also be sent into the utility's distribution system where the home owner can either receive a credit on his electric bill or receive a payment for excess energy generated that is sent into the utility's grid system. Net metering is perhaps the best arrangement for the utility customer. Under this arrangement, the power provider (utility) essentially pays you the retail price for the electricity you put back into the utility's distribution grid. Some utilities may pay the wholesale price in under these arrangements. The wholesale price is less than the retail price. A net-metering arrangement provides a benefit to the utility customer. Through this type arrangement, the utility uses a single bi-directional meter to measure energy taken from or sent into it's distribution system. This meter measures the amount of energy the customer takes from the utility or feeds into the utility's grid system by either spinning forward or backwards. Then the meter spins forward, the customer is taking electricity from the utility. When it spins backwards, it means the extra electric energy from the solar panels is being fed into the utility's distribution system. Then when the electric utility reads the electric meter, it will determine if the solar system produced more energy than the customer used or if the customer used more energy than the solar system produced. In the event the system produced excess energy, the customer will either be give a credit on his bill or receive a payment for the excess electricity generated. If the customer used more energy than what the solar system produced, the customer will only pay the for the amount of electricity obtained from the utility. The Public Utility Regulatory Policy Act of 1978 (PURPA) requires electric utilities to purchase excess power from these small renewable energy systems at a rate equal to what it costs the utility to produce the power itself. Electric utilities generally achieve this requirement through some net-metering arrangements.

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AGRN 413 Weed Science (Lecture and Laboratory) (2-2) - Course Description: General principles in the development of turfgrass and crop weed prevention and management programs are presented. Common landscape weeds and their life cycles, landscape management factors, herbicide selection and performance, and cultural, biological, mechanical, and chemical control strategies are discussed. Laboratory includes weed identification and herbicide application methods. All HORT Majors are required to take this class. - Course Objectives: After completing this course, the learner will be able to: - List characteristics of an ideal weed and problems caused by weeds. - Describe life cycles of specific weeds and how weeds reproduce and spread. - Identify methods available for weed management, including preventative, cultural, mechanical, biological, and chemical control and how to integrate these weed control strategies into a system which controls unwanted vegetation while minimizing the environmental impact. - Explain the practical significance of how herbicides enter and translocate within plants. - Describe the behavior and fate of herbicides in soil. - List herbicides available for use in specific crops and their basic characteristics (Pre/post, systemic/contact, foliar/root absorbed, selective/nonselective, mode of action, symptomology). - Outline and explain currently recommended weed management programs for various crops. - Identify predominant sedges, broadleaf weeds, and grassy weeds. - Apply weed science principles to the selection and proper use of herbicide application and incorporation equipment, including equipment calibration. - List the content of and interpret herbicide labels. - Discuss how plants that are resistant to an herbicide become predominate and how the development of resistant weeds can be avoided. - To be able to list the characteristics of a successful weed. - To be able to identify and give examples of common troublesome grassy and broadleaf weeds and describe their life cycles. - To be able to determine the area of an assigned landscape and characterize the host plants and weeds and the management and microenvironments which favor the presence of weeds. - To be able to assess the environment of the assigned study area and determine how the weed populations can be reduced. Students calculate the exact amount and cost of the best herbicide required to treat the study area and when and how often they should be applied over a three-year period. Students suggest changes in management and the microenvironments needed to make the weeds less competitive. [Spring Schedule : Click Here]

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What Is the Symbolism of the Irish Flag? Rarely has a flag possessed such lasting relevance as that of the "Tricolour," the national flag of the Republic of Ireland. Its three equal stripes illustrate the Irish political landscape as accurately today as in 1848, the year the flag was first unfurled. ORANGE standing for Northern Irish Protestants GREEN signifying Irish Catholics and the republican cause WHITE representing the hope for peace between them The color orange is associated with Northern Irish Protestants because of William of Orange, the King of England who in 1690 defeated the deposed King James II, a Roman Catholic, in the fateful Battle of the Boyne near Dublin. William III's victory secured Protestant dominance over the island, to the enormous benefit of the 17th-century colonizers of northern Ireland-the English (mainly Anglicans) and Scots (mostly Presbyterians). Sometimes called Orangemen, Protestants in Northern Ireland celebrate the anniversary of the battle each July 12th.Green for the Emerald Isle? The Symbolism Isn't as Obvious as You Think Green as the color standing for the Irish Catholic nationalists of the south may have something to do with shamrocks and verdant landscapes, but more importantly, green symbolizes revolution. An earlier, unofficial Irish flag--the gold harp on a green background-served from 1798 until the early twentieth century as a symbol of nationalism. As the revolutionary James Connolly wrote, just weeks before he participated in the quixotic Easter Rebellion (1916) that led to his execution by firing squad: For centuries the green flag of Ireland was a thing accurst and hated by the English garrison in Ireland, as it is still in their inmost hearts. . . .A Lasting Truce between Orange and Green? . . . the green flag of Ireland will be solemnly hoisted over Liberty Hall as a symbol of our faith in freedom, and as a token to all the world that the working class of Dublin stands for the cause of Ireland, and the cause of Ireland is the cause of a separate and distinct nationality. Worker's Republic, April 8, 1916 Although it was not adopted as the national flag of Ireland until independence from Britain on December 6, 1921, the Tricolour was first unfurled in public on March 7, 1848, by the militant nationalist Thomas Francis Meagher,* (the stripes, however, were arranged differently at that time). Explaining the significance Tricolour, Meagher expressed a hope for his country that is unfortunately still unrealized today: The white in the center signifies a lasting truce between the "Orange" and the "Green," and I trust that beneath its folds the hands of the Irish Protestant and the Irish Catholic may be clasped in generous and heroic brotherhood. *Irish revolutionary was just one of Meagher's careers: he was also a prisoner in a Tasmanian penal colony, a New York City lawyer, and a Civil War general for the Union Army.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.teachervision.fen.com/ireland/resource/5394.html

2013-05-19T11:26:18Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697420704/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094340-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

A Genetic-Neural Approach for Mobility Assisted Routing in a Mobile Encounter Network Source: University of Jyvaskyla Mobility Assisted Routing (MAR) is a concept, where the mobility of a network's nodes is used to physically carry data to its destination. Traditionally, MAR algorithms have been based on few simple rules, often limiting the performance of these algorithms. This paper proposes an architecture in which a trained neural network is fed information about the message and the encountered peer, and which then decides whether to forward the message to the encountered peer. This algorithm, called NeuroRouter, is capable of utilizing the most efficient routing strategies in different environments by adapting its behavior based on environmental variables.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.techrepublic.com/whitepapers/a-genetic-neural-approach-for-mobility-assisted-routing-in-a-mobile-encounter-network/1196293?cname=mobile-and-wireless

