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From Ancestry.com Wiki | Institution and Organization Records This article is part of a series. |Civilian Conservation Corps| |Coroner or Medical Examiner Records| |Prisons and Penitentiary Records| This article originally appeared in "Business, Institution, and Organization Records" by Kay Haviland Freilich, CG, CGL, and Ann Carter Fleming, CG, CGL in The Source: A Guidebook to American Genealogy Orphanages, which date from the seventeenth century in England, were originally workhouses, poorhouses, and asylums. Modern orphanages hardly resemble those depicted by Charles Dickens, but their purpose is the same: to shelter orphaned and abandoned children. Such institutions have existed in the United States for at least two centuries. They have been operated by civil authorities, religious groups, and private benefactors. The types of records kept vary and are often difficult to locate. For background about orphanages in America, see “The Rise and Demise of the American Orphanage” by Dale Keiger at http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/496web/orphange.html. Orphanages were especially active during the period between the Civil War and the Great Depression, when they cared for more of America’s dependent children than any other means. The great majority of these children were more correctly “half orphans” who had lost one parent but still had one living parent. There was a tremendous variation in how the orphanages functioned and in the level of care and education the orphans received.60 During the early history of the United States, town and county officials appointed or elected overseers of the poor to deal with paupers and orphaned children. Local courts usually appointed guardians to care for orphans who might be heirs to property. When relatives or local residents were unwilling or unable to care for the child, he or she, if old enough, was bound out to learn a trade. If the child was too young, he or she was sent to an institution, usually maintained on a local level. County court records or probate records may give the date the child was apprenticed, to whom, and the trade to be learned. These are often indexed under “orphans,” “apprentices,” or “paupers” in court indexes and dockets. For example, the Overseer of the Poor in Ohio County, Indiana, made the following report and financial accounting in May 1827. - May Term 1827 - And now at this time comes Alexander Dale Overseer of the Poor in and for Harrison Township in Ohio County and exhibits an account of Monies by him Received of Wilkerson McCarty Administrator of the Estate of Samuel McCarty Deceased, which the said Administrator States is the sum which was coming to Nancy Smith (Now a pauper of said Harrison Township) as one of the Heirs at Law of the said Decedent amounting to twenty-two Dollars and Ninety Cents #22.90. Out of which Sum of $22.90 it appears he (Dale) has paid to Eleazur Carver the Sum of Sixteen Dollars and Ninety Three 3/4 cents for keeping said pauper the Last half of the Year ending on the first Monday of May 1827 it being the full of the balance due said Carver for keeping the said pauper the year aforesaid. Leaving in the hands of the said Alexander Dale Overseer as aforesaid the Sum of Five Dollars and Ninety Seven Cents. Aside he (Dale) also exhibits an account against the County for Services by him rendered as Overseer afsd as follows to wit: - To Tending court one day with Carver $1.00 - To Binding out a poor boy to the Cabinet making business 1.00 - To Advertising and letting out Nancy Smith pauper aforesd for 1827 2.00 - For making report of Sale to Clerk 1.00 - For going to Carver’s to see pauper and settling with him for keeping pauper one year, the half of his pay 1.00 - Amounting in the whole to the sum of $6.00 - Which account of Six Dollars is allowed by the Board for the Services aforesaid. And the said Overseer agrees to retain and keep in his hands the aforesaid Five Dollars & Ninety Seven Cents in full satisfaction of the aforesaid Charge against the County to Six Dollars which is approved by the Board.61 Orphanages maintained by state and local governments were funded agencies that may have maintained better records than private and church agencies. Their files usually include the child’s name, age or date of birth, birthplace, date of admission, names of parents, birthplaces of parents, name and residence of nearest kin, date of discharge, to whom indentured and when, whether the child was orphaned or abandoned, and any remarks. These records are available at orphanages that are still in operation. Otherwise, the records of a state-operated establishment may be with the state archivist or the state’s Department of Social and Welfare Services. Write to both offices to insure that you have identified and obtained all existing records. Records of closed orphanages operated below the state level may be deposited with the town, city, or county clerk, the local agency responsible for currently operating orphanages, or a local historical society or research library. Some records may be in the possession of the families of institution officials. Orphanages operated by religious groups and private benefactors also kept records useful for researchers. The Vine Street Orphan’s [sic] Home of Chattanooga, Tennessee, operated by the Women’s Christian Association of Chattanooga, maintained excellent records, including a diary of the home, lists of subscribers, names and ages of children there, matrons’ reports, secretaries’ reports, minutes of the Women’s Christian Association meetings, and managers’ books and journals between 1879 and 1903. The attached image is a page from the matron’s report dated 30 May 1887. It notes which children were placed with families (“Laura Henry taken from the Home by Mrs. DeGrummond May 10th”) and also their retrieval (“Martha Bennett taken from Dr. Hall May 16th on account of ill useage [sic] by them”). The Applications for Children record book provides more information on placement. Sometime between her admission in May 1887 and an entry dated December 1888, Laura Henry’s grandmother asked for custody, but “investigation showed her to be unworthy.” Another child, Frankie Tipton, was adopted by the F. McCullum family of Wilmington, Ohio, in December 1888. The minutes of board meetings also contain valuable information. The August 1887 minutes report that Jennie Davis, who had left two children with the home for two or three years, had remarried a man named Holmes, and that they had had a child of their own. She “intends applying for them,” and her husband “prefers [sic] a request for the two children. He represents himself as their father. Decided to let them have the one in the Home,” but the second, in “a good home with Mrs. Frank George . . . would be left there at least for the present.” The managers’ books contain administrative information about employee salaries, statistics, health and financial reports, and other information unrelated to a specific orphan. A much briefer and more formal record, the 1876 Register of the Jewish Foster Home and Orphan Asylum in Philadelphia, gives the child’s name, age, admission date, birthplace, names and birthplaces of parents, closest kin and address, date of discharge, indenturing, and trade. This register does not explain the circumstances surrounding the child’s placement in the home, but many records do. The early records of nongovernment-operated orphanages that are no longer in existence may be difficult to locate. If the orphanage is or was operated by a religious group, the records may be at its headquarters. The Catholic church, which operated the largest number of nongovernmental orphanages in metropolitan cities, usually maintains diocesan archives. State and local historical societies may have some early orphanage records; university libraries are anxious to get them, and many are in the possession of families of institution officials. Check the NUCMC under the name of the institution, names of officials, and localities where orphanages existed. Problems with using orphanage records include damage, lack of legibility and availability, and difficulty in determining their location. Court records of placement can sometimes be substituted for incomplete or nonexistent orphanage records. But access to officially-recorded adoption records varies widely from one jurisdiction to another. In Ohio, adoptions after 1 January 1964 are confidential and the records are sealed. Access to records of earlier adoptions in the state is only permitted to adopting parents, the adopted person, and lineal descendants. In contrast, both Alaska and Kansas maintain open adoption records. The information found in orphanage records can be critically important to the family historian. The Vine Street matron’s report of 30 May 1887 notes that Alice Moore was “taken by Mrs. Day, Ringold, Georgia.” Unless family records reflect her transfer to the Day household in Georgia, the researcher might spend endless hours searching for records in Chattanooga, Tennessee, since that is where the Vine Street Orphans Home is located. Furthermore, if her name was changed to Day, it might be impossible to trace her parents without the orphanage link to the name Moore. - Researching Business, Institution, and Organization Records - List of Useful Business, Institution, and Organization Resources

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Michael Trimble, a British professor at the Institute of Neurology in London, begins his new book with Gana the gorilla. In the summer of 2009, 11-year-old Gana gave birth to a boy at a Muenster zoo. But one day in August, the baby suddenly and mysteriously died. Gana held up her son in front of her, staring at his limp body. She held him close, stroking him. To onlookers it appeared that Gana was trying to reawaken him, and, as the hours passed, that she was mourning his passing. Some at the zoo that day cried. But Gana did not. Humans, Trimble tells us, are the only creatures who cry for emotional reasons. “Why Humans Like to Cry” is an exploration of why this would be so, a neuroanatomical “where do tears come from.” It’s also a meditation on human psychology. Many distinctions have been offered between humans and the rest of the animal world, and to this list Trimble adds another: the anguished tear, the apprehension that life is tragic. Trimble answered questions from Mind Matters editor Gareth Cook. Cook: How did you first become interested in crying? Trimble: Of course, because I cry, and some things bring tears quite easily, notably music, and opera with the power of the human voice. Crying tears, for emotional reasons, is unique to humans. There has been a game of catch me if you can, which has been played by those interested in finding attributes or behaviours which separate humans from our nearest living relatives – namely the chimpanzees and bonobos. Certainly our propositional language is very special, but primate communities have very sophisticated ways of communicating. Other contenders, such as play, using tools, or having what is called theory of mind (the sense that I know that others have a mind very like mine, with similar inclinations and intentions) have all been argued as unique to our species, but all these have been demonstrated, in some form, to be found in other primates. Emotional crying makes us human. Cook: What is known about crying in the animal world? Trimble: Tears are necessary to keep the eyeball moist, and contain proteins and other substances which maintain the eye healthy and to combat infection. Tearing occurs in many animals in response to irritants which get in the eye, and in some settings tears fall for simple anatomical facts. When an elephant is standing, tears run down the trunk, but when lying down, the flow is impeded and tears may be seen coming from the eyes. It may be that animals that are abused shed tears, from pain, although observations of this are rare. Cook: How is crying different in humans? Trimble: Humans cry for many reasons, but crying for emotional reasons and crying in response to aesthetic experiences are unique to us. The former is most associated with loss and bereavement, and the art forms that are most associated with tears are music, literature and poetry. There are very few people who cry looking at paintings, sculptures or lovely buildings. But we also have tears of joy the associated feelings of which last a shorter time than crying in the other circumstances. Cook: What do you find most interesting about the neuroscience of crying? Trimble: If it is the case that only humans cry emotionally, then there must have been a time in human evolution when tears took on an additional meaning to their hitherto biological functions , namely as a signal of distress, and a cipher for suffering. In my book I discuss at when in the past our ancestors may come to possess this trait. I suggest that this is connected with the dawning of self-consciousness, with the development of theory of mind, and the realisation that the self and others can disappear. Attachment emotionally to others, with the development of sophisticated facial gestures associated with suffering, and with loss and bereavement ensued. All this before the development of our elegant propositional language. The emotional responses became largely unconscious and innate, and identification of tears as a signal for such distress was an important addition the so called Social brain, the circuitry of which can now be identified in the human brain. I also discuss the differences between the neuroanatomy of the human brain and that of chimpanzees and other closely related primates, which may explain our ability to respond emotionally with tears to the arts. The brain areas involved are widespread, but link our cerebral cortex especially anteriorly with those areas associated with the representation of emotion – so called limbic structures and our autonomic system. The latter co-ordinates heart rate, breathing, and vocal output, all of which collaborate in the expression of emotion with tears.

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We decided to see what would have happened if Perot had run a more a more sustained long-term campaign than he did (if you’ll remember, he pulled back from active campaigning in the summer, then re-charged his efforts in September). The results of this particular hypothetical are quite revealing. Perot would have won the presidency in 1992 if he increased his vote percentage from 18.91% (the real result) to 34.79%, less than twice what he actually managed, winning a landslide of 320 electoral votes. He could have achieved this by drawing equally from Bush and Clinton in all states, but, and this is important, without winning the popular vote. In this scenario, Clinton would still have been the winner of the popular vote at 35.07%. As we actually did in 2000, we would have had a president elected without winning the popular vote. See the Excel spreadsheet with the data. Despite exit polls that showed that Perot drew essentially equally from his rivals, many people feel that Perot siphoned more support from Bush than from Clinton. Humoring this position, we also took a look at what would have happened if Perot drew 60% of his votes from would-be Bush voters, and 40% from Clinton. With those numbers, the Electoral College result would have been dramatically different. Perot would have won only 248 electoral votes, no one would have won a majority in the Electoral College, and the election would have been decided in Congress. Here’s the spreadsheet on this scenario. Just a slightly smaller percentage increase for Perot (34.04% as opposed to the 35.07% of the first example, drawing equally from Bush and Clinton) would also have dramatically altered the Electoral College result. Perot would have won only 241 electoral votes, also with no electoral vote majority and a House-decided presidency. See those numbers here. What does it all mean? A few things. First, it shows us that a strong third party candidate can, in fact, win an election. It is not implausible to speculate that someone like Michael Bloomberg could turn in a very strong showing in the 35% range in a three-way race. In our 1992 hypothetical, that was all Perot would have needed. Our fictional-yet-feasible election scenario also debunks the myth that the Electoral College is the biggest obstacle in the way of a third party candidate winning the presidency. There are, indeed, many forces working against an independent run for the White House, but as our example shows, the Electoral College is not necessarily one of them. Finally, we can see how our current system is so vulnerable to electing popular vote losers, especially in a situation where states can be won by a small plurality of just over 33% in a three-way race. The solutions? States are already signing onto the National Popular Vote plan to neutralize the Electoral College. Other states are seriously debating instant runoff voting, a voting method proving popular in cities, that protects majority rule while accommodating voter choice.

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These four words are commonly used when speaking about holidays and vacations. They are also often confused. Here is a guide to the use of these four critical words. As a noun, 'travel' refers to the activity in general and is generally used as an uncountable noun. I enjoy travel and playing golf. Travel and music are two of my favorite activities. 'Travel' can also be used as a verb and refers to the activity of moving from one place to another. Generally, 'travel' is used as a general verb and is rather formal. People often use the mode of transport to express this activity. I travelled by plane to Madrid. = I flew to Madrid. She travelled more than three hundred miles to get to the meeting. = She drove more than three hundred miles to get to the meeting. Sometimes, 'travel' is also used as a countable noun in the plural form. In this case, it is often used in the sense that someone has been to many different places during one longer journey. This usage is also rather formal, and isn't likely to be used much in everyday speech. His travels took to the far corners of the globe. Ms Bancroft sketched extensively during her travels around Europe. 'Trip' is a countable noun which indicates travel to and from a place. It is often used together with the reason for the return journey. I took a trip to the coast last weekend to relax. Frank needs to take some time off and maybe take a trip to some exotic location. Journey refers to the actual time spent travelling. It tends to be used in British English more often than in American English. How was your journey from Oxford? The journey to Rome was long and tiring. 'Voyage' refers specifically to long distance travel by sea. The voyage to Japan takes about two weeks from San Francisco. Many voyages were made to the Indian Ocean during that period. Other Common Travel Expressions A 'flight' is a noun which refers to travel by air. It is similar to the verb 'fly' which means to travel by air. My flight was delayed in Chicago. She needs to book a flight to San Diego next week. She flew to London last weekend. They might fly a jet next weekend. 'Drive' is both a verb and a countable noun. It refers to travel by car or other four wheeled vehicle. The drive to the coast is beautiful. She drove for six hours non-stop. Let's take a drive in the countryside. Would you like to drive, or should I? 'Ride' is generally used as a verb, but can also be used as a noun. It refers to travel by bicycle or motorcycle. Janet rode her bicycle to the grocery store. Can I ride your motorcycle? Let's take a ride on our bikes through the countryside. Walk, Jog, Run and Sprint 'Walk', 'jog', and 'run' are also used as both verbs and countable nouns. They refer to travel on foot. Walking is the slowest, jogging faster, running still faster and sprinting the fastest. Here are some examples that show the different speed: I walk through the park on a sunny summer's day. I jogged three miles last week. Peter ran the last quarter mile to his home. He sprinted the final fifty meters to the finish line. 'Hike' is used as a verb and as a countable noun and refers specifically to walking in the mountains or countryside. We went on a hike in Mount Rainier National Park last weekend. She hiked 10 miles in six hours.

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Scientists at North Carolina State University have confirmed the existence of a second species of Pfiesteria, a toxic microbe linked to fish kills - and, in some cases, to human health problems - along the mid-Atlantic coast. Researchers from NC State's Aquatic Botany Laboratory will present their findings, including a description of the new species, Pfiesteria shumwayae, on Saturday, March 11, at the Southeastern Estuarine Research Society (SEERS) conference in Wilmington, N.C. Dr. JoAnn M. Burkholder, NC State professor of aquatic botany and marine sciences, says P. shumwayae is the second species identified from "the toxic Pfiesteria complex," a group of closely related dinoflagellate marine organisms believed responsible for killing millions of fish from the Chesapeake Bay to the Gulf of Mexico. "As our knowledge of these organisms grows and improved techniques become available to detect them, we'll probably identify a dozen separate species," said Burkholder, the world's leading Pfiesteria expert. "We're still just knocking on the door with this discovery." Burkholder co-discovered the first Pfiesteria species, Pfiesteria piscicida, in 1989. "Piscicida" in Latin means "fish killer." Research under Burkholder's direction at the NC State Aquatic Botany Lab found that P. shumwayae - pronounced "shum-way-eye" - is genetically and structurally different from its better-known cousin, P. piscicida. Additionally, the two species appear to respond somewhat differently to the enrichment of nutrients that are often overabundant in coastal waters: P. shumwayae appears to thrive best in waters with high levels of nitrogen, while P. piscicida seems to prefer increased phosphorus levels, although both nitrogen and phosphorus can stimulate it to grow. Scientists first detected P. shumwayae which they suspected to be a new species - during a 1995 fish kill in North Carolina's New River estuary, following a major spill of effluent from a hog Contact: Kevin Potter North Carolina State University

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- Historic Sites A War That Never Goes Away More than the Revolution, more than the Constitutional Convention, it was the crucial test of the American nation. The author of Battle Cry of Freedom , the most successful recent book on the subject, explains why the issues that fired the Civil War are as urgent in 1990 as they were in 1861. March 1990 | Volume 41, Issue 2 Civil War soldiers were the most literate up to that time. Their diaries and letters have had a lasting appeal. But most Northerners ridiculed these Southern professions to be fighting for the ideals of 1776. That was “a libel upon the whole character and conduct of the men of ’76,” said the antislavery poet and journalist William Cullen Bryant. The Founding Fathers had fought “to establish the rights of man … and principles of universal liberty.” The South, insisted Bryant, had seceded “not in the interest of general humanity, but of a domestic despotism. … Their motto is not liberty, but slavery.” Northerners did not deny the right of revolution in principle; after all, the United States was founded on that right. But “the right of revolution,” wrote Lincoln in 1861, “is never a legal right. … At most, it is but a moral right, when exercised for a morally justifiable cause. When exercised without such a cause revolution is no right, but simply a wicked exercise of physical power.” In Lincoln’s judgment secession was just such a wicked exercise. The event that precipitated it was Lincoln’s election by a constitutional majority. As Northerners saw it, the Southern states, having controlled the national government for most of the previous two generations through their domination of the Democratic party, now decided to leave the Union just because they had lost an election. For Lincoln and the Northern people, it was the Union that represented the ideals of 1776. The republic established by the Founding Fathers as a bulwark of liberty was a fragile experiment in a nineteenth-century world bestridden by kings, emperors, czars, and dictators. Most republics through history had eventually been overthrown. Some Americans still alive in 1861 had seen French republics succumb twice to emperors and once to the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy. Republics in Latin America came and went with bewildering rapidity. The United States in 1861 represented, in Lincoln’s words, “the last, best hope” for the survival of republican liberties in the world. Would that hope also collapse? “Our popular government has often been called an experiment,” Lincoln told Congress on July 4,1861. But if the Confederacy succeeded in splitting the country in two, it would set a fatal precedent that would destroy the experiment. By invoking this precedent, a minority in the future might secede from the Union whenever it did not like what the majority stood for, until the United States fragmented into a multitude of petty, squabbling autocracies. “The central idea pervading this struggle,” said Lincoln, “is the necessity … of proving that popular government is not an absurdity. We must settle this question now, whether, in a free government, the minority have the right to break up the government whenever they choose.” Many soldiers who enlisted in the Union army felt the same way. A Missourian joined up as “a duty I owe my country and to my children to do what I can to preserve this government as I shudder to think what is ahead of them if this government should be overthrown.” A New England soldier wrote to his wife on the eve of the First Battle of Bull Run: “I know … how great a debt we owe to those who went before us through the blood and sufferings of the Revolution. And I am willing—perfectly willing—to lay down all my joys in this life, to help maintain this government, and to pay that debt.” Freedom for the slaves was not part of the liberty for which the North fought in 1861. That was not because the Lincoln administration supported slavery; quite the contrary. Slavery was “an unqualified evil to the negro, to the white man … and to the State,” said Lincoln on many occasions in words that expressed the sentiments of a Northern majority. “The monstrous injustice of slavery … deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world—enables the enemies of free institutions, with plausibility, to taunt us as hypocrites. …” Yet in his first inaugural address, Lincoln declared that he had “no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with … slavery in the States where it exists.” He reiterated this pledge in his first message to Congress, on July 4, 1861, when the Civil War was nearly three months old. What explains this apparent inconsistency? The answer lies in the Constitution and in the Northern polity of 1861. Lincoln was bound by a constitution that protected slavery in any state where citizens wanted it. The republic of liberty for whose preservation the North was fighting had been a republic in which slavery was legal everywhere in 1776. That was the great American paradox—a land of freedom based on slavery. Even in 1861 four states that remained loyal to the Union were slave states, and the Democratic minority in free states opposed any move to make the war for the Union a war against slavery. But as the war went on, the slaves themselves took the first step toward making it a war against slavery. Coming into Union lines by the thousands,they voted with their feet for freedom. As enemy property they could be confiscated by Union forces as “contraband of war.” This was the thin edge of the wedge that finally broke apart the American paradox. By 1863 a series of congressional acts plus Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation had radically enlarged Union war aims. The North henceforth fought not just to restore the old Union, not just to ensure that the nation born in 1776 “shall not perish from the earth,” but to give that nation “a new birth of freedom.”

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Research at Durham University claims to show kids are put off taking Latin GCSE because it is too hard – about a grade harder than other supposedly “hard” subjects. That is to say, if you can get a grade C at Latin, you’d be in the running for a B in Physics or German. And teachers, it’s said, have too much of an eye on the league tables to persuade their pupils to take the risk. At least this is a change from the usual story about Latin. More than a third of all takers get the top A* grade (compared with less than 4% in Business Studies and around 6% in German – or, going the other way, 55% in Greek). And 60% in Latin get A* and A combined. How easy it must be, some wonder.

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We hope the information on this website will help schools and parents in making informed decisions about the use of wireless technologies in schools. The Council of Europe, the German Government, Israeli Parliament, Austrian Medical Associations, Russian National Committee for Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection, The American Academy of Environmental Medicine, The International Society of Doctors for the Environment and The Irish Doctors Environmental Association have recommended that schools use wired computer networks, not wireless. The International Commission for Electromagnetic Safety and Scientific Panel on Electromagnetic Health Risks strongly recommend limiting the use of wireless technologies by young people. The International Agency for Research on Cancer has classified radiofrequency radiation as a possible human carcinogen. If you have concerns about the compulsory use of wireless technologies in schools you could: - Discuss your concerns with your school, other parents and teachers. Example letters to send to your school, MP and MEP are available here. - Pass on to Schools and their Governing Bodies a copy of - Our 2012 document 'Safe Schools 2012'. - Our 2011 document 'Wireless technologies and young people' (October 2011). - A copy of the recommendations from the Scientific Panel on Electromagnetic Health Risks (2010). This includes guidance for schools about Wi-Fi. The recommended far-field exposure guidelines of 0.17 mW/m(2) (0.25 V/m) or 1.7 mW/m(2) (0.8 V/m) are lower than those experienced by users of wireless computers (often 1-6 V/m). - The letter about Wi-Fi from Dr David Carpenter, M.D. (2011). - The resolution of the Council of Europe. - The IARC announcement about radiofrequency radiation. - Our 2010 open letter for schools. Ask Local Authorities and Schools to name the person responsible for taking the decision to install Wi-Fi in a particular school. Sign the: 38degrees campaign suggestion for safe electromagnetic environments in schools; the International EMF Alliance petition; the International doctors Appeal 2012 (if you are a physician or PhD). - Print postcard 1 or postcard 2 and display in your local newsagent's window and other notice/bulletin boards. The following videos may be useful introductions to the concerns about Wi-Fi in schools: Video about Wi-Fi exposures in the classroom. We fully support the use of computers in schools. We want schools to be able to offer excellent ICT facilities for use across the curriculum. But we would like the decisions made to take into account recent advances in independent bioelectromagnetic research. Medical and scientific experts are calling for wired technologies to be used in schools. There is now enough scientific evidence to justify applying the precautionary principle and making sure that network connections in schools are wired, not wireless. Through our actions, we all play a role in shaping the type of society that we want for the future. If schools currently using Wi-Fi and other wireless devices wish to create a safe environment for their pupils and staff they will require funding to provide wired networking points within the school. Parents, staff, local communities and businesses may be able to assist with this by fundraising. As local communities we can help to protect the health of our children and support safer schools.

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eating; disorder; anorexia; nervosa; bulimia; compulsive; overeating; diet; binge; food; Before talking about what an eating disorder is, let's look more closely at what is and is not normal eating. Then it will be easier to understand when something is a problem that needs help. What is normal eating? Normal eating is not how much or what you eat, but your attitude towards food and eating. When you feel you can eat without feeling guilty, eat when you feel hungry and can stop when full, you have a positive and normal attitude to food. It is also normal to eat different amounts on different days, to eat more of the foods you like and less of what you don't like, and to overeat or restrict intake sometimes. What is not normal eating? Eating that is not normal is not so much about what you do (eg. skipping meals, restricting food, overeating) but about the thinking behind it, how often it happens, and the feeling that you have to eat this way. What IS, and IS NOT normal eating can look very similar. - For example, you run out of the house without breakfast because you slept in and are worried about missing the bus. At school or work you feel hungry and grab a snack and eat a larger lunch than usual without even thinking about it. This is normal eating. - Your friend skips breakfast because she feels fat and believes she is being strong and in control. This cheers her up. Later, when she gets hungry she tries hard not to eat but when she can no longer resist she has a snack and feels 'bad' for losing control and being weak. This is NOT normal eating. Both of these look very similar but there is different thinking behind it. Eating that is driven by this strange thinking is called disordered eating and can be quite common. What about dieting? Many people have 'gone on a diet' to lose weight at some time. Dieting is so common some people see it as a normal part of eating. Dieting is not the best way to lose weight. People often gain back all the weight they lost when they stop dieting, sometimes becoming heavier than they were before dieting. It can leave you feeling down and unsuccessful. For most young people dieting doesn't last long and they soon return to 'normal' eating. This kind of dieting is not a problem, but it should never be encouraged. It is better to encourage healthy eating and regular physical activity for long term healthy weight. For some vulnerable young people who feel anxious about their looks and body, dieting can be dangerous. They may feel they have failed if it is not successful. It can lead to more serious eating problems and increase their risk of developing an eating disorder. What is an eating disorder? An 'eating disorder' is a clinical diagnosis that may be made when strange thinking about food and eating increases to the point where it affects your life. People with an eating disorder become intensely worried about their body and anxious about their weight. They can't see they are worrying about something that is not true and they may do dangerous things to try to lose weight. An eating disorder is a complex psychological condition and only a trained professional such as a doctor or mental health professional can diagnose it. Some of the most well-known eating disorders are: - Anorexia nervosa – where the young person believes she is fat, even when she is not and may have lost a lot of weight. - Bulimia nervosa – where the young person eats very large amounts of food because she has been starving herself, and then makes herself vomit, takes laxatives to make herself poo to excess or exercises to extreme. - Binge eating disorder – where the young person has times when she eats very large amounts of food but does not vomit, purge or exercise to 'work it off'. - Compulsive overeating – where she is constantly overeating to make herself feel better. Food is used as a replacement for what is missing. Eating disorders can have serious physical, emotional and social impacts. They can take many years to resolve and may involve time in hospital. What an eating disorder looks like Emotional and social changes could be: - not being as happy as usual - not wanting to mix with friends or family - being moody - being less confident - not wanting to do anything - doing poorly at school - sleeping a lot - being angry. There are many other symptoms of an eating disorder. These may not relate to everybody, and sometimes it can be difficult to notice any signs at all. Some of these signs can relate to different problems and not to eating disorders. - Thinking and talking about food and dieting a lot of the time. - Knowing about the amount of energy (joules) in every type of food. - Eating very little, although the person may cook elaborate meals for others - or eating very large amounts of food sometimes. - Going to the toilet often after meals and vomiting. - Strenuous exercise routine, even exercising when she is injured or unwell. - Severe weight changes: - looking very thin, and still losing weight - weight going up and down all the time or very large weight gains. - Sudden mood changes, irritability, depression, sadness, anger, difficulty in expressing feelings. - Poor concentration and being unusually tired. - Intense shame about her body and fear of gaining weight . - Constant pursuit of thinness. If there are several of these signs together, it could mean she has an eating problem. Causes of eating disorders There is no clear cause for eating disorders. This makes it more upsetting for the person, family and friends, as they all try to think about what could have started it and what to do about it. However, the following factors may add to the risk that someone has of developing an eating disorder. - High personal expectations - always striving to be perfect in everything. - Setting unrealistic goals that the person believes will bring love and respect from family and friends. - Feeling the need to gain control over one's life. - Overwhelming feelings of not being good enough, leading her to starve herself so that she gains a sense of being in control again, or following the binge-purge cycle. - Having low self-esteem - this can be hard to see because some people seem to be really 'together' on the outside, even when they are feeling bad inside. - Depression; being sad or irritable much of the time, avoiding doing things with friends. Those who have difficulty expressing their own needs and feelings (particularly negative feelings) may be at risk. There are no typical family patterns, but problems with relationships and communication, or family conflict can make the person feel unvalued and alone. A family emphasis on being worthwhile only when you are very good at study or sport, very well behaved, thin and attractive can have an impact on some young people, who feel worthless if they do not match up to the family expectations. We are constantly bombarded with the message that you have to be thin to be beautiful or desirable. The media portrays happy, successful and feminine women as always thin. Women who are required to be thin for their careers (models, dancers and athletes) are more frequently affected by eating disorders. Research suggests more men are suffering from eating disorders because the muscular and lean image of men in the media is having an effect on men's health in the same way it does on women's. More men are over-exercising in the attempt to develop the ideal body shape. This can cause health problems too. What can trigger eating disorders? Many things can trigger an eating disorder if someone is already vulnerable (that is they have some of the problems listed above). These include: - a life crisis or the death of a loved person - relationship breakdown - family changes - moving home or school - a change of job - school problems - a personal failure. An eating disorder may also develop when there is a gradual build-up of problems which on their own seem small. The person may interpret each small problem or failure as 'evidence' that they are not worthy. Do you or your friend have a problem with disordered eating? Check this out: - Do you avoid eating meals or snacks with others? - Are you always counting kilojoules and working out how much fat there is in everything that you eat? - Are you always weighing yourself and stressing about your weight? - Do you only exercise to lose weight and do you exercise even if you are injured or unwell? - Are you scared about putting on weight? - Do you ever feel 'out of control' when you are eating? - Do you regularly diet then overeat? - Do you have set ways of eating, like always having to have some foods, or you must eat different types of foods in a certain order? - Is your day geared around control of food, weight loss and dieting? - Do you feel ashamed, guilty or disgusted with yourself after eating? - Do you constantly worry about the weight, size and shape of your body? - Do you feel that no one will care about you or your opinions unless you have a certain size, shape and weight? - If you or your friend have answered yes to several of these questions, then your thinking could be too focused on your weight, food and eating. It's time to get some help. Helping someone with an eating disorder The first thing to do is let the person know that you are worried and that you care about them. Even if they deny that there is a problem, or get upset and not want to talk about it, it is worthwhile trying to encourage them to seek professional help. This could include encouraging them to see and talk to a general practitioner (GP), the school counsellor, a psychologist, or specialist mental health worker. If they are not ready to do this, don't force it (unless they are significantly underweight and their health it at risk). Just try to be there for them as they might wish to talk soon. Someone with an eating disorder needs expert help. There are several services in South Australia listed below. Once an eating disorder has been diagnosed, a range of health practitioners may be involved, because the illness affects people physically and mentally - this may include psychiatrists, psychologists, doctors, dietitians, social workers, occupational therapists and nurses. Admission to hospital may be needed for people who are severely malnourished through lack of food. Medication may be useful for depression and to correct hormonal and chemical imbalances. Counselling and specific therapies are used to help change unhealthy thoughts about eating. Being a friend or partner or family member of someone with an eating disorder can be very difficult at times, particularly if the person denies she has an eating problem and will not talk to you openly. Be ready to go slowly. The problem will not be solved overnight. Recognise that the eating disorder started with an emotional issue that may not be fully worked out yet. Your friend may find dealing with the eating disorder stressful and have days when she does not want to change. Accept your friend for who she is. Do things together that you have enjoyed before. Make comments about reasons why you like having her as a friend. Don't talk about her eating disorder all the time. Be honest with your friend, and by showing her your love and care she will feel supported and able to accept the help that she needs. Don't talk about your own weight issues or talk about dieting. - your local Community Health Centre - your doctor (General Practitioner) - your school or university counsellor - your local library for further reading The information on this site should not be used as an alternative to professional care. If you have a particular problem, see a doctor, or ring the Youth Healthline on 1300 13 17 19 (local call cost from anywhere in South Australia).

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.cyh.com/HealthTopics/HealthTopicDetails.aspx?p=243&np=293&id=2172

2013-05-20T11:54:11Z

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en

As early as October 23, weather forecast models predicted that tropical storm Sandy would be a threat to the Mid-Atlantic States and New England. By the 25th, the forecasts from several weather centres provided a consistent story of a large hurricane that would turn sharply to the west, and cross the coast in New Jersey. The story from the forecast turned out to be largely correct. The model predictions provided time to plan – to anticipate so that risk and loss could be reduced. This storm is also a climate-change case study. It reveals, even with the benefit of preparedness, the weather-related vulnerabilities of our society. We see the connections between subway tunnels, financial markets, chemical plants, refineries, environmental risk, and the personal loss of houses by wind, flood, and fire – all rooted in increased weather volatility in a warming climate. In this time of intense political scrutiny in the U.S., the occurrence of Hurricane Sandy spawned countless articles. Some mentioned the impacts that Hurricane Andrew had on President George H.W. Bush’s re-election; others, the practical considerations of this season’s campaigns being halted. Many focused on the opportunity for the candidates to show leadership, seriousness, sympathy, and empathy. There are learned and speculative analyses of the benefits of bad weather on Republicans and Democrats. But there has been little written about how Hurricane Sandy highlights the dangerous absence of climate change in US politics. Climate change is one of many important subjects that politicians in the US cannot seem to address. We feel our climate through weather. We already have measured evidence of increased numbers of extreme storms. We also have measured changes in how storms are steered across North America; they are moving more slowly. Slower storms mean they stay around longer. It rains more and the wind blows for a longer time – trees fall, power grids fail, streets and fields flood. Hurricane Sandy is enormous in size. Rather than moving north and east into the North Atlantic, it moved, unusually, to the west; it then churned, moving slowly in Central Pennsylvania. This is how climate affects us, present and future – except that in the future this story will be told more often. I started this piece by noting that the forecast of Hurricane Sandy gave us the ability to plan and to reduce risk and loss. That is what climate models offer as well – opportunity. There are individuals, organizations, corporations, and countries using this knowledge. But the U.S. national political position is to look away from this problem, to increase risk, and to squander technological and economic advantage. We, instead, rely on a series of climate case studies, paying the high cost of reacting to disaster rather than anticipating and reducing risk. Hurricane Sandy provides an opportunity to show leadership, and the opportunity to make climate and climate change a serious national policy issue. Dr. Richard B. Rood is a professor of meteorology at the University of Michigan’s department of Atmospheric, Oceanic and Space Science, and a weather blogger at www.wunderground.com

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://m.theglobeandmail.com/commentary/us-obsessed-over-the-superstorm-but-ignored-the-climate-behind-it/article4789420/?service=mobile

2013-05-24T23:06:05Z

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en

The HTML and CSS Web Standards Solutions: A Web Standardistas' Approach It's hard to imagine a web page without links. It is as claustrophobic as being left in a room with no outlet at all. Once a person has mastered the act of creating web pages, even complex web pages with text and pictures and all other attractive features, the next thing that is required is the link. Links are important because several un-related pages are connected with it. Without it, there would be no meaning in your document. This paper explains the importance of creating links in a web page, the methods adopted in creating the links and the basics involved. Web designing teaches one about writing good links and a descriptive link makes the site a user friendly one. Each link element has got specific function and this is detailed in the paper. The language used in building these links is also highly important as that is what the customer remembers and types for further reference. Such links holds greater weight-age in search engines. Using specific descriptive links is always more effective than generic phrases and it is likely to get more hits. The links could be external links, internal ones or maybe an e-mail link. External links plays an important role in directing traffic to the site from other websites. Internal links creates a web page of your own. Whatever the link, checking the workings of the links is important for successful business.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.techrepublic.com/whitepapers/the-html-and-css-web-standards-solutions-a-web-standardistas-approach/1855357?cname=internet-and-web

2013-05-24T16:33:46Z

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en

Albemarle SoundArticle Free Pass Albemarle Sound, shallow coastal inlet of northeastern North Carolina, U.S. Protected from the Atlantic Ocean by the Outer Banks, it extends (east-west) for about 50 miles (80 km) and varies in width from 5 to 14 miles (8 to 23 km); nowhere is it deeper than 25 feet (8 metres). It receives the Pasquotank, Alligator, Chowan, and Roanoke rivers and discharges this flow at its southeastern end through the Roanoke and Croatan sounds to Pamlico Sound. It is connected with Chesapeake Bay by the Dismal Swamp Canal, which traverses the Great Dismal Swamp, and forms part of the Intracoastal Waterway. Elizabeth City is the chief port. Explored by Ralph Lane from the Roanoke Island colony in 1586, Albemarle Sound was first called the Sea of Rawnocke (Roanoke Sea). It later appeared on maps as Roanoke Sound and Carolina River before it was renamed for George Monck, 1st duke of Albemarle. The state’s earliest European settlements were established along its shores. What made you want to look up "Albemarle Sound"? Please share what surprised you most...

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/12634/Albemarle-Sound

2013-05-19T10:35:48Z

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en

The Mormon handcart pioneers were participants in the migration of members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (also known as the LDS Church) to Salt Lake City, Utah, who used handcarts to transport their belongings. The Mormon handcart movement began in 1856 and lasted until 1860. Motivated to join their fellow Church members in Utah but lacking funds for full ox or horse teams, nearly 3,000 Mormon pioneers from England, Wales, Scotland and Scandinavia made the journey from Iowa or Nebraska to Utah in ten handcart companies. The trek was disastrous for two of the companies, which started their journey dangerously late and were caught by heavy snow and severe temperatures in central Wyoming. Despite a dramatic rescue effort, more than 210 of the 980 pioneers in these two companies died along the way. John Chislett, a survivor, wrote, "Many a father pulled his cart, with his little children on it, until the day preceding his death." Although less than 10 percent of the 1847–68 Latter-day Saint emigrants made the journey west using handcarts, the handcart pioneers have become an important symbol in LDS culture, representing the faithfulness and sacrifice of the pioneer generation. They continue to be recognized and honored in events such as Pioneer Day, Church pageants, and similar commemorations. The handcart treks were a familiar theme in 19th century Mormon folk music and have been a theme in LDS fiction, such as David Farland's novel In the Company of Angels, Gerald Lund's historical novel, Fire of the Covenant, and Orson Scott Card's science-fiction short story, "West." The Latter Day Saints were first organized as the Church of Christ in 1830. Early members of the Church often encountered hostility, primarily due to their practice of withdrawing from secular society and gathering in locales to practice their distinct religious beliefs. Their neighbors felt threatened by the Church's rapid growth in numbers, by its tendency to vote as a bloc and acquire political power, by its claims of divine favor, and by the practice of polygamy. Violence directed against the Church and its members caused the body of the Church to move from Ohio to Missouri, then to Illinois. Despite the frequent moves, Church members were unable to escape opposition, which culminated in the extermination order against all Mormons living in the state by Missouri Governor Lilburn Boggs and the murder of its leader Joseph Smith in 1844. Brigham Young, Smith's successor as Church leader, said that he had received divine direction to organize the church members and head beyond the western frontier of the United States. Soon after the first Mormon pioneers reached Utah in 1847, the Church began encouraging its converts in the British Isles and elsewhere in Europe to emigrate to Utah. From 1849 to 1855, about 16,000 European Latter-day Saints traveled to Utah by ship, rail and then ox and wagon. Although most of these emigrants paid their own expenses, the Church established the Perpetual Emigration Fund to provide financial assistance for poor emigrants to trek west, which they would repay as they were able. Contributions to expand the fund were encouraged. When contributions and loan repayments dropped off in 1855 after a poor harvest in Utah, President Young decided to begin using handcarts because the Latter-day Saints who remained in Europe were mostly poor. Young also believed it would speed the journey. Young proposed the plan in a letter to Franklin D. Richards, President of the European Mission, in September 1855. His letter was published in the Millennial Star, the Church's England-based periodical, on December 22, 1855, along with an editorial by Richards endorsing the project. The cost of the migration was expected to be reduced by one-third. The response was overwhelming — in 1856 the Perpetual Emigration Fund supported the travel of 2,012 European emigrants, compared with 1,161 the year before. Emigrants departed from an English port (generally Liverpool) and travelled by ship to New York or Boston, then by railroad to Iowa City, Iowa, the western terminus of the rail line, where they would be outfitted with handcarts and other supplies. Built to Brigham Young's design, the handcarts resembled a large wheelbarrow, with two wheels five feet (1.5 m) in diameter and a single axle four and half feet (1.4 m) wide, and weighing 60 pounds (27 kg). Running along each side of the bed were seven-foot (2.1 m) pull shafts ending with a three-foot (0.9 m) crossbar at the front. The crossbar allowed the carts to be pushed or pulled. Cargo was carried in a box about three feet by four feet (0.9 m by 1.2 m), with 8 inch (0.2 m) walls. The handcarts generally carried up to 250 pounds (110 kg) of supplies and luggage, though they were capable of handling loads as heavy as 500 pounds (230 kg). Carts used in the first year's migration were made entirely of wood ("Iowa hickory or oak"); in later years a stronger design was substituted, which included metal elements. The handcart companies were organized using the handcarts and sleeping tents as the primary units. Five persons were assigned per handcart, with each individual limited to 17 pounds (7.7 kg) of clothing and bedding. Each round tent, supported by a center pole, housed 20 occupants and was supervised by a tent captain. Five tents were supervised by the captain of a hundred (or "sub-captain"). Provisions for each group of one hundred emigrants were carried in an ox wagon, and were distributed by the tent captains. The first two ships departed England in late March and mid-April and sailed to Boston. The emigrants spent several weeks in Iowa City, where they constructed their handcarts and were outfitted with supplies before beginning their trek of about 1,300 miles (2,093 km). About 815 emigrants from the first two ships were organized into the first three handcart companies, headed by captains Edmund Ellsworth, Daniel D. McArthur, and Edward Bunker. The captains were missionaries returning to their homes in Utah and were familiar with the route. Most of the sub-captains were also returning missionaries. Across Iowa they followed an existing road about 275 miles (443 km) to Council Bluffs, following a route that is close to current U.S. Route 6. After crossing the Missouri River, they paused for a few days at a Mormon outpost in Florence, Nebraska (modern-day Omaha) for repairs, before beginning the remaining 1,030-mile (1,658 km) journey along the Mormon Trail to Salt Lake City. The companies made good time, and their trips were largely uneventful. The emigrant companies included many children and elderly individuals, and pushing and pulling handcarts was difficult work. Journals and recollections describe periods of illness and hunger. Like other companies traveling on the Emigrant Trail, deaths occurred along the way. Hafen and Hafen's Handcarts to Zion lists 13 deaths from the first company, seven from the second, and fewer than seven from the third. Journal entries reflect the optimism of the handcart pioneers, even amid their hardships: |“||People made fun of us as we walked, pulling our handcarts, but the weather was fine and the roads were excellent and although I was sick and we were very tired at night, still we thought it was a glorious way to go to Zion.||”| The first two companies arrived in Salt Lake City on September 26 and the third followed less than a week later. The first three companies were regarded as having demonstrated the feasibility of emigrating using handcarts. |Handcart Company||Captain||Ship||Arrived Iowa City||Departed Iowa City||Departed Florence||Number of individuals||Number died en route||Arrived Salt Lake City| |First||Edmund Ellsworth||Enoch Train, sailed March 23, 1856 to Boston||May 12||June 9||July 20||274||13||September 26| |Second||Daniel D. McArthur||Enoch Train, sailed March 23, 1856 to Boston; S. Curling, sailed April 19 to Boston |from Enoch Train, May 12; from S. Curling, early June |June 11||July 24||221||7||September 26| |Third (Welsh)||Edward Bunker||S. Curling, sailed April 19, 1856 to Boston||early June||June 23||July 30||320||< 7||October 2| The last two handcart companies of 1856 departed late from England. The ship Thornton, carrying the emigrants who became the Willie Company, did not leave England until May 4. The leader of the Latter-day Saints on the Thornton was James G. Willie. Another three weeks passed before the Horizon, carrying the emigrants who formed the Martin Company, departed. The late departures may have been the result of difficulties in procuring ships in response to the unexpected demand, but the results would be tragic. With slow communications in the era before the transatlantic telegraph, the Church agents in Iowa City were not expecting the additional emigrants and had to make frantic preparations for their arrival. Critical weeks were spent hastily assembling the carts and outfitting the companies. When the companies reached Florence, additional time was lost making repairs to the poorly built carts. Emigrant John Chislett describes the problems with the carts: |“||The axles and boxes being of wood, and being ground out by the dust that found its way there in spite of our efforts to keep it out, together with the extra weight put on the carts, had the effect of breaking the axles at the shoulder. All kinds of expedients were resorted to as remedies for the growing evil, but with variable success. Some wrapped their axles with leather obtained from bootlegs; others with tin, obtained by sacrificing tin-plates, kettles, or buckets from their mess outfit. Besides these inconveniences, there was felt a great lack of a proper lubricator. Of anything suitable for this purpose we had none at all.||”| Prior to the Willie Company departing Florence, the company met to debate the wisdom of such a late departure. Because the emigrants were unfamiliar with the trail and the climate, they deferred to the returning missionaries and Church agents. One of the returning missionaries, Levi Savage, urged them to spend the winter in Nebraska. He argued that such a late departure with a company consisting of the elderly, women and young children would lead to suffering, sickness and even death. All of the other Church elders argued that the trip should go forward, expressing optimism that the company would be protected by divine intervention. Some members of the company, perhaps as many as 100, decided to spend the winter in Florence or in Iowa, but the majority, about 404 in number (including Savage) continued the journey west. The Willie Company left Florence on August 17 and the Martin Company on August 27. Two ox-wagon trains, led by captains W.B. Hodgett and John A. Hunt, followed the Martin Company. Near Wood River, Nebraska, a herd of bison caused the Willie Company's cattle to stampede, and nearly 30 cattle were lost. Left without enough cattle to pull all of the wagons, each handcart was required to take on an additional 100 pounds (45 kg) of flour. In early September, Franklin D. Richards, returning from Europe where he had served as the Church's mission president, passed the emigrant companies. Richards and the 12 returning missionaries who accompanied him, traveling in carriages and light wagons pulled by horses and mules, pressed on to Utah to obtain assistance for the emigrants. In early October the two companies reached Fort Laramie, Wyoming, where they expected to be restocked with provisions, but no provisions were there for them. The companies had to cut back food rations, hoping that their supplies would last until help could be sent from Utah. To lighten their loads, the Martin Company cut the luggage allowance to 10 pounds (4.5 kg) per person, discarding clothing and blankets that soon would be desperately needed. On October 4 the Richards party reached Salt Lake City and conferred with president Brigham Young and other Church leaders. The next morning the Church was meeting in a general conference, where Young and the other speakers called on the Church members to provide wagons, mules, supplies, and teamsters for a rescue mission. On the morning of October 7 the first rescue party left Salt Lake City with 16 wagonloads of food and supplies, pulled by four-mule teams with 27 young men serving as teamsters and rescuers. The party elected George D. Grant as their captain. Throughout October more wagon trains were assembled, and by the end of the month 250 relief wagons were on the road. Meanwhile, the Willie and Martin companies were running out of food and encountering bitterly cold temperatures. On October 19 a blizzard struck the region, halting the two companies and the relief party. The Willie Company was along the Sweetwater River approaching the Continental Divide. A scouting party sent ahead by the main rescue party found and greeted the emigrants, gave them a small amount of flour, encouraged them that rescue was near, and then rushed onward to try to locate the Martin Company. The members of the Willie Company had just reached the end of their flour supplies. They began slaughtering the handful of broken-down cattle that still remained while their death toll mounted. On October 20 Captain Willie and Joseph Elder went ahead by mule through the snow to locate the supply train and inform them of the company's desperate situation. They arrived at the rescue party's campsite near South Pass that evening, and by the next evening the rescue party reached the Willie Company and provided them with food and assistance. Half of the rescue party remained to assist the Willie Company while the other half pressed forward to assist the Martin Company. The difficulties of the Willie Company were not yet over. On October 23, the second day after the main rescue party had arrived, the Willie Company faced the most difficult section of the trail—the ascent up Rocky Ridge. The climb took place during a howling snowstorm through knee-deep snow. That night 13 emigrants died. On October 19, the Martin Company was about 110 miles (177 km) further east, making its last crossing of the North Platte River near present-day Casper, Wyoming. Shortly after completing the crossing, the blizzard struck. Many members of the company suffered from hypothermia or frostbite after wading through the frigid river. They set up camp at Red Bluffs, unable to continue forward through the snow. Meanwhile the original scouting party continued eastward until it reached a small vacant fort at Devil's Gate, where they had been instructed to wait for the rest of the rescue party if they had not found the Martin Company. When the main rescue party rejoined them, another scouting party consisting of Joseph Young, Abel Garr, and Daniel Webster Jones was sent forward. The Martin company remained in their camp at Red Bluffs for nine days until the three scouts finally arrived on October 28. By the time the scouts arrived, 56 members of the company had died. The scouts urged the emigrants to begin moving again. Three days later the main rescue party met the Martin Company and the Hodgett and Hunt wagon companies and helped them on to Devil's Gate. George D. Grant, who headed the rescue party, reported to President Young: |“||It is not of much use for me to attempt to give a description of the situation of these people, for this you will learn from [others]; but you can imagine between five and six hundred men, women and children, worn down by drawing hand carts through snow and mud; fainting by the wayside; falling, chilled by the cold; children crying, their limbs stiffened by cold, their feet bleeding and some of them bare to snow and frost. The sight is almost too much for the stoutest of us; but we go on doing all we can, not doubting nor despairing.||”| At Devil's Gate the rescue party unloaded the baggage carried in the wagons of the Hodgett and Hunt wagon companies that had been following the Martin Company so the wagons could be used to transport the weakest emigrants. A small group remained at Devil's Gate over the winter to protect the property. On November 4 the company had to cross the Sweetwater River, which was about 2 feet (0.6 m) deep and 90 to 120 feet (27 to 37 m) wide. The stream was clogged with floating ice. The young men of the rescue party (accounts mention George W. Grant, C. Allen Huntington, David P. Kimball, and Stephen W. Taylor) spent much of the day pulling the carts and carrying many of the emigrants across the river. Andrew Jensen later stated that some of the young rescuers died from the effects of the exposure. The severe weather forced the Martin Company to halt for another five days at Martin's Cove, a few miles west of Devil's Gate. The rescue parties escorted the emigrants from both companies to Utah through more snow and severe weather while their members continued to suffer death from disease and exposure. The Willie Company arrived in Salt Lake City on November 9; 68 members of the company had lost their lives. Meanwhile, a backup relief party of 77 teams and wagons was making its way east to provide additional assistance to the Martin Company. After passing Fort Bridger the leaders of the backup party concluded that the Martin Company must have wintered east of the Rockies, so they turned back. When word of the returning backup relief party was communicated to Young, he ordered the courier to return and tell them to turn back east and continue until they found the handcart company, but several days had been lost. On November 18 the backup party met the Martin Company with the greatly needed supplies. At last all the members of the handcart party were now able to ride in wagons. The 104 wagons carrying the Martin Company arrived in Salt Lake City on November 30; at least 145 members of the company had lost their lives. Many of the survivors had to have fingers, toes, or limbs amputated due to severe frostbite. After the companies arrived in Utah, the residents generously opened their homes to the arriving emigrants, feeding and caring for them over the winter. The emigrants would eventually go on to Latter-day Saint settlements throughout Utah and the West. |“||In urging the method upon Europe's poor, Brigham and the priesthood would over-reach themselves; in shepherding them from Liverpool to the valley, the ordinarily reliable missionary and emigration organization would break down at several critical points; in accepting the assurances of their leaders and the wishful importunities of their own hope, the emigrants would commit themselves to greater sacrifices than even the Nauvoo refugees; and in rallying from compound fatal error to bring the survivors in, the priesthood and the people of Mormondom would show themselves at their compassionate and efficient best.||”| As early as November 2, 1856, while the Willie and Martin companies were still making their way to safety, Brigham Young responded to criticism of his own leadership by rebuking Franklin Richards and Daniel Spencer for allowing the companies to leave so late. However, many authors argued that Young, as author of the plan, was responsible. Ann Eliza Young, daughter of one of the men in charge of building the carts and a former plural wife of Brigham Young, described her ex-husband's plan as a "cold-blooded, scheming, blasphemous policy." Stegner described Richards as a scapegoat for Young's fundamental errors in planning, though Howard Christy, professor emeritus at Brigham Young University, noted that Richards, as the highest ranking official in Florence, Nebraska area, was, in fact, the official who would have had the authority and capability to have averted the tragedy by halting their late departure. Many survivors of the tragedy refused to blame anyone. Survivor John Jacques wrote, "I blame nobody. I am not anxious to blame anybody... I have no doubt that those who had to do with its management meant well and tried to do the best they could under the circumstances." Another survivor, Francis Webster, was quoted as having said, "Was I sorry that I chose to come by hand cart? No. Neither then nor any minute of my life since. The price we paid to become acquainted with God was a privilege to pay and I am thankful that I was privileged to come in the Martin Hand Cart Company." On the other hand, survivor John Chislett, who later left the Church, wrote bitterly of Richards promising them that "we should get to Zion in safety." In May 2006, a panel of researchers at the annual conference of the Mormon History Association blamed the tragedy on a failure of leadership. Lyndia Carter, a trails historian, said Franklin D. Richards "was responsible, in my mind, for the late departure" because "he started the snowball down the slope" that eventually "added up to disaster." Christy agreed that "leadership from the top, from the outset, was seriously short of the mark." Robert Briggs, an attorney, said "It's almost a foregone conclusion . . . there is evidence of negligence. With leaders all the way up to Brigham Young, there was mismanagement." On the other hand, Rebecca Bartholomew and Leonard J. Arrington wrote, "Memories of what was perhaps the worst disaster in the history of western migration have been palliated by what could also be regarded as the most heroic rescue of the Mormon frontier." |Handcart company||Captain||Ship||Arrived Iowa City||Departed Iowa City||Departed Florence||Number of individuals||Number died en route||Arrived Salt Lake City| |Fourth or Willie Company||James G. Willie||Thornton, sailed May 4, 1856 to New York||June 26||July 15||August 17||~500 left Iowa City; 404 left Florence||68||November 9| |Fifth or Martin Company||Edward Martin||Horizon, sailed May 25, 1856 to Boston||July 8||July 28||August 27||576||>145||November 30| A number of lessons had been learned from the 1856 disaster that allowed the Church to continue the handcart system while avoiding another disaster. Never again would a handcart company depart Florence later than July 7. The construction of the handcarts was modified to strengthen them and reduce repairs. The handcarts would now be regularly greased. Arrangements were made to replenish supplies along the route. By 1857 the Perpetual Emigration Fund was exhausted; almost all of the handcart emigrants that year and in subsequent years had to pay their own way. With the increased cost, the number of handcart emigrants dropped from nearly 2,000 in 1856 to about 480 in 1857. Nevertheless, in 1857 two companies made the trek. Both companies arrived in Salt Lake City by September 13. Perhaps the most notable incident was when a captain of the U.S. Army's Utah Expedition, on its way to Utah to confront Young and the Mormons, donated an ox to the hungry emigrants. With the uncertainty caused by the Utah War, the Church called off all European emigration for 1858. In 1859 one handcart company crossed the plains. The emigrants were now able to travel by rail to Saint Joseph, Missouri, after which they went by riverboat to Florence where they were outfitted with handcarts and supplies. When the 1859 company reached Fort Laramie, they discovered their food was running dangerously short, so they cut back on rations. When they reached Devil's Gate the last flour was distributed. Emigrant Ebeneezer B. Beesley recalled an incident in which a group of rough mountain men fed the hungry emigrants. One of the mountain men then asked a young woman from the company to stay with him, which the tired woman agreed to do. (William Atkin recalled another version of the story in which two young women married two mountain men.) The hunger worsened when expected supplies were not available when they reached the Green River. Three days later wagons from Utah carrying provisions finally rescued the famished emigrants. The last two handcart companies made the journey in 1860, again following the route through St. Joseph. Although the journey continued to be difficult for the emigrants, these companies had relatively uneventful trips and experienced little loss of life. After 1860 handcarts were no longer used. The Church implemented a new system of emigration, in which wagon trains travelled east from Salt Lake City in the spring and returned with emigrants in the summer. The transcontinental railroad was being constructed, and the railroad terminus gradually moved westward, shortening the trip. |Handcart company||Captain||Ship||Arrived Iowa City||Departed Iowa City||Departed Florence||Number of individuals||Number died en route||Arrived Salt Lake City| |Sixth||Israel Evans||George Washington, sailed March 27, 1857 to Boston||April 30||May 22||June 20||149||Unknown (>0)||September 11| |Seventh (Scandinavian)||Christian Christiansen||L.N. Hvidt, sailed April 18, 1857 from Copenhagen to Britain; Westmoreland, sailed April 25 to Philadelphia||June 9||June 13||July 7||~330||~6||September 13| |Eighth||George Rowley||William Tapscott, sailed April 11, 1859 to New York||-||-||June 9||235||~5||September 4| |Ninth||Daniel Robison||Underwriter, sailed March 30, 1860 to New York||May 12 (Florence)||-||June 6||233||1||August 27| |Tenth||Oscar O. Stoddard||William Tapscott, sailed May 11, 1860 to New York||July 1 (Florence)||-||July 6||124||0||September 24| |“||This heroic episode of Mormon history exemplifies many of the enduring qualities of nascent Mormonism itself: thorough organization, iron discipline, unswerving devotion to a cause, and limitless self-sacrifice. . . . The true Mormon Trail was not on the prairie but in the spirit.||”| Wallace Stegner praised the examples of those of the handcart companies, particularly in comparison to other pioneer parties: |“||Perhaps their suffering seems less dramatic because the handcart pioneers bore it meekly, praising God, instead of fighting for life with the ferocity of animals and eating their dead to keep their own life beating, as both the Fremont and Donner parties did. . . . But if courage and endurance make a story, if humankindness and helpfulness and brotherly love in the midst of raw horror are worth recording, this half-forgotten episode of the Mormon migration is one of the great tales of the West and of America.||”| Reenactments, in which a group dressed in 19th century garb travels for one or more days pushing and pulling handcarts, have become a popular activity among LDS wards, youth groups, and families. The reenactments have been lauded by LDS leaders; for example, M. Russell Ballard of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles said, "Through music, drama, and stirring reenactments, we will be reminded of incredible pioneer journeys, both temporal and spiritual." The reenactments have become so popular that the Bureau of Land Management is studying the impact on the trail and its environment, especially in the area around Rocky Ridge, Wyoming. According to the Casper Star-Tribune, the BLM has had to impose a fee to offset the costs of monitoring the impacts of reenactors and other campers on the trail. A number of events were held during 2006 to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the 1856 handcart companies:

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When medical researchers first investigated the phenomenon known as hardening of the arteries (closely related to atherosclerosis ), they discovered that the damaged, brittle vessels found in people with heart disease were lined with calcium deposits. Naturally, this finding inspired the notion that calcium deposits were the cause of the problem. Some early researchers investigated the possible therapeutic effect of removing such deposits. However, subsequent research indicated that the calcium deposits of atherosclerosis were a symptom rather than a cause, and mainstream interest turned elsewhere. Certain physicians nonetheless maintained an interest in removing calcium; thus chelation therapy was born. Chelation therapy for heart disease consists of intravenous infusions of a chemical called EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid). This synthetic substance is used in conventional medicine to remove heavy metals, such as lead, from the body, but it also has an effect on calcium, which is why it came into use in chelation therapy. Proponents claim that EDTA chelation is an effective alternative to heart surgery, and that it also offers many other health benefits. To support this, they cite numerous anecdotes of cures apparently brought about by its use. However, anecdotes cannot possibly prove a treatment effective. (For a detailed explanation of why this is the case, see Why Does This Database Rely on Double-blind Studies? ) Only double-blind, placebo-controlled trials can do so, and thus far such studies have failed to find chelation therapy effective. Not only does it appear to be ineffective, EDTA chelation therapy may present some safety risks. This treatment is generally given in a series of 10 to 30 sessions. If the practitioner fails to take proper precautions, severe adverse consequences, such as kidney damage, may result. While it appears to be the case that properly performed chelation therapy is unlikely to cause harm, we do not see any justification for using such an invasive method, in the absence of evidence that it will help. - Reviewer: EBSCO CAM Review Board - Review Date: 07/2012 - - Update Date: 07/25/2012 -

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Stone Age Europeans may not have been the last to hear about those nifty gadgets called stone axes, after all. New research at two sites in southern Spain indicates that the people there were fashioning hand axes as early as 900,000 years ago, far earlier than previously believed. Hand axes have sometimes been called the Swiss Army knives of the Stone Age world. They vary in shape and size, but most are at least roughly symmetrical, with one pointed and one rounded edge. Hand axes were very handy for butchering animals and cutting the stalks of tough plants [ScienceNOW Daily News]. Previously, archaeologists believed that the first Europeans lagged behind people living in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia in their tool-making capabilities. Axes dating back to 1.5 million years ago have been found in Africa, while the earliest axes found in Europe were thought to be no more than 500,000 years old. The new study, published in Nature, suggests that vital information about tool-making traveled relatively quickly through the ancient world. The new time frame was determined through a process called paleomagnetic dating, which takes advantage of the fact that the Earth’s magnetic field has reversed itself often on geological timescales. By analyzing the polarity of magnetic minerals in rock, scientists can determine when the rock formed…. At each site, the researchers took samples at regular intervals above and below the level where hand axes were found. The last complete magnetic reversal was 780,000 years ago, and both sites dated back to about this time [The New York Times]. At the two sites, the analyses indicated that the tools were at least 760,000 and 900,000 years old, respectively. 80beats: Stone Age Hunters Used “Pyro-Engineering” to Make Stronger Tools 80beats: Did Spear-Throwing Humans Kill Neanderthals? 80beats: Bloodstained Tools From 13,000 Years Ago Found in a Suburban Backyard 80beats: Neanderthal Tools Were a Match for Early Homo Sapiens’ Image: Michael Walker

