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c_e0kwhqpqzoi8 | Talking Gravestones of Föhr | Summary | Talking_Gravestones_of_Föhr | Nikolai, Boldixum)), which is now a district of Wyk auf Föhr. Similar objects are known from the neighbour island of Amrum. All such headstones made until 1870 are designated cultural heritage monuments. |
c_o28d3f4j3hx5 | Talking Gravestones of Föhr | Summary | Talking_Gravestones_of_Föhr | Their inscriptions tell the biographies of the deceased including their private and professional lives, extraordinary events, and honorary appointments. With 265 monuments, the St. Johannis cemetery has the largest inventory of historical gravestones in Nordfriesland district. |
c_zvns8cvr22nu | Talking Gravestones of Föhr | Summary | Talking_Gravestones_of_Föhr | The best-known tombstone is the one of Matthias Petersen who was a very successful whaling captain and was therefore dubbed "Lucky Matthew" (der glückliche Matthias). The only ornamental decoration on this stone is a circular relief depicting the goddess of fortune upon a swimming whale in the style of a coat of arms. It features the only inscription completely in Latin language in the cemetery of Süderende, which relates that Petersen who died in 1706 caught 373 whales during his lifetime. |
c_tuyx961mmrqm | Talking Gravestones of Föhr | Origin of the material | Talking_Gravestones_of_Föhr > Origin of the material | The oldest Talking Gravestones were made from slabs of red sandstone that originates from the Solling hills in northern Westphalia. Later tombstones measure roughly 160 by 70 centimetres (63 by 28 in). Most gravestones were made from sandstone quarried in Obernkirchen, Lower Saxony. |
c_03minwo55394 | Talking Gravestones of Föhr | Origin of the material | Talking_Gravestones_of_Föhr > Origin of the material | Shipmasters used to take the stones on board as ballast. Only wealthy people from Föhr could afford totally new monuments while poor persons would have to grind off old slabs to add a new design. Sometimes also test objects from a stonemason's workshop may have been erected in the cemetery. This theory is supported by specific letters and the word ALVABET on the backside of one headstone. |
c_91l0szf829ke | Talking Gravestones of Föhr | Stonemasons | Talking_Gravestones_of_Föhr > Stonemasons | Apart from a few great tomb plates that were likely created by foreign, professional stonemasons, all Talking Gravestones were made locally by the island population. At first it may have been Dutch wood carvers from the mainland that were hired to decorate the gravestones, until ship carpenters had obtained the skills of stonemasonry and got orders from the neighbouring islands and Föhr proper to create gravestones. The design of the decorations is sometimes very intricate, so that the process of creation took a long time. As a result, many gravestones could only be erected several years after the burial of the deceased person. |
c_soysron1n48i | Talking Gravestones of Föhr | Language and symbolism | Talking_Gravestones_of_Föhr > Language and symbolism | The texts on most gravestones are exclusively written in the "noble" church language of Standard German (Hochdeutsch) although the island then used to belong to Denmark and the everyday-language was Fering, a local dialect of the North Frisian language which is still spoken today. A few stones exhibit texts in Low German which used to be the official and ecclesiastical language until around 1700, while other texts are written in Latin. Some 20th-century tombstones have inscriptions in Fering. In order to tell the long biographies on the limited space of the stone slab, the stonemasons sometimes used abbreviations: J.S.G.G.S. |
c_skltwqdl51o9 | Talking Gravestones of Föhr | Language and symbolism | Talking_Gravestones_of_Föhr > Language and symbolism | = Ihren Seelen Gott gnädig sei D.S.G.G.S. = Deren Seelen Gott gnädig sei I.S.S.G.G. = Ihrer Seele sei Gott gnädig D.S.G.G.I. |
c_ed0o4okhassj | Talking Gravestones of Föhr | Language and symbolism | Talking_Gravestones_of_Föhr > Language and symbolism | = Deren Seelen Gott gnädig ist G.S.S.S.G. = Gott sei seiner Seele gnädig .The relief decorations are kept in baroque and rococo style. |
c_nvcyfeb0j6og | Talking Gravestones of Föhr | Language and symbolism | Talking_Gravestones_of_Föhr > Language and symbolism | They are often detailed and fantastic with unique forms that are not repeated. The images may show "angels as symbols of justice, happiness, and a sign of faith, love and hope, but also ships, windmills and the family tree are shown". Scenes from the Bible are often the main motive of the ornaments on a stone. |
c_5eqii2glj99h | Talking Gravestones of Föhr | Language and symbolism | Talking_Gravestones_of_Föhr > Language and symbolism | When a seafarer died on his ship, the ship is depicted with full sails while unrigged ships mean that the sailor died on land. Other popular motives are items from the deceased person's daily trade but also Lady Justice.A special iconographic tradition can be found in the floral motives: the husband and the sons of a family are depicted on the left-hand side of the image as tulip-like flowers whereas the wife and daughters are shown on the right-hand side as star-shaped flowers with four petals. A broken stalk is a sign that the respective person was already dead when the tombstone was created. The frequency of broken flowers attests a high rate of infant mortality. |
c_pjdarnhn9025 | Talking Gravestones of Föhr | History | Talking_Gravestones_of_Föhr > History | The oldest gravestones were made of sandstone slabs. To put them up in a slanted position, a hole was drilled through the stone so a wooden staff or a whale bone could support the stone. In later times, largers stones became popular that were called 'Bremen stones' according to their origin. The oldest Talking Gravestone dates back to the year 1605. |
c_6uz0x850auss | Talking Gravestones of Föhr | History | Talking_Gravestones_of_Föhr > History | After 1700, the income of the population increased rapidly. because from the 17th to the 19th century, seafarers from Föhr including a number of captains pursued whaling and merchant shipping. In these times, upright tombstones were used more often. |
c_ie5a8ake1r93 | Talking Gravestones of Föhr | History | Talking_Gravestones_of_Föhr > History | Steles were introduced in the 18th century. When they were erected, they were mostly decorated with a coloured ornament on top, the section below would relate the biography of the deceased, and at the bottom would often be a Biblical verse or another image. When old stones were grinded off, the original top decoration often remained intact.The early 19th century marked the decline of this type of gravestones. |
c_ggf4i86mcz6p | Talking Gravestones of Föhr | History | Talking_Gravestones_of_Föhr > History | Classicist monuments became increasingly popular which refrained from displaying images and extended biographies. In the mid-19th century, this special form of burial culture had become totally uncommon. Nowadays, polished slabs of granite that only display the name and vital statistics of the deceased are usually found on Föhr and other North Frisian islands. |
c_0scdjkb08bf1 | International Dental Show | Summary | International_Dental_Show | The International Dental Show (IDS) in a trade fair in Cologne, Germany, for dental medicine and dental technology. It is the world's largest trade fair for the dental industry. |
c_dtdpr37m3i77 | International Dental Show | History | International_Dental_Show > History | The IDS is the world's largest trade fair for dental medicine and dental technology. The trade fair is organized by the GFDI (Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Dental-Industrie mbH), the commercial enterprise of the Association of German Dental Manufacturers (VDDI) and staged by Koelnmesse GmbH.At IDS 2011, 1,954 companies from 58 countries participated and more than 100,000 trade visitors attended. At IDS 2013, 2,058 companies from 56 countries presented their products on exhibition space covering 150.000 m². The exhibition had more than 125,000 trade visitors from 149 countries. |
c_o06kceyy4hq8 | International Dental Show | History | International_Dental_Show > History | The 36th International Dental Show took place from 10 to 14 March 2015, on a total exhibition area of 157.000 m². There were a record number of visitors (138,500), and 2,201 companies from 56 countries participated. The 37th International Dental Show took place from 21 to 25 March 2017. A total of 2.236 exhibitors from 58 countries and 155,132 visitors from 156 countries participated in the event. |