2013-05-19T10:44:16Z

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en

|Islamic Questions on the Trinity: Answer Key| This is an answer to a list of questions being passed around on Muslim websites. Whoever wrote out these questions has never seen the sort of concepts we deal in here, which will be the basis for our answers. If Jesus was GOD, then why in Mark 12:29 did Jesus say, "Here, O Israel: The Lord our God is one Lord." The words "our God" indicate that Jesus had a higher God over him, a stronger God than him. Jesus didn't say "Your God". He said "our God" which includes Jesus as the creation of GOD. Of course, the major error right away is to treat theos in the NT as a proper name, as "God" is used today. Allah" is the proper name of the Muslim deity, but "God" is not the proper name of the Jewish-Christian deity; His name is Yahweh -- not "God", not "theos". Second error: The inability to distinguish between ontological equality and functional subordination. The question fails to realize that Christian Trinitarianism does, and always has, believed that the Father is "higher" and "stronger" than Jesus. The Father is Jesus' "boss". But as an attribute of the Father, Jesus does have ontological equality with the Father even so. As for "our God", the answer is the same: This is an expression of functional subordination, so that it does not affect that Jesus shares in the divine identity of YHWH. The next several citations simply offer the same failure to distinguish between ontological and functional subordination: If Jesus was GOD, then why in John 20:17 did Jesus say, "I ascend to my God and your God? This tells us that we and Jesus have a common GOD. If Jesus was GOD, then why in John 8:28 did Jesus say, "I do nothing of myself"? Can't GOD do anything he wills? If Jesus was GOD, then why in John 14:28 did Jesus say, "My Father (GOD) is greater than I"? If Jesus was GOD, then why in Luke 23:46 did Jesus say, "Father (GOD), into thy hands I commend my spirit"? -- and so require no special answer. Then we have this one, which is a bit unique: If Jesus was GOD, then why in Matthew 19:16 did Jesus say, "Why call me good, there is none good but One, that is GOD"? Apparently American Muslims composed this question, because if they were from the Eastern side of the world, they would know what was going on here. From this passage the idea is sometimes taken that Jesus is denying his own goodness, and therefore, refuting any chance of being recognized as part of the Godhead. The standard explanation is that Jesus is essentially saying to the ruler, "Do you know what you are implying? You say I am good; but only God is good; therefore, you realize that you are identifying me with God?" [Brooks, commentary on Mark, 162] In Jewish thought, God was pre-eminently good, so that the ruler was indeed offering Jesus a compliment usually reserved for God. Since it is quite unlikely that the ruler truly believed that Jesus was identifiable as God the Son, this looks more like an effort by Jesus to make the man think about what he is saying before he blurts it out or engages in indiscriminate flattery. Confirmation and elucidation of this explanation is found in Malina and Rohrbaugh's Social-Science Commentary on the Synoptic Gospels (123) in which they explain that in an agonistic (honor-shame) culture, a "compliment" like the rich young man's is actually a challenge and an attempt to put Jesus "on the spot" for they are an implicit accusation that one has been trying to rise above others. Jesus' only alternative was indeed to parry the compliment and redirect it to its appropriate subject (unless he wanted to reveal himself directly and fully, in which case, his claim would have been another challenge of honor to others), thus showing himself honorable by diffusing any accusation that would arouse the envy of an opponent. Thus it is appropriate that Jesus parry the compliment in a way that does not specifically deny his membership in the Godhead (which, as noted, it does not). If Jesus was GOD, then why in Matthew 26:39 did Jesus beg his GOD to have mercy on him and to pass the cup to death (kill Jesus in another words) before Jesus goes through the pain of crucifixion? Also see: Jesus's crucifixion in Islam Muslims have this idea that Jesus was removed from the cross during the crucifixion, and replaced by Judas. That's beyond our scope here. Otherwise this is the same error of ontological vs. functional subordination. If Jesus was GOD, then why in John 18:38 didn't he reply when he was asked about the truth? One wonders how the questioner here gets the idea that Pilate was actually asking for some sort of epistemic revelation, as opposed to expressing his frustration; as if to say, "What is truth? There is none." Of course, if that was indeed what he was asking for, a scene from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy series illustrates the problem: It would take a very long time to answer this sort of question, and by then, Pilate and anyone else in the room would have gone insane. If Jesus was GOD, then why in Matthew 24:36 did Jesus tell his followers that no one (including Jesus) knows when the judgment day will come, only GOD knows? This is also reflective of a rather simplistic view of the Trinity. It is related to another matter, actually, that of places where Jesus somehow seems to be ignorant of things -- leading to the question, "How can Jesus be God, yet not know things (i.e., not be omniscient)?" The typical answer is that Jesus emptied himself of his power; what we refer to, in terms of Christ, as a kenotic emptying (Phil 2:6-11). Note that this should be viewed in line with the "dual nature" (human/divine) of Christ and NOT the "kenotic heresy" which abuses Phil. 2:6-11. In the view being explained here, Christ's "human nature" is the kenoticized one. The divine consciousness remains intact but is not accessed or used under typical circumstances. To put it another way, the incarnated Jesus is Wisdom with "half its brain tied behind its back." The attributes are accessible, but not used. Jesus does not know the day or the hour because the Father has not yet "spoken" the word yet (in the temporal realm, related to the human nature; this does not speak to knowledge in the eternal realm and the divine nature) that declares the day and hour. But Christ emptied himself of his divine power to enter the temporal realm, and so does not know the day or the hour. If Jesus was GOD, then why in Isiah 11:2-3 did GOD put the spirit of fearing GOD in Jesus? Where the idea is gotten that Is. 11:2-3 is about Jesus, we can only guess. I assume they are misunderstanding ideas of the NT use of OT prophecy, but since that was a method where passages could be freely isolated from context (see here) there is no call to say that every part of Is. 11:2-3 needs to be applied (though really, "fear" here means "reverence and respect" anyway). If Jesus was GOD, then why in John 5:31 did Jesus tell his followers that if he (Jesus) bears witness of himself, then his record is not true? This is a point that the Skeptics often use for their own purposes, but here the implication is that Jesus, as God, ought to be able to bear witness for himself. What is not understood is that the grammar indicates that what is being said is, "If perchance I bear witness." The context thus indicates that Jesus is discussing the hopelessness of a man's testimony being accepted alone. Deut 19:15 says that two or three witnesses are required for acceptance of a testimony. Jesus is thus stating that the Jews won't find his witness true, because the Jews think that Jesus is alone testifying concerning Himself; he is not at all stating that in reality His witness is not true: He is merely acknowledging what the Jews are or might be thinking. Jesus knows that His witness is true, for in reality it is -- but the Jews fail to recognize that "another bears witness" in 5:32, clearly a reference to God the Father. After this, we fall once again into failures to distinguish between functional and ontological subordination: If Jesus was GOD, then why in John 5:30 did Jesus tell his followers that he can't do a single thing of his own initiative? If Jesus was GOD, then why in John 5:36-38 did Jesus say that GOD had assigned him (Jesus) work and GOD is a witness on Jesus? Then we have this item: If Jesus was GOD, then why in John 5:32 did Jesus tell his followers that they have never seen GOD at anytime nor ever heard his voice? His "followers"? John 5:32 is spoken not to Jesus' followers but to his opponents, and it isn't even this passage. It is 5:37, and that also is to his opponents. It is also the Father, not "God," whose voice is not heard. So this is an example of the first confusion over use of "God" as a proper name. Then we have two more examples of failure to distinguish between ontological and functional subordination: If Jesus was GOD, then why did he pray to his GOD in Luke 5:16? If Jesus was GOD, then why in Matthew 26:39 did Jesus fall on his face and prayed to his GOD? Then we have a subject change to The "God" Title -- and here is where the failure to see that theos is not a proper name (likewise, elohim in the OT) comes to the fore: How come Christians take the "God" (theos in Greek) title literally with Jesus in Isiah 9:6 and they don't take it literally for the rest of the prophets and people who were called Gods ? The answer is simple: None of the prophets are shown otherwise to share in YHWH's divine identity, as noted in the linked article. Thus all these examples: The Prophets who were called "God" in the Bible are as follows: Prophet Moses in Exodus 7:1 The Devil in Corinthians 4:4 (the word for God in this verse is theos in Greek, the same used for Jesus that was translated as "God") Multiple Prophets in Psalms 82:6 King David in Psalm 45:3 ...are misplaced. (See more on the Cor. and Ps. passages here and here; also, Ps. 45:3 appears to be a typo, there is no applicable reference of David in that verse). And the summation also errs by incompleteness: Note: The only unique title given to GOD in the Bible that was not given to others at all are Jehova, GOD, and GOD LORD. "God", "Most Mighty" and "Almighty One" are titles that were given to Jesus, other Prophets and to Satan himself in the Bible. But in the NT Jesus is called "Lord"; he is included in Paul's revised Shema in 1 Cor.; and he is identified with divine hypostatic Wisdom all through the NT (again, see linked article). Very important note: Did you know that in the languages of Arabic and Hebrew the father of the house can be called the God of the house? Jesus was the God (father or leader) of his people and their father according to Isiah 9:6. Jesus being the leader and the king, it is normal for him to be called the father of his people (Father in Isiah 9:6), and because he is their father he automatically becomes their God. My father is my God in Arabic and Hebrew. For more on this we refer the reader here. We then enter into another section, The "Son" Title: How come Christians take the "God's Son" title literally with Jesus and they don't take it literally for the rest of the prophets and people who were called the Sons of God? The examples given go on to give the sought answer, though it is missed: In John 3:16 Jesus was called God's only Begotten Son. In Exodus 4:22 "Thus saith Jehova, Isreal is my son, even my firstborn." Isreal was called God's First Son. In Jeremiah 31:9 "I am a father to Isreal, and Ephraim is my firstborn." Ephraim is God's First Son and First Born. In Psalm 2:7 "... Jehova had said onto me (David), thou art my Son; this day have I begotten thee." David was called God's Begotten Son. John 3:16 says "only begotten" -- the middle two refer to sonship via patronage adoption; the last is considered spoken not to David, but prophetically unto Jesus. (But see more here.) A final section asks, Were Jesus' Miracles Unique? If Jesus is believed to be GOD because he could do miracles, he could heal leprosy, he could cause blind men to see, or raise the dead, then what about the others who performed the same miracles? The question is misplaced -- no one claims that they were, or ought to be. In fact, we would expect Jesus to perform the same miracles -- amplified, if possible -- as past OT figures, in order to show himself to be a servant of YHWH and a "new" version of the old prophets. Thus: Elisha and Elijah fed a hundred people with twenty barley loaves and a few ears of corn (2 Kings 4:44). Yes, and so Jesus fed 50 times as many with less. This is exactly what we would expect. Elisha told Naaman, who was a leper, to wash in the river Jordan (2 Kings 5:14) and he was healed. Elisha caused a blind man to see in (2 Kings 6:17,20). Yes, and so we would expect Jesus to do the same (and he would hardly tell the blind and lepers, "Sorry, you'll just have to suffer; Elijah did one like you already"!), and even amplify (he healed lepers with mere words). Elijah and Elisha raised the dead in (1 Kings 17:22, and 2 Kings 4:34). Even Elisha's dead bones restored a dead body in (2 Kings 13:21). The answer is the same, though of course, it is hard to amplify raising someone from the dead. Indeed Jesus had prophesied that people will worship him uselessly and will believe in doctrines not made by GOD but by men "But in vain they do worship me, teaching for doctrines the commandments of men. (Matthew 15:9)" In Matthew 15:9 above, we see Jesus warning that Trinity (the bogus lie) will dominate, and people will take Jesus as GOD and worship him, which is a total sin according to what Jesus said !! Jesus is quoting Isaiah about vain worship of YHWH, and was speaking not of worship of a false deity, but hypocritical worship of a true one. There is nothing here of false doctrine. The set closes with Quranic quotes (of no meaning or authority to us) and a summation: Muslims believe that Prophet Jesus (peace be upon him) is a messenger from God. He was sent from God Almighty to deliver God's words to his people. Jesus was never God, nor ever claimed to be God. Jesus was a humble wonderful human being just like the rest of the Prophets and Messengers of God. Muslims also believe that Jesus was never crucified, nor ever died on the cross, nor ever wanted to die on the cross, nor ever was sent to earth to die on the cross. Well, more research is needed on the divine claims of Jesus then.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.tektonics.org/gk/islamq.html

2013-05-19T10:43:32Z

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en

by Staff Writers New Haven CT (SPX) Jul 18, 2011 A team of scientists has discovered the youngest dinosaur preserved in the fossil record before the catastrophic meteor impact 65 million years ago. The finding indicates that dinosaurs did not go extinct prior to the impact and provides further evidence as to whether the impact was in fact the cause of their extinction. Researchers from Yale University discovered the fossilized horn of a ceratopsian - likely a Triceratops, which are common to the area - in the Hell Creek formation in Montana last year. They found the fossil buried just five inches below the K-T boundary, the geological layer that marks the transition from the Cretaceous period to the Tertiary period at the time of the mass extinction that took place 65 million years ago. Since the impact hypothesis for the demise of the dinosaurs was first proposed more than 30 years ago, many scientists have come to believe the meteor caused the mass extinction and wiped out the dinosaurs, but a sticking point has been an apparent lack of fossils buried within the 10 feet of rock below the K-T boundary. The seeming anomaly has come to be known as the "three-meter gap." Until now, this gap has caused some paleontologists to question whether the non-avian dinosaurs of the era - which included Tyrannosaurus rex, Triceratops, Torosaurus and the duckbilled dinosaurs - gradually went extinct sometime before the meteor struck. (Avian dinosaurs survived the impact, and eventually gave rise to modern-day birds.) "This discovery suggests the three-meter gap doesn't exist," said Yale graduate student Tyler Lyson, director of the Marmarth Research Foundation and lead author of the study, published online July 12 in the journal Biology Letters. "The fact that this specimen was so close to the boundary indicates that at least some dinosaurs were doing fine right up until the impact." Comment on this article via your Facebook, Yahoo, AOL, Hotmail login. How hot did Earth get in the past Syracuse NY (SPX) Jul 11, 2011 The question seems simple enough: What happens to the Earth's temperature when atmospheric carbon dioxide levels increase? The answer is elusive. However, clues are hidden in the fossil record. A new study by researchers from Syracuse and Yale universities provides a much clearer picture of the Earth's temperature approximately 50 million years ago when CO2 concentrations were higher than today. ... read more |The content herein, unless otherwise known to be public domain, are Copyright 1995-2011 - Space Media Network. AFP and UPI Wire Stories are copyright Agence France-Presse and United Press International. ESA Portal Reports are copyright European Space Agency. All NASA sourced material is public domain. Additional copyrights may apply in whole or part to other bona fide parties. Advertising does not imply endorsement,agreement or approval of any opinions, statements or information provided by Space Media Network on any Web page published or hosted by Space Media Network. Privacy Statement|

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.terradaily.com/reports/Last_dinosaur_before_mass_extinction_discovered_999.html