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Gaudí in 1878, by Pau Audouard 25 June 1852| Reus, Catalonia, Spain |Died||10 June 1926 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain |Buildings||Sagrada Família, Casa Milà, |Projects||Park Güell, Colònia Güell| Antoni Gaudí i Cornet (Catalan pronunciation: [ənˈtɔni ɣəwˈði]; 25 June 1852 – 10 June 1926) was a Spanish architect born in Catalonia and figurehead of Catalan Modernism. Gaudí's works reflect his highly individual and distinctive style and are largely concentrated in the Catalan capital of Barcelona, notably his magnum opus, the Sagrada Família. Much of Gaudí's work was marked by his big passions in life: architecture, nature, religion. Gaudí studied every detail of his creations, integrating into his architecture a series of crafts in which he was skilled: ceramics, stained glass, wrought ironwork forging and carpentry. He introduced new techniques in the treatment of materials, such as trencadís, made of waste ceramic pieces. After a few years under the influence of neo-Gothic art and Oriental techniques, Gaudí became part of the Catalan Modernista movement which was reaching its peak in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. His work transcended mainstream Modernisme, culminating in an organic style inspired by nature. Gaudí rarely drew detailed plans of his works, instead preferring to create them as three-dimensional scale models and molding the details as he was conceiving them. Gaudí’s work enjoys widespread international appeal and many studies are devoted to understanding his architecture. Today, his work finds admirers among architects and the general public alike. His masterpiece, the still-uncompleted Sagrada Família, is one of the most visited monuments in Spain. Between 1984 and 2005, seven of his works were declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO. Gaudí’s Roman Catholic faith intensified during his life and religious images permeate his work. This earned him the nickname "God's Architect" and led to calls for his beatification. Birth, childhood and studies Antoni Gaudí was born in 1852 in Riudoms or in Reus, to the industrial boilermaker Francesc Gaudí i Serra (1813–1906) and Antònia Cornet i Bertran (1819–1876). He was the youngest of five children, of whom three survived to adulthood: Rosa (1844–1879), Francesc (1851–1876) and Antoni. Gaudí’s family originated in the Auvergne region in southern France. One of his ancestors, Joan Gaudí, a hawker, moved to Catalonia in the 17th century; possible origins of Gaudí's family name include Gaudy or Gaudin. Gaudí's exact birthplace is unknown because no supporting documents have been found, leading to a controversy about whether he was born in Reus or Riudoms, two neighbouring municipalities of the Baix Camp district. Most of Gaudí's identification documents from both his student and professional years gave Reus as his birthplace. Gaudí stated on various occasions that he was born in Riudoms, his paternal family's village. Gaudí was baptised in the church of Sant Pere Apòstol in Reus the day after his birth under the name "Antoni Plàcid Guillem Gaudí i Cornet". Gaudí had a deep appreciation for his native land and great pride in his Mediterranean heritage. He believed Mediterranean people to be endowed with creativity, originality and an innate sense for art and design. Gaudí reportedly described this distinction by stating, "We own the image. Fantasy comes from the ghosts. Fantasy is what people in the North own. We are concrete. The image comes from the Mediterranean. Orestes knows his way, where Hamlet is torn apart by his doubts." Time spent outdoors, particularly during summer stays in the Gaudí family home Mas de la Calderera, afforded Gaudí the opportunity to study nature. Gaudí's enjoyment of the natural world led him to join the Centre Excursionista de Catalunya in 1879 at the age of 27. The organisation arranged expeditions to explore Catalonia and southern France, often riding on horseback or walking ten kilometres a day. Young Gaudí suffered from poor health, including rheumatism, which may have contributed to his reticent and reserved character. These health concerns and the hygienist theories of Dr. Kneipp contributed to Gaudí's decision to adopt vegetarianism early in his life. His religious faith and strict vegetarianism led him to undertake several lengthy and severe fasts. These fasts were often unhealthy and occasionally, as in 1894, led to life-threatening illness. Gaudí attended a nursery school run by Francesc Berenguer, whose son, also called Francesc, later became one of Gaudí’s main assistants. He enrolled in the Piarists school in Reus where he displayed his artistic talents via drawings for a seminar called El Arlequín (the Harlequin). During this time he worked as an apprentice in the "Vapor Nou" textile mill in Reus. In 1868 he moved to Barcelona to study teaching in the Convent del Carme. In his adolescent years Gaudí became interested in utopian socialism and, together with his fellow students Eduard Toda i Güell and Josep Ribera i Sans, planned a restoration of the Poblet monastery that would have transformed it into a Utopian phalanstère. Between 1875 and 1878, Gaudí completed his compulsory military service in the infantry regiment in Barcelona as a Military Administrator. Most of his service was spent on sick leave, enabling him to continue his studies. His poor health kept him from having to fight in the Third Carlist War, which lasted from 1872 to 1876. In 1876 Gaudí's mother died at the age of 57, as did his 25-year-old brother Francesc, who had just graduated as a physician. During this time Gaudí studied architecture at the Llotja School and the Barcelona Higher School of Architecture, graduating in 1878. To finance his studies, Gaudí worked as a draughtsman for various architects and constructors such as Leandre Serrallach, Joan Martorell, Emili Sala Cortés, Francisco de Paula del Villar y Lozano and Josep Fontserè. In addition to his architecture classes, he studied French, history, economics, philosophy and aesthetics. His grades were average and he occasionally failed courses. When handing him his degree, Elies Rogent, director of Barcelona Architecture School, said: "We have given this academic title either to a fool or a genius. Time will show." Gaudí, when receiving his degree, reportedly told his friend, the sculptor Llorenç Matamala, with his ironical sense of humour, "Llorenç, they’re saying I’m an architect now." Adulthood and professional work Gaudí’s first projects were the lampposts he designed for the Plaça Reial in Barcelona, the unfinished Girossi newsstands, and the Cooperativa Obrera Mataronense (Workers' Cooperative of Mataró) building. He gained wider recognition for his first important commission, the Casa Vicens, and subsequently received more significant proposals. At the Paris World's Fair of 1878 Gaudí displayed a showcase he had produced for the glove manufacturer Comella. Its functional and aesthetic modernista design impressed Catalan industrialist Eusebi Güell, who then commissioned some of Gaudí’s most outstanding work: the Güell wine cellars, the Güell pavilions, the Palau Güell (Güell palace), the Park Güell (Güell park) and the crypt of the church of the Colònia Güell. Gaudí also became a friend of the marquis of Comillas, the father-in-law of Count Güell, for whom he designed "El Capricho" in Comillas. In 1883 Gaudí was put in charge of the recently-initiated project to build a Barcelona cathedral called Basílica i Temple Expiatori de la Sagrada Família (Basilica and Expiatory Church of the Holy Family, or Sagrada Família). Gaudí completely changed the initial design and imbued it with his own distinctive style. From 1915 until his death he devoted himself entirely to this project. Given the number of commissions he began receiving, he had to rely on his team to work on multiple projects simultaneously. His team consisted of professionals from all fields of construction. Several of the architects who worked under him became prominent in the field later on, such as Josep Maria Jujol, Joan Rubió, Cèsar Martinell, Francesc Folguera and Josep Francesc Ràfols. In 1885, Gaudí moved to rural Sant Feliu de Codines to escape the cholera epidemic that was ravaging Barcelona. He lived in Francesc Ullar’s house, for whom he designed a dinner table as a sign of his gratitude. The 1888 World Fair was one of the era's major events in Barcelona and represented a key point in the history of the Modernisme movement. Leading architects displayed their best works, including Gaudí, who showcased the building he had designed for the Compañía Trasatlántica (Transatlantic Company). Consequently he received a commission to restructure the Saló de Cent of the Barcelona City Council, but this project was ultimately not carried out. In the early 1890s Gaudí received two commissions from outside of Catalonia, namely the Bishop's Palace of Astorga and the Casa Botines in León. These works contributed to Gaudí's growing renown across Spain. In 1891, he travelled to Málaga and Tangiers to examine the site for a project for the Franciscan Catholic Missions that the 2nd marquis of Comillas had requested him to design. In 1899 Gaudí joined the Cercle Artístic de Sant Lluc (Saint Luke artistic circle), a Catholic artistic society founded in 1893 by the bishop Josep Torras i Bages and the brothers Josep and Joan Llimona. He also joined the Lliga Espiritual de la Mare de Déu de Montserrat (spiritual league of Our lady of Montserrat), another Catholic Catalan organisation. The conservative and religious character of his political thought was closely linked to his defence of the cultural identity of the Catalan people. At the beginning of the century, Gaudí was working on numerous projects simultaneously. They reflected his shift to a more personal style inspired by nature. In 1900, he received an award for the best building of the year from the Barcelona City Council for his Casa Calvet. During the first decade of the century Gaudí dedicated himself to projects like the Casa Figueras (Figueras house, better known as Bellesguard), the Park Güell, an unsuccessful urbanisation project, and the restoration of the Cathedral of Palma de Mallorca, for which he visited Majorca several times. Between 1904 and 1910 he constructed the Casa Batlló (Batlló house) and the Casa Milà (Milá house), two of his most emblematic works. As a result of Gaudí’s increasing fame, in 1902 the painter Joan Llimona chose Gaudí’s features to represent Saint Philip Neri in the paintings for the aisle of the Sant Felip Neri church in Barcelona. Together with Joan Santaló, son of his friend the physician Pere Santaló, he unsuccessfully founded a wrought iron manufacturing company the same year. After moving to Barcelona, Gaudí frequently changed his address: as a student he lived in residences, generally in the area of the Gothic Quarter; when he started his career he moved around several rented flats in the Eixample area. Finally, in 1906, he settled in a house in the Güell Park that he owned and which had been constructed by his assistant Francesc Berenguer as a showcase property for the estate. It has since been transformed into the Gaudí Museum. There he lived with his father (who died in 1906 at the age of 93) and his niece Rosa Egea Gaudí (who died in 1912 at the age of 36). He lived in the house until 1925, several months before his death, when he began residing inside the workshop of the Sagrada Família. An event that had a profound impact on Gaudí’s personality was Tragic Week in 1909. Gaudí remained in his house in Güell Park during this turbulent period. The anticlerical atmosphere and attacks on churches and convents caused Gaudí to worry for the safety of the Sagrada Família, but the building escaped damage. In 1910, an exhibition in the Grand Palais of Paris was devoted to his work, during the annual salon of the Société des Beaux-Arts (Fine Arts Society) of France. Gaudí participated on the invitation of count Güell, displaying a series of pictures, plans and plaster scale models of several of his works. Although he participated hors concours, he received good reviews from the French press. A large part of this exposition could be seen the following year at the I Salón Nacional de Arquitectura that took place in the municipal exhibition hall of Buen Retiro in Madrid. During the Paris exposition in May 1910, Gaudí spent a holiday in Vic, where he designed two basalt lampposts and wrought iron for the Plaça Major of Vic in honor of Jaume Balmes’s centenary. The following year he resided as a convalescent in Puigcerdà while suffering from tuberculosis. During this time he conceived the idea for the facade of the Passion of the Sagrada Família. Due to ill health he prepared a will at the office of the notary Ramon Cantó i Figueres on 9 June, but later completely recovered. The decade from 1910 was a hard one for Gaudí. During this decade, the architect experienced the deaths of his niece Rosa in 1912 and his main collaborator Francesc Berenguer in 1914; a severe economic crisis which paralysed work on the Sagrada Família in 1915; the 1916 death of his friend Josep Torras i Bages, bishop of Vic; the 1917 disruption of work at the Colonia Güell; and the 1918 death of his friend and patron Eusebi Güell. Perhaps because of these tragedies he devoted himself entirely to the Sagrada Família from 1915, taking refuge in his work. Gaudí confessed to his collaborators: My good friends are dead; I have no family and no clients, no fortune nor anything. Now I can dedicate myself entirely to the Church. Gaudí dedicated the last years of his life entirely to the “Cathedral of the Poor”, as it was commonly known, for which he took alms in order to continue. Apart from his dedication to this cause, he participated in few other activities, the majority of which were related to his Catholic faith: in 1916 he participated in a course about Gregorian chant at the Palau de la Música Catalana taught by the Benedictine monk Gregori M. Sunyol. Personal life Gaudí devoted his life entirely to his profession, remaining single. He is only known to have been attracted to one woman—Josefa Moreu, teacher at the Mataró Cooperative, in 1884—but this was not reciprocated. Thereafter Gaudí took refuge in the profound spiritual peace his Catholic faith offered him. Gaudí is often depicted as unsociable and unpleasant, a man of gruff reactions and arrogant gestures. However, those who were close to him described him as friendly and polite, pleasant to talk to and faithful to friends. Among these, his patrons Eusebi Güell and the bishop of Vic, Josep Torras i Bages, stand out, as well as the writers Joan Maragall and Jacint Verdaguer, the physician Pere Santaló and some of his most faithful collaborators, such as Francesc Berenguer and Llorenç Matamala. Gaudí’s personal appearance—Nordic features, blond hair and blue eyes—changed radically over the course of time. As a young man, he dressed like a dandy in costly suits, sporting well-groomed hair and beard, indulging gourmet taste, making frequent visits to the theatre and the opera and visiting his project sites in a horse carriage. The older Gaudí ate frugally, dressed in old, worn-out suits, and neglected his appearance to the extent that sometimes he was taken for a beggar, such as after the accident that caused his death. Gaudí left hardly any written documents, apart from technical reports of his works required by official authorities, some letters to friends (particularly to Joan Maragall) and a few journal articles. Some quotes collected by his assistants and disciples have been preserved, above all by Josep Francesc Ràfols, Joan Bergós, Cèsar Martinell and Isidre Puig i Boada. The only written document Gaudí left is known as the Manuscrito de Reus (Reus Manuscript) (1873–1878), a kind of student diary in which he collected diverse impressions of architecture and decorating, putting forward his ideas on the subject. Included are an analysis of the Christian church and of his ancestral home, as well as a text about ornamentation and comments on the design of a desk. Gaudí was always in favour of statehood for Catalonia but was reluctant to become politically active. Politicians, such as Francesc Cambó and Enric Prat de la Riba, suggested that he run for deputy but he refused. In 1920 he was beaten by police in a riot during the Floral Games celebrations. On 11 September 1924, National Day of Catalonia, he was beaten at a demonstration against the banning of the Catalan language by the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera. Gaudí was arrested by the Civil Guard, resulting in a short stay in prison, from which he was freed after paying 50 pesetas bail. On 7 June 1926, Gaudí was taking his daily walk to the Sant Felip Neri church for his habitual prayer and confession. While walking along the Gran Via de les Corts Catalanes between Girona and Bailén streets, he was struck by a passing tram and lost consciousness. Assumed to be a beggar because of his lack of identity documents and shabby clothing, the unconscious Gaudí did not receive immediate aid. Eventually a police officer transported him in a taxi to the Santa Creu Hospital, where he received rudimentary care. By the time that the chaplain of the Sagrada Família, Mosén Gil Parés, recognised him on the following day, Gaudí's condition had deteriorated too severely to benefit from additional treatment. Gaudí died on 10 June 1926 at the age of 73 and was buried two days later. A large crowd gathered to bid farewell to him in the chapel of Our Lady of Mount Carmel in the crypt of the Sagrada Família. His gravestone bears this inscription: Antonius Gaudí Cornet. Reusensis. Annos natus LXXIV, vitae exemplaris vir, eximiusque artifex, mirabilis operis hujus, templi auctor, pie obiit Barcinone die X Junii MCMXXVI, hinc cineres tanti hominis, resurrectionem mortuorum expectant. R.I.P. Gaudí and Modernisme Gaudí's professional life was distinctive in that he never ceased to investigate mechanical building structures. Early on, Gaudí was inspired by oriental arts (India, Persia, Japan) through the study of the historicist architectural theoreticians, such as Walter Pater, John Ruskin and William Morris. The influence of the Oriental movement can be seen in works like the Capricho, the Güell Palace, the Güell Pavilions and the Casa Vicens. Later on, he adhered to the neo-Gothic movement that was in fashion at the time, following the ideas of the French architect Viollet-le-Duc. This influence is reflected in the Colegi de les Teresianes, the bishop's palace in Astorga, the Casa Botines and the Bellesguard house as well as in the crypt and the apse of the Sagrada Família. Eventually, Gaudí embarked on a more personal phase, with the organic style inspired by nature in which he would build his major works. During his time as a student, Gaudí was able to study a collection of photographs of Egyptian, Indian, Persian, Mayan, Chinese and Japanese art owned by the School of Architecture. The collection also included Moorish monuments in Spain, which left a deep mark on him and served as an inspiration in many of his works. He also studied the book Plans, elevations, sections and details of the Alhambra by Owen Jones, which he borrowed from the School’s library. He took various structural and ornamental solutions from nazarí and mudéjar art, which he used with variations and stylistic freedom in his works. Notably, Gaudí observed of Islamic art its spatial uncertainty, its concept of structures with limitless space; its feeling of sequence, fragmented with holes and partitions, which create a divide without disrupting the feeling of open space by enclosing it with barriers. Undoubtedly the style that most influenced him was the Gothic Revival, promoted in the latter half of the 19th century by the theoretical works of Viollet-le-Duc. The French architect called for studying the styles of the past and adapting them in a rational manner, taking into account both structure and design. Nonetheless, for Gaudí the Gothic style was "imperfect", because despite the effectiveness of some of its structural solutions it was an art that had yet to be "perfected”. In his own words: Gothic art is imperfect, only half resolved; it is a style created by the compasses, a formulaic industrial repetition. Its stability depends on constant propping up by the buttresses: it is a defective body held up on crutches. (...) The proof that Gothic works are of deficient plasticity is that they produce their greatest emotional effect when they are mutilated, covered in ivy and lit by the moon. After these initial influences, Gaudí moved towards Modernisme, then in its heyday. Modernisme in its earlier stages was inspired by historic architecture. Its practitioners saw its return to the past as a response to the industrial forms imposed by the Industrial Revolution's technological advances. The use of these older styles represented a moral regeneration that allowed the bourgeoisie to identify with values they regarded as their cultural roots. The Renaixença (rebirth), the revival of Catalan culture that began in the second half of the 19th century, brought more Gothic forms into the Catalan “national” style that aimed to combine nationalism and cosmopolitanism while at the same time integrating into the European modernizing movement. Some essential features of Modernisme were: an anticlassical language inherited from Romanticism with a tendency to lyricism and subjectivity; the determined connection of architecture with the applied arts and artistic work that produced an overtly ornamental style; the use of new materials from which emerged a mixed constructional language, rich in contrasts, that sought a plastic effect for the whole; a strong sense of optimism and faith in progress that produced an emphatic art that reflected the atmosphere of prosperity of the time, above all of the esthetic of the bourgeoisie. Quest for a new architectural language Gaudí is usually considered the great master of Catalan Modernism, but his works go beyond any one style or classification. They are imaginative works that find their main inspiration in nature. Gaudí studied organic and anarchic geometric forms of nature thoroughly, searching for a way to give expression to these forms in architecture. Some of his greatest inspirations came from visits to the mountain of Montserrat, the caves of Mallorca, the saltpetre caves in Collbató), the crag of Fra Guerau in the Prades Mountains behind Reus, the Pareis mountain in the north of Mallorca and Sant Miquel del Fai in Bigues i Riells. Geometrical forms This study of nature translated into his use of ruled geometrical forms such as the hyperbolic paraboloid, the hyperboloid, the helicoid and the cone, which reflect the forms Gaudí found in nature. Ruled surfaces are forms generated by a straight line known as the generatrix, as it moves over one or several lines known as directrices. Gaudí found abundant examples of them in nature, for instance in rushes, reeds and bones; he used to say that there is no better structure than the trunk of a tree or a human skeleton. These forms are at the same time functional and aesthetic, and Gaudí discovered how to adapt the language of nature to the structural forms of architecture. He used to equate the helicoid form to movement and the hyperboloid to light. Concerning ruled surfaces, he said: Paraboloids, hyperboloids and helicoids, constantly varying the incidence of the light, are rich in matrices themselves, which make ornamentation and even modelling unnecessary. Another element widely used by Gaudí was the catenary curve. He had studied geometry thoroughly when he was young, studying numerous articles about engineering, a field that praised the virtues of the catenary curve as a mechanical element, one which at that time, however, was used only in the construction suspension bridges. Gaudí was the first to use this element in common architecture. Catenary arches in works like the Casa Milà, the School of the Teresianas, the crypt of the Colònia Güell and the Sagrada Família allowed Gaudí to add an element of great strength to his structures, given that the catenary distributes the weight it regularly carries evenly, being affected only by self-canceling tangential forces. Gaudí evolved from plane to spatial geometry, to ruled geometry. These constructional forms are highly suited to the use of cheap materials such as brick. Gaudí frequently used brick laid with mortar in successive layers, as in the traditional Catalan vault. This quest for new structural solutions culminated between 1910 and 1920, when he exploited his research and experience in his masterpiece, the Sagrada Família. Gaudí conceived this church as if it were the structure of a forest, with a set of tree-like columns divided into various branches to support a structure of intertwined hyperboloid vaults. He inclined the columns so they could better resist the perpendicular pressures on their section. He also gave them a double turn helicoid shape (right turn and left turn), as in the branches and trunks of trees. This created a structure that is now known as fractal. Together with a modulation of the space that divides it into small, independent and self-supporting modules, it creates a structure that perfectly supports the mechanical traction forces without need for buttresses, as required by the neo-Gothic style. Gaudí thus achieved a rational, structured and perfectly logical solution, creating at the same time a new architectural style that was original, simple, practical and aesthetic. Surpassing the Gothic This new constructional technique allowed Gaudí to achieve his greatest architectural goal; to perfect and go beyond Gothic style. The hyperboloid vaults have their centre where Gothic vaults had their keystone, and the hyperboloid allows for a hole in this space to let natural light in. In the intersection between vaults, where Gothic vaults have ribs, the hyperboloid allows for holes as well, which Gaudí employed to give the impression of a starry sky. Gaudí complemented this organic vision of architecture with a unique spatial vision that allowed him to conceive his designs in three dimensions, unlike the flat design of traditional architecture. He used to say that he had acquired this spatial sense as a boy by looking at the drawings his father made of the boilers and stills he produced. Because of this spatial conception, Gaudí always preferred to work with casts and scale models or even improvise on site as a work progressed. Reluctant to draw plans, only on rare occasions did he sketch his works, in fact only when required by authorities. Another of Gaudí’s innovations in the technical realm was the use of a scale model to calculate structures: for the church of the Colònia Güell, he built a 1:10 scale model with a height of 4 metres (13 ft) in a shed next to the building. There, he set up a model that had strings with small bags full of birdshot hanging from them. On a drawing board that was attached to the ceiling he drew the floor of the church, and he hung the strings (for the catenaries) with the birdshot (for the weight) from the supporting points of the building—columns, intersection of walls. These weights produced a catenary curve both in the arches and vaults. At that point, he took a picture that, when inverted, showed the structure for columns and arches that Gaudí was looking for. Gaudí then painted over these photographs with gouache or pastel. The outline of the church defined, he recorded every single detail of the building: architectural, stylistic and decorative. Gaudí's position in the history of architecture is that of a creative genius who, inspired by nature, developed a style of his own that attained technical perfection as well as aesthetic value, and bore the mark of his character. Gaudí’s structural innovations were to an extent the result of his journey through various styles, from Doric to Baroque via Gothic, his main inspiration. It could be said that these styles culminated in his work, who reinterpreted and perfected them. Gaudí passed through the historicism and eclecticism of his generation without connecting with other architectural movements of the 20th century that, with their rationalist postulates, derived from the Bauhaus school, and represented an antithetical evolution to that initiated by Gaudí, given that it later reflected the disdain and the initial lack of comprehension of the work of the modernista architect. Other factors that led to the initial neglect of the Catalan architect's work was that despite having numerous assistants and helpers, Gaudí created no school of his own and never taught, nor did he leave written documents. Some of his subordinates adopted his innovations, above all Francesc Berenguer and Josep Maria Jujol; others, like Cèsar Martinell, Francesc Folguera and Josep Francesc Ràfols graduated towards Noucentisme, leaving the master’s trail. Despite this, a degree of influence can be discerned in some architects that either formed part of the Modernista movement or departed from it and who had had no direct contact with him, such as Josep Maria Pericas (Casa Alòs, Ripoll), Bernardí Martorell (Olius cemetery) and Lluís Muncunill (Masía Freixa, Terrassa). Nonetheless, Gaudí left a deep mark on 20th century architecture: masters like Le Corbusier declared themselves admirers, and the works of other architects like Pier Luigi Nervi, Friedensreich Hundertwasser, Oscar Niemeyer, Félix Candela, Eduardo Torroja and Santiago Calatrava were inspired by Gaudí. Frei Otto used Gaudí’s forms in the construction of the Munich Olympic Stadium. In Japan, the work of Kenji Imai bears evidence of Gaudí’s influence, as can be seen in the Memorial for the Twenty-six Martyrs of Japan in Nagasaki (Japanese National Architecture Award in 1962), where the use of Gaudí's famous “trencadís" stands out. Design and craftsmanship During his student days, Gaudí attended craft workshops, such as those taught by Eudald Puntí, Llorenç Matamala and Joan Oñós, where he learned the basic aspects of techniques relating to architecture, including sculpture, carpentry, wrought ironwork, stained glass, ceramics, plaster modelling, etc. He also absorbed new technological developments, integrating into his technique the use of iron and reinforced concrete in construction. Gaudí took a broad view of architecture as a multifunctional design, in which every single detail in an arrangement has to be harmoniously made and well-proportioned. This knowledge allowed him to design architectural projects, including all the elements of his works, from furnishings to illumination to wrought ironwork. Gaudí was also an innovator in the realm of craftsmanship, conceiving new technical and decorative solutions with his materials, for example his way of designing ceramic mosaics made of waste pieces (“trencadís”) in original and imaginative combinations. For the restoration of Mallorca Cathedral he invented a new technique to produce stained glass, which consisted of juxtaposing three glass panes of primary colours, and sometimes a neutral one, varying the thickness of the glass in order to graduate the light's intensity. This was how he personally designed many of the Sagrada Família’s sculptures. He would thoroughly study the anatomy of the figure, concentrating on gestures. For this purpose, he studied the human skeleton and sometimes used dummies made of wire to test the appropriate posture of the figure he was about to sculpt. In a second step, he photographed his models, using a mirror system that provided multiple perspectives. He then made plaster casts of the figures, both of people and animals (on one occasion he made a donkey stand up so it would not move). He modified the proportions of these casts to obtain the figure's desired appearance, depending on its place in the church (the higher up, the bigger it would be). Eventually, he sculpted the figures in stone. Urban spaces and landscaping Gaudí also practiced landscaping, often in urban settings. He aimed to place his works in the most appropriate natural and architectural surroundings by studying the location of his constructions thoroughly and trying to naturally integrate them into those surroundings. For this purpose, he often used the material that was most common in the nearby environment, such as the slate of Bellesguard and the grey Bierzo granite in the Bishop’s Palace of Astorga. Many of his projects were gardens, such as the Güell Park and the Can Artigas Gardens, or incorporated gardens, as in the Casa Vicens or the Güell Pavilions. Gaudí's harmonious approach to landscaping is exemplified at the First Mystery of the Glory of the Rosary at Montserrat, where the architectural framework is nature itself—here the Montserrat rock—nature encircles the group of sculptures that adorned the path to the Holy Cave. Equally, Gaudí stood out as interior decorator, decorating most of his buildings personally, from the furnishings to the smallest details. In each case he knew how to apply stylistic particularities, personalising the decoration according to the owner’s taste, the predominant style of the arrangement or its place in the surroundings—whether urban or natural, secular or religious. Many of his works were related to liturgical furnishing. From the design of a desk for his office at the beginning of his career to the furnishings designed for the Sobrellano Palace of Comillas, he designed all furnishing of the Vicens, Calvet, Batlló and Milà houses, of the Güell Palace and the Bellesguard Tower, and the liturgical furnishing of the Sagrada Família. It is noteworthy that Gaudí studied some ergonomy in order to adapt his furnishings to human anatomy. Many of his furnishings are exhibited at Gaudí Museum. Another aspect is the intelligent distribution of space, always with the aim of creating a comfortable, intimate, interior atmosphere. For this purpose, Gaudí would divide the space into sections, adapted to their specific use, by means of low walls, dropped ceilings, sliding doors and wall closets. Apart from taking care of every detail of all structural and ornamental elements, he made sure his constructions had good lighting and ventilation. For this purpose, he studied each project's orientation with respect to the cardinal points, as well as the local climate and its place in its surroundings. At that time, there was an increasing demand for more domestic comfort, with piped water and gas and the use of electric light, all of which Gaudí expertly incorporated. For the Sagrada Família, for example, he carried out thorough studies on acoustics and illumination, in order to optimise them. With regard to light, he stated: Light achieves maximum harmony at an inclination of 45°, since it resides on objects in a way that is neither horizontal nor vertical. This can be considered medium light, and it offers the most perfect vision of objects and their most exquisite nuances. It is the Mediterranean light. Lighting also served Gaudí for the organisation of space, which required a careful study of the gradient of light intensity to adequately adapt to each specific environment. He achieved this with different elements such as skylights, windows, shutters and blinds; a notable case is the gradation of colour used in the atrium of the Casa Batlló to achieve uniform distribution of light throughout the interior. He also tended to build south-facing houses to maximise sunlight. Gaudí’s work is normally classed as modernista, and it belongs to this movement because of its eagerness to renovate without breaking with tradition, its quest for modernity, the ornamental sense applied to works, and the multidisciplinary character of its undertakings, where craftsmanship plays a central role. To this, Gaudí adds a dose of the baroque, adopts technical advances and continues to use traditional architectural language. Together with his inspiration from nature and the original touch of his works, this amalgam gives his works their personal and unique character in the history of architecture. Chronologically, it is difficult to establish guidelines that illustrate the evolution of Gaudí’s style faithfully. Although he moved on from his initially historicist approach to immerse himself completely in the modernista movement which arose so vigorously in the last third of the 19th century in Catalonia, before finally attaining his personal, organic style, this process did not consist of clearly-defined stages with obvious boundaries: rather, at every stage there are reflections of all the earlier ones, as he gradually assimilated and surpassed them. One of the best descriptions of Gaudí’s work was made by his disciple and biographer Joan Bergós, according to plastic and structural criteria. Bergós establishes five periods in Gaudí’s productions: preliminary period, mudéjar-morisco (Moorish/mudéjar art), emulated Gothic, naturalist and expressionist, and organic synthesis. Early works Gaudís first works both from his student days and the time just after his graduation stand out for the precision of their details, the use of geometry and the prevalence of mechanical considerations in the structural calculations. University years During his studies, Gaudí designed various projects, among which the following stand out: a cemetery gate (1875), a Spanish pavilion for the Philadelphia World Fair of 1876, a quay-side building (1876), a courtyard for the Diputació de Barcelona (1876), a monumental fountain for the Plaça Catalunya in Barcelona (1877) and a university assembly hall (1877). |Cemetery gate (1875)||Quay-side building (1876)||Fountain in Plaça Catalunya (1877)||University assembly hall (1877)| Antoni Gaudí started his professional career while still at university. To pay for his studies, he worked as a draughtsman for some of the most outstanding Barcelona architects of the time, such as Joan Martorell, Josep Fontserè, Francisco de Paula del Villar y Lozano, Leandre Serrallach and Emili Sala Cortés. Gaudí had a long-standing relationship with Josep Fontserè, since his family was also from Riudoms and they had known each other for some time. Despite not having an architecture degree, Fontserè received the commission from the city council for the Parc de la Ciutadella development, carried out between 1873 and 1882. For this project, Gaudí was in charge of the design of the Park's entrance gate, the bandstand's balustrade and the water project for the monumental fountain, where he designed an artificial cave that showed his liking for nature and the organic touch he would give his architecture. Gaudí worked for Francisco de Paula del Villar on the apse of the Montserrat monastery, designing the niche for the image of the Black Virgin of Montserrat in 1876. He would later substitute Villar in the works of the Sagrada Família. With Leandre Serrallach, he worked on a tram line project to Villa Arcadia in Montjuïc. Eventually, he collaborated with Joan Martorell on the Jesuit church on Carrer Casp and the Salesian convent in Passeig de Sant Joan, as well as the Villaricos church (Almería). He also carried out a project for Martorell for the competition for a new facade for Barcelona cathedral, which was never accepted. His relationship with Martorell, whom he always considered one of his main and most influential masters, brought him unexpected luck; he later recommended Gaudí for the Sagrada Família. Early post-graduation projects After his graduation as an architect in 1878, Gaudí's first work was a set of lampposts for the Plaça Reial, the project for the Girossi newsstands and the Mataró cooperative, which was his first important work. He received the request from the city council of Barcelona in February 1878, when he had graduated but not yet received his degree, which was sent from Madrid on 15 March of the same year. For this commission he designed two types of lampposts: one with six arms, of which two were installed in the Plaça Reial, and another with three, of which two were installed in the Pla del Palau, opposite the Civil Government. The lampposts were inaugurated during the Mercè festivities in 1879. Made of cast iron with a marble base, they have a decoration in which the caduceus of Mercury is prominent, symbol of commerce and emblem of Barcelona. |Early post-graduate works| |Lampposts||Girossi newsstands||Esteban Comella display||Gibert Pharmacy| The Girossi newsstands project, which was never carried out, was a commission from the tradesman Enrique Girossi de Sanctis. It would have consisted of 20 newsstands, spread throughout Barcelona. Each would have included a public lavatory, a flower stand and glass panels for advertisements as well as a clock, a calendar, a barometer and a thermometer. Gaudí conceived a structure with iron pillars and marble and glass slabs, crowned by a large iron and glass roof, with a gas illumination system. The Cooperativa Obrera Mataronense (Mataró Workers' Cooperative) was Gaudí’s first big project, on which he worked from 1878 to 1882, for Salvador Pagès i Anglada. The project, for the cooperative’s head office in Mataró, comprised a factory, a worker's housing estate, a social centre and a services building, though only the factory and the services building were completed. In the factory roof Gaudí used the catenary arch for the first time, with a bolt assembly system devised by Philibert de l'Orme. He also used ceramic tile decoration for the first time in the services building. Gaudí laid out the site taking account of solar orientation, another signature of his works, and included landscaped areas. He even designed the Cooperative’s banner, with the figure of a bee, symbol of industriousness. In May 1878 Gaudí designed a display cabinet for the Esteban Comella glove factory, which was exhibited in the Spanish pavilion at the Paris World Exhibition that year. It was this work that attracted the attention of the entrepreneur Eusebi Güell, visiting the French capital; he was so impressed that he wanted to meet Gaudí on his return, beginning a long friendship and professional collaboration. Güell became Gaudí’s main patron and sponsor of many of his large projects. First Güell projects Güell's first task for Gaudí, that same year, was the design of the furniture for the pantheon chapel of the Palacio de Sobrellano in Comillas, which was then being constructed by Joan Martorell, Gaudí’s teacher, at the request of the Marquis of Comillas, Güell’s father in law. Gaudí designed a chair, a bench and a prayer stool: the chair was upholstered with velvet, finished with two eagles and the Marquis’ coat of arms; the bench stands out with the motif of a dragon, designed by Llorenç Matamala; the prayer stool is decorated with plants. Also in 1878 he drew up the plans for a theatre in the former town of Sant Gervasi de Cassoles (now a district of Barcelona); Gaudí did not take part in the construction of the theatre, which no longer exists. The following year he designed the furniture and counter for the Gibert Pharmacy, with marquetry of Arab influence. The same year he made five drawings for a procession in honour of the poet Francesc Vicent Garcia i Torres in Vallfogona de Riucorb, where this celebrated 17th-century writer and friend of Lope de Vega was the parish priest. Gaudí’s project was centred on the poet and on several aspects of agricultural work, such as reaping and harvesting grapes and olives; however, as a result of organisational problems Gaudí’s ideas were not carried out. Between 1879 and 1881 he drew up a proposal for the decoration of the church of Sant Pacià, belonging to the Colegio de Jesús-María in Sant Andreu del Palomar: he created the altar in a Gothic style, the monstrance with Byzantine influence, the mosaics and the lighting, as well as the school’s furniture. The church caught fire during the Tragic Week of 1909, and now only the mosaics remain, of “opus tesselatum”, probably the work of the Italian mosaicist Luigi Pellerin. He was given the task of decorating the church of the Colegio de Jesús-María in Tarragona (1880–1882): he created the altar in white Italian marble, and its front part, or antependium, with four columns bearing medallions of polychrome alabaster, with figures of angels; the ostensory with gilt wood, the work of Eudald Puntí, decorated with rosaries, angels, tetramorph symbols and the dove of the Holy Ghost; and the choir stalls, which were destroyed in 1936. In 1880 he designed an electric lighting project for Barcelona’s Muralla de Mar, or seawall, which was not carried out. It consisted of eight large iron streetlamps, profusely decorated with plant motifs, friezes, shields and names of battles and Catalan admirals. The same year he participated in the competition for the construction of the San Sebastián social centre (now town hall), won by Luis Aladrén Mendivi and Adolfo Morales de los Ríos; Gaudí submitted a project that synthesised several of his earlier studies, such as the fountain for the Plaça Catalunya and the courtyard of the Provincial Council. Collaboration with Martorell A new task of the Güell-López’s for Comillas was the gazebo for Alfonso XII’s visit to the Cantabrian town in 1881. Gaudí designed a small pavilion in the shape of a Hindu turban, covered in mosaics and decorated with an abundance of small bells which jingled constantly. It was subsequently moved into the Güell Pavilions. In 1882 he designed a Benedictine monastery and a church dedicated to the Holy Spirit in Villaricos (Cuevas de Vera, Almeria) for his former teacher, Joan Martorell. It was of neo-Gothic design, similar to the Convent of the Salesians that Gaudí also planned with Martorell. Ultimately it was not carried out, and the project plans were destroyed in the looting of the Sagrada Família in 1936. The same year he was tasked with constructing a hunting lodge and wine cellars at a country residence known as La Cuadra, in Garraf (Sitges), property of baron Eusebi Güell. Ultimately the wine cellars, but not the lodge, were built some years later. With Martorell he also collaborated on three other projects: the church of the Jesuit School in Carrer Caspe; the Convent of the Salesians in Passeig de Sant Joan, a neo-Gothic project with an altar in the centre of the crossing; and the facade project for Barcelona cathedral, for the competition convened by the cathedral chapter in 1882, ultimately won by Josep Oriol Mestres and August Font i Carreras. Gaudí’s collaboration with Martorell was a determining factor in Gaudí’s recommendation for the Sagrada Família. The church was the idea of Josep Maria Bocabella, founder of the Devotees of Saint Joseph Association, which acquired a complete block of Barcelona’s Eixample district. The project was originally entrusted to Francisco de Paula del Villar y Lozano, who planned the construction of a neo-Gothic church, on which work began in 1882. However, the following year Villar resigned due to disagreements with the construction board, and the task went to Gaudí, who completely redesigned the project, apart from the part of the crypt that had already been built. Gaudí devoted the rest of his life to the construction of the church, which was to be the synthesis of all of his architectural discoveries. Orientalist period During these years Gaudí completed a series of works with a distinctly oriental flavour, inspired by the art of the Middle and Far East (India, Persia, Japan), as well as Islamic-Hispanic art, mainly Mudejar and Nazari. Gaudí used ceramic tile decoration abundantly, as well as Moorish arches, columns of exposed brick and pinnacles in the shape of pavilions or domes. Between 1883 and 1888 he constructed the Casa Vicens, commissioned by stockbroker Manuel Vicens i Montaner. It was constructed with four floors, with facades on three sides and an extensive garden, including a monumental brick fountain. The house was surrounded by a wall with iron gates, decorated with palmetto leaves, work of Llorenç Matamala. The walls of the house are of stone alternated with lines of tile, which imitate yellow flowers typical of this area; the house is topped with chimneys and turrets. In the interior the polychrome wooden roof beams stand out, adorned with floral themes of papier maché; the walls are decorated with vegetable motifs, as well as paintings by Josep Torrescasana; finally, the floor consists of Roman-style mosaics of "opus tesselatum". One of the most original rooms is the smoking room, notable the ceiling, decorated with Moorish honeycomb-work, reminiscent of the Generalife in the Alhambra in Granada. |Casa Vicens (1883–88)||El Capricho (1883–85)||Güell Pavilions (1884–87)||Palau Güell (1886–88)||Compañía Trasatlántica (1888)| In the same year, 1883, Gaudí designed the Santísimo Sacramento chapel for the parish church of San Félix de Alella, as well as some topographical plans for the Can Rosell de la Llena country residence in Gelida. He also received a commission to build a small annex to the Palacio de Sobrellano, for the Baron of Comillas, in the Cantabrian town of the same name. Known as El Capricho, it was commissioned by Máximo Díaz de Quijano and constructed between 1883 and 1885. Cristòfor Cascante i Colom, Gaudí’s fellow student, directed the construction. In an oriental style, it has an elongated shape, on three levels and a cylindrical tower in the shape of a Persian minaret, faced completely in ceramics. The entrance is set behind four columns supporting depressed arches, with capitals decorated with birds and leaves, similar to those that can be seen at the Casa Vicens. Notable are the main lounge, with its large sash window, and the smoking room with a ceiling consisting of a false Arab-style stucco vault. Gaudí carried out a second commission from Eusebi Güell between 1884 and 1887, the Güell Pavilions in Pedralbes, now on the outskirts of Barcelona. Güell had a country residence in Les Corts de Sarrià, consisting of two adjacent properties known as Can Feliu and Can Cuyàs de la Riera. The architect Joan Martorell had built a Caribbean-style mansion, which was demolished in 1919 to make way for the Royal Palace of Pedralbes. Gaudí undertook to refurbish the house and construct a wall and porter's lodge. He completed the stone wall with several entrances, the main entrance with an iron gate in the shape of a dragon, with symbology allusive to the myths of Hercules and the Garden of the Hesperides. The buildings consist of a stable, covered longeing ring and porter's lodge: the stable has a rectangular base and catenary arches; the longeing ring has a square base with a hyperboloid dome; the porter's lodge consists of three small buildings, the central one being polygonal with a hyperbolic dome, and the other two smaller and cubic. All three are topped by ventilators in the shape of chimneys faced with ceramics. The walls are of exposed brick in various shades of reds and yellows; in certain sections prefabricated cement blocks are also used. The Pavilions are now the headquarters of the Real Cátedra Gaudí, of the Polytechnic University of Catalonia. In 1885 Gaudí accepted a commission from Josep Maria Bocabella, promotor of the Sagrada Família, for an altar in the oratory of the Bocabella family, who had obtained permission from the Pope to have an altar in their home. The altar is made of varnished mahogany, with a slab of white marble in the centre for relics. It is decorated with plants and religious motifs, such as the Greek letters alpha and omega, symbol of the beginning and end, gospel phrases and images of Saint Francis of Paola, Saint Teresa of Avila and the Holy Family and closed with a curtain of crimson embroidery. It was made by the cabinet maker Frederic Labòria, who also collaborated with Gaudí on the Sagrada Família. Shortly after, Gaudí received an important new commission from Güell: the construction of his family house, in the Carrer Nou de la Rambla in Barcelona. The Palau Güell (1886–1888) continues the tradition of large Catalan urban mansions such as those in Carrer Montcada. Gaudí designed a monumental entrance with a magnificent parabolic arch above iron gates, decorated with the Catalan coat of arms and a helmet with a winged dragon, the work of Joan Oñós. A notable feature is the triple-height entrance hall; it is the core of the building, surrounded by the main rooms of the palace, and it is remarkable for its double dome, parabolic within and conical on the outside, a solution typical of Byzantine art. For the gallery on the street facade Gaudí used an original system of catenary arches and columns with hyperbolic capitals, a style he used only here. He designed the interior of the palace with a sumptuous Mudejar-style decoration, where the wood and iron coffered ceilings stand out. The chimneys on the roof are a remarkable feature, faced in vividly-coloured ceramic tiles, as is the tall spire in the form of a lantern tower, which is the external termination of the dome within, and is also faced with ceramic tiles and topped with an iron weather vane. On the occasion of the World Expo held in Barcelona in 1888, Gaudí constructed the pavilion for the Compañía Trasatlántica, property of the Marquis of Comillas, in the Maritime Section of the event. He created it in a Granadinian Nazari style, with horseshoe arches and stucco decoration; the building survived until the Passeig Marítim was opened up in 1960. In the wake of the event he received a commission from Barcelona Council to restore the Saló de Cent and the grand stairs in Barcelona City Hall, as well as a chair for the queen Maria Cristina; only the chair was made, and Mayor Francesc Rius i Taulet presented it to the Queen. Neo-Gothic period During this period Gaudí was inspired above all by mediaeval Gothic art, but wanted to improve on its structural solutions. Neo-gothic was one of the most successful historicist styles at that time, above all as a result of the theoretical studies of Viollet-le-Duc. Gaudí studied examples in Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and Roussillon in depth, as well as Leonese and Castillian buildings during his stays in León and Burgos, and became convinced that it was an imperfect style, leaving major structural issues only partly resolved. In his works he eliminated the need of buttresses through the use of ruled surfaces, and abolished crenellations and excessive openwork. |Colegio de las Teresianas||Bishop's palace||Casa Botines||Bodegas Güell||Torre Bellesguard| The first example was the Colegio de las Teresianas (1888–1889), in Barcelona’s Carrer Ganduxer, commissioned by San Enrique de Ossó. Gaudí fulfilled the wish of the order that the building should be austere, in keeping with their vows of poverty. He designed a simple building, using bricks for the exterior and some brick elements for the interior. Wrought ironwork, one of Gaudí's favourite materials, appeared on the facades. The building is crowned by a row of merlons which suggest a castle, a possible reference to Saint Teresa’s Interior Castle. The corners have brick pinnacles topped by helicoidal columns and culminate in a four-armed cross, typical of Gaudí’s works, and with ceramic shields bearing various symbols of the order. The interior includes a corridor which is famous for the series of catenary arches that it contains. These elegant arches are decorative and support the ceiling and the floor above. For Gaudí, the parabolic arch was an ideal constructional element, capable of supporting great loads with slender masonry. Gaudí received his next commission from a clergyman who had been a boyhood friend in his native Reus. When he was appointed bishop of Astorga, Joan Baptista Grau i Vallespinós asked Gaudí to design a new episcopal palace for the city, as the previous building had caught fire. Constructed between 1889 and 1915, in a neo-Gothic style with four cylindrical towers, it was surrounded by a moat. The stone with which it was built (grey granite from the El Bierzo area) is in harmony with its surroundings, particularly with the cathedral in its immediate vicinity, as well as with the natural landscape, which in late 19th-century Astorga was more visible than today. The porch has three large flared arches, built of ashlar and separated by sloping buttresses. The structure is supported by columns with decorated capitals and by ribbed vaults on pointed arches, and topped with Mudejar-style merlons. Gaudí resigned from the project in 1893, at the death of Bishop Grau, due to disagreements with the Chapter, and it was finished in 1915 by Ricardo García Guereta. It currently houses a museum about the Way of Saint James, which passes through Astorga Another of Gaudí’s projects outside of Catalonia was the Casa de los Botines, in León (1891–1894), commissioned by Simón Fernández Fernández and Mariano Andrés Luna, textile merchants from Leon, who were recommended Gaudí by Eusebi Güell, with whom they did business. Gaudí’s project was an impressive neo-Gothic style building, which bears his unmistakable modernista imprint. The building was used to accommodate offices and textile shops on the lower floors, as well as apartments on the upper floors. It was constructed with walls of solid limestone. The building is flanked by four cylindrical turrets surmounted by slate spires, and surrounded by an area with an iron grille. The Gothic facade style, with its cusped arches, has a clock and a sculpture of Saint George and the Dragon, the work of Llorenç Matamala. As of 2010 it was the headquarters of the Caja España. In 1892 Gaudí was commissioned by Claudio López Bru, second Marquis of Comillas, with the Franciscana Catholic Missions for the city of Tangier, in Morocco (at the time a Spanish colony). The project included a church, hospital and school, and Gaudí conceived a quadrilobulate ground-plan floor structure, with catenary arches, parabolic towers, and hyperboloid windows. Gaudí deeply regretted the project's eventual demise, always keeping his design with him. In spite of this, the project influenced the works of the Sagrada Família, in particular the design of the towers, with their paraboloid shape like those of the Missions. In 1895 he designed a funerary chapel for the Güell family at the abbey of Montserrat, but little is known about this work, which was never built. That year, construction finally began on the Bodegas Güell, the 1882 project for a hunting lodge and some wineries at La Cuadra de Garraf (Sitges), property of Eusebi Güell. Constructed between 1895 and 1897 under the direction of Francesc Berenguer, Gaudí’s aide, the wineries have a triangular end facade, a very steep stone roof, a group of chimneys and two bridges that join them to an older building. It has three floors: the bottom one for a garage, an apartment and a chapel with catenary arches, with the altar in the centre. It was completed with a porter’s lodge, notable for the iron gate in the shape of a fishing net. In the township of Sant Gervasi de Cassoles (now a district of Barcelona), the widow of Jaume Figueras commissioned Gaudí to renovate the Torre Bellesguard (1900–1909), former summer palace of King Martin I the Humane. Gaudí designed it in a neo-Gothic style, respecting the former building as much as possible, and tried as always to integrate the architecture into the natural surroundings. This influenced his choice of local slate for the construction. The building's ground-plan measures 15 x 15 meters, with the corners oriented to the four cardinal points. Constructed in stone and brick, it is taller than it is wide, with a spire topped with the four-armed cross, the Catalan flag and the royal crown. The house has a basement, ground floor, first floor and an attic, with a gable roof. Naturalist period During this period Gaudí perfected his personal style, inspired by the organic shapes of nature, putting into practise a whole series of new structural solutions originating from his deep analysis of ruled geometry. To this he added a great creative freedom and an imaginative ornamental style. His works acquired a great structural richness, with shapes and volumes devoid of rational rigidity or any classic premise. Commissioned by the company Hijos de Pedro Mártir Calvet, Gaudí built the Casa Calvet (1898–1899), in Barcelona’s Carrer Casp. The facade is built of Montjuïc stone, adorned with wrought iron balconies and topped with two pediments with wrought iron crosses. Another notable feature of the facade is the gallery on the main floor, decorated with plant and mythological motifs. For this project Gaudí used a Baroque style, visible in the use of Solomonic columns, decoration with floral themes and the design of the terraced roof . In 1900 he won the award for the best building of the year from Barcelona City Council. A virtually unknown work by Gaudí is the Casa Clapés (1899–1900), at 125 Carrer Escorial, commissioned by the painter Aleix Clapés, who collaborated on occasion with Gaudí, such as in decorating the Palau Güell and the Casa Milà. It has a ground floor and three apartments, with stuccoed walls and cast-iron balconies. Due to its lack of decoration or original structural solutions its authorship was unknown until 1976, when the architect’s signed plans by Gaudí were discovered. In 1900 he renovated the house of Dr. Pere Santaló, at 32 Carrer Nou de la Rambla, a work of equally low importance. Santaló was a friend of Gaudí's, whom he accompanied during his stay in Puigcerdà in 1911.It was he who recommended him to do manual work for his rheumatism. |Naturalist works (1898–1900)| |Casa Calvert||Finca Miralles||Park Güell||Rosary of Montserrat| Also in 1900 he designed two banners: for the Orfeó Feliuà (of Sant Feliu de Codines), made of brass, leather, cork and silk, with ornamental motifs based on the martyrdom of San Félix (a millstone), music (a staff and clef) and the inscription “Orfeó Feliuà”; and Our Lady of Mercy of Reus, for the pilgrimage of the Reus residents of Barcelona, with an image of Isabel Besora, the shepherdess to whom the Virgin appeared in 1592, work of Aleix Clapés and, on the back, a rose and the Catalan flag. In the same year, for the shrine of Our Lady of Mercy in Reus, Gaudí outlined a project for the renovation of the church’s main facade, which ultimately was not undertaken, as the board considered it too expensive. Gaudí took this rejection quite badly, leaving some bitterness towards Reus, possibly the source of his subsequent claim that Riudoms was his place of birth. Between 1900 and 1902 Gaudí worked on the Casa Miralles, commissioned by the industrialist Hermenegild Miralles i Anglès; Gaudí designed only the wall near the gateway, of undulating masonry, with an iron gate topped with the four-armed cross. Subsequently, the house for Señor Miralles was designed by Domènec Sugrañes, associate architect of Gaudí. Gaudí’s main new project at the beginning of the 20th century was the Park Güell (1900–1914), commissioned by Eusebi Güell. It was intended to be a residential estate in the style of an English garden city. The project was unsuccessful: of the 60 plots into which the site was divided only one was sold. Despite this, the park entrances and service areas were built, displaying Gaudí’s genius and putting into practise many of his innovative structural solutions. The Park Güell is situated in Barcelona’s Càrmel district, a rugged area, with steep slopes that Gaudí negotiated with a system of viaducts integrated into the terrain. The main entrance to the park has a building on each side, intended as a porter’s lodge and an office, and the site is surrounded by a stone and glazed-ceramic wall. These entrance buildings are an example of Gaudí at the height of his powers, with Catalan vaults that form a parabolic hyperboloid. After passing through the gate, steps lead to higher levels, decorated with sculpted fountains, notably the dragon fountain, which has become a symbol of the park and one of Gaudí’s most recognised emblems. These steps lead to the Hypostyle Hall, which was to have been the residents’ market, constructed with large Doric columns. Above this chamber is a large plaza in the form of a Greek theatre, with the famous undulating bench covered in broken ceramics ("trencadís"), the work of Josep Maria Jujol. The park’s show home, the work of Francesc Berenguer, was Gaudí’s residence from 1906 to 1926, and currently houses the Casa-Museu Gaudí. During this period Gaudí contributed to a group project, the Rosary of Montserrat (1900–1916). Located on the way to the Holy Cave of Montserrat, it was a series of groups of sculptures that evoked the mysteries of the Virgin, who tells the rosary. This project involved the best architects and sculptors of the era, and is a curious example of Catalan Modernism. Gaudí designed the First Mystery of Glory, which represents the Holy Sepulcher. The series include a statue of Christ Risen, the work of Josep Llimona, and the Three Marys sculpted by Dionís Renart. Another monumental project designed by Gaudí for Montserrat was never carried out: it would have included crowning the summit of El Cavall Bernat (one of the mountain peaks) with a viewpoint in the shape of a royal crown, incorporating a 20 metres (66 ft) high Catalan coat of arms into the wall. In 1901 Gaudí decorated the house of Isabel Güell López, Marchioness of Castelldosrius, and daughter of Eusebi Güell. Situated at 19 Carrer Junta de Comerç, the house had been built in 1885 and renovated between 1901 and 1904; it was destroyed by a bomb during the Civil War. The following year Gaudí took part in the decoration of the Bar Torino, property of Flaminio Mezzalana, located at 18 Passeig de Gràcia; Gaudí designed the ornamentation of el Salón Árabe of that establishment, made with varnished Arabian-style cardboard tiles (which no longer exist). A project of great interest to Gaudí was the restoration of the Cathedral of Santa Maria in Palma de Mallorca (1903–1914), commissioned by the city’s bishop, Pere Campins i Barceló. Gaudí planned a series of works including removing the baroque altarpiece, revealing the bishop's throne, moving the choir-stalls from the centre of the nave and placing them in the presbytery, clearing the way through chapel of the Holy Trinity, placing new pulpits, fitting the cathedral with electrical lighting, uncovering the Gothic windows of the Royal Chapel and filling them with stained glass, placing a large canopy above the main altar and completing the decoration with paintings. This was coordinated by Joan Rubió i Bellver, Gaudí’s assistant. Josep Maria Jujol and the painters Joaquín Torres García, Iu Pascual and Jaume Llongueras were also involved. Gaudí abandoned the project in 1914 due to disagreements with the Cathedral chapter. One of Gaudí’s largest and most striking works is the Casa Batlló (1904–1906). Commissioned by Josep Batlló i Casanovas to renovate an existing building erected in 1875 by Emili Sala Cortés, Gaudí focused on the facade, the main floor, the patio and the roof, and built a fifth floor for the staff. For this project he was assisted by his aides Domènec Sugrañes, Joan Rubió and Josep Canaleta. The facade is of Montjuïc sandstone cut to create warped ruled surfaces; the columns are bone-shaped with vegetable decoration. Gaudí kept the rectangular shape of the old building’s balconies—with iron railings in the shape of masks—giving the rest of the facade an ascending undulating form. He also faced the facade with ceramic fragments of various colours ("trencadís"), which Gaudí obtained from the waste material of the Pelegrí glass works. The interior courtyard is roofed by a skylight supported by an iron structure in the shape of a double T, which rests on a series of catenary aches. The helicoidal chimneys are a notable feature of the roof, topped with conical caps, covered in clear glass in the centre and ceramics at the top, and surmounted by clear glass balls filled with sand of different colours. The facade culminates in catenary vaults covered with two layers of brick and faced with glazed ceramic tiles in the form of scales (in shades of yellow, green and blue), which resemble a dragon’s back; on the left side is a cylindrical turret with anagrams of Jesus, Mary and Joseph, and with Gaudí’s four-armed cross. In 1904, commissioned by the painter Lluís Graner i Arrufí, he designed the decoration of the Sala Mercè, in the Rambla dels Estudis, one of the first cinemas in Barcelona; the theatre imitated a cave, inspired by the Coves del del Drac (Dragon's Caves) in Mallorca. Also for Graner he designed a detached house in the Bonanova district of Barcelona, of which only the foundations and the main gate were built, with three openings: for people, vehicles and birds; the building would have had a structure similar to the Casa Batlló or the porter's lodge of the Park Güell. The same year he built a workshop, the Taller Badia, for Josep and Lluís Badia Miarnau, blacksmiths who worked for Gaudí on several of his works, such as the Batlló and Milà houses, the Park Güell and the Sagrada Família. Located at 278 Carrer Nàpols, it was a simple stone building. Around that time he also designed hexagonal hydraulic floor tiles for the Casa Batlló, they were eventually used instead for the Casa Milà; they were a green colour and were decorated with seaweed, shells and starfish. These tiles were subsequently chosen to pave Barcelona’s Passeig de Gràcia. Also in 1904 he built the Chalet de Catllaràs, in La Pobla de Lillet, for the Asland cement factory, owned by Eusebi Güell. It has a simple structure though very original, in the shape of a pointed arch, with two semi-circular flights of stairs leading to the top two floors. This building fell into ruin when the cement works closed, and when it was eventually restored its appearance was radically altered, the ingenious original staircase being replaced with a simpler metal one. In the same area he created the Can Artigas Gardens between 1905 and 1907, in an area called Font de la Magnesia, commissioned by the textile merchant Joan Artigas i Alart; men who had worked the Park Güell were also involved on this project, similar to the famous park in Barcelona. In 1906 he designed a bridge over the Torrent de Pomeret, between Sarrià and Sant Gervasi. This river flowed directly between two of Gaudí’s works, Bellesguard and the Chalet Graner, and so he was asked to bridge the divide. Gaudí designed an interesting structure composed of juxtaposed triangles that would support the bridge’s framework, following the style of the viaducts that he made for the Park Güell. It would have been built with cement, and would have had a length of 154 metres (505 ft) and a height of 15 metres (49 ft); the balustrade would have been covered with glazed tiles, with an inscription dedicated to Santa Eulàlia. The project was not approved by the Town Council of Sarrià. The same year Gaudí apparently took part in the construction of the Torre Damià Mateu, in Llinars del Vallès, in collaboration with his disciple Francesc Berenguer, though the project’s authorship is not clear or to what extent they each contributed to it. The style of the building evokes Gaudí’s early work, such as the Casa Vicens or the Güell Pavilions; it had an entrance gate in the shape of a fishing net, currently installed in the Park Güell. The building was demolished in 1939. Also in 1906 he designed a new banner, this time for the Guild of metalworkers and blacksmiths for the Corpus Christi procession of 1910, in Barcelona Cathedral. It was dark green in colour, with Barcelona’s coat of arms in the upper left corner, and an image of Saint Eligius, patron of the guild, with typical tools of the trade. The banner was burned in July 1936. Another of Gaudí’s major projects and one of his most admired works is the Casa Milà, better known as La Pedrera (1906–1910), commissioned by Pere Milà i Camps. Gaudí designed the house around two large, curved courtyards, with a structure of stone, brick and cast-iron columns and steel beams. The facade is built of limestone from Vilafranca del Penedès, apart from the upper level, which is covered in white tiles, evoking a snowy mountain. It has a total of five floors, plus a loft made entirely of catenary arches, as well as two large interior courtyards, one circular and one oval. Notable features are the staircases to the roof, topped with the four-armed cross, and the chimneys, covered in ceramics and with shapes that suggest mediaeval helmets. The interior decoration was carried out by Josep Maria Jujol and the painters Iu Pascual, Xavier Nogués and Aleix Clapés. The facade was to have been completed with a stone, metal and glass sculpture with Our lady of the Rosary accompanied by the archangels Michael and Gabriel, 4m in height. A sketch was made by the sculptor Carles Mani, but due to the events of the Tragic Week in 1909 the project was abandoned. In 1907, to mark the seventh centenary of the birth of King James I, Gaudí designed a monument in his memory. It would have been situated in the Plaça del Rei, and would have also meant the renovation of the adjacent buildings: new roof for the cathedral, as well as the completion of its towers and cupola; placement of three vases above the buttresses of the Chapel of Santa Àgada, dedicated to the Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary, as well as the figure of an angel on top of the chapel's tower; finally, the opening of a large square next to the walls (now the Plaça Ramon Berenguer el Grand). The project was not executed because the city council disliked it. In 1908 Gaudí devised a project for a skyscraper hotel in New York, the Hotel Attraction, commissioned by two American entrepreneurs whose names are unknown. It would have been 360 metres (1,180 ft) high (taller than the Empire State Building), with a taller parabolic central section, topped with a star, and flanked by four volumes containing museums, art galleries and concert halls, with shapes similar to the Casa Milà. Inside it would have had five large rooms, one dedicated to every continent. The final project for his great patron Eusebi Güell was the church for the Colònia Güell, an industrial village in Santa Coloma de Cervelló, of which only the crypt was constructed (known today as Crypt of the Colònia Güell) (1908–1918). The project began in 1890, and the factory, service buildings and housing for the workers were constructed. What would have been the colony’s church was designed by Gaudí in 1898, though the first stone was not laid until 4 October 1908. Unfortunately only the crypt was built, as Güell’s sons abandoned the project after his death in 1918. Gaudí designed an oval church with five aisles, one central aisle and two at either side. He conceived it as fully integrated into nature. A porch of hyperbolic paraboloid vaults precedes the crypt, the first time that Gaudí used this structure and notably the first use of paraboloid vaults in the history of architecture. In the crypt the large hyperboloid stained glass windows stand out, with the shapes of flower petals and butterfly wings. Inside, circular brick pillars alternate with slanted basalt columns from Castellfollit de la Roca. Final period During the last years of his career, dedicated almost exclusively to la Sagrada Família, Gaudí reached the culmination of this naturalistic style, creating a synthesis of all of the solutions and styles he had tried until then. Gaudí achieved perfect harmony between structural and ornamental elements, between plastic and aesthetic, between function and form, between container and content, achieving the integration of all arts in one structured, logical work. The first example of his final stage can be seen in a simple but very ingenious building, the Sagrada Família schools, a small school for the workers’ children. Built in 1909, it has a rectangular ground plan of 10 by 20 metres (33 ft × 66 ft), and contained three classrooms, a vestibule and a chapel. It was built of exposed brick, in three overlapping layers, following the traditional Catalan method. The walls and roof have an undulating shape, giving the structure a sense of lightness but also strength. The Sagrada Família schools have set an example of constructive genius and have served as a source of inspiration for many architects, such is their simplicity, strength, originality, functionality and geometric excellence. In May 1910 Gaudí paid a short visit to Vic, where he was tasked to design the lampposts for the city’s Plaça Major, in commemoration of the first centenary of the birth of Jaume Balmes. They were obelisk-shaped lamps, with basalt rock bases from Castellfollit de la Roca and wrought iron arms, topped with the four-armed cross; they were decorated with vegetable themes and included the birth and death dates of Balmes. They were demolished in 1924 due to poor maintenance. The same year, on the occasion of Eusebi Güell's obtaining the title of count, Gaudí designed a coat of arms for his patron. He devised a shield with the lower part in a catenary shape typical of Gaudí. He divided it into two parts: the lantern of Palau Güell features a dove and a gear-wheel on the right in allusion to the Colònia Güell in Santa Coloma de Cervelló (coloma is Catalan for dove), with the phrase ahir pastor (yesterday Shepherd). On the left is an owl perched on a half-moon—symbol of prudence and wisdom—with the words avuy senyor (today Lord). The shield is surmounted by a helmet with the count's coronet and the dove symbol of the Holy Spirit. In 1912 he built two pulpits for the church of Santa Maria in Blanes: the pulpit on the Gospel side had a hexagonal base, decorated with the dove of the Holy Spirit and the names in Latin of the four evangelists and the seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit; the pulpit of the Epistle side had the names of the apostles who wrote epistles (Saint Peter, Saint Paul, Saint John the Evangelist, Saint Judas Thadeus and Saint James the Great), with the three theological virtues and the flames of Pentecost. These pulpits were burned in July 1936. Sagrada Família From 1915 Gaudí devoted himself almost exclusively to his magnum opus, the Sagrada Família, a synthesis of his architectural evolution. After completion of the crypt and the apse, still in Gothic style, the rest of the church is conceived in an organic style, imitating natural shapes with their abundance of ruled surfaces. He intended the interior to resemble a forest, with inclined columns like branching trees, helicoidal in form, creating a simple but sturdy structure. Gaudí applied all of his previous experimental findings in this project, from works such as the Park Güell and the crypt of the Colònia Güell, creating a church that is at once structurally perfect, harmonious and aesthetically satisfying. The Sagrada Família has a cruciform plan, with a five-aisled nave, a transept of three aisles, and an apse with seven chapels. It has three facades dedicated to the birth, passion and glory of Jesus, and when completed it will have eighteen towers: four at each side making a total of twelve for the apostles, four on the transept invoking the evangelists and one on the apse dedicated to the Virgin, plus the central tower in honour of Jesus, which will reach 170 metres (560 ft) in height. The church will have two sacristies adjacent to the apse, and three large chapels: one for the Assumption in the apse, and the Baptism and Penitence chapels at the west end; also, it will be surrounded by a cloister designed for processions and to isolate the building from the exterior. Gaudí used highly symbolic content in the Sagrada Família, both in architecture and sculpture, dedicating each part of the church to a religious theme. During Gaudí’s life only the crypt, apse and part of the Nativity facade were completed. Upon his death his assistant Domènec Sugrañes took over the construction; thereafter it was directed by various architects. Jordi Bonet i Armengol assumed responsibility in 1987 and continued as of 2011. Artists such as Llorenç and Joan Matamala, Carles Mani, Jaume Busquets, Joaquim Ros i Bofarull, Etsuro Sotoo and Josep Maria Subirachs (creator of the Passion facade) have worked on the sculptural decoration. Completion is not expected until at least 2027. Minor, late projects During the last years of his life, apart from his devotion to the Sagrada Família, Gaudí participated only in minor projects which were not completed: in 1916, on the death of his friend bishop Josep Torras i Bages, he designed a monument in his honour, which he wanted to place in front of the Passion facade of the Sagrada Família. He made a sketch of the project, which ultimately was not carried out, and made a plaster bust of the bishop, the work of Joan Matamala under the instruction of Gaudí. It was put in the Sagrada Família, where it would have formed part of the church, but it was destroyed in 1936. Another commemorative monument project, also not carried out, was dedicated to Enric Prat de la Riba, which would have been situated in Castellterçol, birthplace of this Catalan politician. The project dates from 1918, and would have consisted of a tall tower with two porticos and a spire topped with an iron structure flying the Catalan flag. The sketch of the project was done by Lluís Bonet i Garí, Gaudí’s assistant. In 1922 Gaudí was commissioned, by the Franciscan Padre Angélico Aranda, to construct a church dedicated to the Assumption in Rancagua (Chile). Gaudí apologised and said that he was occupied exclusively with the Sagrada Família, but sent some sketches of the Assumption chapel which he had designed for the apse of the Sagrada Família, which more or less coincided with what Padre Aranda had asked for. Unfortunately this project was not carried out, though there are currently plans by the Chilean architect Christian Matzner to take up the project, which if completed would become the first of Gaudí's works to be constructed in the Americas. The same year Gaudí was consulted about the construction of a monumental train station for Barcelona (the future Estació de França). Gaudí suggested an iron structure in the form of a large suspended awning, a solution quite ahead of its time; perhaps for this reason, it put the head engineers off, and they declined Gaudí’s offer. The last known projects by the architect are the chapel for the Colónia Calvet in Torelló, of 1923, and a pulpit for Valencia (the exact location is unknown), of 1924. From then on, Gaudí worked exclusively on the Sagrada Família, until the fateful day of the accident which caused his death. The enormous task which Gaudí faced, not in terms of the number of works, but in terms of their complexity, required the collaboration of a large number of assistants, artists, architects and craftsmen. Gaudí always led the way, but allowed expression of the individual abilities of all of his collaborators. A test of his expertise both in his field and in interpersonal communication was demonstrated in bringing together a large number of diverse professionals and creating an integrated team. Among his collaborators were: - Architects: Francesc Berenguer, Josep Maria Jujol, Cristòfor Cascante i Colom, Josep Francesc Ràfols, Cèsar Martinell, Joan Bergós, Francesc Folguera, Josep Canaleta, Joan Rubió, Domènec Sugrañes, Francesc Quintana, Isidre Puig i Boada, Lluís Bonet i Garí. - Sculptors: Carles Mani, Joan Flotats, Llorenç Matamala, Joan Matamala, Josep Llimona. - Painters: Ricard Opisso, Aleix Clapés, Iu Pascual, Xavier Nogués, Jaume Llongueras, Joaquín Torres García. - Builders and foremen: Agustí Massip, Josep Bayó i Font, Claudi Alsina i Bonafont, Josep Pardo i Casanova and his nephew Julià Bardier i Pardo. - Craftsmen: Eudald Puntí (carpenter and forger), Joan Oñós (forger), Lluís y Josep Badia i Miarnau (forger), Joan Bertran (plasterer), Joan Munné (cabinet maker), Frederic Labòria (cabinet maker), Antoni Rigalt i Blanch (glazier), Josep Pelegrí (glazier), Mario Maragliano (mosaic artist), Jaume Pujol i Bausis and his son Pau Pujol i Vilà (ceramicists). After his death, Gaudí's works suffered a period of neglect and were largely unpopular among international critics, who regarded them as baroque and excessively imaginative. In his homeland he was equally disdained by Noucentisme, the new movement which took the place of Modernisme. In 1936, during the Spanish Civil War, Gaudí's workshop in the Sagrada Família was ransacked and a great number of his documents, plans and scale models were destroyed. Gaudí’s reputation was beginning to recover by the 1950s, when his work was championed not only by Salvador Dalí but also by architect Josep Lluís Sert. In 1952, the centenary year of the architect’s birth, the Asociación de Amigos de Gaudí (Friends of Gaudí Association) was founded with the aim of disseminating and conserving his legacy. Four years later, a retrospective was organised at the Saló del Tinell in Barcelona, and the Gaudí Chair at the Polytechnic University of Catalonia was created with the purpose of deepening the study of the Gaudí’s works and participating in their conservation. These events were followed in 1957 by Gaudí’s first international exhibition, held at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. In 1976, on the 50th anniversary of his death, the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs organised an exhibition about Gaudí and his works that toured the globe. Between 1950 and 1960, research and writings by international critics like George R. Collins, Nikolaus Pevsner and Roberto Pane spread a renewed awareness of Gaudí’s work, while in his homeland it was admired and promoted by Alexandre Cirici, Juan Eduardo Cirlot and Oriol Bohigas. Gaudí’s work has since gained widespread international appreciation, such as in Japan where notable studies have been published by Kenji Imai and Tokutoshi Torii. International recognition of Gaudí's contributions to the field of architecture and design culminated in the 1984 listing of Gaudí's key works as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Gaudí's style have subsequently influenced contemporary architects such as Santiago Calatrava and Norman Foster. Due to Gaudí's profoundly religious and ascetic lifestyle, the archbishop of Barcelona, Ricard Maria Carles proposed Gaudí’s beatification in 1998. His beatification was approved by the Vatican in 2000. On the occasion of the 150th anniversary of Gaudí’s birth, a number of official ceremonies, concerts, shows and conferences were held, and several books were published. On 24 September of the same year, the musical Gaudí had its premiere in the Palau dels Esports de Barcelona. The authors of the piece were Jordi Galceran, Esteve Miralles and Albert Guinovart. In 2008 the Gaudí Awards were launched in his honour, organised by the Catalan Film Academy to award the best Catalan films of the year. World Heritage Several of Gaudí's works have been granted World Heritage status by UNESCO: in 1984 the Park Güell, the Palau Güell and the Casa Milà; and in 2005 the Nativity facade, the crypt and the apse of the Sagrada Família, the Casa Vicens and the Casa Batlló in Barcelona, together with the crypt of the Colònia Güell in Santa Coloma de Cervelló. The declaration of Gaudí's works as World Heritage aims to recognise his outstanding universal value. According to the citation: - The work of Antoni Gaudí represents an exceptional and outstanding creative contribution to the development of architecture and building technology in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. - Gaudí’s work exhibits an important interchange of values closely associated with the cultural and artistic currents of his time, as represented in el Modernisme [sic] of Catalonia. It anticipated and influenced many of the forms and techniques that were relevant to the development of modern construction in the 20th century. - Gaudí’s work represents a series of outstanding examples of the building typology in the architecture of the early 20th century, residential as well as public, to the development of which he made a significant and creative contribution. - (Massó 1974, pp. 17–18) - "Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 1". Gaudiclub.com. Archived from the original on 16 October 2011. Retrieved 5 November 2005. - Quiroga, Eduardo Daniel; Salomón, Eduardo Alberto. "Gaudí: Mecánica y forma de la naturaleza". Arquba.com (in Catalan). Archived from the original on 15 October 2011. Retrieved 29 August 2008. - Torres, I. Álvarez. "La Sagrada Familia de Barcelona ultima los preparativos para su apertura al culto". Lavoz Digital (in Catalan). Archived from the original on 16 October 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2008. - Tremlett, Giles (11 July 2003). "God's architect on road to sainthood". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 16 October 2011. Retrieved 21 April 2011. - ""God's architect" on the path to sainthood". The Times (UK). 9 November 2009. Archived from the original on 16 October 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2011. - Klettner, Andrea (4 November 2010). "Pope's visit could fast-track Gaudí sainthood". Bdonline.co.uk. Archived from the original on 16 October 2011. Retrieved 21 April 2011. - (Puig i Tàrrech 2010, p. 66) - There is a certain controversy about whether he was born in Reus or Riudoms, his father's village near Reus. However, most specialists tend towards Reus: “Gaudí was born in Carrer Sant Joan, close to the Plaça Prim in Reus, according to most versions (…) Nonetheless, Gaudí later on mischievously left these doors open when suggesting he might have been born in his father’s workshop, just across the municipal border of Riudoms.” (Van Hensbergen 2004, pp. 33–35) - (Castellar-Gassol 1999, p. 13) - Throughout the early part of his life Gaudí named Reus as his birthplace in all his identity documents, but beginning in 1915 he declared himself Riudoms-born. His dissatisfaction with the rejection of his proposal to restore the Misericordia sanctuary of Reus at around this time may have been the cause of his decision to claim Riudoms as his birthplace.(Bassegoda 1989, p. 552) - (Férrin 2001a, p. 61) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 26) - (Massó 1974, p. 31) - (Van Hensbergen 2004, p. 36) - (Van Hensbergen 2004, p. 162) - (Stone 2011) - Metello, Nuno (2008). "History of Vegetarianism—Antoni Gaudí (1852–1926)". International Vegetarian Union. Archived from the original on 16 October 2011. Retrieved 16 October 2011. - (Castellar-Gassol 1999, p. 95) - Tarragona, Josep M. (24 November 2006). "El Arlequín". Antonigaudi.org (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 17 October 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2008. - (Bassegoda 2002, p. 35) - (Bassegoda 1989, pp. 24–25) - (Bassegoda 2002, p. 36) - (Bassegoda 2002, pp. 14–15) - Vargas, Judith Rodríguez. "Antoni Gaudí, la visión de un genio". Artes e Historia México (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 17 October 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2008. - (Tarragona 1999, p. 11) - (Tarragona 1999, p. 22) - (Crippa 2003, p. 92) - Barjau, Santi (July 2002). "El complejo mundo de un creador obstinado". Barcelona Metròpolis Mediterrània (in Catalan). Archived from the original on 17 October 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2008. - (Martinell 1975, p. 48) - (Tarragona 1999, p. 235) - (Tarragona 1999, p. 236) - (Van Hensbergen 2004, p. 250) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 551) - (Puig i Boada 1986, p. 166) - (Tarragona 1999, p. 239) - (Van Hensbergen 2004, p. 291) - (Bonet i Armengol 2001, p. 21) - (Tarragona 1999, p. 164) - "El gran amor inalcanzado de Gaudí". CTV.es (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 17 October 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2008. - "Amigos de Gaudí". Gaudiallgaudi.com (in Catalan). Archived from the original on 17 October 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2008. - "Barcelona wishes Gaudi happy birthday". BBC News. 21 February 2002. Retrieved 4 November 2011. - "Gaudí: El arquitecto de Dios". ACIPrensa.com (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 17 October 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2008. - (Zerbst 2002, p. 13) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 29) - (Tarragona 1999, p. 240) - (Van Hensbergen 2004, pp. 304–305) - (Férrin 2001a, p. 415) - (Bassegoda 2002, p. 263) - (Puig i Boada 1986, p. 18) - (Van Hensbergen 2004, p. 114) - (Flores 2002, p. 58) - (Saudi 2002, p. 44, Chapter: Els anys d'aprenentatge de Gaudí) - (Flores 2002, p. 89) - Fontbona, Francesc (July 2002). "El vanguardismo de un tradicionalista". Barcelona Metropolis Mediterranea (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 16 October 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2008. - (Flores 2002, pp. 38–39) - (Bassegoda 2002, p. 198) - (Bassegoda 2002, p. 266) - (Puig i Boada 2004, p. 238) - (Saudi 2002, p. 168, Chapter: Apunts sobre la intuïció científica de Gaudí) - (Crippa 2003, p. 12) - (Saudi 2002, p. 144, Chapter: Gaudí: geometria, estructura i construcció) - (Flores 2002, pp. 91–92) - "Técnica arquitectónica de Gaudí". Gaudiallgaudi.com (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 16 October 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2008. - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 16) - (Bassegoda 1989, pp. 366–367) - Pibernat, Oriol (July 2002). "Diseño: entre el legado y la invención de la tradición". Barcelona Metropolis Mediterranea (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 16 October 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2008. - (Férrin 2001b, p. 74) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 12) - (Massó 1974, p. 40) - (Giordano 2011, pp. 76–77) - "El mobiliario de Gaudí". Gaudiclub.com (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 16 October 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2008. - (Puig i Boada 2004, p. 96) - (Saudi 2002, p. 250, Chapter: Art, oficis i disseny en Gaudí) - (Massó 1974, pp. 51–68) - (Massó 1974, p. 51) - (Bassegoda 2002, pp. 24–29) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 111) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 129) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 119) - (Flores 2002, p. 26) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 139) - (Bassegoda 2002, p. 57) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 156) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 161) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 181) - (Van Hensbergen 2004, p. 93) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 183) - (Bassegoda 1989, pp. 187–194) - (Bassegoda 2002, p. 113) - (Bassegoda 2002, p. 117) - (Massó 1974, p. 52) - (Bassegoda 2002, p. 107) - (Crippa 2003, p. 15) - (Bassegoda 2002, pp. 125–126) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 281) - (Bassegoda 2002, p. 128) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 290) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 313) - "The 18th and 19th Centuries: Neoclassicism and Romanticism: Gothic Revival". All-art.org. Archived from the original on 16 October 2011. Retrieved 18 October 2011. - (Massó 1974, p. 56) - (Crippa 2003, p. 33) - (Zerbst 2002, p. 94) - (Bassegoda 2002, p. 150) - (Crippa 2003, p. 37) - (Bassegoda 2002, p. 155) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 333) - (Bassegoda 2002, p. 165) - (Crippa 2003, p. 49) - (Massó 1974, p. 60) - (Férrin 2001a, p. 241) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 375) - (Van Hensbergen 2004, p. 272) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 425) - (Bassegoda 2002, p. 176) - (Zerbst 2002, p. 150) - (Massó 1974, p. 79) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 435) - (Zerbst2002, p. 221) - (Bassegoda 2002, p. 184) - (Bassegoda 2002, p. 187) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 471) - (Saudi 2002, p. 271, Chapter: Gaudí i els seus coŀlaboradors: artistes i industrials a l’entorn del 1900) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 469) - (Bassegoda 2002, p. 214) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 507) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 509) - (Férrin 2001a, p. 296) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 529) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 531) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 370) - (Massó 1974, p. 68) - (Crippa 2003, p. 79) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 555) - (Massó 1974, p. 49) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 495) - (Zerbst 2002, p. 198) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 563) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 565) - (Bassegoda 1989, p. 581) - (Férrin 2001b, p. 47) - "Colaboradores de Gaudí". Gaudiallgaudi.com (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 17 October 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2008. - Bassegoda, Juan. "Antoni Gaudí Cornet (1852–1926)". Instituto Cervantes (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 17 October 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2008. - (Massó 1974, p. 9) - "The Gaudí effect". (The Guardian). 16 January 2006. Retrieved 2011-12-18. - "Gaudi Mania". Time Magazine. 11 March 2002. Retrieved 2011-12-18. - "Beatificación de Gaudí". Sagrada Familia (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 17 October 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2008. - Ramón-Cortés, Sílvia; Borderías, Sílvia (24 November 2008). "Presentation of the Gaudí Awards of Cinema". Academy of Catalonian Cinema. Archived from the original on 17 October 2011. Retrieved 16 October 2011. - "8th Session of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee". UNESCO. 2 November 1984. Archived from the original on 16 October 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2008. - "29th Session of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee". UNESCO. 9 September 2005. Archived from the original on 16 October 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2008. - "World Heritage: Works of Antoni Gaudí". UNESCO. 2 November 1984. Archived from the original on 16 October 2011. Retrieved 25 August 2008. - Bassegoda, Juan (1989). El gran Gaudí (in Spanish). Barcelona: Sabadell. ISBN 978-84-86329-44-0. - Bassegoda, Juan (2002). Gaudí o espacio, luz y equilibrio (in Spanish). Madrid: Criterio Libros. ISBN 978-84-95437-10-5. - Bergós, Juan; Bassegoda i Nonell, Joan; Crippa, Maria Antonietta; Llimargas i Casas, Marc (2002). Gaudí, l'home i l'obra (in Catalan). Barcelona: Círculo de Lectores. ISBN 978-84-9785-783-3. - Bonet i Armengol, Jordi (2001). The essential Gaudí: the geometric modulation of the Church of the Sagrada Familia. Translated by Mark Burry. Barcelona: Pòrtic. - Bonet i Armengol, Jordi (2001). L'últim Gaudí: el modulat geomètric del Temple de la Sagrada Família (in Catalan). Barcelona: Pòrtic. ISBN 978-84-7306-727-0. - Castellar-Gassol, Juan (1999). Gaudí, the Life of a Visionary. Translated by Paul Martin. Barcelona: Edicions de 1984. - Castellar-Gassol, Juan (1999). Gaudí, la vida d'un visionari (in Catalan). Barcelona: Edicions de 1984, S. L. ISBN 978-84-86540-54-8. - Crippa, Maria Antonietta (1 October 2003). Gaudí (in Spanish). Cologne, Germany: Taschen GmbH. ISBN 978-3-8228-2519-8. - Férrin, Ana María (2001a). Gaudí, de piedra y fuego (in Spanish). Barcelona: Jaraquemada. ISBN 978-84-932015-0-0. - Férrin, Ana Maria (2001b). Gaudí: la huella de genio (in Spanish). Barcelona: Jaraquemada. ISBN 978-84-932015-1-7. - Flores, Carlos (2002). Les lliçons de Gaudí (in Catalan). Translated by Glòria Bohigas. Barcelona: Empúries. ISBN 978-84-7596-949-7. - Giordano, Carlos (2007). Gómez Gimeno, Mária José, ed. Templo expiatorio de La Sagrada Familia: la obra maestra de Antoni Gaudí (in Spanish). Barcelona: Mundo Flip. - Giordano, Carlos (2011). Gómez Gimeno, Mária José, ed. The Basilica of the Sagrada Familia: the masterpiece of Antoni Gaudí. Translated by Cerys R. Giordano Jones. Barcelona: Dos de Arte. - Giralt-Miracle, Daniel, ed. (2002). "Art, oficis i disseny en Gaudí". Gaudí 2002. Misceŀlània (in Catalan). Barcelona: Planeta. ISBN 978-84-08-04332-4. - Pere Hereu, Els anys d'aprenentatge de Gaudí - Martinell, Cèsar (1967). Gaudí, Su vida, su teoría, su obra (in Spanish). Barcelona: Colegio de Arquitectos de Cataluña y Baleares. Comisión de Cultura. - Martinell, Cèsar (1975). Gaudí: his life, his theories, his work. Translated by Judith Rohrer. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-13072-1. - Massó, Juan Bergós (1974). Gaudí, l'home i la obra (in Catalan). Barcelona: Universitat Politècnica de Barcelona. ISBN 84-600-6248-1. - Müller, Frederike; Wendt, Lars (Directors) (2006). The Architect Antoni Gaudí. Myth and Reality (DVD) (in German). Germany: WendtFilm & Ciné Canard. - Puig i Boada, Isidre (1986). El temple de la Sagrada Família (in Catalan). Barcelona: Thor, D.L. ISBN 978-84-282-1557-2. - Puig i Boada, Isidre (1 October 2004). El pensament de Gaudí (in Catalan). Barcelona: Dux Editorial, S. L. ISBN 978-84-609-1587-4. - Puig i Tàrrech, Armand (2010). La Sagrada Família segons Gaudí: comprendre un símbol (in Catalan). Barcelona: Pòrtic. - Saudi, Antoni (2002). "Gaudí i els seus coŀlaboradors: artistes i industrials a l’entorn del 1900". In Casanova, Rossend. Gaudí 2002. Misceŀlània (in Catalan). Barcelona: Planeta. ISBN 978-84-08-04332-4. - Stone, Peter (3 May 2011). Frommer's Barcelona. Chichester, UK: Frommers. ISBN 978-0-470-09692-5. - Tarragona, Josep María (1999). Gaudí, biografia de l’artista (in Catalan). Barcelona: Proa. - Tarragona, Josep María (2011). Antoni Gaudí, un arquitecto genial (in Spanish). Barcelona: Casals. ISBN 978-84-218-2430-6. - Van Hensbergen, Gijs (7 January 2004). Antoni Gaudí (in Spanish). London, UK: Debolsillo. ISBN 978-84-9793-010-9. - Wagensberg, Jorge, ed. (2002). "Apunts sobre la intuïció científica de Gaudí". Gaudí 2002. Misceŀlània (in Catalan). Barcelona: Planeta. ISBN 978-84-08-04332-4. - Zerbst, Rainer (2002). Gaudí, 1852–1926: Antoni Gaudí i Cornet: a life devoted to architecture. Cologne, Germany: Taschen. ISBN 978-3-8228-2171-8. |Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Antoni Gaudí| |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Antoni Placid Gaudí i Cornet| - Overview of Gaudí's major works (English), (French), (Spanish) - Sagrada Família information and discussion of lesser-known Gaudí works - Sagrada Família image gallery - Casa Batlló information and image gallery - Analysis of fractals and other mathematical elements in Gaudí's architectural style - Pàgina del Cercle Artístic de Sant Lluc

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Saturday, Nov. 11, 1911 saw what was probably the most sudden and dangerous cold blast in American history. People who enjoyed a summer like morning froze to death in heavy snowfall that evening. Blue skies changed to low clouds, driving rain, sleet, hail, thunderstorms, tornadoes and blizzards in half a day. Winds were so violent that they turned buildings into trapezoids. To better understand what created the storm and chronicle its impact, University of Missouri atmospheric scientist Patrick Market and a team of students have analyzed the storm with both modern meteorological tools and dives into the historical records. They’ve created a three-dimensional 21st Century model of what happened in the atmosphere to trigger the blast and an online map of the destruction that it brought to Missouri. Market, an associate professor in Soil, Environmental and Atmospheric Sciences in the School of Natural Resources, has for more than a year studied what climatologists call the Great Blue Norther of 11/11/11. "Actual observed data are sparse from that period," Market said. "So, we augmented the scientific observations with newspaper reports archived in state historical societies. This is the best and most complete scientific record that we can create from the documented and reliable sources available." The sudden summer-to-winter cold front fits right into his research: He studies atmospheric dynamics of the world’s biggest storms, particularly how the jet stream interacts with weather fronts. His overall research is aimed to better predict heavy rain and snowfall events. In addition to the destruction in Missouri, the storm spawned tornadoes throughout the Midwest. Nine tornadoes occurred in Michigan, Illinois and Indiana. In Janesville, Wis., one of the first American cities affected, what looks like an EF4 tornado killed nine and injured 50. Stunned citizens were still pulling survivors from the debris when they found themselves in a blinding snowstorm and a temperature near zero. Buildings in Owosso, Mich.’s downtown were pushed over into strange shapes. Homes in Virginia, Ill. looked like they had exploded. "The sudden cold snap was the ‘marquee event.'" Market said. "But the tornado damage in certain locales was significant, also." Newspapers and the Telegraph Gave Little Warning It started as a summer day in Kansas City. Just before noon, the sky was bright blue and the air humid and warm at 76°. As the forecast in the morning Kansas City Times indicated no change, people left their coats in the closet and made it a point to enjoy the pleasant weekend conditions. It was even nicer to the south in Springfield where the thermometer topped 80°. The Blue Norther burst onto KC with howling northerly winds pushing a thick blanket of dark stratus clouds. The low clouds were bluish-gray, the reason why the phenomena has its colorful name. In 14 hours, the temperature dropped to 11° with rain turning to thunderstorms and hail, then sleet and heavy snow. In central Missouri, the Blue Norther hit around 2 p.m. and changed warm breezes to howling northerly gales. Old Columbia weather records show that in just one hour the temperature fell from 82° to 38°. At 4 p.m. there was sleet with an air temperature of 30°. By midnight the temperature was just 13°. The 69° temperature differential in one day established a record that has never been broken. In Tipton, news wire reports of the day after tell of balmy temperatures and azure skies suddenly changing to thunderstorms with hurricane force winds and hail the size of walnuts. A tornado went through the small town, damaging almost every structure. The same thing happened in Springfield. At 4 p.m. a violent line of thunderstorms preceded the cold wave, creating hailstorms and tornadoes that ripped into the city. Volunteers combing collapsed buildings for survivors had to call for their winter coats to continue. In Springfield, the temperature plunge was even more extreme, dropping 70° in 10 hours. A balmy 80° day had turned to a blustery 40° in two hours before hitting 10° after midnight, another 100-year-old record that still stands. Contemporary newspaper accounts claimed the temperature dropped 40° in just one hour. The record drop in Oklahoma City of 66°, where the Blue Norther blew up a huge dust storm, has not been equaled. The tornadoes, cold and blizzards were only part of the story. The Norther also brought brutal straight-line winds, too. John S. Hazen, the weatherman-in-charge at Springfield in 1911, reported: "Increasing S to SW winds shifting to the NW at 3:45 pm and attaining an extreme velocity of 74 miles for one minute. Considerable damage done to buildings, wires, and trees. Many windows blown in and several people injured. Record high temp. occurred about 2 pm and low temp for this early in the month. Temp fell from 80 to 21 at 7 pm. Cold wave order received and given usual distribution. Hail, sleet, rain, and snow fell. First thunder 4:52 pm. Last 6:10 pm. Storms came from north." One woman in the Ozarks recalled that the temperature dropped so rapidly that most of her family's potato crop, which had been stored in a shed, froze before she and her siblings could move the potatoes to the cellar. The storm raced through Missouri from northwest to southeast in just 10 hours, finally exiting the state at Sullivan. A 1911 Storm Analyzed With 2011 Science "Blue Northers like the 11/11/11 storm are rare and unique events," Market said. Meteorologists of 1911 didn’t have any global and high altitude, much less radar or satellite, data to make an accurate forecast. Even if they had such an indication, they had little time to share it. The fastest method of communication in 1911, the telegraph, could barely keep up with the storm racing across a continent at 50-70 mph. Today, weather scientists like Market know that Blue Northers get their start when a large and bitterly cold air mass builds as far north as the North Pole, usually in association with a strong high pressure system. Something triggers this large dome of frigid Arctic air to slide south. When this biting air mass moves slowly and runs into an existing cold air mass over the US, a widespread and snowy winter storm is usually triggered, but it is nothing like the wild violence of the 1911 event. Something grabbed the 1911 cold air mass and shot it southward at high speed – fast enough to take it from northern Canada to the Gulf of Mexico in just two days. To better understand the storm through modern meteorological models, Market and his team gathered available 1911 US and global weather data to create a modern weather map based on the latest technology and understanding how planetary weather patterns work. As weather balloons were rare in 1911, and weather-gathering aircraft as non-existent and satellite and radar data, Market and team had to extrapolate surface temperature, wind and pressure data to what was happening globally and in the upper atmosphere. Meteorologists of 1911 had access to an extensive network of regional US and Canada surface weather reporting stations, but lacked critical worldwide data taken for granted today. Also, forecasters of 100 years ago were only just beginning to comprehend how warm and cold fronts worked. They also had no inkling of the jet stream, a rapidly moving river of air thousands of feet above the surface – something that is now known to be a key element in how fast the Blue Norther traveled. With this updated weather map, Market and team looked for similar modern storms that have been analyzed with state-of-the-art radar, satellite imagery, global computer model dynamic analysis, and high altitude winds aloft and pressure soundings. Their intent was to extrapolate data from this better-documented storm and create a modern weather model for the 1911 storm. That effort brought them to a storm that occurred Jan. 29, 2008. While it was not near as fast or strong as the 11/11/11 event (the 2008 temperature drop was from 70 to 15 degrees over a longer period of time), it had a similar starting point, timing and temperature decrease, and also was an intense cold weather front hitting an existing warm air mass. From the 2008 data, Market saw how the 1911 intense dome of cold air over the North Pole had grown so large that it began to ooze south. Then, the cold air mass interacted with a strong jet stream that then uncharacteristically plunged south to the American Midwest and into an existing and unusual warm and moist air mass being funneled into the Midwest by southerly winds from the Gulf of Mexico. It was these three separate and unique weather events working in concert that created the violence of the 11/11/11 storm. Simultaneously with the creation of the weather model, atmospheric science students consulted Missouri historical archives for first-person accounts of the storm and newspaper clippings. That effort resulted in a three-inch-tall stack of clippings from Missouri media large and small who chronicled the aftermath of the storm. For Market, the comparison of atmospheric analysis and on-the-ground destruction will give his students a unique insight into violent weather and what to expect when they create their own forecasts. The interactive map of the storm is available at: http://cafnrnews.com/1911weathermap/ Stories from Missouri newspapers about the storm, as discovered by the students, is available at: http://cafnrnews.com/2011/10/missouri-journalists-chronicle-the-storm/

