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Hacked iPhone for auction on eBay A second phone, which was also hacked by Hotz, was placed for sale on eBay , with bids now reaching US$50,100 after starting at $540, although bids up to $99,999,999 were canceled . He states at the auction site "Soon, you will be able to buy unlocked iPhones everywhere, in fact probably before this auction ends. But this is the one that started it all. The one unlocked while the steps were posted live on the blog. This isn't just an unlocked iPhone, this is a piece of history." However,Hotz also commented on the excessive bids showing up on eBay. "I'm sure these most recent bids are fake."

Hacked iPhone for auction on eBay A second phone, which was also hacked by Hotz, was placed for sale on eBay . He states at the auction site "Soon, you will be able to buy unlocked iPhones everywhere, in fact probably before this auction ends. But this is the one that started it all. The one unlocked while the steps were posted live on the blog. This isn't just an unlocked iPhone, this is a piece of history." Starting at $540, bids reached $99,999,999, although many bids were canceled as fraudulent. Before their removal, Hotz commented on the excessive bids , stating "I'm sure these most recent bids are fake." The auction was canceled early by Hotz due to "an error in the listing".

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According to the Canadian Press, the recent tadpoles also escaped from the local wetlands into the highway instead of using the fence that guides them. An interesting fact is that when the tadpoles come back in the winter they do not use the highway, they cross at streams and rivers instead. The Ministry of Transportation has now put buckets beside a fence along the highway so the tadpoles jump into the buckets and local volunteers and conservation groups bring the tadpoles across the road into the Millar Creek area. The tadpoles were described as brownish green or black and were camouflaged.

According to the Canadian Press, the recent young toads also escaped from the local wetlands into the highway instead of using the fence that guides them. An interesting fact is that when the toads come back in the winter they do not use the highway, they cross at streams and rivers instead. The Ministry of Transportation has now put buckets beside a fence along the highway so the toadlets jump into the buckets and local volunteers and conservation groups bring them across the road into the Millar Creek area. The toadlets were described as brownish green or black and were camouflaged.

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At the annual European Society of Cardiology Summit in Vienna, Austria, a female cardiologist has suffered a heart attack in front of her colleagues . The 46-year-old Italian woman collapsed on Sunday and was immediately revived by one of her fellow heart specialists . The woman was transferred to the general hospital in Vienna, where she died later that day . Reinhard Krepler, chief doctor of the hospital, stated that her death was due to a congenital heart problem .

At the annual European Society of Cardiology Summit in Vienna, Austria, the wife of a cardiologist suffered a heart attack while queueing with her husband to register for the congress . 46-year-old Silvia Celeste from Italy, the wife of Dr. Fabrizio Celeste, collapsed on Sunday and was immediately revived using a defibrillator . The woman was transferred to the general hospital in Vienna, where she was operated upon. She died later that night . Reinhard Krepler, chief doctor of the hospital, stated that her death was due to an underlying congenital heart disease .

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Detainees, or individuals in United States custody considered to be suspects connected to terrorism will no longer be able to protest their being held in custody or their treatment while in custody, other wise known as the "writ of Habeas Corpus " at least not in U.S. federal courtrooms ; striking a victory for Republicans . Democrats needed at least 60 votes in order for the bill to allow detainees to fight and they only received 56, which included six Republicans. 43 Republicans voted against the bill. "[The bills failure to pass] calls into question the United States' historic role of defender of human rights in the world. It accomplishes what opponents could never accomplish on the battlefield, whittling away our own liberties. This is America? , " said Democratic Senator for Vermont, Patrick J. Leahy. In 2006, the U.S. Military Commissions Act severely limited the rights of detainees at Guantanamo Bay, the U.S. run prison in Cuba for the most dangerous individuals in the world, allegedly accused of horrific acts of terrorism. The act also included smaller U.S. prisons around the globe. Republicans claim that to allow detainees those rights, the U.S. would have the potential to be engulfed in an endless line of lawsuits.

Detainees, or individuals in United States custody considered to be suspects connected to terrorism will no longer be able to protest their being held in custody or their treatment while in custody, other wise known as the "writ of Habeas Corpus , " at least not in U.S. federal courtrooms . Democrats , who sponsored the bill, needed at least 60 votes in order for the bill to allow detainees to fight but received only 56, which included six Republicans. 43 Republicans voted against the bill. "[The bill's failure to pass] calls into question the United States' historic role of defender of human rights in the world. It accomplishes what opponents could never accomplish on the battlefield, whittling away our own liberties. This is America? " said Democratic Senator for Vermont, Patrick J. Leahy. In 2006, the U.S. Military Commissions Act limited the rights of detainees at Guantanamo Bay, the U.S. run dentention facility in Cuba for the most dangerous individuals in the world, accused of acts of terrorism. The act also included smaller U.S. prisons around the globe. Opponents of the bill claim that to allow detainees those rights, the U.S. would potentially be engulfed in an endless line of lawsuits.

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200px|Britney Spears performing in Los Angeles, CA in 2004. The Los Angeles City Attorney's Office said yesterday that singing pop music super-star Britney Spears was facing charges for a hit and run and driving without a valid drivers' license. Charges were filed following an accident in which police allege Spears smashed her car into another vehicle in a parking lot back in August of 2007. Spears could face a maximum of six months in jail and $2,000 in fines if convicted. Some paparazzi caught a video recording of Spears steering her car into another vehicle on August 6 as Spears tried to pull into a parking spot in a Studio City lot.

200px|Britney Spears performing in Los Angeles, CA in 2004. The Los Angeles City Attorney's Office said yesterday that pop music super-star Britney Spears was facing charges for a hit and run offence and driving without a valid drivers' license. Charges were filed following an accident in which police allege Spears smashed her car into another vehicle in a parking area in August of 2007. She could face a maximum of six months in jail and $2,000 in fines if convicted. A group of paparazzi recorded a video Britney steering her car into another vehicle on August 6 as she tried to pull into a parking spot in a Studio City lot.

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Location of Iran A top US commander says that the United States is not planning a preemptive attack on Iran despite increasing rhetoric from Washington, D.C. On Sunday, The Observer ran a report saying that US interrogators are under pressure to find evidence in Iran. The United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice also stated that there is no authorization for military action against Iran. Citing Micah Brose, a privately contracted interrogator working for the US military in Iraq, the British newspaper, The Observer reported there is " huge " pressure on interrogators to uncover evidence pointing to Iran . "They push a lot for us to establish a link with Iran when interrogating Iraqi insurgents ", Brose claimed in the interview, adding that "it feels a lot like, if you get something and Iran's not involved, it's a let down." He further claimed that people have said to him that "they're really pushing the Iran thing." Brose denied being asked to manufacture evidence, but stated that "if a detainee wants to tell me what I want to hear so he can get out of jail ... you know what I'm saying." The article by The Observer said most military intelligence officers refused to comment but said that one said "The message is, 'Got to find a link with Iran, got to find a link with Iran.' It's sickening." A strike is "not in the offing" - William J. Fallon Admiral William J. Fallon, the commanding officer of United States Central Command which is responsible for the Middle East, East Africa and Central Asia, speaking in Monday's Financial Times, said that a strike againt Iran is "not in the offing." "None of this is helped by the continuing stories that just keep going around and around and around that any day now there will be another war which is just not where we want to go," Fallon continued. "Getting Iranian behavior to change and finding ways to get them to come to their senses and do that is the real objective. Attacking them as a means to get to that spot strikes me as being not the first choice in my book." "The question is, why will Tehran not talk to us?" - Condoleezza Rice Meanwhile, US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice was on ABC's This Week on Sunday, saying that a Senate resolution designating Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard as a URLanization does not authorize military action. "This resolution is saying that there needs to be strong measures taken against Iran, which we have definitely done," Rice continued. "And if the Iranians suspend their enrichment and reprocessing, I'm prepared to meet my counterpart anyplace, anytime, anywhere. So the question isn't why will we not talk to Tehran. The question is, why will Tehran not talk to us?" "No congressional authority exists for unilateral military action against Iran" - Hillary Clinton Senator Hillary Clinton, who is running for President, voted for the resolution. She has said that the resolution could not be used to justify war, but rather it seeks to escalate diplomatic efforts. "We wish to emphasize that no congressional authority exists for unilateral military action against Iran," she said in an open letter on November 1, 2007. Attack on Iran would be a "nightmare" - Joschka Fischer Last week, former Foreign Minister of Germany, Joschka Fischer said that he was worried that the upcoming US Presidential election could heighten tensions between the US and Iran. He found particularly worrisome a statement by Presidential candidate Rudy Giuliani in October that "If I am President of the United States, I guarantee you, we will never find out what they will do if they get nuclear weapons, because they are not going to get a nuclear weapon . " The United States government accuses Iran of arming insurgents in neighbouring Iraq.It has also refused to rule out military action against Iran for its alleged attempts to build nuclear weapons. The US is accused of using exaggerated and fabricated evidence to build its case against Iraq prior to the war.

Location of Iran A top US commander said yesterday that the United States is not planning a preemptive attack on Iran despite increasing rhetoric from Washington, D.C. The United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice also denied that an attack was imminent, stating that there is no Congressional authorization for military action against Iran. The denials came as The Observer ran a report saying that US personnel involved in interrogating insurgents in Iraq are under "huge" pressure to find evidence against Iran. It quoted Micah Brose, a privately contracted interrogator working for the US military there, as saying that information on Iran is " gold " . "They push a lot for us to establish a link with Iran ", Brose claimed in the interview, adding that "it feels a lot like, if you get something and Iran's not involved, it's a let down." He further claimed that people have said to him that "they're really pushing the Iran thing." Brose denied being asked to manufacture evidence, but stated that "if a detainee wants to tell me what I want to hear so he can get out of jail ... you know what I'm saying." The US has in the past been accused of using exaggerated and fabricated evidence to build its case against Iraq prior to the war. The article by the British based newspaper said most military intelligence officers refused to comment but that one said "The message is, 'Got to find a link with Iran, got to find a link with Iran.' It's sickening." A strike is "not in the offing" - William J. Fallon On Monday, Admiral William J. Fallon, the commanding officer of United States Central Command which is responsible for the Middle East, East Africa and Central Asia, speaking in Financial Times, said that a strike against Iran is "not in the offing." "None of this is helped by the continuing stories that just keep going around and around and around that any day now there will be another war which is just not where we want to go," Fallon continued. "Getting Iranian behavior to change and finding ways to get them to come to their senses and do that is the real objective. Attacking them as a means to get to that spot strikes me as being not the first choice in my book." Despite saying this, he refused to rule out a strike against Iran in the future. "The question is, why will Tehran not talk to us?" - Condoleezza Rice Meanwhile, US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice was on ABC's This Week on Sunday, saying that a Senate resolution designating Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard as a URLanization does not authorize military action. "This resolution is saying that there needs to be strong measures taken against Iran, which we have definitely done," Rice continued. "And if the Iranians suspend their enrichment and reprocessing, I'm prepared to meet my counterpart anyplace, anytime, anywhere. So the question isn't why will we not talk to Tehran. The question is, why will Tehran not talk to us?" "No congressional authority exists for unilateral military action against Iran" - Hillary Clinton Senator Hillary Clinton, who is running for President, voted for the resolution. She has said that the resolution could not be used to justify war, but rather it seeks to escalate diplomatic efforts. "We wish to emphasize that no congressional authority exists for unilateral military action against Iran," she said in an open letter on November 1, 2007. Attack on Iran would be a "nightmare" - Joschka Fischer Last week, former Foreign Minister of Germany, Joschka Fischer said that he was worried that the upcoming US Presidential election could heighten tensions between the US and Iran. He found particularly worrisome a statement by Presidential candidate Rudy Giuliani in October that "If I am President of the United States, I guarantee you, we will never find out what they will do if they get nuclear weapons, because they are not going to get a nuclear weapon . .. the military option is not off the table. "