2013-05-19T11:17:47Z

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en

From Republic to Reich: Adolf Hitler's Nazi regime exploited a terrorist assault on the Reichstag Building to carry out a pre-positioned strategy to convert the Weimar Republic into a police state. (In Light of the Past).It had taken nearly 15 years, but Adolf Hitler's National Socialist Adj. 1. national socialist - relating to a form of socialism; "the national socialist party came to power in Germany in 1933" Nazi German Workers (Nazi) Party had finally clawed its way to power. On January 30, 1933, Reichschancellor Hitler solemnly swore an oath to uphold the Weimar Republic's constitution. Hours later he convened his first cabinet meeting to plot the republic's overthrow. The first item on that meeting's agenda dealt with what could be called "Fatherland fa·ther·land 1. One's native land. 2. The land of one's ancestors. a person's native country Noun 1. security." Hitler and his cohorts examined a legislative draft entitled Gesetz zur Behebung der Not von Volk und Reich -- "Law for Removing the Distress of People and Reich." Better known as the "Enabling Act Enabling Act Law passed by the German Reichstag in 1933 that enabled Adolf Hitler to assume dictatorial powers. Deputies from the Nazi Party, the German National People's Party, and the Center Party voted in favor of the act, which “enabled” Hitler's government ," the proposed legislation was designed to consolidate power in the hands of the chancellor and his cabinet in the event of a terrorist strike or similar threat to German national security. Since the 1918 Armistice Armistice (Nov. 11, 1918) Agreement between Germany and the Allies ending World War I. Allied representatives met with a German delegation in a railway carriage at Rethondes, France, to discuss terms. The agreement was signed on Nov. that ended World War I, the German people had been battered by revolution, and their economy had been obliterated o·blit·er·ate tr.v. o·blit·er·at·ed, o·blit·er·at·ing, o·blit·er·ates 1. To do away with completely so as to leave no trace. See Synonyms at abolish. 2. by depression and hyperinflation Hyperinflation Extremely rapid or out of control inflation. There is no precise numerical definition to hyperinflation. This is a situation where price increases are so out of control that the concept of inflation is meaningless. . While the Germans were desperate for leadership, they weren't willing to give their government absolute power -- yet. Hitler and his squalid clique (mathematics) clique - A maximal totally connected subgraph. Given a graph with nodes N, a clique C is a subset of N where every node in C is directly connected to every other node in C (i.e. C is totally connected), and C contains all such nodes (C is maximal). of criminals and degenerates understood that the public mood might be altered by a sudden, violent shock, giving the Nazi Party Nazi Party German political party of National Socialism. Founded in 1919 as the German Workers' Party, it changed its name to the National Socialist German Workers' Party when Adolf Hitler became leader (1920–21). an opportunity to seize total power under the pretext of "Protecting the Fatherland." That shock came less than a month after Hitler's first cabinet meeting, when, on February 27th, flames consumed a large section of Germany's Reichstag (parliament) Building. The fire was the result of an arson attack -- either by a Communist saboteur (as the Nazis claimed) or by a Nazi provocateur pro·vo·ca·teur An agent provocateur. Noun 1. provocateur - a secret agent who incites suspected persons to commit illegal acts agent provocateur (to provide the excuse Hitler needed to put his program into action). Before the smoke had cleared, Hitler had already presented President Paul von Hindenburg with a draft executive order for protecting "the People and the State." Described as a "defensive measure against Communist acts of violence," the decree announced that in light of the terrorist attack on the Reichstag, "restrictions on personal liberty, on the right of free expression of opinion, including freedom of th e Press; on the rights of assembly and association; violations of the privacy of postal, telegraphic tel·e·graph·ic also tel·e·graph·i·cal 1. Of, relating to, or transmitted by telegraph. 2. Brief or concise: a telegraphic style of writing. , and telephonic communications; warrants for house searches; orders for confiscation confiscation In law, the act of seizing property without compensation and submitting it to the public treasury. Illegal items such as narcotics or firearms, or profits from the sale of illegal items, may be confiscated by the police. Additionally, government action (e.g. as well as restrictions on property, are permissible beyond the legal limits otherwise prescribed." In his memoir Defying Hitler, Sebastian Haffner Sebastian Haffner (December 27, 1907, Berlin – January 2, 1999, pseudonym for Raimund Pretzel) was a German journalist and author. He wrote mainly about recent German history. -- a German lawyer who fled to England in 1938 -- recalls that the presidential decree "abolished freedom of speech and confidentiality of the mail and telephone for all private individuals, while giving the police unrestricted rights of search and access, confiscation and arrest. That afternoon [of the day after the decree was issued] men with ladders went around, covering campaign posters with plain white paper. All parties of the left had been prohibited from any further election publicity. Those newspapers that still appeared reported all this in a fawning fawn 1 intr.v. fawned, fawn·ing, fawns 1. To exhibit affection or attempt to please, as a dog does by wagging its tail, whining, or cringing. 2. , fervently patriotic, jubilant tone. We had been saved! What good luck! Germany was free! Next Saturday all Germans would come together in a festival of national exaltation, their hearts swelling with gratitude! Get the torches and flags out!" But even after the initial decree, Haffner records, there was no visible "sign of revolution" -- at least, not yet. "The law courts sat and heard cases," he recalls. "At home, people were a little confused, a little anxious, and tried to understand what was happening." Haffner himself was among those relatively few Germans who understood the implications of President Hindenburg's decree. "I consider it a personal insult that I should be prevented from reading whichever newspaper I wish, because allegedly a Communist set light to the Reichstag," he complained to a fellow lawyer. "Don't you?" "No. Why should I?" replied Haffner's injudicious in·ju·di·cious Lacking or showing a lack of judgment or discretion; unwise. Besides Haffner, few Germans understood that the Nazis were using the terrorist strike as a steppingstone step·ping·stone 1. A stone that provides a place to step, as in crossing a stream. 2. An advantageous position for advancement toward a goal. to total power. "Armed with these all-embracing powers, Hitler and Goering were in a position to take any action they pleased against their opponents," observed historian Alan Bullock Alan Louis Charles Bullock, Baron Bullock (December 13 1914 - February 2 2004), was a British historian, who wrote an influential biography of Adolf Hitler and many other works. in his 1953 book Hitler: A Study in Tyranny. Following the Plan But the presidential decree was merely an overture. Hitler and his party were determined to see their pre-positioned agenda for "Fatherland security" adopted. Following a speech by Hitler on March 23, 1933, about two months after the Reichstag fire Reichstag fire (Feb. 27, 1933) Burning of the German parliament building (Reichstag) in Berlin. Allegedly set by a Dutch communist, the fire was used by Adolf Hitler to turn public opinion against his opponents, especially the communists. , the German Parliament -- unnerved by the public concern about a possible Communist terror campaign, and intimidated by mobs of Nazi stormtroopers -- passed Hitler's Enabling Act. "Its five brief paragraphs took the power of legislation, including control of the Reich budget, approval of treaties with foreign states and the initiating of constitutional amendments, away from Parliament and handed it over to the Reich cabinet for a period of four years," wrote historian William Shirer in his study The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich Third Reich Official designation for the Nazi Party's regime in Germany from January 1933 to May 1945. The name reflects Adolf Hitler's conception of his expansionist regime—which he predicted would last 1,000 years—as the presumed successor of the Holy Roman . While the Enabling Act explicitly permitted the Reich cabinet to enact laws that "might deviate from the constitution," it also specified that the powers of Parliament would be protected. In his speech, Hitler promised that his government "will make use of these powers only insofar in·so·far To such an extent. Adv. 1. insofar - to the degree or extent that; "insofar as it can be ascertained, the horse lung is comparable to that of man"; "so far as it is reasonably practical he should practice as they are essential for carrying Out vitally necessary measures." This was a lie, of course. Between 1933 and 1937, as Hitler's party consolidated control over Germany, the Reichstag would pass only four laws, including the three Nuremberg Laws that imposed the regime's odious racialist and anti-Semitic doctrines. On July 14, 1933, Hitler's cabinet enacted a law criminalizing all parties except the Nazi Party; by December of that year, all but 20 representatives in the Reichstag belonged to the Nazi Party. All of this was perfectly legal under the open-ended grant of power given to Hitler through the Enabling Act. "Hitler's dictatorship rested on the constitutional foundation of [that] single law," observed Bullock. "No National or Constitutional Assembly was called and the Weimar Constitution was never formally abrogated.... What Hitler aimed at was arbitrary power. It took time to achieve this, but from the first he had no intention of having his hands tied by a constitution...." Unlike previous German chancellors, who had "been dependent on the President's power to issue emergency decrees under article 48 of the constitution ... Hitler had that right for himself, with full power to set aside the constitution." Abolishing the States In his March 23rd address to the Reichstag, Hitler sought to placate those worried that the confederated German states (laender) would be absorbed into a centralized dictatorship: "The separate existence of the federal states will not be done away with." The Weimar Constitution recognized and protected the sovereign powers of the various German laender. Each of the laender had separate elected assemblies, as well as independent police and judicial institutions. Devoted to the modern political dogma called totalitarianism, Hitler condemned the confederated Weimar Republic and openly announced his intention to abolish it in favor of a centralized regime. "National Socialism, as a matter of principle, must claim the right to enforce its doctrines without regard to present federal boundaries, upon the entire German nation," he wrote in his 1925 manifesto Mein Kampf. Once Hitler had absorbed the legislative powers of the German Reichstag, he and his cohorts targeted the laender for abolition as well, using decrees that -- like the text of the Enabling Act -- had been prepared well in advance of the Nazi Party's rise to power. Even before the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act, Hitler and Minister of the Interior Wilhelm Frick moved to dissolve the state governments. Their first priority was to centralize control over the police. Acting under the emergency decree issued the day after the Reichstag fire, Frick appointed Reich police commissars in Baden, Wurttemberg, and Saxony Saxony (săk`sənē), Ger. Sachsen, Fr. Saxe, state (1994 pop. 4,901,000), 7,078 sq mi (18,337 sq km), E central Germany. Dresden is the capital. . Herman Goering, Prussian Minister of the Interior, was already bringing that critical region's police to heel. While centralizing control over the police, the Nazi leadership liquidated the political leadership of the separate states. A week after passage of the Enabling Act, Hitler and Frick dissolved the diets (elected assemblies) of German states not already under Nazi control. A week after that Hitler nominated Reichstatthalter (Reich governors) over all German states; those officials had the power to rule by decree Rule by decree is a style of governance allowing quick, unchallenged creation of law by a single person or group, and is used primarily by dictators and absolute monarchs, although philosophers such as Giorgio Agamben have pointed out how it has been generalized since World War I . The Reich governors "are not the administrators of the separate states, they execute the will of the supreme leadership of the Reich," Hitler later explained. "They do not represent the states over against the Reich, but the Reich over against the states.... National Socialism has as its historic task to create the new Reich and not to preserve the German states." Hitler's cabinet fulfilled that "historic task" with passage of the "Law for Reconstruction of the Reich" on January 31, 1934. The Reconstruction Law abolished the popular assemblies of the separate German states and decreed that "the sovereign powers of the laender are transferred to the Reich." The states' residual powers were eliminated with the abolition of the Reichsrat (Reich Council) -- roughly equivalent to the original U.S. Senate -- on February 14th. The decentralized de·cen·tral·ize v. de·cen·tral·ized, de·cen·tral·iz·ing, de·cen·tral·iz·es 1. To distribute the administrative functions or powers of (a central authority) among several local authorities. republic had now become a consolidated Reich, and Hitler's criminal oligarchy oligarchy (ŏl`əgärkē) [Gr.,=rule by the few], rule by a few members of a community or group. When referring to governments, the classical definition of oligarchy, as given for example by Aristotle, is of government by a few, usually faced no opposition as it conducted its totalitarian campaign of Gleichschaltung -- "coordination" of all areas of German life under Nazi Party control. This would require creating an apparatus to terrorize ter·ror·ize tr.v. ter·ror·ized, ter·ror·iz·ing, ter·ror·iz·es 1. To fill or overpower with terror; terrify. 