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http://cafnrnews.com/2011/10/midwests-perfect-storm/

2013-05-22T00:34:47Z

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en

Stonehenge is one of the most famous monuments in the world. There are exactly one hundred sixty-two stones in Stonehenge and it is thirty-five paces across. These stones consist of sandstone and blue stone. Scientist named the outer rings of stones the Sarsen Circles. In the inside of that circle is another circle of blue stones and then a Sarsen horseshoe which consists of blue stones. Stonehenge is on the top of a slope of Salisbury Plain. Stonehenge sits at three hundred thirty feet above sea level and on a clear day the visibility is up to two miles in every direction. Today, Stonehenge is a shadow of the mighty puzzle that stood thirty five hundred years ago. Due to human destruction and weather, only half of the stones stand today. Stonehenge was built approximately in three thousand BC, and was built in three different phases. Each phase took many centuries to build. The Windmill Hill culture built phase one, The Beaker peoples built phase two, and The Wessex Peoples built phase three. Back To Home

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http://library.thinkquest.org/CR0214383/today.htm

2013-06-19T14:31:54Z

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en

By Helen Albert, Senior MedWire Reporter A study carried out in a hospital cafeteria in the USA shows that color-coding food labels to indicate whether the foods are healthy or unhealthy can significantly improve the dietary choices made by employees. Notably, the scheme, which labeled healthy food types with green labels, neither healthy nor unhealthy types with yellow, and unhealthy ones with red labels, demonstrated improvements in food choice across all ethnicities and job types. "These findings are important because obesity is much more common among Americans who are Black or Latino and among those of low socioeconomic status," said lead author Douglas Levy (Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA) in a press statement. "Improving food choices in these groups may help reduce their obesity levels and improve population health," he said. The study, which was published in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine, was carried out in the cafeteria of Massachusetts General Hospital between December 2009 when the new labeling system was introduced and August 2010. Each food type was given a positive point if they contained fruits/vegetables, whole grains, or lean protein/low-fat dairy, and a negative point if they contained saturated fat or had a high caloric content. Items were then classified as green if they had more positive points, yellow if they had equal positive and negative points, and red if they had more negative points. In total, 4642 employees of the hospital who were regular cafeteria users were enrolled in the study, of whom 73% were of White, 10% of Black, 7% of Latino, and 10% of Asian ethnicity. Regarding employment types, 53% were clinicians or in management, 20% were other health professionals, 9% were technicians, 12% were administrative or support personnel, and 7% were service workers. When compared with White employees, Black and Latino employees purchased more red items at baseline, at 18% versus 33% and 28%, respectively, and fewer green items, at 48% versus a respective 33% and 38%. However, the new labeling system improved the dietary choices of all employees by a comparable amount regardless of their ethnicity or job type. For all study participants, the number of red products bought decreased by 11.2% on average and the number of green products bought increased by 6.6% on average over the study period. Additional improvements were seen after a "choice architecture" intervention was put in place in the cafeteria 3 months into the study. This involved making selected green label products more visible and red label products less visible. "Further study is needed to determine the long-term effect of these interventions and whether additional steps could improve their effectiveness in particularly vulnerable populations," commented Levy. Licensed from medwireNews with permission from Springer Healthcare Ltd. ©Springer Healthcare Ltd. All rights reserved. Neither of these parties endorse or recommend any commercial products, services, or equipment.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.news-medical.net/news/20120809/Color-coded-food-labels-help-improve-employee-diets.aspx

2013-05-23T11:56:28Z

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en

The goal of A Reason For Spelling is to create proficient and self-reliant spellers and writer. By combining inventive spelling (through journaling) with formal spelling instruction, an excellent environment is created for students to develop into expert spellers. As children learn to spell, they go through several stages. The move from one stage to another is gradual even though students may spell from more than one stage at one time. Just as a toddler who is talking in complete sentences doesn't suddently regress to babbling, so students tend to remain relatively stable within and between stages. - Type: Paperback (Student/Stdy Gde) - Category: > Home Schooling - ISBN / UPC: 9780936785271/0936785276 - Publish Date: 8/1/2000 - Item No: 90503 - Vendor: A Reason For / The Concerned Group

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.c28.com/products/books-home-schooling-reason-for-spelling-b-90503/?iadid=sn-booksbible-homeschool-subject-spelling

2013-06-18T05:27:55Z

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en

Electric propulsion systems are quickly emerging as attractive options for primary propulsion in low Earth orbit, in geosynchronous orbit, and on interplanetary spacecraft. The driving force behind the acceptance of these systems is the substantial reduction in the propellant mass that can be realized. Unfortunately, system designers are often forced to utilize components designed for chemical propellants in their electric systems. Although functionally acceptable, these relatively large, heavy components are designed for the higher pressures and mass flow rates required by chemical systems. To fully realize the benefits of electric propulsion, researchers must develop components that are optimized for the low flow rates, critical leakage needs, low pressures, and limited budgets of these emerging systems. Starting in 2001, a team led by VACCO Aerospace Products was selected by NASA under an Advanced Cross-Enterprise Technology Development Program to conduct a project entitled “Photo-Chemically Etched Construction Technology for Digital Xenon Feed Systems.” This program consists of application-engineering xenon pressure- and flow-control modules using a proprietary VACCO technology called Chemically Etched Miniature Systems (ChEMS, VACCO Industries, Inc., Space Products, South El Monte, CA), which is based on VACCO’s extensive in-house experience in the precision chemical etching of metals and plastics. ChEMS modules consist of multiple layers of etched metal or plastic sheets that, when stacked and bonded together, form an assembly of all of the components and their interconnecting flow paths. These modules can alter pressure and flow-rate set points as well as compensate for changing inlet pressure and temperature conditions. The size and mass of complex modules is drastically reduced through the fabrication of components and interconnecting features that are an order of magnitude smaller and lighter than components made using traditional machining techniques. Several functional features enable the ChEMS-based xenon feed system (XFS) to be ideally suited to the control of xenon to the thrusters in electric propulsion systems. These include Critical components of a xenon feed system (XFS) developed by VACCO. Top left: Pressure-control module that provided variable-pressure control. Top right: Flow-control module that enabled high-fidelity regulation of the xenon flow to the thruster. Bottom: Electronic-control unit that was the interface to a computer where the XFS control software was operated. This 3-year contract led to the successful development of a single-line xenon feed system. The major elements of the feed system, shown in the preceding photograph, include the variable-pressure-control module, the digital flow-control module, and the electronic-control unit (designed and fabricated by Aerojet RRC (Redmond, WA)) to operate these modules, which interfaces the XFS to the control computer. The initial operating targets for the flow- and pressure-control modules were selected in discussions with the NASA Glenn Research Center and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, at which time it was decided to size the flow control for use with a multikilowatt Hall effect thruster. Fabrication of the pressure-control module and a first-generation electronic-control unit were completed in 2002. After a series of sealing issues with the flow elements of the flow-control module were resolved via an extensive in-house research and development effort at VACCO, a fully functional unit was completed and tested extensively in 2003, along with a second electronic control unit. The components were integrated into the XFS at Glenn in late 2003. This feed system (shown in the following photograph), was successfully used to control the anode flow during testing of a NASA 120M Hall effect thruster. Xenon feed system (XFS) assembled with the VACCO-developed components and configured to operate the NASA 120M (2- to 3-kW) hall thruster. Long description of figure. The final phase of this NASA Research Announcement was to resolve control issues that arose during thruster testing. This work was completed by VACCO and Aerojet RRC in April 2004. The completed hardware, along with the feed system, was delivered to Glenn in May 2004 for completion of this contract. In conclusion, the ChEMS technology represents an important breakthrough in the size, mass, and cost of miniature fluid systems. The application of ChEMS technology to xenon flow control has resulted in a module ideally suited for electric propulsion applications. The ChEMS XFS provides system designers with a technology that allows them to realize the full potential of electric propulsion. Glenn contacts: Timothy R. Verhey, 216–433–7458, [email protected]; and David T. Jacobson, 216–433–3691, [email protected] Authors: Ben Otsap, Joseph Cardin, Timothy R. Verhey, Vincent K. Rawlin, Juergen Mueller, Randall Aadlund, Robert Kay, and Michael Andrews Headquarters program office: OAT (Energetics) Programs/Projects: Science Mission, In-Space Technology, Exploration Mission, Project Prometheus Last updated: July 15, 2005 1:55 PM Responsible NASA Official: Point of contact for NASA Glenn's Research & Technology reports: Web page curator: Wyle Information Systems, LLC

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/2004/PB/PBM-verhey.html

2013-05-23T05:29:10Z

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Null Hypothesis Testing with Pearson's r When to Use This is straightforward. Do this when you have a sample value of Pearson’s r and you want to test the null hypothesis that the value of r in the population is zero. For example, imagine that each of 50 subjects judges the intelligence level of a stimulus person on a 1 to 7 scale and also rates their mood on a 0 to 10 scale. Imagine also that for this sample of 50 subjects, Pearson’s r is +.23. We want to test the null hypothesis that Pearson’s r in the population is actually 0 and that this sample correlation of .23 represents nothing more than sampling error. The Test Statistic The test statistic in this case is t. However, this statistic is not usually computed or reported. Instead, we can proceed straight to a table (see below). The p Value p is the probability of a value of Pearson’s r as extreme as the one you got if the null hypothesis were true. Again, you do not have to figure out the exact p value. Instead, you can just figure out whether p is lower than your α level (.05). The table at right lists these critical r values for α levels of .10, .05, .02, and .01. Note that it also lists different critical values depending on the degrees of freedom, which is the number of cases minus two (df = N – 2). Again, notice from the table that as the sample size gets smaller, the r value needed to reject the null hypothesis gets larger. You decide to reject the null hypothesis if your sample r value is more extreme than the critical r value. This means that the probability of getting an r value at least as extreme as yours, if the null hypothesis were true, is less than 5% (or whatever α is). So you decide that the null hypothesis is not true. You fail to reject the null hypothesis if your sample r value is less extreme than the critical t value. This means that the probability of getting an r value at least as extreme as yours, if the null hypothesis were true, is greater than 5%. So you decide that the null hypothesis could be true. A group of 50 subjects rates the intelligence of a stimulus person and rates their moods. Pearson’s r for the sample is +.23. I can look in the table for 48 degrees of freedom. It is not there, but 50 is pretty close. For an α level of .05, the critical value is .27. So I fail to reject the null hypothesis; the correlation is not statistically significant. In other words, I cannot conclude that my sample correlation reflects anything other than sampling error. Expressing the Result in Writing Here is how such a result might be expressed in APA style: “The correlation between intelligence ratings and mood was not statistically significant, r(48) = .23, p > .05. TABLE: CRITICAL VALUES OF r Click the link below for a complete table of critical values of r: http://www.gifted.uconn.edu/siegle/research/Correlation/corrchrt.htm

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://psych.csufresno.edu/psy144/Content/Statistics/pearsons_r.html

2013-05-18T17:36:21Z

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en

While he gets the nickname “Doubting Thomas,” Thomas the Disciple was not the only doubter in scripture. In the Old Testament entire books, Job, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, Habakkuk, deal with doubt. Doubt is a recurring theme among the Psalms. Three doubters in the Gospels help to tell the story of Christ. The father of the son with a demon doubted. His son was suffering having been possessed since childhood. The father felt helpless. The man brought his son to the disciples, but they couldn’t help him so they brought the boy to Jesus. Jesus asked the boy’s father, “How long has he been like this?” “From childhood,” he answered. “It has often thrown him into fire or water to kill him. But if you can do anything, take pity on us and help us.” “’If you can’?” said Jesus. “Everything is possible for one who believes.” Immediately the boy’s father exclaimed, “I do believe; help me overcome my unbelief!” Mark 9:21-24 (NIV) The man had heard about Jesus and his miracles. He had hope, yet he still had doubt. Doctors hadn’t helped his son, the disciples couldn’t cure him. It was only natural to question whether Jesus was different. His faith was riddled with doubt. Yet Jesus healed the boy. John the Baptist was thrown in jail by Herod because John dared to rebuke him. Having believed and witnessed the voice from heaven at Jesus’ baptism, John still had doubts when he was thrown into prison. If Jesus was the Messiah, why was this happening? He sent his messengers to Jesus to ask: When John, who was in prison, heard about the deeds of the Messiah, he sent his disciples to ask him, “Are you the one who is to come, or should we expect someone else?” Matthew 11:2-3 (NIV) Jesus responded to John: Jesus replied, “Go back and report to John what you hear and see: The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosy are cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good news is proclaimed to the poor. Blessed is anyone who does not stumble on account of me.” Matthew 11:4-6 (NIV) Jesus could have performed a miracle and freed John the Baptist, and perhaps that’s what the disciples and John expected. But John was beheaded not long after that. He died knowing that Jesus was the Messiah and that his death was not in vain. As a disciple, Thomas had enormous courage. We first take real notice of him when Lazarus dies in Bethany. The disciples warn Jesus about going close to Jerusalem, but Thomas says “Let us also go, that we may die with him.” (John 11:16) Thomas seemed to have an understanding of what was about to happen. Thomas was not one to accept easy answers. We see him again at the Last Supper. Judas has left to betray Jesus. “Do not let your hearts be troubled. You believe in God; believe also in me. My Father’s house has many rooms; if that were not so, would I have told you that I am going there to prepare a place for you? And if I go and prepare a place for you, I will come back and take you to be with me that you also may be where I am. You know the way to the place where I am going.” Thomas said to him, “Lord, we don’t know where you are going, so how can we know the way?” John 14:1-5 (NIV) Again, Thomas shows that he was beginning to understand what happened. Thomas was fully devoted to Jesus. In the final week, he remained Jesus and we see a Thomas who we would believe would lay down his own life. He has his doubts, but he’s honest about them. We don’t know why Thomas was not with the disciples when Jesus appeared to them on the Sunday evening of the resurrection. Perhaps he needed to be alone with his grief. He had believed in the Messiah and was willing to give all. Now, his heart was broken. It is easy to think of Thomas as a skeptic, but he was more a believer who had been wounded. It is eight days later when Jesus appears to the disciples again. Now Thomas (also known as Didymus), one of the Twelve, was not with the disciples when Jesus came. So the other disciples told him, “We have seen the Lord!” But he said to them, “Unless I see the nail marks in his hands and put my finger where the nails were, and put my hand into his side, I will not believe. A week later his disciples were in the house again, and Thomas was with them. Though the doors were locked, Jesus came and stood among them and said, “Peace be with you!” Then he said to Thomas, “Put your finger here; see my hands. Reach out your hand and put it into my side. Stop doubting and believe." Thomas said to him, “My Lord and my God!” Then Jesus told him, “Because you have seen me, you have believed; blessed are those who have not seen and yet have believed." John 20:26-29 (NIV) Jesus already knew of Thomas' doubts, but he said gently “here, see for yourself.” While we don’t talk about it much, we all have doubts. Every Sunday we sit among other believers, quietly harboring our own doubts and mistakenly believing we’re the only ones. It’s important to remember that doubt is not the opposite of faith. Unbelief is the opposite of faith. Doubt may mean that we’re uncertain. Unbelief means that we are willfully refusing to believe. We are not condemned by God when we doubt. There is forgiveness and reassurance for our doubt. Both David and Job doubted God and centuries later we have their words to help in understanding our own doubt. Struggling through doubt will actually help our faith to grow stronger. If we’re never challenged, we never grow. Let me at Thy throne of mercy Find a sweet relief, Kneeling there in deep contrition; Help my unbelief. ~ Fanny Crosby

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.examiner.com/article/third-sunday-of-lent-doubt-is-not-the-opposite-of-faith?cid=rss

2013-05-20T03:03:17Z

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en

Vitamin D is formed in the skin when UVB radiation from the sun reacts with cholesterol within the skins capillary bed. This conversion takes place and reduces the cholesterol level of the body. In the absence of this exposure cholesterol builds up in the body and causes coronary heart disease instead of creating the disease preventative hormone vitamin D. Taking vitamin D orally will not provide this benefit. The exchange and turnover of vitamin D for cholesterol in the skins capillary bed will be the determining factor in reducing blood plasma cholesterol levels. If the rate of the livers production of cholesterol always exceeds this, then no reduction will occur. If insufficient vitamin D is synthesized in the skin, then no reduction will occur. If the blood flow is good enough to improve on this ratio, then of course cholesterol levels should be reduced. Recent research is also indicating that sunshine dilates capillaries. Capillary blood flow is often times limited by the tiny diameter of the capillaries themselves, often only large enough to allow passage of one blood cell at a time to squeeze through. They are also regulated and at any time three quarters of them are closed. I can suggest the use of a nicotinic acid flush which increases capillary size two and three fold, which translates into a four to nine fold increase in the blood flow potential. Many people suffer from an insufficient capillary blood flow. Vitamin B3 rivals, and often produces much better results than modern Staton drugs designed to combat high cholesterol levels in the blood. The reason for this now seems apparent since it enhances the vitamin D pathway that nature intended for our bodies to utilize. Muscle contractions are triggered by the flood of calcium ions into the muscle cells, and muscle relaxation is triggered by the flood of magnesium ions into the muscle cells. When the heart fails to contract and relax rythmically from these alternating ionic signals, this is called a heart attack. Calcium adsorption into the body is very poor without vitamin D, as is magnesium adsorption. If you lack vitamin D then you also lack these two minerals so essential for routine heart function. So, in these ways sunlight combats heart disease by completing the metabolic pathway for vitamin D synthesis in the skin. The vitamin D created in this way reduces the cholesterol level of the body and also greatly enhances the adsorption of calcium and magnesium into the body ensuring a strong healthy heart, enhancing the relaxation response, and avoiding coronary artery disease. velis et remis “We investigated the relationship between geography and incidence of coronary heart disease, looking at deficiency of sunlight and thus of vitamin D as a factor that might influence susceptibility and thus disease incidence. Sunlight deficiency could increase blood cholesterol by allowing squalene metabolism to progress to cholesterol synthesis rather than to vitamin D synthesis as would occur with greater amounts of sunlight exposure, and the increased concentration of blood cholesterol during the winter months, confirmed in this study, may well be due to reduced sunlight exposure. We show evidence that outdoor activity (gardening) is associated with a lower concentration of blood cholesterol in the summer but not in the winter. We suggest that the geographical variation of coronary heart disease is not specific, but is seen in other diseases and sunlight influences susceptibility to a number of chronic diseases, of which coronary heart disease is one.”

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2013-06-19T06:02:45Z

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en

Campaign to End Single-Use Plastic Bags Now is the time to act. Plastic bags are costing your jurisdiction and other local and state agencies millions each year in cleanup costs alone. Despite their lightweight and compact characteristics, plastic bags disproportionately impact the solid waste and recycling stream and persist in the environment even after they have broken down. In California, 14 billion plastic bags are distributed annually, and only 3% are recycled. Plastic bag ordinances currently cover 16 percent of the state’s population. Local governments, who are primarily responsible for the cleanup of plastic litter in clogged stormwater systems and polluted waterways, should move ahead with local bag ordinances immediately. Not sure where to start? Check out our Bag Ban Tool Kit. With the recent Supreme Court decision that the City of Manhattan Beach does not need an environmental impact report (EIR) to enact its plastic bag ordinance, the door has been opened for other local jurisdictions to move forward with their own bans. Plastic Bag News: Learn More Here: CAW Recycling News Mark Murray's Blog

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.cawrecycles.org/issues/plasticbagcampaign

2013-05-19T03:20:46Z

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Hearing Assistive Technology (HATS) for Children Are there special considerations for children? Yes! It is well documented that for children, typical language development, speech development, social skills, and academic achievement depend on the ability to hear. HATS maximize children’s hearing and learning capabilities. FM systems, because of their flexibility, mobility, and sturdiness, are among the most common HATS used with children. FM systems have wide application in educational settings. This is because of the long-recognized benefits that this technology provides in noisy and reverberant child care, preschool, and classroom environments. Think of where and how your child spends the day. It is then easy to realize how HATS provide benefit in noisy play areas or in acoustically poor classrooms. Studies have shown that FM systems have the best results when implementation is made early in the amplification-fitting or cochlear implant process. In fact, as a matter of routine, audiologists fitting hearing aids for children make sure the aids are prescribed with: - “T” (telecoil/telephone) switches - “M/T” (microphone/telecoil) combination switches - Direct audio input (DAI) capability that allows connection with assistive listening systems If you have a child who needs a hearing aid, be sure the device comes with the above features. What do FM systems do for children in schools? - They allow the child to hear the teacher’s voice at an appropriate and constant intensity level. The sound level is consistent regardless of the distance between the child and the teacher. - They allow the teacher’s voice to be heard more prominently than background noise, such as toys, papers, chairs scraping, whispering, pencils being sharpened, and feet shuffling. This is true even when the background noise is closer to the child than the teacher’s voice. This is referred to as a good signal-to-noise ratio (S/N ratio). - They allow for self-monitoring of the child’s own voice through the conventional hearing aid microphone. - They allow for the conventional hearing aid microphone to be turned off. This enables the child to concentrate only on the teacher. Are there other HATS used in schools? Yes. Children with sensorineural hearing loss receive the most benefit from personal FM systems. However, there are other systems, called sound-field systems, that assist listening for all children in the class. Using this technology, the teacher speaks into a microphone transmitter. The teacher’s voice is projected through speakers mounted around the classroom. This arrangement assists in overcoming the problems of distance. However, these systems should not be used in classrooms that have heavy reverberations. For any sound-field system to work effectively, good classroom acoustics are essential. Sound-field systems have been found to benefit typically hearing children and children with hearing loss, as well as those with other auditory and learning problems. Sound-field systems may help those with: - Minimal hearing loss - Conductive hearing loss - Fluctuating hearing loss associated with otitis media - Unilateral hearing loss (hearing loss in one ear) - Central auditory processing disorder - Learning disabilities - Developmental delays - Attention deficits - Language delays - Articulation disorders These systems are also helpful for those learning English as a second language. Who is qualified to determine if my child needs HATS? The ability to select, evaluate, fit, and dispense FM systems should be managed by a certified audiologist. Many school districts employ certified audiologists who specialize in educational-setting issues. Their expertise includes the evaluation, selection, procurement, and monitoring of HATS used in schools by children. Furthermore, audiologists guide and instruct teachers, speech-language pathologists, and students in making the best use of HATS. Is there legislation that supports the provision of HATS to children? Increased availability and usage of FM systems are due in large measure to legislation that mandates access to technology for persons with hearing and other communication disabilities: the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act. Under IDEA, consideration of assistive technology for any child with a disability must take place as part of the development of the individualized education program. Each act in some way deals with the issue of access to instruction. Of course, for the child with hearing loss, “access” means being able to hear instruction!

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Failure of your car's cooling system becomes readily apparent when it happens. The first sign is usually a glowing warning light or an extremely high reading on your car's temperature gauge. Your car's cooling system has three main components: the radiator, water pump, and thermostat. All three parts work to keep your car from overheating. A fifty-fifty mixture of coolant and water is moved through the engine by the water pump to help regulate temperature. If there's not enough liquid in the system or if one of the components isn't working correctly, your car may overheat and possibly leave you stranded. Your car's hoses and belts should be checked often for signs of wear or deterioration. Periodically check the fluid in your car's radiator to make sure it's at the proper level. It's a good idea to have your car's cooling system drained and back-flushed every few years. This can prevent build-up of rust and other sediment in the radiator. For more information on your car's cooling system, contact a mechanic in your area.

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Not all that long ago we assumed habitable planets needed a star like our Sun to thrive, but that view has continued to evolve. M-class red dwarfs may account for as many as 80 percent of the stars in our galaxy, making habitable worlds potentially more numerous around them than anywhere. And let’s extend our notion of habitability to what Luca Fossati (The Open University, UK) and colleagues call a Continuous Habitable Zone (CHZ). Now things really get interesting, for a red dwarf evolves slowly, so planets could have a CHZ with surface water for billions of years. But what about white dwarfs? Stellar evolution seems to rule out habitable worlds around them because we normally think of stars entering their red giant phase and destroying their inner planets enroute to becoming a white dwarf. But can a new planetary system emerge from the wreckage? We’ve already found planets orbiting close to the exposed core of a red giant (KOI 55.01 and KOI 55.02), showing that the end of main sequence evolution isn’t necessarily the end of planetary survival. We’ve also found evidence in the metallic lines in the spectra of white dwarfs for rocky bodies close to such stars, a kind of ‘pollution’ thought to be caused by the accretion of small, rocky worlds or perhaps planetesimals (see Planetary Annihilation Around White Dwarfs for more). Image: Almost all small and medium-size stars will end up as white dwarfs, after all the hydrogen they contain is fused into helium. Near the end of its nuclear burning stage, such a star goes through a red giant phase and then expels most of its outer material (creating a planetary nebula) until only the hot (T > 100,000 K) core remains, which then settles down to become a young white dwarf which shines from residual heat. Credit: Jonathan Saurine/Science Vault. The conditions on planets orbiting close to a cool white dwarf might be relatively benign. What Fossati and team show is that the cooling process in these stars slows down as their effective temperature approaches 6000 K, producing a habitable zone that can endure up to eight billion years. And it turns out that white dwarfs offer advantages M-dwarfs do not, providing a stable luminosity source without the flare activity we associate with younger M-class stars. As you would expect, a cool white dwarf has a habitable zone close to the star, ten times closer than for M-dwarfs. One recent study has used this to argue that a Mars-sized planet in the white dwarf CHZ would be detectable with today’s ground-based observatories even for faint stars. But there are other options including polarized light that may be used to detect a planet with an atmosphere around a white dwarf. Normally, starlight is unpolarized, but when light reflects off a planetary atmosphere, the interactions between the light waves and the molecules in the atmosphere cause the light to become polarized. The paper notes that the polarization due to a terrestrial planet in the CHZ of a cool white dwarf would be larger than the polarization signal of a comparable planet in the habitable zone of any other type of star except brown dwarfs. Analyzing polarization is thus a viable way to detect close-in rocky planets around white dwarfs. Would the ultraviolet radiation put out by a white dwarf disrupt the formation of DNA molecules? Fossati and company created a computer model to study the DNA dose expected for an Earth-like planet in the white dwarf habitable zone using an Earth atmosphere model. The result: The DNA-weighted UV dose encountered at the surface of an Earth-like planet in the white dwarf CHZ becomes comparable to that of an exoplanet in the habitable zone of a main sequence star at approximately 5000 K. Interestingly, present-day solar conditions produce an average dose on Earth a factor of only 1.65 less than that for a white dwarf with solar Teff [effective temperature]. Varying terrestrial atmospheric conditions at times produce DNA-weighted doses on Earth as high as that on a CWD planet… [T]he DNA-weighted dose for a hypothetical Earth-like planet around a CWD is remarkably benign from an astrobiological perspective, for an extremely long period of time. So white dwarfs, the remnants of those stars not massive enough to become a neutron star, may provide us with interesting venues for life. We can even imagine a typical star going through its pre-red giant phase with a planetary system nurturing life and then, after the red giant phase is complete, beginning a post Main Sequence astrobiological phase with a planetary system in a new configuration. The notion is plausible on the strength of this paper, though the researchers point out that 10 percent of all white dwarfs host magnetic fields that could be problematic for life. This paper assumes the hosting white dwarf is a non- or only weakly magnetic star. The paper is Fossati et al., “The habitability and detection of Earth-like planets orbiting cool white dwarfs,” accepted for publication in Astrophysical Journal Letters (abstract). Thanks to Adam Crowl for the pointer. For more on planets around red giants, see Planets Survive Red Giant Expansion.

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Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole. Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages. Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines. OCR for page 179 Application of GNSS to Environmental Studies PENINA AXELRAD Colorado Center for Astrodynamics Research University of Colorado at Boulder ABSTRACT GNSS signals are influenced by the transmission media and interaction with surfaces near the receiving antenna. Observations of the modified signals from the ground and from airborne and spaceborne platforms allow for scientific study of the ionosphere, atmosphere, and Earth surface. Methods using standard ground- based receivers provide estimates of atmospheric water vapor and soil moisture. Specialized receivers measuring occulted signals enable high-resolution estimates of atmospheric density and temperature. Receivers measuring reflected signals are used to infer surface roughness and reflectivity, which can be related to sur- face conditions like ocean winds, soil moisture, and ice type. Modern receivers that can use multiple GNSS constellations will provide a rich global data set for environmental study. INTRODUCTION Intended primarily for position, navigation, and timing (PNT), Global Navi - gation Satellite Systems (GNSS) bathe Earth with a multitude of highly stable ranging signals that are readily available for use in probing the atmosphere and surface of Earth. Furthermore, GNSS receivers deployed in diverse environments (land, marine, air, space) for conventional PNT purposes can also be utilized to make environmental observations with these same signals. All GNSS signals received on the ground or in low Earth orbit traverse the ionosphere. At L-band, frequency dependent dispersion of modulation and carrier phase allows total 179 OCR for page 180 180 GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS electron content to be observed by measuring range and/or phase at two or more frequencies, or through the dispersion of code and carrier. Atmospheric attenu- ation and delay observed by ground stations can be modeled/observed by esti - mating parameters associated with empirical models. Measuring the phase delay and amplitude variations of occulting signals from aircraft or satellites enables high-resolution retrieval of atmospheric density, which also exposes temperature and water vapor content. Signals reflected by Earth contain information on surface properties including roughness and reflectivity. Measuring reflected signals from ground, aircraft, or spacecraft enables retrieval of surface conditions including soil moisture, sea ice type, and ocean surface winds. ATMOSPHERIC SENSING Ground-based receivers at known locations measuring pseudorange and phase to all GNSS satellites in view provide useful observations for estimating precipitable water vapor (PWV) in the atmosphere. The integrated atmospheric effect along the satellite to receiver ray path can be isolated by removing all other sources of error. The technique was established in the early 1990s (Bevis et al., 1992; Rocken et al., 1993) and is done fairly routinely today (Rocken et al., 2005), although the estimates are not sufficiently widespread to be operationally incorpo- rated in the weather prediction models. Ground-based GNSS PWV sensing relies on a network of geodetic-quality dual-frequency receivers at known locations, precise orbit models, and accurate models relating temperature and moisture content in the atmosphere. High-precision software like Bernese (Dach et al., 2007) must be used to ensure that all other error sources have been eliminated. A more powerful worldwide approach to exploit GNSS for atmospheric sensing relies on radio occultations measured by orbiting satellites. Researchers have studied the atmospheres of Mars, Venus, and Jupiter since the 1970s through radio occultation. The use of GPS for radio occultation (GPS-RO) measurements from LEO was first initiated in 1995 by the GPS/MET experiment (Schreiner et al., 1998; Yunck et al., 2000). This satellite, placed in a 735 km orbit at 70 degree inclination, flew a modified TurboRogue receiver designed to track signals from above for precise orbit determination and from a separate antenna, signals pass - ing close to the limb of Earth. Now, in 2011, there are about a dozen satellites flying operational or experimental occultation payloads including the six-satellite COSMIC constellation (Anthes et al., 2008), CHAMP, SAC-C, GRAS/Metop, C/NOFS, GRACE-A, and TerrSAR-X. These platforms use forward and backward facing antennas to measure GNSS signals as they rise or set and are occulted by Earth’s atmosphere as shown in Figure 1. A vertical profile of the bending angle through the ionosphere, stratosphere, and troposphere is determined from the excess phase measurements. Refractivity is derived from the bending angles and then further analyzed to determine electron density profiles, temperature, pres - sure, and water vapor. At its peak performance, COSMIC provided approximately OCR for page 181 181 APPLICATION OF GNSS TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES FIGURE 1 Illustration of GPS radio occultation. Sources: The Earth image is provided by the SeaWiFS Project, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, and ORBIMAGE. The Leo satellite is “Courtesy of Orbital Corporation.” The image composition is © University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Courtesy University Corporation for Atmospheric Axelrad-1 NEW Research. 2,500 soundings per day. These observations are already being used as key inputs to numerical weather prediction (Cucurull et al., 2007), atmospheric studies, and climate monitoring, and their impact and significance are expected to grow in the future (Anthes et al., 2008). Compelling results have also been presented (Huang et al., 2010) illustrating the positive benefit of GPS occultation observations on severe weather prediction. New applications being developed include measure - ment of the planetary boundary layer, temperature inversions, and turbulence. It is notable that a National Research Council decadal survey in 2007 recommended that GPS-RO be made operational by NOAA and that additional GPS-RO instru - ments be put on NASA science platforms whenever appropriate (NRC, 2007). Increasing the number of GNSS transmitters and the constellation properties with Compass and Galileo will directly increase coverage of Earth’s atmosphere and the timeliness of the observations. This will have a tremendous impact on understanding of Earth in the long term (climate change) and short term (numeri - cal weather prediction, severe storm monitoring). Adding new LEO observing satellites able to track multiple GNSS systems will contribute thousands of observations daily. OCR for page 182 182 GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS SURFACE SENSING When GNSS is used for conventional PNT purposes, reflections from sur- faces near the receiving antenna, termed multipath, introduce errors in the solu - tion by distorting the composite signal tracked by the receiver. By deliberately monitoring and modeling the effects of the reflections, surface and near-surface properties can be inferred. Two basic approaches are being used. The first, pio - neered by Kristine Larson (Larson et al., 2008a, 2008b, 2010; Small et al., 2010) uses standard geodetic ground-based receiving equipment and models the effect of the surface reflections on the composite signal tracked by the receiver. The second approach, initially investigated by Martin-Neira (1993) and separately by Katzberg and Garrison (1996) uses an airborne or spaceborne receiver with both a standard upward-facing and specialized downward-facing antenna to separately track direct and reflected signals. Figure 2 shows the oscillations in the signal-to-noise ratio that are typical of GPS tracking in the presence of ground reflections at GPS tracking sites like the Plate Boundary Observatory (PBO) site in Marshall, Colorado (Figure 3). By relating the frequency and phase shift of these oscillations to the reflectivity and location of the reflection point on the ground, researchers have been able to FIGURE 2 Time history of C/No from Marshall, Colorado, PBO site. Oscillations near the start and end of the pass are due to multipath from the ground. Note: This plot is based on data provided by the Plate Boundary Observatory operated by UNAVCO for EarthScope (http://www.earthscope.org) and supported by the National Science Foundation (No. EAR- Axelrad-2 NEW 0350028 and EAR-0732947). Bitmapped low res OCR for page 183 183 APPLICATION OF GNSS TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES observe changes in soil moisture content (Figure 4) (Larson et al., 2008a, 2008b, 2010), crop growth (Small et al., 2010), and snow depth (Larson et al., 2009). Because this approach relies on standard geodetic receivers, the proliferation of such receivers for other geodetic purposes including earthquake monitoring, will make it possible to coincidentally observe Earth surface conditions with no additional expense or installations. FIGURE 3 GPS Antenna at Marshall, CO PBO site used for soil moisture and snow experiments. Source: Larson et al., 2008a. Courtesy UNAVCO. Axelrad_Fig3.eps bitmap FIGURE 4 Daily precipitation (blue), water content reflectometer range (gray), and GPS Axelrad_Fig4.eps soil moisture measurements (colors) for PBO GPS site at Marshall, Colorado. Source: Larson et al., 2008b, Figure 3. Courtesybitmap Larson, of Kristine OCR for page 184 184 GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS Figure 5 shows an airborne configuration for surface sensing using GNSS reflections, and Figure 6 (Esterhuizen, 2006) illustrates the receiver elements for tracking direct and reflected signals for this scenario. For this delay-mapping approach, a zenith antenna receives direct GPS signals, and a nadir antenna (with opposite polarization) receives the same GPS signals after reflection from surface below. Figure 7 compares the signal correlation function for a direct and reflected signal. The delay, attenuation, and spreading of the reflected signals provide the observability of surface properties. Various researchers have demonstrated the abil- ity to detect ocean surface winds (Garrison et al., 2002), soil moisture (Katzberg et al., 2005; Masters et al., 2004), ice and frozen surface roughness (Rivas et al., 2010), and land cover from these observations. While initial results look promising, this technique has not yet been as firmly established as occultation measurements of the atmosphere. Measurements from space of GPS signals reflected from Earth’s surface are also of interest. The concept was first demonstrated from space using data from the Shuttle SIR-C radar (Lowe et al., 2002). Gleason (2006) showed observations of ocean, ice, and land from GPS reflection data collected onboard the UK-DMC. CONCLUSIONS Innovative uses for GNSS signals for probing Earth’s atmosphere, iono- sphere, and surface will certainly continue to develop as more signals and more advanced signals become available. This will enable an ever-increasing improve - ment in our ability to measure and predict changes in Earth’s environment. FIGURE 5 Airborne surface sensing based on reflected GNSS signals. Axelrad_Fig5.eps bitmap OCR for page 185 185 APPLICATION OF GNSS TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES FIGURE 6 Delay mapping receiver used for characterization of surface height, roughness, Axelrad_Fig6.eps and reflectivity. Source: Esterhuizen, 2006, Figure 2.5. Courtesy of Stephan Esterhuizen. bitmap FIGURE 7 Model of effect of surface conditions on correlation function for reflected signals. Axelrad_Fig7.eps bitmap OCR for page 186 186 GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS REFERENCES Anthes, R.A., P.A. Bernhardt, Y. Chen, L. Cucurull, K.F. Dymond, D. Ector, S.B. Healy, S.-P. Ho, D.C. Hunt, Y.-H. Kuo, H. Liu, K. Manning, C. McCormick, T.K. Meehan, W.J. Randel, C. Rocken, W.S. Schreiner, S.V. Sokolovskiy, S. Syndergaard, D.C. Thompson, K.E. Trenberth, T.-K. Wee, N.L. Yen, and Z. Zeng. 2008. The COSMIC/FORMOSAT-3 mission: early results. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 89(3): 313–333. Bevis, M., S. Businger, T.A. Herring, C. Rocken, R.A. Anthes, and R.H. Ware. 1992. GPS meteorol - ogy: remote sensing of atmospheric water vapor using the Global Positioning System. Journal of Geophysical Research 97(D14): 15787–15801. Cucurull, L., J.C. Derber, R. Treadon, and R.J. Purser. 2007. Assimilation of Global Positioning System radio occultation observations into NCEP’s Global Data Assimilation System. Monthly Weather Review 135(9): 3174–3193. Dach, R., U. Hugentobler, P. Fridez, and M. Meindl. 2007. Bernese GPS Software Version 5.0 Docu - mentation. Astronomical Institute, University of Bern, Switzerland. Esterhuizen, S. 2006. The Design, Construction, and Testing of a Modular GPS Bistatic Radar Soft - ware Receiver for Small Platforms. M.S. Thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder. Garrison, J.L., A. Komjathy, V.U. Zavorotny, and S.J. Katzberg. 2002. Wind speed measurement using forward scattered GPS signals. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 40(1): 50–65. Gleason, S. 2006. Remote Sensing of Ocean, Ice and Land Surfaces Using Bistatically Scattered GNSS Signals From Low Earth Orbit. 2006. PhD Dissertation. University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom. Huang, C.Y., Y.-H. Kuo, S.-Y. Chen, C.-T. Terng, F.-C. Chien, P.-L. Lin, M.-T. Kueh, S.-H. Chen, M.-J. Yang, C.-J. Wang, A.P. Rao. 2010. Impact of GPS radio occultation data assimilation on regional weather predictions. GPS Solutions 14(1): 35–49. Katzberg, S.J., and J. Garrison. 1996. Utilizing GPS to Determine Ionospheric Delay Over the Ocean. NASA Technical Memorandum 4750. Washington, D.C.: NASA. Katzberg, S.J., O. Torres, M.S. Grant, and D. Masers. 2005. Utilizing calibrated GPS reflected signals to estimate soil reflectivity and dielectric constant: results from SMEX02, Remote Sensing of Environment 100(1): 17–28. Larson, K.M., E.E. Small, E. Gutmann, A. Bilich, P. Axelrad, and J. Braun. 2008a. Using GPS multipath to measure soil moisture fluctuations: initial results. GPS Solutions 12(3): 173–177. Larson, K.M., E.E. Small, E.D. Gutmann, A.L. Bilich, J.J. Braun, and V.U. Zavorotny. 2008b. Use of GPS receivers as a soil moisture network for water cycle studies. Geophysical Research Letters 35(24): 1–5. Larson, K.M., E.D. Gutmann, V.U. Zavorotny, J.J. Braun, M.W. Williams, and F.G. Nievinski, 2009. Can we measure snow depth with GPS receivers? Geophysical Research Letters 36(17): 1–5. Larson, K.M., J.J. Braun, E.E. Small, V.U. Zavorotny, E.D. Gutmann, and A.L. Bilich. 2010. GPS multipath and its relation to near-surface soil moisture content. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing 3(1): 91–99. Lowe, S.T., J.L. LaBrecque, C. Zuffada, L.J. Romans, L.E. Young, and G.A. Hajj. 2002. First space - borne observation of an Earth-reflected GPS signal. Radio Science 37(1): 1-28. Martin-Neira, M. 1993. A passive reflectometry and interferometry system (PARIS): application to ocean altimetry. ESA Journal 17: 331–355. Masters, D., P. Axelrad, and S. Katzberg. 2004. Initial results of land-reflected GPS bistatic radar measurements in SMEX02, Remote Sensing of Environment 92(4): 507–520. NRC (National Research Council). 2007. Earth Science and Applications from Space: National Imperatives for the Next Decade and Beyond. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. Rivas, M.B., J. Maslanik, and P. Axelrad. 2010. Bistatic scattering of GPS signals off Arctic Sea ice. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 48(3): 1548–1553. OCR for page 187 187 APPLICATION OF GNSS TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES Rocken, C., R. Ware, T. Van Hove, F. Solheim, C. Alber, J. Johnson, M. Bevis, and S. Businger. 1993. Sensing atmospheric water vapor with the Global Positioning System. Geophysical Research Letters 20(23): 2631–2634. Rocken, C., J. Johnson, T. Van Hove, T. Iwabuchi. 2005. Atmospheric water vapor and geoid measure- ments in the open ocean with GPS. Geophysical Research Letters 32(12): 1–3. Schreiner, W., D. Hunt, C., Rocken, and S. Sokolovskiy. 1998. Precise GPS Data Processing for the GPS/MET Radio Occultation Mission at UCAR. Pp. 103–112 in Proceedings of the 1998 National Technical Meeting of The Institute of Navigation, Long Beach, Calif., January 1998. Small, E.E., K.M. Larson, and J. J. Braun. 2010. Sensing vegetation growth using reflected GPS signals. Geophysical Research Letters 37(L12401): 1–5. Yunck, T.P., C.H. Liu, and R. Ware. 2000. A history of GPS sounding. Terrestrial, Atmospheric and Oceanic Science 11(1): 1–20. OCR for page 188

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MEMPHIS, TN (abc24.com) - Mississippi River levels have been steadily declining throughout the summer. Levels have been disastrously low and have fallen within a foot of record lows. Drought is to blame for the decline, but weekend rain in the Mid-South and across the Ohio Valley has been some help. The Mississippi River levels have risen around two feet on the Memphis gauge. The Army Corps of Engineers measured the river at -7.0 feet and it is forecast to climb another two feet over the next five days. Widespread rain across the Ohio Valley flows into tributaries that lead to the Mississippi River, helping water levels to climb in the Mid-South. River engineers say that the Mid-South isn’t out of the woods yet. River levels could fall again, but proactive measures are being taken to keep the channel open. Jim Pogue with U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Public Affairs says, “We're in such better shape than we were in 1988. We could probably sustain minus 10.7 and wouldn't see groundings in our part of the river here.” Man-made structures, like dykes, have been introduced to the river. Dykes help guide the river current to prevent sediment from building up on the river floor. “The dykes help channel the river and speed it up a little. So, you don't get as much sediment that settles. Thus the river stays open,” says Pogue. Mid-South harbors are a different story. Many harbors are shallow and unsafe for navigation. River engineers plan to dredge the harbor at President’s Island for the second time next week.

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The Barnacle Goose is a medium-sized goose, 55–70 cm (22–28 in) long. Its wingspan is 130–145 cm (51–57 in) and the body mass is 1.21–2.23 kg (2.7–4.9 lb). It has a white face and black head, neck, and upper breast. Its belly is white. The wings and its back are silver-gray with black-and-white bars that look like they are shining when the light reflects on it. During flight a V-shaped white rump patch and the silver-gray underwing linings can be seen. Ecology, behavior and life history [change] Barnacle Geese often build their nests high on mountain cliffs. This keeps them away from predators (mostly Arctic Foxes and Polar Bears) but also away from food. Like all geese, the goslings are not fed by the adults. Instead of bringing food to the newly hatched goslings, the goslings are brought to the ground. Unable to fly, the three day old goslings jump off the cliff and fall. Their small size, feathery down, and very light weight helps to protect some of them from serious injury when they hit the rocks below. Many do die from the fall. Arctic foxes are attracted by the noise made by the parent geese during this time. They eat many dead or injured goslings. The foxes also stalk the young as they are led by the parents to wetland feeding areas. - BirdLife International (2004). Branta leucopsis. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. Retrieved on 11 May 2006. - Soothill, Eric; Whitehead, Peter (1978). Wildfowl of the World. London: Peerage Books. ISBN 0-907408-38-9. - CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (1992), ISBN 978-0-8493-4258-5. - (2011). |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Barnacle Goose|

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|Flashcards: Latin Derivatives| (adj.) 1) cowardly; 2) disloyal; (n.) 1) coward; 2) traitor Considered a recreant by the Church of Rome, Luther risked sharing the fate of Savonarola, a religious reformer who had been burned at the stake for heresy just a few years earlier, in 1498. Latin root word: credo, credere, credidi, creditus - to believe, trust

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Edith Grossman's definitive English translation of the Spanish masterpiece. Widely regarded as one of the funniest and most tragic books ever written, Don Quixote chronicles the adventures of the self-created knight-errant Don Quixote of La Mancha and his faithful squire, Sancho Panza, as they travel through sixteenth-century Spain. You haven't experienced Don Quixote in English until you've read this masterful translation. This P.S. edition features an extra 16 pages of insights into the book, including author interviews, recommended reading, and more. About the Author Miguel de Cervantes was born on September 29, 1547, in Alcala de Henares, Spain. At twenty-three he enlisted in the Spanish militia and in 1571 fought against the Turks in the battle of Lepanto, where a gunshot wound permanently crippled his left hand. He spent four more years at sea and then another five as a slave after being captured by Barbary pirates. Ransomed by his family, he returned to Madrid but his disability hampered him; it was in debtor's prison that he began to write Don Quixote. Cervantes wrote many other works, including poems and plays, but he remains best known as the author of Don Quixote. He died on April 23, 1616. Praise for Don Quixote… “Grossman has given us an honest, robust and freshly revelatory Quixote for our times” -Publishers Weekly (starred review) “A major literary achievement.” -Carlos Fuentes, New York Times Book Review - Browse Our Shelves - Chapbook Cafe - Publishing Services

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Holy Fire in Jerusalem by Thomas A. Idinopulos Dr. Idinopulos is professor of religion at Miami University, Oxford, Ohio. This article appeared in the Christian Century April 7, 1982, p. 407. Copyright by the Christian Century Foundation and used by permission. Current articles and subscription information can be found at www.christiancentury.org. This material was prepared for Religion Online by Ted & Winnie Brock. No one was more joyous at the sight of the Holy Fire than the old Cypriot women who gathered by the hundreds around the tomb and filled the courtyard leading to the entrance of the church. They were short, square-bodied women, with round faces. All were dressed in widow’s black, village women come on pilgrimage to the Places sanctified by Christ’s birth, life and death. An hour before the ceremony began, one of the Muslims who guard the church entered the tomb to extinguish the 43 silver lamps hanging over the crypt. (Greeks, Armenians and Catholics each possess 13 lamps; the Copts have 4.) When the guard came out, the door was shut behind him and sealed with wax. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is a disappointment to those who enter it for the first time. The place where Christ was buried ought to look no less grand than St. Peter’s in Rome. What few know is that this building owes less to the final scene of Christ’s agony than to the tormented history of Christian Jerusalem. In the early fourth century, Empress Helena journeyed to Palestine and, guided by the Holy Spirit, discovered the sites of the true cross and the tomb of Christ. Afterwards her son Constantine began construction of what turned out to be a splendid Byzantine basilica, a powerful symbol of the adoption of Christian faith by the Roman Imperium. In order that the church could be built, a pagan temple dedicated to Aphrodite was first destroyed. Legend states that the pagans (who continued in number and strength long after Constantine embraced Christianity) had deliberately built their temple over Christ’s tomb to cover any trace of the false god. The Byzantine church, then named in Greek Anastasis (“Resurrection”), was dedicated in 335. The original Constantinian building was severely damaged in the Persian invasion of 614 and completely destroyed in 1009 by the mad Egyptian Caliph al-Hakim, who, it is said, was angered by the fraudulent Holy Fire ceremony of the Christians. In 1048 the great rotunda that frames the tomb was rebuilt, and 100 years later the Crusaders added their own Romanesque-Gothic church to what the Byzantines had left them, renaming the place “Holy Sepulchre.” The Church of the Holy Sepulchre stands today as a rude confusion of black and gray stone; a damp, airless sanctuary into which little light enters. On the floor of the Catholic chapel near the tomb, the navel of the world is located -- the point from which God’s justice and love radiate throughout the creation. The church also happens to be the focus of rivalry, where for centuries Greeks, Armenians, Syrians, Catholics, Copts and Ethiopians have battled each other for control of every pillar, altar and lamp. Outside in the courtyard it was a hot, cloudless day. On such days the Jerusalem sun is to be feared. The hot, dry chamsin, starting from the Arabian desert, had blown across the Judean waste, baking the stones of the city. The air was filled with yellow dust. The ever-resourceful Cypriot women in the courtyard were sitting on canvas stools, fanning themselves with special “Easter Holy Land” fans and swigging occasionally from plastic Evian bottles. The few old men around took shelter in the shade beside the massive stone foundations of the church. Above them on the rooftops of the surrounding buildings, teen-age Israeli soldiers dangled their legs, staring down vacantly. The Greek clergy love to stage this spectacle each year. It breaks the tedium of their lives, which consist largely of dusting and polishing the holy places. It also reminds them of a time when they -- the proud descendants of Byzantium -- ruled Jerusalem and the Holy Land. Promptly at 1:00 P.M., two columns of Greek Orthodox priests, flanking their patriarch, marched 200 yards from the adjacent monastery to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre; they were accompanied by Muslim cavasses in the red military dress of the Ottoman Empire. With their long metal canes striking loudly on the stone pavement, the guards announced the solemn procession and cleared a path through the narrow streets crowded with worshipers. Everyone moved rapidly lest a pilgrim numbed by the long night’s vigil, dehydrated by the day’s heat, succumb to ecstatic confusion and reach out to embrace one of the holy fathers. In the past it was a rare procession that reached the church without causing panic. In three or four minutes the priests passed the great iron door of the church and proceeded to the rotunda where the rose-colored marble edicule that houses the tomb of Christ stands. Soft chanting began as the priests in their green and gold robes commenced the first of three (for the Holy Trinity) circumambulations about the edicule. In about a quarter-hour the, ritual processions ended, along with the prayerful murmurings of the pilgrims. Every light was put out. The television cameramen were instructed to douse their arc lights; even the tiny red signal lights on the cameras were covered by hand. Darkness thickened the silence. It seemed hard to breathe. The moment had come. The Greek patriarch stood before the edicule, a massive, bearded man. The gold crown on his head, studded with emeralds and rubies, sparkled in the darkness. Directly above him was the last station of the cross: Golgotha. Slowly, carefully, priest-attendants removed the crown and stripped away the outer satin robes. Quietly an Armenian bishop slipped up behind the patriarch. The Armenian was a Monophysite, despised by the Greeks for holding the heretical view that Christ was essentially of one (divine) nature. When the patriarch noticed the Armenian, he scowled. Earlier in the day the patriarch had wanted to deny the Armenian the right to accompany him into the tomb. Bishops from both sides argued heatedly with Israeli government officials, who consulted ancient traditions and upheld the right of the Armenians. Bishops representing the Coptic and Syrian Jacobite churches also have the right to go into the tomb to receive the Holy Fire, but only after the Greek and Armenian have exited. They were standing there at the entrance of the tomb, unsmiling, stolid -- the Copt swarthy, with a round black hat, and the Jacobite looking emaciated, tubercular. A Franciscan, representing the multitude of Catholic communities in Jerusalem, was also present. He is not allowed to go into the tomb during the ceremony: a punishment, one supposes, for the cruelties practiced by the Crusaders against their Eastern brethren. The 12th century Armenian historian Matthew of Edessa tells us that in 1102 the Holy Fire refused to descend after the Franks had seized the holy places from the local priests and kicked the Greeks out of their monasteries. The newcomers got the point and restored the properties; the fire appeared, a day late. The Holy Fire spread rapidly to the entrance door. The bells of the church rang out triumphantly. A young Arab boy, bare-chested, was hoisted on the shoulders of his fellows, and conveyed the flame to worshipers in the courtyard. One candle lit another. Whole sections of the courtyard suddenly came ablaze. The fire rolled in waves across the courtyard. The intense heat, the open fire and the excitement of the crowd forced the soldiers to their feet. They were all standing, mouths open, looking about nervously, not knowing what to do. Everyone had a torch. A few were pressing the flame close to their faces, murmuring prayers, purifying themselves of sin. In the midst of the crowd I saw a young man without a torch wearing a powder-blue knitted yarmulke. He was standing there, looking on intently. Did he know that one of the hymns formerly sung during the Holy Fire contrasted it with the Jews’ “feast of devils”? But the times have changed. The hymn is no longer sung, and the “sorrowful Jews” have become Israeli state authorities delighted to attend a ceremony they have spent the better part of a month organizing. The crowd began to move slowly out of the courtyard. The peasant women shielded the flame from bursts of wind. Some took balls of white cotton and scorched them with Holy Fire to rub on arthritic limbs or the foreheads of newborn babies. One woman couldn’t get the burning cotton off her fingertips until a man shook it from her hands. She bent down and scooped the waxy mess into her purse. Others carried tiny lanterns to transfer the precious fire from its source to the village church in Cyprus. They imitate the Russian pilgrims of the past century, who made elaborate preparations to convey the Holy Fire to every corner of their country. On this day the patriarch’s Cadillac limousine was waiting to take the Holy Fire to Bethlehem, where Arab Christians awaited it in the Church of the Nativity. “How do they do Not wanting to drop what is, after all, a legitimate question, later that night I read to Lea a passage from the 11th century Christian writer Abelfaragius. With mixed feelings, Abelfaragius quoted a Muslim detractor of the Easter Eve ritual: . . . When the Christians assembled in their Temple at Jerusalem to celebrate Easter, the chaplains of the Church, making use of a pious fraud, greased the chain of iron that held the lamp over the Tomb with oil of balsam; and . . . when the Arab officer sealed up the door which led to the Tomb, they applied a match, and the fire descended immediately to the wick of the lamp and lighted it. Then the worshipers burst into tears and cried out Kyrie Eleison, supposing it was fire which fell from heaven upon the Tomb; and they were strengthened in their faith. Alone I returned to the church the next day. I am drawn to the ghostly presence which fills a building after the crowd has left it, tempted to search for traces of meaning that remain. I was disappointed. The church was not empty. This church is never empty. There is always too much activity inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Too many tourists, too much talking, milling about. No place to sit down, to think. The ghost must have fled this church years ago. The Cypriot women were still there. Had they gone another night without sleep? Several were kneeling at the Stone of Unction, a flat, brown slab of marble just inside the entrance of the church. Here Christ’s body was anointed with oil after it was taken down from the cross. For the week’s doings the casing upholding the stone had been filled with specially blessed water. The women were washing themselves with water. One was filling an empty Maccabee Beer bottle, scooping up holy water with her cupped hand and deftly pouring it into the bottle. She handed the half-filled bottle to her friend, who plugged it with cotton and dropped it into an airline bag. Years ago in divinity school I learned that piety should not be confused with spirituality, inwardness, reflection -- the stuff of which theology is made. Piety is direct and sensuous: seeing fire, kissing stones, touching water. Pilgrimage is born of this piety. For the Cypriot women this was the last journey, the truly sacred journey. Only old people go on pilgrimage -- as a preparation for death. The Russian women who came to Jerusalem in the thousands around 1890 carried long white shrouds with them. They would wear them to bathe in the Jordan; the white shrouds looked to English traveler Stephen Graham “like the awakened dead on the final Resurrection Morning.” From the Jordan the Russians would walk to Jerusalem and, upon receiving the Holy Fire at Saturday noon, would extinguish it with caps that they planned to wear in their coffins. The Cypriot women I saw were not carrying white shrouds. A few had cheap imitations bought from the merchants on Christian Quarter Road, swatches of cloth with printed Halloween scenes on them. But they were strengthened in faith.

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This summary briefly covers smoking as a primary risk factor for cancer, but the main focus is on the effect of smoking on recurrence or on diagnosis of a second primary cancer; patterns of quitting and continued smoking in cancer patients; and recommendations for smoking intervention for cancer patients. This information will assist health professionals caring for patients during and after treatment. Substantial material on cancer prevention and smoking cessation in the general population is available elsewhere. Because virtually all the available evidence pertains to cigarettes rather than other forms of tobacco such as snuff or chewing tobacco, reference is made to smoking cigarettes rather than to tobacco use. In this summary, unless otherwise stated, evidence and practice issues as they relate to adults are discussed. The evidence and application to practice related to children may differ significantly from information related to adults. When specific information about the care of children is available, it is summarized under its own heading.

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By Dr Ananya Mandal, MD Cancer encompasses over 100 diseases. There are several types of cancers depending on the organ they affect, however, they possess the same common properties of: abnormal cell growth capacity to invade other tissues capacity to spread to distant organs via blood vessels or lymphatic channels (metastasis) Untreated cancers can cause serious illness by invading healthy tissues and lead to death. How does cancer occur? The body is made up of trillions of living cells. These cells grow, divide, and die in an orderly fashion. This process is a tightly regulated one that is controlled by the DNA machinery within the cell. When a person is a baby or a child or within his or her mother’s womb, cells divide rapidly to allow for growth. After the person becomes an adult, most cells divide only to replace worn-out or dying cells or to repair injuries. When cells of the body at a particular site start to grow out of control, they may become cancerous. Cancer cell growth is different from normal cell growth. Instead of dying, cancer cells continue to grow and form new, abnormal cells. In addition, these cells can also invade other tissues. This is a property that normal cells do not possess. Molecular pathology behind cancer Cancer cells originate from normal cells when their DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) or blue prints within the cell nucleus is damaged. DNA is in every cell and it directs all the cell’s actions, growth, death, protein synthesis etc. When DNA is damaged in a normal cell, the cell either repairs the damage or the cell dies. In cancer cells, the damaged DNA is not repaired, and the cell does not die. Instead it gives rise to more such abnormal cells with abnormal DNA. These new cells all have the same defective DNA of the original cancer cell. DNA damage may be inherited from parents or may be a spontaneous problem that occurs during the lifetime of a person. DNA damage may also be triggered by exposure to certain environmental toxins such as those present in cigarette smoke. There are, however, multiple factors that may cause cancer and it is difficult to pin point an exact cause. Cancerous and benign tumors As the cells proliferate they may form tumors. Not all of these tumors are cancerous. Those that are not cancerous are called benign tumors. And those that are, are called malignant tumors. Benign tumors can grow very large and press on healthy organs and tissues. However, they do not invade other organs or spread via blood or lymphatic channels. These tumors are almost never life threatening. Who gets cancer and how common are cancers? There are millions of people worldwide who are living with cancer or have had cancer. According to estimates, around half of all American men and one third of all American women will develop cancer during their lifetimes. A healthy lifestyle with regular physical activity, healthy diet, maintenance of healthy weight and staying away from tobacco, sun exposure and other known cancer causing substances can help reduce the risk of getting cancers. Some cancers also have effective screening tests. This helps in detection of common cancers as early as possible. Early treatment often means better chances of recovery and response to anti cancer therapy. Common examples of this are breast cancer and colon cancer screening that saves thousands of lives each year. Reviewed by April Cashin-Garbutt, BA Hons (Cantab)

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Champs d’étude [CdE]> Empathetic Sound : Music whose mood or rhythm matches with the mood with the mood or rhythm of the action onscreen. Anempathetic Sound : Sound–usually diegetic music–that seems to exhibit conspicuous indifference to what is going on in the film’s plot, creating a strong sense of the tragic. For example, when a radio continues to play a happy tune even as the character who first turned it on has died. (Source : Chion, Michel. (1994) Audio-Vision : Sound on Screen. (Trans. Claudia Gorbman) Columbia University Press.) Bibliography: English - Español - Français - Deutch - Italiano

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Anxious, Fearful Children Excessive anxiety, selfishness and anger in children can be major sources of tension and conflict in families and marriages. This chapter is meant to help parents come to a deeper understanding of how they can protect the emotional lives of their children from anxiety and fears and guide them. A number of virtues will be presented which can help children and teenagers grow in their ability to deal with their insecurities, fears, anger and sadness in an appropriate manner. A separate chapter on this website addresses the anxiety and anger in obsessive-compulsive disorders in children. Case studies from the child chapter of Helping Clients Forgive: An Empirical Guide for Resolving Anger and Restoring Hope (American Psychological Association Books, 2000) will be presented. In a recent research update on child and adolescent psychiatric disorders the authors stated that there is mounting evidence that many, if not most, lifetime psychiatric disorders will first appear in childhood or adolescence and that methods are now available to monitor young people and to make early intervention feasible. A national comorbidity face-to-face survey of 10,123 adolescents aged 13 to 18 revealed that anxiety disorders were the most common condition (31.9%), followed by behavioral disorders , such as oppositional defiant disorder, (19.1%), mood disorders (14.3%), and substance use disorders (11.4). The median age of onset for disorder classes was earliest for anxiety (6 years), followed by 11 years for behavioral, 13 years for mood, and 15 years for substance use disorders, (Merikangas, K.R.,et al., 2010.) One of the most effective interventions in reducing emotional conflicts in children and in adolescents is that of by anger through the use of forgiveness. Dr. Bob Enright, University of Wisconsin, has demonstrated in his research that the use of forgiveness in children can diminish their anxiety, anger and sadness, as well as improve their school performance. Forgiveness can reduce excessive anger in children and in teenagers and may prevent the later development of psychiatric disorders by giving children and teenager a proven method for resolving anger. Anxiety and Anger The first diagram below demonstrates the relationship between unjust hurts and the development of sadness, anxiety and weakness in confidence and its relationship to anger. The second diagram shows how anger can encapsulate in a sense emotional pain and can interfere with its resolution. A 2005 national study of psychiatric disorders revealed that the median age of onset is - 11 years for anxiety disorders - 11 years for impulse-control disorders - 20 years substance use - 30 years mood disorders Half of all lifetime cases start by age 14 years and three fourths by age 24 years (Kessler RC, 2005). Longitudinal studies have shown that anxiety disorders during childhood are moderately stable and predictive of other mental health disorders, especially depression, later (Rapee R, 2009). Due to the strong relationship between anxiety and anger it is important to evaluate the degree of anger in anxious children. As the diagram above tries to demonstrate, anger can encapsulate anxiety and interfere with its resolution. Please complete the anger checklist on your child and identify the number of active and passive aggressive angry behaviors. Now please complete the mistrust checklist which attempts to identify anxious symptoms in children below on your child . Children who experience separation anxiety disorders, divorce and separation stress, bullying victimization or adoption usually have sustained damage to their basic ability to trust and feel safe in or outside the home. Their difficulty in trusting is often not identified adequately. The mistrust checklist below has helped many parents in understanding the nature of their children's conflicts. Please evaluate your child on our mistrust checklist. The common origins of mistrust or fear can be identified below. - Parental anger or selfishness - Loss of a parent, sibling or close friend - Serious illness in a parent, sibling, or oneself - Weakness in confidence - An addicted parent - A fearful, mistrustful or overly controlling parent - Legacy of mistrust and fear in the family - Betrayal by loved ones - Parental separation or divorce - Rejection by peers - Victimization by the excessive anger of others - Excessive time in day care - Same causes as in childhood - Poor body image - Rejection by peers - Difficulty in playing sports - Used as a sexual object - Parental separation or divorce Behavioral Inhibition in children The first clinically described conflict with anxiety in children is behavioral inhibition. Approximately 15 to 20% of children can be classified as behaviorally inhibited during early childhood. This temperamental style involves the tendency to show signs of fear, reticence, or wariness in response to unfamiliar situations and to withdraw from unfamiliar peers. Approximately half of all children categorized as extremely behaviorally inhibited continue to show signs of wariness across childhood. Early reported behavioral inhibition was associated 3.79 times increased odds of lifetime separation anxiety disorder diagnosis, (Chronis-Tuscano, A., 2009). Separation Anxiety Disorder Separation anxiety disorder is common among children and teenagers. It is often seen in children who fear that the conflicts between their parents could result in separation or divorce. Symptoms of separation anxiety disorder are: - recurrent excessive distress when separation from home or a parent occurs - excessive worry about losing or harm befalling a parent - excessive worry that an untoward event will lead to separation from a parent - persistent reluctance or refusal to go to school or elsewhere because of fear of separation - fearful of being alone without a parent at home - persistent fears of going to sleep without a parent in the home - persistent nightmares involving the theme of separation - repeated complaints of physical symptoms. The psychiatric diagnostic manual, DSM - IV, indicates that these children may show anger or hit someone who is forcing separation. Also, the child's demands can lead to resentment and conflict within the family. Studies of co morbidity in SAD reveal depression in one third and other anxiety disorders in one half (Klein, 1989; Last, et al., 1987). Studies of depressed pre pubertal children and adolescents have found concurrent SAD in 30 to 60% of subjects (Biederman, et al., 1989; Ryan, et al, 1987). Children often develop separation anxiety disorder after some major life stress or traumatic experience which can include: a mothers serious illness, prolonged separation from the mother, excessive fighting between parents, marital separation or divorce, a serious illness in the child, change in school, move to a new neighborhood, or the death of a sibling. Children whose family histories are positive for depression, panic disorder, and alcoholism appear to be at increased risk. Clinically we find that ridicule and the experience of being a scapegoat by other children may lead to intense fears of betrayal outside the home and separation anxiety. Also, one study found that 83% of mothers of children with SAD had a lifetime diagnosis of anxiety disorder, 53% had a lifetime diagnosis of major depression, and 57% had a current anxiety disorder diagnosis (Last, et al., 1987) While these youngsters are aware of their intense fears of separation from their mothers or fathers, most are unaware of the cause of their fears and they are not conscious of the anger they have toward those who have hurt or disappointed them. The identification of the origin of their fears and the resolution of the anger associated with the traumatic experience through forgiveness therapy facilitates the treatment of their separation anxiety symptoms. Therapists can relate to these youngsters how their fears are tied into anger from various hurts and will diminish if they can learn to resolve their anger. This case study from Helping Clients Forgive demonstrates the value of forgiveness in resolving symptoms of separation anxiety disorder. Marty developed separation anxiety symptoms at the beginning of second grade. He had great difficulty leaving his mother and begged her to ride on the school bus with him. When she did not join him, he would fly into a rage and tell her that he would not talk to her when he returned from school. In the evenings he became increasingly fearful and anxious. The history revealed that there had been no traumatic experiences with his peers that could produce such intense fears. His parents, however, had been separated for a period of six months and his father had only recently moved back home. For two years Marty had witnessed such intense fighting between his parents that, at times, it subsided only with police intervention. After several therapy sessions Marty was able to identify that he was angry with his parents and that he had strong fear of another separation. "Don't you love each other anymore?", he asked perceptively. His parents were no longer fighting, but they had great difficulty trusting each other and, subsequently, they were not particularly affectionate. In family sessions, Marty's parents apologized to him for their behavior and insisted that they were motivated to improve their marital relationship. They specified, "You don't have to be afraid. We're not going to separate again because we love each other and were going to work this out ." Although these words comforted Marty, he did not trust them fully. When it was explained to Marty that the resolution of his own anger would help his fears diminish, he decided to work on thinking of forgiving his par parents for the hurts and disappointments of the past. His work on forgiving was aided by the fact that his parents regularly requested forgiveness from him for all the stress they had caused him. As Marty worked at forgiving his parents, he became aware that he had much more anger than he realized with each of them. The therapist made the recommendation that he should not feel guilty because the anger was justified and if he worked regularly at forgiving, he would experience his anger diminishing in time. Over the course of several months, Marty experienced a much greater degree of comfort and sense of safety in going to school and found himself feeling much less angry with his parents. At the same time, the therapist was seeing Marty's parents and attempting to strengthen the trust in their relationship and work on forgiveness between them. Consequently, the improvement in the marital relationship helped to diminish Marty's separation anxiety disorder symptoms in a significant way. Separation anxiety disorder symptoms are found frequently in the children of divorce and marital separation. Children respond to absence of a parent in the home and the collapse of their parents marriage as a major traumatic emotional event. They regularly develop the catastrophic fear that they may then lose their mother. In Catholic families when the absence the father is absent from the home, mothers have helped their children with their fears by reminding them that they have another loving father who is with them, St. Joseph, and by placing images of this saint in the bedrooms of the children. Fearful children are also helped by meditating during the day, "Lord, you are with me as a friend. Help me to feel safe and protected." Children of divorce and anxiety/mistrust Conflicts with excessive anxiety and mistrust, anger and sadness in children from divorce families have been reported in many studies and books (The Unexpected Legacy of Divorce, Wallerstein, 1991; Between two worlds; The inner lives of children of divorce by E. Marquadt, 2006 and The effects of divorce on America, The Backgrounder, Executive Summary by P. Fagan and R. Recto, 2000, the Heritage Foundation) and observed regularly by mental health professionals. Dr. Brad Wilcox, sociologist at the Univ. of Virginia, has written that, “The divorce revolution's collective consequences for children are striking. Taking into account both divorce and non-marital childbearing, sociologist Paul Amato estimates that if the United States enjoyed the same level of family stability today as it did in 1960, the nation would have 750,000 fewer children repeating grades, 1.2 million fewer school suspensions, approximately 500,000 fewer acts of teenage delinquency, about 600,000 fewer kids receiving therapy, and approximately 70,000 fewer suicide attempts every year (correction appended). As Amato concludes, turning back the family- stability clock just a few decades could significantly improve the lives of many children,” The Divorce Evolution, www.nationalaffairs.com. Children can have great difficulty controlling their strong feelings of betrayal and anger, particularly toward a parent whom they viewed as being selfish. Their anger is regularly misdirected at the other parent, a sibling, peers, teachers or a stepparent. Often, they deny their anger, but this powerful emotion can emerge in times of stress. Stepparents can also have difficulties with their anger as a result of a number of factors including residual resentment from their previous marriage. Rachel was a thirty-five year old married woman who, in addition to her own two children, had two stepchildren in her home. The step-children had been deeply hurt by their alcoholic mother and her abusive boyfriend before they had come to live with Rachel. The children's anger that was meant for the adults with whom they had formerly lived was frequently misdirected toward Rachel and the other children. Their angry behaviors created enormous tension in the home. Rachel became so exhausted and overwhelmed that she even considered separating from her husband, Aaron. She began therapy and quickly after the first session took steps to become assertive with her stepchildren. She identified the origin of their anger and encouraged them to try to let go of their resentment by forgiving their mother and her boyfriend rather than by misdirecting their anger. It was particularly difficult for Rachel's stepson, Brad, to let go of his anger with his mothers physically abusive boyfriend. Brad viewed that this man as being emotionally sick and his opinion was validated by the therapist. The treatment of his anger was facilitated by punching a pillow and then by thinking he wanted to let go of his impulses to strike back. This work of forgiveness was a lengthy and difficult process for the children and, at times, they continued to overreact in anger toward Rachel. When that would happen, she would remind them that she did not deserve their anger and would encourage them to try to let go of their resentment with their mother by forgiving her. They were helped in the process by trying to recall that much of their mothers behavior was the result of her illness of alcoholism. Finally, Rachel modeled forgiveness in the home by asking for forgiveness for any ways in which she may have disappointed the children and by granting it to others who hurt her, including their father. Some children from divorced families harbor rage and some have violent impulses against a parent. Often these young people are unable to use the word forgiveness because they sincerely believe that the parent, stepparent or parents friend should not be forgiven. In lieu of using the word forgiveness, when these children choose the spiritual form of forgiveness, they are asked to think that they are powerless over their anger and want to turn it over to God. It is important for such strong anger to be addressed because the failure to do so can result in hostile impulses becoming misdirected internally or outwardly toward the family, school, or community. Also, the failure to face and resolve the anger predisposes these children to depressive episodes and difficulties in trusting. Finally, in merged families a stepparent should have the freedom and the spousal support to correct the anxiety/ mistrust, anger or selfishness in a stepchild by encouraging growth in trust, forgiveness, generosity and other virtues. Anger and forgiveness in the Children of Divorce Children from divorced families who live with their mothers often overreact in anger because of their unresolved sadness and anger with the absent father. When a mother suspects this behavior is occurring, we recommend that she explain to her child the 3 options of dealing with the powerful emotion of anger, that is, denial, expression and forgiveness. Then we suggest telling the child, "I believe you have anger with your father that you are misdirecting at me. Please consider forgiving your father daily for all the ways in which he has hurt you. If you have difficulty in forgiving him, your anger can decrease by giving it to the Lord and by taking it to confession. I believe that forgiving your father will help you, because holding onto anger is harmful, and will help our relationship." Children sometimes respond with a challenge that the mother needs to work also on unresolved anger with the selfish or controlling father. Such families can engage in a family forgiveness process in which they discuss their efforts cognitively, emotionally and spiritually to stop misdirecting anger and to resolve resentment with the absent, offending parent. Adopted children with anxiety, insecurity and excessive anger Adopted children and adolescents can have serious difficulties with anxiety, mistrust and excessive anger. In an important study published in 2005 of 1,484 young adult inter country adoptees in the Netherlands the adopted young adults were 1.52 times as likely to meet the criteria for an anxiety disorder as the non adopted young adults. The adoptees were also 2.05 times as likely to meet the criteria for substance abuse or dependence. The adopted men were 3.76 times as likely to have a mood disorder as non adopted men, (Tieman, W. 2005). Also, in this study the adoptees with high parental socioeconomic status were 2.17 times as likely to meet the criteria for a disorder as non adoptees with high parental socioeconomic status. (Tieman, W. 2005) In our clinical experience, this emotional pain originates from a number of sources, including separation from birth parents , shame, a profound difficulty in trusting, or other experiences of rejection. These youngsters usually do not understand the origins of their emotional conflicts. Their fears and anger can diminish by discussing the early-life, unconscious betrayal pain which may develop after separation from a mother. The youngster should be encouraged to consider making a decision to work on trusting more and on forgiving rather than venting anger in an excessive manner. In some cases forgiveness exercises are given to these children in which the young people are asked to think of forgiving one or both biological parents for abandoning them. The hostile feelings in such children are often a defense against their feelings of vulnerability and fears of further betrayal. These youngsters often will only work at changing hostile behavior after their trust in their adopted parents has grown significantly. Amber was an intelligent nine-year-old girl who was adopted from Russia at the age of five with her two-year-old brother. After being taken away from her drug addicted mother who was a prostitute, Amber was placed in a strict orphanage and later related being treated in a harsh manner there. Her adjustment to her family and community was quite difficult. She distanced her adoptive parents, children in the neighborhood, and anyone who tried to befriend her. She became increasingly angry and later engaged in violent behavior toward her mother. The therapist told Amber, You have every reason to feel very angry about what happened to you in Russia with your mother and in the orphanage. However, that anger has never left you and now you are misdirecting at your mother and others. Why not try to think that you want to forgive your birth mother rather than take that resentment out on your mother? I have seen forgiveness diminish the anger in other adopted children. Amber denied this anger for months. At home her mother was told to tell her that she didn't deserve her hostile aggressive treatment and that if she could forgive her birth mother her anger would diminish and they might have even have a good relationship. Amber slowly acknowledged that she had felt a great deal of resentment toward her birth mother for her addictive behavior and for failing to protect both her and her brother. She also expressed anger toward the caretakers of the orphanage in Russia. Painful memories emerged in which she recalled hitting her birth mother in Russia when she was drunk. It was suggested to Amber that at the present time she was misdirecting intense hostile feelings that she had for her birth mother toward her adoptive mother and was using her anger as a defense to keep everyone at a distance. Amber was given handwritten forgiveness notes to take home and work on between sessions. These notes stated, (1). I want to stop misdirecting my anger at those who don't deserve it. (2). I want to try to understand that my birth mother was sick with a drug addiction and I want to try to forgive her. (3.) I want to let go of the anger from Russia so that I can be free and not controlled by the past. She was challenged to trust people more than her mother had ever been able to trust. It was stated that unless she took these steps, she might be as lonely, unhappy, and fearful as her birth mother. As she worked on trust and forgiveness of past hurts, Amber became aware that some good could come from her pain. She expressed the desire to become a health professional and someday go back to Russia to help children who had suffered in the same manner as she. As her resentment diminished and her trust grew, she became much less defensive and hostile toward her parents and her peers. Some adoptive children have had unusually severe betrayal experiences in early childhood with birth parents or caretakers resulting in very intense anger. In such cases faith can be very helpful in addressing this pain in believing families. Later in this chapter research studies are presented that describe the empirically proven benefits of faith in the treatment of anxiety. The Role of Faith In some Catholic families with adopted children with mistrust and anger the parents have found benefit in encouraging a relationship with Our Lady as their other loving mother at the present and also in their as other protective and loving mother when they were babies. This spiritual meditation has helped build trust and the unconscious fear of being abandoned that creates significant stress in many adoptive children. Also, some adoptive children have a great amount of unconscious anger with their birth mothers or fathers or caretakers in an orphanage or in foster care. If an adoptive child regularly overreacts in anger, we regularly explore the possibility that there may be unresolved anger from the past and then encourage the child to consider think about forgiving a birth parent or caretaker. When strong anger is uncovered in Catholic children, taking it into the sacrament of reconciliation is highly effective in its resolution. Some Catholic couples have reported that their adoptive childrens' concerns and sadness about their birth mothers or fathers have decreased by the discussion of someday being with them eternal banquet in heaven. Adoptive children are a special gift to parents and the parents to the child. There is every reason to be hopeful that emotional conflicts in adoptive children can be resolved. Obstacles to Forgiveness in Children and Parents Since in our clinical experience the resolution of anger is essential in the treatment of anxiety disorders, it is important to identify difficulties in employing forgiveness in children and in their parents. The major obstacles encountered in trying to help children grow in the use of forgiveness include: unwillingness to work on the character weakness of selfishness, modeling after an angry parent, the sense of control their anger gives them over others, and a sense of strength and self-esteem derived from the expression of anger. It is not uncommon, either, for the process of forgiveness to be blocked by parents who excuse all angry behaviors in their children with ADHD, claiming that their behavior is solely the result of biological factors over which their children have no control. Such parents may have serious problems with excessive resentment themselves and therefore they are limited in their ability to teach their children to be responsible for their anger and to resolve their hostile feelings. Subsequently, such parents can help their children by identifying their own anger and working on forgiving those who have hurt them. Unfortunately, some parents have no desire to control their excessive anger. By modeling forgiveness, the majority of parents can bring about a marked improvement in the level of resentment and acting-out behaviors in their children. Other Virtues Which Decrease Anger in Children: - sacrificial giving. The major $80 million dollar research study of day care for the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) included 25 researchers at 10 universities and was led by Dr. Jay Belsky. The analysis of research produced the conclusion that early and extensive non maternal care carried risks in terms of increasing the probability of insecure infant-parent attachment relationships and of promoting aggression and noncompliance during the toddler, preschool, and early primary school years. Dr. Belsky stated, "There is a constant dose-response relationship between time in care and problem behaviors, especially those involving aggressive behavior." This research demonstrates that the infant and child need close bonding with the mother in order to develop a basic foundation for trust and a safe feeling with others. The absence of such bonding is resulting in sadness, anger and mistrust in children. This research should be considered when decisions are being made about the care of babies and infants, in addition to Brian Robertson's Day Care Deception. Also, Mary Eberstadt's book, Home Alone America, is an important new work on the emotional conflicts in children today resulting from day care and other stresses. Reasons for a decision for day care include: - real financial necessity - failure to be sensitive to the emotional needs of a baby/child - placement of parental needs before the needs of a baby/child - perceived financial need for the mother to work based on a materialism/consumerism/selfishness - fear of divorce in the wife - an attempt to make women believe that they will find more fulfillment in working than in raising a child - peer pressure on women to work - unhappiness and stress in the parental marriage and a fear that the same will happen in one's marriage - sadness in the family of origin home with an unconscious need to avoid the home Parental actions to decrease anxiety in children Parents can take a number of steps to try to protect their children from anxiety. First, they should work to master their own anxiety and fears by growing in trust so that they model calm behaviors for their children. Then, they should their best to assure that children can feel safe and protected in their homes and as much as possible in their friendships. This necessitates the parental mastery over anger because excessive anger in parents is a major source of anxiety in children. Also, they should also protect their children from excessive anger in siblings or peers. The marital anger chapter can be helpful in the parental understanding and mastery of anger, www.maritalhealing.com/conflicts/angryspouse.php. Other steps parents can take include: - avoid arguing in front of the children - correcting children with gentleness and not in anger - working to resolve marital conflicts peacefully - attempting to be a responsible parent and not a permissive or controlling parent - protecting the child as much as possible so that they can have trustworthy friendships - building the child's confidence in his/her God-given gifts - giving cheerfully to one's spouse as one's best friend - maintaining loyalty to one's spouse by focusing on his/her goodness - teaching children how to deal with controlling individuals. In families with strong faith parents also report the benefit of praying with anxious children at bedtime on giving all their fears to the Lord. Also, they coach their children to make acts of trust in God each time they feel strong anxiety and fear. The role of faith in diminishing anxiety A number of studies have demonstrated the benefits of faith in addressing anxiety disorders in adults. They include the following: In a survey of 37,000 men and women those who attend church, synagogue or other religious services, the higher the worship frequency, the lower the prevalence of depression, mania and panic disorder. Baetz, M., et al. (2006) How spiritual values and worship attendance relate to psychiatric disorders in the Canadian population. Can J Psychiatry 51:654-61. Researcher Marilyn Baetz, MD, of the University of Saskatchewan in Canada, stated, "The higher the worship frequency, the lower the odds of depression, panic disorders and mania." The importance of religion was a predictor of improvement in panic disorder after one year. Over time, the improvement was seen for the religion was very important. Bowen, R, et al. (2006) Self-rated importance of religion predicts one year outcome of patients with panic disorder. Depress Anxiety 23:266-73. In a systematic review of 850 studies the majority of well-conducted studies found that higher levels of religious involvement are positively associated with indicators of psychological well-being, life satisfaction, happiness, positive affect, and with less depression, suicidal thoughts and behavior, drug/alcohol abuse. (Moreira-Almeida, A., Neto, F., Koenig, H.G. (2006) Religiousness and mental health:a review.Rev Bras Psiquiatr.28:242-50.) As stated in other sections of this web site, faith can play a beneficial role in the healing of emotional pain and conflicts. (See Healing and Faith at the National Library of Medicine web site, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/.) A number of spiritual interventions help in resolving in building deeper trust which decreases anxiety marriages. These include employing daily modification of the first two steps of Alcoholics Anonymous and thinking, "I am powerless over my anxieties or my tendency to control and want to turn them over to God." In June 2008 Pope Benedict commented on the role of faith in addressing anxiety when he stated, " In the face of the ample and diversified panorama of human fears, the word of God is clear: He who 'fears' the Lord is 'not afraid.' The fear of God, which the Scriptures define as the 'beginning of true wisdom,' coincides with faith in God, with the sacred respect for his authority over life and the world. Being 'without the fear of God' is equivalent to putting ourselves in his place, feeling ourselves to be masters of good and evil, of life and death." "But he who fears God feels interiorly the security of a child in the arms of his mother: He who fears God is calm even in the midst of storms, because God, as Jesus has revealed to us, is a Father who is full of mercy and goodness. He who loves God is not afraid," 6/22/2008. Also, consultation with a priest has been beneficial in helping children to learn how to trust the Lord more with their fears. Positive psychology or the role of virtues in the treatment of childhood disorders is a new area in the mental health field. However, growth in virtues has been viewed in western civilization, until recently, as being essential to the healthy character development of children in the home, school and community. Forgiveness is a highly effective virtue in diminishing the excessive anger that is associated in most childhood anxiety disorders. In addition, growth in trust and in responsible parenting is effective in decreasing anxiety and fear in children. Responsible parenting involves understanding the needs of children for severe attachment relationships with a father and a mother and responding to that need even if it involves self-denial or living a more simple lifestyle. Further information about addressing excessive anxiety is available on our anxiety chapter, www.maritalhealing.com/conflicts/anxiousspouse.php, and our webinar on anxiety, www.maritalhealing.com/angryspousewebinar.php.