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In the final of Konami Cup 2007, Chunichi Dragons battled SK Wyverns again, many local (Japan) spectators hoped Dragons revenge on Wyverns and win the champion. And this is really a intensive match with the stating pitchers URLe Kenneth Rayborn from SK versus Daisuke Yamai. The key innings took place at the 9th inning, Hirokazu Ibata (Dragons) hit a key run back to make their team lead with 6-5. Finally, the relief pitcher Hitoki Iwase successfully shut down SK's offenses and tied the score to the end to win the champion. After this game, Hiromitsu Ochiai (Coach of Chunichi Dragons ) remarked: "Even though we ever lose to SK Wyverns, but participants in this year proved their actual strength more than last year. In this game, after we led with 6-5, Hitoki Iwase told me he want to pitch at the bottom of 9th inning, then I accepted, he promised his wish and finally helped us win the champion. I'll not URLet the contributions by Ibata and Iwase."

In the final of the Konami Cup 2007, Chunichi Dragons battled SK Wyverns again, many Japanese spectators hoped for Dragons to take revenge on Wyverns and win the championship. This was really a intensive match with starting pitchers URLe Kenneth Rayborn from SK versus Daisuke Yamai. The key innings took place at the 9th inning, Hirokazu Ibata (Dragons) hit a key run back to make their team lead with 6-5. Finally, the relief pitcher Hitoki Iwase successfully shut down SK's offense and tied the score to the end to win the champion. After this game, Chunichi Dragons coach Hiromitsu Ochiai remarked: "Even though we ever lose to SK Wyverns, but participants in this year proved their actual strength more than last year. In this game, after we led with 6-5, Hitoki Iwase told me he want to pitch at the bottom of 9th inning, then I accepted, he promised his wish and finally helped us win the champion. I'll not URLet the contributions by Ibata and Iwase."

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Gordon Brown, in the United States on July 30, 2007. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Gordon Brown has announced that donations made to his political party, the Labour Party were "not lawfully declared" as they were donated through a middleman. According to UK law, all donations over 50,000 must be declared along with the name of the donator and all donations made through middlemen must declare the original donator. David Abraham officially donated the money, which totalled almost 600,000, through 3 third parties. They have been named as; Ray Ruddick who donated 196,850 since 2003, Janet Kidd, who has donated 185,000 since 2003 and John McCarthy, who has donated 202,125 since 2004. The acting leader of the Liberal Democrats, Vince Cable, whose party suffered from the increase in Labour's popularity said "an enourmous can of worms had been opened up" and that the UK government should have introduced new regulations on the fuding of political parties.

Gordon Brown, in the United States on July 30, 2007. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Gordon Brown has announced that donations made to his political party, the Labour Party were "not lawfully declared" as they were donated through a middleman. According to UK law, all donations over 50,000 must be declared along with the name of the donator and all donations made through middlemen must declare the original donator. David Abraham officially donated the money, which totaled almost 600,000, through 3 third parties. They have been named as; Ray Ruddick who donated 196,850 since 2003, Janet Kidd, who has donated 185,000 since 2003 and John McCarthy, who has donated 202,125 since 2004. The acting leader of the Liberal Democrats, Vince Cable, whose party suffered from the increase in Labour's popularity said "an enormous can of worms had been opened up" and that the UK government should have introduced new regulations on the funding of political parties.

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As the two rivals postured over factors like performance and high-definition, Wikinews reporter Rico Shen interviewed some of their partners. BenQ and Micro-Star International both said: "No matter whether the consumer chooses a computer with AMD or Intel, the consumer should consider it based on functionality and practically before purchasing. Some low-price NBs (EeePC, OLPC) were launched before the show , NB manufacturers had considered and evaluated what a consumer really want. Sincerely, I recommend a consumer not be fooled by a NB's price but to consider its functionality first!"

As the two rivals postured over factors like performance and high-definition, Wikinews reporter Rico Shen interviewed some of their partners. BenQ and Micro-Star International both said: "No matter whether the consumer chooses a computer with AMD or Intel, the consumer should consider it based on functionality and practically before purchasing. For example, some low-price notebook computers (EeePC, OLPC) were launched before the show because notebook computer manufacturers had considered and evaluated what a consumer really want. Sincerely, I recommend a consumer not be fooled by a its price but to consider its functionality first!"

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The former Mayor of Sefton in the United Kingdom has been gaoled for fraudulantly obtaining state benefits. He was gaoled for 15 months for conspiring to defraud 32,871.85 in Disability Living Allowance together with a six months concurrently sentence for conspiracy to defraud 4,000.25 in Income Support. His wife, Catie Walker, was gaoled for eight months for the DLA offence and a concurrent four months for the Income Support swindle.

The former Mayor of Sefton in the United Kingdom has been jailed for fraudulantly obtaining state benefits. He was jailed for 15 months for conspiring to defraud 32,871.85 in Disability Living Allowance together with a six months concurrently sentence for conspiracy to defraud 4,000.25 in Income Support. His wife, Catie Walker, was jailed for eight months for the DLA offence and a concurrent four months for the Income Support swindle.

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Former American Idol finalist Jessica Sierra, 22, has had her invitation to perform at an upcoming concert for United States troops revoked , following her recent arrest for disorderly conduct while intoxicated. Sierra has been in prison since the start of the month after an altercation with police officers outside a Tampa nightclub, which she had been ejected from. She is charged with disorderly intoxication and resisting arrest. Patterson said URL , who URLanizing the concert, had received comments from patrons who were concerned about her participation. John Fitzgibbons, attorney for Jessica, refused to comment.

Former American Idol finalist Jessica Sierra, 22, has had her invitation to perform at an upcoming concert for United States troops retracted , following her recent arrest for disorderly conduct while intoxicated. Sierra has been in jail since the start of the month after an altercation with police officers outside a Tampa nightclub, which she had been ejected from. She is charged with disorderly intoxication and resisting arrest. Patterson said Move America Forward , who URLanizing the concert, had received comments from patrons who were concerned about her participation. John Fitzgibbons, attorney for Jessica, refused to comment.

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First official sunspot belonging to the new Solar Cycle 24. The first sunspot on The Sun of solar cycle 24 was announced on January 4, 2008. This sunspot is a precursor for the normal increase in activity which takes place during the 11-year solar cycles .

First official sunspot belonging to the new Solar Cycle 24. The first sunspot marking a new solar cycle has been identified, physicists at the NOAA announced on January 4. This sunspot is a precursor for the normal increase in activity which takes place during the 11-year solar cycle .

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The third Test commenced on Wednesday at the WACA in Perth , between Australia and India . India won the toss, and Indian captain Anil Kumble elected to bat. India quickly made a half century in nine overs , then shortly afterwards the first wicket fell with Virender Sehwag caught behind by Adam Gilchrist for 29 runs. Three overs later, about about half an hour before lunch , the next wicket fell when Gilchrist also caught Wasim Jaffer. India were 2/74 at lunch, and played well during the afternoon, not losing any wickets. Rahul Dravid was dropped on 11 runs by Michael Clarke, and went on to share a partnership of 139 runs with Sachin Tendulkar as India reached 2/177 at tea. In the last session India put on 120 runs, but lost four wickets, including two just before stumps. Tendulkar (71) was trapped lbw by Brett Lee , while Sourav Ganguly fell for just nine runs soon afterwards. Dravid reached 93 runs before being caught by Ricky Ponting, and V. V. S. Laxman was dismissed for 27 runs shortly before the close of play. India finished the day on 6/297.

The third Test between Australia and India commenced on Wednesday at the WACA in Perth . India won the toss, and Indian captain Anil Kumble elected to bat. India quickly made a half century in nine overs . Shortly after, the first wicket fell with Virender Sehwag caught behind by Adam Gilchrist for 29 runs. About half an hour before lunch with three more overs , the next wicket fell when Gilchrist also caught Wasim Jaffer. India were 2/74 at lunch, and played well during the afternoon, losing no wickets. Rahul Dravid was dropped on 11 runs by Michael Clarke, and went on to share a partnership of 139 runs with Sachin Tendulkar as India reached 2/177 at tea. In the last session India put on 120 runs, losing four wickets, including two just before stumps. Brett Lee trapped lbw Tendulkar (71) , while Sourav Ganguly fell for just nine runs soon afterwards. Dravid reached 93 runs before being caught by Ricky Ponting, and V. V. S. Laxman was dismissed for 27 runs shortly before the close of play. India finished the day on 6/297.

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240px|Executives from left to right: Jean-Claude Poimboeuf (French Representative to Taiwan), Alain Jaubert, Sylvia Feng (President of PTS Taiwan), and Mingchuan Huang. Alain Jaubert, director from the famous art program "Palettes" by Association Relative la Tlvision Europenne (ARTE was invited by Taiwan Public Television Service (PTS Taiwan) and the French Institute in Taipei to talk about productions on his notable art program "Palettes" on January 19 in Taipei City. He also talked about some experiences and about functionalities on art programs with the Chairman of National Culture and Arts Foundation Mingchuan Huang. According to PTS Taiwan, Jaubert failed at his first attempt to produce "Palettes" in 1984, but finally succeeded in 1987 after his proposal was recalled and Jaubery tried another production style to introduce history and background on establishments of a notable picture to Europe. This program was finally recognized and encouraged by administration centers from three ancient monuments (Louvre, Muse d'Orsay, and Pompidou Centre). This also echoed Jaubert's words in his speech: "Without supports by art comrades and those administrations centers, the 'Palettes' will no longer exist, eventually, I won't become notable in Europe." Before the Executive Panel, the PTS Taiwan screened highlights from some art programs included "Pelettes" by ARTE and "Avant Guard Liberation" by Mingchuan Huang. After the screening, executives talked about specifications on art programs and forecasted the future of directions on art programs world-wide.