2. To coerce by intimidation or fear. See Synonyms at frighten. Germans into submission, as well as to identify and punish dissidents -- a police state. Nazifying the Courts With parliament securely in the hands of the Nazi Party and the powers of the independent states being assimilated, Hitler's cabal turned its attention on the judicial branch. Frustrated by Supreme Court verdicts that acquitted three of the four defendants accused of the assault on the Reichstag Building, the Nazis started to create Sondergerichte -- special tribunals controlled by the Party that answered to the Fuhrer füh·rer also fueh·rer A leader, especially one exercising the powers of a tyrant. [German, from Middle High German vüerer, from vüeren, to lead, from Old High German . The most notorious of these tribunals was the Volksgerichthof or "People's Court," also known as the "Blood Tribunal" because of the red robes worn by its judges. Created by an April 24, 1934 decree, the tribunal was composed of "five members, not bound by legal technicalities ... appointed by the Chancellor," noted Frederick L. Schuman's 1935 book The Nazi Dictatorship. "Only the presiding officer and one judge would be regular judicial officials. The other three might be chosen from among persons 'with special experience in fighting off attacks directed against the State'" -- a provision ensuring a majority faithful to the National Socialist Party Many political parties in various contexts have referred to themselves as National Socialist parties. Because there is no clear definition of national socialism, the term has been used to mean very different things. . Additional decrees from Hitler's cabinet created remarkably elastic standards of "treason" used to criminalize crim·i·nal·ize tr.v. crim·i·nal·ized, crim·i·nal·iz·ing, crim·i·nal·iz·es 1. To impose a criminal penalty on or for; outlaw. 2. To treat as a criminal. criticism of the Nazi Party line. Those arraigned before the "Blood Tribunal" and other special tribunals had no right of appeal. The Nazi regime also undertook a campaign to bend the nation's court systems to the Fuhrer's will. Prior to fleeing Germany, Haffner worked as a Referendar, a law clerk and apprentice judge. He witnessed the Nazification of Germany's court system from the inside while working in Germany's Supreme Court, in 1933. One of the Nazi Party's most effective tactics was to condemn strict constructionists of the Weimar Constitution, and insist that it be treated as a "living" document. To justify unconstitutional actions taken by Hitler's government, Haffner writes, Nazi officials "produced unheard-of points of law in a fresh, confident voice. We Referendars, who had just passed our exams, exchanged [puzzled] looks...." Nazi judges would insist that "the paragraphs of the law must yield precedence" and that "the meaning was more important than the letter of the law." Through a combination of threats, cajolery ca·jole tr.v. ca·joled, ca·jol·ing, ca·joles To urge with gentle and repeated appeals, teasing, or flattery; wheedle. [French cajoler, possibly blend of Old French , and simple persistence, the Nazis wore down the resistance of the court that had once defied Frederick the Great Frederick the Great: see Frederick II, king of Prussia. by upholding a property claim made by a poor man who owned a windmill Frederick sought to remove. At the same time, the Nazis sought to bring the rising generation of Referendars under the Party's control through the Association of National Socialist Lawyers. Haffner recalls that one day in 1933, after expressing a modest criticism of the regime, one of his colleagues warned him: "Skeptical comments are no use nowadays. You're only digging your own grave. Don't fancy that there's anything to be done against the fascists now! Certainly not by open opposition.... We republicans must how] with the wolves." Forging the Gestapo The Nazi wolf pack was led through careful planning, rather than simple predatory instinct. In March 1932, little less than a year before Hitler was appointed chancellor, a small group of Nazi leaders assembled at the Munich apartment of Ernst Roehm, the Brownshirts' militant homosexual leader. Among those at the gathering were Heinrich Himmler, Josef Goebbels, and Rudolf Hess. Even prior to acquiring political power, the Nazi conspirators CONSPIRATORS. Persons guilty of a conspiracy. See 3 Bl. Com. 126-71 Wils. Rep. 210-11. See Conspiracy. plotted the creation of a Geheim Staats Polizei, or "secret state police," which would pervert law enforcement into a tool intended to protect the Nazi elite and carry out its totalitarian designs. "The [March 1932] meeting had been arranged by Roehm, who had been advised by Hitler that Goebbels would state the plans for the constitution of the new secret police," wrote Philip St. C. Walton-Kerr in his 1939 book Gestapo. "At this meeting, and at one which was also held at Roehm's apartment on the following evening, the constitution of the Gestapo was finally settled, and its activities divided into two parts, one devoted to affairs inside Germany, the other concerned with work outside the country." Himmler was put in charge of the new department, which "would not, of course, be able to operate fully until the government was in Hitler's hands." In early 1933, as the Nazi cabinet consolidated political control, "Himmler incorporated in the Geheim Staats Polizei not only the existing State police departments, but also all the relevant bureaus of the Ministry of the Interior and that of Foreign Affairs," observed Walton-Kerr. Over the next few years, the Gestapo penetrated "into every branch of the national life ... by an army of spies, operating in every walk of life and among every class of people.... Brother was set to spy on brother, wives on their husbands; bus conductors listened to and reported on passengers, postmen observed correspondence, friendly strangers in the cafes acted as agents provocateurs; school teachers questioned children, while selected children would trap their teachers. Employers [were required to] render secret reports on workmen, while being themselves subject to espionage by their secretaries, who in turn were being observed by planted office boys. Men and women everywhere had to walk warily, and give information quickly... ." "The principal weapon of the Gestapo was never to be force, for that would be supplied by the Brownshirts -- it would be Fear," Walton-Kerr continued. "Fear planted in the hearts of every man, woman, and child; fear of the sudden loss of possessions and even liberty, of being torn away from home and relatives and friends; fear of the unknown and unexpected, of intimate friends no less than of strangers." Himmler's power consolidation was completed on June 16, 1936, when "for the first time in German history, a unified police was established for the whole of the Reich ... and Himmler was put in charge as Chief of the German police," wrote left-leaning historian William Shirer. "This was tantamount to putting the police in the hands of the S.S. [Schutzstaffel, or Black-shirts].... The Third Reich, as is inevitable in the development of all totalitarian dictatorships, had become a police state." The S.S. gained ascendancy in 1934 due to its use in purging Roehm's Sturmabteilung (SA) or Brownshirts, the gathered scum of Germany's revolutionary underworld. During the Nazi rise to power, the Brownshirts served as revolutionary goads by providing "pressure from below" in the form of wanton criminal violence and terror. Although the Nazis posed as defenders of Germany from the Communist menace, they eagerly welcomed their supposed mortal enemies into the Nazi Party. Roehm boasted that he could transform the "reddest Communist" into a faithful National Socialist within a month. Historian Robert G. Waite notes that these so-called "Beefsteak Nazis" -- Brown outside, Red inside - "were particularly effective in the Gestapo and the SA [Brownshirts], where they formed perhaps a third of the total membership." The Brownshirts terrified ter·ri·fy tr.v. ter·ri·fied, ter·ri·fy·ing, ter·ri·fies 1. To fill with terror; make deeply afraid. See Synonyms at frighten. 2. To menace or threaten; intimidate. the German public, and repelled conservative elements of the German elite whom Hitler needed to placate. The Wehrmacht, in particular, was hostile to Hitler's party because of the prevalence of perversion Perversion See also Bestiality. bondage and domination (B & D) practices with whips, chains, etc. for sexual pleasure. [Western Cult.: Misc. in the Brownshirts (and throughout the Nazi Party at large). General Walter von Brachitsch expressed the sentiments of a majority of his fellow officers when he referred to the Nazis as a "gang of homosexuals, thugs, and drunks." Furthermore, Roehm represented an abiding threat to Hitler's pre-eminence. Consequently, liquidating the Brownshirts was tactically sound from Hitler's perspective. Thus in June 1934, Hitler accused Roehm of plotting a "second revolution" against the Nazi State, and unleashed the Blackshirts to liquidate Roehm and his cadres (as well as several prominent conservative politicians). This purge, known as the "Night of Long Knives," was authorized after the fact by a one-sentence law issued over Hitler's signature: "The measures taken on June 30 and July 1 and 2 to strike down the treasonous attacks are justifiable acts of self-defense by the state." Acting in the name of "self-defense by the state," the Nazi regime used civilian disarmament laws passed under the Weimar Republic to disarm its potential opposition. "The most foolish mistake we could possibly make would be to allow the subject races to possess arms," Hitler pointed out. "History shows that all conquerors who have allowed their subject races to carry arms To bear weapons. To serve as a soldier. See also: Carry Carry have prepared their own downfall by so doing." In 1920, as Communist insurrections and nationalist counter-insurgencies raged across Germany, the Weimar government passed the "Law on the Disarmament of the People," which banned civilian possession of "military-style weapons." Through a 1928 law, the Weimar Republic made anti-gun laws uniform throughout all German states, a violation of the federalist fed·er·al·ist 1. An advocate of federalism. 2. Federalist A member or supporter of the Federalist Party. 1. Of or relating to federalism or its advocates. 2. principles then in place. The 1928 Weimar gun law made all civilian gun ownership "subject to police approval," observed constitutional scholar Stephen Halbrook in the Arizona Journal of International and Comparative Law. "This firearms control law was quite useful to the new government that came to power a half decade later." In fact, it wasn't until March 1938 -- a full five years after Hitler's appointment as chancellor -- that the Nazis bothered to enact a gun law; the improvident im·prov·i·dent 1. Not providing for the future; thriftless. 2. Rash; incautious. im·provi·dence n. measures adopted by the liberal Weimar Republic were more than adequate to the needs of Hitler's regime. On November 9, 1938, the twentieth anniversary of the Weimar Republic's founding, the Nazis unleashed Kristallnacht ("Night of cc Broken Glass") -- an anti-Jewish riot conducted by mobs organized and controlled by the Party. Following that rampage, German Jews were disarmed and taken into "protective" custody -- and the tragic end of that story is well known. A year later, the London Times noticed that Germany still displayed the occasional tremors of opposition to the Nazi regime, but lamented that under Hitler, "Civilians are disarmed, and [therefore] powerless...." Ratifying the Reich Long before the London Times published that lament, the Nazis had consolidated political power. On August 2, 1934, six weeks after the purge, President Hindenburg died. On the same day, recounts Bullock, "the officers and men of the German Army took the oath of allegiance An oath of allegiance is an oath whereby a subject or citizen acknowledges his/her duty of allegiance and swears loyalty to his monarch or country. In many modern oaths of allegiance, allegiance is sworn to the Constitution. ... not to the Constitution, or to the Fatherland, but to Hitler personally": "I swear by God this holy oath -- I will render unconditional obedience to the Fuehrer fueh·rer Variant of fuhrer. of the German Reich and people, Adolf Hitler, the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, and will be ready, as a brave soldier, to stake my life at any time for this oath." In a national plebiscite plebiscite (plĕb`ĭsīt) [Lat.,=popular decree], vote of the people on a question submitted to them, as in a referendum. The term, however, has acquired the more specific meaning of a popular vote concerning changes of sovereignty, as held 17 days later, the German public was also asked to pledge absolute obedience by approving the consolidation of the offices of president and chancellor. "By every appeal known to skillful skill·ful 1. Possessing or exercising skill; expert. See Synonyms at proficient. 2. Characterized by, exhibiting, or requiring skill. politicians and with every argument to the contrary suppressed, [the Germans] were asked to make their approval unanimous," reported New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of Times correspondent Frederick T. Birchall in a report published on August 20th. Nearly 90 percent of the German population approved "Chancellor Hitler's assumption of greater power than has ever been possessed by any other ruler in modern times." The ascent of the Nazi Party, it must be recognized, was accomplished through carefully organized deception and facilitated by Germany's moral collapse. As late as 1930, Haffner recalled, Hitler and his co-conspirators were regarded as an embarrassment. Common Germans considered Hitler to be "thoroughly repellent -- the pimp's forelock forelock in maned animals the most anterior part of the mane, hanging down between the ears and onto the forehead. In sheep refers to the wool in a similar situation. , the hoodlum's elegance ... the interminable speechifying speech·i·fy intr.v. speech·i·fied, speech·i·fy·ing, speech·i·fies To give a speech: "In Washington, cabinet secretaries pose and speechify" Jonathan Alter. , the epileptic epileptic /ep·i·lep·tic/ (ep?i-lep´tik) 1. pertaining to or affected with epilepsy. 2. a person affected with epilepsy. One who has epilepsy. behavior with its wild gesticulations and foaming at the mouth, and the alternately shifty shift·y adj. shift·i·er, shift·i·est 1. Having, displaying, or suggestive of deceitful character; evasive or untrustworthy. 2. and staring eyes.... No one would have been surprised if a policeman had taken him by the scruff of the neck in the middle of his first speech and removed him to some place from which he would never have emerged again, and where he doubtless belonged." Within a few short years, after hyperinflation and rampant moral decadence had ravaged rav·age v. rav·aged, rav·ag·ing, rav·ages 1. To bring heavy destruction on; devastate: A tornado ravaged the town. 2. Germany's national character, Hitler was successfully repackaged as a "respectable" defender of the middle class. But much of Germany's middle class never fully embraced the Fuhrer. Many among the dispirited dis·pir·it·ed Affected or marked by low spirits; dejected. See Synonyms at depressed. Adj. German public, weary of war and terror and desperate for stability, ratified the Nazi dictatorship, and its attendant police state, on the assumption that its fearful powers would never be directed against them personally. One ballot noted by Birchall, signed by a person identifying himself as "Non-Aryan," contained the notation: "Since nothing has happened to me so far I vote 'Yes.'" In those words of witless wit·less Lacking intelligence or wit; foolish. wit acquiescence to tyranny can be found a suitable epitaph epitaph, strictly, an inscription on a tomb; by extension, a statement, usually in verse, commemorating the dead. The earliest such inscriptions are those found on Egyptian sarcophagi. for every free society that has succumbed to the institutionalized in·sti·tu·tion·al·ize tr.v. in·sti·tu·tion·al·ized, in·sti·tu·tion·al·iz·ing, in·sti·tu·tion·al·iz·es a. To make into, treat as, or give the character of an institution to. b. terror of a police state.