c_wrcw3v5tokic | First language | Summary | First_language | A first language (L1), native language, native tongue, or mother tongue is the first language or dialect that a person has been exposed to from birth or within the critical period. In some countries, the term native language or mother tongue refers to the language or dialect of one's ethnic group rather than the individual's actual first language. Generally, to state a language as a mother tongue, one must have full native fluency in that language. |
c_wzyqcuzzgatr | First language | Summary | First_language | The first language of a child is part of that child's personal, social and cultural identity. Another impact of the first language is that it brings about the reflection and learning of successful social patterns of acting and speaking. Research suggests that while a non-native speaker may develop fluency in a targeted language after about two years of immersion, it can take between five and seven years for that child to be on the same working level as their native speaking counterparts.On 17 November 1999, UNESCO designated 21 February as International Mother Language Day. |
c_54fjim3ufy45 | First language | Definitions | First_language > Definitions | The person qualifies as a "native speaker" of a language by being born and immersed in the language during youth, in a family in which the adults shared a similar language experience to the child. Native speakers are considered to be an authority on their given language because of their natural acquisition process regarding the language, as opposed to having learned the language later in life. That is achieved by personal interaction with the language and speakers of the language. |
c_vqed77q2bgbh | First language | Definitions | First_language > Definitions | Native speakers will not necessarily be knowledgeable about every grammatical rule of the language, but they will have good "intuition" of the rules through their experience with the language.The designation "native language", in its general usage, is thought to be imprecise and subject to various interpretations that are biased linguistically, especially with respect to bilingual children from ethnic minority groups. Many scholars have given definitions of "native language" based on common usage, the emotional relation of the speaker towards the language, and even its dominance in relation to the environment. However, all three criteria lack precision. For many children whose home language differs from the language of the environment (the "official" language), it is debatable which language is their "native language". |
c_46wn80uukqgk | First language | Defining "native language" | First_language > Definitions > Defining "native language" | Based on origin: the language(s) or dialect one learned first (the language(s) or dialect in which one has established the first long-lasting verbal contacts). Based on internal identification: the language(s) one identifies with/as a speaker of; Based on external identification: the language(s) one is identified with/as a speaker of, by others. Based on competence: the language(s) one knows best. Based on function: the language(s) one uses most.In some countries, such as Kenya, India, Belarus, Ukraine and various East Asian and Central Asian countries, "mother language" or "native language" is used to indicate the language of one's ethnic group in both common and journalistic parlance ("I have no apologies for not learning my mother tongue"), rather than one's first language. |
c_0w7z5elr6a6g | First language | Defining "native language" | First_language > Definitions > Defining "native language" | Also, in Singapore, "mother tongue" refers to the language of one's ethnic group regardless of actual proficiency, and the "first language" refers to English, which was established on the island under the British Empire, and is the lingua franca for most post-independence Singaporeans because of its use as the language of instruction in government schools and as a working language. In the context of population censuses conducted on the Canadian population, Statistics Canada defines mother tongue as "the first language learned at home in childhood and still understood by the individual at the time of the census." It is quite possible that the first language learned is no longer a speaker's dominant language. |
c_rei0tqdfznjw | First language | Defining "native language" | First_language > Definitions > Defining "native language" | That includes young immigrant children whose families have moved to a new linguistic environment as well as people who learned their mother tongue as a young child at home (rather than the language of the majority of the community), who may have lost, in part or in totality, the language they first acquired (see language attrition). According to Ivan Illich, the term "mother tongue" was first used by Catholic monks to designate a particular language they used, instead of Latin, when they were "speaking from the pulpit". That is, the "holy mother the Church" introduced this term and colonies inherited it from Christianity as a part of colonialism. |
c_0ao81h371w5h | First language | Defining "native language" | First_language > Definitions > Defining "native language" | J. R. R. Tolkien, in his 1955 lecture "English and Welsh", distinguishes the "native tongue" from the "cradle tongue". The latter is the language one learns during early childhood, and one's true "native tongue" may be different, possibly determined by an inherited linguistic taste and may later in life be discovered by a strong emotional affinity to a specific dialect (Tolkien personally confessed to such an affinity to the Middle English of the West Midlands in particular). Children brought up speaking more than one language can have more than one native language, and be bilingual or multilingual. By contrast, a second language is any language that one speaks other than one's first language. |
c_67ft61tpdfzn | First language | Bilingualism | First_language > Bilingualism | A related concept is bilingualism. One definition is that a person is bilingual if they are equally proficient in two languages. Someone who grows up speaking Spanish and then learns English for four years is bilingual only if they speak the two languages with equal fluency. Pearl and Lambert were the first to test only "balanced" bilinguals—that is, a child who is completely fluent in two languages and feels that neither is their "native" language because they grasp both so perfectly. This study found that balanced bilinguals perform significantly better in tasks that require flexibility (they constantly shift between the two known languages depending on the situation), they are more aware of the arbitrary nature of language, they choose word associations based on logical rather than phonetic preferences. |
c_z9hbveocv065 | First language | Multilingualism | First_language > Multilingualism | One can have two or more native languages, thus being a native bilingual or indeed multilingual. The order in which these languages are learned is not necessarily the order of proficiency. For instance, if a French-speaking couple have a child who learned French first but then grew up in an English-speaking country, the child would likely be most proficient in English. |
c_r15biwsyoo20 | First language | Defining "native speaker" | First_language > Multilingualism > Defining "native speaker" | Defining what constitutes a native speaker is difficult, and there is no test which can identify one. It is not known whether native speakers are a defined group of people, or if the concept should be thought of as a perfect prototype to which actual speakers may or may not conform.An article titled "The Native Speaker: An Achievable Model?" published by the Asian EFL Journal states that there are six general principles that relate to the definition of "native speaker". The principles, according to the study, are typically accepted by language experts across the scientific field. |
c_frq0bv4p6q09 | First language | Defining "native speaker" | First_language > Multilingualism > Defining "native speaker" | A native speaker is defined according to the following guidelines: The individual acquired the language in early childhood and maintains the use of the language. The individual has intuitive knowledge of the language. The individual is able to produce fluent, spontaneous discourse. |