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Abraham Lincoln is surely the most revered and admired president in our national history. As we look forward to the bicentennial of President Lincoln’s birthday in 2009, History Now is fortunate to have four leading Lincoln scholars giving us their thoughts on the man who preserved the Union and took the first critical steps toward ending slavery in the United States. Taken together, these essays offer us a new lens through which to view the man, his political philosophy, his deeds, and his legacy. In “Abraham Lincoln and Jacksonian Democracy,” Professor Sean Wilentz traces the surprising connection between Andrew Jackson and Abraham Lincoln, and reminds us that Lincoln was willing to look for political wisdom and political strategies whether associated with his own party or with the rival Democratic Party. Professor Manisha Sinha provides insight into the role of both black and white abolitionists in the president’s evolving position on emancipation and black rights. In “Allies for Emancipation?: Lincoln and Black Abolitionists”, Sinha shows how the President’s willingness to meet with and listen to the views of African Americans influenced his decision to reject colonization and embrace emancipation—and ultimately to support the call to extend political citizenship to African Americans. In “Natural Rights, Citizen Rights, States Rights, and Black Rights: Another Look at Lincoln and Race,” Professor James Oakes clarifies Lincoln’s views on race through a careful look at the various, and competing definitions of “rights.” Oakes argues that Lincoln did not believe black men and women could or should be denied their natural rights, but that his acceptance of states’ rights allowed him to avoid the question of extending political citizenship rights to African Americans. Finally, in “Lincoln’s Religion,” Professor Richard Carwadine traces Lincoln’s deepening faith as the national crisis deepened and his growing belief in the immediacy of Providence in human affairs as well as the role that the President’s religious sentiments played in mobilizing support for the war among Union citizens. We hope that these probing and insightful essays will provide you with new perspectives on President Lincoln that you can share with your students in the coming months. Our interactive feature allows you to see and hear these Lincoln scholars as they address the Lincoln Symposium held in November 2008 at Columbia University, and, as always, Dr. Mary-Jo Kline directs you to a wealth of primary and secondary sources in books and on the web. Our two book reviewers have chosen to diverge from their usual activity, and have instead offered valuable guidance and useful suggestions on how to best use Lincoln primary sources in the classroom. Finally, we offer readers lesson plans at all grade levels from master teachers from across the country. All of us here at History Now wish you happy holidays and a joyous, healthy new year. Editor, History Now Carol Berkin is Presidential Professor of History at Baruch College and The Graduate Center, City University of New York. She is the author of several books including Jonathan Sewall: Odyssey of an American Conservative, First Generations: Women in Colonial America, A Brilliant Solution: Inventing the American Constitution, and Revolutionary Mothers: Women in the Struggle for America's Independence.

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Article Three of the United States Constitution |Wikisource has original text related to this article:| |United States of America| This article is part of the series: |Original text of the Constitution| |Amendments to the Constitution| |Full text of the Constitution| Other countries · Law Portal Article Three of the United States Constitution establishes the judicial branch of the federal government. The judicial branch comprises the Supreme Court of the United States and lower courts as created by Congress. Section 1: Federal courts Section 1 vests the judicial power in federal courts, requires a supreme court, allows inferior courts, requires good behavior tenure for judges, and prohibits decreasing the salaries of judges. The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behavior, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services a Compensation which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office. Number of courts Section 1 explicitly requires one Supreme Court, but does not fix the number of justices that must be appointed to it. Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 refers to a "Chief Justice" when it states "When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside." The number of justices has been fixed by statute, and at present the number is nine: one chief justice and eight associate justices. Proposals to divide the Supreme Court into the separate panels have been made, but all have failed. Since all such proposals have failed, the Supreme Court has never ruled on the constitutionality of such a division. However, Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes wrote, "the Constitution does not appear to authorize two or more Supreme Courts functioning in effect as separate courts." The Supreme Court is the only federal court that is required explicitly by the Constitution. During the Constitutional Convention, a proposal was made for the Supreme Court to be the only federal court, having both original jurisdiction and appellate jurisdiction. This proposal was rejected in favor of the provision that exists today. Under this provision, the Congress may create inferior courts under both Article III, Section 1, and Article I, Section 8. The Article III courts, which are also known as "constitutional courts", were first created by the Judiciary Act of 1789. Article I courts, which are also known as "legislative courts", consist of regulatory agencies, such as the United States Tax Court. Article III courts are the only ones with judicial power, and so decisions of regulatory agencies remain subject to review by Article III courts. However, cases not requiring "judicial determination" may come before Article I courts. In the case of Murray's Lessee v. Hoboken Land & Improvement Co. 59 U.S. 272 (1855), the Supreme Court ruled that cases involving "a suit at the common law, or in equity, or admiralty" inherently involve judicial determination and must come before Article III courts. Other cases, such as bankruptcy cases, have been held not to involve judicial determination, and may therefore go before Article I courts. Similarly, several courts in the District of Columbia, which is under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress, are Article I courts rather than Article III courts. This article was expressly extended to the United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico by the U.S. Congress through Federal Law 89-571, 80 Stat. 764, signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1966. This transformed the article IV United States territorial court in Puerto Rico, created in the year 1900, to an Article III federal judicial district court. The Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937, frequently called the court-packing plan, was a legislative initiative to add more justices to the Supreme Court proposed by U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt shortly after his victory in the 1936 presidential election. Although the bill aimed generally to overhaul and modernize all of the federal court system, its central and most controversial provision would have granted the President power to appoint an additional Justice to the U.S. Supreme Court for every sitting member over the age of 70½, up to a maximum of six. The Constitution provides that judges "shall hold their Offices during good Behavior." The term "good behavior" is interpreted to mean that judges may serve for the remainder of their lives, although they may resign or retire voluntarily. A judge may also be removed by impeachment and conviction by congressional vote (hence the term good behavior); this has occurred fourteen times. Three other judges, Mark W. Delahay, George W. English, and Samuel B. Kent, chose to resign rather than go through the impeachment process. The compensation of judges may not be decreased, but may be increased, during their continuance in office. The Constitution is silent when it comes to judges of courts which have been abolished. The Judiciary Act of 1801 increased the number of courts to permit the Federalist President John Adams to appoint a number of Federalist judges before Thomas Jefferson took office. When Jefferson became President, the Congress abolished several of these courts and made no provision for the judges of those courts. The power to abolish a court was next used in 1913, when the Congress abolished the Commerce Court. In that case, however, Congress transferred the judges of the Commerce Court to the Circuit Courts. Section 2: Judicial power, jurisdiction, and trial by jury Section 2 delineates federal judicial power, and brings that power into execution by conferring original jurisdiction and also appellate jurisdiction upon the Supreme Court. Additionally, this section requires trial by jury in all criminal cases, except impeachment cases. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority;—to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls;—to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction;—to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party;—to Controversies between two or more States;—between a State and Citizens of another State;—between Citizens of different States;—between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects. In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make.Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed. Eleventh Amendment and state sovereign immunity In Chisholm v. Georgia, 2 U.S. (Dallas 2) 419 (1793), the Supreme Court held that states were not immune from lawsuits by individuals due to the Supreme Court's Article III jurisdiction over them. The Eleventh Amendment reversed this decision, and prevents a state from being sued in a federal court by a citizen of another state. Cases and controversies Only actual cases and controversies may be heard by the federal courts; the judicial power does not extend to cases which are hypothetical, or which are precluded because of problems with standing, mootness, or ripeness. Generally, a case or controversy requires the presence of adverse parties who have some interest genuinely at stake in the case. In Muskrat v. United States, 219 U.S. 346 (1911), the Supreme Court denied jurisdiction to cases brought under a statute permitting certain Native Americans to bring suit against the United States to determine the constitutionality of a law allocating tribal lands. Counsel for both sides were to be paid from the federal Treasury. The Supreme Court held that, though the United States was a defendant, the case in question was not an actual controversy; rather, the statute was merely devised to test the constitutionality of a certain type of legislation. Thus the Court's ruling would be nothing more than an advisory opinion; therefore, the court dismissed the suit for failing to present a "case or controversy." Original and appellate jurisdiction Section 2 provides that the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in cases affecting ambassadors, ministers and consuls, and also in those controversies which are subject to federal judicial power because at least one state is a party; the Court has held that the latter requirement is met if the United States has a controversy with a state. In other cases, the Supreme Court has only appellate jurisdiction, which may be regulated by the Congress. The Congress may not, however, amend the Court's original jurisdiction, as was found in Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. (Cranch 1) 137 (1803) (the same decision which established the principle of judicial review). Marbury held that Congress can neither expand nor restrict the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. However, the appellate jurisdiction of the Court is different. The Court's appellate jurisdiction is given "with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make." Often a court will assert a modest degree of power over a case for purposes of determining whether it has jurisdiction, and so the word "power" is not necessarily synonymous with the word "jurisdiction". Judicial review No part of the Constitution expressly authorizes judicial review, but the Framers did contemplate the idea. Alexander Hamilton wrote, The interpretation of the laws is the proper and peculiar province of the courts. A constitution, is, in fact, and must be regarded by the judges, as a fundamental law. It therefore belongs to them to ascertain its meaning, as well as the meaning of any particular act proceeding from the legislative body. If there should happen to be an irreconcilable variance between two, that which has the superior obligation and validity ought, of course, to be preferred; or, in other words, the constitution ought to be preferred to the statute, the intention of the people to the intention of their agents. Others, however, disagreed, claiming that each branch could determine for itself the constitutionality of its actions. A continuation of the text of Federalist No. 78 by Hamilton [below] counterbalances the tone of "judicial supremacists" who demand that both Congress and the Executive are compelled by the Constitution to enforce all court decisions, including those that, in their eyes, or those of the People, violate fundamental American principles. Nor does this conclusion by any means suppose a superiority of the judicial to the legislative power. It only supposes that the power of the people is superior to both; and that where the will of the legislature, declared in its statutes, stands in opposition to that of the people, declared in the Constitution, the judges ought to be governed by the latter rather than the former. They ought to regulate their decisions by the fundamental laws, rather than by those which are not fundamental. Hamilton continues. . . It can be of no weight to say that the courts, on the pretense of a repugnancy, may substitute their own pleasure to the constitutional intentions of the legislature. This might as well happen in the case of two contradictory statutes; or it might as well happen in every adjudication upon any single statute. The courts must declare the sense of the law; and if they should be disposed to exercise WILL instead of JUDGMENT, the consequence would equally be the substitution of their pleasure to that of the legislative body. The observation, if it prove any thing, would prove that there ought to be no judges distinct from that body. Marbury v. Madison involved a highly partisan set of circumstances. Though Congressional elections were held in November 1800, the newly elected officers did not take power until March. The Federalist Party had lost the elections. In the words of President Thomas Jefferson, the Federalists "retired into the judiciary as a stronghold". In the four months following the elections, the outgoing Congress created several new judgeships, which were filled by President John Adams. In the last-minute rush, however, Federalist Secretary of State John Marshall had neglected to deliver commissions to the appointees. When James Madison took office as Secretary of State, several commissions remained undelivered. Bringing their claims under the Judiciary Act of 1789, the appointees, including William Marbury, petitioned the Supreme Court for the issue of a writ of mandamus, which in English law had been used to force public officials to fulfill their ministerial duties. Here, Madison would be required to deliver the commissions. Marbury posed a difficult problem for the court, which was led by now-Chief Justice John Marshall, the same person who had neglected to deliver the commissions when he was Secretary of State. If Marshall's court commanded James Madison to deliver the commissions, Madison might ignore the order, thereby indicating the weakness of the court. Similarly, if the court denied William Marbury's request, the court would be seen as weak. Marshall held that appointee Marbury was indeed entitled to his commission. However, Marshall contended that the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional, as it purported to grant original jurisdiction to the Supreme Court in cases not involving states or ambassadors. The ruling thereby established that the federal courts could exercise judicial review over the actions of Congress or the executive branch. However, Hamilton, in Federalist No. 78, expresses the view that the Courts hold only the power of words, and not the power of compulsion upon those other two branches of government, upon which the Supreme Court is itself dependent. But in 1820, Thomas Jefferson expressed his deep reservations about the doctrine of judicial review: |“||You seem ... to consider the judges as the ultimate arbiters of all constitutional questions; a very dangerous doctrine indeed, and one which would place us under the despotism of an oligarchy. Our judges are as honest as other men, and not more so. They have, with others, the same passions for party, for power, and the privilege of their corps.... Their power [is] the more dangerous as they are in office for life, and not responsible, as the other functionaries are, to the elective control. The Constitution has erected no such single tribunal, knowing that to whatever hands confided, with the corruptions of time and party, its members would become despots. It has more wisely made all the departments co-equal and co-sovereign within themselves.||”| Trial by jury Article III, Section 2, provides that crimes, except impeachment cases, must be tried before a jury, unless the defendant waives his right. The trial must be held in the state where the crime was committed. If the crime was not committed in any particular state, then the trial is held in such a place as set forth by the Congress. The Sixth Amendment has related provisions. The trial must be held in the "State and district" where the crime was committed and the district is set by Congress. The Sixth Amendment also contains other guarantees not related to the place of the trial. The Senate has the sole power to try all impeachments. Section 3: Treason Section 3 defines treason and its punishment. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court. The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. The Constitution defines treason as specific acts, namely "levying War against [the United States], or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort." A contrast is therefore maintained with the English law, whereby a variety of crimes, including conspiring to kill the King or "violating" the Queen, were punishable as treason. In Ex Parte Bollman, 8 U.S. 75 (1807), the Supreme Court ruled that "there must be an actual assembling of men, for the treasonable purpose, to constitute a levying of war." Under English law effective during the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, there were essentially five species of treason. Of the five, the Constitution adopted only two: levying war and adhering to enemies. Omitted were species of treason involving encompassing (or imagining) the death of the king, certain types of counterfeiting, and finally fornication with women in the royal family of the sort which could call into question the parentage of successors. James Wilson wrote the original draft of this section, and he was involved as a defense attorney for some accused of treason against the Patriot cause. Section 3 also requires the testimony of two different witnesses on the same overt act, or a confession by the accused in open court, to convict for treason. This rule was derived from an older English statute, the Treason Act 1695. In Cramer v. United States, 325 U.S. 1 (1945), the Supreme Court ruled that "[e]very act, movement, deed, and word of the defendant charged to constitute treason must be supported by the testimony of two witnesses." In Haupt v. United States, 330 U.S. 631 (1947), however, the Supreme Court found that two witnesses are not required to prove intent; nor are two witnesses required to prove that an overt act is treasonable. The two witnesses, according to the decision, are required to prove only that the overt act occurred (eyewitnesses and federal agents investigating the crime, for example). Punishment for treason may not "work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person" so convicted. The descendants of someone convicted for treason could not, as they were under English law, be considered "tainted" by the treason of their ancestor. Furthermore, Congress may confiscate the property of traitors, but that property must be inheritable at the death of the person convicted. As treason may be committed against the United States, the authority of the United States ought to be enabled to punish it. But as new-fangled and artificial treasons have been the great engines by which violent factions, the natural offspring of free government, have usually wreaked their alternate malignity on each other, the convention have, with great judgment, opposed a barrier to this peculiar danger, by inserting a constitutional definition of the crime, fixing the proof necessary for conviction of it, and restraining the Congress, even in punishing it, from extending the consequences of guilt beyond the person of its author. Based on the above quoted excerpt it was noted by lawyer William J. Olson in an Amicus curiae in the case Hedges v. Obama that the Treason Clause was one of the enumerated powers of the federal government. He also stated that by defining treason in the U.S. Constitution and placing it in Article III "the founders intended the power to be checked by the judiciary, ruling out trial by military commission. As Madison noted, the Treason Clause also was designed to limit the power of the federal government to punish its citizens for “adhering to [the United States’s] enemies, giving them aid and comfort.”" - Epstein, Lee; Walker, Thomas G. (2007). Constitutional Law for a Changing America: Institutional Powers and Constraints (6th ed.). Washington, D.C.: CQ Press. ISBN 978-1-933116-81-5., at 451. - "Judges of the United States Courts - Delahay, Mark W.". Federal Judicial Center. n.d. Retrieved 2009-07-02. - staff (n.d.). "Judges of the United States Courts - English, George Washington". Federal Judicial Center. Retrieved 2009-07-02. - "Judges of the United States Courts - Kent, Samuel B.". Federal Judicial Center. n.d. Retrieved 2009-07-02. - United States v. Texas, 143 U.S. 621 (1892). A factor in United States v. Texas was that there had been an "act of congress requiring the institution of this suit". With a few narrow exceptions, courts have held that Congress controls access to the courts by the United States and its agencies and officials. See, e.g., Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co., 514 U.S. 122 ("Agencies do not automatically have standing to sue for actions that frustrate the purposes of their statutes"). Also see United States v. Mattson, 600 F. 2d 1295 (9th Cir. 1979). - Cohens v. Virginia, 19 U.S. 264 (1821): "[T]he original jurisdiction of the Supreme court, in cases where a state is a party, refers to those cases in which, according to the grant of power made in the preceding clause, jurisdiction might be exercised, in consequence of the character of the party." - Cover, Robert. Narrative, Violence and the Law (U. Mich. 1995): "Every denial of jurisdiction on the part of a court is an assertion of the power to determine jurisdiction...." - Di Trolio, Stefania. "Undermining and Unintwining: The Right to a Jury Trial and Rule 12(b)(1)", Seton Hall Law Review, Volume 33, page 1247, text accompanying note 82 (2003). - "The Federalist Papers : No. 78". Archived from the original on 29 October 2006. Retrieved 2006-10-28. - Jefferson, Thomas. The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, Letter to William Jarvis (September 28, 1820). - U.S. Constitution, Art. I, sec. 3 - Bollman, at 126 - The rule was abolished in the United Kingdom in 1945. - Cramer, at 34 - Olson, William J. (16 April 2012). "Case 1:12-cv-00331-KBF Document 29-2 Filed 04/16/12 AMICUS CURIAE BRIEF OF VIRGINIA STATE DELEGATE BOB MARSHALL, VIRGINIA STATE SENATOR DICK BLACK, DOWNSIZE DC FOUNDATION, DOWNSIZEDC.ORG, INC., U.S. JUSTICE FOUNDATION, INSTITUTE ON THE CONSTITUTION, GUN OWNERS FOUNDATION, GUN OWNERS OF AMERICA, INC., THE LINCOLN INSTITUTE FOR RESEARCH AND EDUCATION, THE WESTERN CENTER FOR JOURNALISM, CONSERVATIVE LEGAL DEFENSE AND EDUCATION FUND, U.S. BORDER CONTROL, RESTORING LIBERTY ACTIONCOMMITTEE, TENTH AMENDMENT CENTER, CENTER FOR MEDIA AND DEMOCRACY, BILL OF RIGHTS DEFENSE COMMITTEE, PASTOR CHUCK BALDWIN, PROFESSOR JEROME AUMENTE, AND THE CONSTITUTION PARTY NATIONAL COMMITTEE IN SUPPORT OF PLAINTIFFS". Friedman, Harfenist, Kraut & Perlstein , PPC. lawandfreedom.com. pp. 15–16. - Irons, Peter. (1999). A People's History of the Supreme Court. New York: Penguin. - Kilman, Johnny and George Costello (Eds). (2000). The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation., gpoaccess.gov - CRS Annotated Constitution: Article 3, law.cornell.edu

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High School Earth Science/Introduction to Earth's Surface - Distinguish between location and direction. - Describe topography. - Identify various landforms and briefly describe how they came about. Wherever you are on Earth's surface, in order to describe your location, you need some point of reference. Right now you are probably reading this chapter at your computer. But where is your computer? It may set up in a certain place or you may be on a laptop computer, which means you can change where you are. In order to describe your location, you could name other items around you to give a more exact position of your computer. Or you could measure the distance and direction that you are from a reference point. For example, you may be sitting in a chair that is one meter to the right of the door. This statement provides more precise information for someone to locate your position within the room. Similarly, when studying the Earth's surface, Earth scientists must be able to pinpoint any feature that they observe and be able to tell other scientists where this feature is on the Earth’s surface. Earth scientists have a system to describe the location of any feature. To describe your location to a friend when you are trying to get together, you could do what we did with describing the location of the computer in the room. You would give her a reference point, a distance from the reference point, and a direction, such as, "I am at the corner of Maple Street and Main Street, about two blocks north of your apartment." Another way is to locate the feature on a coordinate system, using latitude and longitude. Lines of latitude and longitude form a grid that measures distance from a reference point. You will learn about this type of grid when we discuss maps later in this chapter. If you are at a laptop, you can change your location. When an object is moving, it is not enough to describe its location; we also need to know direction. Direction is important for describing moving objects. For example, a wind blows a storm over your school. Where is that storm coming from? Where is it going? The most common way to describe direction in relation to the Earth’s surface is by using a compass. The compass is a device with a floating needle that is a small magnet (Figure 2.1). The needle aligns itself with the Earth's magnetic field, so that the compass needle points to magnetic north. Once you find north, you can then describe any other direction, such as east, south, west, etc., on a compass rose (Figure 2.2). A compass needle aligns to the Earth's magnetic North Pole, not the Earth’s geographic North Pole or true north. The geographic North Pole is the top of the imaginary axis upon which the Earth’s rotates, much like the spindle of a spinning top. The magnetic North Pole shifts in location over time. Depending on where you live, you can correct for this difference when you use a map and a compass (Figure 2.3). When you study maps later, you will see that certain types of maps have a double compass rose to make the corrections between magnetic north and true north. An example of this type is a nautical chart that sailors and boaters use to chart their positions at sea or offshore (Figure 2.4). As you know, the surface of the Earth is not flat. Some places are high and some places are low. For example, mountain ranges like the Sierra Nevada in California or the Andes mountains in South America are high above the surrounding areas. We can describe the topography of a region by measuring the height or depth of that feature relative to sea level (Figure 2.5). You might measure your height relative to your best friend or classmate. When your class lines up, some kids make high "mountains" and others are more like small hills! What scientists call relief or terrain includes all the major features or landforms of a region. A topographic map of an area shows the differences in height or elevation for mountains, craters, valleys, and rivers. For example, Figure 2.6 shows the San Francisco Peaks area in northern Arizona as well as some nearby lava flows and craters. We will talk about some different landforms in the next section. If you look at the Earth's surface and take away the water in the oceans (Figure 2.7), you will see that the surface has two distinctive features, continents and the ocean basins. The continents are large land areas extending from high elevations to sea level. The ocean basins extend from the edges of the continents down steep slopes to the ocean floor and into deep trenches. Both the continents and the ocean floor have many features with different elevations. Some areas of the continents are high. These are the mountains we have already talked about. Even on the ocean floor there are mountains! Let's discuss each. Continents are relatively old (billions of years) compared to the ocean basins (millions of years). Because the continents have been around for billions of years, a lot has happened to them! As continents move over the Earth's surface, mountains are formed when continents collide. Once a mountain has formed, it gradually wears down by weathering and erosion. Every continent has mountain ranges with high elevations (Figure 2.8). Some mountains formed a very long time ago and others are still forming today: - Young mountains (<100 million years) – Mountains of the Western United States (Rocky Mountains, Sierra Nevada, Cascades), Mountains around the edge of the Pacific Ocean, Andes Mountains (South America), Alps (Europe), Himalayan Mountains (Asia) - Old mountains (>100 million years) – Appalachian Mountains (Eastern United States), Ural Mountains (Russia). Mountains can be formed when the Earth's crust pushes up, as two continents collide, like the Appalachian Mountains in the eastern United States and the Himalayas in Asia. Mountains can also be formed by a long chain of volcanoes at the edge of a continent, like the Andes Mountains in South America. Over millions of years, mountains are worn down by rivers and streams to form high flat areas called plateaus or lower lying plains. Interior plains are in the middle of continents while coastal plains are on the edge of a continent, where it meets the ocean. As rivers and streams flow across continents, they cut away at rock, forming river valleys (Figure 2.9). The bits and pieces of rock carried by rivers are deposited where rivers meet the oceans. These can form deltas, like the Mississippi River delta and barrier islands, like Padre Island in Texas. Our rivers bring sand to the shore which forms our beaches. The ocean basins begin where the ocean meets the land. The names for the parts of the ocean nearest to the shore still have the word “continental” attached to them because the continents form the edge of the ocean. The continental margin is the part of the ocean basin that begins at the coastline and goes down to the ocean floor. It starts with the continental shelf, which is a part of the continent that is underwater today. The continental shelf usually goes out about 100 – 200 kilometers and is about 100-200 meters deep, which is a very shallow area of the ocean (Figure 2.10). From the edge of the continental shelf, the continental slope is the hill that forms the edge of the continent. As we travel down the continental slope, before we get all the way to the ocean floor, there is often a large pile of sediments brought from rivers, which forms the continental rise. The continental rise ends at the ocean floor, which is called the abyssal plain. The ocean floor itself is not totally flat. Small hills rise above the thick layers of mud that cover the ocean floor. In many areas, small undersea volcanoes, called seamounts (Figure 2.11) rise more than 1000 m above the seafloor. Besides seamounts, there are long, very tall (about 2 km) mountain ranges that form along the middle parts of all the oceans. They are connected in huge ridge systems called mid-ocean ridges (Figure 2.12). The mid-ocean ridges are formed from volcanic eruptions, when molten rock from inside the Earth breaks through the crust, flows out as lava and forms the mountains. |Figure 2.11: A chain of seamounts is located off the coast of New England (left) and oceanographers mapped one of these seamounts called Bear Seamount in great detail (right).| The deepest places of the ocean are the ocean trenches. There are many trenches in the world's oceans, especially around the edge of the Pacific Ocean. The Mariana Trench, which is located east of Guam in the Pacific Ocean, is the deepest place in the ocean, about 11 kilometers deep (Figure 2.13). To compare the deepest place in the ocean with the highest place on land, Mount Everest is less than 9 kilometers tall. In these trenches, the ocean floor sinks deep inside the Earth. The ocean floor gets constantly recycled. New ocean floor is made at the mid-ocean ridges and older parts are destroyed at the trenches. This recycling is why the ocean basins are so much younger than the continents. The Earth’s surface is constantly changing over long periods of time. For example, new mountains get formed by volcanic activity or uplift of the crust. Existing mountains and continental landforms get worn away by erosion. Rivers and streams cut into the continents and create valleys, plains, and deltas. Underneath the oceans, new crust forms at the mid-ocean ridges, while old crust gets destroyed at the trenches. Wave activity erodes the tops of some seamounts and volcanic activity creates new ones. You will explore the ways that the Earth's surface changes as you proceed through this book. - Earth scientists must be able to describe the exact positions or locations of features on the Earth's surface. - Positions often include distances and directions. To determine direction, you can use a compass, which has a tiny magnetic needle that points toward the Earth's magnetic North Pole. Once you have found north, you can find east, west and south, using your compass for reference. - Topography describes how the Earth’s surface varies in elevation. Mountains form the highest areas. Valleys and trenches form the lowest areas. Both continents and ocean basins have mountains and mountain ranges. They each also have plateaus, plains, and valleys or trenches. - Mountains form as continents collide and as volcanoes erupt. Mountains are worn away by wind and water. The earth's surface is constantly changing due to these creative and destructive processes. - What information might you need to describe the location of a feature on the Earth's surface? - Why would you need to know direction if an object is moving? - Explain how new ocean floor is created and also how ocean crust is destroyed. Why are the ocean basins younger than the continents? - Why do nautical charts have two compass roses on them? - What landforms are the highest on the continents? - Explain what landforms on the continents are created by erosion from wind and water. How does erosion create a landform? - What is topography? - abyssal plain - The very flat, deep ocean floor. - barrier island - A long, narrow island parallel to the shore. - Areas along the shore where sand or gravel accumulates. - Hand-held device with a magnetic needle used to find magnetic north. - compass rose - Figure on a map or nautical chart for displaying locations of north, south, east, and west. - Land mass above sea level. - continental margin - Submerged, outer edge of the continent. - continental rise - Gently sloping accumulation of sediments that forms where the continental slope meets the ocean floor. - continental shelf - Very gently sloping portion of the continent covered by the ocean. - continental slope - Sloping, underwater edge of the continent. - Often triangular shaped deposit of sediment at the mouth of a river. - Height of a feature measured relative to sea level. - mid-ocean ridge - A large, continuous mountain range found in the middle of an ocean basin; marks a divergent plate boundary. - ocean basins - Areas covered by ocean water. - Low lying continental areas; can be inland or coastal. - Flat lying, level elevated areas. - Difference in height of landforms in a region. - river valleys - Areas formed as water erodes the landscape; often 'V' shaped. - Underwater, volcanic mountain more than 1,000 meters tall. - Changes in elevation for a given region. Points to Consider - A volcano creates a new landform in Mexico. As the earth scientist assigned to study this feature, explain how you would describe its position in a report or scientific communication? - Suppose you wanted to draw a map to show all the changes in elevation around the area where you live. How might you show low areas and high areas? What would you do if you wanted this map to show these changes as if you were flying above your home? - Why do you think continents are higher areas on Earth than our ocean basins?

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A shellfish allergy is actually a food allergy and is completely various in comparison with seasonal sinus allergies. It can be a hypersensitivity towards the food like shellfish, scaly fish or crustaceans. The consumption of this type of food could lead to causing overreaction with the immune technique of quite a few individual and this in turn could result in severe physical symptoms. In accordance with the survey with the Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America it was estimated that majority with the pediatric plus the adult food allergy patients have a seafood allergy. Shellfish allergy is a lot more prevelant in adults. The shellfish allergy is normally brought on by two classes of foods, they’re mollusks that consists of mussels, clam, oysters and crustaceans. The crustaceans consists of the shrimp, lobster, and crabs. Together with this also creatures like lobster and shrimp, also as the octopus along with the squid. Apart from the nuts, this can be one of the most widespread food that causes anaphylaxis. This type of allergies are the amongst by far the most typical kind amongst the adults in America. To many people, even a tiny piece of shellfish can trigger a significant type of reaction.

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Volunteer for NIAID-funded clinical studies related to pelvic inflammatory disease on ClinicalTrials.gov. Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is a general term that refers to infection and inflammation of the upper genital tract in women. It can affect the uterus (womb), fallopian tubes (tubes that carry eggs from the ovaries to the uterus), ovaries, and other organs related to reproduction. The scarring that results on these organs can lead to infertility, tubal (ectopic) pregnancy, chronic pelvic pain, abscesses (sores containing pus), and other serious problems. PID is the most common preventable cause of infertility in the United States. Women at greater risk for PID include those at risk for sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and those with a prior episode of PID. Sexually active women under age 25 are at risk as well because the cervix (opening to the uterus) of teens and young women has greater susceptibility to STDs. This may be because the cervix of teenage girls and young women is not fully matured, increasing their risk for STDs linked to PID. Other potential risk factors include douching. Douching can change the vaginal flora and can force bacteria from the vagina into the upper reproductive organs. In some women, using an intrauterine device (IUD) to prevent pregnancy can also cause PID. Rarely, PID results from gynecological procedures or surgeries. In the United States, it is estimated that more than 750.000 women suffer from an episode of acute PID each year, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Up to 10-15% of women may become infertile as a result of PID. Although scientists have learned much about the biology of the microbes (germs) that cause PID and the ways in which they damage the body, they still have much to learn. Scientists supported by NIAID are studying the effects of antibiotics, hormones, and substances that boost the immune system. These studies may lead to insights about how to prevent infertility and other complications of PID. More NIAID Research on PID Last Updated November 29, 2011 Last Reviewed April 13, 2009

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I came across two things this week that can help teachers with supporting good use of online spaces. For some teachers effective understanding of online spaces and places in terms of good information practice is still a bit of a fantasy tale – like finding Platform 9 3/4 for Hogwarts! So the following guide is well worthwhile distributing to your school community. Net Cetera: Chatting With Kids About Being Online, gives adults practical tips to help kids navigate the online world. Net Cetera covers what parents and teachers need to know, and issues to raise with kids about living their lives online. What about the big student magnet – Google? Google published its five privacy principles for International Data Privacy Day on the 28th January. OK, I admit that this is the other side of the coin. However, it is important to understand exactly what our major online tools consider as important to their product – driven by business forces – as the fact that online tools are extensions of our kids brains means educators have a responsibility to keep in touch and activate the right options for online spaces and places. Google’s Privacy Principles are: - Use information to provide our users with valuable products and services. Search history informs personalized search, but users can opt-out. - Develop products that reflect strong privacy standards and practices. For example, you can chat on Google Talk “off the record” so the conversation isn’t saved. - Make the collection of personal information transparent. Last year, the Google Dashboard was launched to show you what info Google is collecting on you. - Give users meaningful choices to protect their privacy. You can report privacy issues related to Street View. Google often blurs faces, for example. - Be a responsible steward of the information we hold. Google doesn’t sell data to other companies. You can view the published web document on Google’s privacy principles here.

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Drums and Shadows, by Georgia Writer's Project, , at sacred-texts.com Sapelo Island is one of the chain of "Golden Isles" lying along the Georgia Coast. The word Sapelo was derived from "Zapala," the name used by the Indians when the island was a favorite hunting ground for the tribes that had given up much of the mainland to the Spaniards and later to the English. Among the landmarks that recall colorful historical episodes are Indian mounds, tabby ruins of colonial days, and the remains of a house built by Jean Berard Mocquet, Marquis de Montalet, a French Royalist who immigrated to Georgia from Santo Domingo about 1797. Plantation life flourished on Sapelo in the early nineteenth century. Here Thomas Spalding conducted one of the most extensive agricultural enterprises in the coastal section. The "big house" on the south end of the island was a spacious tabby mansion, so strongly constructed that the original walls are still standing and form the nucleus of the present dwelling. The island, with the exception of a number of Negro homesteads, is now the property of Richard Reynolds of Winston-Salem, North Carolina, but, although many improvements and changes have been made, much of the atmosphere of the early days has been preserved. Industrial activity is concentrated in the central portion of Sapelo, where there is a sawmill that gives employment to many of the islanders. Nearby are the company houses, a Post office, and a store. Several Negro churches and a dance hall are located elsewhere on the island. Small Negro settlements are scattered at the north end of [paragraph continues] Sapelo and are reached by winding roads that cut through the tropical woodlands and brush. The Negroes are descendants of the slaves of the plantation era. Many lead an easy, carefree life which consists chiefly of fishing, crabbing, and cultivating a small patch of garden, while others engage in regular employment at the sawmill or in the company offices. Living an isolated island existence, these Negroes have preserved many customs and beliefs of their ancestors, as well as the dialect of the older coastal Negro. An old oxcart jogging along a tree shaded road is a familiar sight, and under the guidance of a Negro boy named Julius we discovered instances of crude wooden implements in common usage. The many Negroes interviewed gave a graphic picture of survival elements that have persisted since the days when slave ships brought their ancestors to the new country. One of the oldest inhabitants is Katie Brown, 1 whose grandmother, Margaret, was a daughter of Belali Mohomet, the Mohammedan slave driver of Thomas Spalding. Katie, sunning herself on the back steps of her small house, was disposed to be gracious to us. Shaking her head at the size of the shoes brought to her as an incentive to conversation, she relented at the sight of some pipe tobacco and began to talk: "I dunno bout drums at chuches. Use tuh hab um long time ago, but not now on duh ilun,--leas I ain heah um. Hahves time wuz time fuh drums. Den dey hab big times. 38 Wen hahves in, dey hab big gadderin. Dey beat drum, rattle dry goad wid seed in um, an beat big flat tin plates. 23, 25 Dey shout an moob roun in succle an look lak mahch goin tuh heabm. Hahves festival, dey call it." In response to our query about "set-ups" Katie replied, "Yes'm, we hab set-ups wid duh dead, but I ain know bout killin chicken. At duh fewnul, dey kills hawg an hab 40 plenty tuh eat. 37b, 37c Duh reason fuh dis is so dat sperrit hab plenty at duh las. Wen fewnul pruhcession gits tuh grabeyahd, dey stops. I ain know wy dey do it but dey stops at duh gate, and dey ax leab tuh come in. Deah ain nobody at duh gate, but dey alluz ax jis duh same. Dey say, 'Fambly, we come tuh put our brudduh away in mudduh dus. Please leh us go tru gate.'" 60 About conjure, however, the old woman was not very communicative. "I ain know bout cunjuh," she said. "I heahs bout spells on people, but I ain see um. Now shadduhs, I see um. One night comin down duh road, I git tuh place weah road tun, an I heah sumpin behine me runnin long close tuh groun. He got big long tus, dis long, an he tongue hangin out. He pas close tuh me, an he look a me. I see um good. He got long tick haiah lak Noofounlan. Deah ain nebuh bin dog lak um on ilun. He mus be shadduh. 54 "Den one night, I come frum clinch wid huzbun. We gits tuh tun, I heahs sumpm agen. I looks, an deah is sumpm look lak man. Huzbun he ain see um. Den I heahs a stompin, an sumpm come by so close tuh me I kin mos tech um, an he tun tuh spotted ox. 'Budge,' I calls um wen dey changes lak dat. Dat spotted ox go gallopin off, an I say tuh huzbun, 'Yuh ain see um?' He say, 'Wut?' I say, 'Da spotted ox wut go pas down duh road an out in da fiel?' He say, 'I ain see nuttn.' Das wen I luns dat wen yuh see um, yuh musn talk bout um. "No'm, I dunno no animal stories. I heah um, but I fuhgits. I know bout lizzud an rabbit, dough. Yuh ain know bout lizzud an rabbit? Well, lizzud, he wuk hahd. He hab sode wut he cut crop wid, an it wuk by itsef an it cut so fine, nuttn lef. 39 Lizzud he speak wuds tuh it--it do all duh wuk. Now, rabbit, he smaht. He ain got no sode lak lizzud got an he wahn one. He hide behine bush, an he watch da sode wuk fuh lizzud, an he wahn it bad. One day wen lizzud not at home, rabbit, he sneak up, an he steal lizzud sode. He laf tuh hesef cuz he got da sode. He take da sode tuh he fiel an he staht it tuh wuk. He tink he know duh wuds dat lizzud say tuh sode, an he call, 'Go-ee-tell.' Sode staht wukin. Pretty soon, sode finish duh crop, an rabbit wahn um tuh stop. Sode comin too close tuh noo wintuh crop wut rabbit got tuh hab fuh lib on. So rabbit he yell, 'Go-ee-tell' in loud voice, and sode he wuk all duh fastuh. He cut down ebryting rabbit hab an ain leab nuttn. Lizzud who bin hidin in bush, he laf an he laf tuh he sef at rabbit, cuz rabbit tink hesef so smaht wen he steal sode an now he ain got nuttn tuh eat all wintuh. Rabbit he see lizzud, an he call, 'Stop dis sode.' Lizzud he say, 'it my sode.' Rabbit he say, 'Dasso. It yuh sode, 'but stop it. It cut down ebryting uh got.' Lizzud say, 'Sode wuk fastuh ebry time he heah 'Go-ee-tell.'" Den lizzud he staht laffin an he calls out loud, 'Go-ee-pom,' an sode stop. Lizzud den go out an pick up sode an tak um home." Knowing that Katie was a descendant of Belali, we asked her if she knew anything of him. She nodded and answered, "Belali Mohomet? Yes'm, I knows bout Belali. He wife Phoebe. He hab plenty daughtuhs, Magret, Bentoo, Chaalut, Medina, Yaruba, Fatima, an Hestuh. "Magret an uh daughtuh Cotto use tuh say dat Belali an he wife Phoebe pray on duh bead. Dey wuz bery puhticluh bout duh time dey pray an dey bery regluh bout duh hour. Wen duh sun come up, wen it straight obuh head an wen it set, das duh time dey pray. Dey bow tuh duh sun an hab lill mat tuh kneel on. Duh beads is on a long string. Belali he pull bead an he say, 'Belambi, Hakabara, Mahamadu.' Phoebe she say, 'Ameen, Ameen.' "Magret she say Phoebe he wife, but maybe he hab mone one wife. I spects das bery possible. He come obuh wid all he daughtuhs grown. He whole fambly wuz mos grown up. Hestuh she Shad's gran. Yuh knows Shad? Bentoo she duh younges. Magret she my gran." We asked if Belali Mohomet had been related to Belali Sullivan on St. Simons. "I ain know bout St. Simon but Cotto use tuh talk bout cousin Belali Sullivan. "Yes'm, I membuh muh gran too. Belali he frum Africa but muh gran she come by Bahamas. She speak funny wuds we didn know. She say 'mosojo' an sometime 'sojo' wen she mean pot. Fuh watuh she say 'deloe' an fuh fyuh she say 'diffy.' She tell us, Tak sojo off diffy.' "Wen sumpm done she say, 'Bim-boga-rum.' Yuh tell uh sumpm wut is a subprise lak somebody die, den she say, 'Ma-foo-bey, ma-foo-bey.' "She am tie uh head up lak I does, but she weah a loose wite clawt da she trow obuh uh head lak veil an it hang loose on uh shoulduh. I ain know wy she weah it dataway, but I tink she ain lak a tight ting roun uh head. "She make funny flat cake she call 'saraka.' She make um same day ebry yeah, an it big day. Wen dey finish, she call us in, all duh chillun, an put in hans in flat cake an we eats it. Yes'm, I membuh how she make it. She wash rice, an po off all duh watuh. She let wet rice sit all night, an in mawnin rice is all swell. She tak dat rice an put it in wooden mawtuh, an beat it tuh paste wid wooden pestle. She add honey, sometime shuguh, an make it in flat cake wid uh hans. 'Saraka' she call un." Before the cabin stood a crudely constructed wooden mortar made many years before by Katie's husband and used originally for the pounding of rice. A deep basin-like aperture had been hewn out of the center of a log which was about three feet long and from eighteen to twenty inches wide. 43 Across the dusty road from Katie Brown's another narrow wooden gate opened into a field where a winding path led to the small cabin of Julia Grovernor, 1 called Juno by the island Negroes. Julia, very black, tall and gaunt, was slightly hostile and suspicious and disinclined to talk. Even the pipe tobacco, potent in most cases, she indifferently dropped. "No'm, I ain know nuttn. Ise feeble-minded. I bin weak in head sence I small chile. No'm, I ain know nuttn bout witches. I ain know nuttn bout root doctuhs. No'm, I ain nebuh heah uh cunjuh. No'm, I ain know nuttn bout spells. No'm, I ain kin tuh Katie Brown." This refusal to answer except in the negative seemed to continue indefinitely. Finally, however, after innumerable Slow, quiet, good-humored questions that showed no resentment at her hostility, she became friendly in a reserved and superior way. It was soon evident that this sullen, reticent woman, though hostile to outside invasion, was not feeble-minded, but on the contrary sharp-witted, with a dry sense of humor. "Muh gran, she Hannah. Uncle Calina muh gran too; dey bote Ibos. Yes'm, I membuh muh gran Hannah. She marry Calina an hab twenny-one chillun. Yes'm, she tell us how she brung yuh. "Hannah, she wid huh ahnt who wuz diggin peanuts in duh fiel, wid uh baby strop on uh back. Out uh duh brush two wite mens come an spit in huh abut eye. She blinded an wen she wipe uh eye, duh wite mens done loose duh baby frum huh back, an took Hannah too. Dey led um intuh duh woods, weah deah wuz udduh chillun dey done ketched an tie up in sacks. Duh baby an Hannah wuz tie up in sacks lak duh udduhs an Hannah nebuh saw huh ahnt agen an nebuh saw duh baby agen. Wen she wuz let out uh duh sack, she wuz on boat an nebuh saw Africa agen." A back path from Julia's house led to the house of her sister, Katie, 1 who had a regal and impressive bearing. She, too, had a hostile and taciturn manner. "No'm, Ise younguh dan Juno. I dohn membuh nuttn uh doze times. No'm, I ain heah tell uh cunjuh. I dohn know bout witch doctuhs. I dohn know spells. No'm, I dohn know none uh dis yuh askin. Yes'm, I nuss Hannah an Calina wen deys ole, but I young chile, an I dohn membuh nuttn bout um. No'm, I cahn unnuhstan um; dey talks a funny talk. I cahn unnuhstan um." In the afternoon we went to see Phoebe Gilbert, 2 another descendant of the Ibos, Calina and Hannah. Phoebe, black, buxom, and comely, lived in a comfortable cottage in Shell Hammock. Obviously embarrassed at being the center of a rapidly increasing crowd of Negro listeners, she evaded most questions. Our visit did not prove entirely unsatisfactory, however, for after considerable humorous chatting Phoebe rewarded our efforts by giving a vivid description of how her grandfather, Calina, was captured and brought here from Africa. "Belali Smith muh gran. I ain know bout Belali Mohomet. Yes'm, I membuh muh gran. She Hannah. Yes'm, muh gran Calina, too. Dey's Ibos. Muh gran Calina tell me how be got heah. He say he playin on beach in Africa, an big boat neah duh beach. He say, duh mens on boat take down flag, an put up big piece uh red flannel, an all chillun dey git close tuh watuh edge tuh see flannel an see wut doin. Den duh mens comes off boat an ketch um, an wen duh ole folks come in frum duh fiels dey ain no chillun in village. Dey's all on boat. Den dey brings um yuh." Cuffy 20a Wilson, 1 sitting in the clean-swept yard which surrounded his whitewashed house, told us about the much discussed experience of a neighbor of his. This dealt with the current belief concerning the necessity of asking leave to enter the graveyard. "Grant Johnson, he wannuh cut some wood an he git obuh duh fence uh duh cimiterry," he explained to us. "He didn ax leab uh nobody. 60 He wuz a cuttin duh wood down as fas as he could wen all ub a sudden he see a big black dog wut 54 come attuh im. Dat wuz a shadduh an he ain lose no time in jumpin obuh duh fence. "Wen yuh hab a fewnul eben today, yuh hab tuh ax leab tuh entuh duh cimiterry gate. Duh spirit ain gonuh let yuh in lessn yuh ask leab ub it." We visited Nero Jones, 2 an elderly Negro who lived on his sixty-five-acre tract of land with a daughter, Henrietta. Sitting beneath the protecting shade of an arbor which overlooked a peanut field, the old man was busily engaged in shucking a large basket of the nuts. He, too, remembered having seen harvest dances. "We use tuh hab big time at hahves," 38 he began. "We pray an sing duh night tru. Wen duh sun riz we go out an dance. We hab big beatin uh drums an sometimes we dry duh goads an leab duh seed in um. Dey make good rattle. 23, 25 "I membuh Uncle Calina an An Hannah well. Dey mighty Ole an dey bun up in duh house. Dey talk lot uh funny talk tuh each udduh an dey is mighty puhticuluh bout prayin. Dey pray on duh bead. Duh ole man he say 'Ameela' and An Hannah she say 'Hakabara.'" Later we drove slowly over the flat grass-lands to Hog Hammock, another Negro community at the south end of Sapelo. The red-legged herons winging their way against the vivid blue of the sky, the dense foliage rimming the edges of the inland marshes, clumps of feathery bush, all contributed to the tropical beauty of the island. At Hog Hammock we visited Shad Hall, 1 another Belali Mohomet descendant, who came to the door of his neat cottage clad in blue denim. Delighted to have visitors, Shad was eager for conversation. With a few polite words of thanks for the pipe tobacco, he began to talk of the old days. "Muh gran wuz Hestuh, Belali's daughtuh. She tell me Belali wuz coal black, wid duh small feechuhs we hab, an he wuz bery tall. She say Belali an all he fambly come on same boat frum Africa. Belali hab plenty daughtuhs, Medina, Yaruba, Fatima, Bentoo, Hestuh, Magret, and Chaalut. "Ole Belali Smith wuz muh uncle. His son wuz George Smith's gran. He wuz muh gran Hestuh's son an muh mudduh Sally's brudduh. Hestuh an all ub um sho pray on duh bead. Dey weah duh string uh beads on duh wais. Sometime duh string on duh neck. Dey pray at sun-up and face duh sun on duh knees an bow tuh it tree times, kneelin on a lill mat." We asked Shad if he had ever heard his grandmother say anything about Africa. Had she ever mentioned what sort of house they lived in or what food was generally eaten? Shad nodded eagerly, and from the steady flow of talk that followed it was evident that he had heard much of the land of his ancestors. "Muh gran Hestuh say she kin membuh duh house she lib in in Africa. She say it wuz cubbuh wid palmettuh an grass fuh roof, an duh walls wuz made uh mud. Dey make duh walls by takin up hanfuls uh mud an puttin it on sumpm firm, sticks put crossways so. I membuh some pots and cups dat she hab made uh clay. She brung deze frum Africa. She membuh wut dey eat in Africa too. Dey eat yam an shuguh cane an peanut an bananas. Dey eat okra too. Yes'm, das right, dey calls it gumbo. Dey dohn hab tuh wuk hahd wid plantin deah. Jis go in woods an dig, an git big yam. Dey eat udduh roots too. Dey ain no flo tuh house. Dey sleep on hahd groun inside house. House wuz neah lill ilun weah dey ketch parrot and sell um." "Do you remember any special kinds of food that your grandmother used to prepare?" we asked. Shad, after pondering briefly, said, "She make strange cake, fus ub ebry munt. She call it 'saraka.' She make it out uh meal an honey. She put meal in bilin watuh an take it right out. Den she mix it wid honey, and make it in flat cakes. Sometime she make it out uh rice. Duh cake made, she call us all in an deah she hab great big fannuh full an she gib us each cake. Den we all stands roun table, and she says, 'Ameen, Ameen, Ameen,' an we all eats cake." We asked Shad what sort of animals his grandmother remembered seeing in Africa, and be said, "She say lion is duh mos powful uh beas. She say lion git up tree jis lak cat. Yuh come long unduh tree, an lion he reach down wid great paws an grab yuh--so. Snakes, dey big, too. Dey wrap deah tail roun tree an lean obuh an reach yuh, too." Shad furnished us additional information regarding "setups." "Yes'm, Gran Hestuh tell me uh set-ups. Dey kill a wite chicken wen dey hab set-ups tuh keep duh spirits way. She say a wite chicken is duh only ting dat will keep duh spirits way an she alluz keep wite chicken fuh dat in yahd. 35 Lak dis. Hestuh, she hab frien an frien die. Ebry ebenin friens spirit come back an call tuh Hestuh. 56 Hestuh knowd ef she keep it up, she die too. Hestuh den kills wite chicken, tro it out uh doze, an shut doe quick. Wen she tro it out, she say, 'Heah, spirit, moob away--dohn come back no mo.' I dunno wut she do wid duh blood an fedduhs. "Yes'm, I heah tell uh witches, but I ain see um. I know eel skin tie roun neck bring good luck an cuo yuh ef Yuh sick. Yes'm, I see um bury sack unduh doe step tuh 11 pruhtec house; I see um tie rag tuh gate tuh pruhtec too. 11b, 11c I ain know snake-skin bring good luck, but eel-skin, yes'm. "Yuh ain heah so much bout cunjuh on dis ilun, but deah's a few wut does a mighty lot uh talkin. Nellie Dixon, she lib right obuh deah in dem trees, she alluz talkin bout roots. She say somebody go tru duh yahd an drap a root fuhrum. She tote a sack roun uh neck tuh gahd um." 8, 12a, 12c, 12d When asked to whom he had belonged during slavery he answered, "Muh fus massuh Montally. He ole massuh. Young massuh wuz Massuh Tom Spalding. Den I belongs tuh Mike Spalding; dat befo freedom. Sometime duh ole folks call duh missus 'maduba' an duh massuh 'mahaba.' Yes'm I bin big man wen freedom come." Shad remembered that during his childhood he had often witnessed harvest festivals and dances. "Hahves time dey hab big time. It come once a yeah an dey pray an dey sing all night long till duh fus cock crow. Den dey staht tuh dance an tuh bow tuh duh sun as it riz in duh sky. Dey dance roun in a succle an sing an shout. Sho is a big time. 38 "Wen yuh hab a buryin, yuh alluz hab tuh ask leab tuh duh grabeyahd. Dey do dat tuh dis day. Yuh say, 'Fambly, please let us lay yuh brudduh in mudduh dus.'" 60 The story which Cuffy Wilson had already told us about Grant Johnson's having been chased from the grave-yard by a shadow was also verified from this source. Shad told us, "Grant Johnson he go deah one time tuh cut wood widout askin leab. He busy cuttin wood wen all ub a sudden he see big black dog comin tuh um wid one paw raise an red eye an big grinnin teet. 54 Grant he ain lose no time in gittin way. Dat dog wuz shadduh wut come attuh um. "Duh ole folks use tuh tell dat story bout duh hoe wut could wuk by itsef. It stan right up in duh fiel widout nobody holdin tuh it. 39 Das ef yuh knowd how tuh wuk it. Doze Africans knowd how tuh make dat hoe wuk an dey knowd how tuh wuk roots. "Doze folks could fly too. Dey tell me deah's a lot ub un, wut wuz bring heah an dey ain much good. Duh massuh wuz fixin tuh tie um up tuh whip um. Dey say, 'Massuh, yuh ain gwine lick me,' and wid dat dey runs down tuh duh ribbuh. Duh obuhseeuh he sho tought he ketch um wen dey git tuh duh ribbuh. But fo he could git tuh um, dey riz up in duh eah an fly way. Dey fly right back tuh Africa. I tink dat happen on Butler Ilun. "I use tuh heah lots ub animal stories, but it bin so long I mos fuhgit bout um. I ain heah much bout duh spiduh cep he is bery wicked an he shahp. He kin spin he tread an riz right up in duh eah widout nuttn tuh hep um. He see a fly an begin tuh spin roun an roun um till he ketch um in he web. Den he caahn git way an An Nancy got um. Das wut duh chillun say tuh dis day wen dey see a spiduh ketch a fly--An Nancy got um.'" 51 On Sunday evening Julius drove us through black swamp and bush to the church at Silver Bluff. The little white frame building with yellow light from oil lamps shining through the windows made the night suddenly come alive. Negro men and boys were moving about outside in the darkness and a few were gathered on the steps. All the women and children were inside. Escorted by Julius and a deacon we went into the church and took our places on the second from the front middle bench. The pulpit stood on the raised platform on which most of the light was concentrated. The men and boys came in. The church was filled with a tense quietness. The preacher came from behind the platform and stood silently behind the pulpit desk, looking dramatically over his congregation. He was tall and spare, with brown skin, narrow face, and a thin pointed beard, a Mohammedan looking Negro. He wore a black skull cap, which we learned later was not ritualistic but was worn to protect his head from the draught. This was Preacher Little who, we were afterwards told, was an itinerant preacher, not a native to the island but a type native to the district. His text, read in a loud, commanding voice, was "You ah the salt of the earth; but if the salt has lost its savory, wherewith shall it be salt; it is then no good and should be trompled intuh earth." The exposition of this pronouncement was awaited with breathless interest. The sermon that followed, however, was in no way connected with the text. Preacher Little divided his sermon into three parts and lectured his congregation on "straying frum duh paat." What he said was not really coherent. Words stood out, phrases rang in our ears, quotations from the Bible resounded at random but that was the beginning and the end. The impelling element was the sound of Preacher Little's voice. In each part he began slowly, quietly, persuading and reasoning with his congregation. His voice would carry a pleading question to them and they would answer, "Huh." 29 As he progressed, the quiet reasoning diminished; he shouted to his listeners. The "Huh-Huh's" became loud, guttural, vibrating grunts that echoed through the little building. Regular stamping of the feet began; the vibration penetrated into every corner. It was impossible not to think of the beating of the drum. The regular rhythmic, swelling noise was deafening. It meant agreement with Preacher Little. It urged him on to greater heights until his shouting voice not only seemed to fill the church but to reverberate from wall to wall. This climax was reached three times, at the end of each of the three parts of the sermon. Each time it seemed to act as a great emotional purge to the listeners and leave them happily exhausted. When the sermon ended, spirituals were sung under the able direction of a young Negro named George Smith. 1 The singing was enhanced by the fervor and the earnest simplicity with which it was presented. Shining countenances raised heavenward, voices lifted exultantly, and feet beating rhythmically in accompaniment, the congregation entered wholeheartedly into the singing and seemed oblivious of everything else. The next day on the boat returning to the mainland, Smith, young and well educated, tried to remember some of the tales told him when he was a boy. They were mostly the better known ones, except the Fox and the Rabbit, which concerned the Fox thriftily planting sweet potatoes and the Rabbit digging them up. Prevalent beliefs covered wider ground. If an owl hoots on top of the house or near the house, it is supposed to be a sign of death. 44 A counteractive is to throw salt on the fire, burn an old shoe, or turn pockets wrong side out. If a rooster comes upon the porch and starts crowing, it is a sign of death in the house. 13b It is also considered bad luck to start on a journey and have to turn back. The method employed to ward off disaster is to draw a cross where you turned back and spit on it. We were told that most of the island Negroes believed in root doctors, but that they imported them from the mainland. There were none on the island. Smith admitted that he knew very little about the Negroes' belief in spirits. He did know that if a person had something that the spirit wanted very badly that person would be haunted by the spirit. A frizzled chicken is known as a wise chicken and is used to find lost articles. If something has been buried and its place forgotten, a frizzled chicken can, according to the islanders, find the place and scratch up the lost article. 13a Smith remembered hearing the older Negroes tell of having watches on certain definite occasions when they sat up all night waiting for sunrise. When the sun at last appeared over the horizon, they would start a sun-dance and bow to the sun. Death watches he knew nothing about, except present-day customs. However, he did say that the snake known as the coach-whip was sometimes wrapped around the neck of a person supposedly dead and its tail put in the person's mouth to see if he were still breathing. We questioned young Smith about the festivals that the other Negroes had described and he told us that during the harvesting season various celebrations are still held. 38 The boat neared the mainland. Our trip was over. As we bade goodbye to our guide, we cast a look of farewell at the dim outline of the tropical island. On the journey homeward impressions received during our stay on Sapelo crowded against one another in disturbing sequence. Innumerable memories assailed us. Faintly the echo of shouting rose and fell in the distance. The measured chanting of voices and the pounding of feet seemed to follow us across the water. 152:1 Katie Brown, Sapelo Island. 155:1 Julia Grovernor, Sapelo Island. Deceased winter, 1938. 156:1 Katie Grovernor, Sapelo Island. 156:2 Phoebe Gilbert, Sapelo Island. 157:1 Cuffy Wilson, Sapelo Island. 157:2 Nero Jones, Sapelo Island. 158:1 Shad Hall, Sapelo Island. 162:1 George Smith, Sapelo Island and Brunswick.

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Ms. Spurgeon, a fabulous third grade teacher, does a Stone Soup folktale study with her students each year. This is a part of the folktale study that third grade just kicked off. She has her students study multiple versions of Stone Soup and consider how the characters, setting, and plot change based on where the story is taking place or which country the story comes from. Students are quickly discovering that the basic themes of Stone Soup stay the same but characters, setting, and the ingredients in the soup change. Today, we read Jon J. Muth’s version of Stone Soup. We loved hearing the many different kinds of ingredients that were added to the soup such as pea pods, lily buds, taro root, winter melon, and more. After we finished the story, we revisited our Google form of folktale elements to see how Stone Soup compared with other folktales we have read. We noticed that the following elements appeared in all 4 folktales that we have read in 3rd grade: - flat characters - fantasy time - setting briefly described - plot full of action - repeated phrases Classes will continue to fill out the form and make comparisons. To conclude this lesson, we used Tagxedo to make our own digital bowl of Stone Soup. I asked students to think about what ingredients they might add to a class stone soup if they were to go home right now and get something out of their cabinets, refrigerator, or from a neighbor. While students were checking out books, they came up to me and told me 2-3 ingredients, which I typed into Tagxedo. I selected a circle shape to represent the pot of soup, and here is what our soup looked like at the end of our time together.

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Molecular motors inside living cells can turn chemical energy directly into work–a feat that technology still cannot replicate. In the 18 February PRL, Japanese researchers describe the cyclical motion of oil droplets powered by the repulsion between oily and watery molecules, a principle that is similar to biological motors and one which they believe could power nanomachines of the future. Such technology would produce no waste heat and so could work with much higher efficiency than any internal combustion engine. A “running droplet” rolls around on a solid surface using electrostatic or chemical energy. In a recent experiment for example, the droplet consisted of an oily substance with so-called surfactant molecules floating inside. These molecules have “water-loving” (hydrophilic) heads and “water-fearing” (hydrophobic) tails, much like ordinary soap molecules. Some of the hydrophobic tails attached themselves permanently to the specially-treated solid surface, leaving their hydrophilic ends pointing upward inside the droplet. Repulsion between this continuously forming watery layer and the rest of the oily droplet above propelled the droplet to constantly move, and it could never return to the same location twice. Researchers are interested in the fundamental physics of such motion, as well as possibly using it in nanotechnology. Yutaka Sumino and his colleagues at the University of Kyoto in Japan found a way to make the “motor” more effective by allowing it to trace the same path over and over. At the start of their experiment in a glass petri dish, they dissolved the surfactant in a water bath surrounding the oil droplet; the oil contained only potassium iodide, a salt which helps oil soak up surfactant molecules. These molecules were attracted by the negatively charged glass and stuck their positively charged heads to the bottom, creating an oily “kelp forest” with their tails. Once the droplet began moving from random motions, it “mopped up” much of the surfactant in its path, leaving a trail of relatively clean glass, which is hydrophilic. The exposed glass propelled the droplet from behind, while the “kelp forest” attracted it in front. After a droplet went by, surfactant floating in the water quickly restored a hydrophobic layer on the glass surface, preparing it for another passage. The droplet moved randomly at first, but once it hit the round petri dish’s walls, it started orbiting continuously around the dish, says Sumino’s Kyoto collaborator Kenichi Yoshikawa. When the researchers replaced the round dish with a long and thin container–about as wide as the droplet itself–the droplet simply paced back and forth from one end to the other. The walks stopped after less than a minute, or 20 to 50 cycles, when the droplet became saturated with surfactant. Irving Epstein of Brandeis University in Boston is impressed by the new work, which he says “might spawn the development of new devices.” He adds that it is possible that some living cells use similar effects to get around, although that is not known. Yoshikawa has high hopes for future nanomachines that would move through the human bloodstream and make repairs. “Perhaps in the future you can make small chemical robots that walk in a narrow space by utilizing energy from the environment–for example, glucose,” he says. - S-W Lee, D. Y. Kwok, and P. E. Laibinis, “Chemical Influences on Adsorption-Mediated Self-Propelled Drop Movement,” Phys. Rev. E 65, 051602 (2002).