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Baptist is a term referring to churches and denominations within Protestant Christianity that emphasize a believer's baptism by full immersion which is performed after a profession of faith in Christ as Lord and Savior. A congregational governance system gives autonomy to individual local Baptist churches. Groups of Baptist churches are sometimes associated in organizations for purposes of missions and other common goals while retaining their local autonomy. Notable Baptist organizations include: - Southern Baptist Convention - General Association of Regular Baptist Churches - American Baptist Association While Baptist churches are generally regarded as being within Protestant Christianity, many see the origin of Baptist distinctives predating the 16th century Protestant Reformation. There is scholarly disagreement about the particulars of various histories of the Baptist faith, but they generally fall into four categories:^^ - An outgrowth of English Separatism. The earliest Baptist church is traced back to 1609 in Amsterdam, with John Smyth as pastor and Thomas Helwys as a key lay leader. Representative Baptist scholars include late 19th through early 21st century Baptist historians such as William H. Whitsitt, Robert G. Torbet, Winthrop S. Hudson, William G. McLoughlin, Robert A. Baker, Leon McBeth, Douglas Weaver, Walter Shurden, and Bill Leonard. - An outgrowth of English Separatism related to the Anabaptists. According to this view, early Baptists were influenced by Anabaptists, e.g. the Dutch Mennonites. Representative Baptist historians include A. C. Underwood and William R. Estep. - A continuity of Baptist forms of faith through the centuries (though not a succession of organized Baptist churches). This view is represented by some historians of earlier generations such as Thomas Crosby (one of the earliest Baptist historians, he wrote in the early 1700s), A.H. Newman and David Benedict. - An unbroken chain of Baptist churches back to N.T times. Commonly referred to as "Landmarkism" (Baptist Successionism is a major component of "Landmark" views) or the "Trail of Blood" theory (J.M.Carroll authored a booklet by this name), this view declares that some churches that stood outside the influence of the Roman Catholic Church at various times in early and medieval history were, in actuality although not in name, Baptist churches. - A Very Brief Introduction to Baptist History, Then and Now by Bruce Gourley. - American Baptist Historical Society - Map of USA showing Percentage of Baptist Population in each county - Baptist Theology

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Enormous tragedies struck Europe and Asia Minor throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. At one point, three different Roman Catholic bishops each claimed to be the legitimate pope. The Black Death claimed millions of lives. Muslim soldiers conquered Constantinople, the last remaining fragment of the ancient Eastern Empire. In the midst of these tragedies, God raised up fresh voices—John Wycliffe in England, for example, and Jan Hus in Bohemia—to turn people’s minds to the truth of the Scriptures and the beauty of the gospel. God also worked through these tragedies for the good of his people and the world. The tragic fall of Constantinople caused eastern scholars to flee westward with precious Greek manuscripts, including manuscripts of the New Testament. A renaissance of interest in ancient literature was already underway in Europe. Now, with access to these Greek manuscripts, scholars in Roman Catholic universities could interpret the New Testament not only in Latin but also in Greek—the language in which the New Testament was originally written! Around this same time, a man named Johannes Gutenberg invented the first commercially-viable printing press that used movable metal type. This invention would make reading materials accessible to millions more people than ever before. In an era of difficulty and tragedy, preachers such as Wycliffe and Hus packed a powder keg. The renaissance of interest in ancient languages coupled with increased access to literature wove a fuse. On October 31, 1517, a German monk named Martin Luther lit that fuse and rocked the world. To gain a “God’s-eye view” of the invention of Johannes Gutenberg’s printing press, read this article. To learn about the fall of Constantinople in 1453, take a look at this video. 30 Days through Church History: Day 16 Bonus You are more than halfway finished!

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Table of Contents Last updated March 21, 2000 SPRING 2001 THEORY WORKBOOK Media Dependency Theory Explanation of Theory: This theory states that the more dependent an individual is on the media for having his or her needs fulfilled, the more important the media will be to that person. Theorist: Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin DeFleur This theory is based on the Uses and Gratifications Theory and ties into the Agenda Setting Theory. Uses and Grats identifies how people use and become dependent upon the media. People use the media for many reasons. Information, entertainment, and parasocial relationships are just a few of them. The Dependency Theory says the more a person becomes dependent on the media to fulfill these needs, the media will become more important to that individual. The media will also have much more influence and power over that individual. If someone is so dependent on the media for information, and the media is that personís only source for information, then it is easy to set the agenda. The individual falls victim to Agenda Setting. As you can see, these three theories intertwine quite Media Dependency Theory is Relatively Scientific in nature. It predicts a correlation between media dependence and importance and influence of the media, but each person uses the media in different ways. Also, the media affects each person in different ways. According to Chaffee & Berger Ďs 1997 criteria for scientific theories, this theory is a pretty good one. Let me introduce you to Sunny, a friend of mine from Los Angeles who now resides in Lexington, KY. When Sunny lived in L.A., he would ask his mother what the weather was going to be for the day. It was usually sunny. Now that he lives in Lexington, where the weather is sporadic, Sunny uses the media for information about the weather. Every morning, he gets up and turns on the weather channel on the television, reads the paper, and checks the internet, all for the local forecast for the day. He has become very dependent on the media. One month, Sunny forgot to pay the electric bill, and his service was disconnected. He didnít know what to do. He had no idea what to put on for the day, because he relied so heavily upon the media for information. Sunny could have easily looked outside or called a friend, but he was depending on the media to provide him with the information he needed. More Research on Media Dependency: Auter, P. J. (1992). TV that talks back: An experimental validation of a parasocial interaction scale. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 36, 173-181. Blumler, J. G. (1979). The role of theory in uses and gratifications studies. Communication Research, 6, 9-36. Donohew, L., Palmgreen, P., & Rayburn, J. D. (1987). Social and psychological origins of media use: A lifestyle analysis. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 31, 255-278. Media Dependency in Texts: Infante, D. A., Rancer, A.S., & Womack, D. F. (1997). Building communication theory (3rd ed.). Prospect, Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press, Inc., 387-393. Littlejohn, S. W. (1999). Theories of human communication (6th ed.). Albuquerque, NM: Wadsworth Publishing, 351-354.