c_qk3019k2g0hc | First language | Defining "native speaker" | First_language > Multilingualism > Defining "native speaker" | The individual is communicatively competent in different social contexts. The individual identifies with or is identified by a language community. The individual does not have a foreign accent. |
c_r349if6pyesf | First language | Translanguaging | First_language > Translanguaging | Translanguaging connects languages to help learners build an understanding of new languages. In multilingual settings, learners can benefit from using what they already know, such as grammar, and spelling pronunciation, to support understanding of new words. |
c_dhgwi4vrb2pa | Gunter Schmidt | Summary | Gunter_Schmidt | Gunter Schmidt (born 22 November 1938) is a German sexologist, psychotherapist and social psychologist. He was born in Berlin. Schmidt was the director of the centre for sexual research in the clinic of the University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf (Eppendorf). He started many projects for research over sexuality and biographies. |
c_j2y0bd2c5c6f | Gunter Schmidt | Summary | Gunter_Schmidt | He was a director of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Sexualforschung (DGfS) and president of International Academy of Sex Research (IASR). He is the director of a research project Pregnancy and Abortion by Young Women and a member of the board of directors for the organisation pro familia, an NGO for sexual and reproductive health and rights in Germany. Together with Martin Dannecker and Volkmar Sigusch, he is editor of Beiträge zur Sexualforschung (87 editions which is published by Psychosozial-Verlag. Schmidt is also co-editor of the magazine Zeitschrift für Sexualforschung in the Georg Thieme Verlag. Schmidt has written extensively on the sociological status of pedophilia in modern society. |
c_ym624jgut0li | Gunter Schmidt | Books | Gunter_Schmidt > Books | Studenten-Sexualität (with Hans Giese), 1968 Arbeiter-Sexualität (with Volkmar Sigusch), 1971 Jugendsexualität (with Volkmar Sigusch), 1973 Das große Der Die Das, 1986. Das Verschwinden der Sexualmoral, 1996. Sexuelle Verhältnisse, Gießen, Psychosozial-Verlag, 1998. Die Kinder der sexuellen Revolution (editor), Gießen, Psychosozial-Verlag, 2000. |
c_swvs62q0vwg4 | Gunter Schmidt | Books | Gunter_Schmidt > Books | Sexualität und Spätmoderne (editor), Gießen, Psychosozial-Verlag, 2002. Das neue Der Die Das, Gießen, Psychosozial-Verlag, 2004. Spätmoderne Beziehungswelten, (with Silja Matthiesen, Arne Dekker, Kurt Starke), 2006. |
c_3z3bbhv790rq | Epidemiology of depression | Summary | Epidemiology_of_depression | The epidemiology of depression has been studied across the world. Depression is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, as the epidemiology has shown. Lifetime prevalence estimates vary widely, from 3% in Japan to 17% in India. Epidemiological data shows higher rates of depression in the Middle East, North Africa, South Asia and U.S.A than in other regions and countries. Among the 10 countries studied, the number of people who would experience depression during their lives falls within an 8–12% range in most of them.In North America, the probability of having a major depressive episode within any year-long period is 3–5% for males and 8–10% for females. |
c_af3r4tj1xtvb | Epidemiology of depression | Demographic dynamics | Epidemiology_of_depression > Demographic dynamics | Population studies have consistently shown major depression to be about twice as common in women as in men, although it is not yet clear why this is so. The relative increase in occurrence is related to pubertal development rather than chronological age, reaches adult ratios between the ages of 15 and 18, and appears associated with psychosocial more than hormonal factors.People are most likely to suffer their first depressive episode between the ages of 30 and 40, and there is a second, smaller peak of incidence between ages 50 and 60. The risk of major depression is increased with neurological conditions such as stroke, Parkinson's disease, or multiple sclerosis and during the first year after childbirth. The risk of major depression has also been related to environmental stressors faced by population groups such as war combatants or physicians in training.It is also more common after cardiovascular illnesses, and is related to a poor outcome of cardiovascular diseases. |
c_8vc5ybjeq8lz | Epidemiology of depression | Demographic dynamics | Epidemiology_of_depression > Demographic dynamics | Studies conflict on the prevalence of depression in the elderly, but most data suggest there is a reduction in this age group. Depressive disorders are most common in urban than in rural population and, in general, the prevalence is higher in groups with adverse socio-economic factors (for example in homeless people).Data on the relative prevalence of major depression among different ethnic groups have reached no clear consensus. However, the only known study to have covered dysthymia in the US specifically found it to be more common in African and Mexican Americans than in European Americans.Projections indicate that depression may be the second leading cause of life lost after heart disease by 2020.In 2016, a study, published by JAMA Psychiatry, and written by Charlotte Wessel Skovlund, found an association between hormonal contraception and depression. |
c_sco2z6khp5qo | Epidemiology of depression | By country and category | Epidemiology_of_depression > By country and category | Age-standardised disability-adjusted life year (DALY) rates per 10,000 inhabitants in 2017. |
c_qf7tmx2xfn0w | Middle power | Summary | Middle_power | In international relations, a middle power is a sovereign state that is not a great power nor a superpower, but still has large or moderate influence and international recognition. The concept of the "middle power" dates back to the origins of the European state system. In the late 16th century, Italian political thinker Giovanni Botero divided the world into three types of states: grandissime (empires), mezano (middle powers), and piccioli (small powers). According to Botero, a mezano or middle power "has sufficient strength and authority to stand on its own without the need of help from others." |
c_pizhj2j3ofp6 | Middle power | History and definition | Middle_power > History and definition | No agreed standard method defines which states are middle powers, aside from the broad idea that middle powers are states that have a 'moderate' ability to influence the behaviour of other states, in contrast to small power, which have 'little' ability to influence. Some researchers use Gross National Product (GNP) statistics to draw lists of middle powers around the world. Economically, middle powers are generally those that are not considered too "big" or too "small", however that is defined. However, economy is not always the defining factor. |
c_lsi2f16yottj | Middle power | History and definition | Middle_power > History and definition | Under the original sense of the term, a middle power was one that had some degree of influence globally, but did not dominate in any one area. However, this usage is not universal, and some define middle power to include nations that can be regarded as regional powers. According to academics at the University of Leicester and University of Nottingham: Middle power status is usually identified in one of two ways. |
c_hrx32ni8jm19 | Middle power | History and definition | Middle_power > History and definition | The traditional and most common way is to aggregate critical physical and material criteria to rank states according to their relative capabilities. Because countries' capabilities differ, they are categorized as superpowers (or great powers), middle powers or small powers. More recently, it is possible to discern a second method for identifying middle power status by focusing on behavioural attributes. |
c_uyxq1a4ateoc | Middle power | History and definition | Middle_power > History and definition | This posits that middle powers can be distinguished from superpowers and smaller powers because of their foreign policy behaviour – middle powers carve out a niche for themselves by pursuing a narrow range and particular types of foreign policy interest. In this way middle powers are countries that use their relative diplomatic skills in the service of international peace and stability. According to Eduard Jordaan of Singapore Management University: All middle powers display foreign policy behaviour that stabilises and legitimises the global order, typically through multilateral and cooperative initiatives. |