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The term Eastern Bloc or Communist Bloc refers to the former communist states of Central and Eastern Europe, generally the Soviet Union and the countries of the Warsaw Pact. The terms Communist Bloc and Soviet Bloc were also used to denote groupings of states aligned with the Soviet Union, although these terms might include states outside Central and Eastern Europe. In 1922, the RSFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the Byelorussian SSR and the Transcaucasian SFSR, approved the Treaty of Creation of the USSR and the Declaration of the Creation of the USSR, forming the Soviet Union. Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, who viewed the Soviet Union as a "socialist island", stated that the Soviet Union must see that "the present capitalist encirclement is replaced by a socialist encirclement." In 1939, the USSR entered into the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany that contained a secret protocol that divided Romania, Poland, Lithuania, Estonia and Finland into German and Soviet spheres of influence. Eastern Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Finland and Bessarabia in northern Romania were recognized as parts of the Soviet sphere of influence. Lithuania was added in a second secret protocol in September 1939. The Soviet Union had invaded the portions of eastern Poland assigned to it by the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact two weeks after the German invasion of western Poland, followed by co-ordination with German forces in Poland. During the Occupation of East Poland by the Soviet Union, the Soviets liquidated the Polish state, and a German-Soviet meeting addressed the future structure of the "Polish region." Soviet authorities immediately started a campaign of sovietization of the newly Soviet-annexed areas. Soviet authorities collectivized agriculture, and nationalized and redistributed private and state-owned Polish property. Initial Soviet occupations of the Baltic countries had occurred in mid-June 1940, when Soviet NKVD troops raided border posts in Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia, followed by the liquidation of state administrations and replacement by Soviet cadres. Elections for parliament and other offices were held with single candidates listed and the official results fabricated, purporting pro-Soviet candidates' approval by 92.8 percent of the voters in Estonia, 97.6 percent in Latvia, and 99.2 percent in Lithuania. The fraudulently installed peoples assemblies immediately requested admission into the USSR, which was granted by the Soviet Union, with the annexations resulting in the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic, Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic, and Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic. The international community condemned this initial annexation of the Baltic states and deemed it illegal. In 1939, the Soviet Union unsuccessfully attempted an invasion of Finland, subsequent to which the parties entered into an interim peace treaty granting the Soviet Union the eastern region of Karelia (10% of Finnish territory), and the Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic was established by merging the ceded territories with the KASSR. After a June 1940 Soviet Ultimatum demanding Bessarabia, Bukovina, and the Hertza region from Romania, the Soviets entered these areas, Romania caved to Soviet demands and the Soviets occupied the territories. In June 1941, Germany broke the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact by invading the Soviet Union. From the time of this invasion to 1944, the areas annexed by the Soviet Union were part of Germany's Ostland (except for the Moldavian SSR). Thereafter, the Soviet Union began to push German forces westward through a series of battles on the Eastern Front. In the aftermath of WWII on the Soviet-Finnish border, the parties signed another peace treaty ceding to the Soviet Union in 1944, followed by a Soviet annexation of roughly the same eastern Finnish territories as those of the prior interim peace treaty as part of the Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic. From 1943 to 1945, several conferences regarding Post-War Europe occurred that, in part, addressed the potential Soviet annexation and control of countries in Central Europe. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill's Soviet policy regarding Central Europe differed vastly from that of American President Franklin D. Roosevelt, with the former believing Soviet leader Joseph Stalin to be a "devil"-like tyrant leading a vile system. When warned of potential domination by a Stalin dictatorship over part of Europe, Roosevelt responded with a statement summarizing his rationale for relations with Stalin: "I just have a hunch that Stalin is not that kind of a man. . . . I think that if I give him everything I possibly can and ask for nothing from him in return, noblesse oblige, he won't try to annex anything and will work with me for a world of democracy and peace." While meeting with Stalin and Roosevelt in Tehran in 1943, Churchill stated that Britain was vitally interested in restoring Poland as an independent country. Britain did not press the matter for fear that it would become a source of inter-allied friction. In February 1945, at the conference at Yalta, Stalin demanded a Soviet sphere of political influence in Central Europe. Stalin eventually was convinced by Churchill and Roosevelt not to dismember Germany. Stalin stated that the Soviet Union would keep the territory of eastern Poland they had already taken via invasion in 1939, and wanted a pro-Soviet Polish government in power in what would remain of Poland. After resistance by Churchill and Roosevelt, Stalin promised a re-organization of the current pro-Soviet government on a broader democratic basis in Poland. He stated that the new government's primary task would be to prepare elections. The parties at Yalta further agreed that the countries of liberated Europe and former Axis satellites would be allowed to "create democratic institutions of their own choice", pursuant to "the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live." The parties also agreed to help those countries form interim governments "pledged to the earliest possible establishment through free elections" and "facilitate where necessary the holding of such elections." At the beginning of the July–August 1945 Potsdam Conference after Germany's unconditional surrender, Stalin repeated previous promises to Churchill that he would refrain from a "sovietization" of Central Europe. In addition to reparations, Stalin pushed for "war booty", which would permit the Soviet Union to directly seize property from conquered nations without quantitative or qualitative limitation. A clause was added permitting this to occur with some limitations. When Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov expressed concern that the Yalta Agreement's wording might impede Stalin's plans in Central Europe, Stalin responded "Never mind. We'll do it our own way later." After Soviet forces remained in Eastern and Central European countries, with the beginnings of communist puppet regimes installed in those countries, by falsified elections, Churchill referred to the region as being behind an "Iron Curtain" of control from Moscow. At first, many non-communist countries condemned the speech as warmongering, though many historians have now revised their opinions. Members of the Eastern Bloc besides the Soviet Union are sometimes referred to as "satellite states" of the Soviet Union. The initial problem in countries occupied by the Red Army in 1944–45 was how to transform occupation power into control of domestic development. Because communists were small minorities in all countries but Czechoslovakia, they were initially instructed to form coalitions in their respective countries. At the war's end, concealment of the Kremlin's role was considered crucial to neutralize resistance and to make the regimes appear not only autonomous, but also to resemble "bourgeois democracies". Soviet takeover of control at the outset generally followed a process: What is sometimes overlooked in the context of how the Eastern Bloc was formed, however, is the political climate of the time in regards to the political orientation of many of those who fought and died to resist fascism on the local and regional levels, as well as the national ones. Quite a significant number of the citizen groupings known collectively as the antifascist 'partisan movement' that did much to defeat fascist forces during the war, were politically communist-oriented or otherwise radical left in political views, such as left communists and anarchists – continuing to a great extent the political spirit of the failed Republican forces that fought Franco during the Spanish Civil War and the anarchist forces who briefly established a social-anarchist society in Catalonia, among other similar precedents. The Soviets, therefore, were to an extent able to 'ride the wave' of respect and admiration these partisans had earned amongst the populations of these countries by the time the war had ended. Their drive to insist on "friendly governments" as the war drew to a close did not happen in an ideological vacuum: the Soviets did indeed impose these pro-Soviet regimes in Central Europe by what effectively wound up being unilateral decree – but the role of the partisans on all fronts of the war, as well as the estimated 20,000,000 Soviet soldiers who died to defeat fascism, cannot be dismissed, as it lent a certain amount of the appearance of 'licence' on the part of the Soviet administration to control Central Europe that they would not otherwise have had. It was only in the Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia that former partisans entered their new government independently of Soviet influence. It was the latter's publicly stubborn independent political stances, its insistence on specifically not being a puppet regime, that led to the Tito–Stalin split and the other moves towards an "independent socialism" that quickly made SR Yugoslavia unique within the context of overall Eastern Bloc politics. By the end of World War Two, most of Eastern Europe, and the Soviet Union in particular, suffered vast destruction. The Soviet Union had suffered a staggering 27 million deaths, and the destruction of significant industry and infrastructure, both by the Nazi Wehrmacht and the Soviet Union itself in a "scorched earth" policy to keep it from falling in Nazi hands as they advanced over 1,000 miles to within 15 miles of Moscow. Thereafter, the Soviet Union physically transported and relocated east European industrial assets to the Soviet Union. This was especially pronounced in eastern European Axis countries, such as Romania and Hungary, where such a policy was considered as punitive reparations (a principle accepted by Western powers). In some cases, Red Army officers viewed cities, villages and farms as being open to looting. Other Eastern Bloc states were required to provide coal, industrial equipment, technology, rolling stock and other resources to reconstruct the Soviet Union. Between 1945 and 1953, the Soviets received a net transfer of resources from the rest of the Eastern Bloc under this policy roughly comparable to the net transfer from the United States to western Europe in the Marshall Plan. Most of Germany east of the Oder–Neisse line, which contained much of Germany's fertile land, was transferred to what remained of unilaterally Soviet-controlled Poland. At the end of World War II, political opposition immediately materialized after occupying Soviet army personnel conducted systematic pillaging and rapes in their zone of then divided Germany, with total rape victim estimates ranging from tens of thousands to two million. In a June 1945 meeting, Stalin told German communist leaders in the Soviet-occupied zone of Germany that he expected to slowly undermine the British position within the British occupation zone, that the United States would withdraw within a year or two and that nothing then would stand in the way of a united Germany under communist control within the Soviet orbit. Stalin and other leaders told visiting Bulgarian and Yugoslav delegations in early 1946 that Germany must be both Soviet and communist. Factories, equipment, technicians, managers and skilled personnel were forcibly transferred to the Soviet Union. In the non-annexed remaining portion of Soviet-controlled East Germany, like in the rest of Soviet-controlled Eastern Europe, the major task of the ruling communist party was to channel Soviet orders down to both the administrative apparatus and the other bloc parties pretending that these were initiatives of its own. At the direction of Stalin, Soviet authorities forcibly unified the Communist Party of Germany and Social Democratic Party into the SED, claiming at the time that it would not have a Marxist-Leninist or Soviet orientation. The SED won a first narrow election victory in Soviet-zone elections in 1946, even though Soviet authorities oppressed political opponents and prevented many competing parties from participating in rural areas. Property and industry were nationalized under their government. If statements or decisions deviated from the prescribed line, reprimands and, for persons outside public attention, punishment would ensue, such as imprisonment, torture and even death. Indoctrination of Marxism-Leninism became a compulsory part of school curricula, sending professors and students fleeing to the west. Applicants for positions in the government, the judiciary and school systems had to pass ideological scrutiny. An elaborate political police apparatus kept the population under close surveillance, including Soviet SMERSH secret police. A tight system of censorship restricted access to print or the airwaves. What remained of non-communist SED opposition parties were also infiltrated to exploit their relations with their "bourgeois" counterparts in western zones to support Soviet unity along Soviet lines, while a "National Democratic" party (NDPD) was created to attract former Nazis and professional military personnel in order to rally them behind the SED. In early 1948, during the Tito–Stalin split, the SED underwent a transformation into an authoritarian party dominated by functionaries subservient to Moscow. Important decisions had to be cleared with the CPSU Central Committee apparatus or even with Stalin himself. By early 1949, the SED was capped by a Soviet-style Politburo that was effectively a small self-selecting inner circle. The German Democratic Republic was declared on 7 October 1949, within which the Soviet Ministry of Foreign Affairs accorded the East German state administrative authority, but not autonomy, with an unlimited Soviet exercise of the occupation regime and Soviet penetration of administrative, military and secret police structures. After the Soviet invasion of German-occupied Poland in July 1944, Polish government-in-exile prime minister Stanisław Mikołajczyk flew to Moscow with Churchill to argue against the annexation of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact portion of eastern Poland by the Soviet Union. Poland served as the first real test of the American President Roosevelt's Soviet policy of "giving" to Stalin assuming noblesse oblige, with Roosevelt telling Mikołajczyk before the visit, "Don't worry. Stalin doesn't intend to take freedom from you" and after assuring U.S. backing, concluding "I shall see to it that your country does not come out of this war injured." Mikołajczyk offered a smaller section of land, but Stalin declined, telling him that he would allow the exiled government to participate in the Polish Committee of National Liberation (PKWN and later "Lublin Committee"), which consisted of communists and satellite parties set up under the direct control by the Soviet plenipotentiary Colonel-General Nikolai Bulganin. An agreement was reached at the Yalta Conference permitting the annexation of most of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact portion of Eastern Poland, while granting Poland part of East Germany in return. Thereafter, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic were expanded to include eastern Poland. The Soviet Union then compensated what remained of Poland by ceding to it the portion of Germany east of the Oder–Neisse line, which contained much of Germany's fertile land. An agreement was reached at Yalta that the Soviets' Provisional Government made up of PKWN members would be reorganized "on a broad democratic basis" including the exiled government, and that the reorganized government's primary task would be to prepare for elections. Pretending that it was an indigenous body representing Polish society, the PKWN took the role of a governmental authority and challenged the pre–World War II Polish government-in-exile in London. Doubts began to arise whether the "free and unfettered elections" promised at the Yalta Conference would occur. Non-communists and partisans, including those that fought the Nazis, were systematically persecuted. Hopes for a new free start were immediately dampened when the PKWN claimed they were entitled to choose who they wanted to take part in the government, and the Soviet NKVD seized sixteen Polish underground leaders who had wanted to participate in negotiations on the reorganization in March 1945 brought them to the Soviet Union for a show trial in June. While underground leaders were sentenced to long prison terms, assurances that political prisoners would be released and that Soviet forces and security would leave failed to be supported by concrete safeguards or implementation plans. Polish government-in-exile figures, including Stanisław Mikołajczyk then returned to a popular reception, and were able to lure several parties to their cause, effectively undermining Bloc politics. Stalin then directed that Mikołajczyk's Polish People's Party (PSL) must accept just one fourth of parliamentary mandated seats, or else repressions and political isolation would ensue. Polish Communists, led by Władysław Gomułka and Bolesław Bierut, were aware of the lack of support for their side, especially after the failure of a referendum for policies known as "3 times YES" (3 razy TAK; 3xTAK), where less than a third of Poland's population voted in favor of the proposed changes included massive communist land reforms and nationalizations of industry. When the Mikołajczyk's People's Party (PPP) continued to resist pressure to renounce a ticket of its own outside the communist party bloc, it was exposed to open terror, including the disqualification of PPP candidates in one quarter of the districts and the arrest of over 1000,000 PPP activists, followed by vote rigging that resulted in Gomułka's communists winning a majority in the carefully controlled poll. Mikołajczyk lost hope and left the country. His followers were subjected to unlimited ruthless persecution. Following the forged referendum, in October 1946, the new government nationalized all enterprises employing over 50 people and all but two banks. Public opposition had been essentially crushed by 1946, but underground activity still existed. Fraudulent Polish elections held in January 1947 resulted in Poland's official transformation to a non-democratic communist state by 1949, the People's Republic of Poland. Resistance fighters continued to battle Communists in the Ukrainian annexed portions of eastern Poland, the Soviet response to which included the arrest of as many as 600,000 people between 1944 and 1952, with about one third executed and the rest imprisoned or exiled. After occupying Hungary, the Soviets imposed harsh conditions allowing it to seize important material assets and control internal affairs. During those occupations, an estimated 50,000 women and girls were raped. After the Red Army set up police organs to persecute class enemies, the Soviets assumed that the impoverished Hungarian populace would support communists in coming elections. The communists were trounced, receiving only 17% of the vote, resulting in a coalition government under Prime Minister Zoltán Tildy. Soviet intervention, however, resulted in a government that disregarded Tildy, placed communists in important ministries, and imposed restrictive and repressive measures, including banning the victorious Independent Smallholders, Agrarian Workers and Civic Party. The Communist Party repeatedly wrestled small concessions from opponents in a process named "salami tactics". Battling the initial postwar political majority in Hungary ready to establish a democracy, Communist leader Mátyás Rákosi invented the term, which described his tactic slicing up enemies like pieces of salami. In 1945, Soviet Marshal Kliment Voroshilov forced the freely elected Hungarian government to yield the Interior Ministry to a nominee of the Hungarian Communist Party. Communist Interior Minister László Rajk established the ÁVH secret police, which suppressed political opposition through intimidation, false accusations, imprisonment, and torture. In early 1947, the Soviets pressed Rákosi to take a "line of more pronounced class struggle." The People's Republic of Hungary was formed thereafter. At the height of his rule, Rákosi developed a strong cult of personality. Dubbed the “bald murderer,” Rákosi imitated Stalinist political and economic programs, resulting in Hungary experiencing one of the harshest dictatorships in Europe. He described himself as "Stalin's best Hungarian disciple" and "Stalin's best pupil." Repression was harsher in Hungary than in the other satellite countries in the 1940s and 1950s due to a more vehement Hungarian resistance. Approximately 350,000 Hungarian officials and intellectuals were purged from 1948 to 1956. Thousands were arrested, tortured, tried, and imprisoned in concentration camps, deported to the east, or were executed, including ÁVH founder László Rajk. Repeated collectivizations in Hungary occurred from the 1940s through the 1960s. Nearly a decade after stricter state control following the Soviet invasion suppressing the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 (including the execution of leader Imre Nagy), János Kádár introduced Goulash Communism which led to a less repressive era. On 5 September 1944, the Soviet Union declared war on Bulgaria claiming that Bulgaria was to be prevented from assisting Germany and allowing the Wehrmacht to use its territory. On 8 September 1944, the Red Army crossed the border and created the conditions for the coup d'état the following night. The government was taken over by the "Fatherland Front" where the communists played a leading role and an armistice followed. The Soviet military commander in Sofia assumed supreme authority, and the communists and their allies in the Fatherland Front whom he instructed, including Kimon Georgiev, took full control of domestic politics. An armed resistance guerilla movement, known as the Goryani Movement, began immediately after Soviet occupation in 1944 and lasted until the late 1950s. It is known to be the longest as well as the first anti-communist armed resistance in the Eastern Bloc. The movement eventually subsided following the quelling of the 1956 uprising in Budapest, which lead to the realisation that no help would come from Western powers. On 8 September 1946, a national plebiscite was organized in which 96% of all votes (91% of the population voted) for the abolition of the monarchy and the installation of a republic. In October 1946 elections, persecution against opposition parties occurred, such as jailing members of the previous government, periodic newspaper publication bans and subjecting opposition followers to frequent attacks by communist armed groups. Thereafter, the People's Republic of Bulgaria was formed and Georgi Dimitrov became the first leader of the newly formed republic. On 6 June 1947, parliamentary leader Nikola Petkov, a critic of communist rule, was arrested in the Parliament building, subjected to a show trial, found guilty of espionage, sentenced to death, and hanged on 23 September 1947. The Bulgarian secret police arranged for the publication of a false Petkov confession. The confession's false nature was so obvious that it became an embarrassment and the authorities ceased mentioning it. Soon after that, all opposition parties had been banned, while the non-communist members of the Fatherland Front (with the exception of BZNS) either dissolved themselves or joined the Communist party. In 1943, Czechoslovakian leader in exile Edvard Beneš agreed to Stalin's demands for unconditional agreement with Soviet foreign policy, including the expulsion of over one million Sudeten ethnic Germans identified as "rich people" and ethnic Hungarians, directed by the Beneš decrees. Beneš promised Stalin a "close postwar collaboration" in military and economic affairs, including confiscation and nationalization of large landowners' property, factories, mines, steelworks and banks under a Czechoslovakian "national road to socialism". While Beneš was not a Moscow cadre and several domestic reforms of other Eastern Bloc countries were not part Beneš' plan, Stalin did not object because the plan included property expropriation and he was satisfied with the relative strength of communists in Czechoslovakia compared to other Eastern Bloc countries. Beneš traveled to Moscow in March 1945. After answering a list of questions by the Soviet NKVD, Beneš pleased Moscow with his plans to deport two million ethnic Sudeten Germans and 400,000 to 600,000 Hungarian, and to build a strong army that would closely coordinate with the Red Army. In April 1945, the Third Republic, a national front coalition ruled by three socialist parties, was formed. Because of the Communist Party's strength (they held 114 of 300 seats) and Beneš' loyalty, unlike in other Eastern Bloc countries, the Kremlin did not require Bloc politics or "reliable" cadres in Czechoslovakian power positions, and the executive and legislative branches retained their traditional structures. However, the Soviet Union was, at first, disappointed that the communist party did not take advantage of their position after receiving the most votes in 1946 elections. While they had deprived the traditional administration of major functions by transferring local and regional government to newly established committees in which they largely dominated, they failed to eliminate "bourgeois" influence in the army or to expropriate industrialists and large landowners. The existence of a somewhat independent political structure and Czechoslovakia's initial absence of stereotypical Eastern Bloc political and socioeconomic systems began to be seen as problematic by Soviet authorities. While parties outside the "National Front" were excluded from the government, they were still allowed to exist. In contrast to countries occupied by the Red Army, there were no Soviet occupation authorities in Czechoslovakia upon whom the communists could rely to assert a leading role. Hope in Moscow was waning for a communist victory in the upcoming 1948 elections. A May 1947 Kremlin report concluded that "reactionary elements" praising western democracy had strengthened. Following Czechoslovakia's brief consideration of taking Marshall Plan funds, and the subsequent scolding of communist parties by the Cominform at Szklarska Poręba in September 1947, Rudolf Slánský returned to Prague with a plan for the final seizure of power, including the StB's elimination of party enemies and purging of dissidents. In early February 1948, Communist Interior minister Václav Nosek illegally extended his powers by attempting to purge remaining non-Communist elements in the National Police Force. Soviet Ambassador Valerian Zorin arrived in Prague to arrange the Czechoslovak coup d'état, followed by the occupation of non-Communist ministers' ministries, while the army was confined to barracks. Communist "Action Committees" and trade union militias were quickly set up, armed, preparing to carry through a purge of anti-Communists, with Zorin pledging the services of the Red Army. On 25 February 1948, Beneš, fearful of civil war and Soviet intervention, capitulated and appointed a Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ)-dominated government under the leadership of Stalinist Klement Gottwald, who was sworn in two days later, ushering in a dictatorship. The only non-Communist to hold an important office, Jan Masaryk, was found dead two weeks later. The public brutality of the Soviet-backed coup shocked Western powers more than any event before it, set in a motion a brief scare that war would occur and swept away the last vestiges of opposition to United States President Truman's Marshall Plan in the United States Congress. As the Red Army battled the Wehrmacht and Romanian forces in August 1944, Soviet agent Emil Bodnăraș organized an underground coalition to stage a coup d'état that would put communists—who were then two tiny groups—into power. However, King Michael had already organized a coup, in which Bodnăraş also had participated, putting Michael in power. After Soviet invasions following two years of Romania fighting with the Axis, at the February 1945 Yalta Conference and the July 1945 Potsdam Conference, the western allies agreed to the Soviet absorption of the areas. Michael accepted the Soviets' armistice terms, which included military occupation along with the annexation of Northern Romania. The Soviets' 1940 annexation of Bessarabia and part of Northern Bukovina to create the important agricultural region of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (while other Romanian territories were converted into the Chernivtsi Oblast and Izmail Oblast of the Ukrainian SSR) became a point of tension between Romania and the Soviet Union, especially after 1965. The Yalta Conference also had granted the Soviet Union a predominant interest in what remained of Romania, which coincided with the Soviet occupation of Romania. The Soviets organized the National Democratic Front, which was composed of several parties including the Ploughmen's Front. It became increasingly communist dominated. In February 1945, Soviet proponents provoked a crisis to exploit support by the Soviet occupation power for enforcement of unlimited control. In March 1945, Stalin aide Andre Vyshinskii traveled to Bucharest and installed a government that included only members subservient to the National Front. This included Ploughmen's Front member Dr. Petru Groza, who became prime minister. Groza installed a government that included many parties, though communists held the key ministries. The potential of army resistance was neutralized by the removal of major troop leaders and the inclusion of two divisions staffed with ideologically trained prisoners of war. Bodnăraş was appointed General Secretary and initiated reorganization of the general police and secret police. Over western allies' objections, traditional parties were excluded from government and subjected to intensifying persecution. Political persecution of local leaders and strict radio and press control were designed to prepare for an eventual unlimited communist dictatorship, including the liquidation of opposition. When King Michael attempted to force Groza's resignation by refusing to sign any legislation ("the royal strike"), Groza enacted laws without Michael's signature. In the Romanian general election of November 1946 that the Soviets had promised the western allies, the Romanian Communist Party (PCR) was trounced, with U.S. embassy estimates of the bloc receiving only about 8% of the vote compared to 70% for the rival Peasant Party. The shocked communists asked Moscow for advice, and were told to simply falsify the results. Forty eight hours later, they announced that the PCR bloc received 70% of the vote, setting off sharp western protests. In early 1947, Bodnăraş reported that Romanian leaders Gheorghiu-Dej and Maurer were seeking to bolster the Romanian economy by developing relations with Britain and the United States and were complaining about Soviet occupying troops. Thereafter, the PCR eliminated the role of the centrist parties, including a show trial of National Peasant Party leaders, and forced other parties to merge with the PCR. By 1948, most non-Communist politicians were either executed, in exile or in prison. The Communists declared the Romanian People's Republic in 1948. Following Gheorghiu-Dej's death in 1965, Nicolae Ceaușescu became General Secretary of the Romanian Communist Party. He changed the name of the country to the Socialist Republic of Romania, and ruled one of the most brutal states in the Eastern bloc for nearly 25 years. In December 1945, elections for the Albanian People's Assembly were held, with the only ballot choices being those of the communist Democratic Front (Albania), led by Enver Hoxha. Its successor, the National Liberation Front, took control of the police, the court system and the economy, while eliminating several hundred political opponents through a series of show trials conducted by judges without legal training. In 1946, Albania was declared the People's Republic of Albania and, thereafter, it broke relations with the United States and refused to participate in the 1947 Marshall Plan. Albania's close ties with Yugoslavia lasted only until the latter's rift with the Soviet Union in 1948. Albania was a founding member of the Warsaw Pact and was heavily dependent upon Soviet aid. Because of Hoxha's dogmatic Stalinist adherence, Albania broke with the Soviet Union in 1960 and formally left the Warsaw Pact in 1968 following the Soviet de-stalinization. Albania began to establish closer contacts with Mao Zedong's People's Republic of China. Following Mao's death, Albania also severed ties with China in 1978. Yugoslavia was only aligned with the Soviet Union for 3 post-war years (1945-1948), its leader Josip Broz Tito having broken with the Soviets with the Tito–Stalin split of 1948. The country subsequently came under threat of invasion by the Warsaw Pact, with the Yugoslav People's Army planning defenses against both Eastern and Western Bloc attacks. Throughout the Cold War period, the country steered an independent course, founding the Non-Aligned Movement in collaboration with Egypt and India. At the end of World War II, Yugoslavia was considered a victor power and had neither an occupation force nor an allied control commission. Communism was considered a popular alternative to the west, in part because of the popularity of the Yugoslav Partisans during World War II and opposition to former royalist Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović and King Peter. A cabinet for the new Democratic Federal Yugoslavia was formed, with twenty five of the twenty eight members being former Communist Yugoslav Partisans led by Josip Broz Tito. The League of Communists of Yugoslavia formed the National Front of Yugoslavia coalition, with opposition members boycotting the first election because it presented only a single government list which could be accepted or rejected, without opponents. Censorship, denial of publication allocations and open intimidation of opposition groups followed. Three weeks after the election, the Front declared that a new Republic would be formed, with a new constitution put in place two months later in January 1946 initiating the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia. The Communists continued a campaign against enemies, including arresting Mihailović, conducting a controversial trial and then executing him, followed by several other opposition arrests and trials. Thereafter, a pro-Soviet phase continued until the Tito–Stalin split of 1948 and the subsequent formation of the Non-Aligned Movement. At first, the Soviets concealed their role in other Eastern Bloc politics, with the transformation appearing as a modification of western "bourgeois democracy". As a young communist was told in East Germany: "it's got to look democratic, but we must have everything in our control." Stalin felt that socioeconomic transformation was indispensable to establish Soviet control, reflecting the Marxist-Leninist view that material bases, the distribution of the means of production, shaped social and political relations. Moscow-trained cadres were put into crucial power positions to fulfill orders regarding sociopolitical transformation. Elimination of the bourgeoisie's social and financial power by expropriation of landed and industrial property was accorded absolute priority. These measures were publicly billed as "reforms" rather than socioeconomic transformations. Except for initially in Czechoslovakia, activities by political parties had to adhere to "Bloc politics", with parties eventually having to accept membership in an "antifascist" "bloc" obliging them to act only by mutual "consensus". The bloc system permitted the Soviet Union to exercise domestic control indirectly. Crucial departments such as those responsible for personnel, general police, secret police and youth, were strictly communist run. Moscow cadres distinguished "progressive forces" from "reactionary elements", and rendered both powerless through. Such procedures were repeated until communists had gained unlimited power, and only politicians who were unconditionally supportive of Soviet policy remained. In June 1947, after the Soviets had refused to negotiate a potential lightening of restrictions on German development, the United States announced the Marshall Plan, a comprehensive program of American assistance to all European countries wanting to participate, including the Soviet Union and those of Eastern Europe. The Soviets rejected the Plan and took a hard line position against the United States and non-communist European nations. However, of great concern to the Soviets was Czechoslovakia's eagerness to accept the aid and indications of a similar Polish attitude. In one of the clearest signs of Soviet control over the region up to that point, the Czechoslovakian foreign minister, Jan Masaryk, was summoned to Moscow and berated by Stalin for considering joining the Marshall Plan. Polish Prime minister Józef Cyrankiewicz was rewarded for the Polish rejection of the Plan with a huge 5 year trade agreement, including $450 million in credit, 200,000 tons of grain, heavy machinery and factories. In July 1947, Stalin ordered these countries to pull out of the Paris Conference on the European Recovery Programme, which has been described as "the moment of truth" in the post–World War II division of Europe. Thereafter, Stalin sought stronger control over other Eastern Bloc countries, abandoning the prior appearance of democratic institutions. When it appeared that, in spite of heavy pressure, non-communist parties might receive in excess of 40% of the vote in the August 1947 Hungarian elections, repressions were instituted to liquidate any independent political forces. In that same month, annihilation of the opposition in Bulgaria began on the basis of continuing instructions by Soviet cadres. At a late September 1947 meeting of all communist parties in Szklarska Poręba, Eastern Bloc communist parties were blamed for permitting even minor influence by non-communists in their respective countries during the run up to the Marshall Plan. In former German capital Berlin, surrounded by Soviet-occupied Germany, Stalin instituted the Berlin Blockade, preventing food, materials and supplies from arriving in West Berlin. The blockade was caused, in part, by early local elections of October 1946 in which the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) was rejected in favor of the Social Democratic Party, which had gained two and a half times more votes than the SED. The United States, Britain, France, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and several other countries began a massive "Berlin airlift", supplying West Berlin with food and other supplies. The Soviets mounted a public relations campaign against the western policy change and communists attempted to disrupt the elections of 1948 preceding large losses therein, while 300,000 Berliners demonstrated urged the international airlift to continue. In May 1949, Stalin lifted the blockade, permitting the resumption of Western shipments to Berlin. After disagreements between Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito and the Soviet Union regarding Greece and Albania, a Tito–Stalin split occurred, followed by Yugoslavia being expelled from the Cominform in June 1948 and a brief failed Soviet putsch in Belgrade. The split created two separate communist forces in Europe. A vehement campaign against Titoism was immediately started in the Eastern Bloc, describing agents of both the West and Tito in all places engaging in subversive activity. Stalin ordered the conversion of the Cominform into an instrument to monitor and control internal affairs of other Eastern Bloc parties. He briefly considered also converting the Cominform into an instrument for sentencing high-ranking deviators, but dropped the idea as impractical. Instead, a move to weaken communist party leaders through conflict was started. Soviet cadres in communist party and state positions in the Bloc were instructed to foster intra-leadership conflict and to transmit information against each other. This accompanied a continuous stream of accusations of "nationalistic deviations", "insufficient appreciation of the USSR's role", links with Tito and "espionage for Yugoslavia." This resulted in the persecution of many major party cadres, including those in East Germany. The first country experiencing this approach was Albania, where leader Enver Hoxha immediately changed course from favoring Yugoslavia to opposing it. In Poland, leader Władysław Gomułka, who had previously made pro-Yugoslav statements, was deposed as party secretary-general in early September 1948 and subsequently jailed. In Bulgaria, when it appeared that Traicho Kostov, who was not a Moscow cadre, was next in line for leadership, in June 1949, Stalin ordered Kostov's arrest, followed soon thereafter by a death sentence and execution. A number of other high ranking Bulgarian officials were also jailed. Stalin and Hungarian leader Mátyás Rákosi met in Moscow to orchestrate a show trial of Rákosi opponent László Rajk, who was thereafter executed. Despite the initial institutional design of communism implemented by Joseph Stalin in the Eastern Bloc, subsequent development varied across countries. In satellite states, after peace treaties were initially concluded, opposition was essentially liquidated, fundamental steps towards socialism were enforced and Kremlin leaders sought to strengthen control therein. Initially, Stalin directed systems that rejected Western institutional characteristics of market economies, democratic governance (dubbed "bourgeois democracy" in Soviet parlance) and the rule of law subduing discretional intervention by the state. The resulting states aspired to total control of a political center backed by an extensive and active repressive apparatus, and a central role of Marxist-Leninist ideology. However, the vestiges of democratic institutions were never entirely destroyed, resulting in the facade of Western style institutions such as parliaments, which effectively just rubber-stamped decisions made by rulers, and constitutions, to which adherence by authorities was limited or non-existent. Parliaments were still elected, but their meetings occurred only a few days per year, only to legitimize politburo decisions, and so little attention was paid to them that some of those serving were actually dead, and officials would openly state that they would seat members who had lost elections. The first or General Secretary of the central committee in each communist party was the most powerful figure in each regime. The party over which the politburo held sway was not a mass party but, conforming with Leninist tradition, a smaller selective party of between three and fourteen percent of the country's population who had accepted total obedience. Those who secured membership in this selective party received considerable rewards, such as access to special lower priced shops with a greater selection of goods, special schools, holiday facilities, homes, furniture, works of art and official cars with special white license plates so that police and others could identify these members from a distance. In addition to emigration restrictions, civil society, defined as a domain of political action outside the party's state control, was not allowed to firmly take root, with the possible exception of Poland in the 1980s. While the institutional design on the communist systems were based on the rejection of rule of law, the legal infrastructure was not immune to change reflecting decaying ideology and the substitution of autonomous law. Initially, communist parties were small in all countries except Czechoslovakia, such that there existed an acute shortage of politically "trustworthy" persons for administration, police and other professions. Thus, "politically unreliable" non-communists initially had to fill such roles. Those not obedient to communist authorities were ousted, while Moscow cadres started a large-scale party programs to train personnel who would meet political requirements. Communist regimes in the Eastern Bloc viewed marginal groups of opposition intellectuals as a potential threat because of the bases underlying Communist power therein. The suppression of dissidence and opposition was considered a central prerequisite to retain power, though the enormous expense at which the population in certain countries were kept under secret surveillance may not have been rational. Following a totalitarian initial phase, a post-totalitarian period followed the death of Stalin in which the primary method of Communist rule shifted from mass terror to selective repression, along with ideological and sociopolitical strategies of legitimation and the securing of loyalty. Juries were replaced by a tribunal of a professional judges and two lay assessors that were dependable party actors. The police deterred and contained opposition to party directives. The political police served as the core of the system, with their names becoming synonymous with raw power and the threat of violent retribution should an individual become active against the collective. Several state police and secret police organizations enforced communist party rule, including: The press in the communist period was an organ of the state, completely reliant on and subservient to the communist party. Before the late 1980s, Eastern Bloc radio and television organizations were state-owned, while print media was usually owned by political organizations, mostly by the local communist party. Youth newspapers and magazines were owned by youth organizations affiliated with communist parties. The control of the media was exercised directly by the communist party itself, and by state censorship, which was also controlled by the party. Media served as an important form of control over information and society. The dissemination and portrayal of knowledge were considered by authorities to be vital to communism's survival by stifling alternative concepts and critiques. Several state Communist Party newspapers were published, including: The Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS) served as the central agency for collection and distribution of internal and international news for all Soviet newspapers, radio and television stations. It was frequently infiltrated by Soviet intelligence and security agencies, such as the NKVD and GRU. TASS had affiliates in 14 Soviet republics, including the Lithuanian SSR, Latvian SSR, Estonian SSR, Moldavian SSR. Ukrainian SSR and Byelorussian SSR. Western countries invested heavily in powerful transmitters which enabled services such as the BBC, VOA and Radio Free Europe (RFE) to be heard in the Eastern Bloc, despite attempts by authorities to jam the airways. In 1949, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Romania founded the Comecon in accordance with Stalin's desire to enforce Soviet domination of the lesser states of Central Europe and to mollify some states that had expressed interest in the Marshall Plan, and which were now, increasingly, cut off from their traditional markets and suppliers in Western Europe. The Comecon's role became ambiguous because Stalin preferred more direct links with other party chiefs than the Comecon's indirect sophistication; it played no significant role in the 1950s in economic planning. Initially, the Comecon served as cover for the Soviet taking of materials and equipment from the rest of the Eastern Bloc, but the balance changed when the Soviets became net subsidizers of the rest of the Bloc by the 1970s via an exchange of low cost raw materials in return for shoddily manufactured finished goods. In 1955, the Warsaw Pact was formed partly in response to NATO's inclusion of West Germany and partly because the Soviets needed an excuse to retain Red Army units in Hungary. For 35 years, the Pact perpetuated the Stalinist concept of Soviet national security based on imperial expansion and control over satellite regimes in Eastern Europe. This Soviet formalization of their security relationships in the Eastern Bloc reflected Moscow's basic security policy principle that continued presence in East Central Europe was a foundation of its defense against the West. Through its institutional structures, the Pact also compensated in part for the absence of Joseph Stalin's personal leadership since his death in 1953. The Pact consolidated the other Bloc members' armies in which Soviet officers and security agents served under a unified Soviet command structure. Beginning in 1964, Romania took a more independent course. While it did not repudiate either Comecon or the Warsaw Pact, it ceased to play a significant role in either. Nicolae Ceaușescu's assumption of leadership one year later pushed Romania even further in the direction of separateness. Albania, which had become increasingly isolated under Stalinist leader Enver Hoxha following de-Stalinization, withdrew from the Warsaw Pact in 1968 following the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia. In 1917, Russia restricted emigration by instituting passport controls and forbidding the exit of belligerent nationals. In 1922, after the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR, both the Ukrainian SSR and the Russian SFSR issued general rules for travel that foreclosed virtually all departures, making legal emigration impossible. Border controls thereafter strengthened such that, by 1928, even illegal departure was effectively impossible. This later included internal passport controls, which when combined with individual city Propiska ("place of residence") permits, and internal freedom of movement restrictions often called the 101st kilometre, greatly restricted mobility within even small areas of the Soviet Union. After the creation of the Eastern Bloc, emigration out of the newly occupied countries, except under limited circumstances, was effectively halted in the early 1950s, with the Soviet approach to controlling national movement emulated by most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc. However, in East Germany, taking advantage of the Inner German border between occupied zones, hundreds of thousands fled to West Germany, with figures totaling 197,000 in 1950, 165,000 in 1951, 182,000 in 1952 and 331,000 in 1953. One reason for the sharp 1953 increase was fear of potential further Sovietization with the increasingly paranoid actions of Joseph Stalin in late 1952 and early 1953. 226,000 had fled in the just the first six months of 1953. With the closing of the Inner German border officially in 1952, the Berlin city sector borders remained considerably more accessible than the rest of the border because of their administration by all four occupying powers. Accordingly, it effectively comprised a "loophole" through which Eastern Bloc citizens could still move west. The 3.5 million East Germans that had left by 1961, called Republikflucht, totaled approximately 20% of the entire East German population. In August 1961, East Germany erected a barbed-wire barrier that would eventually be expanded through construction into the Berlin Wall, effectively closing the loophole. With virtually non-existent conventional emigration, more than 75% of those emigrating from Eastern Bloc countries between 1950 and 1990 did so under bilateral agreements for "ethnic migration." About 10% were refugee migrants under the Geneva Convention of 1951. Most Soviets allowed to leave during this time period were ethnic Jews permitted to emigrate to Israel after a series of embarrassing defections in 1970 caused the Soviets to open very limited ethnic emigrations. The fall of the Iron Curtain was accompanied by a massive rise in European East-West migration. Famous Eastern Bloc defectors included Joseph Stalin's daughter Svetlana Alliluyeva, who denounced Stalin after her 1967 defection. Because of the lack of market signals, Eastern Bloc economies experienced mis-development by central planners resulting in those countries following a path of extensive rather than intensive development. Consumer goods were lacking in quantity in the shortage economies that resulted. The Eastern Bloc also depended upon the Soviet Union for significant amounts of materials. Economic activity was governed by Five Year Plans, divided into monthly segments with government planners frequently attempting to meet plan targets regardless of whether markets existed for the goods being produced. Growth rates within the bloc began to decline. Meanwhile, Western Germany, Austria, France and other Western European nations experienced increased economic growth in the Wirtschaftswunder ("economic miracle") Trente Glorieuses ("thirty glorious years") and the post–World War II boom. Overall, the inefficiency of systems without competition or market-clearing prices became costly and unsustainable, especially with the increasing complexity of world economics. While most western European economies essentially caught up in large part with the United States levels of per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP), the Eastern Bloc countries did not. They possessed per capita GDPs significantly below their comparable western European counterparts, for example (Eastern bloc countries are in green): |Per Capita GDP (1990 $)||1950||1973||1989||1990| Their economic systems, which required party-state planning at all levels, ended up collapsing under the weight of accumulated economic inefficiencies, with various attempts at reform merely contributing to the acceleration of crisis-generating tendencies. Three months after the death of Joseph Stalin, a dramatic increase of emigration (Republikflucht, brain drain) occurred from East Germany in the first half-year of 1953. Large numbers of East Germans traveled west through the only "loophole" left in the Eastern Bloc emigration restrictions, the Berlin sector border. The East German government then raised "norms" – the amount each worker was required to produce—by 10%. Already disaffected East Germans, who could see the relative economic successes of West Germany within Berlin, became enraged. Angry building workers initiated street protests, and were soon joined by others in a march to the Berlin trade union headquarters. While no official spoke to them at that location, by 2:00 pm, the East German government agreed to withdraw the "norm" increases. However, the crisis had already escalated such that the demands were now political, including free elections, disbanding the army and resignation of the government. By 17 June, strikes were recorded in 317 locations involving approximately 400,000 workers. When strikers set ruling SED party buildings aflame and tore the flag from the Brandenburg Gate, SED General Secretary Walter Ulbricht left Berlin. A major emergency was declared and the Soviet Red Army stormed some important buildings. With hours, Soviet tanks arrived, but they did not immediately fire upon all workers. Rather, a gradual pressure was applied. Approximately 16 Soviet divisions with 20,000 soldiers from the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany using tanks, as well as 8,000 Kasernierte Volkspolizei members, were employed. Bloodshed could not be entirely avoided, with the official death toll standing at 21, while the actual casualty toll may have been much higher. Thereafter, 20,000 arrests took place along with 40 executions. After Stalin's 1953 death, a period of de-Stalinization followed, with reformist Imre Nagy replacing Hungarian Stalinist dictator Mátyás Rákosi. Responding to popular demand, in October 1956, the government appointed the recently rehabilitated reformist Władysław Gomułka as First Secretary of the Polish United Workers' Party, with a mandate to negotiate trade concessions and troop reductions with the Soviet government. After a few tense days of negotiations, on 19 October, the Soviets finally gave in to Gomułka's reformist requests. The revolution began after students of the Technical University compiled a list of Demands of Hungarian Revolutionaries of 1956 and conducted protests in support of the demands on 22 October. Protests of support swelled to 200,000 by 6 pm the following day, The demands included free secret ballot elections, independent tribunals, inquiries into Stalin and Rákosi Hungarian activities and that "the statue of Stalin, symbol of Stalinist tyranny and political oppression, be removed as quickly as possible." By 9:30 pm the statue was toppled (see photo to the right) and jubilant crowds celebrated by placing Hungarian flags in Stalin's boots, which was all that remained the statue. The ÁVH was called, Hungarian soldiers sided with the crowd over the ÁVH and shots were fired on the crowd. By 2 am on 24 October, under orders of Soviet defense minister Georgy Zhukov, Soviet tanks entered Budapest. Protester attacks at the Parliament forced the dissolution of the government. A ceasefire was arranged on 28 October, and by 30 October most Soviet troops had withdrawn from Budapest to garrisons in the Hungarian countryside. Fighting had virtually ceased between 28 October and 4 November, while many Hungarians believed that Soviet military units were indeed withdrawing from Hungary. The new government that came to power during the revolution formally disbanded ÁVH, declared its intention to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact and pledged to re-establish free elections. The Soviet Politburo thereafter moved to crush the revolution. On 4 November, a large Soviet force invaded Budapest and other regions of the country. The last pocket of resistance called for ceasefire on 10 November. Over 2,500 Hungarians and 722 Soviet troops were killed and thousands more were wounded. Thousands of Hungarians were arrested, imprisoned and deported to the Soviet Union, many without evidence. Approximately 200,000 Hungarians fled Hungary, some 26,000 Hungarians were put on trial by the new Soviet-installed János Kádár government, and of those, 13,000 were imprisoned. Imre Nagy was executed, along with Pál Maléter and Miklós Gimes, after secret trials in June 1958. Their bodies were placed in unmarked graves in the Municipal Cemetery outside Budapest. By January 1957, the new Soviet-installed government had suppressed all public opposition now. A period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia called the Prague Spring took place in 1968. The event was spurred by several events, including economic reforms that addressed an early 1960s economic downturn. The event began on 5 January 1968, when reformist Slovak Alexander Dubček came to power. In April, Dubček launched an "Action Program" of liberalizations, which included increasing freedom of the press, freedom of speech and freedom of movement, along with an economic emphasis on consumer goods, the possibility of a multiparty government and limiting the power of the secret police. Initial reaction within the Eastern Bloc was mixed, with Hungary's János Kádár expressing support, while Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev and others grew concerned about Dubček's reforms, which they feared might weaken the Eastern Bloc's position during the Cold War. On 3 August, representatives from the Soviet Union, East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia met in Bratislava and signed the Bratislava Declaration, which affirmed unshakable fidelity to Marxism–Leninism and proletarian internationalism and declared an implacable struggle against "bourgeois" ideology and all "anti-socialist" forces. On the night of 20–21 August 1968, Eastern Bloc armies from five Warsaw Pact countries – the Soviet Union, Poland, East Germany, Hungary and Bulgaria — invaded Czechoslovakia. The invasion comported with the Brezhnev Doctrine, a policy of compelling Eastern Bloc states to subordinate national interests to those of the Bloc as a whole and the exercise of a Soviet right to intervene if an Eastern Bloc country appeared to shift towards capitalism . The invasion was followed by a wave of emigration, including an estimated 70,000 Czechs initially fleeing, with the total eventually reaching 300,000. In April 1969, Dubček was replaced as first secretary by Gustáv Husák, and a period of "normalization" began. Husák reversed Dubček's reforms, purged the party of liberal members, dismissed opponents from public office, reinstated the power of the police authorities, sought to re-centralize the economy and re-instated the disallowance of political commentary in mainstream media and by persons not considered to have "full political trust". During the late 1980s, the weakened Soviet Union gradually stopped interfering in the internal affairs of Eastern Bloc nations and numerous independence movements took place. Following the Brezhnev stagnation, the reform-minded Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985 signaled the trend towards greater liberalization. Gorbachev rejected the Brezhnev Doctrine, which held that Moscow would intervene if socialism were threatened in any state. He announced what was jokingly called the "Sinatra Doctrine" after the singer's "My Way", to allow the countries of Central and Eastern Europe to determine their own internal affairs during this period. Gorbachev initiated a policy of glasnost (openness) in the Soviet Union, and emphasized the need for perestroika (economic restructuring). The Soviet Union was struggling economically after the long war in Afghanistan and did not have the resources to control Central and Eastern Europe. Major reforms occurred in Hungary following the replacement of János Kádár as General Secretary of the Communist Party in 1988. In Poland in April 1989, the Solidarity organization was legalized and allowed to participate in parliamentary elections. It captured 99% of available parliamentary seats. On 9 November 1989, following mass protests in East Germany and the relaxing of border restrictions in Czechoslovakia, tens of thousands of Eastern Berliners flooded checkpoints along the Berlin Wall and crossed into West Berlin. The wall was torn down and Germany was eventually reunified. In Bulgaria, the day after the mass crossings through the Berlin Wall, the leader Todor Zhivkov was ousted by his Politburo and replaced with Petar Mladenov. In Czechoslovakia, following protests of an estimated half-million Czechs and Slovaks demanding freedoms and a general strike, the authorities, which had allowed travel to the West, abolished provisions guaranteeing the ruling Communist party its leading role. President Gustáv Husák appointed the first largely non-Communist government in Czechoslovakia since 1948, and resigned, in what was called the Velvet Revolution. Romania had not had any de-Stalinization. Following growing public protests, president Nicolae Ceaușescu ordered a mass rally in his support outside Communist Party headquarters in Bucharest. But mass protests against Ceauşescu proceeded. The Romanian military sided with protesters and turned on Ceauşescu. They executed him after a brief trial three days later. Even before the Bloc's last years, all of the countries in the Warsaw Pact did not always act as a unified bloc. For instance, the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia was condemned by Romania, which refused to take part in it. Use of the term "Eastern Bloc" generally refers to the "communist states of eastern Europe." Sometimes, more generally, they are referred to as "the countries of Eastern Europe under communism". Many sources consider Yugoslavia to be a member of the Eastern Bloc. Others consider Yugoslavia not to be a member after it broke with Soviet policy in the 1948 Tito–Stalin split. "Eastern Bloc" was sometimes used interchangeably with the term Second World, and was opposed by the Western Bloc. The Soviet-aligned members of the Eastern Bloc besides the Soviet Union are often referred to as "satellite states" of the Soviet Union. In the 1920s, "Eastern bloc" was used to refer to a loose alliance of eastern and central European countries. Other countries that were not Soviet Socialist Republics, not Soviet Satellite States or not in Europe were sometimes referred to as being in the Eastern Bloc, Soviet Bloc or Communist Bloc, including: |isbn=value (help), "The processes of change in the Eastern Bloc affected Yugoslavia as well, although this country, having been outside the bloc since 1948, had evolved specific political, economic and federal systems of its own." From El Agujero From El Agujero From El Agujero From El Agujero From El Agujero From El Agujero From El Agujero From El Agujero From Gene Hunt From Ken Gerrard From joseph a From Nina J. G. From Nina J. G. From Nina J. G. From Nina J. G. Here you can share your comments or contribute with more information, content, resources or links about this topic.

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Learn something new every day More Info... by email Narrowband is a term used to describe an Internet connection speed that is most commonly associated with a dial-up connection. Using phone lines and transmitting over voice-grade frequencies, the highest effective speed a connection can provide is approximately 56k, which is 56,000 bits per second. While many Internet users today may remember much slower speeds in the late 1980s and early to mid 1990s, the maximum speeds achieved through a narrowband connection pale in comparison to what is available today. Even the slowest broadband speeds are usually five times faster than this. In some locations around the world, especially in developing nations, narrowband is still the standard. However, many Western European nations are ahead of the United States in terms of the percentage of Internet users connecting using broadband. In the United States, narrowband was the undisputed most popular choice for Internet connections until 2006. That year, J.D. Power and Associates reported that broadband had finally become the leader in terms of access. The gap has been growing in the years since, despite the fact that dial-up connections are significantly cheaper than broadband. Interestingly enough, a number of narrowband users are quite happy with their service and may even prefer it over broadband. The Associated Press reported in July 2008 that only a small percentage of those who had slower connections say they use it because they have no access to broadband. The rest simply do not know why they choose that type of connection, or are unhappy with the cost of broadband. Narrowband is usually only half the cost of broadband, depending on the broadband connection speed. Though it is common to associate only dial-up Internet access with the term narrowband, it is generally regarded that any connection with a transmission rate of 1.544 Megabits per second can be included in this category. This is much faster than a typical dialup connection. In some cases, even a slower cable service connection could be considered a narrowband speed. However, this contradicts with the traditional definition, which is defined as the frequencies that carry voice-grade communication.

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That is why, like so many who follow astronomy and the space program, I felt a genuine sadness upon hearing yesterday that Phoenix has frozen with the onset of the Martian autumn and winter. It was like hearing that a friend had died. In fact, Phoenix has been a Facebook friend to me and to many, as are the Mars Rovers, New Horizons, Messenger, the Hubble Telescope, various lunar missions, etc. Even though everyone knew this day would come, there is no denying a very real sense of grief. We still have many science lessons to learn from Phoenix's findings. But there is another lesson here too, specifically that sentiment and human emotions cannot ever be entirely separated from science. People ranging from scientists officially part of space missions to avid followers cannot help personifying the spacecrafts and robots we send to explore the solar system. The Mars Exploration Rovers are affectionately referred to as "the girls" or the "twin girls" by the mission's leading scientists, who take enormous pride in the fact these "girls" that were intended to last 90 days have gone on more than four years. Phoenix inspired the same attachment, the same anthropomorphism; it was the lander built from the remains of a previous unsuccessful mission that became our eyes and ears in searching for water on Mars. Likewise, we cannot help but view the Pioneers and Voyagers, the only spacecrafts to leave our solar system, as our ambassadors to the stars, as extensions of ourselves pioneering our first ventures into the unknown. This is why those who argue that science must remain completely free of sentiment are fighting a losing battle. We have no Vulcans; no one, not even the most objective scientist, can ever completely separate him/her self from human emotions. What those who demean supporters of Pluto's planet status as being motivated by sentiment are unable to see is that they, too, are motivated at least somewhat by sentiment. Everyone is; if not, we would never have had the excitement that motivated the Apollo missions or the universal inclination to personify machines sent to Mars. Sentiment in science is not necessarily a negative thing. How many of today's scientists were first motivated by the thrill of viewing the Apollo missions or even by the wonder of viewing planets or stars through a telescope for the first time? Nothing can substitute for the awe and wonder inspired in so many by the night sky. If we took that away, and insisted only on hard, cold facts and mathematical equations, so much of the beauty of astronomy would be lost. Of course, sentiment alone, if it contradicts science, is inadequate in telling us anything meaningful about any subject. That is why medieval dogmas like geocentrism cannot be sustained. The Pluto case is not like that. There is sufficient science, as discussed in this blog many times, to support the classification of dwarf planets as a subclass of planets, based on their being in hydrostatic equilibrium and experiencing the same geological processes as the major planets. But, in addition to the science, there is sentiment too. Not just in the US, but all over the world, people are drawn to Pluto, enraptured by it. Maybe it's because of the enigma of an object so small and so far away. Or maybe, with its planet status in question from day one, Pluto has come to represent the underdog in all of us. Whatever the reason, the sentiment is a positive thing, not only because it has science behind it, but also because it means people feel excitement about astronomy, that same excitement experienced during the heyday of the US space program, the same thrill at seeing a celestial object through a telescope for the first time. More than two years after the IAU vote, that excitement over Pluto is still very much alive. A new PS3 game by the European firm Little Big Planet features Sackboy, a rag doll type character and prototype of an avatar players can customize and use, in "Proposition Pluto," an online petition to get Pluto's planet status reinstated. That petition can be found here: http://www.propositionpluto.com/index.ht I've never had any version of Playstation, but I just might go out and buy PS3 and Little Big Planet's games as a measure of solidarity with Sackboy's support for Pluto. Mike Wrathell, an artist and writer in Michigan who shares with me a passion for Pluto and for political campaigns, has a site with Pluto-themed art, among many other works, at http://ultra-renaissance.com/ According to Wikipedia, "A documentary about Wrathell and his art called The King of Pluto won an Award of Excellence for its director, Sheila Franklin, at the Berkeley Film & Video Festival in 2004, and was also screened in New York City and Indianapolis." A blog post he wrote about his recent campaign for public office can be found here: I am also happy to report that after I complained about an entry in the LA Times Kids Reading Room that presented only one side of this issue, namely the view that our solar system has only eight planets, the Readers' Representative has contacted me with a pledge to post the other, pro-Pluto as a planet side of this issue, on its online page of reader responses, which can be found here http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/readers/ And for anyone in or near New Jersey, I invite you to a joint presentation at Amateur Astronomers, Inc. in Cranford, NJ this Friday, November 14, at 8:30 PM, by AAI members Mike Luciuk and me on the subject, "Is Pluto A Planet?" This will not be so much a debate but a presentation. Mike has a Masters in astronomy, is very well versed on this subject, and did a superb job putting our Power Point together. The presentation will be at William Miller Sperry Observatory located at Union County College,1033 Springfield Ave., Cranford, NJ. We will discuss the criteria that define a planet and the controversy surrounding Pluto's status. This event is open to the public and has no admission fee. Free parking is provided. For directions and more information on AAI, visit http://www.asterism.org/ . Hope to see you there! For those who could not attend the Great Planet Debate, both audio and video proceedings of the conference can be found online at http://gpd.jhuapl.edu/ . The panel discussions are available in audio form, and the debate between Dr. Mark Sykes and Dr. Neil deGrasse Tyson can be viewed on video. In short, there is a lot of continuing good news for Pluto!

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://laurelsplutoblog.blogspot.com/2008_11_01_archive.html

2013-05-19T18:26:41Z

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en

Methane Hydrates: Energy Prospect or Natural Hazard? Publication Date: February 2000 Publisher(s): Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service Methane hydrate is a methane-bearing, ice-like material that occurs in marine sediments and in permafrost regions. The amount of methane contained in hydrate deposits is enormous, although it is likely that much of the hydrate occurs in low concentrations and would have no commercial potential. Hydrate deposits are estimated to contain a much greater amount of natural gas than conventional accumulations, however, there is today no practical and environmentally safe way to produce the gas. Destabilization of the hydrates with uncontrolled release of large volumes of methane is a significant hazard. Legislation was introduced into the 105th Congress, which would have authorized an interagency research and development program to develop methane hydrate resources. The bill passed the Senate and hearings were held in the House before Congress adjourned. The measure was reintroduced in the 106th Congress as S. 330, which was reported from the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources on March 22, 1999 (S.Rept. 106-33). The Senate passed S. 330 on April 19, 1999. Subsequently, H.R. 1753 was introduced into the House and jointly referred to the Committees on Science and Resources. The bill was reported from both Committees (H.Rept. 106-377, Parts I and II) and passed the House on October 26, 1999. H.R. 1753 passed the Senate as amended on November 19, 1999.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.policyarchive.org/handle/10207/3256

2013-05-18T08:08:31Z

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en

See also the Dr. Math FAQ: 3D and higher Browse Middle School History/Biography Stars indicate particularly interesting answers or good places to begin browsing. Selected answers to common questions: About Roman numerals. - Memory Aid for Roman Numerals [05/10/2000] What number is XLIII? Do you have a way of remembering what letter equals - Millennium and the Year 0 [01/03/1999] I know that they new millennium really begins in 2001 because there was no year 0. Why did they skip that year in the numbering? - A Mule and a Donkey [04/08/1999] A famous Euclidean brainteaser. - Names of Polynomials [05/22/1999] Why is an equation having only two roots, one of which is raised to the second power, called a quadratic equation? - Naming Large Numbers [06/05/2002] In Rowlett's site for naming large numbers, he seems to take every American prefix and bump its meaning by one to get the corresponding Greek-based prefix. Why? - Naming Small Numbers [07/29/2002] Why were the names 'one', 'two', 'three', and so on, given to those - Naming the Isosceles Triangle [09/23/1998] How did the isosceles triangle receive its name? - Negative Number History [11/25/2001] What happened in the 16th century that caused people to need to use negative numbers, and what was their image of a negative number before - The New Math [07/05/2000] What is the "New Math?" - Number of Days in a Month [10/21/2000] Why can't all months of the year have the same number of days? - Number Systems: Two Points of View [06/30/1998] What are the number systems? - Number Word Etymologies [05/03/2001] Who made up the names for numbers? - Numeral Systems and Representing Numbers [10/30/1998] Can you tell me the different ways the number 8 is represented? For example, what about different numeral systems? - Omar Khayyam [01/19/1997] I need three events about Omar Khayyam, a 1st century mathematican, for a high school report. - One Plus One [04/11/1997] Are you sure that 1 plus 1 equals 2? - Origin of Algebra [9/14/1996] Who found or used algebra first? - Origin of math [1/6/1995] 1. Where did math originate? 2. Who thought of the term math? 3. When did people decide to have math as a class in school? 4. Was the subject math an accident or did someone sit down and actually think about it? 5. Where did the word polygon come from? - The Origin of Month Names [10/17/1998] If oct is the prefix for 8 and dec is the prefix for 10, why is October the 10th month and December the 12th month? - Origin of Net View [05/14/2002] We are studying the volume of pyramids and my students were interested as to why the 'exploded' look at the pyramid was called the net view. - Origin of the 360-Degree Circle [11/10/1999] Did the Babylonians discover the 360-degree circle? - Origin of the Infinity Symbol [1/20/1995] I need to find the origin of the math symbol for infinity that is used - Origin of the Quadratic Equation [7/12/1996] Who discovered the Quadratic Equation? - Origin of the Terms Sine, Cosine, Tangent, etc. [10/27/1999] Can you tell me the origin of the terms hypotenuse, sine, cosine, and tangent? Can you tell me how the trigonometric formulas for sine, cosine, and tangent came about? - Origin of the Term Vertical Angles [04/04/2005] Why do we call them "vertical angles" when many of them are "horizontal" (extending left and right)? Where did that name come from? - Origins of Names of Ordinal and Cardinal Numbers [05/15/2002] Which came first, ordinals or cardinals? - Origins of the Fahrenheit Scale [11/20/1998] Why did Fahrenheit choose 32 as the freezing point of water? Where did he get his scale? - Perpetual Calendar [10/21/1998] How do you figure the perpetual calendar? - Plus and Minus Signs [08/14/2002] What is the difference between the two signs ± and minus over the plus - Polygon Names II [12/11/2003] Why is the triangle named "triANGL"', unlike all the other polygons, which have names like "quadriLATERAL" or "pentaGON"? - Practical Applications of Negative Numbers [10/13/2002] Why were negative numbers invented? - President Garfield and the Pythagorean Theorem [3/7/1995] I know that one proof of the Pythagorean Theorem was done by James Garfield, before he became President of the United States. Can you give me any more information? - Quadratic Formula, Distributive Property [06/02/1997] Who invented the quadratic formula? - Questions About Math [07/31/1999] Why was the Cartesian plane invented? Were the more abstract branches of math developed just for fun? What is chaos theory? Why isn't Einstein's equation e = mc^3? - Ramanujan and a Formula for 1/Pi [04/06/1998] Who is the man who knew infinity? - Resources for Math History [10/24/1995] Can you please help a grade 7 student with a research project on the history of basic math - the origins of numbers, counting, the people who first used or discovered these, and how they affected civilization? - Rhind Papyrus Problems [03/23/1999] What equations were on the Rhind Papyrus? - Roman Counting Instruments [04/24/1998] Could you describe some of the early counting instruments developed by - Roman Numeral [7/10/1996] Why does the Roman numeral D stand for 500? - Roman Numerals: Division [11/05/2001] I have found information on how to add and multiply Roman numerals, but have not found any information on how to divide or subtract. - Rounding Pi [06/01/1999] Can you prove that the value of Pi cannot be rounded down to 3.0? Is there an error in the Bible?

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/sets/mid_history.html?s_keyid=38676627&f_keyid=38676628&start_at=121&num_to_see=40

2013-05-25T19:43:32Z

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Temporary files can eat away at a your hard disk space without you ever noticing. Temporary files are typically recognized and hidden from the user's sight by the OS. Temporary files can be created when editing files, when running some programs, or when a program wishes to report and save a problem. Removing these temporary files can free up valuable space, and FSlint can find these files so that they can be purged. It is possible to specify a minimum age to find only files modified in the last X number of days. A minimum age of 0 is all temporary files. When a program exits or is terminated prematurely, the program can leave behind files known as core files or dump files for debugging purposes. The core files are generally named "core.#####" where # can represent any number 0-9. Many Linux distributions have this feature disabled. To check if core files are enabled on your Linux system, run `ulimit -c` from the command line. A value of 0 is disabled. In FSlint the check box "core file mode?" enables a more thorough search for these core files. Command Line Interface The command line interface to this utility is 'findtf'. This utility will be found in the installation directory of fslint. $ /usr/share/fslint/fslint/findtf --help find Temporary Files. Usage: findtf [-c] [--age=days] [[-r] [-f] paths(s) ...] If -c specified then a more thorough search is done for (and only for) core files, and more information is printed about them. If --age=days specified then the temporary files must be over that number of "days" old before being reported. For e.g. findtf -c --age=4 only reports core files over 4 days old. If no path(s) specified then the current directory is assumed.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://en.flossmanuals.net/fslint/ch008_temp-files/

2013-05-24T08:50:24Z

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en

The Stormwater Ecological Enhancement Project (SEEP) began in 1995 as a take-home final exam for the course Ecosystems of Florida. The objective was to develop a management plan to enhance a stormwater retention basin located within the University of Florida Natural Area and Teaching Lab (NATL) for species diversity while optimizing the basin's use for research and education. Since that time, the Wetlands Club at UF has taken this project further and implemented a full-scale created wetland that achieves not only the original objectives but also improves wildlife habitat, water quality, and aesthetics. These efforts have been in close coordination with the NATL Advisory Committee. What is a Stormwater Retention Basin? Water that runs off the land during and after a rainstorm is called stormwater runoff. This runoff and any pollutants it carries flows into streams, rivers, lakes and depressions throughout the landscape. In an urbanized landscape natural physical, chemical and biological processes are disrupted and leaves, litter, animal waste, oil, greases, heavy metals, fertilizers and pesticides are transported downstream. A stormwater retention basin provides temporary storage for the runoff generated by development in the watershed, releasing it slowly and reducing the potential for flooding. The basin also provides some treatment of pollution carried by the stormwater runoff. While wetlands have historically been considered of little importance, our increasing understanding of these systems is changing this misconception. Wetlands are now recognized for providing many vital benefits. Some of these benefits include: - habitat for commercially valuable fish and shellfish, - improved water quality. Although we have lost more than 50 percent of the historic wetlands in the lower 48 states, protection of wetlands has increased considerably over the past 15 years due to recognition of these values. Wetlands and Stormwater Basins Wetlands can be found alongside rivers and lake shores, and as low areas in the landscape that often become flooded during storms. These wetlands are the natural stormwater basins of the landscape. As humans create stormwater basins to reduce the effects of development, it seems only logical to mimic these natural stormwater basins. This provides benefits beyond that of water storage as the basin becomes a multipurpose area serving our needs to reduce flooding while offsetting wetland functions that have been lost over the past 200 years. The water treatment component of the retention basin would also be substantially enhanced by the diversity of vegetation and complexity of the integrated wetland community. The integration of these "free" services provided by a natural system with the needs of our growing world has been termed Ecological Engineering. This new approach to urban and regional planning is not only a more environmentally sensitive approach, but one that uses processes that have been working naturally for millions of years. The Retention Pond at NATL The 3-acre retention pond is the low point of a 39.75 acre watershed. The majority of the basin was constructed in 1988 with additional storage created in 1990. Structures within this watershed contributing significant runoff to the basin include the Center for Performing Arts, Entomology and Nematology buildings, the Park & Ride commuter lot and roadways between and around these buildings. The total storage of the basin to offset the increased runoff generated by these impervious surfaces is 478,000 cubic feet. As originally designed the bottom of the basin is essentially flat, with uniform slopes on the north, south and east sides. To the west of the basin the slope is low and quickly grades into the preexisting depression of the area. Because the basin is almost uniform in elevation the established vegetation was dominated by Cattail. Ecologically Enhanced Design The primary goal of the project is to increase the diversity of flooding depths and frequency of flooding that will occur since this is the primary factor regulating species composition in a wetland. To do this two depressions, one 4-feet, the other 5-feet deep, were dug at the southeastern end of the pond providing a deep, open-water habitat. At the north end a low berm was constructed to temporarily impound 80% of the entering stormwater. This forebay provides the first phase of treatment and was planted with species known to take up heavy metals and remove nutrients. Water from the forebay is then slowly released, first flowing through an area planted to resemble a bottom-land hardwood swamp, and move into a shallow freshwater marsh before entering the deep-water ponds. At the southeastern end of the pond another small berm was built to divert stormwater away from the deep-water ponds, increasing treatment time. At the end of this berm a knoll was built and planted with trees to provide nesting or roosting sites for birds. The basin was planted with species that resemble those found in wetlands of North Central Florida. A boardwalk also will be constructed. Expected SEEP Benefits The SEEP project already has provided a great learning experience for Wetlands Club members through project design and organization, regulatory agency interaction and team work. Other benefits of the project include: -Species diversity. The variety of plantings and topographic diversity on the sight provides new genetic material as well as suitable establishment sites for long-term increases in vegetative species diversity within the basin. - Wildlife habitat. Vegetative diversity as well as diversity of aquatic habitat provides a multitude of new biotic niches not previously available in the basin. The value of this habitat becomes increasingly important as other areas on campus and in the Gainesville community are encroached upon. -Aesthetics. Retention basins are notoriously unattractive, often fenced in, littered with trash, and square. Although the retention basin at the NATL is pleasant compared to some, its appeal would be improved if it resembled a diverse wetland. -Water Quality. Construction of the forebay, planting of species known to have high treatment potential, and diversion of stormwater to maximize treatment all improve the water treatment potential of the basin. -Research. Since integration of wetlands and stormwater basins is still a relatively new concept, little is known about optimization and performance of these systems. Implementing SEEP provides a unique opportunity to test the principles of this integration, pushing the University of Florida to the forefront of this technology. The location of this site on campus as well as the location of the site within NATL allows for easy access and control over activities within the site. Faculty, staff and state agencies interested in this topic will be able to use this as a long-term study site. -Education. Educational opportunities for both students and the public enormous for this site. The University has one of only three wetland centers in the country with some of the founding faculty in principles of Ecological Engineering. Many courses throughout the campus use the area for various components of their curriculum. Public education opportunities abound with the construction of the new Florida Museum of Natural History within a stones throw of the basin.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://ufwetlandsclub.blogspot.com/p/learn-about-seep.html

2013-05-24T08:29:12Z

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en

Constitution, separation of powers, contempt of Congress, contempt of Parliament, legislature After former White House Counsel Harriet Miers and White House Chief of Staff Joshua Bolten refused to comply with subpoenas issued by a congressional committee investigating the firing of a number of United States Attorneys, the House of Representatives voted in 2008 to hold them in contempt. The House then chose a curious method of enforcing its contempt citation: it filed a federal lawsuit seeking a declaratory judgment that Miers and Bolten were in contempt of Congress and an injunction ordering them to comply with the subpoenas. The district court ruled for the House, although that ruling was subsequently stayed and a compromise was reached. This Article examines the constellation of issues arising out of contempt of Congress proceedings against executive branch officials. After briefly describing the Miers litigation, it examines the development of legislative contempt against executive officials in Anglo-American law. It shows that the contempt power played a significant role in power struggles between the Crown and Parliament and between the Crown and colonial American legislatures, and that this role continued into the early state legislatures. It then traces Congress’s uses of the contempt power against executive branch officials, including in two cases that have generally been overlooked by both judicial and academic commentators, in which a house of Congress sent its sergeant-at-arms to arrest an executive branch officer. The Article then uses that history to consider how cases of executive branch contempt of Congress should be dealt with today. It notes the variety of political tools that Anglo-American legislatures have used to enforce their contempt findings, as well as the fact that they did not turn to the courts to resolve such disputes until the late twentieth century. It then argues that the resolution of such disputes by the courts does significant harm to the American body politic. This Article therefore concludes both that Congress erred in seeking judicial resolution of the Miers dispute and that the courts erred in finding it justiciable. Chafetz, Josh, "Executive Branch Contempt of Congress" (2009). Cornell Law Faculty Publications. Paper 21. University of Chicago Law Review, vol. 76, no. 3 (Summer 2009)

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/facpub/21/

2013-05-24T02:40:14Z

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en

The Land Grant System: At Work for Nebraska When you enter a building on the University of Nebraska-Lincoln east campus, you'll find these words on the door: "The Morrill Act of 1862 established a Land Grant University in each state where the Leading Object would be instruction in agriculture and related fields." "The land grant university system is really a very special thing, rooted in the absolute depths of the Civil War, when the country was at war with itself in literally every way," said John Owens, who served as NU vice president and Harlan Vice Chancellor of the Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources from 2001 until June 2010. "In the summer of 1862, Congress passed an act that established land grant colleges, which then grew into these wonderful land grant universities today," Owens said. The land grant model was created to make education more affordable for a state's people through federal, state and county support for land grant institutions. "The whole notion of the land grant model is having a responsibility, not only to deliver academic programs to students in the classroom and in the laboratory, but also having an obligation to take knowledge to the people of the state," Owens said. "It's been part of Nebraska from the very beginning, this notion of the people, the taxpayers who work in businesses and farms and ranches and in the professions, and expect their tax dollars to be well-spent, that they have taken it upon themselves to invest in the future of the state through making the University of Nebraska as strong as it can possibly be." The taxpayers' partial financial support of the land grant system helps to make education affordable for people who live in that state or territory, but it goes a step further. The land grant system "extended" the reach of the land grant university to the rest of each state. In Nebraska, there are University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension offices in nearly every county in the state. Extension educators in these offices make university research available, free of charge, to anyone who requests information. |Dr. John Owens| "In a knowledge-based economy, we want a strong, educated population here in Nebraska. The world is competitive today, and it's going to be more competitive tomorrow," Owens said. Generally speaking, he added, education gives people a broader viewpoint of the world and with that viewpoint, they are likely to make better decisions. The Hatch Act of 1887 ensured that federal dollars would be invested in agricultural research, so each state and territory in 1887 received $10,000 in federal funds. That was a huge amount of money in 1887, Owens said, and the lure of those funds played a role in other states' interest in adopting the tenets of the land grant act. From Owens' point of view, the federal government used money as a reason to get the states interested in supporting research, teaching and later, with the adoption of the Smith-Lever Act of 1914, Cooperative Extension. "The larger amount of the investment in traditional land grant programs comes from the state itself," Owens said. "They meet the match and then provide considerably more dollars than the basic match. But over time, the federal investment has grown to be so large that we all depend on those dollars." The funds are called 'formula funds' and according to Owens, "is about the only part of the federal funding system for the entire country where money comes to an educational enterprise based on a formula." The formula funds are allocated to various states in different proportions based on the size and importance of the state - particularly its agricultural importance. Funds allocated by the state government are even more important, Owens said. "We simply could not open the door on an enterprise like this if we did not have those funds from the taxpayers of Nebraska." County government funds also are extremely important, Owens said. The land-grant component of the university is very often delivered to the people through extension and very often, that delivery is through an extension office associated with a county. Extension offices are operated in 83 of Nebraska's 93 counties - the other 10 counties are in two-or three-county partnerships to provide extension services to each county's people. Nebraska's Unicameral, Owens said, now supports the salaries of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln faculty who work in the extension offices, but each county provides office space and funds to run the office. "On any given day, some county, state or federal government has a budget problem, but over time it always seems to be worked out. It only gets worked out because these programs are important to people," he said. The land grant mission extends to young people, too, in the national 4-H charter that is held by Congress and allocated to various land grant institutions in each state. Nebraska has 135,000 young people involved in 4-H, along with 10,000 volunteers, making Nebraska the state with the highest 4-H involvement per capita of any state in the country. Nationally, the 4-H Foundation has a goal called One Million New Scientists. One Million New Ideas.™ which is intended to educate one million new scientists by 2013. To achieve that goal, 4-H is delivering educational programs to young people in the areas of science, technology, engineering and mathematics - STEM education - which is a national focus. In Nebraska, the emphasis is on building and programming robots with the support of corporations and volunteer leaders. It is expensive to fund and deliver university programs in science, technology and engineering, so scholarships for university students are "just huge" in making public education a bit more affordable for students, Owens said. "In agriculture and natural resources and related areas, the generosity of Nebraskans has just been phenomenal in how many scholarships we have and how important they are in the lives of the students." Even more will be needed in the future, however, because the world has become more competitive, Owens added. An independent study by Battelle of Columbus, Ohio indicates that for every Nebraska tax dollar invested, there's a return of $15 in the Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources alone, Owens said. "I believe this totally - the difference between an adequate public university and an excellent public university is always, always, always found in the generosity of its friends, its alumni and its clientele or supporters. Nebraskans have really stepped up to the plate in a big way to do that," he said. Vol. 2 Articles - Download Magazine - Land Grant Mission Articles - NU Funding Sources - U.S. Economic Power Hinges on Research Universities - Nebraska Innovation Campus Means More Jobs, Keeping Talent in Nebraska - Helping Kids Learn, Grow and Connect - Wherever They Live - Choosing a Medicare Part D Plan: UNL Extension Offers Advice - Handling Rural Conflict Can Make or Break Small Communities - One Million New Scientists. One Million New Ideas.™ - Planning Your Meals to Save Your Life - "Impacting the World Three Times a Day" and "Food from Thought" - Feeding Millions of People Motivates UNL Grains Breeder - Understanding Nebraska - There's No Place Like Nebraska - for Weather - UNL Water Center Addresses Quality, Quantity, Sustainability Issues - Global Water for Food Institute Races to Find Sustainable Solutions

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://liferaydemo.unl.edu/web/sdn/landgrant_system

2013-05-19T19:44:54Z

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en

System Of The Mandarins ( Originally Published Early 1900's ) In China we find a social system travelling along yet an-other, and only a very roughly parallel line to that followed by the Indian and Western civilizations. The Chinese civilization even more than the Hindu is organized for peace, and the warrior plays a small part in its social scheme. As in the Indian civilization, the leading class is an intellectual one, less priestly than the Brahmins and more official. But unlike the Brahmins, the mandarins, who are the literate men of China, are not a caste ; one is not a mandarin by birth, but by education; they are drawn by education and examination from all classes of the community, and the son of a mandarin has no prescriptive right to succeed his father. As a consequence of these differences, while the Brahmins of India are, as a class, ignorant even of their own sacred books, mentally slack, and full of a pretentious assurance, the Chinese mandarin has the energy that comes from hard mental work. But since his education so far has been almost entirely a scholarly study of the classical Chinese literature, his influence has been entirely conservative. Before the days of Alexander the Great, China had already formed itself and set its feet in the way in which it was still walking in the year 1900 A. D. Invaders and dynasties had come and gone, but the routine of life of the yellow civilization remained unchanged. The traditional Chinese social system recognized four main classes below the priest-emperor: (a) The literary class, which was equivalent partly to the officials of the Western world and partly to its teachers and clerics. In the time of Confucius its education included archery and horsemanship. Rites and music, history and. mathematics completed the "Six Accomplishments." (b) The cultivators of the land. (c) The artisans. (d) The mercantile class. But since from the earliest times it has been the Chinese way to divide the landed possessions of a man among all his sons, there has never been in Chinese history any class of great land-owners, renting their land to tenants, such as most other countries have displayed. The Chinese land has always been cut up into small holdings, which are chiefly freeholds, and cultivated intensively. There are landlords in China who own one or a few farms and rent them to tenants, but there are no great, permanent estates. When a patch of land, by repeated division, is too small to sustain a man, it is sold to some prospecting neighbour, and the former owner drifts to one of the great towns of China to join the mass of wage earning workers there. In China, for many centuries, there have been these masses of town population with scarcely any property at all, men neither serfs nor slaves, but held to their daily work by their utter impecuniousness. From such masses it is that the soldiers needed by the Chinese Government are recruited, and also such gang labour as has been needed for the making of canals, the building of walls, and the like has been drawn. The war captive and the slave class play a smaller part in Chinese history than in any more westerly record of these ages before the Christian era. One fact, we may note, is common to all these three stories of developing social structure and that is the immense power exercised by the educated class in the early stages before the crown or the commonalty began to read and, consequently, to think for itself. In India, by reason of their exelusiveness, the Brahmins, the educated class, retain their influence to this day; over the masses of China, along entirely different lines and because of the complexities of the written language, the mandarinate has prevailed. The diversity of race and tradition in the more various and eventful world of the West has delayed, and perhaps arrested for ever, any parallel organization of the specially intellectual elements of society into a class ascendancy. In the Western world, as we have already noted, education early "slopped over," and soaked away out of the control of any special class; it escaped from the limitations of castes and priesthoods and traditions into the general life of the community. Writing and reading had been simplified down to a point when it was no longer possible to make a cult and mystery of them. It may be due to peculiar elaboration and difficulty of the Chinese characters, rather than to any racial difference, that the same thing did not happen to the same extent in China.

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The World Bank’s fund for the poorest, IDA, was created more than 50 years ago to meet an urgent need—to make sure the world’s most vulnerable have a real chance at a decent life. A lot has happened since then. With IDA’s help, hundreds of millions of people have escaped the vicious cycle of abject poverty—through the creation of jobs, access to clean water, food security, schools, roads, electricity. In fact, for the first time ever, researchers found last year that the number of people living in absolute poverty—less than $1.25 day—dropped in every region of the world, from 1.9 billion in 1990 to 1.3 billion in 2008. IDA has worked relentlessly with poor countries to fight poverty in often very challenging circumstances. In Africa, which receives half of IDA’s interest-free loans and grants, IDA helped put over 15 million children in school in the last decade, protect citizens against malaria with 33 million mosquito nets, and provide 6 million people with access to safe drinking water. While we have made good, even remarkable progress on reducing poverty, the number of poor people living on less than $1.25 a day is still unacceptable. Nor can we assume that development gains are here to stay. The growing number of extreme climate-related events and other natural disasters—from the 2010 earthquake in Haiti to last year’s massive tsunami in Japan, from the ongoing drought in the Sahel to recent Superstorm Sandy—shows that no one is immune to disaster. Conflict, financial crises, unemployment, and hunger—which often respect no borders—further complicate matters. Yet in the face of such adversity, some question the very role of development assistance and the relevance of multilateral agencies whose mission it is to end poverty. At such a tumultuous time, the global development community finds itself at an important crossroads. The path we take has serious implications for the world we’ll all inhabit in the years to come. Now is not the time to disengage. It’s time to double-down and make sure we actually deliver on the Millennium Development Goals: giving children and pregnant women a chance at survival, making sure kids get to school and women have the same opportunities as men, protecting the environment, and ultimately, ending poverty. For the World Bank, donors, borrowers, and civil society, that means making smart choices about using scarce resources for maximum effect, in line with local needs. That means keeping in mind that even when a country reaches a certain income level, there may still be millions of people living in severe poverty, who will still need continued support. A hallmark of IDA is its ability to adapt to changing circumstances. We have learned that sustainable poverty reduction hinges on putting the country in the driver’s seat, combines the aid and expertise of multiple sectors and organizations, and most of all, is flexible. IDA’s flexibility allows us to react quickly, particularly during times of crisis and in difficult, fragile environments. Our work in the Horn of Africa last year illustrates IDA’s ability to respond with nimble, targeted solutions. When 12 million people were suffering from one of the worst droughts in 60 years, we swiftly made $250 million available through our Crisis Response Window. In record time, this provided badly needed support for nutrition, health, energy, agriculture, and sanitation projects for millions of people in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Djibouti. As much as the global economy is subject to constant change, we have to prepare ourselves for even more rapid and profound changes, especially in a development finance landscape where several traditional donor countries are facing fiscal hardships at home. IDA continues to undergo an extensive renewal in the face of evolving global and country challenges. Indeed, we are engaged with donors and borrowers on these very issues, as we explore ways to address frontier issues, such as IDA’s financial sustainability, fragility, and results. The challenge is to keep the world engaged in our joint effort to make sure millions of impoverished are not left behind and are able to improve their living standards. It is important that we broaden the coalition of potential donors and create new partnerships with emerging market economies around the world. We need to harness their knowledge and experience in lifting people out of poverty. Donors and borrowers from Africa and all regions of the world meet November 13-15 in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire, to review IDA’s progress on delivering better results on gender, climate, conflict and fragility, and crisis response to communities in need. It’s an opportunity to brainstorm with our development partners on how to be even more effective and responsive amid a challenging and changing global aid architecture. What will it take to continue to lift more and more people out of poverty? Flexibility, persistence, and continued strong commitment and engagement by all who care. Axel Van Trotsenburg is the World Bank’s Vice President for Concessional Finance.