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Want to stay on top of all the space news? Follow @universetoday on Twitter The diameter of Mars is 6,792 km. That makes the Red Planet about 53% of the diameter of Earth. In addition to a smaller diameter, Mars has only 10% of Earth’s mass. Those are interesting pieces of information to have, but only give a small picture of what Mars is like. Here are some more facts about Mars. The gravity on Mars is only 38% of that on Earth. That would present some interesting issues for any visitors to the planet as well as some challenges to long term colonization. The low gravity can also be connected to the near absence of a Martian atmosphere and the cold, dry environment. Gravity helps atmospheric gases to cling to a planet’s surface. Mars can only cling tenuously. What atmosphere that is present is high in carbon dioxide, so if the planet retained more of it, the surface would warm quickly through a greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect would melt the subsurface ice that the Mars Express spacecraft has found, thus moistening the surface. There are many indications from different spacecraft that Mars was at one time a warmer, wetter world. Mars is often perceived as a dead planet. Scientists had begun to accept that possibility until methane was detected in its atmosphere. The methane is most likely from a geologic source, but it has to be a large source. Methane is quickly destroyed in the Martian atmosphere in a variety of ways, so discovery of substantial methane indicates that an ongoing process is releasing it. The presence of the gas is of interest to scientists because organisms release much of Earth’s methane; however, other processes, like oxidation of iron, also release methane. Mars lacks any tectonic plate movement. That may allow the source of the methane to release it in plumes. The lack of plate tectonics is also the reason that the largest mountain in the Solar System was able to form. Olympus Mons, on Mars, is a shield volcano that is 27 km tall and about 550 km across. The absence of plate tectonics allowed a single hotspot to pour molten material onto the surface uninterrupted for millions of years. You started out wondering what the diameter of Mars is and, now, you have several interesting facts to ponder. Be sure to double check our facts on the NASA website and, hopefully, you will find much more to pique your interest. And just in case you’ve heard this hoax going around, Mars will never look as big as the Moon in the sky. That’s a myth that got started back in 2003, and just won’t go away. Here’s a 1928 research article where the diameter of Mars was accurately calculated. And then the sophisticated gravity measurement instrument on board NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, that can make extremely accurate gravity measurements of Mars. Finally, if you’d like to learn more about Mars in general, we have done several podcast episodes about the Red Planet at Astronomy Cast. Episode 52: Mars, and Episode 91: The Search for Water on Mars.

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Two very large studies have confirmed that smoking increases the risk of a first heart attack by more than 100% in some people.1, 2 Women were found to be at greater risk than men; "inhalers" were almost twice as susceptible as non-inhalers. Quitting smoking is critical for reversing this risk. According to one study, female ex-smokers who had not smoked for three or more years were "virtually indistinguishable" from women who had never smoked in terms of heart attack risk.3 Exposure to secondhand smoke, which increases infarct size in animals4 and impairs heart function and exercise tolerance in heart attack survivors,5 should also be avoided. For people who have already had a heart attack, quitting smoking is associated with a significant decrease in mortality.6 Routine, moderate exercise is preferred over excessive exertion for people at risk for heart attacks. Research indicates that heart attack risk rises six-fold for one hour immediately following heavy physical activity (compared to moderate or no activity), particularly among people who are sedentary.7 This risk is more than five times less in people who exercise four or more times per week.8 Most studies show that regular, moderate exercise reduces overall heart attack risk. Therefore, researchers and doctors recommend that susceptible individuals engage in an exercise program.9 Exercise recommendations for people who are at risk or who have a history of heart attack need to be custom tailored to the individual. Therefore, anyone with a heart condition or anyone over the age of 40 should consult a healthcare professional before beginning an exercise plan. Although sexual activity can trigger a heart attack, the risk is very low and10 is no greater for people with a history of angina or heart disease. Doctors recommend regular, moderate exercise to further reduce this risk. Obesity is associated with an increased risk for heart attack, particularly among younger people.11 One study found this relationship increased in women who also had a history of diabetes or high cholesterol.12 Doctors encourage overweight people who are at risk for heart attack to lose the extra weight. Type A behavior is typically defined by time-conscious, impatient, and aggressive feelings and the behavior that arises from those feelings. Type A behavior has been linked to increased heart attack risk in some,13 but not all, studies.14 The link between personality and heart attack remains unclear.15 In the study with the most hopeful outcome, psychological intervention aimed at modifying type A behavior was reported to successfully change not only emotional state but also to significantly lower the risk of subsequent heart attacks.16 Some healthcare professionals recommend that people at high risk for heart attacks who also have frequent feelings of impatience, lack of time, and hostility, seek counseling as a way to feel better and potentially reduce their risk of heart disease. Researchers suggest that negative emotional states, such as hostility, distrust, anger,17 worry,18 and stress,19 promote heart attacks. Results from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) Family Heart Study showed that hostility was significantly associated with an increased risk of having a heart attack (in women) and increased odds of having heart surgery (in men), when a family history of heart disease was also present.20, 21 According to another study, women with a history of heart disease who report stressful relationships with their husbands or partners have almost triple the risk of suffering a heart attack, dying from heart disease, or requiring bypass surgery or angioplasty, compared with women in positive relationships.22 Following a heart attack, bed rest is often recommended. However, a review of trials concluded that bed rest may actually worsen recovery from a heart attack.23

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.vitaminshoppe.com/content/en/healthguide/hncontent.jsp?resource=%2Fassets%2Fhealth-condition%2Fheart-attack%2Fvitamins-and-supplements

2013-05-19T11:26:43Z

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en

Mary C Wright Introduction to the discipline of history for new or prospective majors. Emphasizes the basic skills of reading, analysis, and communication (both verbal and written) that are central to the historian's craft. Each seminar discusses a different subject or problem. RACE AND REEDUCATION: AMERICAN INDIAN BOARDING SCHOOLS The class will explore the histories of American Indian Boarding Schools by considering 1) the legitimacy, variety and consequences of source material used; 2) historians' interpretative framework and changes through time; and 3) differing perspectives on the schools whether Native, academic, church or government. In this seminar setting, students will have the opportunity to practice the skills of a historian by reviewing published works, critiquing peers' papers, analyzing the historiography on the boarding schools, and constructing one's own research plan. Student learning goals General method of instruction No prerequisites, although Ethnohistory or an American history survey would be helpful. Class assignments and grading Participation, two 2-page peer reviews, two 2-page book reviews, bibliography of secondary and primary sources, 3-5 page historiographic essay, 5-page research project prospectus. Reading include two books and a class reader; in addition, students will select one of the optional books.

<urn:uuid:71eb124b-9ff6-4473-9114-36b142c9ffe3>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.washington.edu/students/icd/S/hist/388wrightm.html

2013-05-19T10:54:32Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697420704/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094340-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

LAKE NORMAN, N.C. -- Davidson College archivists are seeking the public’s help in documenting the structures and history of the land that was covered up by Lake Norman nearly 50 years ago. Using a technique known as crowdsourcing – tapping the knowledge of the community – archivist Jan Blodgett, library manager Craig Milberg and archives assistant Ben Farnham hope residents will share any images, stories and information they have on the historical sites and structures that were covered by water. So far, the archivists have already populated the map with about 10 sites, including several historic plantation houses and the old N.C. 150 bridge. Farnham said that historians even believe the site of the Battle of Cowan’s Ford was actually located exactly where the Cowans Ford dam is today. During that battle, Revolutionary War Gen. William Lee Davidson was killed fighting British troops. The town and college are named for him. Davidson College library employees thought of the project when they were trying to figure out a way to use GIS mapping effectively. Milberg said he was also inspired to study the lake during an outing with his children. “The lake is very low this year. We see stuff coming up from the lake, and they’re seeing materials from old docks and they wanted to know ‘Why?’ ” Milberg added that many people don’t realize that the lake is man-made, much less fairly new. So he wanted to share that information with residents. Through their study of old media clippings and personal stories, Davidson College Library employees have begun to paint a picture of what life was like in Davidson immediately before the lake was created. Blodgett said the community was largely rural through the 1980s. In the 1960s, the town’s population was around 2,500. During the late 1800s, the company that became Duke Energy began looking to the future and purchasing farmland around the Catawba River. Still, the company allowed residents to live on their sold properties for several more years. Then, around 1959, Duke Energy began building the Cowans Ford Dam and began moving people off the properties. Many of those properties were razed because “Lake Norman was never going to be too deep, and Duke Power was concerned that taller structures were going to be a danger to boats,” Blodgett said. But some properties and roads remained. For instance, a portion of the old U.S. 21 – which connected Charlotte and Statesville – is still under the water. Farnham said they are also looking into whether some cemeteries were covered by water. Duke Energy began filling the area with water in 1962. But since the Catawba River’s flow was not very strong and the dam was not completely finished – it took more than a year to fill the lake, which now covers more than 32,000 acres. During that time, the community even constructed observation decks to watch the new lake being created. “It was sort of a curiosity more than, say, a concern, at the time,” Blodgett said. “They did a great job of estimating how far the water was going to go.” Even after the lake was completed in 1963, the northern Mecklenburg County area continued to be largely overlooked, keeping land prices low. In fact, Blodgett said, most waterfront property cost about $1,000 per acre initially. Now, lots sell for many times that figure. “The lake initially was not a huge deal,” Blodgett said. “It really took until the mid-80s before the lake became what we think of as the lake with its big homes.” Blodgett said she’s happy the Under Lake Norman project is under way on the eve of the lake’s 50th anniversary. She added that the project’s timely completion is especially important because many of the residents who saw the lake’s creation firsthand are getting older. “The people who lived on the land and who used to drive across (U.S. 21) – we’re going to be losing that generation,” Blodgett said. “We want to get those personal stories so we can share with future generations.”