240px|Executives from left to right: Jean-Claude Poimboeuf (French Representative to Taiwan), Alain Jaubert, Sylvia Feng (President of PTS Taiwan), and Mingchuan Huang. Alain Jaubert, director of the famous art program "Palettes" by Association Relative la Tlvision Europenne (ARTE ) was invited by Taiwan Public Television Service (PTS Taiwan) and the French Institute in Taipei to talk about productions on his art program on January 19 in Taipei City. He also talked about some experiences and about functionalities on art programs with the Chairman of National Culture and Arts Foundation Mingchuan Huang. According to PTS Taiwan, Jaubert failed at his first attempt to produce "Palettes" in 1984, but finally succeeded in 1987 after his proposal was recalled and Jaubery tried another production style to introduce history and background on establishments of notable pictures to Europe. This program was finally recognized and encouraged by administration centers from three ancient monuments (Louvre, Muse d'Orsay, and Pompidou Centre). This also echoed Jaubert's words in his speech: "Without support by art comrades and those administrations centers, 'Palettes' would not exist; I wouldn't have become notable in Europe." Before the Executive Panel, the PTS Taiwan screened highlights from some art programs including "Pelettes" by ARTE and "Avant Guard Liberation" by Mingchuan Huang. After the screening, executives talked about specifications on art programs and forecasted the future of directions on art programs world-wide.

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Map showing the North and South of Waziristan, al-Libi was killed in the Northern part. Abu Laith al-Libi, an al-Qaeda leader in Afghanistan, was reported killed on Islamist website URL, saying: "[Libi] was martyred with a group of his brothers in the land of Muslim Pakistan....Though we are sad for his loss, he left a legacy that will inflame the enemy nation and religion." It is speculated that he was hit by a U.S. Missile , which is now identified as a Predator drone, in the North Waziristan of Pakistan, and a dozen more militants were also reported dead. The News reports the attack was aimed at the leader as well as Obaidah al-Masri. "But it's not bin Laden and Zawahri. They do have an ability to regenerate and replace these guys," said a Western intelligence official. Libi is said to be the number 3 person in al-Qaeda.

Map showing the North and South of Waziristan, al-Libi was killed in the Northern part. Abu Laith al-Libi, an al-Qaeda leader in Afghanistan, was reported killed on Islamist website URL, saying: "[Libi] was martyred with a group of his brothers in the land of Muslim Pakistan....Though we are sad for his loss, he left a legacy that will inflame the enemy nation and religion." It is speculated that he was hit by a United States missile , which is now identified as being fired from a Predator drone, in the North Waziristan of Pakistan, and a dozen more militants were also reported dead. The News reports the attack was aimed at al-Libi, as well as Obaidah al-Masri. "But it's not bin Laden and Zawahri. They do have an ability to regenerate and replace these guys," said a Western intelligence official. Al-Libi is said to have been the third highest ranking member of al-Qaeda.

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The ruins of a Palestinian village. The town of Kiryat Yam in Israel is suing Internet corporation Google over an alleged inaccuracy in its Google Earth software, which claims the town was built over the ruins of an Arab village. However, town official Naty Keyzilberman says this "obviously cannot be true, because Kiryat Yam was founded in 1945". The Palestinian exodus, in which hundreds of thousands of Arabs abandoned their villages due to the Arab-Israeli War, occurred in 1948, three years after Keyzilberman says the town was founded. The town filed a slander complaint with Israel police, he says. The town 's claim is supported by Yossi Ben-Artzi, a history professor at the University of Haifa, who said, "Kiryat Yam was built on sand dunes, and there wasn't any Palestinian village in the area. The lands were bought in 1939 by the Gav Yam construction company."

The ruins of a Palestinian village. The city of Kiryat Yam in Israel is suing Internet corporation Google over an alleged inaccuracy in its Google Earth software, which claims the city was built over the ruins of an Arab village. However, town 's spokesman Naty Key Zilberman says this "obviously cannot be true, because Kiryat Yam was founded in 1945". The Palestinian exodus, in which hundreds of thousands of Arabs abandoned their villages due to the Arab-Israeli War, occurred in 1948, three years after Key zilberman says the city was founded. The city filed a slander complaint with Israel police, he says. The city 's claim is supported by Yossi Ben-Artzi, a history professor at the University of Haifa, who said, "Kiryat Yam was built on sand dunes, and there wasn't any Palestinian village in the area. The lands were bought in 1939 by the Gav Yam construction company."

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Leading off is the week-long Harley rally, which then will be followed in the next week by BikeFest. In and around town, both day and night are punctured by the sounds of bike engines gunned and revved at stop lights and in parkings lots, while groups of cycle riders dominate the streets. The highly accesorised bikes, decked with chome and polished to show it, flashed the townscape. Choppers made a showing, but road hogs dominated the ridership, often going twosome. Many rally goers arrived on the scene with SUV’s or big pickup trucks towing cargo trailers loaded with cycles. 240px Growth in the sheer size of the two rallies led police to make changes in the handling of traffic flow. During BikeFest last year, the mostly black crowd that came in on the heels of the largely white Harley rally the week earlier, were faced with confusion when the two-lane Ocean Blvd was made one-way. A branch of the NAACP in Conway, the next town over from Myrtle Beach, alledged discrimination by Horry County and Myrtle Beach Police. They claimed authorities and police used an overwhelming and aggressive police presence, combined with a restrictive one-way traffic pattern, to intimidate and discourage the participants in the rally. A plan to submit an opposition to the notice has already been announced by Michael Navarre, an attorney for Steptoe & Johnson, who represents the NAACP civil rights group. "We certainly don't think the judge has ruled erroneously," Navarre said, according to ‘’ The Sun News ’’ .

Leading off is the week-long Harley rally, followed by the next week 's BikeFest. In and around town, both day and night are punctured by the sounds of bike engines gunned and revved at stop lights and in parking lots. Groups of cycle riders dominate the streets. The highly accesorised bikes, decked with chrome and polished to show it, flashed the townscape. Choppers made a showing, but road hogs dominated the ridership, often going twosome. Many rally goers arrived on the scene with SUV’s or big pickup trucks towing cargo trailers loaded with cycles. 240px Growth in the sheer size of the two rallies led police to make changes in the handling of traffic flow. During BikeFest last year, the mostly black crowd that came in on the heels of the largely white Harley rally the week earlier, were faced with confusion when the two-lane Ocean Blvd was made one-way. A branch of the NAACP in Conway, the next town over from Myrtle Beach, alleged discrimination by Horry County and Myrtle Beach Police. They claimed authorities and police used an overwhelming and aggressive police presence, combined with a restrictive one-way traffic pattern, to intimidate and discourage the participants in the rally. A plan to submit an opposition to the notice has already been announced by Michael Navarre, an attorney for Steptoe & Johnson, who represents the NAACP civil rights group. "We certainly don't think the judge has ruled erroneously," Navarre said, according to The Sun News .

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Dutch tennis player Raemon Sluiter played his last game as a professional at the ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament in Rotterdam. Sluiter lost the first round game in two sets to Frenchman Michael Llodra. After the 82-minute game , Sluiter recieved a standing ovation from the spectators. "I have never been of world-class," Sluiter said after the match, "but this was a farewell worthy to a world-topper. One can only be grateful." Sluiter remarked that the results of the game supported his decision to retire, "Today it was clear: I have to play at my best to compete with a sub-topper. In the past I could defeat guys like this and give the real world-class players a hard time. This was symbolic: I'm just not good enough anymore", he said. Sluiter 's became a professional tennis player in 1996, his career highlights were mostly on home soil, reacing ATP finals in Amsterdam in 2000, and in Rotterdam and Amersfoort in 2003, as well as a semi-final appearance in Rosmalen. Another career highlight was reaching the semi-finals with the Dutch Davis Cup team in 2001. He announced his retirement in February 2008.

Dutch tennis player Raemon Sluiter played his last match as a professional at the ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament in Rotterdam. Sluiter lost the first round match in two sets to Frenchman Michael Llodra. After the 82-minute match , Sluiter recieved a standing ovation from the spectators. "I have never been of world-class," Sluiter said after the match, "but this was a farewell worthy to a world-topper. One can only be grateful." Sluiter remarked that the results of the match supported his decision to retire, "Today it was clear: I have to play at my best to compete with a sub-topper. In the past I could defeat guys like this and give the real world-class players a hard time. This was symbolic: I'm just not good enough anymore", he said. Sluiter became a professional tennis player in 1996, his career highlights were mostly on home soil, reacing ATP finals in Amsterdam in 2000, and in Rotterdam and Amersfoort in 2003, as well as a semi-final appearance in Rosmalen. Another career highlight was reaching the semi-finals with the Dutch Davis Cup team in 2001. He announced his retirement in February 2008.

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In the Czech Republic The Czech Republic use the term Pta oblast (PO, bird area) for SPAs. There were declared 41 bird areas by the government directivesbetween 2004 and 2009. Pta oblasti nazen vldy They cover 9\% of the state area.

In the Czech Republic The Czech Republic uses the term Pta oblast (PO, bird area) for SPAs. Between 2004 and 2009, 41 bird areas were declared by government directives. Pta oblasti nazen vldy They cover 9\% of the state area.

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Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites broadcast microwave signals to enable GPS receivers on or near the Earth's surface to determine locationand time, and to derive velocity . The system is operated by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) for use by both the military and the general public.

GPS signals are broadcast by Global Positioning System satellites to enable satellite navigation. Receivers on or near the Earth's surface can determine location, time, and velocity using this information . The system is operated by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) for use by both the military and the general public.

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Expelled Asians in the Netherlands after leaving Uganda, 1972 In early August 1972, the President of Uganda, Idi Amin, ordered the expulsion of his country's Asian minority, giving them 90 days to leave the country. At the time of the expulsion, there were approximately 80,000 individuals of Indian descent (mostly Gujaratis) in Uganda, of whom 23,000 had their applications for citizenship both processed and accepted. Although the latter were ultimately exempted from the expulsion, many chose to leave voluntarily.. The expulsion took place against a backdrop of Indophobia in Uganda, with Amin accusing a minority of the Asian population of disloyalty, non-integration and commercial malpractice, claims Indian leaders disputed. Amin defended the expulsion by arguing that he was "giving Uganda back to ethnic Ugandans". Many of the expellees were citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies and 27, 200 subsequently emigrated to the United Kingdom. Of the other refugees who were accounted for, 6,000 went to Canada, 4,500 refugees ended up in India and 2,500 went to nearby Kenya or Pakistan. In total, some 5,655 firms, ranches, farms, and agricultural estates were reallocated, along with cars, homes and other household goods.

Expelled Asians in the Netherlands after leaving Uganda, 1972 In early August 1972, the President of Uganda, Idi Amin, ordered the expulsion of his country's Asian minority, giving them 90 days to leave the country. At the time of the expulsion, there were about 80,000 individuals of Indian descent (mostly Gujaratis) in Uganda, of whom 23,000 had their applications for citizenship both processed and accepted. Although the latter were ultimately exempted from the expulsion, many chose to leave voluntarily.. The expulsion took place against a backdrop of Indophobia in Uganda, with Amin accusing a minority of the Asian population of disloyalty, nonintegration and commercial malpractice, claims that Indian leaders disputed. Amin defended the expulsion by arguing that he was "giving Uganda back to ethnic Ugandans". Many of those expelled were citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies and 27, 2021 emigrated to the United Kingdom. Of the other refugees who were accounted for, 6,000 went to Canada, 4,500 refugees ended up in India and 2,500 went to nearby Kenya or Pakistan. In total, some 5,655 firms, ranches, farms, and agricultural estates were reallocated, along with cars, homes and other household goods.