c_kv872605tsjh | Middle power | History and definition | Middle_power > History and definition | However, emerging and traditional middle powers can be distinguished in terms of their mutually-influencing constitutive and behavioural differences. Constitutively, traditional middle powers are wealthy, stable, egalitarian, social democratic and not regionally influential. Behaviourally, they exhibit a weak and ambivalent regional orientation, constructing identities distinct from powerful states in their regions and offer appeasing concessions to pressures for global reform. |
c_dvm9lokzg4sd | Middle power | History and definition | Middle_power > History and definition | Emerging middle powers by contrast are semi-peripheral, materially inegalitarian and recently democratised states that demonstrate much regional influence and self-association. Behaviourally, they opt for reformist and not radical global change, exhibit a strong regional orientation favouring regional integration but seek also to construct identities distinct from those of the weak states in their region. Another definition, by the Middle Powers Initiative (MPI), a program of the Global Security Institute, is that "middle power countries are politically and economically significant, internationally respected countries that have renounced the nuclear arms race, a standing that give them significant international credibility." Under this definition however, nuclear-armed states like India and Pakistan, and every state participant of the NATO nuclear sharing, would not be middle powers. |
c_2a1u9rwr1prh | Middle power | Middle power diplomacy | Middle_power > History and definition > Middle power diplomacy | According to Laura Neak of the International Studies Association: Although there is some conceptual ambiguity surrounding the term middle power, middle powers are identified most often by their international behavior–called 'middle power diplomacy'—the tendency to pursue multilateral solutions to international problems, the tendency to embrace compromise positions in international disputes, and the tendency to embrace notions of 'good international citizenship' to guide...diplomacy. Middle powers are states who commit their relative affluence, managerial skills, and international prestige to the preservation of the international order and peace. Middle powers help to maintain the international order through coalition-building, by serving as mediators and "go-betweens," and through international conflict management and resolution activities, such as UN peacekeeping. Middle powers perform these internationalist activities because of an idealistic imperative they associate with being a middle power. |
c_r4hrcaa40qw4 | Middle power | Middle power diplomacy | Middle_power > History and definition > Middle power diplomacy | The imperative is that the middle powers have a moral responsibility and collective ability to protect the international order from those who would threaten it, including, at times, the great or principal powers. This imperative was particularly profound during the most intense periods of the Cold War. According to international relations scholar Annette Baker Fox, relationships between middle powers and great powers reveal more intricate behaviors and bargaining schemes than has often been assumed. |
c_uhmuu9m552mu | Middle power | Middle power diplomacy | Middle_power > History and definition > Middle power diplomacy | According to Soeya Yoshihide, "Middle Power does not just mean a state's size or military or economic power. Rather, 'middle power diplomacy' is defined by the issue area where a state invests its resources and knowledge. Middle Power States avoid a direct confrontation with great powers, but they see themselves as 'moral actors' and seek their own role in particular issue areas, such as human rights, environment, and arms regulations. |
c_glbvhjeo586m | Middle power | Middle power diplomacy | Middle_power > History and definition > Middle power diplomacy | Middle powers are the driving force in the process of transnational institutional-building. "Characteristics of middle power diplomacy include: Commitment to multilateralism through global institutions and allying with other middle powers. High degree of civil society penetration in the country's foreign policy. |
c_lk3qs5o1phnv | Middle power | Middle power diplomacy | Middle_power > History and definition > Middle power diplomacy | A country that reflects and forms its national identity through a 'novel foreign policy': Peacekeeping, Human Security, the International Criminal Court, and the Kyoto ProtocolThe Middle Powers Initiative highlights the importance of middle powers diplomacy. Through MPI, eight international non-governmental organizations are able to work primarily with middle power governments to encourage and educate the nuclear weapons states to take immediate practical steps that reduce nuclear dangers, and commence negotiations to eliminate nuclear weapons. Middle power countries are particularly influential in issues related to arms control, being that they are politically and economically significant, internationally respected countries that have renounced the nuclear arms race, a standing that gives them significant political credibility. |
c_ofyi4s93e890 | Middle power | Self-defined by nation states | Middle_power > History and definition > Self-defined by nation states | The term first entered Canadian political discourse after World War II. Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent, for example, called Canada "a power of the middle rank" and helped to lay out the classical definition of Canadian middle power diplomacy. When he was advocating for Canada's election to the United Nations Security Council, he said that while "...the special nature of relationship to the United Kingdom and the United States complicates our responsibilities," Canada was not a "satellite" of either but would "continue to make our decisions objectively, in the light of our obligations to our own people and their interest in the welfare of the international community." |
c_osilm1ejxkcg | Middle power | Self-defined by nation states | Middle_power > History and definition > Self-defined by nation states | Canadian leaders believed Canada was a middle power because it was a junior partner in larger alliances (e.g. NATO, NORAD), was actively involved in resolving disputes outside its own region (e.g. Suez Crisis), was not a former colonial power and therefore neutral in anti-colonial struggles, worked actively in the United Nations to represent the interests of smaller nations and to prevent the dominance of the superpowers (often being elected to the United Nations Security Council for such reasons), and because it was involved in humanitarian and peacekeeping efforts around the world. In March 2008, Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd defined his country's foreign policy as one of "middle power diplomacy", along the lines of similar criteria. Australia would "influence international decision-makers" on issues such as "global economic, security and environmental challenges". |
c_2c02ry29u2rx | Middle power | Growing significance in the 21st century | Middle_power > History and definition > Growing significance in the 21st century | American political analyst Cliff Kupchan describes middle powers as "countries with significant leverage in geopolitics" but that are "less powerful than the world’s two superpowers—the United States and China." Nevertheless, Kupchan argues that middle powers—particularly in the Global South—have more power, agency, and "geopolitical heft" in the 21st century (namely the 2020s) than at any time since the Second World War. He identifies Brazil, India, Indonesia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, and Turkey as leading middle powers and describes them as "swing states" that are capable of creating new power dynamics due to their nonalignment with most great powers. Among the shared characteristics of these six nations are membership in the G20; large and fast-growing economies; and active diplomatic involvement in major events, such as the Russian invasion of Ukraine and international climate action.Kupchan attributes the emergence of stronger middle powers to several historical developments in the international system, including the weaker bipolarity between the U.S. |