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.wcnc.com/video/yahoo-video/What-lies-beneath-Lake-Norman-Researchers-seek-publics-help--181816431.html

2013-05-19T11:03:00Z

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en

In CO2-rich Environment, Some Ocean Dwellers Increase Shell Production FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE Media Relations Office December 1, 2009 In a striking finding that raises new questions about carbon dioxide’s (CO2) impact on marine life, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) scientists report that some shell-building creatures—such as crabs, shrimp and lobsters—unexpectedly build more shell when exposed to ocean acidification caused by elevated levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). Because excess CO2 dissolves in the ocean—causing it to “acidify” —researchers have been concerned about the ability of certain organisms to maintain the strength of their shells. Carbon dioxide is known to trigger a process that reduces the abundance of carbonate ions in seawater—one of the primary materials that marine organisms use to build their calcium carbonate shells and skeletons. The concern is that this process will trigger a weakening and decline in the shells of some species and, in the long term, upset the balance of the ocean ecosystem. But in a study published in the Dec. 1 issue of Geology, a team led by former WHOI postdoctoral researcher Justin B. Ries found that seven of the 18 shelled species they observed actually built more shell when exposed to varying levels of increased acidification. This may be because the total amount of dissolved inorganic carbon available to them is actually increased when the ocean becomes more acidic, even though the concentration of carbonate ions is decreased. “Most likely the organisms that responded positively were somehow able to manipulate…dissolved inorganic carbon in the fluid from which they precipitated their skeleton in a way that was beneficial to them,” said Ries, now an assistant professor in marine sciences at the University of North Carolina. “They were somehow able to manipulate CO2…to build their skeletons.” Organisms displaying such improvement also included calcifying red and green algae, limpets and temperate urchins. Mussels showed no effect. “We were surprised that some organisms didn’t behave in the way we expected under elevated CO2,” said Anne L. Cohen, a research specialist at WHOI and one of the study’s co-authors. “What was really interesting was that some of the creatures, the coral, the hard clam and the lobster, for example, didn’t seem to care about CO2 until it was higher than about 1,000 parts per million [ppm].” Current atmospheric CO2 levels are about 380 ppm, she said. Above this level, calcification was reduced in the coral and the hard clam, but elevated in the lobster The “take-home message, “ says Cohen, is that “we can’t assume that elevated CO2 causes a proportionate decline in calcification of all calcifying organisms.” WHOI and the National Science Foundation funded the work. Conversely, some organisms—such as the soft clam and the oyster—showed a clear reduction in calcification in proportion to increases in CO2. In the most extreme finding, Ries, Cohen and WHOI Associate Scientist Daniel C. McCorkle exposed creatures to CO2 levels more than seven times the current level. This led to the dissolving of aragonite—the form of calcium carbonate produced by corals and some other marine calcifiers. Under such exposure, hard and soft clams, conchs, periwinkles, whelks and tropical urchins began to lose their shells. “If this dissolution process continued for sufficient time, then these organisms could lose their shell completely,” Ries said, “rendering them defenseless to predators.” “Some organisms were very sensitive,” Cohen said, “some that have commercial value. But there were a couple that didn’t respond to CO2 or didn’t respond till it was sky-high—about 2,800 parts per million. We’re not expecting to see that [CO2 level] anytime soon.” The researchers caution, however, that the findings—and acidification’s overall impact—may be more complex than it appears. For example, Cohen says that available food and nutrients such as nitrates, phosphates and iron may help dictate how some organisms respond to carbon dioxide. “We know that nutrients can be very important,” she says. “We have found that corals for example, that have plenty of food and nutrients can be less sensitive” to CO2. “In this study, the organisms were well fed and we didn’t constrain the nutrient levels. “I wouldn’t make any predictions based on these results. What these results indicate to us is that the organism response to elevated CO2 levels is complex and we now need to go back and study each organism in detail.” Ries concurs that any possible ramifications are complex. For example, the crab exhibited improved shell-building capacity, and its prey, the clams, showed reduced calcification. “This may initially suggest that crabs could benefit from this shift in predator-pray dynamics. But without shells, clams may not be able to sustain their populations, and this could ultimately impact crabs in a negative way, as well,” Ries said. In addition, Cohen adds, even though some organisms such as crabs and lobsters appear to benefit under elevated CO2 conditions, the energy they expend in shell building under these conditions “might divert from other important processes such as reproduction or tissue building.” Since the industrial revolution, Ries noted, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have increased from 280 to nearly 400 ppm. Climate models predict levels of 600 ppm in 100 years, and 900 ppm in 200 years. “The oceans absorb much of the CO2 that we release to the atmosphere,” Ries says. However, he warns that this natural buffer may ultimately come at a great cost. “It’s hard to predict the overall net effect on benthic marine ecosystems," he says. “In the short term, I would guess that the net effect will be negative. In the long term, ecosystems could re-stabilize at a new steady state. “The bottom line is that we really need to bring down CO2 levels in the atmosphere.” The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution is a private, independent organization in Falmouth, Mass., dedicated to marine research, engineering, and higher education. Established in 1930 on a recommendation from the National Academy of Sciences, its primary mission is to understand the oceans and their interaction with the Earth as a whole, and to communicate a basic understanding of the oceans’ role in the changing global environment. Originally published: December 1, 2009

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.whoi.edu/page.do?pid=7545&tid=3622&cid=63809

2013-05-19T11:01:07Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697420704/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094340-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

This is a drawing of what the surface of a comet might look like. Click on image for full size The Comet Nucleus The nucleus of a comet is the central portion of the head of a comet. It is a solid part of the comet, made of a special sort of dust which is called "fluffy" because it could be as light weight and full of holes as a sponge. The holes of this "sponge" are filled with ices like water, carbon dioxide (dry ice), and carbon monoxide (what comes out of your car). Observations of the nuclei of comet Hale-Bopp and Hyakutake have given scientists fresh ideas about comet composition and evolution. But, scientists still don't know whether the nucleus is very hard, like solid ground, or very soft and breakable, like a snowball. The Rosetta mission hopes to land a probe on the surface of a comet to find out just how hard it is! As a comet approaches the Sun, it begins to evaporate, forming the coma and a spectacular comet tail. This picture shows that evaporation may happen only in specific places on the nucleus. These spots of evaporation are called "jets". Halley's comet had three distinct jets on its surface as it approached the Sun in 1986. Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store! Our online store on science education, ranging from evolution , classroom research , and the need for science and math literacy You might also be interested in: This example of Interstellar Dust is a perfect example of the kind of rocky material that may make comets. The grains themselves seem to be made of smaller grains. There are many holes, or pores. In a...more Hale-Bopp continues to offer new surprises as two astronomers report of their study of the comet. Using the Hubble Space Telescope and the International Ultraviolet Explorer, the astronomers did a year-long...more When comets are kicked out of the Oort Cloud, they begin a passage into the solar system, spinning and tumbling as they come. The trajectory which they acquire can be hyperbolic, parabolic, or elliptic...more As the ices of the comet nucleus evaporate, they expand rapidly into a large cloud around the central part of the comet. This cloud, called the coma, is the atmosphere of the comet and can extend for millions...more The picture on this page shows the best views ever of the nucleus of a comet. It shows two pictures of the comet's nucleus that were taken at slightly different times. The pictures were taken by a spacecraft...more NASA’s Comet Nucleus Tour (CONTOUR), launched July 3, 2002. The CONTOUR spacecraft will fly by at least two comets, taking pictures and collecting dust from the nucleus of each comet to help scientists...more We are sad to report that the Comet Nucleus Tour (CONTOUR) is currently lost in space. The CONTOUR spacecraft was launched July 3, 2002 to explore the nucleus of comets. It was scheduled to fly by at...more

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.windows2universe.org/comets/comet_nucleus.html

2013-05-19T11:09:52Z

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en

The English curriculum seeks to develop each student's ability to think critically and creatively and to express themselves with confidence and clarity in speech and writing. The English program is a continuum of coursework in which reading and writing skills are developed as a student progresses from grade to grade. The goal of the English Department is to teach students to read intelligently and learn to interpret literature and language. The program provides various and challenging assignments to foster these skills. All English courses build on each other, and ninth grade English is designed to introduce students to concepts that will be further developed throughout their time at the Winter Sports School. Ninth grade English writing assignments emphasize sentence structure and paragraph construction, with the bulk of student writing focusing on personal experience. Students will also write expository papers throughout the year. Some specific areas of writing will be memoirs, exposure to epic writing, analysis of literature, persuasive writing, Letters to the Editor, autobiographies, and an end of year portfolio. Students will read many literary forms: novels, short stories, plays, and poetry as well as works of non-fiction such as memoir, articles and essays. Students will practice close readings of texts in an effort to develop the necessary critical thinking skills to understand both content and style. Students continue to refine their writing skills in supporting thesis statements with specific details. We concentrate on both form and content in the writing. Prewriting, drafting, and revision are emphasized. Grammar and vocabulary practice are strategically interwoven into each unit of study. Students also review responsible and effective methods of library/Internet investigation, note taking, and documentation in completing an "I Search" project involving direct experience with primary sources. Students will spend an entire block of study working both independently and cooperatively on a Service Learning Project with focus on the experiences of victims of genocide. The students in Honors English 10 are given additional assignments for each unit of study to extend and augment their learning. A sampling of Sophomore English texts include The Secret Life of Bees, To Kill A Mockingbird, A Lesson Before Dying, Night, Survival in Auschwitz, The Glass Menagerie, Othello, A Raisin in The Sun, A Separate Peace and Lord of the Flies. Building on the first two years of English at the Winter Sports School, Junior English continues to develop concepts already introduced to students. American and English Literature are integral parts of this course, and writing assignments begin to focus more on analysis of readings than on structure and content. Selected readings include The Book of the Dun Cow, Life of Pi, Hamlet, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, 1984, and Brave New World, among others. The senior English course covers a historical sampling of novels, poetry, drama, and essays. The course emphasizes critical reading skills and the application of literary themes and characters to the larger world through writing and class discussion. Students will practice a range of writing styles, including literary analyses, personal narratives, original poems and short stories, rhetorical critiques, college application essays, film analyses, and a modified research paper. Students are encouraged to approach writing as a process and to deem revision as the most crucial element of the writing process. Students will continue to build personal vocabulary and grammar skills. Finally, the Senior English course strives to nurture each student's aptitude and self-reliance which will only enhance their success in college by encouraging them to observe, participate in, and comment on the world around them. A sampling of Senior English texts include Writing With Style, The Brief Bedford Reader, Perrine's Sound and Sense, King Lear, A Thousand Acres, Death of A Salesman, Their Eyes Were Watching God, The Catcher in the Rye, The Great Gatsby, and Revolutionary Road.

<urn:uuid:ae2f5bde-68d9-4b9e-8175-057175ee1022>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.wintersportsschool.org/course_descriptions.php

2013-05-19T11:01:15Z

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en

American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition - v. To incite to anger or resentment. - v. To stir to action or feeling. - v. To give rise to; evoke: provoke laughter. - v. To bring about deliberately; induce: provoke a fight. Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia - To call forth or out; challenge; summon. - To stimulate to action; move; excite; arouse. - To call forth; cause; occasion; instigate. - To excite to anger or passion; exasperate; irritate; enrage. - Synonyms and To stir up, rouse, awake, induce, incite, impel, kindle. - Irritate, Incense, etc. (see exasperate), offend, anger, chafe, nettle, gall. - To appeal. - To produce anger or irritation. Compare provoking. - v. transitive to cause someone to become annoyed or angry. - v. transitive to bring about a reaction. - v. obsolete To appeal. GNU Webster's 1913 - v. To call forth; to call into being or action; esp., to incense to action, a faculty or passion, as love, hate, or ambition; hence, commonly, to incite, as a person, to action by a challenge, by taunts, or by defiance; to exasperate; to irritate; to offend intolerably; to cause to retaliate. - v. To cause provocation or anger. - v. obsolete To appeal. [A Latinism] - v. annoy continually or chronically - v. call forth (emotions, feelings, and responses) - v. provide the needed stimulus for - v. evoke or provoke to appear or occur - From French provoquer, from Latin prōvocāre. (Wiktionary) - Middle English provoken, from Old French provoquer, from Latin prōvocāre, to challenge : prō-, forth; see pro- + vocāre, to call. (American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition) “Let them, as far as I am concerned, but it may short term provoke more counterreaction.” “Today, another American legend, Mark Twain, celebrated for the power of his language and his ability to delight and provoke, is also under attack.” “A very large part of our knowledge about immunity against bacteria and the diseases they provoke is therefore due to the action of haemolytic sera on red corpuscles, and it was only later that attempts were made to find out if, and in what measure, the detected properties apply equally to bacteria and the bacteriolytic sera.” “God they provoke is just, and holy, and terrible, and not such a one as themselves.” “No, the federal response the state of Arizona is trying to provoke is to police the damn border already.” “Its not just the number of responses, I think is important, but the kind of responses your posts provoke, that is the essense of what makes your blog so different.” “And I'm very surprised that bin Laden, that al Qaeda would pull something on this scale knowing what the response was going to be unless that's what they intended to provoke, which is another theory.” “They provoke, that is, a strong reaction, which it was also intended to use for therapeutic purposes.” “Irish bailout terms provoke risk of revolt over next week's budget” “Irish bailout terms provoke risk of revolt over next week's budget Ireland will not give up low tax regime, Enda Kenny tells Angela Merkel” These user-created lists contain the word ‘provoke’. A list of words that are odd or words that I have looked up. I've noticed many, many words start with PRO and this is just a collection of them. Words with definitions that have a "hence" in them. an immense, grandiloquent list that loads like a thousand years sentence in stone. new words are in the other lists. The new favourite words of people on Twitter. A script searches Twitter for "X is my new favorite word" and adds it to this list. grabbable, retuiteando, leaving, fantastic, absolutely, kurwa, hella, ridic, underpass, hate, interlude, plush and 2369 more... My big word list. verbs Adj Adv noun Very basic words for ESL students. Looking for tweets for provoke.