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http://allafrica.com/stories/201211190183.html

2013-05-19T02:39:06Z

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en

IVY GOURD Overview Information Ivy gourd is a plant. The leaves, root, and fruit are used to make medicine. People take ivy gourd for diabetes, gonorrhea, and constipation. Some people apply ivy gourd leaves directly to the skin for wounds. Ivy gourd fruit and leaves are used as a vegetable in India and other Asian countries. How does it work? Ivy gourd contains chemicals that may reduce blood sugar levels. - Diabetes. Developing research suggests that ivy gourd might improve blood sugar control in patients with type 2 diabetes. - Skin wounds, when applied to the skin. - Other conditions. IVY GOURD Side Effects & Safety Ivy gourd appears to be safe for most people when taken by mouth for up to six weeks. There isn’t enough information to know if ivy gourd is safe for longer-term use. Special Precautions & Warnings:Pregnancy and breast-feeding: Not enough is known about the use of ivy gourd during pregnancy and breast-feeding. Stay on the safe side and avoid use. Diabetes: Ivy gourd might lower blood sugar. If you have diabetes, check your blood sugar carefully. Surgery: Ivy gourd might lower blood sugar. There is some concern it might interfere with blood sugar control during and after surgery. Stop using ivy gourd at least 2 weeks before a scheduled surgery. Moderate Interaction Be cautious with this combination - Medications for diabetes (Antidiabetes drugs) interacts with IVY GOURD Ivy gourd can decrease blood sugar levels. Diabetes medications are also used to lower blood sugar. Taking ivy gourd along with diabetes medications might cause your blood sugar to be too low. Monitor your blood sugar closely. The dose of your diabetes medication might need to be changed. Some medications used for diabetes include glimepiride (Amaryl), glyburide (DiaBeta, Glynase PresTab, Micronase), insulin, pioglitazone (Actos), rosiglitazone (Avandia), chlorpropamide (Diabinese), glipizide (Glucotrol), tolbutamide (Orinase), and others. IVY GOURD Dosing The appropriate dose of ivy gourd depends on several factors such as the user’s age, health, and several other conditions. At this time there is not enough scientific information to determine an appropriate range of doses for ivy gourd. Keep in mind that natural products are not always necessarily safe and dosages can be important. Be sure to follow relevant directions on product labels and consult your pharmacist or physician or other healthcare professional before using.

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http://www.webmd.com/vitamins-supplements/ingredientmono-1104-IVY+GOURD.aspx?activeIngredientId=1104&activeIngredientName=IVY+GOURD&source=3

2013-05-18T09:01:18Z

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en

|A fin whale surfaces in the Kenai Fjords, Alaska| |Size compared to an average human| |Fin whale range| The fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus), also called the finback whale, razorback, or common rorqual, is a marine mammal belonging to the suborder of baleen whales. It is the second longest animal in the world and second largest rorqual after the blue whale, growing to 27.3 metres (89.5 ft) long and weighing nearly 74 tonnes (73 long tons; 82 short tons). The American naturalist Roy Chapman Andrews called the fin whale "the greyhound of the sea... for its beautiful, slender body is built like a racing yacht and the animal can surpass the speed of the fastest ocean steamship." Long and slender, the fin whale's body is brownish-grey with a paler underside. At least two recognized subspecies exist: the North Atlantic and the Southern Hemisphere. It is found in all the major oceans, from polar to tropical waters. It is absent only from waters close to the ice pack at the poles and relatively small areas of water away from the open ocean. The highest population density occurs in temperate and cool waters. Its food consists of small schooling fish, squid, and crustaceans including copepods and krill. Like all other large whales, the fin whale was heavily hunted during the twentieth century and is an endangered species. Over 725,000 fin whales were reported taken from the Southern Hemisphere between 1905 and 1976, as of 1997 survived by only 38,000. The International Whaling Commission (IWC) issued a moratorium on commercial hunting of this whale, although Iceland and Japan have resumed hunting: in 2009 and 2010, Iceland took 125 and 148 fin whales, while Japan took eighteen in seven seasons (2005–12) of Antarctic whaling. Iceland exported 500- 600 tons of fin whale meat to Japan in 2011, worth 486,189,000 ISK ($3.8 million). The species is also hunted by Greenlanders under the IWC's Aboriginal Subsistence Whaling provisions. Global population estimates range from less than 100,000 to roughly 119,000. Ship collisions and noise from human activity significantly threaten recovery. The fin whale was first described by Friderich Martens in 1675 and then again by Paul Dudley in 1725. The former description was used as the primary basis of the species Balaena physalus by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. In 1804, Bernard Germain de Lacépède reclassified the species as Balaenoptera rorqual, based on a specimen that had stranded on Île Sainte-Marguerite (Cannes, France) in 1798. In 1830, Louis Companyo described a specimen that had stranded near Saint-Cyprien, southern France, in 1828 as Balaena musculus. Most later authors followed him in using the specific name musculus, until Frederick W. True (1898) showed that it referred to the blue whale. In 1846, the British taxonomist John Edward Gray described a 16.7 m (55 ft) specimen from the Falkland Islands as Balaenoptera australis. In 18645 the German naturalist Hermann Burmeister described a c. 15 m (50 ft) specimen found near Buenos Aires about thirty years earlier as Balaenoptera patachonicus. In 1903, the Romanian scientist Emil Racoviță placed all these designations into Balaenoptera physalus. The word "physalus" comes from the Greek word physa, meaning "blows", referring to the prominent blow of the species (as described by Martens [1675, p. 132]: "They know the finn-fish by the... vehement blowing and spouting up of the water..."). Fin whales are rorquals, members of the family Balaenopteridae, which also includes the humpback whale, the blue whale, the Bryde's whale, the sei whale and the minke whale. The family diverged from the other baleen whales in the suborder Mysticeti as long ago as the middle Miocene, although it is not known when the members of these families further evolved into their own species. As of 2006, there were two named subspecies, each with distinct physical features and vocalizations. The Northern fin whale, B. p. physalus (Linnaeus 1758) inhabits the North Atlantic and the Southern fin whale, B. p. quoyi (Fischer 1829) occupies the Southern Ocean. Most experts consider the fin whales of the North Pacific to be a third, as yet unnamed subspecies. The three groups mix at most rarely. The genetic distance between blue and fin whales has been compared to that between a gorilla and human (3.5 million years on the revolutionary tree.) Nevertheless, hybrid individuals between blue and fin whales with characteristics of both are known to occur with relative frequency in Northern populations. Recent DNA evidence indicates that the fin whale may be more closely related to the humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) and in at least one study the gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus), two whales in different genera, than it is to members of its own genus, such as the minke whales. If further research confirms this theory, the taxonomy would need revision. The fin whale is usually distinguished by its tall spout, long back, prominent dorsal fin, and asymmetrical coloration. In the Northern Hemisphere, the average size of adult males and females is about 18.5 metres (61 ft) and 20 metres (66 ft), while in the Southern Hemisphere it is 20.5 metres (67 ft) and 22 metres (72 ft). In the North Atlantic, the longest reported were a 24.4 metres (80 ft) male caught off the Shetland Islands in 1905 and a 25 metres (82 ft) female caught off Scotland sometime between 1908 and 1914, while the longest reliably measured were three 20.7 metres (68 ft) males caught off Iceland in 1973-74 and a 22.5 metres (74 ft) female also caught off Iceland in 1975. In the North Pacific, the longest reported were three 22.9 metres (75 ft) males, two caught off California between 1919 and 1926 and the other caught off Alaska in 1925, and a 24.7 metres (81 ft) female also caught off California, while the longest reliably measured were a 21 metres (69 ft) male caught off British Columbia in 1959 and a 22.9 metres (75 ft) female caught off central California between 1959 and 1970. In the Southern Hemisphere, the longest reported for each sex were 25 metres (82 ft) and 27.3 m (89.5 ft), while the longest measured by Mackintosh and Wheeler (1929) were 22.65 metres (74.3 ft) and 24.53 metres (80.5 ft). Major F. A. Spencer, while whaling inspector of the factory ship Southern Princess (1936–38), confirmed the length of a 25.9 metres (85 ft) female caught in the Antarctic south of the southern Indian Ocean; the scientist David Edward Gaskin also measured a 25.9 metres (85 ft) female while whaling inspector of the British factory ship Southern Venturer in the Southern Ocean in the 1961-62 season. Terence Wise, who worked as a winch operator aboard the British factory ship Balaena, claimed that "the biggest fin [he] ever saw" was a 25.6 metres (84 ft) specimen caught near Bouvet Island in January 1958. The largest fin whale ever weighed (piecemeal) was a 22.7 metres (74 ft) pregnant female caught by Japanese whalers in the Antarctic in 1948 which weighed 69.5 tonnes (68.4 long tons; 76.6 short tons), minus 6% for loss of fluids during the flensing process. It is estimated that an individual over 27 metres (89 ft) would weigh in excess of 120 tonnes (120 long tons; 130 short tons). A newborn fin whale measures about 6–6.5 metres (20–21.3 ft) in length and weighs approximately1,800 kilograms (4,000 lb). Coloration and markings The fin whale is brownish to dark or light gray dorsally and white ventrally. The left side of the head is dark gray, while the right side exhibits a complex pattern of contrasting light and dark markings. On the right lower jaw is a white or light gray "right mandible patch", which sometimes extends out as a light "blaze" laterally and dorsally unto the upper jaw and back to just behind the blowholes. Two narrow dark stripes originate from the eye and ear, the former widening into a large dark area on the shoulder — these are separated by a light area called the "interstripe wash". These markings are more prominent on individuals in the North Atlantic than in the North Pacific, where they can appear indistinct. The left side exhibits similar but much fainter markings. Dark, oval-shaped areas of pigment called "flipper shadows" extend below and posterior to the pectoral fins. This type of asymmetry is seen in Omura's whale and occasionally in minke whales. It washypothesized to have evolved because the whale swims on its right side when surface lunging and it often circles to the right while at the surface above a prey patch. However, the whales just as often circle to the left. There is no accepted hypothesis to explain the asymmetry. It has paired blowholes on a prominent splashguard and a broad, flat V-shaped rostrum. A single median ridge stops well short of the rostrum tip. A light V-shaped marking, the chevron, begins behind the blowholes and extends back and then forward again. The whale has a series of 56–100 pleats or grooves along the bottom of the body that run from the tip of the chin to the navel that allow the throat area to expand greatly during feeding. It has a curved, prominent dorsal fin that ranges in height from 26–75 centimeters (10–30 in) (usually 45–60 centimeters (18–24 in)) and averages about 51 centimetres (20 in), lying about three-quarters of the way along the back. Its flippers are small and tapered and its tail is wide, pointed at the tip and notched in the centre. When the whale surfaces, the dorsal fin is visible soon after the spout. The spout is vertical and narrow and can reach heights of 6 metres (20 ft) or more. Mating occurs in temperate, low-latitude seas during the winter, followed by an eleven months to one year gestation period. A newborn weans from its mother at 6 or 7 months of age when it is 11 metres (36 ft) to 12 metres (39 ft) in length, and the calf accompanies the mother to the summer feeding ground. Females reproduce every 2 to 3 years, with as many as 6 fetuses being reported, but single births are far more common. Females reach sexual maturity at between 6 and 12 years of age at lengths of 17.7–19 m (58-62.5 ft) in the Northern Hemisphere and 20 m (65 ft) in the Southern Hemisphere. The fin whale is one of the fastest cetaceans and can sustain speeds of between 37 kilometres per hour (23 mph) and 41 kilometres per hour (25 mph) and bursts up to 46 kilometres per hour (29 mph) have been recorded, earning the fin whale the nickname "the greyhound of the sea". Fin whales are more gregarious than other rorquals, and often live in groups of 6–10, although feeding groups may reach up to 100 animals. |Multimedia relating to the fin whale Note that the whale calls have been sped up 10x from their original speed. Like other whales, males make long, loud, low-frequency sounds. The vocalizations of blue and fin whales are the lowest-frequency sounds made by any animal. Most sounds are frequency-modulated (FM) down-swept infrasonic pulses from 16 to 40 hertz frequency (the range of sounds that most humans can hear falls between 20 hertz and 20 kilohertz). Each sound lasts one to two seconds, and various sound combinations occur in patterned sequences lasting 7 to 15 minutes each. The whale then repeats the sequences in bouts lasting up to many days. The vocal sequences have source levels of up to 184–186 decibels relative to 1 micropascal at a reference distance of one metre and can be detected hundreds of miles from their source. When fin whale sounds were first recorded by US biologists, they did not realize that these unusually loud, long, pure and regular sounds were being made by whales. They first investigated the possibilities that the sounds were due to equipment malfunction, geophysical phenomena, or even part of a Soviet Union scheme for detecting enemy submarines. Eventually, biologists demonstrated that the sounds were the vocalizations of fin whales. Direct association of these vocalizations with the reproductive season for the species and that only males make the sounds point to these vocalizations as possible reproductive displays. Over the past 100 years, the dramatic increase in ocean noise from shipping and naval activity may have slowed the recovery of the fin whale population, by impeding communications between males and receptive females. When feeding, they blow 5-7 times in quick succession, but while traveling or resting will blow once every minute or two. On their terminal (last) dive they arch their back high out of the water, but rarely raise theirflukes out of the water. It then dives to depths of up to 470 metres (1,540 ft) when feeding or a few hundred feet when resting or traveling. The average feeding dive off California and Baja lasts 6 minutes, with a maximum of 17 minutes; when traveling or resting they usually dive for only a few minutes at a time. Fin whales rarely breach. Range and habitat Like many large rorquals, the fin whale is a cosmopolitan species. It is found in all the world's major oceans and in waters ranging from the polar to the tropical. It is absent only from waters close to the ice pack at both the north and south extremities and relatively small areas of water away from the large oceans, such as the Red Sea and the Baltic Sea. The highest population density occurs in temperate and cool waters. It is less densely populated in the warmest, equatorial regions. It prefers deep waters beyond the continental shelf to shallow waters. The North Atlantic fin whale has an extensive distribution, occurring from the Gulf of Mexico andMediterranean Sea, northward to Baffin Bay and Spitsbergen. In general, fin whales are more common north of approximately 30°N latitude, but considerable confusion arises about their occurrence south of 30°N latitude because of the difficulty in distinguishing fin whales from Bryde's whales. Extensive ship surveys have led researchers to conclude that the summer feeding range of fin whales in the western North Atlantic is mainly between 41°20'N and 51°00'N, from shore seaward to the 1,000 fathoms (1,800 m) contour. Summer distribution of fin whales in the North Pacific is the immediate offshore waters from central Baja California to Japan and as far north as the Chukchi Sea bordering the Arctic Ocean. They occur in high densities in the northern Gulf of Alaska and southeastern Bering Sea between May and October, with some movement through the Aleutian passes into and out of the Bering Sea. Several whales tagged between November and January off southern California were killed in the summer off central California, Oregon, British Columbia, and in the Gulf of Alaska. Fin whales have been observed feeding 250 miles south of Hawaiiin mid-May, and several winter sightings have been made there. Some researchers have suggested that the whales migrate into Hawaiian waters primarily in the autumn and winter. Although fin whales are certainly migratory, moving seasonally in and out of high-latitude feeding areas, the overall migration pattern is not well understood. Acoustic readings from passive-listeninghydrophone arrays indicate a southward migration of the North Atlantic fin whale occurs in the autumn from the Labrador-Newfoundland region, south past Bermuda, and into theWest Indies.One or more populations of fin whales are thought to remain year-round in high latitudes, moving offshore, but not southward in late autumn. In the Pacific, migration patterns are poorly characterized. Although some fin whales are apparently present year-round in the Gulf of California, there is a significant increase in their numbers in the winter and spring. Southern fin whales migrate seasonally from relatively high-latitude Antarctic feeding grounds in the summer to low-latitude breeding andcalving areas in the winter. The location of winter breeding areas is still unknown, since these whales tend to migrate in the open ocean. Population and trends Poor understanding of migration patterns combined with contradictory population surveys makes estimating the historical and current population levels of the whale difficult and contentious. Due to a long history of hunting this whale, pre-exploitation population levels are difficult to determine. North Atlantic fin whales are defined by the International Whaling Commission to exist in one of seven discrete population zones: Nova Scotia-New England, Newfoundland-Labrador, western Greenland, eastern Greenland-Iceland, North Norway, West Norway-Faroe Islands, and Ireland-Spain-United Kingdom-Portugal. Results of mark-and-recapture surveys have indicated that some movement occurs across the boundaries of these zones, suggesting that they are not entirely discrete and that some immigration and emigration does occur. Sigurjónsson estimated in 1995 that total pre-exploitation population size in the entireNorth Atlantic ranged between 50,000 and 100,000 animals, but his research is criticized for lack of supporting data and an explanation of his reasoning. In 1977, D.E. Sergeant suggested a "primeval" aggregate total of 30,000 to 50,000 throughout the North Atlantic. Of that number, 8,000 to 9,000 would have resided in the Newfoundland and Nova Scotia areas, with whales summering in U.S. waters south of Nova Scotia presumably omitted. J.M. Breiwick estimated that the "exploitable" (above the legal size limit of ft50) component of the Nova Scotia population was 1,500 to 1,600 animals in 1964, reduced to only about 325 in 1973. Two aerial surveys in Canadian waters since the early 1970s gave numbers of 79 to 926 whales on the eastern Newfoundland-Labrador shelf in August 1980, and a few hundred in the northern and central Gulf of Saint Lawrence in August 1995 – 1996. Summer estimates in the waters off western Greenland range between 500 and 2,000, and in 1974, Jonsgard considered the fin whales off Western Norway and the Faroe Islands to "have been considerably depleted in postwar years, probably by overexploitation". The population around Iceland appears to have fared much better, and in 1981, the population appeared to have undergone only a minor decline since the early 1960s. Surveys during the summers of 1987 and 1989 estimated of 10,000 to 11,000 between eastern Greenland and Norway.This shows a substantial recovery when compared to a survey in 1976 showing an estimate of 6,900, which was considered to be a "slight" decline since 1948. A Spanish NASS survey in 1989 of the France-Portugal-Spain sub-area estimated a summer population range at 17,355. The aggregate population level is estimated to be between 40,000 and 56,000individuals. The total historical North Pacific population was estimated at 42,000 to 45,000 before the start of whaling. Of this, the population in the eastern portion of the North Pacific was estimated to be 25,000 to 27,000. By 1975, the estimate had declined to between 8,000 and 16,000. Surveys conducted in 1991, 1993, 1996 and 2001 produced estimates of between 1,600 and 3,200 off California and 280 to 380 off Oregon and Washington. The miniumum estimate for the California-Oregon-Washington population, as defined in the U.S. Pacific Marine Mammal Stock Assessments: 2005, is about 2,500. Surveys in coastal waters of British Columbia in summers 2004 and 2005 produced abundance estimates of approximately 500 animals.Surveys near the Pribilof Islands in the Bering Sea indicated a substantial increase in the local abundance of Fin Whales between 1975–1978 and 1987–1989. In 1984, the entire population was estimated to be at less than 38% of its historic carrying capacity. Relatively little is known about the historical and current population levels of the Southern fin whale. The IWC officially estimates that the Southern Hemisphere pre-whaling population was 400,000 whales and that the population in 1979 (at the cessation of Antarctic large scale whaling) was 85,200. Both the current and historical estimates should be considered as poor estimates because the methodology and data used in the study are known to be flawed. Other estimates cite current size to be between 15,000 (1983) and 38,000 (1997). As of 2006, there is no scientifically accepted estimate of current population or trends in abundance. The only known predator of the fin whale is the killer whale, with at least twenty eyewitness and second-hand accounts of attack or harassment. They usually flee and offer little resistance to attack. Only a single confirmed fatality has occurred: in October 2005, sixteen killer whales attacked and killed a fin whale in the Canal de Ballenas, Gulf of California, after chasing it for about an hour. They fed on its sinking carcass for about 15 minutes before leaving the area. In July 1908, a whaler reportedly saw two killer whales attack and kill a fin whale off western Greenland. In January 1984 seven were seen from the air circling, holding the flippers, and ramming a fin whale in the Gulf of California, but the observation ended at nightfall. In the North Pacific, they feed on euphausiids in the genera Euphausia, Thysanoessa, and Nyctiphanes, large copepods in the genus Neocalanus, small schooling fish (e.g. the genera Engraulis, Mallotus, Clupea, and Theragra), and squid. Based on stomach content analysis of over 19,500 fin whales caught by the Japanese whaling fleet in the North Pacific from 1952 to 1971, 64.1% contained only krill, 25.5% copepods, 5.0% fish, 3.4% krill and copepods and 1.7% squid. Nemoto (1959) analyzed the stomach contents of about 7,500 fin whales caught in the northern North Pacific and Bering Sea from 1952 to 1958, found that they mainly preyed on euphausiids around the Aleutian Islands and in the Gulf of Alaska and schooling fish in the northern Bering Sea and off Kamchatka. In the northern Bering Sea (north of 58° N), their main prey species were capelin (Mallotus villosus), Alaska pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) and Pacific herring (Clupea pallasii); they also consumed saffron cod (Eleginus gracilis). Arctic krill (Thysanoessa raschii) was the only species of euphausiid found in the stomachs of fin whales in the northern Bering Sea. Off Kamchatka, they appeared to primarily feed on herring. They also took large quantities of the copepod Neocalanus cristatus around the Aleutian Islands and in Olyutorsky Bay off northeast Kamchatka, areas where the species was abundant. Five species of euphausiid (Euphausia pacifica, Thysanoessa spinifera, T. inermis, T. raschii, and T. longipes) were the predominant prey around the Aleutian Islands and in the Gulf of Alaska. Prey varied by region in the Kuril Islands area, with euphausiids (T. longipes, T. inermis, and T. raschii) and copepods (Neocalanus plumchrus and N. cristatus) being the main prey in the northern area and Japanese flying squid (Todarodes pacificus pacificus) and small schooling fish (e.g. Pacific saury, Cololabis saira; and Japanese anchovy, Engraulis japonicus) dominating the diet in the southern area. Of the fin whale stomachs sampled off British Columbia between 1963 and 1967, euphausiids dominated the diet for four of the five years (82.3 to 100% of the diet), while copepods only formed a major portion of the diet in 1965 (35.7%). Miscellaneous fish, squid, and octopus played only a very minor part of the diet in two of the five years (3.6 to 4.8%). Fin whales caught off California between 1959 and 1970 fed on the pelagic euphausiid Euphausia pacifica (86% of sampled individuals), the more neritic euphausiid Thysanoessa spinifera (9%), and the northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax) (7%); only trace amounts (<0.5% each) were found of Pacific saury (C. saira) and juvenile rockfish (Sebastes jordani). In the Gulf of California, they have been observed feeding on swarms of the euphausiid Nyctiphanes simplex. In the North Atlantic, they prey on euphausiids in the genera Meganyctiphanes, Thysanoessa and Nyctiphanes and small schooling fish (e.g. the genera Clupea, Mallotus, and Ammodytes). Of the 1,609 fin whale stomachs examined at the Hvalfjörður whaling station in southwestern Iceland from 1967 to 1989 (caught between June and September), 96% contained only krill, 2.5% krill and fish, 0.8% some fish remains, 0.7% capelin (M. villosus), and 0.1% sandeel (family Ammodytidae); a small proportion of (mainly juvenile) blue whiting (Micromesistius poutassou) were also found. Of the krill sampled between 1979 and 1989, the vast majority (over 99%) was northern krill (Meganyctiphanes norvegica); only one stomach contained Thysanoessa longicaudata. Off West Greenland, 75% of the fin whales caught between July and October had consumed krill (family Euphausiidae), 17% capelin (Mallotus) and 8% sand lance (Ammodytes sp.). Off eastern Newfoundland, they chiefly feed on capelin, but also take small quantities of euphausiids (mostly T. raschii and T. inermis). In the Ligurian-Corsican-Provençal Basin in the Mediterranean Sea they make dives as deep as 470 metres (1,540 ft) to feed on the euphausiid Meganyctiphanes norvegica, while off the island of Lampedusa, between Tunisia and Sicily, they have been observed in mid-winter feeding on surface swarms of the small euphausiid Nyctiphanes couchi. In the Southern Hemisphere, they feed almost exclusively on euphausiids (mainly the genera Euphausia and Thysanoessa), as well as taking small amounts of amphipods (e.g. Themisto gaudichaudii) and various species of fish. Of the more than 16,000 fin whales caught by the Japanese whaling fleet in the Southern Hemisphere between 1961 and 1965 that contained food in their stomachs, 99.4% fed on euphausiids, 0.5% on fish, and 0.1% on amphipods. In the Southern Ocean they mainly consume E. superba. The animal feeds by opening its jaws while swimming at some 11 kilometres per hour (6.8 mph) in one study, which causes it to engulf up to 70 cubic metres (18,000 US gal; 15,000 imp gal) of water in one gulp. It then closes its jaws and pushes the water back out of its mouth through its baleen, which allows the water to leave while trapping the prey. An adult has between 262 and 473 baleen plates on each side of the mouth. Each plate is made of keratin that frays out into fine hairs on the ends inside the mouth near the tongue. Each plate can measure up to 76 centimetres (30 in) in length and 30 centimetres (12 in) in width. The whale routinely dives to depths of more than 200 metres (660 ft) where it executes an average of four "lunges", to accumulate krill. Each gulp provides the whale with approximately 10 kilograms (22 lb) of food. One whale can consume up to 1,800 kilograms (4,000 lb) of food a day, leading scientists to conclude that the whale spends about three hours a day feeding to meet its energy requirements, roughly the same as humans. If prey patches are not sufficiently dense, or are located too deep in the water, the whale has to spend a larger portion of its day searching for food. One hunting technique is to circle schools of fish at high speed, frightening the fish into a tight ball, then turning on its side before engulfing the massed prey. Fin whales suffer from a number of pathological conditions. The parasitic copepod Pennella balaenopterae — usually found on the flank of fin whales — burrows into their blubber to feed on their blood, while the pseudo-stalked barnacle Xenobalanus globicipitis is generally found more often on the dorsal fin, pectoral fins and flukes. Other barnacles found on fin whales include the acorn barnacle Coronula reginae and the stalked barnacle Conchoderma auritum, which attaches to Coronula or the baleen. The harpacticid copepod Balaenophilus unisetus (heavy infestations of which have been found in fin whales caught off northwestern Spain) and the ciliate Haematophagus also infest the baleen, the former feeding on the baleen itself and the latter on red blood cells. The remora Remora australis and occasionally the amphipod Cyamus balaenopterae can also be found on fin whales, both feeding on the skin. Infestations of the giant nematode Crassicauda boopis can cause inflammation of the renal arteries and potentialkidney failure, while the smaller C. crassicauda infects the lower urinary tract. An emaciated 13 metres (43 ft) female fin whale, which stranded along the Belgian coast in 1997, was found to be infected with lesions of Morbillivirus. In January 2011, a 16.7 m (54.8 ft) emaciated adult male fin whale stranded dead on the Tyrrhenian coastline of Italy. It was found to be infected with both Morbillivirus and the protozoa Toxoplasma gondii, as well as carrying heavy loads of organochlorine pollutants. In the 19th century, the fin whale was occasionally hunted by open-boat whalers, but it was relatively safe because of its speed and the fact that it often sank when killed. However, the later introduction of steam-powered boats and harpoons that exploded on impact made it possible to kill and secure them along with blue and sei whales on an industrial scale. As other whale species became over-hunted, the whaling industry turned to the still-abundant fin whale as a substitute. It was primarily hunted for its blubber, oil, and baleen. Approximately 704,000 fin whales were caught in Antarctic whaling operations alone between 1904 and 1975. The introduction of factory ships with stern slipways in 1925 substantially increased the number of whales taken per year. In 1937-38 alone, over 29,000 fin whales were taken. From 1953-54 to 1961-62, the catch averaged over 30,000 per year. By 1962-63, sei whale catches began to increase as fin whales became scarce. By 1975-76, fewer than 1,000 fin whales were being caught each year. In the North Pacific, over 74,000 fin whales were caught between 1910 and 1975. Between 1910 and 1989, over 55,000 were caught in the North Atlantic. The IWC prohibited hunting in the Southern Hemisphere in 1976. The Soviet Union engaged in the illegal killing of protected whale species in the North Pacific and Southern Hemisphere, over-reporting fin whale catches to cover up illegal takes of other species. In the North Pacific, they reported taking over 10,000 fin whales between 1961–79, while the true catch was less than 9,000. In the Southern Hemisphere, they reported taking nearly 53,000 between 1948–73, when the true total was a little over 41,000. The fin whale was given full protection from commercial whaling by the IWC in the North Pacific in 1976, and in the North Atlantic in 1987, with small exceptions for aboriginal catches and catches for research purposes. All populations worldwide remain listed as endangered species by the US National Marine Fisheries Service and the International Conservation Union Red List. The fin whale is on Appendix 1 of CITES. The IWC has set a quota of 19 fin whales per year for Greenland. Meat and other products from whales killed in these hunts are widely marketed within Greenland, but export is illegal. Iceland and Norway are not bound by the IWC's moratorium on commercial whaling because both countries filed objections to it. In October 2006, Iceland's fisheries ministry authorized the hunting of nine fin whales through August 2007. In 2009 and 2010, Iceland caught 125 and 148 fin whales, respectively. An Icelandic company, Hvalur, has announced that it plans to resume killing fin whales beginning in June 2013, mostly for sale to Japan. In the southern hemisphere, Japan permits annual takes of 10 fin whales under its Antarctic Special Permit whaling program for the 2005–2006 and 2006–2007 seasons. The proposal for 2007–2008 and the subsequent 12 seasons allows taking 50 per year. While ten fin whales were caught in the 2005-06 season and three in the 2006-07 season, none were caught in the 2007-2008 season. A single fin whale was caught in both the 2008-09 and 2009-10 seasons, two were taken in the 2010-11 season, and one was taken in the 2011-12 season. Collisions with ships are a major cause of mortality. In some areas, they cause a substantial portion of large whale strandings. Most serious injuries are caused by large, fast-moving ships over or near continental shelves. Several fin whale skeletons are exhibited in North America. The Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County in Los Angeles, California has an exhibit entitled the "Fin Whale Passage", which displays a 19.2 metres (63 ft) fin whale skeleton collected by former museum osteologist Eugene Fischer and field collector Howard Hill in 1926 from the Trinidad whaling station (1920–1926) in Humboldt County, northern California. A steel armature supports the skeleton, which is accompanied by sculpted flukes.Science North, a science museum in Greater Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, has a 20 metres (66 ft) fin whale skeleton collected from Anticosti Island hanging from the fourth floor of their main building. Several fin whale skeletons are also exhibited in Europe. The Natural History Museum of Slovenia in Ljubljana, Slovenia, houses a 13 metres (43 ft) female fin whale skeleton – the specimen had been found floating in the Gulf of Piran in the spring of 2003. The Hungarian Natural History Museum in Budapest, Hungary, displays a fin whale skeleton hanging near its main entrance which had been caught in the Atlantic Ocean in 1896 and purchased from Vienna in 1900. The Cambridge University Museum of Zoology, in Cambridge, United Kingdom, exhibits a nearly 21 metres (69 ft) male fin whale skeleton, which had stranded at Pevensey, East Sussex, in November 1865. Fin whales are regularly encountered on whale watching excursions worldwide. In the Southern California Bight, fin whales are encountered year-round, with the best sightings between November and March. They can even be seen from land (for example, from Point Vicente, Palos Verdes, where they can be seen lunge feeding at the surface only a half mile to a few miles offshore). They are regularly sighted in the summer and fall in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Gulf of Maine, the Bay of Fundy, the Bay of Biscay, and the western Mediterranean. In southern Ireland, they are seen from June to February, with peak sightings in November and December.Cruise ships en route to and from the Antarctic Peninsula sometimes encounter fin whales in the Drake Passage. The fin whale is listed on both Appendix I and Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). It is listed on Appendix I as this species has been categorized as in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant proportion of its range and CMS Parties strive towards strictly protecting these animals, conserving or restoring the places where they live, mitigating obstacles to migration and controlling other factors that might endanger them. It is listed on Appendix II as it has an unfavourable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international co-operation organised by tailored agreements. 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Retrieved 2006-10-23. - "Catches under Objection". International Whaling Commission. Retrieved 2012-02-06. - "U.S. Protests Japan's Announced Return to Whaling in Antarctic". Bureau of International Information Programs, U.S. Department of State. 20 November 2006. Retrieved 2006-11-27. - "Catches under Permit". International Whaling Commission. Retrieved 2012-02-06. - Laist, D.W.; Knowlton, A.R., Mead, J.G., Collet A.S., and Podesta, M. (2001). "Collisions between ships and whales" (PDF). Marine Mammal Science 17: 35–75. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2001.tb00980.x. - The Fin Whale Passage, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County - Science North – Fourth Floor exhibits - Slovenian Museum of Natural History, Exhibitions – The mysterious death of young Leonora - Hungarian Natural History Museum – Permanent Exhibitions – Fin whale skeleton - Cambridge University Museum of Zoology – The Finback Whale - "Maritime". Otago Museum. Retrieved 2013-05-13. - Whales Online -- Fin whale - Irish Whale and Dolphin Group -- Fin Whale Species Profile - "Appendix I and Appendix II" of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). As amended by the Conference of the Parties in 1985, 1988, 1991, 1994, 1997, 1999, 2002, 2005 and 2008. Effective: 5th March 2009. - Official website of the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area - Peter Saundry. 2011. Fin whale. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC. C.Michael Hogan Ed. Content partner: Encyclopedia of Life - National Audubon Society Guide to Marine Mammals of the World, Reeves, Stewart, Clapham and Powell, ISBN 0-375-41141-0 - Whales & Dolphins Guide to the Biology and Behaviour of Cetaceans, Maurizio Wurtz and Nadia Repetto. ISBN 1-84037-043-2 - Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals, editors Perrin, Wursig and Thewissen, ISBN 0-12-551340-2 |Wikispecies has information related to: Balaenoptera physalus| |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Balaenoptera physalus| - US National Marine Fisheries Service fin whale web page - ARKive - images and videos of the fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus) - Finback whale sounds - IUCN Red List entry - Photograph of a fin whale underwater - Photographs of a fin whale breaching - World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) - species profile for the fin whale Read in another language This page is available in 47 languages - Bahasa Indonesia - Norsk bokmål - Norsk nynorsk - Simple English - Српски / srpski - Tiếng Việt

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“No occupation in the world is more disreputable than that of the shepherd.” Such was the surprising judgment of the Pharisaic Rabbi of Jesus’ day. Shepherds were listed in the rabbi’s official lists of thieving and cheating occupations, were assumed to be dishonest, and were generally despised by the religious leaders. A shepherd could not. be a judge, nor was he allowed to be a witness in a court of law. Pious people were forbidden to buy wool, milk, or kids from them, since such would undoubtedly be stolen merchandise. One rabbi even asked with amazement how, since shepherds were so despicable, one could explain the fact that God is called “my shepherd” in Psalm 23. But Jesus identified with the lowly shepherd (poimen -- poi MANE). The first visitors to his humble nativity were shepherds. More than once the hero of his parables was a simple shepherd. But most of all Jesus portrayed himself as a shepherd -- the good shepherd who lays down His life for His sheep. Jesus was ready and willing to cast his lot with despised shepherds and sinners, for it was they whom he cared to save! And one thing more. In his church, Jesus established an office of leadership and placed privilege and responsibility in the hands of those who held this office. These men of honor were called elders, overseers, . . . and shepherds.

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-: Password Hacking :- Password cracking is the process of recovering secret passwords from data that has been stored in or transmitted by a computer system. A common approach is to repeatedly try guesses for the password. Most passwords can be cracked by using following techniques : 1) Hashing :- Here we will refer to the one way function (which may be either an encryption function or cryptographic hash) employed as a hash and its output as a hashed password. If a system uses a reversible function to obscure stored passwords, exploiting that weakness can recover even 'well-chosen' passwords. One example is the LM hash that Microsoft Windows uses by default to store user passwords that are less than 15 characters in length. LM hash breaks the password into two 7-character fields which are then hashed separately, allowing each half to be attacked separately. ||Hash functions like SHA-512, SHA-1, and MD5 are considered impossible to invert when used correctly.| 2) Guessing :- Many passwords can be guessed either by humans or by sophisticated cracking programs armed with dictionaries (dictionary based) and the user's personal Not surprisingly, many users choose weak passwords, usually one related to themselves in some way. Repeated research over some 40 years has demonstrated that around 40% of user-chosen passwords are readily guessable by programs. Examples of insecure choices * blank (none) * the word "password", "passcode", "admin" and their derivatives * the user's name or login name * the name of their significant other or another person (loved one) * their birthplace or date of birth * a pet's name * a dictionary word in any language * automobile licence plate number * a row of letters from a standard keyboard layout (eg, the qwerty keyboard -- qwerty itself, asdf, or qwertyuiop) * a simple modification of one of the preceding, such as suffixing a digit or reversing the order of the letters. and so on.... In one survery of MySpace passwords which had been phished, 3.8 percent of passwords were a single word found in a dictionary, and another 12 percent were a word plus a final digit; two-thirds of the time that digit was. ||A password containing both uppercase & lowercase characters, numbers and special characters too; is a strong password and can never 3) Default Passwords :- A moderately high number of local and online applications have inbuilt default passwords that have been configured by programmers during development stages of software. There are lots of applications running on the internet on which default passwords are enabled. So, it is quite easy for an attacker to enter default password and gain access to sensitive information. A list containing default passwords of some of the most popular applications is available on the internet. ||Always disable or change the applications' (both online and offline) default username-password 4) Brute Force :- If all other techniques failed, then attackers uses brute force password cracking technique. Here an automatic tool is used which tries all possible combinations of available keys on the keyboard. As soon as correct password is reached it displays on the screen.This techniques takes extremely long time to complete, but password will ||Long is the password, large is the time taken to brute force it. 5) Phishing :- This is the most effective and easily executable password cracking technique which is generally used to crack the passwords of e-mail accounts, and all those accounts where secret information or sensitive personal information is stored by user such as social networking websites, matrimonial websites, etc. Phishing is a technique in which the attacker creates the fake login screen and send it to the victim, hoping that the victim gets fooled into entering the account username and password. As soon as victim click on "enter" or "login" login button this information reaches to the attacker using scripts or online form processors while the user(victim) is redirected to home page of e-mail service provider. ||Never give reply to the messages which are demanding for your username-password, urging to be e-mail service provider. It is possible to try to obtain the passwords through other different methods, such as social engineering, wiretapping, keystroke logging, login spoofing, dumpster diving, phishing, shoulder surfing, timing attack, acoustic cryptanalysis, using a Trojan Horse or virus, identity management system attacks (such as abuse of Self-service password reset) and compromising host security. However, cracking usually designates a guessing attack.

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The story of African Americans in the United States is one of both immeasurable suffering and soaring hope. Two and a half centuries of slavery and segregation prevented black men and women from exercising the rights of citizenship taken for granted by their white counterparts. African Americans who fought for freedom from tyranny abroad, helping to liberate Europe from Nazi Germany in World War II, for example, returned to the United States and were denied the right to register to voteand some were beaten or killed while attempting to do so. In much of the country, blacks were forbidden to share the same spacesincluding schools, public transportation, and recreational facilitiesas whites. And measures were taken to prohibit African Americans from living near whites. Nevertheless, African Americans persevered, building universities and achieving heights in all spheres of activity, from arts and entertainment to aviation and science. It was just over a century ago, in 1909, that the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was formed with the aim of abolishing segregation and discrimination in housing, education, employment, voting, and transportation and securing for African Americans their constitutional rights. The struggle for freedom was long and difficult and included, among other tactics, litigation, marches, and sit-ins. It was also almost universally nonviolent, a reflection of the spirit of the leader who came to personify the American civil rights movement, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Recent years have been momentous ones in the history of the United States and African Americans, years marking major anniversaries of the civil rights movement and the realization of those dreams at the highest level, with Barack Obama's election as the first African American president. On August 28, 2008, precisely 45 years after Dr. King gave his famous I Have a Dream speech at the March on Washington, Barack Obama accepted the Democratic nomination for the presidency of the United States, becoming the first African American to be nominated by a major U.S. party. January 15, 2009, marked the 80th anniversary of Dr. King's birth. Five days later, on January 20, Americans celebrated one hard-won step in the fulfillment of his dream: Barack Obama's inauguration as the 44th president of the United States. Indeed, this event signaled the start of a new era in the civil rights movement, one in which all children can imagine the freedom to excel at anything and the possibility of being judged, to echo Dr. King, by the content of their character rather than the colour of their skin. The struggles of the civil rights movement were further remembered on February 1, 2010, which marked the 50th anniversary of the Greensboro sit-in. On August 6, 2010, the 45th anniversary of the passage of the Voting Rights Act was observed, while January 2011 marked the 25th anniversary of the first nationwide observance of Martin Luther King, Jr., Day in the United States. We offer Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History to provide a context for these significant milestones, to examine the entirety of the African American experience, and to celebrate the achievements of many individual African Americans. Select a link on the left to begin exploring.

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|guitar chords||guitar scales||scales to chords||chord progressions||glossary||songs||arpeggio||guitar licks||misc.| |chord name||reverse scales||chords to scale||metronome||forums||tuner||jam||lessons||links| Music Theory: Part IV - Turning Your Scales into Chords Hey everyone! This is the fourth installment of my "Music Theory" lessons. Just as the title suggests, we are going to build off the knowledge gained in my two prior lessons, Music Theory: These Ain't For No Weight and Music Theory: Stack 'em and Smack 'em, and learn how to apply the chords learned to the scales learned. A Quick Re-hash Scales are generally note groups of seven notes. In some instances that number may vary, such as pentatonic scales, which are groups of five notes or the chromatic scale, which contains all twelve tones in western music. Scales are defined by intervals and not so much by the notes they contain. An interval is the distance between tones, i.e. wholes step or half step or whole tone and semitone. --(Modes are defined as scales inside of one key)-- There are seven modes in any major key. All the modes in a major key will contain the same notes, however, the notes will be placed at different intervals, or in different orders as it were, thus giving them all unique tonal qualities. Chords are built off harmonies and chord progressions are just groups of chords. Harmony is when two or more tones are played simultaneously or occur over the same time frame. Harmony is also determined by an interval. In this case, an interval refers to the distance between the two or more tones play together. Harmony is closely related to chords, because chords are, essentially, harmonies; multiple tones played simultaneously. Chords are built from scale intervals and generally are defined by the first/root, third and fifth degrees in a scale. Major chords are defined by a root, major third and fifth, while minor chords are defined by a root, minor third and fifth. There are several other chord types (but not limited to): The most basic form of a chord is called a triad. Triads are so called because they consist of three distinct notes; Root, fifth and third. A major triad will have a major third and a minor triad will have a minor third. Chords are usually distinguished by their root note. For example, the chord C Major may be described as a three-note chord of major quality built upon the note C. Chords can also be classified as inversions. There are these cool things called "power chords", which are also referred to as fifth chords. Fifth chords are not really chords at all, rather just meager intervals noted as a dyad. A dyad is a set of two notes or intervals. In the key of C major the first degree of the scale, called the tonic, is the note C itself, so a C major chord, a triad built on the note C, may be called the one chord of that key and notated in Roman numerals as I. The same C major chord can be found in other scales: it forms chord III in the key of A minor (A-B-C) and chord IV in the key of G major (G-A-B-C). Okay, that's enough of that. Let's move on to the lesson. If you need further explanation on anything just mentioned, check out the previous Music Theory Lessons. Building Triads Based on the Major Scale Though I mentioned other chords type above, we are just going to stick with basic triads. Once you have those down, you will be able to build the other chords without issues. Essentially what we are doing is making chords that harmonize with certain intervals in a scale. So, that being said, let's build ourselves a major scale. For sake of simplicity, I chose to use the C Major Scale as an example. We all remember how to build those right? You might also see it like this: So, starting with a root C, we build a scale that looks like this: Remember those degrees I talked about a couple lessons ago? Here they are again: Now it all just kind of falls together really simply. Even if it seems confusing, this next picture should clear everything up for you. Lastly I am going to show you another diagram without any note values in it, so you can see just the pattern and hopefully make it easier to memorize. If you had any problems understanding anything in the lesson, please be sure to check out my other Music Theory lessons. Remember, just like with scales alone and chords alone, this technique can be applyed in any major key! Well that about sums this lesson. I hope you learned a thing or two. If you know your basics, this stuff shouldn't be too difficult to grasp. That being said, it is important that you not get too far ahead of yourself. Also, if you haven't doen so already, I would strongly recommend skimming through my three previous lessons on music theory. Great chord scale lesson. Guest access is read-only. To write comment, please login!

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-> Go to the Asus website, download the manual, read the manual. -> Go to the Intel website - there you will find all the white papers on pin assignments for all Pentium CPU's. How you pull the voltage off of the socket is the poser - you might just be able to run the board w/o the CPU. -> A CPU uses the same amount of power no matter what the voltage is. Power=voltage*current. Voltage goes down, current goes up. A 100 watt bulb at 120 volts uses around 0.83 amps. A 100 watt bulb at 12 volts uses 8.3 amps. That's why a table lamp can use 18-ga wire, but your KC Daylighters need 12-ga wire and a 20A fuse. what happens when you copy the link into your address bar and step back a directory (and/or remove the file name), do you get an index, or just another file? what's the name of the file? if it's listed at .htm, try changing it to .html... whatever, just fool around with it -> A CPU uses the same amount of power no matter what the voltage is. Dimarini is closer to the truth. Actually, the power is not constant with voltage either. It's a dynamic property of the CPU, that is it's also frequency dependent. The reason is that every time a signal changes state in the CPU, the transistor used in the logic cell (and there may be up to 20+ MILLION of them!) conducts current from the processor core supply to ground. It's a relatively small current, but there are lots of them that add up on each clock cycle. The power requirements of modern CPU's rise with clock frequency because of this. Here's a general equation for power consumption in high speed CMOS circuits. Not all CPU's are pure HSCMOS, but the general equation is similar for different fabrication processes. Pd = C * f * V^2 Pd = Power Dissipation in CPU C = Sum of Junction Capacitances in CPU f = Operating Frequency V = Core Voltage Note: C is a constant for a given CPU/Fabrication Process. You can estimate the power increase in your CPU due to increased clock frequency or core voltage without knowing it's exact value, since it doesn't change. There is also a constant current draw from the CPU with no clock applied, but it is very low in comparison to the operating (dynamic) current draw when the CPU is clocked at full speed. So in general, power increases linearly with an increase in frequency, and is a square of the increase in voltage. If you bump your frequency 10%, then the power will go up 10%. If you increase your core voltage by 10%, your power will increase 21%! That is why there is a HUGE drive by CPU designers to lower the core voltages and shrink the geometry of new CPU's. Smaller geometry lets you clock faster and run at lower voltages at the same time. This makes power manageable with reasonable heatsink/fan solutions. It also lets them get more dies/wafer in manufacturing and that translates to $$$ -- lower cost/die for the manufacturer and cheaper CPU's for us! [This message has been edited by MGP (edited 08-05-99).] ...you have now moved beyond my level of knowlege. However, just to save face, remember I did say early on that when increases the frequency of your CPU , you increase power draw. However I willingly accede to your greater knowlege of the inner workings of our mysterious CPUs! Whoooaaa! Ummm, thanks guys for the enlightening posts. I DID read everyone of them and, well, the knowledge I've gained is inverseley proportional to the number of posts squared times the difference of members v.s junior members in this thread. Let me be more clear: K = 1/(p^2)(m - j) K = Knowledge 1 = 1 p = posts m = unique # of members posting on this thread. j = unique # of junior members posting on this thread. Oh yes, and K is a constant with the value of 0. Actually, I did learn a little. I know you guys were having your own EE discussion and not replying to my question (no worrys!), but what I was really getting at is the relationships between all the of the overclocking components and the effects modifications have on each. If I understand it correctly, there are essentially 3 variables in overclocking: I am not sure but there may be 2 more: 4) ratio of speed RAM is running compared to FSB? 5) ratio of speed AGP port is running compared to FSB? Also, I'm sure someone is thinking that temperature is another variable. I agree but since I do not have exact control over the temperature setting of the CPU lets assume that I am using a high-end heat sink/fan combo and that I can't do any better as far as cooling goes. Then there are three hardware components that are directly affected by altering these variables: 3) AGP Video Card Again, I'm guessing the the PCI/ISA slots are somehow affected by the changes made in our variables. I want to understand how they are affected but would like to save that until last. So, I guess you could approach overclocking from 2 angles - CPU or Video. Lets go with CPU because I think OC'ing the CPU will essentially OC the AGP and thus the Video but not the other way around. Is this true? This is getting really long so I think I'll just get the ball rolling and add questions as I get responses. If I OC the FSB and leave all other variables alone how are all hardware components affected? Does everyone see what I'm getting at? I'm thinking that there is a very complex set of relationships between all of these components and variables and I'd like to learn the nature of all of these. That's a tall order and maybe knowing the whole story isn't necessary to OC, but I'm the kind of person who likes to REALLY understand. Thanks for reading all the way through! Again, any help is GREATLY appreciated. [This message has been edited by Valdin (edited 08-06-99).] Overclock your RAM (some BIOSes will allow you to run ram at AGP speed, but you probably won't want to, just go with good PC100 or PC133 ram from a reputable manuf. micron, siemens, crucial, or corsair) Overclock your AGP Bus (Some BIOSes will have different dividers 1/4,1/3 so that your AGP Bus and PCI Bus will run at very close to its correct speed even though your FSB is overclocked) Overclock your PCI Bus and all cards plugged into PCI slots. (Some BIOSes .... see above) Overclock your ISA Bus and all cards plugged into it. Overclock all of the various bridges to usb ports, IDE, etc. In a nutshell, depending on your motherboard and bios setup, when you overclock your FSB you overclock EVERYTHING IN YOUR COMPUTER! Unless you have a nice motherboard like a BX6 Rev 2 that lets you run your FSB at 133 MHz with a 1/4 divider so your PCI runs at 33 Mhz. [This message has been edited by Dimarini (edited 08-06-99).] Dell Computer Corporation Okay, that makes sense. Now, I read posts that say to step up the FSB until you have problems. These posts generally refer to the CPU's temp or limitations in it's ability as the cause of the problems. In reality you have no idea what the cause of the problems are, right? For all we know it could be the PC100 RAM can't handle the boosted FSB. Or the AGP video card now is running at the boosted FSB speed and can't handle it. Are there other clocks, buses, whatever on the video card that are independent of the FSB? When people talk about OC'ing the video card they use a software utility to adjust two different settings (I can't remember what they are called.) Are these settings independent from the FSB? If everything feeds off the FSB how can you boost the video settings higher than the FSB? The 2 video settings that you refer to are the video memory speed and the video chip speed. They should be independent of the FSB. The FSB is how the various busses in the computer (PCI,AGP,etc) communicate with the processor and memory, the two video speeds are the speeds of the memory on the video card and the chip on the video card. Dell Computer Corporation

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Recently, the UKAFH invited me to write an article for them on fossil preservation. What kind of palaeontologist would possibly decline! [excluding inverts - they don't count] This is just a nice basic guide to taphonomic processes, designed for people with limited knowledge of geology or palaeontology. Feedback, as always, is welcome! The fossil record is our one and only key to a physical understanding of ancient or extinct life. Over the years a wealth of fossil remains have been uncovered, ranging from the earliest microbial life to the largest eukaryotic animals, and from isotopic signatures to fragments of DNA. These remains of dead organisms are found in two major divisions: as body fossils, where an actual specimen is preserved in some form or as trace fossils, where a particular aspect of an organism’s life is preserved, typically as trackways or burrows. The process of preservation is termed taphonomy, and can be broken down into three main stages: necrosis, biostratinomy and diagenesis. The death of an organism, necrosis, is the initial stage in preservation, and is related to either trauma or physiology. Biostratinomy refers to the processes from death to post-mortem burial, such as transportation, bacterial decay and potential scavenging. The time taken during this stage is a critical aspect of preservation likelihood. Finally, diagenesis refers to the processes relating to the transformation of sediments into rock, and organisms into fossils. The mode of preservation leading to what we see in rocks is determined at this point, through the interaction of the surrounding sediment chemistry and the recalcitrance of various tissues. During these three stages, numerous factors act to destroy fossils, including microbial decay, predation, and a multitude of biogeochemical processes. In order for a fossil to be preserved, at some point in the taphonomic cycle, one or more of these processes must be arrested. The degree to which taphonomic breakdown is prevented is directly proportional to the degree of preservation attained. Modes of Preservation Permineralisation or Petrifaction This is the most common style whereby soluble minerals in the surrounding sediments and fluids are deposited within interstitial organic pore spaces, leading to a variety of styles of preservation. This is the most common preservation in most invertebrates, organic-walled microfossils and bones. Directly observable using various microscopic methods, this needs to be distinguished from recrystallization and dissolution processes to reconstruct the initial tissue structure. The most infamous recent occurrence of desiccation-based preservation is the “dinosaur mummy” from Dakota, the aptly named, Dakota. This Upper Cretaceous hadrosaur preserves actual recrystallized tissue remains, including tendons and ligaments and the epidermal microstructure, in amazing detail. The carcass is thought to have undergone rapid burial on the periphery of a sandy river channel, enclosing it in an anoxic environment and significantly enhancing its preservation. The La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles, California are renowned for the immaculate presence of a multitude of Pleistocene-age mammals. They are the products of crude oil seepage, with lighter hydrocarbon phases being siphoned off via fractionation until just sticky tar remains. The predominant hypothesis for the mass accumulations of fossils is that, once an animal was mired, it became the target for packs of predators, who ultimately met the same sticky fate as their intended prey. Little soft tissue is preserved, but the concentration of bones more than compensates. The bones are actually infused by the tar, turning them a dark brown colour. Smaller invertebrates as well as plant macro- and microfossils are also abundant here. The tar creates a completely anoxic environment in which little to no decay can occur. Amber is the solidified remains of ancient tree sap. Organisms that are unlucky (or lucky?) enough to be preserved in amber create the most intricate and beautifully preserved fossils of all. Featuring prominently as John Hammond’s cane top in Jurassic Park, they deserve pride of place due to the exquisite detail typically preserved. The most famous deposit is the Eocene-age Baltic Amber, which has produced perfectly preserved plants, insects and even small vertebrates. Amber, like tar, entombs organisms within a completely anoxic environment, ceasing all decompositional processes. This process involves the conversion of organic tissues into a carbonaceous film or residue through either pyrolysis (i.e., thermochemical decomposition) or destructive distillation (anaerobic decomposition), usually as a result of low-grade regional metamorphism. It is the process that converts woody material into coal seams. Typical fossils found preserved like this are graptolites in shales, typically associated with scavenger-free deep-water anoxic environments, as well as marine vertebrate integument (e.g., in the Holzmaden Shale). Infamous for the occasional Woolly mammoth occurrence in Alaska and Siberia. The conditions lock organisms, complete with integument and flesh, in time. DNA has even been extracted from several specimens and is incredibly useful in accurately retracing pachyderm lineages. Classic examples where volcanic interaction has led to sites of exceptional taphonomy include the Mistaken Point Biota (Ediacaran, Newfoundland), and the Jehol Biota (Lower Cretaceous, China). The advantages of volcanogenic interaction are two-fold; firstly, they create toxic, anoxic environments, and are typically rapidly deposited creating the perfect preservational scenario. Secondly, they contain radioactive elements which can be used for high-precision radiometric dating, which can be applied by association to intercalated fossiliferous horizons. At the two mentioned sites, episodic ash falls capture and smother local fauna and flora. These are typically found interbedded with thin mudstones and shales, suggestion that they are lakeside communities mixed in with autochthonous benthic fauna. Fauna preserved associated with these ash deposits have a diagnostic opisthotonic neck posture, infamously depicted in the birds and avian theropods of the Jehol fauna, in the classic ‘angel pose’. This is possibly indicative of hypersaline or toxic waters as a cause of death. The study of trace fossils is known as Ichnology. Trace fossils are the direct result of biological activity and have their own independent taxonomic system. This makes them extremely useful in reconstructing the behavioural palaeoecology of extinct organisms. They can represent anything from nesting sites, to anastomosing series of trackways, and can be preserved as either exogenic (on the surface of a fabric) or endogenic (made within sediments). The preservation potential for trace fossils is typically a function of grain size and depositional facies. The fossil record is an incredibly biased sample of ancient ecosystems. Scientists estimate that only 15% of the composite species in an ecosystem are typically preserved, and of these, most are those with ‘hard parts’ (e.g., shells, cuticle, bone). There are also biases reflecting the depositional environment (e.g., fluvial, lacustrine, marine, aeolian, volcanogenic), and amount of rock sampled, amongst others, which recently scientists have begun to unravel in the hopes of better determining the controls on preservation through deep geological time, and the effect this has on our understanding of the fossil record and diversity dynamics. Occasionally, palaeontologists are fortunate enough to come across sites of exceptional preservation known as Lagerstätten (German for ‘storage place’). These represent snapshots in time, and come into two flavours: Konservat-Lagerstätten and Konzentrat-Lagerstätten. The former represents an accumulation of fossils where the detail preserved is on an incredibly intricate level, such that ‘soft parts’ are visible, even to the molecular level. The best known examples of these include the Burgess Shale (Cambrian, Canadian Rockies), and the Jehol Biota (Lower Cretaceous, China). Here, preservation of articulated elements, original labile soft tissues, unaltered mineral compositions and orientations, and even intracellular structure can be preserved, indicating the early termination of diagenetic processes or that early mineralisation sufficiently outpaced degradation. Konzentrat-Lagerstätte, on the other hand, represent unusually high concentrations of fossils, typically representing an in situ community. A classic example of this is the Morrison Formation bone bed (Late Jurassic, North America). Deposits like these typically represent mass mortality events such as flooding. Until recently, most fossils were interpreted in terms of their macroscopic preservation features. However, with technological advances such as the increasingly commonly used computed-tomography (CT) scanning and scanning-electron microscopy (SEM), sophisticated details about micro-scale preservation in numerous fossils are being recovered. Accordingly, palaeontologists are uncovering more about macro- and micro-scale physical features, as well as physiological, cellular and even sub-cellular processes. Allison, P. A. and Bottjer, D. J. (2011) Taphonomy: process and bias through time, second edition, New York: Springer Nudds, J. and Selden, P. (2008) Fossil-Lagerstätten, Geology Today, 24(4), 153-158 Schweitzer, M. H., Avci, R., Collier, T. and Goodwin, M. B. (2008) Microscopic, chemical and molecular methods for examining fossil preservation, Comptes Rendus Palevol, 7, 159-184 Upchurch, P., Mannion, P. D., Benson, R. B. J., Butler, R. J. & Carrano, M. T. (2011, in press). Geological and anthropogenic controls on the sampling of the terrestrial fossil record: a case study from the Dinosauria. In: Comparing the Geological and Fossil Records: Implications for Biodiversity Studies, McGowan, A. J. and Smith, A. B. (eds). Geological Society, London, Special Publication 358: 209-240

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Information About the Privacy Act For every individual the federal government accumulates a wide range of information. For instance if you serve the federal agency or are in the military then your information will be recorded. In case you have applied for any federal benefits like student loan or benefits granted by the government then your information gets filed. Even a person who has paid income tax or has a social security number finds his/her details recorded. Privacy Act: Definition The Privacy Act was passed by Congress in the year 1974. This act ascertains few limits as to what records can be accumulated by the federal government. It basically consists of three primary rights: 1. The right of seeing records of himself or herself which is subject to the act’s exemption. 2. The right of changing records in case it’s incorrect or not relevant or not complete. 3. The right of suing the government in case of any violation of the law, for e.g. granting permission to any unknown or unauthorized person to read or go through your records. The Privacy Act also offers limitations on agencies related information and the practices related to it. For e.g. an agency can try to get as much information as possible from the specified individual. In case the person changes his or her information the records cannot be maintained by the agencies without taking the consent of the person. If this is done the agency will fall under the scope of endorsed law enforcement investigation. Learn more about exemptions pertaining to the Privacy Act of USA of USA from: Privacy Act Information The Privacy Act of 1974 is relevant to records which are stored and maintained by agencies in the administrative branch of the federal government. It is applicable only when the records can be retrieved by using specific credentials like a person’s name, social security number or some other generic personal identifier. It does not apply to normal records that are maintained by agencies or organizations and cannot be fetched by a specific personal identifier. In case if you have a huge interest on this act then it is recommended that you go through the whole of it. In that scenario you can click on the link www.justice.gov/oip/index.html and go through the reference materials related to the act. Even you can click on http://www.archives.gov/foia/privacy-act/ to learn more on the Privacy Act. You can write to the following address to know more on the Privacy Act: The National Archives and Records Administration 8601 Adelphi Road College Park, MD 20740-6001 In case you want to contact through telephone there is a toll free number which is 1-866-272-6272. You can call this number and place your queries accordingly. Privacy Act: Change of Records In this scenario you can always write to the officials of the agency for a change in the documents related to your personal details. You should provide them with all valid and genuine documents that support your statement. The officials will contact you in case they need more proofs or related documents. In case your appeal for change has been denied then you have the right to question them in a proper manner. In that scenario you can always approach the court and the agency will provide you with valid statements so that a judge can review them.

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Basics About Childhood Obesity How is childhood overweight and obesity measured? Body mass index (BMI) is a measure used to determine childhood overweight and obesity. It is calculated using a child's weight and height. BMI does not measure body fat directly, but it is a reasonable indicator of body fatness for most children and teens. A child's weight status is determined using an age- and sex-specific percentile for BMI rather than the BMI categories used for adults because children's body composition varies as they age and varies between boys and girls. CDC Growth Charts are used to determine the corresponding BMI-for-age and sex percentile. For children and adolescents (aged 2—19 years): - Overweight is defined as a BMI at or above the 85th percentile and lower than the 95th percentile for children of the same age and sex.1 - Obesity is defined as a BMI at or above the 95th percentile for children of the same age and sex.1 What are the consequences of childhood obesity? Health risks now - Childhood obesity can have a harmful effect on the body in a variety of ways. Obese children are more likely to have– - High blood pressure and high cholesterol, which are risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD). In one study, 70% of obese children had at least one CVD risk factor, and 39% had two or more.2 - Increased risk of impaired glucose tolerance, insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes.3 - Breathing problems, such as sleep apnea, and asthma.4,5 - Joint problems and musculoskeletal discomfort.4,6 - Fatty liver disease, gallstones, and gastro-esophageal reflux (i.e., heartburn).3,4 - Obese children and adolescents have a greater risk of social and psychological problems, such as discrimination and poor self-esteem, which can continue into adulthood.3,7,8 Health risks later - Obese children are more likely to become obese adults.9, 10, 11 Adult obesity is associated with a number of serious health conditions including heart disease, diabetes, and some cancers.12 - If children are overweight, obesity in adulthood is likely to be more severe.13 - Barlow SE and the Expert Committee. Expert committee recommendations regarding the prevention, assessment, and treatment of child and adolescent overweight and obesity: summary report. Pediatrics 2007;120 Supplement December 2007:S164—S192. - Freedman DS, Mei Z, Srinivasan SR, Berenson GS, Dietz WH. Cardiovascular risk factors and excess adiposity among overweight children and adolescents: the Bogalusa Heart Study. J Pediatr. 2007;150(1):12—17.e2. - Whitlock EP, Williams SB, Gold R, Smith PR, Shipman SA. Screening and interventions for childhood overweight: a summary of evidence for the US Preventive Services Task Force. Pediatrics. 2005;116(1):e125—144. - Han JC, Lawlor DA, Kimm SY. Childhood obesity. Lancet. May 15 2010;375(9727):1737—1748. - Sutherland ER. Obesity and asthma. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008;28(3):589—602, ix. - Taylor ED, Theim KR, Mirch MC, et al. Orthopedic complications of overweight in children and adolescents. Pediatrics. Jun 2006;117(6):2167—2174. - Dietz W. Health consequences of obesity in youth: Childhood predictors of adult disease. Pediatrics 1998;101:518—525. - Swartz MB and Puhl R. Childhood obesity: a societal problem to solve. Obesity Reviews 2003; 4(1):57—71. - Biro FM, Wien M. Childhood obesity and adult morbidities. Am J Clin Nutr. May 2010;91(5):1499S—1505S. - Whitaker RC, Wright JA, Pepe MS, Seidel KD, Dietz WH. Predicting obesity in young adulthood from childhood and parental obesity. N Engl J Med 1997;37(13):869—873. - Serdula MK, Ivery D, Coates RJ, Freedman DS. Williamson DF. Byers T. Do obese children become obese adults? A review of the literature. Prev Med 1993;22:167—177. - National Institutes of Health. Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults: the Evidence Report. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 1998. - Freedman DS, Khan LK, Dietz WH, Srinivasan SR, Berenson GS. Relationship of childhood overweight to coronary heart disease risk factors in adulthood: The Bogalusa Heart Study. Pediatrics 2001;108:712—718.

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Cantonese (or Yue) is one of the five major Chinese languages. These are often called "dialects", but in actuality their differences are great enough to consider them separate languages. Cantonese is spoken by about 100 million people in the southern provinces of Guangdong and Guangxi and in neighboring areas such as Hong Kong and Macao, as well as throughout South-East Asia in such places as Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam. Due to the migration of Cantonese speakers from Hong Kong and the Guangdong area, Cantonese is the dominant form of Chinese spoken in the Chinatowns of many major cities in the United States, Canada, Australia and elsewhere. The word Cantonese comes from Canton, the former English name of Guangzhou, capital of Guangdong, which was once considered the home of the purest form of Cantonese. However, through years of mass media and pop culture influence, Hong Kong has now truly become the cultural centre of Cantonese. Although Mandarin (or putonghua) is the standard and official language in mainland China, it has only been around for about 700 or 800 years, compared to the 2000-year history of Cantonese. Cantonese, not Mandarin, is the dominant language in overseas Chinese communities. This comes from the fact that, around the world, the largest flow of Chinese immigrants originates from Hong Kong. Cantonese is mainly an oral language. People in Hong Kong use standard Chinese (putonghua) when they read and write. They speak Cantonese in their daily interactions with people. As a colloquial language, Cantonese is full of slang and non-standard usage. The language of youth is rapidly evolving, and new slang and trendy expressions are constantly emerging. The standard written language in Hong Kong is essentially the same Chinese as everywhere else in China. The only difference is that Hong Kong and overseas communities, like Taiwan, have kept what are called traditional characters, whereas mainland China uses simplified characters. In an attempt to increase litteracy in China, thousands of characters were "simplified" in a 1950 spelling reform initiated by chairman Mao Zedong. Back to Learn Cantonese

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You may have heard of cover crops (AKA green manures or living mulches). Cover crops are a crop you plant in your garden during times when your main vegetable crops aren't growing. Wintertime is a great time for cover crops. Plants commonly used as winter cover crops include wheat, clover, vetch and rye. The seed for these plants is very inexpensive and is available at your local garden center or feed store. They are also available through mail-order sources. Cover crops can be a simple and attractive way to boost your organic garden's vegetable growing potential. They add visual interest to your garden with their green color and blossoms during the winter and early spring months. These crops help your garden ecosystem in many different ways. Attracting beneficial creatures: Cover crops provide habitat and food for beneficial insects, toads and birds. As cover crops grow, they also provide a home for soil creatures such as earthworms. Building and protecting your soil: The roots and leaf canopy of cover crops help prevent soil erosion. The biomass produced by the crop helps to build your soil's organic matter. Killing weeds: Fast-germinating cover crops that have large, spreading canopies outgrow and choke out weeds. Some cover crops also produce compounds that prevent weed seeds from sprouting. Adding nutrients: When you use a nitrogen-fixing crop such as clover or vetch, you are adding nitrogen to your soil. This will allow you to reduce the amount of compost or other organic fertilizers that you will have to provide to your vegetable crops. Cover crops can also scavenge for nutrients such as phosphorus and make them more available to your vegetable crops. Suppressing diseases and insect pests: Using cover crops in your garden can stop the cycle of plant diseases. This is because rotating between different types of crops helps keep soil-borne diseases and insect infestations in check. Some winter cover crops actually deter soil pests and diseases from setting up shop in your garden. There really is no one answer as to what the best plants to grow in a garden are because flowers, and plant arrangement are very much like an art. How one weaves colors and textures into a tapestry or mosaic upon the canvas of a yard is probably different every time. Successful low-cost gardening requires patience. If you forego instant gratification, and patiently scout for your needs, you'll have a great low-cost Garden. Your cost depends on your time and patience.

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Can you write down 10 mathematician name here ? # Archimedes of Syracuse # Isaac Newton # Leonhard Euler # Euclid of Alexandria # Bernhard Riemann # Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz # Joseph-Louis Lagrange # Henri Poincar # Pierre de Fermat ...more Albert Einstein: Perhaps the most famous known scientist of all time. His theories on relativity were groundbreaking and are still used today. Leonhard Euler: Well known for his contributions to mathematical vocabulary and notation. In particular, he is consider the founder of function notation. Fibonacci: His given name is Leonardo of Pisa. He is most known the number sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21,... which was eventually named after him as the Fibonacci Numbers. Carl Friedrich Gauss: Considered a child prodigy that eventually realized his true potential. He made monumental contributions in the areas of set theory, statistics, and many others.

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May 16, 2011 / ENERGY GLOBE Award Project presentation - "River from Sky" With only 45 days of rain annually, Rajasthan (northwest India, 56 million residents) is the most arid region of India. In 2003 "Sustainable Innovations", a non-profit organization, initiated the development of the water project "Aakash Gangaist" (translated "river from sky"). The principle is simple: Rainwater is collected from roofs in drains and accumulated in subterranean networked tank system. The success strategy for implementing the project is to focus on long-range economic viability via public/private partnerships (PPP). The system has already been installed in six Indian villages to serve some 10,000 residents. The government of Rajasthan has now signed a document of intent that provides for extending the project to 70 villages and 250,000 people. The costs of water per liter amount to $0.002 (based on a lifetime of 25 years). By comparison, the price of water from drilled wells comes to $0.04/liter. Additional pilot projects like this are planned for China already. Find more information here: www.sustainableinnovations.us

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- oxalemia · MORE. Related Questions. What is oxalate? - The Oxalate Content of Food - the different methods used for measuring oxalate in food. Published values for will vary depending on the underlying condition causing high oxalate levels. - Food Sources of Oxalate - Food Sources of Oxalate. FRUITS. Blackberries. - Category Food Oxalate Content GFCF Status SCD Status Salicylate - Oxalate Content. GFCF Status. SCD Status. - Fresno State Students work with NASA - The team tested the formation of a substance called calcium oxalate in order to see how it reacts in a microgravity environment on NASA's “Weightless Wonder” aircraft. - Fresno State students work with NASA - Calcium oxalate are sharp salt crystals found in plants and is also the major component of kidney stones. The Reduced Gravity Education Flight Program gives undergraduate students the chance to offer ideas to NASA. - C&J Nutritionists' Advice on Calcium-Blocking Foods - Foods that contain oxalate can reduce the amount of calcium you absorb because the oxalate binds with calcium in your intestines. So, not as much calcium can be absorbed from your intestines and therefore passes right through you. - Vijai Pandian column: Protect your pooch from poisonous landscape plants - Rhubarb (Rheum rhabarbarum) — Popularly known as pie plant; however, the toxic soluble oxalate compound in the leaves and stalks is poisonous to many pets. - Kidney Stones Linked to CVD, Metabolic Syndrome - Individuals with obesity and low urinary pH also excrete greater amounts of calcium and oxalate, and this increases the risk of calcium oxalate stone formation, he said. Dr. - Oxalate - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - Oxalate (IUPAC: ethanedioate), is the dianion with formula C2O42− also written ( COO)22−. - WHFoods: Can you tell me what oxalates are and in which foods - Oxalates are naturally-occurring substances found in plants, animals, and in humans. - Home-Low Oxalate Diet - Oxalate is a very simple sort of molecule. It links up with calcium and crystallizes under some conditions, including when it encounters damaged tissues. - Calcium oxalate crystals, in turn, contribute to the formation of kidney stones. - Oxalate, Kidney Stone Treatments, UW Health, University of - Jun 24, 2010 Approximately 20 percent of individuals who form calcium oxalate stones have hyperoxaluria (high oxalate in their urine). Oxalate is described in multiple online sources, as addition to our editors' articles, see section below for printable documents, Oxalate books and related discussion. Suggested Pdf Resources Suggested News Resources Suggested Web Resources Related searcheslist of anime conventions oregon r v constanza demographics of nigeria population demolition derby history tim drake costume

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strand synthesis uses a single, dimeric DNAPol III enzyme Models of DNA synthesis often show it as occurring independently on the leading and lagging strands, with separate DNAPol IIIs on each. However, replication at any one fork is under the control of a single, dimeric DNAPol III holoenzyme [the two donut-shaped rings] that replicates both parental DNA strands simultaneously. The process occurs consistent with the requirement that new strand synthesis always occurs 5'3'. Synthesis off the leading strand (below, blue) occurs in the 5'3' direction, which is oriented towards the replication fork (lower DNA molecule, red strand).To achieve the same orientation on the lagging strand, the lagging strand loops around the subunit (above, blue). This allows either parental strands to enter the alternate subunits of the polymerase in the same 5'-3' orientation as well as the same right-to-left direction. It also means that lagging strand synthesis will trail a series of Okazaki fragments as succesive segments of the parental strand pass through the polymerase. imagine the top subunit rotated 180o to the left, the Okazaki fragments will be directed away from the replication fork, in the manner seen in the simplified

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Question of power a heated debate Solar hot water panels on housing commission flats in Prahran. Environmentalists and scientists are frustrated by Australia's dependence on fossil fuels, writes Geoff Strong. It will be a proud moment next year when Professor Martin Green gets the new factory to manufacture an idea he has been nurturing for more than a decade. After $70 million worth of research, he and his team at the University of NSW have developed electricity-generating solar cells that can be made at half the cost of their competitors. They have invented a way of coating glass sheets with a thin veneer of the silicone that allows such cells to produce electricity when exposed to sunlight. With Australia's political parties once again deciding they need a green tinge and with public concern about rising energy costs and the issue of greenhouse gas-induced climate change, the project would appear to have all the ingredients for our leaders to be scrambling to snip the opening-day ribbon. They won't get the chance. The factory will be in Germany. Despite having considerably less sunshine than Australia, the German and other European governments give much higher financial incentives to people who generate renewable energy, such as with these photovoltaic solar cells. In our land of abundant sunshine, there is not enough interest in renewable energy technology, even when it is developed here. Prime Minister John Howard's continued support for a fossil-fuel future in his energy white paper on Tuesday has made Green even more comfortable that the Germany decision was the right one. "Germany is the biggest potential market because it has a supportive government program. People can buy the cells, put them on their roof and sell the excess energy back to the grid at a government-determined price that allows them to make a profit," he says. The greenhouse debate took a surprising turn this week when Lord Oxburgh, the head of Shell, the world's largest oil company, conceded that emissions of carbon dioxide threatened the future of the planet. Given the transport industry is one of the main sources of the gas, the statement was bigger even than a tobacco company admitting their product causes cancer. The politics behind the Government's support make it (geosequestration) a golden handshake for the fossil fuel industry. DON HENRY, ACF Oxburgh called for the urgent development of technologies to capture the gas and bury it underground, a process known as geosequestration and something being pushed by Howard as a means of keeping our export-earning coal industry alive. But the technology is still a long way off and while most environmentalists, such as the Australian Conservation Foundation's Don Henry, support it in principle, they believe it will be much more expensive than proponents claim and worry there is not enough proof the gas could be contained once buried. "It is a bit of a pipedream. I think the politics behind the Government's support make it a golden handshake for the fossil fuel industry," he says. It might be no coincidence that Howard's acknowledgement of global warming's dangers and the Opposition's drafting of high-profile environmentalist Peter Garrett coincide with the release of Hollywood's climate-change blockbuster, The Day After Tomorrow. Earlier this year, a secret report prepared for US defence chiefs warned of a scenario as dire as Hollywood's, fearing that in the next 20 years climate change could be so disruptive to the planet that it would dwarf the threat of terrorism as a source of political and military instability. Taking the worst-case scenario, it predicted nuclear conflict over resources such as water, mega-droughts (particularly in Australia), famine and widespread rioting. Although the Federal Government claims Australia is on target to meet its Kyoto commitments on greenhouse emissions, this still leaves us one of the worst polluters per head of population and one of the nations most reliant on fossil fuels. To the disappointment of the renewable energy industry, the white paper did not increase the mandatory renewable energy targets, presently set at just 2 per cent of current energy output. Environmentalists and the renewables industry argued for an increase to at least 10 per cent. While many European countries such as Britain, Germany and France have set the target of reducing emissions by 60 per cent in 2020, even under the Kyoto guidelines, Australia's emissions are set to increase. While Green's commercial solar panels will be first exposed to the weak German sunlight, there is one German idea that is poised to get its first full-scale test in Australia. On degraded grazing land, 23 kilometres across the NSW border from Mildura, a Melbourne-based company plans to build the world's tallest structure, a solar power station that can generate enough electricity for 200,000 homes. Unlike most solar generation, which converts sunlight directly into electricity, this idea relies on an enormous greenhouse, seven kilometres across, to generate heat on the ground, which is then sucked up through a one-kilometre-high chimney. The updraft created would power a bank of 32 turbines at the bottom of the chimney and these would generate 200 megawatts. Roger Davey, chief executive of proponent Enviromission Ltd, says that late last year Chinese investors put $1.5 million into his company because of interest in similar projects to lower China's greenhouse emissions. He is dismayed the Government has not increased its mandatory renewable energy targets. There is a range of potential options to wean Australia off fossil fuels. One that has received Government favour is a joint venture between an Australian National University team and a Queensland company to produce power from the heat found in hot rocks about four kilometres beneath the ground in the Cooper Basin region of South Australia. There is also a whole division of the CSIRO devoted to new energy technologies. Its chief, Dr David Brockway, says that even if we continue to use coal for electricity there is a potential technology to reduce the amount of greenhouse gas in proportion to the power generated. He says the technology to convert coal directly into gas before burning could be as little as five years away. This will mean scrapping existing power stations, but will boost efficiency from 29 per cent to about 50 per cent. "But the holy grail of technology is to work out an economic way of producing hydrogen gas from sunlight. You can generate electricity and power vehicles, there is virtually no greenhouse gas and the main by-product is water," he says.