c_v7z6kwq9bojk | Middle power | Growing significance in the 21st century | Middle_power > History and definition > Growing significance in the 21st century | and China (as opposed to the stricter allegiances of the Cold War and the subsequent U.S. hegemony following the collapse of the Soviet Union) and the gradual trend of deglobalization, which has fostered regionalized geopolitical and geoeconomic relationships wherein middle powers have comparatively greater influence; for example, the fragmenting of the international energy market has purportedly given Saudi Arabia, a major energy exporter, far more weight in now-smaller regional markets. Kupchan also notes the ability of these middle powers to capitalize on rivalries between the major powers in order to further their own influence, interests, or foreign policy initiatives. |
c_pjfkivmh9k1y | Middle power | Overlaps between great powers and middle powers | Middle_power > Overlaps between great powers and middle powers | The overlaps between the lists of middle powers and great powers show that there is no unanimous agreement among authorities.Nations such as China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States are generally considered to be great powers due to their economic, military or strategic importance, their status as recognised nuclear powers and their permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council. Some academics also believe that Germany and Japan are great powers, albeit due to their large, advanced economies and global influence rather than military and strategic capabilities; yet sources have at times referred to these nations as middle powers.Some in the field of international relations, such as John Kirton and Roberto Gimeno claim that Italy is a great power due to its status and membership in the G7 and NATO Quint. Moreover, according to a 2014 report by the Hague Centre for Strategic Studies (HCSS), Italy is listed among the great powers. |
c_3wv3z9nnk8z2 | Middle power | Overlaps between great powers and middle powers | Middle_power > Overlaps between great powers and middle powers | Although broad academic support for India as a great power is uncommon, some in the field of political science, such as Malik Mohan and Dr. Zbigniew Brzezinski, consider India to be a great power as well. Likewise, Brazil is sometimes referred as a great power due to its economic power and influence, with Italy at times being considered a great power due to these factors as well as its cultural power. The following eight countries have at some point in the post–Cold War era been considered great powers but also middle powers by academics or other experts: Brazil France Germany India Italy Japan Russia United KingdomThe United States and China are considered by many scholars to exceed the traditional criterion of great power, or instead to be superpowers, and are therefore not listed. |
c_gfdhpfr37o1j | Middle power | List of middle powers | Middle_power > List of middle powers | As with the great powers, there is no unanimous agreement among authorities as to which countries are considered middle powers. Lists are often the subject of much debate and tend to place comparatively large countries (e.g. Argentina) alongside relatively small ones (e.g. Norway). Clearly not all middle powers are of equal status; some are considered regional powers and members of the G20 (e.g. Australia), while others could very easily be considered small powers (e.g. Czech Republic). Some larger middle powers also play important roles in the United Nations and other international organisations such as the WTO. The following is a list of 50 countries that have been, at some point in time since the post–Cold War era, considered middle powers by academics or other experts (Members of the G-20 major economies are in bold font, except for the EU member states which are attended under a collective membership of the EU): |
c_qardrtwc80wx | Peri-urban agriculture | Summary | Peri-urban_agriculture | Peri-urban regions can be defined as 'superficial' rural areas that are within the orbit of immediate urban hubs, in other words, areas that surround large population centers. These regions can also be referred to as 'exurban areas', 'the rural-urban fringe' or the 'fringe', they include the transition zones between the outer limits of the commuter belt and the edge of newly constructed suburban areas.Peri-urban agriculture is generally defined as agriculture undertaken in places on the fringes of urban areas. However, peri-urban agriculture can be described differently depending on the myriad of urban-rural relationships, and the different farming systems within the various cities and contrasting regions around the world. For instance, the focus of peri-urban agriculture in developing countries is primarily concentrated on the relief of hunger and poverty, hence, food security, as for industrialized countries the emphasis is on ecological and social values. |
c_13quv6chza0a | Peri-urban agriculture | Summary | Peri-urban_agriculture | There is no universally agreed definition, and usage of the term generally depends on context and operational variables. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations defines peri-urban agriculture as "agriculture practices within and around cities which compete for resources (land, water, energy, labour) that could also serve other purposes to satisfy the requirements of the urban population. "The term “peri-urban” used to describe agriculture, while difficult to define in terms of geography, population density, percentage of labor force in agriculture, or any other variable, often serves the purpose of indicating areas along the urban-rural continuum. |
c_opjvlgwchtfs | Peri-urban agriculture | Summary | Peri-urban_agriculture | These are places with dynamic landscape and social change and are often invoked in conversations about growth of cities. Peri-urban agriculture is first and foremost "the production and distribution of food, fiber and fuel in and around cities". Nevertheless the leading "feature of urban and agriculture which distinguishes it from rural agriculture is its integration into the urban economic and ecological system" |
c_b2olpca6n4i3 | Peri-urban agriculture | History | Peri-urban_agriculture > History | The concept of peri-urban has become prevalent as a result of limitations in the dichotomy between rural areas and urban areas. Historically, rural and urban land have been viewed as two separate economic systems with few interactions. Often, these arguments refer to the disappearance and urbanization of rural land. Peri-urban land falls along the continuum of urban to rural land and recognizes links between the two. |
c_njbjsqf88elz | Peri-urban agriculture | Implementation | Peri-urban_agriculture > Implementation | Urban and peri-urban agriculture is expected to become increasingly important for food security and nutrition as rural land is built up. It is predicted to be particularly key for growing perishable produce accessible to the approximately 700 million urban residents already living in developing countries, especially because most growth is expected to take place in urban areas of developing countries.Urban and peri-urban agriculture tend to differ in their form and their purpose. "Urban" usually refers to small areas such as vacant plots, gardens, balconies, containers within cities for growing crops and raising small livestock or milk cows for own consumption or sale in neighbourhood markets. Peri-urban farming more often consists of units close to town which operate intensive semi- or fully commercial farms to grow vegetables and other horticulture, raise chickens and other livestock, and produce milk and eggs.Peri-urban livestock production is often based on small ruminants such as goats and sheep, which occupy less space than cows and bulls, are subjects of virtually no religious taboos, can provide both meat and milk, and generally reproduce at two to three years old. |
c_6zy10vajssmm | Peri-urban agriculture | Benefits | Peri-urban_agriculture > Benefits | Peri-urban agriculture provides environmental benefits by preserving or creating urban open space in city edges where green space may be threatened by expanding urbanization. In addition to aesthetics, preservation and creation of green space has positive climatic effects including augmenting carbon sequestration, reducing the urban heat island effect, and providing a habitat for organisms. Peri-urban agriculture may also help recycle urban greywater and other products of wastewater, helping to conserve water and reduce waste. |