<urn:uuid:1518d6b2-2256-4fa1-83fb-9520057c8109>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.wordnik.com/words/provoke

2013-05-19T10:45:45Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697420704/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094340-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia - n. A musical instrument of the southern negroes of the United States resembling a drum. “By the way, my daughter almost 2 calls all water birds "quaqua," so if you stick with that for ducks, geese, pelicans or seagulls you're all good around here.” “Nihil quicquid homini tam prosperum divinitus datum, quin ei admixtum sit aliquid difficultatis ut etiam amplissima quaqua laetitia, subsit quaepiam vel parva querimonia conjugatione quadam mellis, et fellis.” “Not much attention was yet paid to Native American music, but a sociological interest was taken in some of the instruments slaves had brought from Africa, such as the “banjor” (banjo), the “barrafou” (which resembled a xylophone), and the “quaqua” (a kind of drum).” “Bates found one seated alone on a branch, at no great elevation, uttering at intervals, in a complaining tone, its usual cry of "quaqua.” “Ad frustrandos insequentes, publica jumenta, quaqua iter ageret, interficiens.” “Verum fi lubet, prtmo acceperit, fe&iones, quaqua looo rationent ex umbrae ii - verfum duftae, funt ocnnes gura duibun accipe.” ‘quaqua’ hasn't been added to any lists yet. Looking for tweets for quaqua.

<urn:uuid:13c605a6-4e92-4246-bae6-882a91efc7e7>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.wordnik.com/words/quaqua?suggested_from=Quaqua

2013-05-19T11:03:36Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697420704/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094340-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

en

Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia - n. A marine map. See chart, 1. “Francisco de Molares, one of the best and most credible of all the pilots, testified that he saw a sea-chart which Columbus had made of the coast of Paria, and he believed that all governed themselves by it.” “And I also _send you another sea-chart_, like the one I sent to him, which will satisfy your demands.” “The first lieutenant beckoned to a midshipman, who soon returned with a large sea-chart, which the captain spread out on the capstan head.” “The captain, however, who regarded every coast and island with a matter-of-fact eye, and had no more associations connected with them than those laid down in his sea-chart, considered all this curiosity as exceedingly idle and childish.” “Another witness, Bernaldo de Haro, states that he had been with the admiral, and had written (or rather copied) a letter for the admiral to the king and queen, designating, in an accompanying sea-chart, the courses and steerings and winds by which he had arrived at Paria; and that this witness had heard that from this chart others had been made, and that” “Francisco de Molares, one of the best and most credible of all the pilots, testified that he saw a sea-chart which Columbus had made of the coast of” “By all this I knew we had fallen into the north of the shoal, and that it was laid down wrong in my sea-chart: for I found it lie in about 27 degrees latitude, and by our run in the next day I found that the outward edge of it, which I sounded on, lies 16 leagues off shore.” “Companies such as Sony, and Apple own made downloading sea-chart music a multi-billion dollar inustry.” “They were aided in this purpose by the fact that when the favorite, who went to seize the property of the ship, was in Hurando, its pilot, Francisco de Sanda, had shown him the sea-chart in which could be seen all the countries which had been discovered, and España and the other kingdoms possessed by his” “And therefore I think it of most value to be instilld into a young man upon all occasions which offer themselves, that when he comes to launch into the deep himself, he may not be like one at sea without a line, compass or sea-chart; but may have some notice before-hand of the rocks and shoals, the currents and quick-sands, and know a little how to steer, that he sink not before he get experience.” ‘sea-chart’ hasn't been added to any lists yet. Looking for tweets for sea-chart.

<urn:uuid:50fa7e43-8035-45c9-80fa-c620458d8e4c>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.wordnik.com/words/sea-chart

2013-05-19T11:27:41Z

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697420704/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094340-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz

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How does the new agreement on REDD set the stage for halting the destruction and degradation of forests? After almost three years of difficult negotiations, parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) have agreed to slow, halt, and reverse forest loss and the related emissions in developing countries (REDD+). However, there is still much work to do before parties to the UNFCCC can recognize potential REDD+ countries’ actions. The Cancun Agreements provide important guidance for all actors – countries, NGOs, multilateral institutions – who are helping countries prepare for REDD+ in the “fast-start” period through 2012. However, their actions will remain outside of (though now guided by) the UNFCCC, until discussions about appropriate methods for tracking and financing national mitigation actions are completed. These will be the tasks for the upcoming year. What was in the agreement, and what remains to be done is described in more detail below. Like much of the Cancun Agreements, the REDD+ text was derived from text that has been in discussion for years. There are two major differences from previous drafts. First, the agreement now clearly states that REDD+ is not only about reducing emissions but halting and reversing forest loss. This is important as it emphasizes that REDD+ actions must result in maintaining existing forests and carbon stocks. Second, the agreement encourages all countries to find effective ways to reduce the human pressures on forests that result in greenhouse gas emissions. This element is important as it, correctly, puts part of the responsibility of slowing, stopping and reversing forest cover loss and associated emissions on those countries and actors (e.g., companies and consumers) that create the demands that drive deforestation (e.g. demands for timber, oil palm, soy, and cattle). Primarily, the Cancun REDD+ text provides countries with guidance on REDD+ readiness. For example, the agreement recognizes that a phased approach will likely be necessary – from plans and implementation (phase 1 and 2) to results-based activities (phase 3) – and lists the systems and information that developing countries need to undertake REDD+ activities. These include a national plan, a national reference emission level, a robust and transparent national forest monitoring system, and a system for providing information for how safeguards – such as respecting indigenous peoples’ rights – are being addressed and respected. In addition, Annex 1 to the REDD+ agreement provides more details about the principles and safeguards that actors undertaking activities and providing finance will need to respect, even in the “fast-start” finance period. While the language in the text could have been stronger, it represents a significant shift in the type of language included in UNFCCC documents to date and is one of the most significant aspects of the text. Finally, the last paragraphs of the Cancun REDD+ agreement reflect some of the learning from REDD+ programs in the past year. Developed countries are being asked to coordinate financing and activities in each REDD+ country, as currently activities sometimes overlap or conflict. The text also recognizes the role of international organizations and other stakeholders in both the implementation and coordination of REDD+ activities. Though this agreement represents a step towards a fully-fledged REDD+ framework, there are important questions left unanswered. These will need to be addressed before REDD+ actions can be recognized and supported in the UNFCCC context. These include: 1. Definitions. While the REDD+ agreement includes five recognized activities – i.e., reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, conservation and enhancement of forest carbon stocks, and sustainable management of forests – most of these activities are still undefined by the UNFCCC. For example “forest degradation” has not yet been defined, let alone “sustainable management of forests” and “conservation”. Without definitions it is not possible to measure progress or pay for performance, which is central to the REDD+ discussions. 2. Reference Emission Levels. Additionally, more guidance is required for countries to develop national reference emissions levels (RELs). These RELs will determine the potential compensation a country could receive from REDD+ for a given level of activity. For example, if a country sets their REL too high, they may generate emission reductions though they have taken few actions to achieve them. In Annex 2 to the REDD+ agreement, the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technology Advice (SBSTA) has been given the mandate to develop modalities for REL development. 3. Safeguards. The agreement requests that countries develop an information system to track how safeguards are addressed and respected for REDD+. This is an important operational step for making the safeguards applicable. However, more detail is necessary on what information will be captured, how that information will be shared and for what purpose. The REDD+ decision text does not include language with regards to any institution within or outside of the UNFCCC (e.g., the registry or Green Climate Fund board) that would use the information to make decisions. The institutional questions need not be answered for the “fast-start” finance period. However, what information needs to be collected and shared is an area where fast-start finance actors (multilateral institutions, countries, etc.) have identified the need for further harmonization. In order to do so, these actors will need to better understand this issue and start the process of standardizing information. This should take place in the coming year. While SBSTA was also given this mandate in Annex 2, the stakeholders and experts that should be involved in these discussions are likely to reside outside of the UNFCCC process. 4. The Phased Approach and Links to NAMAs. The current text describes a phased approach to REDD+, but it does not make links between the phases and recognition of Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs) and the support linked to NAMAs. This leaves a number of unanswered questions, including whether actions in the early phases (and the financing supporting them) would be included in the NAMAs registry if taken after the “fast-start” finance period, and if so how they would be measured, reported and verified. Additionally, it is not clear how countries will move between phases and whether there will be a time table for moving between phases once the country has identified a starting point and received support. Finally, the “results-based” approach promoted as the final phase will need to be clarified. 5. Finance. The developed countries are urged to support - using bilateral and multilateral channels – phase 1 and 2 activities and to improve their reporting of their support. However, the question of financing for phase 3 was not agreed to in Cancun. This is likely due to the outstanding methodological questions about what the “results-based” approach would actually include. While this may have been disappointing for those who expected a signal that a market-based approach will be used to generate REDD+ finance, several countries were strongly opposed to this approach.1 As with many of the decisions agreed to in Cancun, now the hard work begins on implementing the framework. However, all actors involved in the readiness and fast-start activities now have clearer guidance of what the framework will include and what work needs to be done. The progress REDD+ countries make in implementing readiness activities, as well as methodological work by SBSTA, will be important next steps on the road to next year’s meeting in South Africa. This paragraph was edited for clarity on January 28, 2011. ↩

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.wri.org/print/11937

2013-05-19T11:17:35Z

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