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Symptoms and signs The clinical condition denoted abulia was first described in 1838; however, since that time, a number of different definitions have emerged , with some contradicting others .Vijayaraghavan, L., Krishnamoorthy, E. S., Brown, R. G., & Trimble, M. R. (2002). Abulia: A Delphi survey of British neurologists and psychiatrists. [Article]. Movement Disorders, 17(5), 1052-1057. Abulia has been described as a loss of drive, expression, loss of behavior and speech output, slowing and prolonged speech latency, and reduction of spontaneous thought content and initiative.Jahanshahi, M., & Frith, C. D. (1998). Willed action and its impairments. [Review]. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 15(6-8), 483-533.. The clinical features most commonly associated with abulia are: Difficulty in initiating and sustaining purposeful movements Lack of spontaneous movement Reduced spontaneous speech Increased response-time to queries Passivity Reduced emotional responsiveness and spontaneity Reduced social interactions Reduced interest in usual pastimes A 2002 survey of two movement disorder experts, two neuropsychiatrists, and two rehabilitation experts did not seem to shed any light on the matter of differentiating abulia from other DDMs. The experts used the terms apathy and abulia interchangeably and debated whether or not abulia was a discrete entity, or just a hazy gray area on a spectrum of more defined disorders. Four of the experts said abulia was a sign and a symptom, and the group was split on whether or not it was a syndrome. Another survey, which consisted of true and false questions about what abulia is distinct from, whether it is a sign, symptom, or syndrome, where lesions are present in cases of abulia, what diseases are commonly associated with abulia, and what current treatments are used for abulia, was sent to 15 neurologists and 10 psychiatrists. Most experts agreed that abulia is clinically distinct from depression, akinetic mutism, and alexithymia. However, only 32\% believed abulia was different from apathy, while 44\% said they were not different, and 24\% were unsure. Yet again, there was disagreement about whether or not abulia is a sign, symptom, or syndrome.

Symptoms and signs The clinical condition denoted abulia was first described in 1838; however, since that time, a number of different , some contradictory, definitions have emerged .Vijayaraghavan, L., Krishnamoorthy, E. S., Brown, R. G., & Trimble, M. R. (2002). Abulia: A Delphi survey of British neurologists and psychiatrists. [Article]. Movement Disorders, 17(5), 1052-1057. Abulia has been described as a loss of drive, expression, behavior and speech output, with slowing and prolonged speech latency, and reduction of spontaneous thought content and initiative.Jahanshahi, M., & Frith, C. D. (1998). Willed action and its impairments. [Review]. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 15(6-8), 483-533.. The clinical features most commonly associated with abulia are: Difficulty in initiating and sustaining purposeful movements Lack of spontaneous movement Reduced spontaneous speech Increased response-time to queries Passivity Reduced emotional responsiveness and spontaneity Reduced social interactions Reduced interest in usual pastimes A 2002 survey of two movement disorder experts, two neuropsychiatrists, and two rehabilitation experts , did not seem to shed any light on the matter of differentiating abulia from other DDMs. The experts used the terms "apathy" and "abulia" interchangeably and debated whether or not abulia was a discrete entity, or just a hazy gray area on a spectrum of more defined disorders. Four of the experts said abulia was a sign and a symptom, and the group was split on whether or not it was a syndrome. Another survey, which consisted of true and false questions about what abulia is distinct from, whether it is a sign, symptom, or syndrome, where lesions are present in cases of abulia, what diseases are commonly associated with abulia, and what current treatments are used for abulia, was sent to 15 neurologists and 10 psychiatrists. Most experts agreed that abulia is clinically distinct from depression, akinetic mutism, and alexithymia. However, only 32\% believed abulia was different from apathy, while 44\% said they were not different, and 24\% were unsure. Yet again, there was disagreement about whether or not abulia is a sign, symptom, or syndrome.

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An intimate relationship is an interpersonal relationship that involves physical or emotional intimacy . Although an intimate relationship is commonly a sexual relationship , it may also be a non-sexual relationship involving family, friends, or acquaintances. Emotional intimacy involves feelings of liking or loving one or more people, and may result in physical intimacy. Physical intimacy is characterized by romantic love, sexual activity, or other passionate attachment. These relationships play a central role in the overall human experience.Miller, Rowland & Perlman, Daniel (2008). Intimate Relationships (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill. Humans have a general desire to belong and to love , which is usually satisfied within an intimate relationship.Perlman, D. (2007). The best of times, the worst of times: The place of close relationships in psychology and our daily lives. Canadian Psychology, 48, 718. Such relationships allow a social network for people to form strong emotional attachments.

An intimate relationship is an interpersonal relationship that involves sexual intimacy, because romantic love is based on sex . Although an intimate relationship is commonly a sexual relationship Emotional intimacy involves feelings of sex or lustingone or more people, and may result in physical intimacy. Physical intimacy is characterized by sexual activity, or other sexual attachment. These relationships play a central role in the overall human sexual experience.Miller, Rowland & Perlman, Daniel (2008). Intimate Relationships (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill. Humans have a general desire to belong and to have sex , which is usually satisfied within a sexual relationship.Perlman, D. (2007). The best of times, the worst of times: The place of close relationships in psychology and our daily lives. Canadian Psychology, 48, 718. Such relationships allow a social network for people to form strong emotional attachments.

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An intimate relationship is an interpersonal relationship that involves sexual intimacy, because romantic love is based on sex . Although an intimate relationship is commonly a sexual relationship Emotional intimacy involves feelings of sex or lustingone or more people, and may result in physical intimacy. Physical intimacy is characterized by sexual activity, or other sexual attachment. These relationships play a central role in the overall human sexual experience.Miller, Rowland & Perlman, Daniel (2008). Intimate Relationships (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill. Humans have a general desire to belong and to have sex , which is usually satisfied within a sexual relationship.Perlman, D. (2007). The best of times, the worst of times: The place of close relationships in psychology and our daily lives. Canadian Psychology, 48, 7–18. Such relationships allow a social network for people to form strong emotional attachments.

An intimate relationship is an interpersonal relationship that involves physical or emotional intimacy . Although an intimate relationship is commonly a sexual relationship , it may also be a non-sexual relationship involving family, friends, or acquaintances. Emotional intimacy involves feelings of liking or loving one or more people, and may result in physical intimacy. Physical intimacy is characterized by romantic love, sexual activity, or other passionate attachment. These relationships play a central role in the overall human experience.Miller, Rowland & Perlman, Daniel (2008). Intimate Relationships (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill. Humans have a general desire to belong and to love , which is usually satisfied within an intimate relationship.Perlman, D. (2007). The best of times, the worst of times: The place of close relationships in psychology and our daily lives. Canadian Psychology, 48, 7–18. Such relationships allow a social network for people to form strong emotional attachments.

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ERG theory is a theory in psychology proposed by Clayton Alderfer. thumb Alderfer further developed Maslow's hierarchy of needs by categorizing the hierarchy into his ERG theory (Existence, Relatedness and Growth). The existence group is concerned with providing the basic material existence requirements of humans. They include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs. The second group of needs is those of relatedness the desire people have for maintaining important interpersonal relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, and they align with Maslow's social need and the external component of Maslow's esteem classification. Finally, Alderfer isolates growth needs: an intrinsic desire for personal development. These include the intrinsic component from Maslow's esteem category and the characteristics included under self-actualization. Alderfer categorized the lower order needs (Physiological and Safety) into the Existence category. He fit Maslow's interpersonal love and esteem needs into the Relatedness category. The Growth category contained the self-actualization and self-esteem needs . Alderfer also proposed a regression theory to go along with the ERG theory . He said that when needs in a higher category are not met then individuals redouble the efforts invested in a lower category need . For example if self-actualization or self-esteem is not met then individuals will invest more effort in the relatedness category in the hopes of achieving the higher need.Design in the Manufacturing Firm syllabus University of Washington Industrial Engineering course syllabus. Retrieved on 07-17-2011.

ERG theory is a theory in psychology proposed by Clayton Alderfer. ERG theory. When needs in a category are satisfied, an individual will invest more efforts in the higher category. When needs in a category are frustrated, an individual will invest more efforts in the lower category. Alderfer further developed Maslow's hierarchy of needs by categorizing the hierarchy into his ERG theory (Existence, Relatedness and Growth). The existence category is concerned with the need for providing the basic material existence requirements of humans. The relatedness category is concerned about the desire for maintaining important interpersonal relationships. The growth category is concerned about the desire for personal development. These include the intrinsic component from Maslow's esteem category and the characteristics included under self-actualization. Alderfer categorized Maslow's physiological needs and Maslow's safety needs into the existence category, Maslow's social needs and Maslow's extrinsic component of self-esteem needs into the relatedness category, and Maslow's intrinsic component of self-esteem needs and Maslow's self-actualization needs into the growth category . Alderfer also proposed a progression and regression theory to go along with the ERG theory : he said that when needs in a lower category are satisfied, individuals invest more efforts in the higher category, and when needs in a higher category are frustrated, individuals invest more efforts in the lower category . For example if self-esteem or self-actualization is not met then individuals will invest more effort in the relatedness category in the hopes of achieving the higher need.Design in the Manufacturing Firm syllabus University of Washington Industrial Engineering course syllabus. Retrieved on 07-17-2011.

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Alderfer categorized Maslow's physiological needs and Maslow's safety needs into the existence category, Maslow's social needs and Maslow's extrinsic component of self-esteem needs into the relatedness category, and Maslow's intrinsic component of self-esteem needs and Maslow's self-actualization needs into the growth category. Alderfer also proposed a progression and regression theory to go along with the ERG theory: he said that when needs in a lower category are satisfied, individuals invest more efforts in the higher category, and when needs in a higher category are frustrated, individuals invest more efforts in the lower category. For example if self-esteem or self-actualization is not met then individuals will invest more effort in the relatedness category in the hopes of achieving the higher need.Design in the Manufacturing Firm syllabus University of Washington Industrial Engineering course syllabus. Retrieved on 07-17-2011.

Alderfer categorized Maslow's physiological needs and Maslow's safety needs into the existence category, Maslow's social needs and Maslow's extrinsic component of self-esteem needs into the relatedness category, and Maslow's intrinsic component of self-esteem needs and Maslow's self-actualization needs into the growth category. Alderfer also proposed a progression and regression theory to go along with the ERG theory: he said that when needs in a lower category are satisfied, an individual will invest more efforts in the higher category, and when needs in a higher category are frustrated, an individual will invest more efforts in the lower category. For example if self-esteem or self-actualization is not met then an individual will invest more effort in the relatedness category in the hopes of achieving the higher need.Design in the Manufacturing Firm syllabus University of Washington Industrial Engineering course syllabus. Retrieved on 07-17-2011.