c_6scej6vmz22f | Peri-urban agriculture | Ecosystem services | Peri-urban_agriculture > Benefits > Ecosystem services | Urban and peri-urban agricultural systems can improve urban environments through provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural ecosystem services. Ecosystem services are "the benefits human populations derive from ecosystems". Through the use of vacant lots and open spaces in urban and man-made environments, urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) contribute to the increase of ecosystem services in these otherwise low providing areas. Additionally, urban and peri-urban agriculture may prevent the extension of agriculture in rural areas, therefore, allowing the preservation and protection of threatened ecosystems and their ecosystem services. |
c_qo9phqotfkj8 | Peri-urban agriculture | Ecosystem services | Peri-urban_agriculture > Benefits > Ecosystem services | Also, the increase of food production capacity in urban and peri-urban areas allows the decrease of the conversions of non-agricultural land to farmland. Moreover, the level of degradation or revitalization of ecosystem services depends on whether an agricultural system is being managed in a sustainable way. For agricultural sustainability is not only about agricultural production but also about managing the landscapes surrounding the agricultural activities. Some of the ecosystem services provided by urban and peri-urban agriculture are inter alia, wildlife habitat, nutrient cycling, temperature regulation, carbon sequestration, water filtration and flood prevention, cultural information, and recreation. |
c_99blwf98jv7u | Peri-urban agriculture | Supporting | Peri-urban_agriculture > Benefits > Ecosystem services > Supporting | Urban and peri-urban agriculture zones are key drivers for sustainability and urban biodiversity. Biodiversity favors resilience by supporting and mitigating the negative impacts of the built environment by hosting a diversity of fauna and flora. Also, small urban and peri-urban managed systems have higher quality soil formation than agricultural soils, because of the regular inputs of organic matter, such as composts and manures. |
c_1zqb9x7xq230 | Peri-urban agriculture | Regulating | Peri-urban_agriculture > Benefits > Ecosystem services > Regulating | High levels of air pollution are present in urban centers which can have negative effects on human health, therefore urban and peri-urban agriculture can help mitigate greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) through carbon storage and carbon sequestration. Furthermore, urban and peri-urban systems contribute to regulating temperatures in cities, in fact, evapotranspiration from urban and peri-urban agriculture can reduce the effects of urban heat islands. |
c_kgfz7xuawq7t | Peri-urban agriculture | Provisioning | Peri-urban_agriculture > Benefits > Ecosystem services > Provisioning | The production of local food contributes to food security and food safety, by shortening the supply chain and reducing transportation. |
c_uau391uzlah0 | Peri-urban agriculture | Cultural | Peri-urban_agriculture > Benefits > Ecosystem services > Cultural | Alongside supporting and regulating ecosystem services, urban and peri-urban systems have a cultural and traditional value, some consider urban and peri-urban agriculture as a form of leisure, whereas other as a way of maintaining and perpetuating cultural and traditional agricultural practices. |
c_bcy7ep11mqm7 | Peri-urban agriculture | Multifunctionality | Peri-urban_agriculture > Benefits > Multifunctionality | Peri-urban agriculture is multifunctional. "Multifunctional agriculture" refers to agriculture beyond its primary role of producing food and fibre, but as also having other functions. The key elements of multifunctionality are commodity and non-commodity outputs. Commodity outputs are food and fiber, as well as marketable products such as tourism. Non-commodity outputs include, food security, food safety, environmental protection, biodiversity, and a rural way of life.Also, the concept of multifunctionality is based on the idea of sustainable development, it aims at integrating the information over time and the geography of land uses and functions beyond its traditional function of food production, to include nature conservation, hydrological balance, aesthetics and recreation. According to OECD, "beyond its primary function of supplying food and fiber, agricultural activity can also shape the landscape, provide environmental benefits such as land conservation, the sustainable management of renewable natural resources and the preservation of biodiversity, and contribute to the socio-economic viability of many rural areas". |
c_k7ffmc61ejy4 | Peri-urban agriculture | Social | Peri-urban_agriculture > Benefits > Multifunctionality > Social | In developing countries, besides the question of food security, one significant social dimension of peri-urban agriculture, specifically around production sites, is the rebuilding of communities and civil society.Studies have shown that urban gardening and farming, particularly when done in a community setting, have positive effects on nutrition, fitness, self-esteem, and happiness, providing a benefit for both physical and mental health.Closely related to health is food security, or dependable access to adequate and nutritious food. Urban gardening may be an opportunity for the urban poor to produce food for themselves or to sell their products for income, adding to income security. Localized agriculture can also improve resilience by ensuring that there will be a more certain food supply in times of shortage, instability, and uncertainty. |
c_826ze7437wpb | Peri-urban agriculture | Social | Peri-urban_agriculture > Benefits > Multifunctionality > Social | Indeed, peri-urban agriculture can be advantageous because of the proximity of production to the consumer. Particularly, the fresh fruits, vegetables and local foods that are available for communities and neighborhoods that live in food deserts.In addition, residents who share a plot of land may benefit from social interaction and recreation with others. Agriculture is often an effective strategy for poverty reduction and social integration of disadvantaged groups, with the aims of integrating them into the urban network, providing a decent livelihood, and preventing social problems such as drugs and crime. |
c_xdnduzchssla | Peri-urban agriculture | Environmental | Peri-urban_agriculture > Benefits > Multifunctionality > Environmental | In many urban areas peri-urban agriculture reduces the environmental impacts of urban expansion by serving as an ecological buffer. Unlike traditional farmers, peri-urban professionals have greater conscious of the ecological value of the environment.Moreover, local production and consumption of foods reduces the consumption of energy due to shorter transportation distances, less packaging and processing, and greater efficiency in production inputs. Likewise, the recycling of urban waste into compost and waste water for irrigation conserves energy. Peri-urban systems, can also contribute to biodiversity conservation through the integration of native species, as well as modify positively urban micro-climates by regulating humidity, providing shade and regulating the wind.Comparatively to conventional food systems, the limited use of energy in peri-urban agriculture reduces greenhouse gas emissions and has lower impacts on global warming. |
c_leavhso4gt0p | Peri-urban agriculture | Economic | Peri-urban_agriculture > Benefits > Multifunctionality > Economic | The new business opportunities generated by peri-urban agriculture allow the creation of jobs and the generation of revenue, as well as improving local infrastructure and services, such as the construction of roads, schools, and restaurants. It also furthers agricultural training and education. Indeed, beyond providing productivity to vacant land, treated wastewater and recycled waste, urban and peri-urban agriculture is an important source of income for many urban poor. Farming households lower their food costs substantially and can generate income by selling excess produce, which is significant, as urban poor commonly spend 50-70% of their income on food. |