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2013-05-19T02:03:36Z

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en

Cold sores, also known as fever blisters, are caused by a virus. They usually appear around the mouth and on the lips. They are highly contagious but not dangerous. About 60% of the population have suffered cold sores at some point in their lives. On average, people who get cold sores have 2 or 3 episodes a year, but this figure can vary significantly from person to person. The virus that causes cold sores is herpes simplex 1, a cousin of herpes simplex 2, which causes the well-known sexual disease. About 80% of the people in North America have dormant (inactive) herpes 1 virus living permanently in their body. The virus typically resides in a dormant state within the body's nerve cells. The body's immune system is normally able to keep the virus in its inactive state. When an infected person is exposed to a "trigger," or if the immune system is weakened, then the virus quickly multiplies and spreads down the nerve cell and out onto the skin, usually on the lips. This produces the characteristic tingling sensation and subsequent clusters of blisters. Specific triggers include: You can catch the virus if you come into direct contact with the cold sore blisters or the fluid inside them, which contains a high number of the viruses. This can easily happen through touching the hands of someone who has touched their blisters. It can also occur through sharing toothbrushes, cups, cutlery, face cloths, towels, lipstick, or other personal items that have been contaminated with fluid from the blisters. Once the blisters have stopped oozing or have crusted over, the person is no longer contagious. People who get cold sores may feel some unusual sensations around the lips in the 24 hours before the blisters appear, including tingling, burning, pain, or numbness. This is called a prodrome or warning sign that cold sores will appear at these spots. The skin turns red and blisters form. They ooze a clear liquid for a few days that dries to a yellow crust over a period of about 3 to 5 days. There is usually some pain in the first few days after the cold sores break out, but this often disappears as the cold sore crusts over. Complete healing takes from 10 to 14 days. The condition typically causes a cluster of lesions or blisters at a site around the lips. Areas other than the lips such as the inside of the mouth, around the nostrils, or even the surface of the eyes, can also be affected. It is possible to spread the virus to other parts of your body if you touch the blisters and then touch yourself elsewhere. Cold sores inside the mouth can be problematic, interfering with talking and eating. If the virus infects the eye, it can damage the surface leading to vision loss. Very rarely, it can get into the brain, causing viral meningitis or encephalitis. The virus that causes cold sores, herpes simplex 1, can also be spread to the genitals during oral sex, leading to genital herpes. Herpes simplex 1 never goes away completely, so cold sores can return later on if they are triggered again. Most cold sores don't leave scars; however, if an open blister becomes infected with bacteria or the lesions tend to return at the same site, scarring may result. People with weakened immune systems tend to get more cold sores and heal slower. Did you find what you were looking for on our website? Please let us know.

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2013-05-22T15:08:08Z

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How to Help Your Kids Avoid Type 2 Diabetes Until recently, type 2 diabetes was also known as adult-onset diabetes. Now, it is no longer called adult-onset diabetes because so many children are developing the condition. In general, those with type 2 diabetes have abnormally high levels of circulating glucose (blood sugar) because their pancreas either produces too little insulin, or their bodies are resistant to insulin that is produced. (Insulin is the hormone that transports the glucose into the body's cells.) This resistance makes it difficult for the insulin to get glucose into the cells of the body. Like adults with type 2 diabetes, children with the condition are at increased risk for serious health problems such as heart disease, kidney disease, and blindness later in life. Type 2 diabetes has an inherited component. Still, biology isn't destiny. Obeisty is a big trigger for diabetes. Weight gain, or fat, especially in the abdomen, increases the body's demand for insulin and interferes with the body's ability to use it properly. To prevent type 2 diabetes, help your children stay at a healthy weight. Certain racial and ethnic groups are at higher risk for developing type 2 diabetes. These include African Americans, American Indians, Hispanic Americans, and some Americans with Asian or Pacific Island backgrounds. Be a role model Helping kids stay lean and fit is a tall order. The message kids get on television is to eat junk food and drink sugar-containing beverages such as soda. Schools often have unhealthy choices for children in the vending machines. Still, you can help your kids keep their weight in check. In fact, your encouragement and actions may be the only thing they've got to counteract societal messages that promote weight gain. As a parent, you set a huge example for your children. Your example carries a lot of importance, so make sure you practice what you preach. To get your kids into the exercise habit, for example, do what you want your kids to do rather than just urging them to go outside and play. Participating as a family in lifestyle kinds of exercise, such as bike riding, hiking, walking, running, basketball, and tennis—fun activities that can carry over into adulthood—or even just playing in the park sends a strong message. Eat dinner together Likewise, to expand your children's palates and help them learn to make healthy food choices, which, in turn, can help them avoid obesity, make family meal time a priority. Why is this so important? Family dinners can promote healthy eating habits and encourage the consumption of a wide variety of healthy foods. Not only will they eat by example, but new foods also will become less foreign when everyone has some. Of course, you may have to serve a new food 10 times before your children will try it. But don't give up, or make an issue out of eating it. To increase the likelihood your children will try a new food, have them help you select it in the supermarket and prepare it at home. If they don't like a new food, experiment with different preparations. Don't force your child to eat anything. Don't serve family style To help your children get in touch with their hunger cues so they learn to stop eating when they're full, don't serve meals family style. It may encourage overeating. Portion out food in the kitchen and bring it to the table. Also, model proper portion sizes yourself and let your kids know if they want more, they can have some if they're still hungry. Temper TV watching and eating When it comes to weight gain, watching TV has a bad reputation—and for good reason. Eating in front of the television promotes mindless eating, and often overeating. Restrict food, including snacks, to the kitchen.

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You can access the problems below via the Load Homework dialogue in the File menu of the Virtual Lab. They have been organized by concept and ranked by difficulty (A ranking of 1 denotes an easier problem; 5 is more challenging). Word files for these problems are provided so that you may edit and distribute the assignments in your classroom. The following types of problems can be found: Temperature and the Solubility of Salts, Determining the Solubility Product, Determining the Solubility of Cup You can access the problems below via the Load Homework dialogue in the File menu of the Virtual Lab. They have been organized by concept and ranked by difficulty (A ranking of 1 denotes an easier problem; 5 is more challenging). Word files for these problems are provided so that you may edit and distribute the assignments in your classroom. The following types of problems can be found: Determining the Heat of Reactions in Aqueous Solution, Coffee, Coolant, Camping, ATP Reaction (Thermochemistry Visualizing inequality, envisioning a future This activity uses mapmaking and geography to plot the presence of the MDGs in communities, as well as visually represent development inequalities. The maps made in this lesson may be created using chart paper and markers, or using the Class Maps feature in TIGed Virtual Classrooms. Who's Using Who? This activity is part of TeenNet's Virtual Classroom on Tobacco Control. The Ocean That Surrounds Us This site contains links to course information, outlines, summaries and computer-based drills and exercises, called Virtual Voyages, for an Introductory Oceanography class at San Francisco State University. Virtual Voyages engage students outside of the classroom and cover such topics as the seafloor, ... Virtual Dating: Isochron Diagrams Virtual Dating teaching package contain exercises, questions and interactive diagrams describing absolute dating techniques used in geology. The Isochron exercise contains interactive (Flash) online exercises that help students to understand radioactive decay in rocks and minerals. Users will also find ... Water Safari, A Journey of Life invites students on a virtual safari through African countries using the Water in Africa Web site. They can then create a water journal that demonstrates how water affects the cultural and physical features of each location. Jazz, A Film by Ken Burns This is the companion website to the Ken Burns PBS series that aired in January 2001. Explore cities and clubs where jazz developed; listen to excerpts of bebop, cool jazz and other styles; discover what makes jazz jazz and the theory behind the art form often called the purest expression of American democracy. The site provides biographies of nearly 100 musicians, transcripts of interviews that went into the making of the show, a virtual piano, a study guide and more than a dozen lessons. Virtual State Tour Students will create a virtual tour of the state including geography, history, famous people, and points of interest using Sketchy. Virtual Fieldtrips in the Elementary School Classroom This module focuses on the use of virtual fieldtrips in the elementary school classroom. Classroom based examples are listed, advantages and disadvantages of using this technology are described, and tips for effective implementation are reviewed for exploring virtual fieldtrips in the classroom. The Hobby of Chess MEET ME AT THE CORNER, Virtual Field Tips for Kids introduces you to August in this kid-friendly video about the joy of learning to play chess. For more video podcasts for kids by kids to to our website How To Make Bread A cooking instructor gives a demonstration on how to make bread. The instructor mixes water, flour, yeast, eggs, sugar, salt and oil and shows how to knead the dough and let the dough rise. The dough is then separated into loaves for baking. Place bread loaves into greased trays and bake them for about 25 minutes. Homeschooling Tips : Registering for Homeschool for Florida Online High Register a homeschool student for Florida Virtual School by logging onto the Internet for information and registration guidelines. Linda Wooldridge has been homeschooling since 1998, and she has been on the PPEA board for three years as the orientation coordinator for Pinellas County. Filmmaker: Christopher Rokosz Ghana Slave Dungeon Built by European traders in the 17th century, Ghana's Cape Coast Castle was the point of departure for the countless numbers of Africans who were sent to the New World as free labor for the colonies. Join Explore founder Charles Annenberg Weingarten on a virtual tour of the slave dungeon, and witness the horrific conditions the captives were forced to endure while waiting to be sent across the Atlantic. Run time 04:31. Using Microsoft Access To Organize Your Life Lean the basic functions of Microsoft Excel. A virtual walk through on creating a database, form, running a query and more. (7:03) "Market Women's Cries" Poem by Jonathan Swift A virtual movie (portrait sitting in chair with book) of Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) "reading" one of his much loved poems "Market Women's Cries". This poem is a good example of Jonathan Swift as satirist. (1:12) Changing with the Tide The Changing with the Tide lesson plan is written around a role-play activity in which students learn about and act out the behavior of plants and animals in a salt marsh habitat as the tides change. An unusual feature of salt marshes is the dramatic daily change in stresses and interactions that the organisms face. On this Starting Point page, teachers can find learning goals, teaching notes and tips, teaching materials, assessment hints and references and resources dealing with this exercise. Anglo-Saxons and the Beowulf Epic This video (audio is a bit unclear in some parts) is about the connection between the Old English heroic epic poem Beowulf and the Anglo-Saxons who settled in England. The story of Beowulf, the warrior who slew the monster, Grendel, is about Danes and Swedes. How did it become Britain’s national epic? In this story behind the movie, Beowulf and the Anglo-Saxons, step back in time to the Dark Ages. Take a virtual trip to the story’s setting, in Scandinavia, to s Head-mounted display projects onto the retina Apart from industrial applications, this display could be used in AR technology, combining the real and virtual worlds. This is a video that should generate interest for advanced technology students. Seven Wonders of Ancient Greece (Part 1 of 5) This video looks at the Palace of Knossos and the history behind the palace. Today the remains of the palace can still be seen. Video shows the ruins of the palace and a virtual model of what they think the palace looked like. The palace covered 20,000 square yards. Discussion of The Oracle of Delphi is started in this video. The oracle is the mysterious powers that Delphi contained. Video is This video looks at the Palace of Knossos and the history behind the palace. Today the remains of the palace can still be seen. Video shows the ruins of the palace and a virtual model of what they think the palace looked like. The palace covered 20,000 square yards. Discussion of The Oracle of Delphi is started in this video. The oracle is the mysterious powers that Delphi contained. Video is

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en

Fairness requires that President Obama read up on his Kurt Vonnegut. The year was 2081, and everybody was finally equal. They weren’t only equal before God and the law. They were equal every which way. Nobody was smarter than anybody else. Nobody was better looking than anybody else. Nobody was stronger or quicker than anybody else. All this equality was due to the 211th, 212th and 213th Amendments to the Constitution, and to the unceasing vigilance of agents of the United States Handicapper General. So began Kurt Vonnegut’s 1961 short story “Harrison Bergeron.” In that brave new world, the government forced each individual to wear “handicaps” to offset any advantage he had, so everyone could be truly and fully equal. Beautiful people had to wear ugly masks to hide their good looks. The strong had to wear compensating weights to slow them down. Graceful dancers were burdened with bags of bird shot. Those with above-average intelligence had to wear government transmitters in their ears that would emit sharp noises every 20 seconds, shattering their thoughts “to keep them…from taking unfair advantage of their brains.” But Harrison Bergeron, who was far above average in everything, was a special problem. Vonnegut explained, “Nobody had ever borne heavier handicaps.… Instead of a little ear radio for a mental handicap, he wore a tremendous pair of earphones, and spectacles with thick wavy lenses.” To offset his strength, “Scrap metal was hung all over him,” to the point that the seven-foot-tall Harrison “looked like a walking junkyard.” The youthful Harrison did not accept these burdens easily, so he had been jailed. But with his myriad advantages and talents, he had broken out. An announcement on TV explained the threat: “He is a genius and an athlete…and should be regarded as extremely dangerous.” Harrison broke into a TV studio, which was broadcasting the performance of a troupe of dancing ballerinas. On national television, he illegally cast off each one of his handicaps. Then he did the same for one of the ballerinas, and then the orchestra, which he commanded to play. To shockingly beautiful chords, Harrison and the ballerina began to dance. Not only were the laws of the land abandoned, but the laws of gravity and the laws of motion as well.…The studio ceiling was thirty feet high, but each leap brought the dancers nearer to it. It became their obvious intention to kiss the ceiling. They kissed it. And then, neutralizing gravity with love and pure will, they remained suspended in air inches below the ceiling, and they kissed each other for a long, long time. SOCIAL SAFETY NETS that provide basic help for the needy to prevent human suffering are easily justifiable on moral grounds. Nearly everyone supports them to prevent severe hardship among those disabled, widowed, orphaned, or even just temporarily down on their luck. In modern and wealthy societies like ours, there is broad voter consent to such policies, which ensure people do not suffer deprivation of the necessities of life: food, shelter, and clothing. This recognizes we have a moral obligation to help our fellow man. It’s always an open question how much of that should fall to private charity and how much should be done through government taxation. That said, the truth is, such safety nets, if focused on the truly needy and designed to rely on modern markets and incentives, would not be costly compared to the immense wealth of our society. But once such policies are established, going further—taking from some by force of law what they have produced and consequently earned, and giving to others merely to make incomes and wealth more equal—is not justifiable. Vonnegut’s story helps explain why. First, achieving true and comprehensive equality would require violating personal liberty, as the talented and capable must be prevented from using their advantages to get ahead. Under this philosophy, the most productive must be treated punitively through high tax rates simply because they used their abilities to produce more than others. What we have just described is a progressive tax system. Work and produce a little bit, and we take 10 percent. Work and produce more, and we take 20 percent, and so on. Some societies take as much as 90 percent of the marginal output, as the U.S. did after World War II. In a society where men and women are angels who always put the welfare of others ahead of their own, this system—from each according to his ability, to each according to his need—might even work. High tax rates wouldn’t have any negative consequences because everyone would work for everyone else’s benefit. Society would be like one, large commune, with everyone working for the common good. The ambitious, hard worker would get the same pay as the one who sleeps in and lives a lazy lifestyle. Output would be high, and we would have almost complete equality of outcome. The problem, of course, is that men are not angels. We are driven by self-interest-not entirely, of course, but enough that giving everyone an equal share despite unequal contributions would severely deter work incentives. This is why in all those societies that have tried to enforce the more extreme vision of mandatory equality, totalitarian governments and poverty have emerged. And, by the way, in practice these societies are not very equal either. Richer and freer countries tend to have smaller income disparities than poorer and less free nations. Moreover, as Vonnegut’s story illustrates, inequalities of wealth and income are not the only important differences in society. If equality is truly a moral obligation, then inequalities of beauty, intelligence, strength, grace, talent, etc. logically all should be leveled as well. That would require some rather heavy-handed government intervention. It is not fair that LeBron James has a 40-inch vertical leap, and we have a 4-inch vertical leap (combined). It is not fair that some have high IQs, and others are below average. It is not fair that Christie Brinkley is beautiful, that some people are born with photographic memories, that one person gets cancer and the next one doesn’t. We Americans were born in a land of opportunity and wealth, while billions around the world are born into poverty and squalor. We won the ultimate lottery of life just by being born in this great and rich country. Where is the justice in that? THE GOAL OF A SOCIETY should not and cannot be to make people equal in outcomes, an impossibility given the individual attributes with which we were each endowed by our creator. It is the opposite of justice and fairness to try to equalize outcomes based on those attributes. It is not fair to the beautiful to force them to wear ugly masks. It is not fair to the strong to punish them by holding them down with excess weights. It is not fair to the graceful and athletic to deprive them of their talents. In the same way, it is not fair to the productive, the risk taking, or the hard working, to deprive them of what they have produced, merely to make them equal to others who have worked less, taken less risk, and produced less. As Vonnegut’s story shows, putting social limits on the success people are allowed to achieve with their own talents and abilities makes everyone worse off, because it deprives society of the benefits of their brilliance and beauty and skill and talent. The fact that Bill Gates and Steve Jobs made billions of dollars in income—more than some whole societies make—has on paper made America more unequal. But is the middle class better or worse off for Microsoft and Apple products? Should we curse the invention of the personal computer, which is now in nearly every home in America, simply because it made these men unthinkably wealthy? Since hundreds of millions of people buy their products willingly, it would seem self-evident that Mr. Gates and Mr. Jobs generated a better world for everyone, not just for themselves. Finally, this vision of equality as a social goal, with equal incomes and wealth for all, is severely counterproductive economically, and so makes for a poor society as well. Pursuing such a vision would require very high marginal tax rates on anyone with above-average production, income, and wealth, which theory and experience show leads to decreased production. As we saw in our discussion of tax policy above, the less people are allowed to keep of what they produce, the less they will produce. A man of faith in a godless age is hitting Americans where it hurts. Mr. and Mrs. American Spectator Reader, let P.J. O’Rourke talk sense to your kids. In Britain, defending your property can get you life. The debacle of this president’s administration is both a cause and a symptom of the decline of American values. Unless Congress impeaches him, that decline will go on unchecked. An eminent jurist surveys the damage and assesses the chances for the recovery of our culture. It won’t take long for conservatives to scratch this presidential wannabe off their 2008 scorecard. The American Christmas, like the songs that celebrate it, makes room for everybody under the rainbow. Is that why so many people seem to be hostile to it? Was the President done in by the economy, or by the politics of the economy?

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Writing is an easy way to practice in a large group setting; however, we don’t always need a pen or pencil to write! Here are some activities to mix it up. The following descriptions are from ACTFL. Visit the site for more information and examples in English. http://actflproficiencyguidelines2012.org/writing Writing » Novice Writers at the Novice level are characterized by the ability to produce lists and notes, primarily by writing words and phrases. They can provide limited formulaicformulaicConstituting or containing a verbal formula or set form of words such as “How are you?/Fine, thank you.” “Thanks very much./You’re welcome.” information on simple forms and documents. These writers can reproduce practiced material to convey the most simple messages. In addition, they can transcribe familiar words or phrases, copy letters of the alphabet or syllables of a syllabary, or reproduce basic characters with some accuracy. Writing » Intermediate Writers at the Intermediate level are characterized by the ability to meet practical writing needs, such as simple messages and letters, requests for information, and notes. In addition, they can ask and respond to simple questions in writing. These writers can create with the language and communicate simple facts and ideas in a series of loosely connected sentencesconnected sentencesA series or string of sentences or text that is topically related. Unlike paragraphs sentences are interchangeable; altering the order of the sentences does not affect the meaning of the message. on topics of personal interest and social needs. They write primarily in present time. At this level, writers use basic vocabulary and structures to express meaning that is comprehensible to those accustomed to the writing of non-natives.

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Antimatter was a generalized term used to describe a state of matter which was different in some significant way from another state of matter. The term applied to any of the following, individually or in combinations: - a subatomic particle of matter with the opposite charge of another particle that has a charge (e.g., an electron); - a subatomic particle of matter that is a variant of, but with very different properties of, another particle (e.g., a quark); and/or - matter which is physically identical at a macro level to, but exists in a parallel universe from, other matter. Matter/antimatter reaction Edit Antimatter has been used for a variety of purposes. Depending on the type of antimatter in use it can interact with, modify, or destroy normal matter. As a result it has been used for everything from a component of weapons of mass destruction, to a fuel source, to scanning technology, to medical uses. In 2366 the non-corporeal Koinonians drained antimatter from the antimatter containment pods of the USS Enterprise-D to use it as energy to create their replica of Marla Aster. This was stopped by increasing the shield harmonics to match the antimatter containment effectively severing the Koinonian beam. (TNG: "The Bonding") Antimatter and time Edit 23rd century Federation starships discovered that there was a relationship between some types of antimatter – most notably that used on board – and time. What was observed was that certain controlled implosions of antimatter could result in time disruptions, including travel forward and backward in time. This was experienced in 2266 by the USS Enterprise. (TOS: "The Naked Time") This article does not attempt to explain antimatter solely in the way we understand it in the 21st century. For instance, in the real world antimatter can also be any of: - a subatomic particle of matter with the opposite linear and angular momentum (which include energy and spin) of another particle that has a linear and angular momentum (e.g., a photon); - a subatomic particle of matter with the opposite magnetic moment of a particle that has a magnetic moment (e.g., a neutron); - a subatomic particle of matter with the opposite baryon number of a particle. So each of the types of antimatter in the body of the article either is known of today and is consistent with Star Trek, or has been seen in Star Trek and is unknown to or different from 21st century science. For example, today we would say that because it just has mass and directional velocity that the anti-particle of a photon is itself, yet in VOY: "Flesh and Blood" the USS Voyager is able to produce anti-photons from the deflector dish; clearly a different thing in the episode than a regular photon. Also, the anti-particle of an electron is called a positron these days; by the 24th century it seems to mean something else, hence the alternative term "antielectron". Matter/antimatter engines, containment fields, and the like are in far too many episodes to enumerate. Pertinent references for this article, however, are: - VOY: "Flesh and Blood" See also Edit - antimatter containment - antimatter injector - antimatter pod - antimatter radiation - antimatter reactor - antimatter relay - antimatter stream - antimatter tank - antimatter waste - antimatter weapons: - matter-antimatter reaction assembly (warp core)

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Subject : English Phonology Credit Hours : 2 Status : Compulsory Prerequisite : Introduction to Linguistics Code : SBI 4229 Instructor : Team I. Course Objectives This course is designed to provide the students with knowledge, skills, and appreciation toward English Phonology. It is aimed to present the information in the context of a general theory about speech sounds and how they are used in language. The theoretical material in the present course is necessary for students who need to understand the principles regulating the use of sounds in spoken English. II. Course Contents The materials include some theoretical background of the relation between phonetics and phonology. It covers the mechanisms of speech organs, production of speech sounds, classification of sounds, English phonemes, segmental and supra-segmental phonemes, stress in syllables and words, some demonstration of phonemic and phonetic transcription, problems in phonemic analysis, aspects of connected speech and intonation. The class activities will cover lectures, both class and group discussions, presentation, and the solving on phonetics and phonological problems which will be specifically emphasized on the practice of reading and transcribing activities. Student’s evaluation will be based on the accumulation of scores comprising of active participation (10%), quizzes (20%), home assignment (15%), mid-term exam (25 %) and final exam (30%). Regular, active, and intelligent participation in class activities will be considered to round up the final grade. 1. Jones, Daniel. 1997. An Outline of English Phonetics. Cambridge University Press, New York. 2. Roach, Peter. 2000. English Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical Course. Cambridge University Press, New York. VI. Meeting Schedule (2 x 50”) Topics 1 Introduction to the English phonology 2 Phonetics, phonology, phoneme. (Chapter 1) 3 The Production of Speech Sounds and Long vowels, diphthongs, and tripthongs (chapter 2 and 3) 4 Voicing and Consonants (chapter 4) 5 Quiz 1 6 The phoneme and Fricatives and Affricates (chapter 5 and 6) 7 Nasals and Other Consonants (chapter 7) 8 Mid-term Exam 9 The Syllables (chapter 8) 10 Strong and Weak Syllables (chapter 9) 11 Stress in Simple Words Complex and Word stress (chapter 10 and 11) 12 Quiz 2 13 Weak Forms (chapter 12) 14 Aspects of Connected Speech (chapter 14) 15 Intonations 1-3 (chapter 15-17) 16 Final Exam

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Antietam, the bloodiest day in American history. On that single day more American casualties were sustained than in all of America’s prior wars, except for the American Revolution, combined. As for the American Revolution, the 23,000 killed and wounded at Antietam on a single day were more than one-third of the total of 58,000 Americans killed and wounded in the eight years of the Revolution. Antietam was the culmination of Lee’s Maryland campaign. Lee had decided to enter Maryland in early September 1862 to take the pressure off war-torn Virginia, to gain supplies in Maryland and possibly recruits from sympathetic Marylanders and to inflict, if he could, punishing defeats on Union forces and, with luck, help opponents of the Lincoln administration do well in the fall elections as a result of those defeats. Go here to read a post detailing Lee’s motivation for the Maryland Campaign. All went superbly for Lee initially in the Maryland Campaign. Supplies were abundant in Maryland. Recruits from Marylanders, while not as abundant as the Confederates would have wished, were first-rate as to quality. The Northern papers, and General Lee gained much valuable intelligence throughout the War by reading carefully every Northern newspaper he could obtain, were largely hysterical about the Confederate offensive, more than a few predicting that the War was lost. General Stonewall Jackson’s II corps was detailed by Lee to capture Harper’s Ferry, which he did on September 15, 1862 against pathetically weak Union opposition, and inflicting one of the worst defeats on the United States Army in its history, the 12,000 Union troops being the largest mass surrender of United States military personnel until the surrender on Bataan in 1942. Go here to read a post on the sorry tale. Lincoln, desperate to stop Lee, placed Major General George B. McClellan, in disgrace after his humiliating defeat in the Peninsula Campaign, back in command of the Army of the Potomac. McClellan followed Lee in a lethargic pursuit, obviously fearful of being defeated by Lee again. The situation altered dramatically when McClellan was the beneficiary of the biggest intelligence coup of the Civil War, obtaining a copy of Lee’s Special Order No, 191 on September 13, 1862, which revealed to McClellan that Lee had divided his force and the routes that the portions of Lee’s army were to follow. Go here to read a post on the finding of the famous Lost Order. With this order in hand McClellan boasted that he would whip Bobby Lee or go home. On September 14, 1862 McClellan attacked three gaps at South Mountain to seize them, to allow him to march over the mountain and fall on Lee’s separated units. Lee held two of the gaps after a hard day’s battle. Go here to read a post on the battle of South Mountain. With one of the gaps lost, Lee retreated and began to swiftly reassemble his Army of Northern Virginia to confront the Army of the Potomac. McClellan, inexplicably, threw away his advantage by doing almost nothing on September 15, instead of immediately following Lee in hot pursuit. At dawn on September 17, 1862, the Army of the Potomac confronted part of the Army of Northern Virginia along Antietam Creek near Sharpsburg, Maryland. Three of the divisions of the Army of Northern Virginia were still on the road from Harper’s Ferry, marching all night to reach Lee. McClellan enjoyed more than a two to one advantage at the beginning of the battle, his 75,000 force confronting less than 30,000 Confederates. McClellan, as he did throughout the War, assumed, against all evidence, that the Confederates outnumbered him. MClellan issued attack orders for each corps. He made no effort to coordinate attacks between the corps. With the Union advantage in numbers McClellan could have annihilated Lee’s army if he had simply had each corps get into assault position and then attack simultaneously. Instead, this very long day consisted of piecemeal attacks by individual Union corps which gave Lee the opportunity to shift his heavily outnumbered units to meet each threat in turn. The battle opened at 5:30 AM with Hooker leading his I Corps to the attack in the North down the Hagerstown Turnpike. His corps consisted of around 8600 men, and they faced 7700 Confederates under Stonewall Jackson in a superb defensive position. Bloody fighting ensued for two and a half hours and at the end the I Corps, notwithstanding the valor of its men, was back where it had started. After his futile effort, Hooker called for aid from Mansfield and his XII Corps, immediately to his left. About half of Mansfield’s men were raw recruits and had no business being on a battlefield. Mansfield himself had only been placed in command of the Corps two days before. Concerned about the state of his mens’ training, Mansfield marched them into the battle in dense columns with disastrous results. Mansfield was shot in the stomach and would die the next day. The columns made a unmissable target for Confederate artillery and musketry, and the XII Corps was bloodily repulsed after making no progress against Hood’s division. Sumner’s II Corps to the left of the XII Corps was ordered to attack at 7:20 AM. Sumner attacked at 9:00 AM with Sedgewick’s division and was quickly repulsed, with Sumner receiving a wound that would keep him out of action for many months. To the left of Sedgewick, the II Corps divisions of French and Richardson launched midmorning attacks against the Confederate center that were bloodily repulsed with the fighting lasting until one PM. The Union did make a breakthrough at the sunken road which, if quickly exploited, might have led to the collapse of Lee’s army, his units worn from the heavy fighting they had already experienced. McClellan was holding two Corps in reserve, the VI Corps under Franklin and the V Corps under Fitz-John Porter. Although McClellan gave indications that he would send the reserve into the fight in the center, he did not, and the Confederate center stabilized after the withdrawal of Richardson’s division, Richardson having been mortally wounded. Burnside in the South commanded the XI Corps with the usual military incompetence displayed by him throughout the War. His 12,500 men confronted some 3000 Confederates, Lee having stripped the sector to send troops to fight on his left and center. Burnside wasted several hours in slow preparation for his attack, and then several more hours battling for the bridge over Antietam Creek with a miniscule Confederate force, instead of having his troops wade across at several points the narrow and shallow creek. After three assaults Burnside took the bridge. Burnside then wasted another two hours for more ammunition to come up and for his men to work their way through the bottle neck of the bridge. Burnside did not launch his attack from the bridge until 3:00 which allowed just enough time for A.P. Hill’s Light Division to bolster the Confederate left, Hill having led his men on an exhausting forced march of 17 miles to arrive at the battlefield in the proverbial nick of time. Burnside had driven off the weak Confederate force confronting him. Hill launched a strong counter-attack. Although Burnside heavily outnumbered Hill, Burnside decided that discretion was the better part of cowardice and retreated behind Antietam creek, crying for reinforcements from McClellan. Lee, ever the gambler in War, remained on the battlefield the next day and worked out a truce by which both sides could remove their wounded. McClellan could have renewed the fight with his two fresh Corps, but I doubt if the thought even crossed his mind. Lee began his retreat back to Virginia on the evening of the 18th. Unbelievably, despite pleas and entreaties of Lincoln, McClellan refused to attack Lee’s weakened force, pleading the poor condition of his own troops after the battle, in spite of the fact that he had fresh troops that equaled in size Lee’s army. On November 7th, Lincoln relieved McClellan for good. Lincoln would meet McClellan again, this time on a political battlefield, in 1864. Antietam demonstrated what a fearsome fighting force the Army of Northern Virginia was. Superbly led, the Confederates in the ranks drove off the attacks of an army that outnumbered it two to one, the courage of the Confederates that day being almost unbelievable in their unequal contest. Union troops also performed prodigies of valor, but all for naught, due to a complete failure of McClellan and his corps commanders to coordinate their attacks. McClellan as a battlefield commander was worse than no commander at all. One had to squint hard to perceive Antietam as a victory. Lincoln believed that a golden opportunity to destroy the Army of Northern Virginia had been thrown away, and he was right. Still, the Union troops had not been routed from the field, and it was Lee who retreated, ending the Maryland Campaign. At best a negative victory, avoiding a humiliating beating for the Army of the Potomac. It was close enough for Lincoln, however, for the announcement of a Proclamation he had on his desk. More on that in a subsequent post. Here is the text of General Lee’s official report on the Maryland Campaign and the battle of Sharpsburg (Antietam) which he submitted on August 19, 1863: HEADQUARTERS, August 19, 1863. General S. COOPER, Adjutant and Inspector General, Richmond, Va. GENERAL: I have the honor to forward a report of the capture of Harper’s Ferry and the operations of the army in Maryland (1862). The official reports of Lieutenant-General Jackson and the officers of his corps have only been recently received, which prevented its earlier transmittal. This finishes the reports of the operations of the campaign of 1862. They were designed to form a continuous narrative, though, for reasons given, were written at intervals. May I ask you to cause the several reports to be united, and to append the tabular statements accompanying each? Should this be inconvenient, if you could return the reports to me, I would have them properly arranged. With great respect, your obedient servant, R. E. LEE, General. General S. COOPER, Adjutant and Inspector General, Richmond, Va. CAPTURE OF HARPER’S FERRY AND OPERATIONS IN MARYLAND. The enemy having retired to the protection of the fortifications around Washington and Alexandria, the army marched on September 3 toward Leesburg. The armies of Generals McClellan and Pope had now been brought back to the point from which they set out on the campaigns of the spring and summer. The objects of those campaigns had been frustrated and the designs of the enemy on the coast of North Carolina and in Western Virginia thwarted by the withdrawal of the main body of his forces from those regions. Northeastern Virginia was freed from the presence of Federal soldiers up to the intrenchments of Washington, and soon after the arrival of the army at Leesburg information was received that the troops which had occupied Winchester had retired to Harper’s Ferry and Martinsburg. The war was thus transferred from the interior to the frontier, and the supplies of rich and productive districts made accessible to our army. To prolong a state of affairs in every way desirable, and not to permit the season for active operations to pass without endeavoring to inflict further injury upon the enemy, the best course appeared to be the transfer of the army into Maryland. Although not properly equipped for invasion, lacking much of the material of war, and feeble in transportation, the troops poorly provided with clothing, and thousands of them destitute of shoes, it was yet believed to be strong enough to detain the enemy upon the northern frontier until the approach of winter should render his advance into Virginia difficult, if not impracticable. The condition of Maryland encouraged the belief that the presence of our army, however inferior to that of the enemy, would induce the Washington Government to retain all its available force to provide against contingencies, which its course toward the people of that State gave it reason to apprehend. At the same time it was hoped that military success might afford us an opportunity to aid the citizens of Maryland in any efforts they might be disposed to make to recover their liberties. The difficulties that surrounded them were fully appreciated, and we expected to derive more assistance in the attainment of our object from the just fears of the Washington. Government than from any active demonstration on the part of the people, unless success should en able us to give them assurance of continued protection. Influenced by these considerations, the army was put in motion, D. H. Hill’s division, which had joined us on the 2d, being in advance, and-between September 4 and 7 crossed the Potomac at the fords near Leesburg, and encamped in the vicinity of Fredericktown. It was decided to cross the Potomac east of the Blue Ridge, in order, by threatening Washington and Baltimore, to cause the enemy to withdraw from the south bank, where his presence endangered our communications and the safety of those engaged in the removal of our wounded and the captured property from the late battlefields. Having accomplished this result, it was proposed to move the army into Western Maryland, establish our communications with Richmond through the Valley of the Shenandoah, and, by threatening Pennsylvania, induce the enemy to follow, and thus draw him from his base of supplies. It had been supposed that the advance upon Fredericktown would lead to the evacuation of Martinsburg and Harper’s Ferry, thus opening the line of communication through the Valley. This not having occurred, it became necessary to dislodge the enemy from those positions before concentrating the army west of the mountains. To accomplish this with the least delay, General Jackson was directed to proceed with his command to Martinsburg, and, after driving the enemy from that place, to move down the south side of the Potomac upon Harper’s Ferry. General McLaws, with his own and R. H. Anderson’s division, was ordered to seize Maryland Heights, on the north side of the Potomac, opposite Harper’s Ferry, and Brigadier-General Walker to take possession of Loudoun Heights, on the east side of the Shenandoa, where it unites with the Potomac. These several commands were directed, after reducing Harper’s Ferry and clearing the Valley of the enemy, to join the rest of the army at Boonsborough or Hagerstown. The march of these troops began on the 10th, and at the same time the remainder of Longstreet’s command and the division of D. H. Hill crossed the South Mountain and moved toward Boonsborough. General Stuart, with the cavalry, remained east of the mountains, to observe the enemy and retard his advance. A report having been received that a Federal force was approaching Hagerstown from the direction of Chambersburg, Longstreet continued his march to the former place, in order to secure the road leading thence to Williamsport, and also to prevent the removal of stores which were said to be in Hagerstown. He arrived at that place on the 11th, General Hill halting near Boonsborough to prevent the enemy at Harper’s Ferry from escaping through Pleasant Valley, and at the same time to support the cavalry. The advance of the Federal Army was so slow at the time we left Fredericktown as to justify the belief that the reduction of Harper’s Ferry would be accomplished and our troops concentrated before they would be called upon to meet it. In that event, it had not been intended to oppose its passage through the South Mountains, as it was desired to engage it as far as possible from its base. General Jackson marched very rapidly, and, crossing the Potomac near Williamsport on the 11th, sent A. P. Hill’s division directly to Martinsburg, and disposed the rest of his command to cut off the retreat of the enemy westward. On his approach, the Federal troops evacuated Martinsburg, retiring to Harper’s Ferry on the night of the 11th, and Jackson entered the former place on the 12th, capturing some prisoners and abandoned stores. In the forenoon of the following day his leading division, under General A. P. Hill, came in sight of the enemy strongly intrenched on Bolivar Heights, in rear of Harper’s Ferry. Before beginning the attack, General Jackson proceeded to put himself in communication with the cooperating forces under Generals McLaws and Walker, from the former of whom he was separated by the Potomac and from the latter by the Shenandoah. General Walker took possession of Loudoun Heights on the 13th, and the next day was in readiness to open upon Harper’s Ferry. General McLaws encountered more opposition. He entered Pleasant Valley on the 11th. On the 12th he directed General Kershaw, with his own and Barksdale’s brigade, to ascend the ridge, whose southern extremity is known as Maryland Heights, and attack the enemy, who occupied that position with infantry and artillery, protected by intrenchments. He disposed the rest of his command to hold the roads leading from Harper’s Ferry eastward through Weverton and northward from Sandy Hook, guarding the pass in his rear, through which he had entered Pleasant Valley, with the brigades of Semmes and Mahone. Owing to the rugged nature of the ground on which Kershaw had to operate and the want of roads, he was compelled to use infantry alone. Driving in the advance parties of the enemy on the summit of the ridge on the 12th, he assailed the works the next day. After a spirited contest they were carried, the troops engaged in their defense spiking their heavy guns and retreating to Harper’s Ferry. By 4.30 p.m. Kershaw was in possession of Maryland Heights. On the 14th a road for artillery was cut along the ridge, and at 2 p.m. four guns opened upon the enemy on the opposite side of the river, and the investment of Harper’s Ferry was complete. In the mean time events transpired in another quarter which threatened to interfere with the reduction of the place. A copy of the order directing the movement of the army from Fredericktown had fallen into the hands of General McClellan, and disclosed to him the disposition of our forces. He immediately began to push forward rapidly, and on the afternoon of the 13th was reported approaching the pass in South Mountain, on the Boonsborough and Fredericktown road. The cavalry under General Stuart fell back before him, materially impeding his progress by its gallant resistance, and gaining time for preparations to oppose his advance. By penetrating the mountain at this point, he would reach the rear of McLaws and be enabled to relieve the garrison at Harper’s Ferry. To prevent this, General D. H. Hill was directed to guard the Boonsborough Gap and Longstreet ordered to march from Hagerstown to his support. On the 13th General Hill sent back the brigades of Garland and Colquirt to hold the pass, but subsequently ascertaining that the enemy was near in heavy force, he ordered up the rest of his division. Early on the 14th a large body of the enemy attempted to force its way to the rear of the position held by Hill by a road south of the Boonsborough and Fredericktown turnpike. The attack was repulsed by Garland’s brigade, after a severe conflict, in which that brave and accomplished young officer was killed. The remainder of the division arriving shortly afterward, Colquitt’s brigade was disposed across the turnpike road; that of G. B. Anderson, supported by Ripley, was placed on the right, and Rodes’ occupied an important position on the left. Garland’s brigade, which had suffered heavily in the first attack, was withdrawn, and the defense of the road occupied by it intrusted to Colonel Rosser, of the Fifth Virginia Cavalry, who reported to General Hill with his regiment and some artillery. The small command of General Hill repelled the repeated assaults of the Federal Army and held it in check for five hours. Several attacks on the center were gallantly repulsed by Colquitt’s brigade, and Rodes maintained his position against heavy odds with the utmost tenacity. Longstreet, leaving one brigade at Hagerstown, had hurried to the assistance of Hill, and reached the scene of action between 3 and 4 p.m. His troops, much exhausted by a long, rapid march and the heat of the day, were disposed on both sides of the turnpike. General D. R. Jones, with three of his brigades-those of Pickett (under General Garnett), Kemper, and Jenkins (under Colonel Walker)–together with Evans’ brigade, was posted along the mountain on the left; General Hood, with his own and Whiting’s brigade (under Colonel Law), Drayton’s, and D. R. Jones’ (under Col. G. T. Anderson), on the right. Batteries had been placed by General Hill in such positions as could be found, but the ground was unfavorable for the use of artillery. The battle continued with great animation until night. On the south of the turnpike the enemy was driven back some distance, and his attack on the center repulsed with loss. His great superiority of numbers enabled him to extend beyond both of our flanks. By this means he succeeded in reaching the summit of the mountain beyond our left, and, pressing upon us heavily from that direction, gradually forced our troops back after an obstinate resistance. Darkness put an end to the contest. The effort to force the passage of the mountains had failed, but it was manifest that without re-enforcements we could not hazard a renewal of the engagement, as the enemy could easily turn either flank. Information was also received that another large body of Federal troops had during the afternoon forced their way through Crampton’s Gap, only 5 miles in rear of McLaws. Under these circumstances, it was determined to retire to Sharpsburg, where we would be upon the flank and rear of the enemy should he move against McLaws, and where we could more readily unite with the rest of the army. This movement was efficiently and skillfully covered by the cavalry brigade of General Fitzhugh Lee, and was accomplished without interruption by the enemy, who did not appear on the west side of the pass at Boonsborough until about 8 a.m. on the following morning. The resistance that had been offered to the enemy at Boonsborough secured sufficient time to enable General Jackson to complete the reduction of Harper’s Ferry. On the afternoon of the 14th, when he found that the troops of Walker and McLaws were in position to co-operate in the attack, he ordered General A. P. Hill to turn the enemy’s left flank and enter Harper’s Ferry. Ewell’s division (under General Lawton)was ordered to support Hill, while Winder’s brigade, of Jackson’s division (under Colonel Grigsby),with a battery of artillery, made a demonstration on the enemy’s right near the Potomac. The rest of the division was held in reserve. The cavalry under Major Massie was placed on the extreme left, to prevent the escape of the enemy. Colonel Grigsby succeeded in getting possession of an eminence on the left, upon which two batteries were advantageously posted. General A. P. Hill, observing a hill on the enemy’s extreme left occupied by infantry without artillery, and protected only by an abatis of felled timber, directed General Pender, with his own brigade and those of [General] Archer and Colonel Brocken brough, to seize the crest, which was done with slight resistance. At the same time he ordered Generals Branch and Gregg to march along the Shenandoah, and, taking advantage of the ravines intersecting its steep banks, to establish themselves on the plain to the left and rear of the enemy’s works. This was accomplished during the night. Lieutenant-Colonel Walker, chief of artillery of A. P. Hill’s division, placed several batteries on the eminence taken by General Pender, and, under the directions of Colonel Crutchfield, General Jackson’s chief of artillery, ten guns belonging to Ewell’s division were posted on the east side of the Shenandoah, so as to enfilade the enemy’s intrenchments on Bolivar Heights, and take his nearest and most formidable works in reverse. General McLaws in the mean time made his preparations to prevent the force which had penetrated at Crampton’s Gap from coming to the relief of the garrison. This pass had been defended by the brigade of General Cobb, supported by those of Semmes and Mahone; but unable to oppose successfully the superior numbers brought against them, they had been compelled to retire with loss. The enemy halted at the gap, and during the night General McLaws formed his command in line of battle across Pleasant Valley, about 1 miles below Crampton’s [Gap], leaving one regiment to support the artillery on Maryland Heights, and two brigades on each of the roads from Harper’s Ferry. The attack on the garrison began at dawn. A rapid and vigorous fire was opened from the batteries of General Jackson and those on Maryland and Loudoun Heights. In about two hours the garrison, consisting of more than 11,000 men, surrendered. Seventy-three pieces of artillery, about 13,000 small-arms, and a large quantity of military stores, fell into our hands. Leaving General A. P. Hill to receive the surrender of the Federal troops and secure the captured property, General Jackson, with his two other divisions, set out at once for Sharps-burg, ordering Generals McLaws and Walker to follow without delay. Official information of the fall of Harper’s Ferry and the approach of General Jackson was received soon after the commands of Longstreet and D. H. Hill reached Sharpsburg, on the morning of the 15th, and reanimated the courage of the troops. General Jackson arrived early on the 16th and General Walker came up in the afternoon. The presence of the enemy at Crampton’s Gap embarrassed the movements of General McLaws. He retained the position taken during the night of the 14th to oppose an advance toward Harper’s Ferry until the capitulation of that place, when, finding the enemy indisposed to attack, he gradually withdrew his command toward the Potomac. Deeming the roads to Sharpsburg on the north side of the river impracticable, he resolved to cross at Harper’s Ferry and march by way of Shepherdstown. Owing to the condition of his troops and other circumstances, his progress was slow, and he did not reach the battlefield at Sharpsburg until some time after the engagement of the 17th began. The commands of Longstreet and D. H. Hill, on their arrival at Sharpsburg, were placed in position along the range of hills between the town and the Antietam, nearly parallel to the course of that stream, Longstreet on the right of the road to Boonsborough and Hill on the left. The advance of the enemy was delayed by the brave opposition he encountered from Fitzhugh Lee’s cavalry, and he did not appear on the opposite side of the Antietam until about 2 p.m. During the afternoon the batteries on each side were slightly engaged. On the 16th the artillery fire became warmer, and continued throughout the day. The enemy crossed the Antietam beyond the reach of our batteries and menaced our left. In anticipation of this movement, Hood’s two brigades had been transferred from the right and posted between D. H. Hill and the Hagerstown road. General Jackson was now directed to take position on Hood’s left, and formed his line with his right resting upon the Hagerstown road and his left extending toward the Potomac, protected by General Stuart with the cavalry and horse artillery. General Walker, with his two brigades, was stationed on Longstreet’s right. As evening approached, the enemy opened more vigorously with his artillery, and bore down heavily with his infantry upon Hood, but the attack was gallantly repulsed. At 10 p.m. Hood’s troops were relieved by the brigades of Lawton and Trimble, of Ewell’s division, commanded by General Lawton. Jackson’s own division, under General J. R. Jones, was on Lawton’s left, supported by the remaining brigades of Ewell. At early dawn on the 17th the enemy’s artillery opened vigorously from both sides of the Antietam, the heaviest fire being directed against our left. Under cover of this fire a large force of infantry attacked General Jackson. They were met by his troops with the utmost resolution, and for several hours the conflict raged with great fury and alternate success. General J. R. Jones was compelled to leave the field, and the command of Jackson’s division devolved on General Starke. The troops advanced with great spirit, and the enemy’s lines were repeatedly broken and forced to retire. Fresh troops, however, soon replaced those that were beaten, and Jackson’s men were in turn compelled to fall back. The brave General Starke was killed, General Lawton was wounded, and nearly all the field officers, with a large proportion of the men, killed or disabled. Our troops slowly yielded to overwhelming numbers and fell back, obstinately disputing the progress of the enemy. Hood returned to the field, and relieved the brigades of Trimble, Lawton, and Hays, which had suffered severely. General Early, who succeeded General Lawton in the command of Ewell’s division, was ordered by General Jackson to move with his brigade to take the place of Jackson’s division, most of which was withdrawn, its ammunition being nearly exhausted and its numbers much reduced. A small part of the division, under Colonels Grigsby and Stafford, united with Early’s brigade, as did portions of the brigades of Trimble, Lawton, and Hays. The battle now raged with great violence, the small commands under Hood and Early holding their ground against many times their own numbers of the enemy, and under a tremendous fire of artillery. Hood was re-en-forced by the brigades of Ripley, Colquitt, and Garland (under Colonel McRae), of D. H. Hill’s division, and afterward by D. R. Jones’ brigade, under Col. G. T. Anderson. The enemy’s lines were broken and forced back, but fresh numbers advanced to their support, and they began to gain ground. The desperate resistance they encountered, however, delayed their progress until the troops of General McLaws arrived and those of General Walker could be brought from the right. Hood’s brigade, greatly diminished in numbers, withdrew to replenish their ammunition, their supply being entirely exhausted. They were relieved by Walker’s command, who immediately attacked the enemy vigorously, driving him back with great slaughter. Colonel Manning, commanding Walker’s brigade, pursued until he was stopped by a strong fence, behind which was posted a large force of infantry with several batteries. The gallant colonel was severely wounded, and his brigade retired to the line on which the rest of Walker’s command had halted. Upon the arrival of the re-enforcements under General McLaws, General Early attacked with great resolution the large force opposed to him. McLaws advanced at the same time, and the enemy were driven back in confusion, closely followed by our troops beyond the position occupied at the beginning of the engagement. The enemy renewed the assault on our left several times, but was repulsed with loss. He finally ceased to advance his infantry, and for several hours kept up a furious fire from his numerous batteries, under which our troops held their position with great coolness and courage. The attack on our left was speedily followed by one in heavy force on the center. This was met by part of Walker’s division and the brigades of G. B. Anderson and Rodes, of D. H. Hill’s command, assisted by a few pieces of artillery The enemy was repulsed, and retired behind the crest of a hill, from which they kept Up a desultory fire. General R. H. Anderson’s division came to Hill’s support and formed in rear of his line. At this time, by a mistake of orders, General Rodes’ brigade was withdrawn from its position during the temporary absence of that officer at another part of the field. The enemy immediately pressed through the gap thus created, and G. B. Anderson’s brigade was broken and retired, General Anderson himself being mortally wounded. Maj. Gen. R. H. Anderson and Brigadier-General Wright were also wounded and borne from the field. The heavy masses of the enemy again moved forward, being opposed only by four pieces of artillery, supported by a few hundred men belonging to different brigades, rallied by General D. H. Hill and other officers, and parts of Walker’s and R.H. Anderson’s commands, Colonel Cooke, with the Twenty-seventh North Carolina Regiment, of Walker’s brigade, standing boldly in line without a cartridge. The firm front presented by this small force and the well-directed fire of the artillery, under Captain Miller, of the Washington Artillery, and Captain Boyce’s South Carolina battery, checked the progress of the enemy, and in about an hour and a half he retired. Another attack was made soon afterward a little farther to the right, but was repulsed by Miller’s guns, which continued to hold the ground until the close of the engagement, supported by a part of R. H. Anderson’s troops. While the attack on the center and left was in progress, the enemy made repeated efforts to force the passage of the bridge over the Antietam, opposite the right wing of General Longstreet, commanded by Brig. Gen. D. R. Jones. This bridge was defended by General Toombs with two regiments of his brigade (the Second and Twentieth Georgia) and the batteries of General Jones. General Toombs’ small command repulsed five different assaults made by greatly superior force, and maintained its position with distinguished gallantry. In the afternoon the enemy began to extend his line as if to cross the Antietam below the bridge, and at 4 p.m. Toombs’ regiments retired from the position they had so bravely held. The enemy immediately crossed the bridge in large numbers and advanced against General Jones, who held the crest with less than 2,000 men. After a determined and brave resistance, he was forced to give way, and the enemy gained the summit. General A. P. Hill had arrived from Harper’s Ferry., having left that place at 7.30 a.m. He was now ordered to re-enforce General Jones, and moved to his support with the brigades of Archer. Branch, Gregg, and Pender, the last of whom was placed on the right of the line, and the other three advanced and attacked the enemy, now flushed with success. Hill’s batteries were thrown forward and united their fire with those of General Jones, and one of General D. H. Hill’s also opened with good effect from the left of the Boonsborough road. The progress of the enemy was immediately arrested and his lines began to waver. At this moment General Jones ordered Toombs to charge the flank, while Archer, supported by Branch and Gregg, moved upon the front of the Federal line. The enemy made a brief resistance, then broke and retreated in confusion toward the Antietam, pursued by the troops of Hill and Jones, until he reached the protection of his batteries on the opposite side of the river. In this attack the brave and lamented Brig. Gen. L. O’B. Branch was killed, gallantly leading his brigade. It was now nearly dark, and the enemy had massed a number of batteries to sweep the approaches to the Antietam, on the opposite side of which the corps of General Porter, which had not been engaged, now appeared to dispute our advance. Our troops were much exhausted and greatly reduced in numbers by fatigue and the casualties of battle. Under these circumstances it was deemed injudicious to push our advantage further in the face of fresh troops of the enemy, much exceeding the number of our own. They were accordingly recalled and formed on the line originally held by General Jones. While the attack on our center was progressing, General Jackson had been directed to endeavor to turn the enemy’s right, but found it extending nearly to the Potomac, and so strongly defended with artillery that the attempt had to be abandoned. The repulse on the right ended the engagement, and, after a protracted and sanguinary conflict, every effort of the enemy to dislodge us from our position had been defeated with severe loss. The arduous service in which our troops had been engaged, their great privations of rest and food, and the long marches without shoes over mountain roads, had greatly reduced our ranks before the action began. These causes had compelled thousands of brave men to absent themselves, and many more had done so from unworthy motives. This great battle was fought by less than 40,000 men on our side, all of whom had undergone the greatest labors and hardships in the field and on the march. Nothing could surpass the determined valor with which they met the large army of the enemy, fully supplied and equipped, and the result reflects the highest credit on the officers and men engaged. Our artillery, though much inferior to that of the enemy in the number of guns and weight of metal, rendered most efficient and gallant service throughout the day, and contributed greatly to the repulse of the attacks on every part of the line. General Stuart, with the cavalry and horse artillery, performed the duty intrusted to him of guarding our left wing with great energy and courage, and rendered valuable assistance in defeating the attack on that part of our line. On the 18th we occupied the position of the preceding day, except in the center, where our line was drawn in about 200 yards. Our ranks were increased by the arrival of a number of troops, who had not been engaged the day before, and, though still too weak to assume the offensive, we awaited without apprehension the renewal of the attack. The day passed without any demonstration on the part of the enemy, who, from the reports received, was expecting the arrival of re-enforcements. As we could not look for a material increase in strength, and the enemy’s force could be largely and rapidly augmented, it was not thought prudent to wait until he should be ready again to offer battle. During the night of the 18th the army was accordingly withdrawn to the south side of the Potomac, crossing near Shepherdstown, without loss or molestation. The enemy advanced the next morning, but was held in check by General Fitzhugh Lee with his cavalry, who covered our movement with boldness and success. General Stuart, with the main body, crossed the Potomac above Shepherdstown and moved up the river. The next day he recrossed at Williamsport, and took position to operate upon the right and rear of the enemy should he attempt to follow us. After the army had safely reached the Virginia shore with such of the wounded as could be removed and all its trains, General Porter’s corps, with a number of batteries and some cavalry, appeared on the opposite side. General Pendleton was left to guard the ford with the reserve artillery and about 600 infantry. That night the enemy crossed the river above General Pendleton’s position, and his infantry support giving way, four of his guns were taken. A considerable force took position on the right bank, under cover of their artillery on the commanding hills on the opposite side. The next morning General A. P. Hill was ordered to return with his division and dislodge them. Advancing under a heavy fire of artillery, the three brigades of Gregg, Pender, and Archer attacked the enemy vigorously, and drove him over the river with heavy loss. The condition of our troops now demanded repose, and the army marched to the Opequon, near Martinsburg, where it remained several days, and then moved to the vicinity of Bunker Hill and Winchester. The enemy seemed to be concentrating in and near Harper’s Ferry, but made no forward movement. During this time the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was destroyed for several miles, and that from Winchester to Harper’s Ferry broken up to within a short distance of the latter place, in order to render the occupation of the Valley by the enemy after our withdrawal more difficult. On October 8 General Stuart was ordered to cross the Potomac above Williamsport with 1,200 or 1,500 cavalry, and endeavor to ascertain the position and designs of the enemy. He was directed, if practicable, to enter Pennsylvania, and do all in his power to impede and embarrass the military operations of the enemy. This order was executed with skill, address, and courage. General Stuart passed through Maryland, occupied Chambersburg, and destroyed a large amount of public property, making the entire circuit of General McClellan’s army. He recrossed the Potomac below Harper’s Ferry without loss. The enemy soon after crossed the Potomac east of the Blue Ridge, and advanced southward, seizing the passes of the mountains as he progressed. General Jackson’s corps was ordered to take position on the road between Berryville and Charlestown, to be prepared to oppose an advance from Harper’s Ferry or a movement into the Shenandoah Valley from the east side of the mountains, while at the same time he would threaten the flank of the enemy should he continue his march along the eastern base of the Blue Ridge. One division of Longstreet’s corps was sent to the vicinity of Upperville to observe the enemy’s movements in front. About the last of October the Federal army began to incline eastwardly from the mountains, moving in the direction of Warrenton. As soon as this intention developed itself, Longstreet’s corps was moved across the Blue Ridge, and about November 3 took position at Culpeper Court-House, while Jackson advanced one of his divisions to the east side of the Blue Ridge. The enemy gradually concentrated about Warrenton, his cavalry being thrown forward beyond the Rappahannock in the direction of Culpeper Court-House, and occasionally skirmishing with our own, which was closely observing his movements. This situation of affairs continued without material change until about the middle of November, when the movements began which resulted in the winter campaign on the Lower Rappahannock. The accompanying return of the medical director will show the extent of our losses in the engagements mentioned. The reports of the different commanding officers must, of necessity, be referred to for the details of these operations. I desire to call the attention of the Department to the names of those brave officers and men who are particularly mentioned for courage and good conduct by their commanders. The limits of this report will not permit me to do more than renew the expression of my admiration for the valor that shrunk from no peril and the fortitude that endured every privation without a murmur. I must also refer to the report of General Stuart for the particulars of the services rendered by the cavalry besides those to which I have alluded. Its vigilance, activity, and courage were conspicuous, and to its assistance is due in a great measure, the success of some of the most important and delicate operations of the campaign. R. E. LEE,

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://the-american-catholic.com/2012/09/17/september-17-1862-antietam-americas-bloodiest-day/

2013-06-18T04:33:48Z

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en

Global warming is sneaky. For more than a century it has been hiding large amounts of excess heat in the world’s deep seas. Now that heat is coming to the surface again in one of the worst possible places: Antarctica. For obvious reasons this should be regarded as alarming enough a story for the MSM to report on -- maybe even on their front pages. Antarctica is disintegrating much faster than almost anybody imagined. Not only is this happening more than 90 years ahead of schedule, one of the reasons for this underestimation is that many the climate models is being referenced for discussion about climate change didn't include the vast amounts of methane the cryosphere and oceans will release as the warming gathers momentum. So while global warming has continued its fitful warming of the temperature on Earth’s surface, the planet is warming from human-cause greenhouse gases just where climate science said it would — the oceans, which is where more than 90% of the warming was projected to end up.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://nmpcanada.blogspot.com/2010/12/antarctic-ice-melting.html

2013-05-24T15:29:14Z

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en

Proof by induction In the future, airliners could be catapulted into the sky by electric motors READERS of a certain age may remember “Fireball XL5”, a children’s television programme devised by Gerry Anderson about a spacecraft of that name. Instead of taking off vertically, as real spacecraft do, Fireball XL5 sat on a rocket-propelled trolley that accelerated it horizontally to launch speed. And that, in effect, is what engineers at Airbus, Europe’s largest civil-aviation company, are proposing in their latest bout of blue-sky thinking. Apart from the fact that the trolley would be powered by linear-induction motors (specialised electric motors currently employed in high-speed trains like the one that runs to and from Shanghai’s airport) rather than rockets, they are suggesting that the fantasy of 1962 might become the reality of 2050. Mindful that many passengers are already nervous about the whole process of getting a plane airborne, the engineers prefer to call their proposal “Eco-climb”. But the idea is straight out of “Fireball”. The aircraft to be launched would sit on a platform that ran along a track where the runway would otherwise be. The platform would accelerate to take-off speed, at which point the plane would lift into the air powered by its own engines. Taking off in this way would both save fuel and make life more pleasant for those who live near airports. Aircraft engines are optimised for level flight at cruising speed in the stratosphere. Using them to accelerate a plane on the ground wastes a lot of fuel. An induction-motor-powered platform, by contrast, would be optimised for the job at hand. It could launch the plane at higher speed, letting it climb faster. That would save fuel, too. It would also mean fewer people on the ground suffered aircraft noise. And it could do all this from a track that was a third shorter than a conventional runway. Altogether, according to Airbus’s back-of-the-envelope calculations, Eco-climb would reduce fuel consumption by 3% on a typical 900km (560-mile) flight, even with existing aircraft designs. But it would also allow for the design of lighter aircraft, with smaller engines, which would cut fuel consumption, noise and emissions further. Nor is the idea complete fantasy. General Atomics, an American military contractor, has already built and tested a linear-induction-motor-based system of this sort at an airbase at Lakehurst, New Jersey. The General Atomics system is now being scaled up to be fitted on a new generation of aircraft carriers for the American navy. A launcher powered by a linear-induction motor has several advantages over the steam-driven catapults used on existing aircraft carriers, according to General Atomics. Whereas a steam catapult lets rip with a constant force, the speed and power of a linear motor can be controlled to provide smooth acceleration. That extends the life of an aircraft by subjecting it to less stress. It also makes for a more comfortable take off. And the launch shuttle can brake quickly once the plane has lifted off (and then return for another launch) by reversing the current running through the motor. What works in a military context might not, of course, be appropriate for civil aviation—one reason why nobody has considered equipping airports with steam catapults. But the smooth operation of a linear motor means the take-off force could be kept within the 2.5g typically felt in a modern airliner dashing along a runway. Passengers need not be subjected to “Top Gun” levels of acceleration. It might be possible to use linear motors for landings, too. Carrier-style arrester wires would cause too much damage and would hardly be comfortable for passengers. But if an incoming aircraft landed on a moving platform equipped with a linear motor, the current in the motor could then be reversed to slow it down. That might mean planes could do without landing gear, saving still more weight. Even Mr Anderson didn’t think of that one. Fireball XL5 landed vertically, on retro-rockets.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.economist.com/news/science-and-technology/21564826-future-airliners-could-be-catapulted-sky-electric-motors?fsrc=scn/tw/te/pe/proofbyinduction

2013-05-24T09:05:45Z

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en

|Home » GRID INTEGRATION » Grid infrastructure upgrade...| Electricity networks can be split into two major subsections: the transmission network and the distribution network. The transmission network usually consists of high to very high voltage power lines designed to transfer bulk power from major generators to areas of demand; in general, the higher the voltage, the larger the transfer capacity. Only the largest customers are connected to the transmission network. Transmission network voltages are typically above 100 kV. The networks are designed to be extremely robust, i.e. they can continue to fulfil their function even in the event of several simultaneous network failures. Failure of a single element, such as a transformer or transmission line, is referred to as an “N-1” event, and transmission systems should be capable of withstanding all such events. More complex cases of simultaneous failures of multiple elements (for example, the failure of a transmission line when a parallel line has been disconnected for maintenance), can be termed “N-2” or similar. Transmission systems should also be capable of withstanding all such credible combinations. Transmission consists mainly of overhead lines. Although underground lines offer the advantage of being less visually intrusive and raising less environmental objections, they incur higher initial investment costs and have a lower transmission capacity. Transmission systems are operated by Transmission System Operators (TSOs), or Independent System Operators (ISOs). Responsibility for constructing or owning the physical network may belong to other organisations. Transmission systems are actively managed through power system control centres, also known as dispatch centres. Balancing power entering and leaving the high voltage network, and reconfiguring the network to cope with planned and forced outages is a 24-hour activity. The European grid (Figure 4.1) is divided into five synchronous regions and five relevant organisations: NORDEL, BALTSO, UKTSOA, ATSOI and UCTE. Each of these organisations coordinates the TSOs involved, at both operational and planning stages. The creation of the future ENTSO-E (European Network for Transmission System Operators) will provide a new framework aimed at facilitating coordination between the different areas. Figure 4.1 Different synchronous regions in Europe, Source: UCTE, Ucte Transmission Development Plan 2008 Distribution networks are usually below 100 kV and their purpose is to distribute power from the transmission network to customers. At present, with the exception of wind and other renewable power plants, little generation is connected to distribution networks, but this is changing rapidly, for example in Germany and Denmark. Generation connected to distribution networks is often termed “embedded generation” or “distributed generation.” Distribution networks are less robust than transmission networks and their reliability decreases as voltage levels decrease. For example, a connection at 33 kV could expect to lose only a few minutes of connection per year on average, whereas a low voltage connection at 230 V for an individual domestic consumer in a rural area would, on average, expect to lose at least an hour. As with transmission networks, distribution networks are operated (in some cases also owned) by Distribution System Operators (DSOs). There is very little “active” management of distribution networks. Rather, they assume a ‘fit and forget’ philosophy, i.e. they are designed and configured on the basis of extreme combinations of circumstances (for example, maximum demand in conjunction with high ambient temperatures, which reduce the capacity of overhead lines), to ensure that even in these extreme circumstances the network conditions experienced by customers are still within agreed limits. |Sitemap | Partners | Disclaimer | Contact| The sole responsibility for the content of this webpage lies with the authors. It does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the European Communities. The European Commission is not responsible for any use that maybe made of the information contained therein.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.wind-energy-the-facts.org/de/part-2-grid-integration/chapter-4-grid-infrastructure-upgrade-for-large-scale-integration/

2013-05-21T18:21:27Z

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en

UK and Ireland Contents The term "British Isles" is a geographic one describing the two large islands of Great Britain (which contains England, Scotland and Wales) and Ireland, together with numerous smaller islands around their coasts. The major administrative divisions are England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. The term "United Kingdom" is a contraction of "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland", that is England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, but has meant different things at different times. From 1707, when the parliaments of England and Scotland were united, we had the "United Kingdom of Great Britain". Then, in 1801, when Ireland joined the union, it was the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland". Finally, in 1922, when 26 of the 32 counties of Ireland left the union to form the Irish Free State (the forerunner of the Republic of Ireland), the present name was adopted. The adjective "British" is generally taken to mean "of the United Kingdom" rather than "of Great Britain" or "of the British Isles", but "Irish" can mean either "of Ireland" or "of the Republic of Ireland" depending on the context. In England, Wales and Scotland, the word "County" is not part of a county's name, so it is incorrect to refer to, for example, "County Devon" or "Devon County". There is a single exception to this rule - County Durham, where this form is used to distinguish the county from Durham City. In Ireland (both Northern Ireland and the Republic), however, the opposite is true; county names are usually prefixed with the word "County", for example County Down and County Clare. The suffix "shire" appears on many county names in England, Scotland and Wales. The general rule is the "shire" is used only where there is a town or city with the same name as the county - hence "Nottinghamshire" to distinguish the county from the city of Nottingham. There are some cases, however, where the suffix "shire" is regarded as optional, for example Devon / Devonshire and Nairn / Nairnshire. Specific notes relating to individual areas can be found on the relevant pages. The documents linked from the head of this page list the administrative sub-divisions of the various parts of the British Isles and attempt to clarify the far reaching local government changes made (or about to be made) within the United Kingdom since 1965. While every effort has been made to achieve accuracy, there may well be errors. Comments, corrections and suggestions are welcome. Note: The Association of British Counties provide a number of helpful pages, including one on The problem of "county confusion" - and how to resolve it which explains the differnces betwee historoc counties, counties as designated under the 1972 Local Governemnt Act, and those under the 1997 Lieutenancies Act. © GENUKI and Contributors 1993, 1997 Page created by Phil Lloyd in January 1993. Revised and updated in September 1997 by Brian Pears. Last updated: 6 Mar 2013 - Brian Randell

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.genuki.org.uk/big/Regions/

2013-05-19T18:45:09Z

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en

This article is intended to explain in a nutshell how booting works in general, what the Haiku counterparts of standard boot process elements are and how to get everything together for a working boot in case this is not done automatically. These are things you will encounter installing/booting most operating systems, so it's not entirely Haiku specific. 1. The Basic Boot Process 1.1 The BIOS When you turn on a BIOS based (as opposed to firmware based) system, which is still the most common today, the first thing loaded will be the BIOS (Basic Input Output System). It is like a small operating system of its own and has the purpose of configuring the system hardware and provide an environment that a more high level operating system can work with. For example it configures PCI devices, harddrive controllers, USB, the processor itself and sets up ACPI tables in main memory. Current BIOSes are quite a bit more advanced than they were in the past, commonly having support for USB keyboards and USB mass storage to allow operating in so called legacy free configurations (i.e. without the old PS/2 input and maybe without some of the more traditional PC architecture components). OK, not going into more detail as that's not essential here. So when the BIOS has done its job, it will try to find a Master Boot Record (MBR) on any of the harddisk-like medias or other boot method specific block on other media (El-Torito on CDs/DVDs for example). Something like a USB memory stick is regarded as being harddisk-like, because it really is emulating a SCSI harddisk to the system. When it finds a boot record, it then loads that into memory and instructs the CPU to start execution of the instructions present. 1.2 The Master Boot Record Generally this is just the first block of any harddisk-like medium, usually 512 bytes in length. It contains boot code in the first part and the partition table at the end of the block. What you have there as boot code depends on what boot manager you have installed. You have either installed a boot manager explicitly, for example GRUB or the BeOS boot manager, or it was implicitly installed for you when partitioning the device (during Windows setup for example). Boot managers range from totally simple ones that are just enough to find the partition marked active and jump to the partition boot code of said partition, to almost complete operating systems with editing capabilities and other fancy features. 1.3 The Partition Boot Record Additionally to the Master Boot Record, there can also be a partition boot record. It's located at the start of a partition and contains further boot code. Depending on the boot manager you are using and how you configured it, this boot code will be executed or not. In the case of Haiku the partition boot code does locate the "/boot/beos/system/zbeos" file which then starts the operating system boot process. Additionally it contains the partition offset needed to access this partition during boot. A wrong value for that offset is probably one of the most common reason why a Haiku installation doesn't start to boot. As mentioned, whether or not the partition boot code is used depends on the boot manager and boot manager configuration. If you take GRUB installed as boot manager in the MBR and booting Linux. GRUB knows how to handle most Linux filesystems and it does know how to load and start a Linux kernel off of it. Therefore it can directly load Linux without the need for any additional boot code. However GRUB does neither know how to handle BFS and find the zbeos boot loader, nor would it really know how to execute it. Therefore you cannot use GRUB to directly boot Haiku. Instead you need to chainload the partition boot code of the BFS partition, as it knows how to handle both the BFS and zbeos. 1.4 The Boot Loader After the boot loader (zbeos in case of BeOS/Haiku) has been found and loaded into memory, it is executed. The boot loader is the one providing you with the Haiku boot menu when pressing the space bar in early boot and is the one detecting basic system configuration. It also contains the logic to find and load the kernel (kernel_intel on BeOS and kernel_x86 on Haiku) as well as some boot modules required. Boot modules include the bus managers, bus and device drivers required by the kernel to successfully access the boot volume to load the rest of the modules and execute anything it needs to fully boot the system. If you boot to an ATA harddisk it would require for example the IDE or ATA bus manager, the harddisk controller driver and the helper modules used by them. Booting from USB would require the USB bus manager, the host controller drivers and the usb_disk driver for example. The boot loader also provides the kernel with configuration information and info about initial memory layout for example. This data passing between the boot loader and the kernel is specific to Haiku and the Haiku revision, it is possible that the information passed changes from one revision to another. This also makes it obvious that a zbeos from a BeOS installation cannot work with a Haiku kernel. Likewise using a BeOS bootfloppy that provides such a zbeos is not going to boot Haiku. 1.5 The Kernel Once the kernel is loaded and starts executing it sets up a working environment. Memory management, bootstrapping and configuring non-boot CPUs, timers, interrupts, filesystems, module infrastructure, drivers... Everything that is needed for a fully working system and has not yet been loaded. Once this environment is set up, the kernel will start the bootscript, that then launches the different servers to provide a usable userland. 2. Installing Haiku If you intend to put Haiku onto a dedicated partition on your normal harddisk, you have several options to do so depending on your host operating system and wehther or not you intend to use a pre-built image or build from source. 2.1 Building from Source Building from source generally has the advantage that you can do modifications, include optional packages and that making everything bootable is mostly taken care of automatically. On the other hand it is of course quite a bit more time consuming and resource intensive. See the Building Haiku on Ubuntu Linux article for more details if you're building from Linux. Building from Windows is described in this tutorial, note though that under Windows you can currently only build images and not install directly to a partition. If you're building on BeOS see the tools section of of the getting started page and see this article on getting the source and building it. 2.2 Copying a Pre-Built Image If you can't or don't want to go through building from source, you can also take an already built image. You can download those from Haiku-Files. Download a raw image, not a VMWare one. Note that these are test images, they are not complete distributions that include a lot of software, both to keep the size and complexity of building them down. Future releases will include a more complete set of software obviously. When you've downloaded the raw image, you need to get this image to the partition or medium you intend to install it to. Under BeOS, Linux or basically everything except Windows you can use dd to just copy it over, using the partition or drive as a target. # under BeOS to partition X on the master on the first channel dd if=/path/to/image of=/dev/disk/ide/ata/0/master/X # under BeOS to the raw slave on the first channel (overwriting the MBR) dd if=/path/to/image of=/dev/disk/ide/ata/0/master/raw # under Linux to partition X on the first harddisk dd if=/path/to/image of=/dev/hdaX # under Linux to the raw second SCSI disk (could be a USB drive) dd if=/path/to/image of=/dev/sdb Make extra sure that you have the right partition picked there, as these commands are destructive. Recheck with a partitioning tool to verify for example. Note that you'll probably need administrative rights under Linux, so use sudo or su to execute these commands. If you want to put the image at the absolute start of the drive (so that you don't need an additional boot manager), make sure that you write to the whole raw drive and not to a partition. You do that by specifying a raw device instead of a partition. Under Linux you would for example omit the partition number resulting in "sdb" instead of "sdb1". Under BeOS you would pick the ".../raw" path instead of one with a number. If you use such a command, you overwrite the MBR containing the partition table. This means, that all the partitions on that drive will become inaccessible (not only the first part of the drive). So be sure that you want to do such a destructive operation! Under Windows things are sadly a bit more complicated. You can try dd for Windows or use a tool like flashnul to get the image to a partition or USB drive. You should find the tools on the Internet, see this forum post about how to use flashnul to copy a Haiku image to a USB flash drive. Note that when you just copy over an image to a partition or drive, you won't be able to use the full size of the target partition/drive. The image was built with a certain size (256MB currently) which is the size of the filesystem inside the image. So there's no real point in making a 10GB partition available for it, it won't be usable. 2.3 Copying the Contents of a Pre-Built Image Instead of copying the image itself you can also make a separate BFS partition yourself and then copy over the contents of the image to that partition. You will need a platform supporting BFS to do that obviously, which leaves you with two possible options. Either you use a version of BeOS to do the setup with DriveSetup or mkbfs or you use Haiku itself with the Installer or DriveSetup. Once you've created and initialized the target partition you can mount the image (using tools like Mount Image or through the Terminal) and copy over all the files. If you are under Haiku, you can just as well use the Installer to make a duplicate of your currently booted installation. 3. Getting Bootable Now that you have installed Haiku in some way or another there might remain steps to take to actually make this installation bootable. As you saw above, there are quite a few things involved when booting an OS. Some of the parts differ between OSes, not everyone might split boot loader and kernel, but essentially the steps are the same. Most of the things can and will be further automated when Haiku will be released, but others are more complicated and not within the power of Haiku. 3.1 Making the Partition Bootable If you built from source directly to a partition the build system has most probably done the required steps to make the partition bootable automatically. If so you can skip this point and continue with configuring the boot manager below. When you just create a plain partition and initialize it to a BFS filesystem or if you copy over a complete Haiku image, this doesn't necessarily make the partition bootable. The partition boot record may be missing, or the partition offset could be misconfigured. The prebuilt images for example contain a partition offset of 0 for example, since they are not actually partitioned. They only consist of a direct BFS filesystem, so the offset to that is 0. This will work in exactly one case, where you don't actually put it into a partition. If you for example copy such an image directly to a USB drive starting from 0, overwriting the MBR (destoying all partitions already there), then this will boot. If you however copy an image to the first partition on your harddisk, this will not work out of the box, as the boot code in the partition boot record won't find the desired filesystem at offset 0 (that's where the MBR still is). To make sure a partition boot record is there and it contains the right partition offset, you can use the tool "makebootable". Makebootable will do both, write the partition boot code to the beginning of the partition and detect and write the partition offset to where it is needed. You can use the makebootable from BeOS if you have a BeOS installation that has access to the partition in question. To do that, mount the volume you have Haiku installed to and use: Where "/HaikuMountpoint" is where you have mounted your Haiku volume to. Note that the BeOS makebootable can be used, because the partition boot record does only load the zbeos boot loader. As Haiku does provide a zbeos as well and there is no information passed from the partition boot code to the boot loader, this is compatible between BeOS and Haiku and you can use a BeOS makebootable with a Haiku boot loader and the other way around. If you already have some Haiku medium capable of booting Haiku (like a USB drive) you could also boot into Haiku and run makebootable from there. Note that there is currently a bug in makebootable that will require you to run it from the location it resides in like so: If you are on Linux or another build platform that has support for makebootable and have the sources available you can run: jam run ":<build>makebootable" /dev/sdaX Where the "/dev/sdaX" is the partition that is supposed to be made bootable. Under Windows this is currently not possible. 3.2 Configuring the Boot Manager When the partition itself is bootable, i.e. contains a partition boot record and the correct partition offset, there needs to be a way to get it executed. If you installed Haiku by copying an image to the complete beginning of a disk or USB drive, this will already be the case. There is no boot manager and no MBR at all, but straight the partition boot code, which should then work out of the box. So if you have it installed this way, go right ahead and boot. If you use a boot manager like GRUB however, you need to instruct it to load from that partition. You do that for GRUB by adding an entry to its menu.lst usually located at "/boot/grub/menu.lst". The following would instruct it to switch to the partition and then just chainload the partition boot record: That would work if you installed to disk "0" and partition "3". Note that the GRUB naming is one-off the Linux one, so if you have it installed to "/dev/sda4" that would translate to disk "0" (sda == 0, sdb == 1, ...) and partition "3" (4 - 1). In case you are using the BeOS boot manager, just re-run the "bootman" command and add the new Haiku partition to the boot menu. If you have another boot manager consult its documentation on how to chainload partitions, most should support such a thing, possibly named a bit different. In doubt just add an entry for the partition, probably this will cause it to chainload, even if not explicitly named so. 4. Easy Installation through USB Drives The above steps should get you going in most cases, but maybe sound a bit scary or involved. My personally recommended method that should work on most current hardware would be to make a dedicated USB drive like a USB memory stick to boot Haiku. To do that, you can take a relatively small USB drive that has enough space to fit the image onto. Then you just copy that image directly to the raw drive, not to a partition, replacing everything including the MBR, destroying all the partitions that were on there (see above as to tools to use). This is destructive and you can't use anything after the image size of that drive, but if you get some cheap small USB memory stick just for that purpose it's certainly one of the easiest ways to boot Haiku. Once you've booted Haiku you can also do an installation from there, initializing partitions with BFS using DriveSetup and using the Installer to do a proper installation. Note that you cannot currently create partitions under Haiku. Use your preferred partition tool to create a dedicated partition before booting Haiku. Note also that the Installer doesn't have a link in the Haiku menu, therefore just run it from the Terminal. If you additionally execute it from "/bin" this works around the makebootable problem, giving you the commands: That should work and be pretty usable to boot devices that you have no other means to put Haiku onto otherwise. This works for example out of the box on the Asus EEE, but really should work for every USB bootable x86 machine. If it doesn't, please make sure that your issue is documented in a bug report at our bug tracker. We cannot fix it if we don't know that it's broken. I hope this clears up some things. If nothing else this should get you a better starting point for troubleshooting if it indeed doesn't boot.