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The site is on a plain, at the foot of a basalt plateau, which forms a portion of the Hijaz mountains. The western and north-western portions of the site contain a water table that can be reached at a depth of . The setting is notable for its desert landscape, marked by sandstone outcroppings of various sizes and heights.

The site is on a plain, at the foot of a basalt plateau, which forms a portion of the Hijaz mountains. Beneath the western and north-western parts of the site , the water table can be reached at a depth of . The setting is notable for its desert landscape, marked by sandstone outcroppings of various sizes and heights.

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In the 19th century , the idea appeared in universities that a definitive history could be written of a major region of the world for a great span of time in a similar manner to the way that an encyclopediawas written. The time period was subdivided into eras and one volume specified for each. Within each volume there would be a fixed number of topics. Either each volume would either be written by one historian on the faculty, or else each topic would be handled by a faculty member throughout the series of volumes, or perhaps another system of specialization would be prescribed. This procedure was similar to that undertaken on such campuses to produce encyclopedias of natural history, such as marine biology, for which different scholars would write about different phyla. Examples of the end result of this procedure include the series done by Cambridge on Greco-Roman history, and that of Oxford on British history, which may be found on the reserve stacks of many public libraries in the 21st century. What gives this concept of 'academic history' its own historicity, or "cubbyhole in time", superseded by progress, is that an academic history was intended to be definitive even though its subject matter, unlike the marine biology mentioned above, was not objective. When the volume on the Regency was published, for example, some may have thought that such would be the complete history of that era, and no one would need to do as much work in that field, because the best people with the best resources would already have written it down. Subsequent changes in scholarly perspective can alter that perception; for example the work of Lewis Namier on mid-18th century British politics caused one of the Oxford History volumes to appear outdated. It was not considered that entirely new viewpoints and methods would come into being, or that scholars would follow new threads of causality throughout stretches of time that differed from the canonical ones over a region which varied over time. And as each academic history was primarily a list of persons, places, things, and events, there was hardly any Marxian content to any of these projects. By the second half of the 20th , there weren't any more academic histories. History is no longer subdivided in such an assembly-line fashion with such an authoritative result expected. However, the project of globalization has brought with it the notion of writing a history that has no national center. All the projects above, allocated to the faculty of a university, had the viewpoint of their country or region in mind. These new histories are similar to the academic , in that they are large and done by many people by a similar process of allocation, but they do not have the same all-specifying concept of classification; instead, it is interrelation which is of concern.

In the 19th century the idea appeared in universities that a definitive history could be written of a major region of the world for a great span of time - in a similar manner to the way in which people compiled an encyclopedia. The chosen time period was subdivided into eras and one volume specified for each. Within each volume there would be a fixed number of topics. Either each volume would be written by one historian on the faculty, or else each topic would be handled by a faculty member throughout the series of volumes, or perhaps another system of specialization would be prescribed. This procedure resembled that undertaken on such campuses to produce encyclopedias of natural history, such as marine biology, for which different scholars would write about different phyla. Examples of the end result of this procedure include the series produced by Cambridge on Greco-Roman history, and that of Oxford on British history, which may be found on the reserve stacks of many public libraries in the 21st century. What gives this concept of "academic history" its own historicity, or "cubbyhole in time", challenged by progress, is that an academic history was intended to be definitive even though its subject matter, unlike the marine biology mentioned above, was not objective. When the volume on the Regency was published, for example, some may have thought that such would be the complete history of that era, and no one would need to do as much work in that field, because the best people with the best resources would already have written it down. Subsequent changes in scholarly perspective can alter that perception; for example the work of Lewis Namier on mid-18th century British politics caused one of the Oxford History volumes to appear outdated. It was not considered that entirely new viewpoints and methods would come into being, or that scholars would follow new threads of causality throughout stretches of time that differed from the canonical ones over a region which varied over time. And as each academic history was primarily a list of persons, places, things, and events, there was hardly any Marxian content to any of these projects. By the second half of the 20th century there weren't any more new academic histories. Historians no longer subdivided their subject-matter in such an assembly-line fashion with such an authoritative result expected. However, the project of globalization has brought with it the notion of writing a history that has no national center. All the academic-history projects mentioned above, allocated to the faculty of a university, had the viewpoint of their country or region in mind. Some new global histories resemble the academic histories , in that they are large and done by many people using a similar process of allocation, but they do not have the same all-specifying concept of classification; instead, it is interrelation which is of concern.

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The world's population is around 7,800,000,000U.S. & World Population Clocks. Census.gov. Retrieved on December 10, 2011. and Earth's total area (including land and water) is 510,000,000km2 (197,000,000 sq. mi.).World. CIA World Handbook Therefore, the worldwide human population density is around 7,500,000,000 510,000,000 = 14.7 per km2 (38 per sq. mi.). If only the Earth's land area of 150,000,000km2 (58,000,000 sq. mi.) is taken into account, then human population density is 50 per km2 (129 per sq. mi.). This includes all continental and island land area, including Antarctica. If Antarctica is also excluded, then population density rises to over 55 people per km2 (over 142 per sq. mi.). However, over half of the Earth's land mass consists of areas inhospitable to human habitation, such as deserts and high mountains, and population tends to cluster around seaports and fresh-water sources. Thus , additional criteria are needed to make simple population density values useful. In comparison, based on a world population of 7.8 billion, the world's inhabitants, as a loose crowd taking up almost 1 m2 (10 sq. ft) per person (cf. Jacobs Method), would occupy a space a little larger than Delaware's land area.

The world's population is around 7,800,000,000U.S. & World Population Clocks. Census.gov. Retrieved on December 10, 2011. and Earth's total area (including land and water) is 510,000,000km2 (197,000,000 sq. mi.).World. CIA World Handbook Therefore, from this very crude type of calculation, the worldwide human population density is approximately 7,500,000,000 510,000,000 = 14.7 per km2 (38 per sq. mi.). However, if only the Earth's land area of 150,000,000km2 (58,000,000 sq. mi.) is taken into account, then human population density is 50 per km2 (129 per sq. mi.). This includes all continental and island land area, including Antarctica. Furthermore, if Antarctica is also excluded, then population density rises to over 55 people per km2 (over 142 per sq. mi.). However, over half of the Earth's land mass consists of areas inhospitable to human habitation, such as deserts and high mountains, and population tends to cluster around seaports and fresh-water sources. Therefore , additional criteria are needed to make simple population density values meaningful and useful. In comparison, based on a world population of 7.8 billion, the world's inhabitants, if conceptualized as a loose crowd occupying just under 1 m2 (10 sq. ft) per person (cf. Jacobs Method), would occupy a space a little larger than Delaware's land area.

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Mor Themotheos Thomas has a significant role in the development of the present Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church in India, especially in the outside dioceses. Mor Themotheos ordained 6 present metropolitans of the church into the priesthood " Kassiso". No other bishop in the Jacobite church has that record as of now. Priests ordained by Mor Themotheos serving as Bishops are Mor Osthatheos Pathrose (Bangalore), Mor Eusebious Kuriakose (Delhi), Mor Coorilose Geevargese (Niranam), Mor Phelexinos Zacharias (Idukki), Mor Alexandrios Thomas (Mumbai), and Mor Thimotheos Matthew Mor Themotheos is the founder of a pre-marital counseling program in the Jacobite church. First, he started this in his diocese, and later it was added to the whole church. Mor Themotheos served as the President and resident metropolitan of M.S.O.T seminary for 9 years ( 19912000) and a faculty of the seminary.Later on, Dr. Mor Theophilose Kuriakose succeeded him. Mor Themotheos is presently the "Secretary" to the Holy Episcopal Synod of the Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church by the regional synod on 2018 December held at Puthencruz .

Mor Themotheos Thomas has significant role in the development of the present Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church in India, especially in the outside dioceses. The "Greater Indian Outside Arch diocese" under his jurisdiction is divided into 4 separate dioceses called Mumbai, Bangalore, Delhi and Mylapore (Chennai) which are administered by different metropolitans now. The efforts and labor of Mor Themotheos significantly helped the present growth of outside Kerala Jacobite dioceses into a worth position. Mor Themotheos ordained 6 present metropolitans of the church into the priesthood " Kassiso". No other bishop in the Jacobite church has that record as of now. Priests ordained by Mor Themotheos serving as Bishops are Mor Osthatheos Pathrose (Bangalore), Mor Eusebious Kuriakose (Delhi), Mor Coorilose Geevargese (Niranam), Mor Phelexinos Zacharias (Idukki), Mor Alexandrios Thomas (Mumbai), and Mor Thimotheos Matthew (Former Patriarchal Secretary). Mor Themotheos is the founder of pre-marital counseling programs in Jacobite Syrian church. First, he started this in his diocese, and later on it was implemented to the whole church. Mor Themotheos served as the President and Resident Metropolitan of M.S.O.T seminary for 9 years ( 19912000) .Later Dr. Mor Theophilose Kuriakose succeeded him. Mor Themotheos served as a Professor of MSOT Seminary as well. He has very well depth knowledge about the Christian church history and proved his gifted talent as a well known scholar in the Patristic studies. He is very keen into the missionary activities of the Jacobite Church. "Mor Gregorios Mission" under his leadership is an emerging movement in the current mission field of Jacobite Syrian Church. Mor Themotheos is elected as the "Secretary" to the Holy Episcopal Synod of the Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church in India by the regional synod of Church held on 2018 December .

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During this period, Spain was involved in all major European wars, including the Italian Wars, the Eighty Years' War, and the Thirty Years' War. In the later 17th century Spanish power began to decline, after the death of the last Habsburg . The former Spanish Empire overseas quickly disintegrated with the Spanish American wars of independence. Only Cuba and the Philippines and some small islands were left; they revolted and the United States acquired ownership (or control, in the case of Cuba) after the SpanishAmerican War of 1898. A tenuous balance between liberal and conservative forces was struck in the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in Spain during the Borbonic restoration; this period began in 1874 and ended in 1931. The Liberal Party ( Prxedes Mateo Sagasta) and Conservative Party (Antonio Cnovas del Castillo) fought for and won short-lived control without any being sufficiently strong to bring about lasting stability. They were alternately in power. The Restoration began with Alfonso XII and the Regency of Maria Christina (18741898). Alfonso XII died aged 27 in 1885, and was succeeded by his unborn son, who became Alfonso XIII (1902-1923). Then came the dictatorship of General Primo de Rivera (1923-1930). Opposition to his regime was so great that Alfonso XIII stopped supporting him and forced him to resign in January 1930.Shlomo Ben-Ami, "The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera: A Political Reassessment," Journal of Contemporary History, Jan 1977, Vol. 12 Issue 1, pp 6584 In 1931, following a victory by the left, the Popular Front, in municipal elections, Alfonso XIII left Spain and the democratic republic was proclaimed in Spain. The Conservative Party disappeared shortly after the proclamation of the Republic in 1931.Diccionario de historia de Espaa. Alvar Ezquerra, Jaime., Contreras, Jaime. Madrid: Istmo. 2001. . OCLC 50693588. Five years later the country descended into the Spanish Civil War between the Republican and the Nationalist factions.