c_f4vgu681y423 | Peri-urban agriculture | Economic | Peri-urban_agriculture > Benefits > Multifunctionality > Economic | In addition to farming jobs, peri-urban agriculture can spark a need for traders, input suppliers, processors, marketers, and others. Peri-urban agriculture gives women and other non-heads of household a low-barrier occupation through which to support their families, adding to household productivity and giving women an outlet to assert themselves.Producing food in areas nearby to cities shortens supply chains, which aids quality and cost. The proximity of peri-urban farms to urban areas incurs cost savings compared to those in rural areas, as farms are still able to take advantage of economies of scale, to an extent, and require less transportation infrastructure to bring food in from city outskirts. Perishable products are more easily preserved. Peri-urban farms are also able to flexibly respond and market themselves to urban consumer demands, since they are able to be closer and more specialized, and are tightly linked to the urban economy. |
c_fuquilorrol5 | Peri-urban agriculture | Challenges | Peri-urban_agriculture > Challenges | Challenges for peri-urban agriculture, like its benefits, arise from its proximity to densely built urban areas. Competition for resources with other urban sectors, aspects of agriculture that may be unpleasant for city dwellers, and quality of inputs must all be monitored. Wise resource allocation is a quintessential struggle for agriculture, and is especially greater for peri-urban agriculture than rural agriculture due to its proximity to greater numbers of people and to existing stresses on the urban environment. Peri-urban agriculture uses land, water, labor, and energy that might be used by other urban economic sectors. |
c_gxphywcussrx | Peri-urban agriculture | Outputs | Peri-urban_agriculture > Challenges > Outputs | Peri-urban agriculture produces some aspects that may be unpleasant for urban residents, including smells, noises, pollution, and disease. Management of animal waste can be challenging, since manure may contain chemicals and heavy metals unsuitable for use as fertilizer – and may even be hazardous. Runoff from facilities leads to overnutriented soils and water, which can in turn cause eutrophication and algal blooms in nearby water supplies.Pathogens are often spread from wastewater reused for irrigation, from live animals in close proximity to dense human populations, and the disposal or sale of manure. Crops are an opportunity to reuse urban waste productively, and wastewater as an irrigation source in particular has been explored by some cities to conserve water. |
c_i3d9m2foc4nv | Peri-urban agriculture | Outputs | Peri-urban_agriculture > Challenges > Outputs | If not treated properly before application, this wastewater can contaminate crops or surrounding vegetation with pathogens that make them unsafe for human consumption. This is a food safety concern especially in markets with unlicensed vendors and missing enforcement of safety regulations, which are common venues for small urban and peri-urban farmers.Animals raised in a peri-urban agriculture setting are by nature in close proximity to dense human populations and are often sold live or processed at food markets. |
c_ez0vl78auair | Peri-urban agriculture | Outputs | Peri-urban_agriculture > Challenges > Outputs | Animal production is not allowed in some city centers – for example, in Beijing it is not allowed within the borders of a certain road that delineates the city center, but on the outskirts of cities it is growing as an industrial production system particularly as diets change to demand more meat. This has been a major factor in the avian influenza epidemics that have heavily affected Hong Kong, Nigeria, and Egypt. During outbreaks, people are advised to avoid open poultry markets.The disposal of manure is a concern as well, since manure from industrial livestock systems may contain levels of chemicals such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and heavy metals which characterize it as a solid waste when used in excess. This is not only a concern in urban and peri-urban areas, but also faces rural farms as well. |
c_otdz9rc93gb5 | Peri-urban agriculture | Insufficient or inferior inputs | Peri-urban_agriculture > Challenges > Insufficient or inferior inputs | Due to its competition for resources and pressure to shift to industrial systems that will meet urban demand, inappropriate or excessive use of agricultural inputs including pesticides, nitrogen, phosphorus, and raw organic matter containing undesirable residues such as heavy metals, is a concern. The nature of the environment nearby to urban areas can be hazardous to agricultural production. There are physical, chemical, and fungal threats in the form of roadway exhaust and debris, dense urban populations, water and soil pollution by organic pollutants, industrial chemicals, heavy metals, and antibiotics, and fungal and secondary metabolites. |
c_c1p9n3f2dgka | Peri-urban agriculture | Uncertainty of land ownership | Peri-urban_agriculture > Challenges > Uncertainty of land ownership | Another major challenge to the viability of both urban and peri-urban agriculture is land availability due to changing land rights, uses, and values. High population densities lead to competition and conflicts over land and natural resources as land is converted from agricultural to residential and business uses, and as the intensity of agriculture practiced on scarce spaces available increases. In addition, many urban and peri-urban farmers are urban poor and are frequently women, who tend to be economically vulnerable. |
c_f9vtdmvsvzu0 | Assur ostracon and tablets | Summary | Assur_ostracon_and_tablets | The Assur ostracon and tablets are a series of Aramaic or Phoenician inscriptions found during the 1903-13 excavations of Assur by the Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft. They are currently in the Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin (ostracon is V. A. 8384). |
c_6fnb3o64v4ew | Assur ostracon and tablets | Ostracon | Assur_ostracon_and_tablets > Ostracon | The ostracon was found in six fragments. It is thought to be a letter addressed by an Assyrian official to one of his colleagues. It is one of the earliest known examples of Aramaic cursive script, including ligatures. It is the longest known Aramaic letter written on an ostracon.It is also known as KAI 233. Although decipherment has proven challenging, the inscription is considered to be structured in two parts: Lines 1-18: A letter from Assyrian official Bel-etir to another Assyrian official Pir’i-amurri, during the period of the rebellion of King Shamash-shum-ukin against his brother Ashurbanipal Lines 19-21: A letter from Bel-etir to another unidentifiable person |
c_04mfahhll6qe | Assur ostracon and tablets | Tablets | Assur_ostracon_and_tablets > Tablets | Nine Phoenician inscribed tablets were found during the same expedition. They are also known as KAI 234-236. |
c_irc44apc6jhx | Job crafting | Summary | Job_crafting | Job crafting is an individually-driven work design process which refers to self-initiated, proactive strategies to change the characteristics of one's job to better align the job with personal needs, goals, and skills. Individuals engage in job crafting as a means to experience greater meaning at work, a positive work identity, better work-related well-being, and better job performance. As a topic of scientific inquiry, job crafting was built on research that suggests employees do not always enact the job descriptions that are formally assigned to them, but instead actively shape and utilize their jobs to fit their needs, values, and preferences. |
c_u33lkpjxjkrm | Job crafting | Summary | Job_crafting | Classic job design theory typically focuses on the ways in which managers design jobs for their employees. As a work design strategy, job crafting represents a departure from this thinking in that the redesign is driven by employees, is not negotiated with the employer and may not even be noticed by the manager. This idea also distinguishes job crafting from other 'bottom-up' redesign approaches such as idiosyncratic ideals (i-deals) which explicitly involve negotiation between the employee and employer. |