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The aspect of inpatient care dealing with illnesses or conditions requiring specialized techniques, such as coronary artery bypass surgery, renal hemodialysis, and treatment of severe burns. the third and highly specialised stage of treatment, usually provided in a hospital centre which may not be local. See also primary care and secondary care. Highly specialized care given to patients who are in danger of disability or death often requiring sophisticated technologies (e.g., neurosurgeons or intensive care units). Services provided by highly specialized providers (e.g. neurologists, neurosurgeons, thoracic surgeons, and intensive care units). Such services frequently require highly sophisticated equipment and facilities. The development of these services has largely been a function of diagnostic and therapeutic advances attained through basic and clinical biomedical research. Tertiary care is administered at a highly specialized medical center. It is associated with the utilization of high-cost technology resources. When a hospital consultant decides that more specialist care is needed. Mental Health Services are included in this. (see also Secondary care). The most specialized, complex and costly level of medical care involving severely ill patients. Tertiary care is frequently provided in a facility specializing in such care. Very specialised care often only provided in a small number of locations. Care provided by specialist hospitals or departments (e.g. cancer centres) for patients referred from district hospitals. Services provided by highly specialized providers such as neurosurgeons, thoracic surgeons and intensive care unites. These services often require highly sophisticated technology and facilities. The most intense (and usually expensive) level of health care, involving highly specialized providers such as neurosurgeons, and high-tech facilities such as Intensive Care Units. Sometimes called "Subspecialty Care." health care services provided by specialized providers, such as neurosurgeons, thoracic surgeons and intensive care units. These services often require highly sophisticated technologies and facilities. Specialist health care typically provided in regional centres Services provided by such providers as thoracic surgeons, intensive care units, neurosurgeons, etc. See REFERRED CARE. In medicine, tertiary healthcare is specialized consultative care, usually on referral from primary or secondary medical care personnel, by specialists working in a center that has personnel and facilities for special investigation and treatment.

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en

In the area of mathematics known as homological algebra, especially in algebraic topology and group cohomology, a spectral sequence is a means of computing homology groups by taking successive approximations. Spectral sequences are a generalization of exact sequences, and since their introduction by Jean Leray in 1946, they have become an important research tool, particularly in homotopy theory. However, they have a reputation for being abstruse and difficult to comprehend. Motivated by problems in algebraic topology, Jean Leray introduced the notion of a sheaf and found himself faced with the problem of computing sheaf cohomology. To compute sheaf cohomology, Leray introduced a computational technique now known as the Leray spectral sequence. This gave a relationship between cohomology groups of a sheaf and cohomology groups of the pushforward of the sheaf. It was not a direct relation. Instead, Leray found that the cohomology groups of the pushforward formed a natural chain complex, so that he could take the cohomology of the cohomology. The result was not the cohomology of the original sheaf, but it was closer, and it too formed a natural chain complex. Leray found that he could repeat this process, and that each step got him closer to the cohomology groups of the original sheaf. Taking the limit of the iterated cohomologies gave him exactly the cohomology groups of the original sheaf. This allowed Leray to compute sheaf cohomology. It was soon realized that Leray's computational technique was an example of a more general phenomenon. Spectral sequences were found in diverse situations, and they gave intricate relationships among homology and cohomology groups coming from geometric situations such as fibrations and from algebraic situations involving derived functors. While their theoretical importance has decreased since the introduction of derived categories, they are still the most effective computational tool available. This is true even when many of the terms of the spectral sequence are incalculable. Unfortunately, because of the large amount of information carried in spectral sequences, they are difficult to grasp. This information is usually contained in a rank three lattice of abelian groups or modules. In most cases that can be computed, the spectral sequence eventually collapses, meaning that going out further in the sequence produces no new information. This does not always happen, however, and then it becomes necessary to use tricks to extract useful information. Even in these cases, however, it is still possible to get useful information from a spectral sequence. Fix an abelian category, such as a category of modules over a ring. A spectral sequence is a choice of a nonnegative integer r0 and a collection of three sequences: Usually the isomorphisms between Er+1 and H(Er) are suppressed, and we write equalities instead. Er+1 is sometimes called the derived object of Er. The most elementary example is a chain complex C•. C• is an object in an abelian category of chain complexes, and it comes with a differential d. Let r0 = 0, and let E0 be C•. This forces E1 to be the complex H(C•): At the i'th location this is the i'th homology group of C•. The only natural differential on this new complex is the zero map, so we let d1 = 0. This forces E2 to equal E1, and again our only natural differential is the zero map. Putting the zero differential on all the rest of our sheets gives a spectral sequence whose terms are: The terms of this spectral sequence stabilize at the first sheet because its only nontrivial differential was on the zeroth sheet. Consequently we can get no more information at later steps. Usually, to get useful information from later sheets, we need extra structure on the Er. In the ungraded situation described above, r0 is irrelevant, but in practice most spectral sequences occur in the category of doubly graded modules over a ring R (or doubly graded sheaves of modules over a sheaf of rings). The degree of the boundary maps depends on r and is fixed by convention. For a homological spectral sequence, the terms are written and the differentials have bidegree (-r,r-1). For a cohomological spectral sequence, the terms are written and the differentials have bidegree (r,1-r). (These choices of bidegree occur naturally in practice; see the example of a double complex below.) Depending upon the spectral sequence, the boundary map on the first sheet can have a degree which corresponds to r = 0, r = 1, or r = 2. For example, for the spectral sequence of a filtered complex, described below, r0 = 0, but for the Grothendieck spectral sequence, r0 = 2. Usually r0 is zero, one, or two. A morphism of spectral sequences E → E' is by definition a collection of maps fr : Er → E'r which commute with the given isomorphisms between cohomology of the r-th step and the (r+1)-st step of E and E' , respectively. The category of spectral sequences is an abelian category. The most powerful technique for the construction of spectral sequences is William Massey's method of exact couples. Exact couples are particularly common in algebraic topology, where there are many spectral sequences for which no other construction is known. In fact, all known spectral sequences can be constructed using exact couples. Despite this they are unpopular in abstract algebra, where most spectral sequences come from filtered complexes. To define exact couples, we begin again with an abelian category. As before, in practice this is usually the category of doubly graded modules over a ring. An exact couple is a pair of objects A and C, together with three homomorphisms between these objects: f : A → A, g : A → C and h : C → A subject to certain exactness conditions: We will abbreviate this data by (A, C, f, g, h). Exact couples are usually depicted as triangles. We will see that C corresponds to the E0 term of the spectral sequence and that A is some auxiliary data. To pass to the next sheet of the spectral sequence, we will form the derived couple. We set: From here it is straightforward to check that (A', C', f', g', h') is an exact couple. C' corresponds to the E1 term of the spectral sequence. We can iterate this procedure to get exact couples (A(n), C(n), f(n), g(n), h(n)). We let En be C(n) and dn be g(n) o h(n). This gives a spectral sequence. A doubly graded spectral sequence has a tremendous amount of data to keep track of, but there is a common visualization technique which makes the structure of the spectral sequence clearer. We have three indices, r, p, and q. For each r, imagine that we have a sheet of graph paper. On this sheet, we will take p to be the horizontal direction and q to be the vertical direction. At each lattice point we have the object . It is very common for n = p + q to be another natural index in the spectral sequence. n runs diagonally, northwest to southeast, across each sheet. In the homological case, the differentials have bidegree (-r,r-1), so they decrease n by one. In the cohomological case, n is increased by one. When r is zero, the differential moves objects one space to the right or left. This is similar to the differential on a chain complex. When r is one, the differential moves objects one space down or up. When r is two, the differential moves objects just like a knight's move in chess. For higher r, the differential acts like a generalized knight's move. A very common type of spectral sequence comes from a filtered cochain complex. This is a cochain complex C• together with a set of subcomplexes FpC•, where p ranges across all integers. (In practice, p is usually bounded on one side.) We require that the boundary map is compatible with the filtration; this means that d(FpCn) ⊆ FpCn+1. We assume that the filtration is descending, i.e., FpC• ⊇ Fp+1C•. We will number the terms of the cochain complex by n. Later, we will also assume that the filtration is Hausdorff or separated, that is, the intersection of the set of all FpC• is zero, and that the filtration is exhaustive, that is, the union of the set of all FpC• is the entire chain complex C•. The filtration is useful because it gives a measure of nearness to zero: As p increases, FpC• gets closer and closer to zero. We will construct a spectral sequence from this filtration where boundaries and cycles in later sheets get closer and closer to boundaries and cycles in the original complex. This spectral sequence will be doubly graded. One of the grades will be the filtration degree p. The other is called the complementary degree and is denoted q. The complementary degree satisfies the relation p + q = n. (We use the complementary degree instead of the location in the chain complex because this is more natural in the common case of the spectral sequence of a double complex, explained below.) We will construct this spectral sequence by hand. C• has only a single grading and a filtration, so we first construct a doubly graded object from C•. To get the second grading, we will take the associated graded object with respect to the filtration. We will write it in an unusual way which will be justified at the E1 step: Since we assumed that the boundary map was compatible with the filtration, E0 is a doubly graded object and there is a natural doubly graded boundary map d0 on E0. To get E1, we take the homology of E0. Notice that and can be written as the images in of and that we then have is exactly the stuff which the differential pushes up one level in the filtration, and is exactly the image of the stuff which the differential pushes up one level in the filtration. This suggests that we should choose to be the stuff which the differential pushes up r levels in the filtration and to be image of the stuff which the differential pushes up r levels in the filtration. In other words, the spectral sequence should satisfy and we should have the relationship For this to make sense, we must find a differential on each Er which gives the Er+1 we stated above. Since we have written as a subobject of , we get a differential on by restricting the differential on : Now it is straightforward to check that the homology of Er with respect to this differential is Er+1, so this gives a spectral sequence. Unfortunately, the differential is not very explicit. Determining differentials or finding ways to work around them is one of the main challenges to successfully applying a spectral sequence. Another common spectral sequence is the spectral sequence of a double complex. A double complex is a collection of objects Ci,j for all integers i and j together with two differentials, d I and d II. d I is assumed to decrease i, and d II is assumed to decrease j. Furthermore, we assume that the differentials anticommute, so that d I d II + d II d I = 0. Our goal is to compare the iterated homologies and . We will do this by filtering our double complex in two different ways. Here are our filtrations: To get a spectral sequence, we will reduce to the previous example. We define the total complex T(C•,•) to be the complex whose n'th term is and whose differential is d I + d II. This is a complex because d I and d II are anticommuting differentials. The two filtrations on Ci,j give two filtrations on the total complex: To show that these spectral sequences give information about the iterated homologies, we will work out the E0, E1, and E2 terms of the I filtration on T(C•,•). The E0 term is clear: To find the E1 term, we need to determine d I + d II on E0. Notice that the differential must have degree 1 with respect to n, so we get a map Consequently, the differential on E0 is the map Cp,q → Cp,q-1 induced by d I + d II. But d I has the wrong degree to induce such a map, so d I must be zero on E0. That means the differential is exactly d II, so we get To find E2, we need to determine Because E1 was exactly the homology with respect to d II, d II is zero on E1. Consequently, we get Using the other filtration gives us a different spectral sequence with a similar E2 term: What remains is to find a relationship between these two spectral sequences. It will turn out that as r increases, the two sequences will become similar enough to allow useful comparisons. In the elementary example that we began with, the sheets of the spectral sequence were constant once r was at least 1. In that setup it makes sense to take the limit of the sequence of sheets: Since nothing happens after the zeroth sheet, the limiting sheet E∞ is the same as E1. In more general situations, limiting sheets often exist and are always interesting. They are one of the most powerful aspects of spectral sequences. We say that a spectral sequence converges to or abuts to if there is an r(p, q) such that for all r ≥ r(p, q), the differentials and are zero. This forces to be isomorphic to for large r. In symbols, we write: The p indicates the filtration index. It is very common to write the term on the left-hand side of the abutment, because this is the most useful term of most spectral sequences. In most spectral sequences, the term is not naturally a doubly graded object. Instead, there are usually terms which come with a natural filtration . In these cases, we set . We define convergence in the same way as before, but we write to mean that whenever p + q = n, converges to . The simplest situation in which we can determine convergence is when the spectral sequences degenerates. We say that the spectral sequences degenerates at sheet r if, for any s ≥ r, the differential ds is zero. This implies that Er ≅ Er+1 ≅ Er+2 ≅ ... In particular, it implies that Er is isomorphic to E∞. This is what happened in our first, trivial example of an unfiltered chain complex: The spectral sequence degenerated at the first sheet. In general, if a doubly-graded spectral sequence is zero outside of a horizontal or vertical strip, the spectral sequence will degenerate, because later differentials will always go to or from an object not in the strip. The spectral sequence also converges if vanishes for all p less than some p0 and for all q less than some q0. If p0 and q0 can be chosen to be zero, this is called a first-quadrant spectral sequence. This sequence converges because each object is a fixed distance away from the edge of the non-zero region. Consequently, for a fixed p and q, the differential on later sheets always maps from or to the zero object; more visually, the differential leaves the quadrant where the terms are nonzero. The spectral sequence need not degenerate, however, because the differential maps might not all be zero at once. Similarly, the spectral sequence also converges if vanishes for all p greater than some p0 and for all q greater than some q0. The five-term exact sequence of a spectral sequence relates certain low-degree terms and E∞ terms. Notice that we have a chain of inclusions: We can ask what happens if we define is a natural candidate for the abutment of this spectral sequence. Convergence is not automatic, but happens in many cases. In particular, if the filtration is finite and consists of exactly r nontrivial steps, then the spectral sequence degenerates after the r'th sheet. Convergence also occurs if the complex and the filtration are both bounded below or both bounded above. To describe the abutment of our spectral sequence in more detail, notice that we have the formulas: To see what this implies for recall that we assumed that the filtration was separated. This implies that as r increases, the kernels shrink, until we are left with . For , recall that we assumed that the filtration was exhaustive. This implies that as r increases, the images grow until we reach . We conclude that is, the abutment of the spectral sequence is the p'th graded part of the p+q'th homology of C. If our spectral sequence converges, then we conclude that: Using the spectral sequence of a filtered complex, we can derive the existence of long exact sequences. Choose a short exact sequence of cochain complexes 0 → A• → B• → C• → 0, and call the first map f• : A• → B•. We get natural maps of homology objects Hn(A•) → Hn(B•) → Hn(C•), and we know that this is exact in the middle. We will use the spectral sequence of a filtered complex to find the connecting homomorphism and to prove that the resulting sequence is exact. To start, we filter B•: The differential has bidegree (1, 0), so d0,q : Hq(C•) → Hq+1(A•). These are the connecting homomorphisms from the snake lemma, and together with the maps A• → B• → C•, they give a sequence: It remains to show that this sequence is exact at the A and C spots. Notice that this spectral sequence degenerates at the E2 term because the differentials have bidegree (2, −1). Consequently, the E2 term is the same as the E∞ term: But we also have a direct description of the E2 term as the homology of the E1 term. These two descriptions must be isomorphic: The former gives exactness at the C spot, and the latter gives exactness at the A spot. Using the abutment for a filtered complex, we find that: In general, the two gradings on Hp+q(T(C•,•)) are distinct. Despite this, it is still possible to gain useful information from these two spectral sequences. Let M and N be R-modules. Recall that the derived functors of the tensor product are denoted Tor. Tor is defined using a projective resolution of its first argument. However, it turns out that Tori(M, N) = Tori(N, M). While this can be verified without a spectral sequence, it is very easy with spectral sequences. Choose projective resolutions P• and Q• of M and N, respectively. Consider these as complexes which vanish in negative degree having differentials d and e, respectively. We can construct a double complex whose terms are Ci,j = Pi ⊗ Qj and whose differentials are d ⊗ 1 and (−1)j(1 ⊗ e). (The factor of −1 is so that the differentials anticommute.) Since projective modules are flat, taking the tensor product with a projective module commutes with taking homology, so we get: Since the two complexes are resolutions, their homology vanishes outside of degree zero. In degree zero, we are left with In particular, the terms vanish except along the lines p = 0 (for one spectral sequence) and q = 0 (for the other). This implies that the spectral sequence degenerates at the second sheet. We get isomorphisms: Finally, when p and q are equal, we get isomorphisms of the two right-hand sides, even after accounting for their different gradings, and the commutativity of Tor follows. Some notable spectral sequences are:

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Unicode Transformation Format 8-bit is a variable-width encoding that can represent every character in the Unicode character set. It was designed for backward compatibility with ASCII and to avoid the complications of endianness and byte order marks in UTF-16 and UTF-32. UTF-8 encodes each Unicode character as a variable number of 1 to 4 octets, where the number of octets depends on the integer value assigned to the Unicode character. It is an efficient encoding of Unicode documents that use mostly US-ASCII characters because it represents each character in the range U+0000 through U+007F as a single octet. UTF-8 is the default encoding for XML and since 2010 has become the dominant character set on the Web. The MIME character set attribute for UTF-8 is Character sets are case-insensitive, so utf-8 is equally valid. [IANA Character In a modern HTML 5 page, place this tag inside For older HTML 4.0.1 pages, use this: <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8"> In an XML prolog, the encoding is typically specified as an attribute: <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" ?> In Apache server config or .htaccess, this will cause the HTTP header to be generated for

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American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition - n. A percussion instrument consisting of a small drumhead with jingling disks fitted into the rim, usually played by shaking and striking with the hand. - n. A similar instrument without a drumhead. Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia - n. A parchment-covered racket, resembling a battledore, with which the ball is thrown in the game of tamburello (which see). - n. A small drum formed of a ring or hoop of wood or sometimes of metal, over which is stretched a single head of parchment. The hoop carries several pairs of loose metal disks called jingles. The instrument is played either by shaking, or by striking with the hand or arm, or by drawing the finger across the head (or each in alternation). It is of Oriental origin, and is very common in Spain, whence it is often called tambour de Basque. See cut in next column. - n. A long narrow drum or tabor used in Provence; also, a bottle-shaped drum used in Egypt. - n. A Provençal dance originally executed to the sound of tabor and pipe, with or without singing. - n. Music for such a dance, in duple rhythm and quick tempo, and usually accompanied by a drone bass of a single tone, as the tonic or the dominant, as if played by rubbing the finger across a tambourine. - n. A remarkable pigeon of Africa, Tympanistria bicolor. See cut under Tympanistria. - n. A percussion instrument consisting of a small, usually wooden, hoop closed on one side with a drum frame and featuring jingling metal disks on the tread; it is usually held in the hand and shaken rhythmically. GNU Webster's 1913 - n. A small drum, especially a shallow drum with only one skin, played on with the hand, and having bells at the sides; a timbrel. - n. A South American wild dove (Tympanistria tympanistria), mostly white, with black-tiped wings and tail. Its resonant note is said to be ventriloquous. - n. a shallow drum with a single drumhead and with metallic disks in the sides - from French tambourin (lit., "little drum"), from tambour ("drum"). (Wiktionary) - French tambourin, small drum, from Old French; see tambourin. (American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition) “In the hands of a Jewish woman, the tambourine is a symbol of passage, hope, and achievement.” “ She doesn't look anything like Louise, who is lean and black haired, but the tambourine is a lot like the one I held in New Orleans last spring when we went to Mardi Gras and sang dive-bar karaoke.” “He tells me that the tambourine is the sole feminine instrument of the Middle East.” “One of the other musicians said that the tambourine is a female due to the fact that it makes a pretty jingle and is designed to be spanked.” “Tests of strength and endurance occur between the men of the tribe; and visits are paid to the various settlements, during the long winter nights; and songs and choruses are sung, accompanied by a kind of tambourine which is made from the bladder of a walrus or seal, and stretched across the antlers of a reindeer.” “The owner of a tambourine is the equal of a peer; the proprietor of a guitar is the captain of his hundred.” “One of the young soldiers had a kind of tambourine—the soldiers sang songs around their own campfire.” “Says the smooth hypocrite: "I should have set thee on thy way with joyful festivities (Hebrew:" joy ") and songs, with timbrel (toph, a kind of tambourine) and harp" (kinnor, perhaps originally an instrument more like a violin).” “The Alaskan Indians stretch a skin into a kind of tambourine and beat it with a club to call a bull; which sound, however, might not be unlike one of the many peculiar bellows that I have heard from cow moose in the wilderness.” “Then some thick-lipped musicians struck up music on quaintly-shaped stringed instruments, and the strange old man, bearing a kind of tambourine in his hand, came round to collect coins, the collection being repeated at the conclusion of each legend.” These user-created lists contain the word ‘tambourine’. Words that sound like they might be the names of elements of the periodic table, but that aren't. Many of the words listed here were actually proposed as names for substances their creators thought... A list of words with definitions containing the phrase "which see." We get a lot of spam emails at Wordnik that fit this pattern: "Mr Bob Wilson here and i will like to know if you do have X for sale". The words on this list represent a subset of such requested items. With focus on non-classical styles, but not excluding terms of the latter. Words that contain every vowel. Words of 10 letters, all different, can be used for encrypting, pretty securely, such things as PINs and passwords. The fly in the ointment, for me, in keeping track of them is I've got to write '... words that evoke magic, mystery, mayhem, magnificence or anything else that glimmers in the grass Words as I learn them. Panvocalics are words that contain all the vowels. Listed here are "euvocalics": words that have each of the five vowels only once. (These are also a kind of supervocalic.) Words that also have a "... Looking for tweets for tambourine.

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|A schoolgirl at Ruthimitu Primary School in Nairobi, Kenya. Increasing girls’ access to education is a key strategy to help end female genital mutilation, because educated women are less likely to allow their daughters to be cut.| By Malini Morzaria and Zeinab Ahmed NAIROBI, Kenya, 24 August 2006 – In the North Eastern Province of Kenya, UNICEF is helping communities abandon the practice of female genital mutilation (FGM), or cutting, which is still inflicted upon the vast majority of girls in the province. While FGM is not as prevalent in the rest of the country, a 2003 nationwide survey revealed that almost a third of Kenyan women aged 15 to 49 had undergone genital mutilation. But the same survey also showed a 30 per cent reduction in the practice. The reduction is largely due to increased education, female economic empowerment and the introduction of so-called ‘alternative rites of passage’ – which replace FGM with rituals that retain the cultural significance of a coming-of-age ceremony without physically harming the young women involved. Increasing the pressure Despite the overall decline in the practice across Kenya, FGM is still carried out in 60 of the country’s 75 districts. Some 99 per cent of girls who are ‘cut’ undergo infibulation, the most radical and severe form of cutting. A UNICEF study conducted in Garissa and Myale in 2004 found that about 60 per cent of FGM practitioners felt increasing pressure to abandon the rite. Almost half said religious leaders provided the strongest impetus to abandon the practice, while 40 per cent cited an increased awareness of girls’ rights. Only about 1 in 10 practitioners said the strongest motive for stopping the tradition was a greater understanding of its adverse effects on girls and women. UNICEF and the Population Council, an international non-governmental organization, are training health service providers in Kenya to promote safer maternal health and provide increased psychosocial support for women affected by FGM. Education is key Increasing access to education is another key strategy because educated women are less likely to allow their daughters to be cut. In North Eastern Province, less than 20 per cent of girls are ever enrolled in school. To help address this problem, UNICEF is working with the Ministry of Education and the Office of the President to increase access to education through support for mobile schools, boarding schools, improved water and sanitation facilities in schools and better-quality teaching in child-centred, girl-friendly classrooms. Around the province, communities are being encouraged to openly discuss the dangers of FGM and promote child rights. As a result, even in conservative communities, people are talking about the practice and its adverse effects. Help from religious leaders The power of community pressure is illustrated by the case of Isnino Shuria, 80, a former practitioner of FGM who learned the rite from her mother. “My mother died when I was 17, and I took over her practice,” says Ms. Shuria, who continued ‘cutting’ until eight years ago, when a group of women visited her with religious leaders who said FGM violated Islamic values. “I did not listen at first,” she recalls, “but after their third visit I stopped and realized what I was doing.” The community women raised funds so that Ms. Shuria and others in her position could buy livestock to support themselves and make up for their loss of income. “There are about 25 of us now,” says Ms. Shuria. “I deliver babies and massage mothers who have problem pregnancies – it is much better. I have many well-wishers who help me and my family.”

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Individual differences | Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology | Developmental Psychology: Cognitive development · Development of the self · Emotional development · Language development · Moral development · Perceptual development · Personality development · Psychosocial development · Social development · Developmental measures A runaway is a minor or a person under an arbitrary age depending upon the local jurisdiction who has left the home of his or her parent or legal guardian without permission or has been thrown out by his or her parent and is considered by the local authorities to lack the capacity to live under his or her own accord. In North America, runaway children or youth are widely regarded as a chronic and serious social problem. It is estimated that each year there are between 1.3 and 1.5 million runaway and homeless youth in the United States (Coco & Courtney, 1998; Cauce et al., 1994). This problem also exists in the United Kingdom, with runaway youths often congregating in London. Current studies suggest that the primary cause of youth homelessness is family dysfunction in the form of parental neglect, physical or sexual abuse, family substance abuse, and family violence . Family conflict can also be caused by sudden and or drastic changes in the family composition (i.e. a divorce, re-marriage, death of a parent), parental substance abuse, youth's substance abuse, and youth's sexual activity. They may have difficulty obtaining affordable housing, due to landlords being reluctant to rent to young adults. Since most homeless youth drop-out of school, they also have difficulty competing successfully in the job market. A related term used for runaways is "throwaway youth". Normally a throwaway youth or child is someone who has been "locked out" or forced to leave home by his/her parents or caregivers. However, the distinction between runaways and throwaways is not clear as in many cases it depends on who provides the information. When the parents are asked they say the youth ran away, while the youth would say he or she was forced to leave, either directly or by circumstances. In most cases, youth run away because the situation at home is seen as unbearable and not because they are looking for excitement or fun. Running away from home is considered a crime in some jurisdictions, but it is usually a status offense punished with probation, or not punished at all. Giving aid or assistance to a runaway instead of turning them in to the police is a more serious crime called "harboring a runaway", and is typically a misdemeanor. . The law can vary considerably from one jurisdiction to another; in the United States there is a different law in every state. A 2003 FBI study showed that there were 123,581 arrests for runaway youths in the United States. - The Basic Center Program funds emergency shelters where youth can stay for up to 15 days. Shelters aim to keep youth safe by providing them with immediate needs, such as food, clothing, shelter, and medical care. Shelters may also provide individual, group, and family counseling, and if desired, help reunite youth with their families. - The Transitional Living Program funds programs that help homeless youth develop skills that allow them to become independent and may prevent them from depending on social services in the future. Shelter, services, and counseling are provided for up to 18 months for youth ages 16 to 21 who are unable to return to their homes. - The Street Outreach Program funds local youth service providers that reach out to homeless youth living on the streets and in unstable housing. The providers offer emergency shelter and other services to young people who have been, or who are at risk of being, sexually abused or exploited, with the goal of helping them leave the streets. The Family and Youth Services Bureau also provides funding for the National Runaway Switchboard, a national hotline for runaway youth, youth who are thinking about running away or are in crisis, parents, and other concerned adults. Available 24 hours a day 365 days a year, the hotline (1-800-RUNAWAY) is confidential, anonymous, and free. - ↑ (Smollar, 1999; Robertson & Toro, 1998) - ↑ http://www.cga.ct.gov/2003/olrdata/kid/rpt/2003-R-0130.htm Background on Status Offenders - ↑ http://law.onecle.com/illinois/720ilcs5/10-6.html Illinois Criminal Code of 1961 - 720 ILCS 5, Section 10-6 - ↑ http://www.ndaa.org/pdf/parental_kidnapping.pdf Criminal Parental Kidnapping - ↑ The World Almanac and Book of Facts: 2006 Edition, Pg. 205 ISBN 0-88687-964-7 - ↑ http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/fysb/content/youthdivision/programs/bcpfactsheet.htm/ Basic Center Program fact sheet - ↑ http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/fysb/content/youthdivision/programs/tlpfactsheet.htm/ Transitional Living Program for Older Homeless Youth fact sheet - ↑ http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/fysb/content/youthdivision/programs/sopfactsheet.htm/ Street Outreach Program fact sheet - National Runaway Switchboard for young people in the United States and U.S. Territories - The Runaway Helpline for young people in the United Kingdom - Family and Youth Services Bureau - National Clearinghouse on Families & Youth |This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).|

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A minor planet is an astronomical object in direct orbit around the Sun that is neither a dominant planet nor originally classified as a comet. Minor planets can be dwarf planets, asteroids, trojans, centaurs, Kuiper belt objects, and other trans-Neptunian objects. The first minor planet discovered was Ceres in 1801 (although from the time of its discovery until 1851 it was considered to be a planet). The orbits of more than 570,000 objects have been archived at the Minor Planet Center. The term "minor planet" has been used since the 19th century to describe these objects. The term planetoid has also been used, especially for larger (planetary) objects, such as what since 2006 the IAU has called dwarf planets. Historically, the terms asteroid, minor planet, and planetoid have been more or less synonymous, but the issue has been complicated by the discovery of numerous minor planets beyond the orbit of Jupiter and especially Neptune that are not universally considered asteroids. Minor planets seen outgassing may receive a dual classification as a comet. Before 2006 the International Astronomical Union had officially used the term minor planet. During its 2006 meeting, the Union reclassified minor planets and comets into dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies. Objects are called dwarf planets if their self-gravity is sufficient to achieve hydrostatic equilibrium, that is, an ellipsoidal shape, with all other minor planets and comets called "small Solar System bodies". The IAU states: "the term 'minor planet' may still be used, but generally the term 'small solar system body' will be preferred." However, for purposes of numbering and naming, the traditional distinction between minor planet and comet is still followed. Hundreds of thousands of minor planets have been discovered within the Solar System, with the 2009 rate of discovery at over 3,000 per month. Of the more than 535,000 registered minor planets, 251,651 have orbits known well enough to be assigned permanent official numbers. Of these, 16,154 have official names. As of September 2010, the lowest-numbered unnamed minor planet is (3708) 1974 FV1; but there are also some named minor planets above number 240,000. There are various broad minor-planet populations: - Asteroids; traditionally, most have been bodies in the inner Solar System. - Main-belt asteroids, those following roughly circular orbits between Mars and Jupiter. These are the original and best-known group of asteroids or minor planets. - Near-Earth asteroids, those whose orbits take them inside the orbit of Mars. Further subclassification of these, based on orbital distance, is used: - Aten asteroids, those that have semi-major axes of less than one Earth orbit. Those Aten asteroids that have their aphelion within Earth's orbit are known as Apohele asteroids; - Amor asteroids are those near-Earth asteroids that approach the orbit of the Earth from beyond, but do not cross it. Amor asteroids are further subdivided into four subgroups, depending on where their semimajor axis falls between Earth's orbit and the asteroid belt; - Apollo asteroids are those asteroids with a semimajor axis greater than Earth's, while having a perihelion distance of 1.017 AU or less. Like Aten asteroids, Apollo asteroids are Earth-crossers. - Earth trojans, asteroids sharing Earth's orbit and gravitationally locked to it. As of 2011, the only one known is 2010 TK7. - Mars trojans, asteroids sharing Mars's orbit and gravitationally locked to it. As of 2007, eight such asteroids are known. - Jupiter trojans, asteroids sharing Jupiter's orbit and gravitationally locked to it. Numerically they are estimated to equal the main-belt asteroids. - Distant minor planets; an umbrella term for minor planets in the outer Solar System. - Centaurs, bodies in the outer Solar System between Jupiter and Neptune. They have unstable orbits due to the gravitational influence of the giant planets, and therefore must have come from elsewhere, probably outside Neptune. - Neptune trojans, bodies sharing Neptune's orbit and gravitationally locked to it. Although only a handful are known, there is evidence that Neptune trojans are more numerous than either the asteroids in the asteroid belt or the Jupiter trojans. - Trans-Neptunian objects, bodies at or beyond the orbit of Neptune, the outermost planet. - The Kuiper belt, objects inside an apparent population drop-off approximately 55 AU from the Sun. - Scattered disc, objects with aphelia outside the Kuiper belt. These are thought to have been scattered by Neptune. - Detached objects such as Sedna, with both aphelia and perihelia outside the Kuiper belt. - The Oort Cloud, a hypothetical population thought to be the source of long-period comets that may extend out to 50,000 AU from the Sun. A newly discovered minor planet is given a provisional designation (such as 2002 AT4) consisting of the year of discovery and an alphanumeric code indicating the half-month of discovery and the sequence within that half-month. Once an asteroid's orbit has been confirmed, it is given a number, and later may also be given a name (e.g. 433 Eros). The formal naming convention uses parentheses around the number, but dropping the parentheses is quite common. Informally, it is common to drop the number altogether, or to drop it after the first mention when a name is repeated in running text. Minor planets that have been given a number but not a name keep their provisional designation, e.g. (29075) 1950 DA. As modern discovery techniques are finding vast numbers of new asteroids, they are increasingly being left unnamed. The earliest discovered to be left unnamed was for a long time (3360) 1981 VA, now 3360 Syrinx; as of September 2008, this distinction is held by (3708) 1974 FV1. On rare occasions, a small object's provisional designation may become used as a name in itself: the still unnamed (15760) 1992 QB1 gave its "name" to a group of Kuiper belt objects which became known as cubewanos. Minor planets are awarded an official number once their orbits are confirmed. With the increasing rapidity of discovery, these are now six-figure numbers. The switch from five figures to six figures arrived with the publication of the Minor Planet Circular (MPC) of October 19, 2005, which saw the highest numbered minor planet jump from 99947 to 118161. Sources for names The first few asteroids were named after figures from Greek and Roman mythology, but as such names started to dwindle the names of famous people, literary characters, discoverer's wives, children, and even television characters were used. The first asteroid to be given a non-mythological name was 20 Massalia, named after the Greek name for the city of Marseilles. The first to be given an entirely non-Classical name was 45 Eugenia, named after Empress Eugénie de Montijo, the wife of Napoleon III. For some time only female (or feminized) names were used; Alexander von Humboldt was the first man to have an asteroid named after him, but his name was feminized to 54 Alexandra. This unspoken tradition lasted until 334 Chicago was named; even then, oddly feminised names show up in the list for years after. As the number of asteroids began to run into the hundreds, and eventually the thousands, discoverers began to give them increasingly frivolous names. The first hints of this were 482 Petrina and 483 Seppina, named after the discoverer's pet dogs. However, there was little controversy about this until 1971, upon the naming of 2309 Mr. Spock (the name of the discoverer's cat). Although the IAU subsequently banned pet names as sources, eccentric asteroid names are still being proposed and accepted, such as 4321 Zero, 6042 Cheshirecat, 9007 James Bond, 13579 Allodd and 24680 Alleven, and 26858 Misterrogers. A well-established rule is that, unlike comets, minor planets may not be named after their discoverer(s). One way to circumvent this rule has been for astronomers to exchange the courtesy of naming their discoveries after each other. An exception to this rule is 96747 Crespodasilva, which was named after its discoverer, Lucy d'Escoffier Crespo da Silva, because she died shortly after the discovery, at age 22. Names were adapted to various languages from the beginning. 1 Ceres, Ceres being its Anglo-Latin name, was actually named Cerere, the Italian form of the name. German, French, Arabic and Hindi use forms similar to the English, whereas Russian uses a form, Tserera, similar to the Italian. In Greek the name was translated to Demeter, the Greek equivalent of the Roman goddess Ceres. In the early years, before it started causing conflicts, asteroids named after Roman figures were generally translated in Greek; other examples are Hera for 3 Juno, Hestia for 4 Vesta, Chloris for 8 Flora, and Pistê for 37 Fides. In Chinese, the names are not given the Chinese forms of the deities they are named after, but rather typically have a syllable or two for the character of the deity or person, followed by 神 'god(dess)' or 女 'woman' if just one syllable, plus 星 'star/planet', so that most asteroid names are written with three Chinese characters. Thus Ceres is 谷神星 'grain goddess planet', Pallas is 智神星 'wisdom goddess planet', etc. Special naming rules Minor-planet naming is not always a free-for-all: there are some populations for which rules have developed about the sources of names. For instance, centaurs (orbiting between Saturn and Neptune) are all named after mythological centaurs; Jupiter trojans after heroes from the Trojan War; resonant trans-Neptunian objects after underworld spirits; and non-resonant TNOs after creation deities. Physical properties of comets and minor planets Archival data on the physical properties of comets and minor planets are found in the PDS Asteroid/Dust Archive. This includes standard asteroid physical characteristics such as the properties of binary systems, occultation timings and diameters, masses, densities, rotation periods, surface temperatures, albedoes, spin vectors, taxonomy, and absolute magnitudes and slopes. In addition, European Asteroid Research Node (E.A.R.N.), an association of asteroid research groups, maintains a Data Base of Physical and Dynamical Properties of Near Earth Asteroids. See also - List of minor planets - Solar System - Groups of minor planets - Small Solar System body - "Unusual Minor Planets". Minor Planet Center. Retrieved 23 December 2011. - "Minor Planet Statistics". Minor Planet Center. Retrieved 2011-02-26. - When did the asteroids become minor planets?, James L. Hilton, Astronomical Information Center, United States Naval Observatory. Accessed May 5, 2008. - Planet, asteroid, minor planet: A case study in astronomical nomenclature, David W. Hughes, Brian G. Marsden, Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage 10, #1 (2007), pp. 21–30. Bibcode: 2007JAHH...10...21H - Mike Brown, 2012. How I Killed Pluto and Why It Had It Coming - "Asteroid", MSN Encarta, Microsoft. Accessed May 5, 2008. Archived 2009-11-01. - Press release, IAU 2006 General Assembly: Result of the IAU Resolution votes, International Astronomical Union, August 24, 2006. Accessed May 5, 2008. - Questions and Answers on Planets, additional information, news release IAU0603, IAU 2006 General Assembly: Result of the IAU Resolution votes, International Astronomical Union, August 24, 2006. Accessed May 8, 2008. - JPL. "How Many Solar System Bodies". JPL Solar System Dynamics. NASA. Retrieved 2010-09-27. - "Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000)". Minor Planet Center. Retrieved 2011-02-26. - "Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (240001)-(245000)". Minor Planet Center. Retrieved 2011-02-26. - Yeomans, Don, "Near-Earth Object groups", Near Earth Object Project (NASA), retrieved 2011-12-24 - Connors, Martin; Wiegert, Paul; Veillet, Christian (July 2011), "Earth's Trojan asteroid", Nature 475 (7357): 481–483, Bibcode:2011Natur.475..481C, doi:10.1038/nature10233, PMID 21796207 - Trilling, David et al. (October 2007), "DDT observations of five Mars Trojan asteroids", Spitzer Proposal ID #465, Bibcode:2007sptz.prop..465T - Horner, J.; Evans, N.W.; Bailey, M. E. (2004). "Simulations of the Population of Centaurs I: The Bulk Statistics". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 354 (3): 798–810. arXiv:astro-ph/0407400. Bibcode:2004MNRAS.354..798H. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08240.x. - Neptune trojans, Jupiter trojans - NASA JPL Small-Body Database Browser on 96747 Crespodasilva - Staff (November 28, 2000). "Lucy Crespo da Silva, 22, a senior, dies in fall". Hubble News Desk. Retrieved 2008-04-15. - 谷 'valley' being a common abbreviation of 穀 'grain' that would be formally adopted with simplified Chinese characters. - "Division III Commission 15 Physical Study of Comets & Minor Planets". International Astronomical Union (IAU). September 29, 2005. Retrieved 2010-03-22. - "Physical Properties of Asteroids". - "The Near-Earth Asteroids Data Base".

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Large Room and Deepest Pit Found in Lechuguilla Cave Contact: Paula Bauer In early May, a team of experienced cave explorers, led by Derek Bristol of Colorado, climbed over 410 feet into a high dome in Lechuguilla Cave. Upon reaching the top, lead climber James Hunter discovered a maze of previously unknown passages, pits, and large rooms, which they called collectively, Oz. One large room measured 600 feet long, 100- 150 feet wide, and 75-150 feet tall was called Munchkin Land. Lechuguilla Cave is an extensive cave system in Carlsbad Caverns National Park, known worldwide for its large rooms, unusual minerals, massive and fragile cave formations, and importance in scientific study. This discovery heralds new areas for physical and scientific exploration. Since mapping began in 1986, explorers have surveyed over 134.6 miles of cave passages in Lechuguilla Cave. Because of its delicate environment and scientific importance, only about 100 people, usually vetted explorers and scientists, are permitted to enter the cave every year. Ten cavers from Colorado, South Dakota, New Mexico, California, and Arizona participated in the eight-day underground expedition that made these discoveries, the greatest amount of distance added to the survey in one day since 1989. Using laser distance meters, Bristol's team measured the distance from floor to the final rope anchor of the dome they climbed as 510 feet, making it the deepest pit (natural, direct, vertical expanse) known in the park. Stan Allison, Carlsbad Caverns National Park Cave Technician, explained, "to understand the sheer size of this space, imagine that a 51-story tower could fit inside!" Called the Kansas Twister, the dome was discovered in 2007 as having the potential for further exploration, but a team in 2010 failed to climb beyond 80 feet because the rock walls were too unstable. Cave explorers, like ocean and space going voyagers before them, feel a strong pull from the unknown and have a desire to be where no one has gone before, so Bristol's team arrived prepared for to overcome that challenge. For comparison, the Kansas Twister is about half the height of the Chrysler Building in New York City or the John Hancock Building in Chicago. Or for those who have visited the Big Room in Carlsbad Cavern, the Kansas Twister is about twice the height of the Spirit Room Dome, 255 feet high. Most of this newly found section of Lechuguilla Cave is in a layer of rock called the Yates Formation, which is made up of deep red, orange, and yellow colored rock but has fewer stalactites and stalagmites. Other exploration teams will continue mapping this year, but the next trip to "Oz" will be in 2013. Geologists or microbiologists may seek permits to study or sample in the uniquely pristine environment. The untouched nature of Lechuguilla Cave has proved highly significant for research, as was shown in a paper published recently that proved resistance to antibiotics is an ancient, not a new, phenomenon. (See Carlsbad Caverns News Release, April 12, 2012, at http://www.nps.gov/cave/parknews/microbes-from-cave-show-antibiotic-resistance.htm .) While recreational tours of Lechuguilla Cave are not allowed, a variety of cave tours, for a range of abilities, and educational programs are available to the public. We encourage everyone to discover more about park resources as well as the recreational opportunities, by visiting the park's website at: www.nps.gov/cave. Did You Know? Nearly 400,000 Brazilian (more commonly called Mexican) Free-tailed bats call Carlsbad Cavern home in the summer... and all they want to do each night is eat bugs... several tons of them!

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Therapy and Special Programs The type of therapy each person receives depends on their individual needs and goals. Patients participating in occupational therapy re-learn activities of daily living, such as feeding, dressing, bathing, toileting, and home and money management. These activities may be practiced to help increase the patient's strength and coordination or improve their thinking skills. The patient may also learn to use new equipment or try new methods to perform a skill. An occupational therapist also may suggest special equipment or other changes that need to be made in the home. Patients participating in physical therapy will have an exercise program designed to improve their ability to move, strength and balance. If needed, a physical therapist can teach patients how to use a wheelchair, walking aides, and/or other equipment and devices, as well as help in the selection of equipment or home modifications. Patients participating in speech-language therapy work to improve speech, communication, language, thinking and swallowing skills. Language involves listening, reading, speaking, and writing skills. Thinking skills include memory, problem solving, judgment, attention and organization. Patients participating in recreation therapy practice activities that involve leisure skills, social interaction, and community re-entry. New ways of doing things may be introduced to help patients continue to participate in previous interests or hobbies. New interests may also be pursued. Specialized Programs and Services - Patient/family centered education classes - Community re-entry outings - Home evaluations - Neuropsychological testing - Peer-mentor support programs - Caregiver and family support programs - Vocational rehabilitation - Physician Services from WFBMC - Dysphagia treatment including Deep Pharyngeal Neuromuscular Stimulation and VitalStim - Assistive Technology services - Seating and wheeled mobility evaluation - Indoor heated therapy pool - Pet therapy program - Adaptive gardening program - School tutoring education program - Lite Gait system - Functional electrical stimulation - Nationally recognized research - Spacious wheelchair accessible rooms - Wheelchair accessible showers in all rooms

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Skip Maine state header navigation Skip All Navigation |Home | Contact Us | Publications| Home > Education > Activities and Resources for Earth Science Teachers > Activity #41 Activity #41: Slope Stability Students will apply the concept of slope to observe and measure the stability angle of fine gravel, sand, and topsoil. Selected follow-up activities will allow them to test the validity of their measurements in the first part of this exercise. One 45 minute period, with students working in groups of three. In examining erosion and runoff problems, two factors normally taken into account are the type of soil and the slope stability. In this exercise students will measure slope stability using three different substrate materials. Under natural conditions, all materials will tend to slump until they reach a specific angle, often called the angle of repose, at which the slope stabilizes. Movement of the materials composing the slope ceases. Many factors affect this angle and may be examined in the follow-up activities. As you ride along roads in your area where new construction has taken place, look for evidence of slope instability, such as earthflows, and the practices used to help eliminate this problem. Each student team will need some sheets of newspaper, a protractor, a stiff piece of cardboard box approximately 14x20x3 inches in size and open on one end, 400 ml of fine gravel, sand (beach sand works well), and topsoil or loam. All students will need pens and notebooks. Before starting, have students place newspaper on their desks or lab tables. Place the section of cardboard box on the table with the one open end near the center of the newspaper. Deposit all 400 ml of one of the samples in the center of the cardboard box and spread it out into a flat .5 inch layer. At this point one of the students holds the protractor vertically with the origin at the end of the cardboard on the newspaper (see student sheet). One of the other students will be an observer/recorder and the third student will be the tilter. The tilter slowly lifts the end of the cardboard continuously. The observer will note when the first particles begin to slide off and will record the angle. Students should switch assignments and repeat steps 1 - 8 for three trials. Repeat steps 1 - 9 for the other three samples. See student data tables. Gravel should should slump at the lowest angle, sand next, and topsoil last if all materials have relatively the same moisture content. SPECIAL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS The angle at which the sample slides down the face may be used as an index of slope stability. The angle at which particles begin to slide indicates the approaching loss of slope stability, and the final slide indicates total loss of stability. Exceeding these angles, even in nature, will normally result in the same collapse of the slope unless other factors are at work in the environment. Have students discuss and describe the impact of any variables, such as moisture content, which may alter the outcome of the experiment. Indicate what effect wet samples would have on the outcome of the experiment. What would be the results of testing mixed samples? This can be quickly and easily tested using the same procedure. Have students check with a construction company to find out if the instability angles would have any effect on construction standards and practices. Predict the effect of ground cover on stability and describe what actions a person might use to prevent problems in their own local environment. See diagram of typical failed slope (Figure 1). Activity developed by James H. Barden, in conjunction with the 1991 CREST intern program. Activity #41: Slope Stability To apply the concept of slope and slope stability to different types of soil and ground material. You will work in groups of three, each group should have the following - some sheets of newspaper, a protractor, a piece of stiff cardboard box, open on one end, that measures 14x20x3 inches, 400 ml each of fine gravel, sand, and topsoil. Each student will need their pens and notebooks. 1. Cover your desk or work area with newspaper. This will make cleaning up after each trial a lot easier. 2. Place a 14x20x3 inch piece of cardboard box so that the open end is more or less in the center of the newspaper. 3. Carefully deposit one of the 400 ml samples in the center of the cardboard, and flatten the pile into a flat layer about .5 inch thick. 4. Assign one of your group to be the observer/recorder, another member to be the holder of the protractor, and the third member to be the tilter of the cardboard. 5. Have the holder of the protractor hold the protractor vertically with the origin (zero point) at the end of the cardboard sheet on the newspaper (Figure 2). 6. Have the tilter SLOWLY lift the end of the cardboard in a smooth but continuous motion. 7. The observer will note when particles first begin to slide off the pile and will observe and record this angle. 8. The lifter will continue lifting until all the remaining particles slide off in a mass. The recorder will observe and record this second angle. 9. Switch assignments and repeat steps 1-8 for two more trials with the same material. 10. Repeat steps 1 - 9 with the other two samples. Answer the following questions and perform the activities indicated by your teacher. 1. Describe and discuss any variables which have affected the outcome of this experiment. 2. What do you think would happen if the experiment were tried with damp or wet materials?Predict the results. 3. What would be the results of doing this experiment with a surface that was coarser or smoother? Predict the results and explain the reasoning behind your predictions. Last updated on October 6, 2005 |Copyright © 2005 All rights reserved.|

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Criteria of Negro Art W.E.B. Du Bois Published in The Crisis of October 1926, DuBois initially spoke these words at a celebration for the recipient of the Twelfth Spingarn Medal, Carter Godwin Woodson. The celebration was part of the NAACP's annual conference and was held in June 1926. (The specific citation for the piece is: The Crisis, Vol. 32, October 1926: pp. 290-297.) "Criteria of Negro Art" by W.E.B. Du Bois |I do not doubt but there are some in this audience who are a little disturbed at the subject of this meeting, and particularly at the subject I have chosen. Such people are thinking something like this: "How is it that an organization like this, a group of radicals trying to bring new things into the world, a fighting organization which has come up out of the blood and dust of battle, struggling for the right of black men to be ordinary human beings -- how is it that an organization of this kind can turn aside to talk about Art? After all, what have we who are slaves and black to do with Art?"| |Or perhaps there are others who feel a certain relief and are saying, "After all it is rather satisfactory after all this talk about rights and fighting to sit and dream of something which leaves a nice taste in the mouth".| |Let me tell you that neither of these groups is right. The thing we are talking about tonight is part of the great fight we are carrying on and it represents a forward and an upward look -- a pushing onward. You and I have been breasting hills; we have been climbing upward; there has been progress and we can see it day by day looking back along blood-filled paths. But as you go through the valleys and over the foothills, so long as you are climbing, the direction -- north, south, east or west -- is of less importance. But when gradually the vista widens and you begin to see the world at your feet and the far horizon, then it is time to know more precisely whether you are going and what you really want.| |What do we want? What is the thing we are after? As it was phrased last night it had a certain truth: We want to be Americans, full-fledged Americans, with all the rights of other American citizens. But is that all? Do we want simply to be Americans? Once in a while through all of us there flashes some clairvoyance, some clear idea, of what America really is. We who are dark can see America in a way that white Americans cannot. And seeing our country thus, are we satisfied with its present goals and ideals?| |In the high school where I studied we learned most of Scott's "Lady of the Lake" by heart. In after life once it was my privilege to see the lake. It was a Sunday. It was quiet. You could glimpse the deer wandering in unbroken forests; you could hear the soft ripple of romance on the waters. Around me fell the cadence of that poetry of my youth. I fell asleep full of the enchantment of the Scottish border. A new day broke and with it came a sudden rush of excursionists. They were mostly Americans and they were loud and striden. They poured upon the little pleasure boat, -- men with their hats a little on one side and drooping cigars in the wet corners of their mouths; women who shared their conversation with the world. They all tried to get everywhere first. They pushed other people out of the way. They made all sorts of incoherent noises and gestures so that the quiet home folk and the visitors from other lands silently and half-wonderingly gave way before them. They struck a note not evil but wrong. They carried, perhaps, a sense of strength and accomplishment, but their hearts had no conception of the beauty which pervaded this holy place.||* Walter Scott's "Lady of the Lake" is available online: start page of the text at "Making of America" Books (Edition: The Poetical Works of Sir Walter Scott. Boston: Phillips, Sampson, & Co., 1852). The Edinburgh University Library offers more info on Scott and on his "Lady of the Lake".| |If you tonight suddenly should become full-fledged Americans; if your color faded, or the color line here in Chicago was miraculously forgotten; suppose, too, you became at the same time rich and powerful; -- what is it that you would want? What would you immediately seek? Would you buy the most powerful of motor cars and outrace Cook County? Would you buy the most elaborate estate on the North Shore? Would you be a Rotarian or a Lion or a What-not of the very last degree? Would you wear the most striking clothes, give the richest dinners, and buy the longest press notices?| |Even as you visualize such ideals you know in your hearts that these are not the things you really want. You realize this sooner than the average white American because, pushed aside as we have been in America, there has come to us not only a certain distaste for the tawdry and flamboyant but a vision of what the world could be if it were really a beautiful world; if we had the true spirit; if we had the Seeing Eye, the Cunning Hand, the Feeling Heart; if we had, to be sure, not perfect happiness, but plenty of good hard work, the inevitable suffering that always comes with life; sacrifice and waiting, all that -- but, nevertheless, lived in a world where men know, where men create, where they realize themselves and where they enjoy life. It is that sort of a world we want to create for ourselves and for all America.| |After all, who shall describe Beauty? What is it? I remember tonight four beautiful things: the Cathedral at Cologne, a forest in stone, set in light and changing shadow, echoing with sunlight and solemn song; a village of the Veys in West Africa, a little thing of mauve and purple, quiet, lying content and shining in the sun; a black and velvet room where on a throne rests, in old and yellowing marble, the broken curves of the Venus de Milo; a single phrase of music in the Southern South -- utter melody, haunting and appealing, suddenly arising out of night and eternity, beneath the moon.| |Such is Beauty. Its variety is infinite, its possibility is endless. In normal life all may have it and have it yet again. The world is full of it; and yet today the mass of human beings are choked away from it, and their lives distorted and made ugly. This is not only wrong, it is silly. Who shall right this well-nigh universal failing? Who shall let this world be beautiful? Who shall restore to men the glory of sunsets and the peace of quiet sleep?| |We black folk may help for we have within us as a race new stirrings; stirrings of the beginning of a new appreciation of joy, of a new desire to create, of a new will to be; as though in this morning of group life we had awakened from some sleep that at once dimly mourns the past and dreams a splendid future; and there has come the conviction that the Youth that is here today, the Negro Youth, is a different kind of Youth, because in some new way it bears this mighty prophecy on its breast, with a new realization of itself, with new determination for all mankind.| |What has this Beauty to do with the world? What has Beauty to do with Truth and Goodness -- with the facts of the world and the right actions of men? "Nothing", the artists rush to answer. They may be right. I am but an humble disciple of art and cannot presume to say. I am one who tells the truth and exposes evil and seeks with Beauty and for Beauty to set the world right. That somehow, somewhere eternal and perfect Beauty sits above Truth and Right I can conceive, but here and now and in the world in which I work they are for me unseparated and inseparable.||* In The Souls of Black Folk (1903), DuBois writes that he was concerned that the expressions of "Truth, Beauty, and Goodness" would succumb in the Atlanta of the post-Civil War South to an aggressive drive for wealth (Ch. V: "Of the Wings of Atalanta"). * The inseparability of beauty, truth, and goodness in the "here and now", as DuBois wrote in "Criteria", can be compared -- contrasted -- to Souls, wherein he indicated that truth and presumably (literary) beauty could be embraced above the color-line: "Across the color line I move arm in arm with Balzac and Dumas.... From out the eaves of evening that swing between the strong-limbed earth and the tracery of the stars, I summon Aristotle and Aurelius and what soul I will, and they come all graciously with no scorn nor condescension. So, wed with Truth, I dwell above the Veil." (Ch. VI: "Of the Training of Black Men"). Questions to pose: How widely available was such an intellectual crossing of the color line? Indeed, was that type of crossing an individual, community, and/or group-related activity (or some mixture thereof)? |This is brought to us peculiarly when as artists we face our own past as a people. There has come to us -- and it has come especially through the man we are going to honor tonight -- a realization of that past, of which for long years we have been ashamed, for which we have apologized. We thought nothing could come out of that past which we wanted to remember; which we wanted to hand down to our children. Suddenly, this same past is taking on form, color, and reality, and in a half shamefaced way we are beginning to be proud of it. We are remembering that the romance of the world did not die and lie forgotten in the Middle Age [sic]; that if you want romance to deal with you must have it here and now and in your own hands.|| * Carter G. Woodson (1875-1950) was being honored on this occasion. Woodson's books available online are The Education of the Negro Prior to 1861 (1915), A Century of Negro Migration (1918), and The History of the Negro Church, 2nd Ed. (1921). Archive.org provides downloadable books by Woodson (listing), as does Google Books (listing). A few volumes of The Journal of Negro History, which Woodson edited, are also available (listing). * A "Bio-Bibliography" of Carter G. Woodson, compiled by Dorothy E. Lyles, is available at the Chicago Public Library web site. |I once knew a man and woman. They had two children, a daughter who was white and a daughter who was brown; the daughter who was white married a white man; and when her wedding was preparing the daughter who was brown prepared to go and celebrate. But the mother said, "No!" and the brown daughter went into her room and turned on the gas and died. Do you want Greek tragedy swifter than that?| |Or again, here is a little Southern town and you are in the public square. On one side of the square is the office of a colored lawyer and on all the other sides are men who do not like colored lawyers. A white woman goes into the black man's office and points to the white-filled square and says, "I want five hundred dollars now and if I do not get it I am going to scream."| |Have you heard the story of the conquest of German East Africa? Listen to the untold tale: There were 40,000 black men and 4,000 white men who talked German. There were 20,000 black men and 12,000 white men who talked English. There were 10,000 black men and 400 white men who talked French. In Africa then where the Mountains of the Moon raised their white and snow-capped heads into the mouth of the tropic sun, where Nile and Congo rise and the Great Lakes swim, these men fought; they struggled on mountain, hill and valley, in river, lake and swamp, until in masses they sickened, crawled and died; until the 4,000 white Germans had become mostly bleached bones; until nearly all the 12,000 white Englishmen had returned to South Africa, and the 400 Frenchmen to Belgium and Heaven; all except a mere handful of the white men died; but thousands of black men from East, West and South Africa, from Nigeria and the Valley of the Nile, and from the West Indies still struggled, fought and died. For four years they fought and won and lost German East Africa; and all you hear about it is that England and Belgium conquered German Africa for the allies!| |Such is the true and stirring stuff of which Romance is born and from this stuff come the stirrings of men who are beginning to remember that this kind of material is theirs; and this vital life of their own kind is beckoning them on.| |The question comes next as to the interpretation of these new stirrings, of this new spirit: Of what is the colored artist capable? We have had on the part of both colored and white people singular unanimity of judgment in the past. Colored people have said: "This work must be inferior because it comes from colored people." White people have said: "It is inferior because it is done by colored people." But today there is coming to both the realization that the work of the black man is not always inferior. Interesting stories come to us. A professor in the University of Chicago read to a class that had studied literature a passage of poetry and asked them to guess the author. They guessed a goodly company from Shelley and Robert Browning to Tennyson and Masefield. The author was Countée Cullen. Or again the English critic John Drinkwater went down to a Southern seminary, one of the sort which "finishes" young white women of the South. The students sat with their wooden faces while he tried to get some response out of them. Finally he said, "Name me some of your Southern poets". They hesitated. He said finally. "I'll start out with your best: Paul Laurence Dunbar!"|| * Works by John Drinkwater are accessible at Google Books (listing) and at Archive.org (listing). * For online books by Paul Laurence Dunbar visit Archive.org (listing) or Google Books (listing). |With the growing recognition of Negro artists in spite of the severe handicaps, one comforting thing is occurring to both white and black. They are whispering, "Here is a way out. Here is the real solution of the color problem. The recognition accorded Cullen, Hughes, Fauset, White and others shows there is no real color line. Keep quiet! Don't complain! Work! All will be well!"|| * Jessie Jessie Redmon's Plum Bun: A Novel without a Moral is accessible at Archive.org (download page). |I will not say that already this chorus amounts to a conspiracy. Perhaps I am naturally too suspicious. But I will say that there are today a surprising number of white people who are getting great satisfaction out of these younger Negro writers because they think it is going to stop agitation of the Negro question. They say, "What is the use of your fighting and complaining; do the great thing and the reward is there." And many colored people are all too eager to follow this advice; especially those who weary of the eternal struggle along the color line, who are afraid to fight and to whom the money of philanthropists and the alluring publicity are subtle and deadly bribes. They say, "What is the use of fighting? Why not show simply what we deserve and let the reward come to us?"| |And it is right here that the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People comes upon the field, comes with its great call to a new battle, a new fight and new things to fight before the old things are wholly won; and to say that the Beauty of Truth and Freedom which shall some day be our heritage and the heritage of all civilized men is not in our hands yet and that we ourselves must not fail to realize.| |There is in New York tonight a black woman molding clay by herself in a little bare room, because there is not a single school of sculpture in New York where she is welcome. Surely there are doors she might burst through, but when God makes a sculptor He does not always make the pushing sort of person who beats his way through doors thrust in his face. This girl is working her hands off to get out of this country so that she can get some sort of training.| |There was Richard Brown. If he had been white he would have been alive today instead of dead of neglect. Many helped him when he asked but he was not the kind of boy that always asks. He was simply one who made colors sing.| |There is a colored woman in Chicago who is a great musician. She thought she would like to study at Fontainebleau this summer where Walter Damrosch and a score of leaders of Art have an American school of music. But the application blank of this school says: "I am a white American and I apply for admission to the school."| |We can go on the stage; we can be just as funny as white Americans wish us to be; we can play all the sordid parts that America likes to assign to Negroes; but for any thing else there is still small place for us.| |And so I might go on. But let me sum up with this: Suppose the only Negro who survived some centuries hence was the Negro painted by white Americans in the novels and essays they have written. What would people in a hundred years say of black Americans? Now turn it around. Suppose you were to write a story and put in it the kind of people you know and like and imagine. You might get it published and you might not. And the "might not" is still far bigger than the "might". The white publishers catering to white folk would say, "It is not interesting" -- to white folk, naturally not. They want Uncle Toms, Topsies, good "darkies" and clowns. I have in my office a story with all the earmarks of truth. A young man says that he started out to write and had his stories accepted. Then he began to write about the things he knew best about, that is, about his own people. He submitted a story to a magazine which said, "We are sorry, but we cannot take it". "I sat down and revised my story, changing the color of the characters and the locale and sent it under an assumed name with a change of address and it was accepted by the same magazine that had refused it, the editor promising to take anything else I might send in providing it was good enough."| |We have, to be sure, a few recognized and successful Negro artists; but they are not all those fit to survive or even a good minority. They are but the remnants of that ability and genius among us whom the accidents of education and opportunity have raised on the tidal waves of chance. We black folk are not altogether peculiar in this. After all, in the world at large, it is only the accident, the remnant, that gets the chance to make the most of itself; but if this is true of the white world it is infinitely more true of the colored world. It is not simply the great clear tenor of Roland Hayes that opened the ears of America. We have had many voices of all kinds as fine as his and America was and is as deaf as she was for years to him. Then a foreign land heard Hayes and put its imprint on him and immediately America with all its imitative snobbery woke up. We approved Hayes because London, Paris and Berlin approved him and not simply because he was a great singer.|| Roland Hayes (1887-1977): Biographies at the Tennessee Encyclopedia (by Carroll Van West) and the |Thus it is the bounden duty of black America to begin this great work of the creation of Beauty, of the preservation of Beauty, of the realization of Beauty, and we must use in this work all the methods that men have used before. And what have been the tools of the artist in times gone by? First of all, he has used the Truth -- not for the sake of truth, not as a scientist seeking truth, but as one upon whom Truth eternally thrusts itself as the highest handmaid of imagination, as the one great vehicle of universal understanding. Again artists have used Goodness -- goodness in all its aspects of justice, honor and right -- not for sake of an ethical sanction but as the one true method of gaining sympathy and human interest.|| * Truth as it relates to the artist and to the (social) scientist: Is DuBois referring to two different spheres, each with its own particular methods of discovering and/or portraying truth? Does he imply that the two realms are made distinctive because of their different tools? Yet, we may muse, how similar are the 2 spheres of truth? There is indeed a commonality: namely, the artist and the scientist both implicate in their respective works the "subject matter" of humans. |The apostle of Beauty thus becomes the apostle of Truth and Right not by choice but by inner and outer compulsion. Free he is but his freedom is ever bounded by Truth and Justice; and slavery only dogs him when he is denied the right to tell the Truth or recognize an ideal of Justice.| |Thus all Art is propaganda and ever must be, despite the wailing of the purists. I stand in utter shamelessness and say that whatever art I have for writing has been used always for propaganda for gaining the right of black folk to love and enjoy. I do not care a damn for any art that is not used for propaganda. But I do care when propaganda is confined to one side while the other is stripped and silent.||"Thus all Art is propaganda and ever must be...."| |In New York we have two plays: "White Congo" and "Congo". In "White Congo" there is a fallen woman. She is black. In "Congo" the fallen woman is white. In "White Congo" the black woman goes down further and further and in "Congo" the white woman begins with degradation but in the end is one of the angels of the Lord.| |You know the current magazine story: A young white man goes down to Central America and the most beautiful colored woman there falls in love with him. She crawls across the whole isthmus to get to him. The white man says nobly, "No". He goes back to his white sweetheart in New York.| |In such cases, it is not the positive propaganda of people who believe white blood divine, infallible and holy to which I object. It is the denial of a similar right of propaganda to those who believe black blood human, lovable and inspired with new ideals for the world. White artists themselves suffer from this narrowing of their field. They cry for freedom in dealing with Negroes because they have so little freedom in dealing with whites. DuBose Heywood [sic: Heyward] writes "Porgy" and writes beautifully of the black Charleston underworld. But why does he do this? Because he cannot do a similar thing for the white people of Charleston, or they would drum him out of town. The only chance he had to tell the truth of pitiful human degradation was to tell it of colored people. I should not be surprised if Octavius Roy Cohen [sic: Octavus] had approached the Saturday Evening Post and asked permission to write about a different kind of colored folk than the monstrosities he has created; but if he has, the Post has replied, "No. You are getting paid to write about the kind of colored people you are writing about."|| * Dubose Heyward's Porgy (1925) is available as a hypertext version, edited by Kendra Hamilton, at the University of Virginia's American Studies * Octavus Roy Cohen wrote Polished Ebony (1919) and Come Seven (1920), among other works -- some of which are downloadable at Archive.org (listing) and at Google Books (listing). |In other words, the white public today demands from its artists, literary and pictorial, racial pre-judgment which deliberately distorts Truth and Justice, as far as colored races are concerned, and it will pay for no other.| |On the other hand, the young and slowly growing black public still wants its prophets almost equally unfree. We are bound by all sorts of customs that have come down as second-hand soul clothes of white patrons. We are ashamed of sex and we lower our eyes when people will talk of it. Our religion holds us in superstition. Our worst side has been so shamelessly emphasized that we are denying we have or ever had a worst side. In all sorts of ways we are hemmed in and our new young artists have got to fight their way to freedom.| |The ultimate judge has got to be you and you have got to build yourselves up into that wide judgment, that catholicity of temper which is going to enable the artist to have his widest chance for freedom. We can afford the Truth. White folk today cannot. As it is now we are handing everything over to a white jury. If a colored man wants to publish a book, he has got to get a white publisher and a white newspaper to say it is great; and then you and I say so. We must come to the place where the work of art when it appears is reviewed and acclaimed by our own free and unfettered judgment. And we are going to have a real and valuable and eternal judgment only as we make ourselves free of mind, proud of body and just of soul to all men.| |And then do you know what will be said? It is already saying. Just as soon as true Art emerges; just as soon as the black artist appears, someone touches the race on the shoulder and says, "He did that because he was an American, not because he was a Negro; he was born here; he was trained here; he is not a Negro -- what is a Negro anyhow? He is just human; it is the kind of thing you ought to expect."| |I do not doubt that the ultimate art coming from black folk is going to be just as beautiful, and beautiful largely in the same ways, as the art that comes from white folk, or yellow, or red; but the point today is that until the art of the black folk compells [sic] recognition they will not be rated as human. And when through art they compell [sic] recognition then let the world discover if it will that their art is as new as it is old and as old as new.| |I had a classmate once who did three beautiful things and died. One of them was a story of a folk who found fire and then went wandering in the gloom of night seeking again the stars they had once known and lost; suddenly out of blackness they looked up and there loomed the heavens; and what was it that they said? They raised a mighty cry: "It is the stars, it is the ancient stars, it is the young and everlasting stars!"|| * DuBois is referring here to William Vaughn Moody. The quotation is found in Moody's play "The Fire-Bringer" on p.63 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1904). Various books, anthologies, and plays by Moody are accessible at Archive.org (listing) and at Google Books (listing) * In his 1906 "Address to the Country", DuBois wrote this last paragraph for his exhortatory Niagara Movement address: "Courage brothers! The battle for humanity is not lost or losing. All across the skies sit signs of promise. The Slav is raising in his might, the yellow millions are tasting liberty, the black Africans are writhing toward the light, and everywhere the laborer, with ballot in his hand, is voting open the gates of Opportunity and Peace. The morning breaks over blood-stained hills. We must not falter, we may not shrink. Above are the everlasting stars." Please consider a contribution to the upkeep of <webdubois.org>. PayPal offers a secure way for you to help me with my goal to find and present more works by and about W.E.B. Du Bois. Thank you.

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|Patrick Hamrick (1684 - 1764) was the first of my direct ancestors to step foot on American soil. He arrived in Virginia as a young teenager, without his parents, when the English colony was still very young. At the time he stepped ashore, Virginia was comprised of a vast wilderness, mostly occupied by native Americans. There were very few settlements, and they were located solely along major waterways such as the James, York, Rappahannock, and Potomac rivers. The non-native population of these combined settlements was only about fifty to sixty thousand inhabitants, and most of them were males.(1) At that time, Virginia's economy was based almost completely on tobacco trade with England. As was the case for many other young men who came here from England during that period, Patrick paid for his voyage by entering into an agreement to work in the tobacco fields as an indentured servant.| Patrick was born more than 300 years ago, at the time Isaac Newton was working on his theory of gravity. Charles II reigned over England, Louis XIV over France, and Peter the Great was Czar of Russia. Other historic individuals who lived during Patrick's long lifetime include the famous composer Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750), and American statesman Benjamin Franklin (1706-1783). Patrick had lived for nearly a half century by the time George Washington (1732-1799) was born. Although he certainly never gained the stature or fame of these historic individuals, Patrick unquestionably bettered his station during his lifetime. He left England at a time when the economy was depressed and opportunities were few. Most likely (as was the case for many others), he came to America because it offered a chance to make a better life. Once here, he worked hard, acquired land (which was a highly valued social status), and raised a family that has widely proliferated to modern times. While I have defaulted to the spelling Hamrick throughout this collection of information, many of Patrick's modern descendants spell their name Hambrick. The spellings are equally correct. Colonial records have it both ways, sometimes even within the same document. (There are also numerous other variations that one encounters when studying the history of the family, but these two occur most frequently by far.) It seems that as Patrick's sons and grandsons migrated to various regions and raised their offspring, one spelling or the other eventually began to stick. Visitors to these pages will find facts and conclusions presented in chronological order based on the dates of specific events concerning Patrick's life. For those new to genealogy, certain dates are written with two separate years specified (e.g. January 7, 1724/25). This is commonly referred to as old style/new style dates. It stems from the fact that January 1 did not begin a new year until 1752. Prior to that time, the new year began on March 25. Consequently, events occurring during the months of January, February, and up to March 25th in years prior to 1752 are often specified in this old style/new style format. For the example cited (January 7, 1724/25), Patrick would have known the year as 1724. However, the year would be 1725 in relation to the calendar we know today. The Table of Contents lists the events by date, along with a short description of what is contained on each page. Clicking on a date will take the reader to facts and discussion concerning that specific event. Verbatim transcriptions are shown in bold blue characters such as this. Each page has a link to the next page and the previous page, as well as a link to the Table of Contents and the home page. Often, there are hyperlinked references on a page that will direct the reader to another page in order to assimilate related information. If one of these links are followed, the back button on the browser will return the reader to the page where the reference link was located. Sources of information are footnoted on each page. If a footnote link is clicked, the reader will be taken to the appropriate footnote at the bottom of the page. Clicking the return arrow at the end of the footnote will return the reader to the location where the footnote link occurred in the text. I am not a professional genealogist, although I have had a dedicated interest and have been collecting genealogical information on my family for many years. I seriously began studying Patrick's life when I moved to the Washington, DC area (Northern Virginia) in 1984. Of course, I do it part-time, in spurts, as time allows. This work is the result of that effort. I have attempted to consolidate all known facts regarding Patrick's life and to base logical conclusions upon these facts. In the process, whenever possible, I have reviewed original documents in my research instead of using microfilm copies or published transcripts. I have also personally visited important locales where Patrick lived and worked in Westmoreland, Richmond, King George, Stafford, and Prince William Counties. In this regard, it is fortunate that I reside in the area where Patrick lived. (I am only about ten miles from where Patrick is buried.) I have also consulted numerous texts in my quest to develop an accurate view of Patrick's life. All of my information sources are clearly identified within this work. While I have made every effort to not make errors or draw unfounded conclusions, I would be surprised if there were none. Please let me know if I have omitted something of importance or if you believe I have made an error. My e-mail address is [email protected]. In fact, I encourage feedback so that an accurate view of Patrick's life can be established. For those who are interested, I am descended from Patrick's son John. Over the years, I have collected a significant amount of information about each of these families and my research continues. A synopsis of information concerning each is available by clicking on the couple: If you are interested in further information concerning any of these families, I would be more than happy to share what I know. Again, my e-mail address is [email protected]. I sincerely hope that everyone who is interested in Hamrick genealogy will enjoy this collection of information concerning Patrick. (1) Warren M. Billings. The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 1975. pp. 105 & 188. © 1999 Ronald K. Hamrick, Burke, VA

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