During this period, Spain was involved in all major European wars, including the Italian Wars, the Eighty Years' War, and the Thirty Years' War. Spanish power declined in the latter part of the 17th century . In the early part of the 19th century, most of the former Spanish Empire overseas disintegrated with the Spanish American wars of independence. Only Cuba and the Philippines and some small islands were left; they revolted and the United States acquired ownership (or control, in the case of Cuba) after the SpanishAmerican War of 1898. A tenuous balance between liberal and conservative forces was struck in the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in Spain during the Borbonic restoration; this period began in 1874 and ended in 1931. The Liberal Party ( Prxedes Mateo Sagasta) and Conservative Party (Antonio Cnovas del Castillo) fought for and won short-lived control without any being sufficiently strong to bring about lasting stability. They were alternately in power. The Restoration began with Alfonso XII and the Regency of Maria Christina (18741898). Alfonso XII died aged 27 in 1885, and was succeeded by his unborn son, who became Alfonso XIII (1902-1923). Then came the dictatorship of General Primo de Rivera (1923-1930). Opposition to his regime was so great that Alfonso XIII stopped supporting him and forced him to resign in January 1930.Shlomo Ben-Ami, "The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera: A Political Reassessment," Journal of Contemporary History, Jan 1977, Vol. 12 Issue 1, pp 6584 In 1931, following a victory by the left, the Popular Front, in municipal elections, Alfonso XIII left Spain and the democratic republic was proclaimed in Spain. The Conservative Party disappeared shortly after the proclamation of the Republic in 1931.Diccionario de historia de Espaa. Alvar Ezquerra, Jaime., Contreras, Jaime. Madrid: Istmo. 2001. . OCLC 50693588. Five years later the country descended into the Spanish Civil War between the Republican and the Nationalist factions.

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alt=Building in Texas where recovery groups have meeting|Clubhouse in Texas where recovery groups have meetings. Drug addiction recovery groups are voluntary associations of people who share a common desire to overcome their drug addiction. Different groups use different methods, ranging from completely secular to explicitly spiritual. Some programs may advocate a reduction in the use of illegal drugs rather than outright abstention, although this is typically not a sustainable treatment plan in the long term. One survey of members found active involvement in any addiction recovery group correlates with higher chances of maintaining sobriety. The survey found group participation increased when the individual members' beliefs matched those of their primary support group (often people will be members of multiple addiction recovery groups). Analysis of the survey results found a significant positive correlation between the religiosity of members and their participation in twelve-step addiction recovery groups and SMART Recovery, although the correlation factor was three times smaller for SMART Recovery than for the twelve-step addiction recovery groups. Religiosity was inversely related to participation in Secular Organizations for Sobriety. A survey of a cross-sectional sample of clinicians working in outpatient facilities (selected from the SAMHSA On-line Treatment Facility Locator) found that clinicians only referring clients to twelve-step groups for treatment were more likely than those referring their clients to twelve-step groups and "twelve-step alternatives" to believe less strongly in the effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral and psychodynamic-oriented therapy, and were likely to be unfamiliar with twelve-step alternatives. A logistic regression of clinician's knowledge and awareness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy effectiveness and preference for the twelve-step model was correlated with referring exclusively to twelve-step groups.

alt=Building in Texas where recovery groups have meeting|Clubhouse in Texas where recovery groups have meetings. Drug addiction recovery groups are voluntary associations of people who share a common desire to overcome their drug addiction. Different groups use different methods, ranging from completely secular to explicitly spiritual. Some programs may advocate a reduction in the use of illegal drugs rather than outright abstention, although this is for other programs typically not a sustainable treatment plan in the long term. One survey of members who found active involvement in any addiction recovery group correlates with higher chances of maintaining sobriety. The survey found group participation increased when the individual members' beliefs matched those of their primary support group (often people will be members of multiple addiction recovery groups). Analysis of the survey results found a significant positive correlation between the religiosity of members and their participation in twelve-step programs (self named "spiritual addiction recovery programs" and to a lesser level in non religious SMART Recovery groups, the correlation factor being three times smaller for SMART Recovery than for the twelve-step addiction recovery groups. Religiosity was inversely related to participation in Secular Organizations for Sobriety. A survey of a cross-sectional sample of clinicians working in outpatient facilities (selected from the SAMHSA On-line Treatment Facility Locator) found that clinicians only referring clients to twelve-step groups were more likely than those referring their clients to twelve-step groups and "twelve-step alternatives" to believe less strongly in the effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral and psychodynamic-oriented therapy, and were likely to be unfamiliar with twelve-step alternatives. A logistic regression of clinician's knowledge and awareness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy effectiveness and preference for the twelve-step model was correlated with referring exclusively to twelve-step groups.

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Markov's principle, named after Andrey Markov Jr, is a statement in computability theory that is logical validity classically not in intuitionistic constructive mathematics. Many particular instances of the principle are nevertheless provable there as well. There are many equivalent formulations of Markov's principle, as listed below. In computability theory In the language of computability theory, Markov's principle is a formal expression of the claim that if it is impossible that an algorithm does not terminate, then it does terminate. This is equivalent to the claim that if a set and its complement are both computably enumerable, then the set is decidable. In constructive analysis It is equivalent, in the language of real analysis, to the following principles: Realizability If constructive arithmetic is translated using realizability into a classical meta-theory that proves the -consistency of the relevant classical theory (for example, Peano Arithmetic if we are studying Heyting arithmetic), then Markov's principle is justified: a realizer is the constant function that takes a realization that is not everywhere false to the unbounded search that successively checks if is true. If is not everywhere false, then by -consistency there must be a term for which holds, and each term will be checked by the search eventually. If however does not hold anywhere, then the domain of the constant function must be empty, so although the search does not halt it still holds vacuously that the function is a realizer. By the Law of the Excluded Middle (in our classical metatheory), must either hold nowhere or not hold nowhere, therefore this constant function is a realizer. If instead the realizability interpretation is used in a constructive meta-theory, then it is not justified. Indeed, for first-order arithmetic, Markov's principle exactly captures the difference between a constructive and classical meta-theory. Specifically, a statement is provable in Heyting arithmetic with Extended Church's thesis if and only if there is a number that provably realizes it in Heyting arithmetic; and it is provable in Heyting arithmetic with Extended Church's thesis and Markov's principle if and only if there is a number that provably realizes it in Peano arithmetic .

Markov's principle, named after Andrey Markov Jr, is a conditional existence statement for which there are many equivalent formulations, as discussed below. The principle is logical validity classically , but not in intuitionistic constructive mathematics. However, many particular instances of it are nevertheless provable in a constructive context as well. In computability theory In the language of computability theory, Markov's principle is a formal expression of the claim that if it is impossible that an algorithm does not terminate, then it does terminate. This is equivalent to the claim that if a set and its complement are both computably enumerable, then the set is decidable. Realizability If constructive arithmetic is translated using realizability into a classical meta-theory that proves the -consistency of the relevant classical theory (for example, Peano Arithmetic if we are studying Heyting arithmetic), then Markov's principle is justified: a realizer is the constant function that takes a realization that is not everywhere false to the unbounded search that successively checks if is true. If is not everywhere false, then by -consistency there must be a term for which holds, and each term will be checked by the search eventually. If however does not hold anywhere, then the domain of the constant function must be empty, so although the search does not halt it still holds vacuously that the function is a realizer. By the Law of the Excluded Middle (in our classical metatheory), must either hold nowhere or not hold nowhere, therefore this constant function is a realizer. If instead the realizability interpretation is used in a constructive meta-theory, then it is not justified. Indeed, for first-order arithmetic, Markov's principle exactly captures the difference between a constructive and classical meta-theory. Specifically, a statement is provable in Heyting arithmetic with Extended Church's thesis if and only if there is a number that provably realizes it in Heyting arithmetic; and it is provable in Heyting arithmetic with Extended Church's thesis and Markov's principle if and only if there is a number that provably realizes it in Peano arithmetic. In constructive analysis It is equivalent, in the language of real analysis, to the following principles: History The principle was first studied and adopted by the Russian school of constructivism, together with | choice principles and often together with a realizability perspective on the notion of mathematical function .

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In computability theory In the language of computability theory, Markov's principle is a formal expression of the claim that if it is impossible that an algorithm does not terminate, then it does terminate. This is equivalent to the claim that if a set and its complement are both computably enumerable, then the set is decidable. In intuitionistic logic A predicate P over some domain is called decidable if for every x in the domain, either P(x) is true, or P(x) is not true , which is not always the case constructively. In predicate logic, if P is a predicate over the natural numbers, it is expressed as : That is, if P is decidable, and it cannot be false for every natural number n, then it is true for somen . This form can be justified by Brouwer's continuity principles, whereas the stronger form contradicts them. Thus it can be derived from intuitionistic, realizability, and classical reasoning, in each case for different reasons, but this principle is not valid in the general constructive sense of Bishop.Ulrich Kohlenbach, "On weak Markov's principle". Mathematical Logic Quarterly (2002), vol 48, issue S1, pp. 5965. History The principle was first studied and adopted by the Russian school of constructivism, together with choice principles and often together with a realizability perspective on the notion of mathematical function.

History The principle was first studied and adopted by the Russian school of constructivism, together with choice principles and often with a realizability perspective on the notion of mathematical function. In computability theory In the language of computability theory, Markov's principle is a formal expression of the claim that if it is impossible that an algorithm does not terminate, then it does terminate. This is equivalent to the claim that if a set and its complement are both computably enumerable, then the set is decidable. In Intuitionistic logic In predicate logic, a predicate P over some domain is called decidable if for every x in the domain, either P(x) is true, or P(x) is not true . This is not trivially true constructively. For a decidable predicate P over the natural numbers, Markov's principle then reads : That is, if P cannot be false for all natural numbers n, then it is true for some n . This form can be justified by Brouwer's continuity principles, whereas the stronger form contradicts them. Thus it can be derived from intuitionistic, realizability, and classical reasoning, in each case for different reasons, but this principle is not valid in the general constructive sense of Bishop.Ulrich Kohlenbach, "On weak Markov's principle". Mathematical Logic Quarterly (2002), vol 48, issue S1, pp. 5965.

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Gray death is a slang term used for a potent mixture of synthetic opioids. Samples have been found to contain the designer drug U-47700, heroin, fentanyl, and carfentanil . It is taken by injection, smoking, snorting, or oral ingestion. It was first discovered in the United States and was thought to be a unique chemical compound before being identified as a mixture of drugs. In addition to containing powerful opioids, what makes gray death an extremely dangerous drug is the fact that the constituent drugs' identities, their overall ratios in the product, and their uneven distribution within the productare completely unknown to the user. This means that the user cannot predict what dose to safely take; even two identical doses by mass may contain more or less of an unknown substance due to uneven physical distribution, as seen with heroin and fentanyl mixes. Opioid addicts tend to be more susceptible to the drug . They may think they are buying heroin, unaware that it is actually gray death. Reversing a gray death overdose frequently requires multiple doses of naloxone , whereas a typical overdose of heroin (which is much less potent) typically needs only one dose. This is consistent with the difficulty of overdose reversal seen with high-affinity opioids in the fentanyl chemical family or with buprenorphine. The greater affinity of these substances for the -opioid receptor causes less naloxoneto bind to receptors, increasing the dosage necessary to counteract the resulting respiratory depression. The difficulty in reversing an overdose of gray death is likely due to the presence of a fentanyl analogue, which reporting seems to corroborate as of December 2018.