c_7exod9hue7to | Job crafting | Theoretical background | Job_crafting > Theoretical background | The term 'job crafting' was originally coined by Amy Wrzesniewski and Jane E. Dutton in 2001, however the idea that employees may redesign their jobs without the involvement of management has been present in job design literature since 1987. Wrzesniewski and Dutton's (2001) initial definition limited job crafting to three forms: Changes made by employees in their jobs tasks (i.e. task crafting), job relationships (i.e. relational crafting), and meaning of the job (i.e. cognitive crafting). More recent developments have indicated that employees may change other aspects of the job; to cover this broader scope, Maria Tims and Arnold B. Bakker proposed in 2010 that job crafting be framed within the job-demands resources (JD-R) model.Recent theoretical developments have classified job crafting behaviours into two higher-order constructs: Approach crafting, which refers to self-directed actions to gain positive work aspects; and avoidance crafting, which refers to self-directed actions to avoid negative work aspects. These two constructs can then be further differentiated depending on whether the job crafting is behavioural (i.e. the individual makes actual changes to the job) or cognitive (i.e. the individual changes the way they think about the work). Further differentiating can then be made depending on whether individuals change their job resources or job demands, resulting in eight 'types' of job crafting (e.g., approach behavioural resource crafting). |
c_0t2264uylf2r | Job crafting | Forms of job crafting | Job_crafting > Forms of job crafting | Task crafting — This involves changing the type, scope, sequence, and number of tasks that make up one's job. Employees may take initiative to change the tasks they carry out, change the way they work, or change the timing of their tasks. In doing so, employees exert a level of control over their work, which has been shown to minimize negative feelings (e.g., alienation). Relational crafting — This refers to changing the nature of interactions at work. |
c_0wk39u6arv98 | Job crafting | Forms of job crafting | Job_crafting > Forms of job crafting | For example, employees may choose to what extent and how they approach colleagues, or to what extent they get involved in work group social activities. Cognitive crafting — This involves an modifying one's perceptions about their job to ascribe more meaning to the work. For example, an employee might continuously re-evaluate how work influences them and how connected they are to the work. This could involve considering observations at work and evaluating how well those observations align with personal goals, ideals, and passions. |
c_43xw87n6subt | Job crafting | For employees | Job_crafting > Practical implications > For employees | If enacted properly, job crafting is a method for employees to improve their quality of life at work in several important ways, as well as make valuable contributions to the workplace. The uniqueness of individual workers makes it exceptionally difficult for organizations to create 'one size fits all' work designs. Job crafting means that work designs are not fixed, and can be adapted over time to accommodate employees' unique backgrounds, motives, and preferences. The success of a job crafter may depend largely on their ability to take advantage of available resources (i.e. people, technology, raw materials etc) to reorganise, restructure, and reframe a job. Research has demonstrated that this type of resourcefulness can help employees get more enjoyment and meaning out of work, enhance their work identities, cope with adversity, and perform better. |
c_o08v0u8p06nt | Job crafting | For managers | Job_crafting > Practical implications > For managers | Job crafting has the potential to positively influence both individual and organizational performance, meaning it is in the interest of managers to create a context that facilitates resourceful job crafting. Highly prescribed, restrictive job designs may limit employees from making positive changes in the way they perform tasks, taking on additional tasks, altering interactions with others, or viewing their jobs in an alternative way. On the other hand, job crafting that is beneficial for the job crafter may be harmful to the goals of the organization and produce negative effects. |
c_8u8niho21hmx | Job crafting | For managers | Job_crafting > Practical implications > For managers | Therefore, in addition to allowing room for crafting, managers must build a shared understanding with employees that job crafting is encouraged so long as it aligns with the organizations overall strategy. Maintaining open lines of communication between managers and employees and building trust may promote positive job crafting which is favourable to both the individual crafter and the organization. == References == |
c_98b8m67w9qg8 | Johan Skytte Prize in Political Science | Summary | Johan_Skytte_Prize_in_Political_Science | The Johan Skytte Prize in Political Science (Swedish: Skytteanska priset) was established in 1995 by the Johan Skytte Foundation at Uppsala University. The foundation itself goes back to the donation in 1622 from Johan Skytte (1577–1645), politician and chancellor of the university, which established the Skyttean professorship of Eloquence and Government. The prize, 500,000 Swedish kronor (approximately $52,000) is to be given "to the scholar who in the view of the Foundation has made the most valuable contribution to political science". Since its creation in 1995, the Johan Skytte Prize has garnered a prestigious reputation within the social science community, earning the nickname "the Nobel Prize for Political Science." According to reputation surveys conducted in 2013–2014 and 2018, it is the most prestigious international academic award in political science. |
c_b0mqeo7jtq2q | Wolfgang Wickler | Summary | Wolfgang_Wickler | Wolfgang Wickler is a German zoologist, behavioral researcher and author. He led the ethological department of the Max Planck Institute for Behavioral Physiology from 1974, and he took over as director of the institute in 1975. Even after he was given emeritus status, he remained closely associated to the institute in Seewiesen and ensured its smooth transition under the newly created Max Planck Institute for Ornithology. |
c_brwbdk0ccxsw | Wolfgang Wickler | Career | Wolfgang_Wickler > Career | After finishing secondary school in 1951, he studied biology and then received a grant to go to the Max Planck Institute for Behavioral Physiology, where he was a student of Konrad Lorenz and Erich von Holst. After he completed his doctoral work on the behavior of fish, he was scientific assistant in Seewiesen as of 1960 and finally qualified to become a professor at the University of Munich in 1969. He was also appointed to be a professor in the faculty of natural sciences there in 1976. By 1970, he was a lecturer in the Catholic theological faculty for the biological foundations of human moral concepts. |
c_fa3vy6qhij9b | Wolfgang Wickler | Career | Wolfgang_Wickler > Career | Wickler's area of specialisation was the reconstruction of racial history of animal communities and the analysis of communication of animals. Among other areas, he investigated the "dialects" of birds and he also wrote a book about mimicry in 1968 which was the only book on the subject in the German language until 2002. Other research fields of his department at the Max Planck Institute for Behavioral Physiology were studies about the social behavior of spiders and grasshoppers, about acquisition of food, reproduction and mating of prawns, as well as rather philosophical publications on "biological explanation" in connection with ethical questions (such as "Die Biologie der zehn Gebote", The Biology of the Ten Commandments, in 1971). |
c_umrhsftfdyjp | Wolfgang Wickler | Career | Wolfgang_Wickler > Career | He received great attention in the broad public in 1981 with the sociobiologically shaped book, "Das Prinzip Eigennutz" (The Principle of Self-Interest), which Wickler wrote with Ute Seibt, as well as the book, "Männlich – weiblich. Ein Naturgesetz und seine Folgen" (Male - Female, a Natural Law and its Consequences), also written with Ute Seibt in 1983. The focal point of both books was the evolution of behavior. |
c_w1lhwf8tv2za | Wolfgang Wickler | Career | Wolfgang_Wickler > Career | The central question was formulated as, "How must the behavior of living things have been formed, if the theory of evolution is correct?" (from the foreword to "Das Prinzip Eigennutz"). |