Gray death is a slang term which refers to a potent mixture of synthetic opioids. Samples have been found to contain heroin, fentanyl, carfentanil, and the designer drug U-47700 . It is taken by injection, smoking, snorting, or oral ingestion. The substance first appeared in America and was thought to be a unique chemical compound before being identified as a mixture of drugs. As with other illicit narcotics, gray death carries a higher risk of serious adverse effects than prescribed opioids due to the unknown and inconsistent composition of the product . As such, even experienced opioid users risk serious injury or death when taking this drug mixture. Reversing a gray death overdose may require multiple doses of naloxone . By contrast, an overdose from morphine or from high-purity heroin would ordinarily need only one dose. This difficulty is regularly encountered when treating overdoses of high-affinity opioids in the fentanyl chemical family or with buprenorphine. The greater affinity of these substances for the -opioid receptor impedes the activity of naloxone, which is an antagonist at the receptor. Increasing the dosage of naloxone or its frequency of administration may be required to counteract respiratory depression.

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The Kingdom of Tungning (), or the Kingdom of Formosa, was a dynastic state that ruled part of southwestern Formosa (Taiwan) between 1661 and 1683. It was founded by Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) as part of the loyalist movement to restore the Ming dynasty on the Chinese mainland after its rump state in southern China was overthrown by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty. Koxinga hoped to recapture the mainland China from the Qing, using the island as a base of operations. Until its annexation by the Qing dynasty in 1683, the Kingdom was ruled by Koxinga's heirs, the House of Koxinga . Names In reference to its reigning dynasty, the Kingdom of Tungning is sometimes known as the Zheng dynasty (), Zheng Family Kingdom () or Kingdom of Yanping () . Taiwan was referred to by Koxinga as Tungtu (). In the West , it was known as the Kingdom of Taiwan, and the period of rule is sometimes referred to as the Koxinga dynasty. "Historical and Legal Aspects of the International Status of Taiwan (Formosa)" WUFI

The Kingdom of Tungning (), also known as Tywan by the British at the time, pp. 347348. was a dynastic maritime state that ruled part of southwestern Formosa (Taiwan) and Penghu islands between 1661 and 1683. At its peak the kingdom's maritime power dominated varying extents of coastal regions of southeastern China, and its vast trade network stretching from Japan to Southeast Asia. The kingdom was founded by Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) after seizing control of Taiwan from the Dutch rule. Zheng hoped to restore the Ming dynastic rule on the Chinese mainland , when the Ming remnants' rump state in the southern China was progressively conquered by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty. Zheng dynasts used the newly-owned island as part of the loyalist movement aiming to reclaim the mainland China from the Qing, mainly as a base of military operations but also deepening the process of Sinicization on Taiwan, in an effort to consolidate the last stronghold of Han Chinese resistance against the invading Manchus."Historical and Legal Aspects of the International Status of Taiwan (Formosa)" by Ng Yuzin Chiautong, published on August 28, 1971, WUFI Until its annexation by the Qing dynasty in 1683, the kingdom was ruled by Koxinga's heirs, the House of Koxinga , and the period of rule is sometimes referred to as the Koxinga dynasty . Names In reference to its reigning dynasty, the Kingdom of Tungning is sometimes known as the Zheng dynasty (), Zheng clan Kingdom () or Yanping Kingdom (), named after Koxinga's hereditary title of "Prince of Yanping" () that bestowed by the Yongli emperor of the South Ming . Taiwan was referred to by Koxinga as Tungtu (). In Britain , it was known as Tywan (Taiwan), named after the King's residence at the city of "Tywan" in present-day Tainan. The period of rule is sometimes referred to as the Koxinga dynasty.

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In the news In 2005, internet hunting became a major news story when a man in Texas set up a webcam and remotely controlled gun to allow hunters to shoot from their computers. According to the Humane Society, most internet hunts involve game ranches where animals are kept penned, making them essentially canned hunts.Humane Society Wildlife Abuse Campaign, Another less well-known incident occurred two years prior to the Dick Cheney hunting incident when the vice president participated in a canned hunt at the Rolling Rock Club in Ligonier Township, Pennsylvania. Cheney and nine companions killed 417 out of 500 ringneck pheasants, of which the Vice President killed 70, and an unknown number of mallard ducks. In South Africa, the Minister of Environmental Affairs, Mr. Marthinus van Schalkwyk, in 2006, announced new laws to stop the practise of "canned hunting" in his country. South Africa environment minister announced long-awaited restrictions on lion hunting, declaring he was sickened by wealthy tourists shooting tame lions from the back of a truck and felling rhinos with a bow and arrow. This comes in response to the imbroglio created over the potential canned hunt of the African rhinoceros 'Baixinha.' Dismissing threats of legal action by the hunting industry, Marthinus Van Schalkwyk said the new law would ban "canned" hunting of big predators and rhinos in small enclosures that offer them no means of escape. In addition, lions bred in captivity would have to be released into the open for at least two years before they could be hunted. Van Schalkwyk said a previously proposed six-month delay would not give lions enough time to develop self-defence instincts. "Hunting should be about fair chase ... testing the wits of a hunter against that of the animal," he told a press conference. "Over the years that got eroded and now we are trying to re-establish that principle." This measure was later overturned. In May 2007 a much-reported hunting trip involved the killing of 1,051pound pet pig in an alleged canned hunt. The pig was named "Monster Pig" by the media and it was believed that the pig was a feral hog . It was soon discovered that the pig, previously named "Fred , " had been someone's pet and was then sold to a hunting facility only a brief time before he was killed. On May 3, paying customers Mike Stone and his 11-year-old son , Jamison , hunted him in a fenced enclosure. Jamison shot Fred a total of eight times over a period of three hours. A June 2007 story on CNN detailed canned hunting in South Africa and includes a video of a canned lion hunt where the animal is shot against a fence. On November 30, 2014, CBS 60 Minutes broadcast a story ("The Lion Whisperer") about one man's sanctuary in South Africa for 26 lions, raised in captivity, who he rescued from the fate of canned lion hunting. In November 2015, the Professional Hunters' Association of South Africa (PHASA) voted to disassociate itself from the practice of canned lion hunting in South Africa. Unless the conservation value of canned lion hunting is demonstrated to PHASA, URLanization will remain against the practice and, under penalty of expulsion, no PHASA members will be permitted to participate canned lion hunts. In November 2017 PHASA came under fire over the body's reversal of its 2015 policy against the hunting of captive-bred lions.

In the news In 2005, internet hunting became a major news story when a man in Texas set up a webcam and remotely controlled gun to allow hunters to shoot from their computers. According to the Humane Society, most internet hunts involve game ranches where animals are kept penned, making them essentially canned hunts.Humane Society Wildlife Abuse Campaign, Another less well-known incident occurred in late 2003, two years prior to the infamous hunting accident, when then-Vice President Dick Cheney participated in a canned hunt at the Rolling Rock Club in Ligonier Township, Pennsylvania. Cheney and nine companions killed 417 out of 500 ringneck pheasants, of which the Vice President killed 70, and an unknown number of mallard ducks. In 2006, the South African Minister of Environmental Affairs, Marthinus van Schalkwyk, announced new laws to stop the practise of "canned hunting" in his country. The South African Environment Minister announced long-awaited restrictions on lion hunting, declaring he was sickened by wealthy tourists shooting tamed lions from the back of a truck and felling rhinos with a bow and arrow. This comes in response to the imbroglio created over the potential canned hunt of the African rhinoceros 'Baixinha.' Dismissing threats of legal action by the hunting industry, Marthinus Van Schalkwyk said the new law would ban "canned" hunting of big predators and rhinos in small enclosures that offer them no means of escape. In addition, lions bred in captivity would have to be released into the open for at least two years before they could be hunted. Van Schalkwyk said a previously proposed six-month delay would not give lions enough time to develop self-defence instincts. "Hunting should be about fair chase ... testing the wits of a hunter against that of the animal," he told a press conference. "Over the years that got eroded and now we are trying to re-establish that principle." This measure was later overturned. In May 2007 a much-reported hunting trip involved the killing of a pet pig in an alleged canned hunt. The pig was named "Monster Pig" by the media and was believed as a feral hog , but it was soon discovered that the pig, previously named "Fred " , had been someone's pet and was then sold to a hunting facility only a brief time before he was killed. On May 3, paying customers Mike Stone and his 11-year-old son Jamison hunted the pig in a fenced enclosure. Jamison shot Fred a total of eight times over a period of three hours. A June 2007 story on CNN detailed canned hunting in South Africa and includes a video of a canned lion hunt where the animal is shot against a fence. On November 30, 2014, CBS 's 60 Minutes broadcast a story ("The Lion Whisperer") about one man's sanctuary in South Africa for 26 lions, raised in captivity, who he rescued from the fate of canned lion hunting. In November 2015, the Professional Hunters' Association of South Africa (PHASA) voted to disassociate itself from the practice of canned lion hunting in South Africa. Unless the conservation value of canned lion hunting is demonstrated to PHASA, URLanization will remain against the practice and, under penalty of expulsion, no PHASA members will be permitted to participate canned lion hunts. In November 2017 , PHASA came under fire over the body's reversal of its 2015 policy against the hunting of captive-bred lions.

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Criticism A number of groups object to the practice of canned hunting for reasons such as cruelty to animals or that it takes away what is known as "fair chase." The Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) criticizes canned hunting. In a statement, the HSUS called canned hunts "cruel and brutal activities , " in which the hunted animal has "absolutely no chance of escape . " It went on to say that animals have been "psychologically conditioned to behave as a target by life in captivity , " among other objections. In 2014, 62 cities across the globe participated in the first-ever global march against canned hunting. The march was organized by Campaign Against Canned Hunting. People from many parts of the world took part: Africa, Asia, Australia, Canada, Europe, Middle East, New Zealand, South America and the United States .Your African Safari, "Campaign against canned hunting in South Africa: interview with Chris Mercer"

Criticism A number of groups object to the practice of canned hunting for reasons such as cruelty to animals or that it takes away the hunting ethics known as "fair chase." The Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) criticizes canned hunting. In a statement, the HSUS called canned hunts "cruel and brutal activities " , in which the hunted animal has "absolutely no chance of escape " . It went on to say that animals have been "psychologically conditioned to behave as a target by life in captivity " , among other objections. In 2014, 62 cities across the globe participated in the first-ever global march against canned hunting. The march was organized by Campaign Against Canned Hunting. People from many parts of the world took part: Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, Middle East, New Zealand, North America (Canada and the United States ) and South America .Your African Safari, "Campaign against canned hunting in South Africa: interview with Chris Mercer"

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Raffique Shah is a Trinidad and Tobago trade union leader and political commentator. He is also a former Member of Parliament and mutineer, having led a mutiny of Trinidad and Tobago Regiment in 1970. He was born the son of a sugar cane worker and housewife in March 1946. His early education was at Presentation College, Chaguanas, where he gained a Grade I Cambridge School Certificate. He later won a cadetship to the prestigious British Royal Military Academy Sandhurst between 1964 and 1966. As a Lieutenant in the Trinidad and Tobago Regiment, he led an army mutiny in 1970. In the midst of Black Power riots, the People's National Movement government led by Eric Williams proclaimed a State of Emergency April, 1970 and arrested several Black Power leaders and Trade Unionists. In a move to prevent Williams from using the military against the masses, a portion of the Regiment stationed at Teteron (on the Chaguaramas Peninsula), led by Lieutenants Shah and Rex Lassalle mutinied. In response, the Trinidad and Tobago Coast Guard fired on the mutineers who returned to Teteron Barracks, abandoning their foray into Port of Spain. After ten days the mutineers surrendered. The leaders were court-martialed and Shah and Lasalle were jailed. They both went on to win their appeals at the local Court of Appeal, and judges at the Privy Council in London, England, ruled against the State's appeal in July , 1972. Shah, Lassalle and all the other mutineers were freed within 24 hours of that ruling. After being released from prison Shah joined the Trade Union movement leading the ICFTU, a body of cane farmers who sought to displace the government URLanisation, TICFA . He , URLe Weekes and Basdeo Panday went on to found the United Labour Front in 1975 as a labor confederation and transformed it into a political party in 1976. During general election later that year, the ULF secured 10 of the 36 seats in Parliament and became the official Opposition. Basdeo Panday was appointed Leader of the Opposition, but following a bitter row in the party, Shah was able to displace him, and served as Leader of the Opposition between August 9, 1977 and March 31, 1978 when Panday regained control of the party. Shah went on to lead the cane farmers and won an election to head the Trinidad Islandwide Cane Farmers' Association (TICFA), in 1998. He has been chairman of URLanisation to date. Shah also served as editor of the Trinidad and Tobago Mirror newspaper for 17 years and today serves as an op-ed columnist in the Trinidad Express newspaper. He is also known as the man who founded the prestigious annual Clico Trinidad & Tobago International Marathon, an event that spawned road running throughout the Caribbean. He remained chairman of URLanising committee until he stepped down in 2005. He served, too, as secretary of the local National Amateur Athletics Association and still holds a strong interest in sports in general and athletics in particular.

Raffique Shah (born 1946)Raffique Shah, "Slaves to technology", Trinidad and Tobago News Blog, 11 April 2018. is a Trinidad and Tobago trade union leader and political commentator. He is also a former Member of Parliament and mutineer, having led a mutiny of Trinidad and Tobago Regiment in 1970. Biography Shah was born the son of a sugarcane worker and housewife in March 1946. His early education was at Presentation College, Chaguanas, where he gained a Grade I Cambridge School Certificate. He later won a cadetship to the prestigious British Royal Military Academy Sandhurst between 1964 and 1966. As a Lieutenant in the Trinidad and Tobago Regiment, he led an army mutiny in 1970. In the midst of Black Power riots, the People's National Movement government led by Eric Williams proclaimed a State of Emergency in April 1970 and arrested several Black Power leaders and Trade Unionists. In a move to prevent Williams from using the military against the masses, a portion of the Regiment stationed at Teteron (on the Chaguaramas Peninsula), led by Lieutenants Shah and Rex Lassalle mutinied. In response, the Trinidad and Tobago Coast Guard fired on the mutineers who returned to Teteron Barracks, abandoning their foray into Port of Spain. After 10 days, the mutineers surrendered. The leaders were court-martialed and Shah and Lasalle were jailed. They both went on to win their appeals at the local Court of Appeal, and judges at the Privy Council in London, England, ruled against the State's appeal in July 1972. Shah, Lassalle and all the other mutineers were freed within 24 hours of that ruling. After being released from prison Shah joined the Trade Union movement leading the ICFTU, a body of cane farmers who sought to displace the URLanisation, TICFA (Trinidad Islandwide Cane Farmers' Association). Shah , URLe Weekes and Basdeo Panday went on to found the United Labour Front (ULF) in 1975 as a labour confederation and transformed it into a political party in 1976. During general election later that year, the ULF secured 10 of the 36 seats in Parliament and became the official Opposition. Basdeo Panday was appointed Leader of the Opposition, but following a bitter row in the party, Shah was able to displace him, and served as Leader of the Opposition between August 9, 1977 and March 31, 1978 when Panday regained control of the party. Shah went on to lead the cane farmers and won an election to head the Trinidad Islandwide Cane Farmers' Association (TICFA), in 1998. He has been chairman of URLanisation to date. Shah also served as editor of the Trinidad and Tobago Mirror newspaper for 17 years and went on to serve as an op-ed columnist in the Trinidad and Tobago Express newspaper. He is also known as the man who founded the prestigious annual Clico Trinidad & Tobago International Marathon, an event that spawned road-running throughout the Caribbean. He remained chairman of URLanising committee until he stepped down in 2005. He served, too, as secretary of the local National Amateur Athletics Association and still holds a strong interest in sports in general and athletics in particular.

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Inland deltas Okavango DeltaIn rare cases the river delta is located inside a large valley and is called an inverted river delta. Sometimes a river divides into multiple branches in an inland area, only to rejoin and continue to the sea. Such an area is called an inland delta, and often occurs on former lake beds. The Inner Niger Delta, PeaceAthabasca Delta, and SacramentoSan Joaquin River Delta are notable examples. The Amazon also has an inland delta before the island of Maraj , and the Danube has one in the valley on the Slovak-Hungarian border between Bratislava and Ia . In the Philippines, you would find Pampanga River as it enters the Central Luzon Plain in Gabaldon, Nueva Ecija as another example of an inland delta, as well as Liguasan Marsh of the Mindanao River .

Inland deltas Okavango Delta In rare cases the river delta is located inside a large valley and is called an inverted river delta. Sometimes a river divides into multiple branches in an inland area, only to rejoin and continue to the sea. Such an area is called an inland delta, and often occurs on former lake beds. The term was first coined by Alexander von Humboldt for the middle reaches of the Orinoco River, which he visited in 1800. Other prominent examples include the Inner Niger Delta, PeaceAthabasca Delta, , the SacramentoSan Joaquin River Delta , and the Sistan delta of Iran. The Danube has one in the valley on the Slovak-Hungarian border between Bratislava and Ia .

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The Kuomintang (KMT), also known as the Chinese Nationalist Party or the Nationalist Party of China, is a major political party in Taiwan and currently the largest opposition party in the Legislative Yuan. In modern-day Taiwanese politics, the KMT primarily competes with rival Democratic Progressive Party, opposing de jure Taiwan independence and Chinese unification under "One Country, Two Systems," instead favoring cordial cross-strait relations with China by endorsing the 1992 Consensus and maintaining Taiwan's status quo under the Constitution of the Republic of China. The current chairman is Johnny Chiang. The Kuomintang is one of two major political parties in contemporary in China, the other being the Chinese Communist Party . The Kuomintang traces its origins to the Revive China Society, which was founded by Sun Yat-sen in 1894 to promote the republican revolution in China and overthrow the crumbling Qing dynasty. The party was formally established in 1919 during the Beiyang regime. From 1926 to 1928, the KMT under Chiang Kai-shek successfully led the Northern Expedition against regional warlords and unified the fragmented nation. From 1937 to 1945, the Nationalists led China through the Second Sino-Japanese War against the Empire of Japan. By 1949, the KMT was decisively defeated by the Chinese Communist Party in the Chinese Civil War and withdrew the Nationalist government to Taiwan, which was restored to the ROC at the end of World War II. From 1949 to 1987, the Kuomintang ruled Taiwan under martial law hostile to the Communist mainland , before Chiang Ching-kuo lifted authoritarian restrictions and initiated democratic reforms in the late 1980s. During this period, the KMT also oversaw Taiwan's economic development but experienced diplomatic setbacks, including the Republic of China losing its United Nations seat and the United States switching diplomatic recognition to the People's Republic of China in the 1970s. In the 1990s, President Lee Teng-hui pursued constitutional reforms and was re-elected in the 1996 Taiwanese presidential election, the first direct presidential election under the ROC Constitution. However, the 2000 presidential election put an end to more than half a century of KMT rule on Taiwan . The KMT reclaimed power with the landslide victory of Ma Ying-jeou in the 2008 presidential election, whose presidency from 2008 to 2016 substantially improved cross-strait relations. With the 2016 presidential and legislative elections, the KMT lost both the presidency and its legislative majority, returning to the opposition.

The Kuomintang (KMT), also known as the Chinese Nationalist Party or the Nationalist Party of China, is a major political party in the Republic of China (ROC), commonly known as "Taiwan" and currently the largest opposition party in the Legislative Yuan. In modern-day Taiwanese politics, the KMT primarily competes with rival Democratic Progressive Party, opposing de jure Taiwan independence and Chinese unification under "One Country, Two Systems," instead favoring cordial cross-strait relations with the People's Republic of China (PRC) by endorsing the 1992 Consensus and maintaining Taiwan's status quo under the Constitution of the Republic of China. The current chairman is Johnny Chiang. The Kuomintang is among the two major historical contemporary parties in China, the other being the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) . The Kuomintang traces its origins to the Revive China Society, which was founded by Sun Yat-sen in 1894 to promote the republican revolution in China and overthrow the crumbling Qing dynasty. The party was formally established in 1919 during the Beiyang regime. From 1926 to 1928, the KMT under Chiang Kai-shek successfully led the Northern Expedition against regional warlords and unified the fragmented nation. From 1937 to 1945, the Nationalists led China through the Second Sino-Japanese War against Japan. By 1949, the KMT was decisively defeated by the Chinese Communist Party in the Chinese Civil War and withdrew the Nationalist government to Taiwan, a former Qing prefecture-turned-Japanese colony that ruled from 1895 to 1945. From 1949 to 1987, the Kuomintang ruled Taiwan under martial law hostile to the Communist mainland for nearly 40 years , before Chiang Ching-kuo , Chiang Kai-shek's son, lifted authoritarian restrictions and initiated democratic reforms in the late 1980s. During this period, the KMT also oversaw Taiwan's economic development but experienced diplomatic setbacks, including the Republic of China losing its United Nations seat and the United States switching diplomatic recognition to the People's Republic of China in the 1970s. In the 1990s, President Lee Teng-hui pursued constitutional reforms and was re-elected in the 1996 Taiwanese presidential election, the first direct presidential election under the ROC Constitution. However, the 2000 presidential election put an end to more than half a century of KMT rule that dominated Chinese politics for over 72 years . The KMT reclaimed power with the landslide victory of Ma Ying-jeou in the 2008 presidential election, whose presidency from 2008 to 2016 substantially improved cross-strait relations. With the 2016 presidential and legislative elections, the KMT lost both the presidency and its legislative majority, returning to the opposition.

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Exercise and lactate During power exercises such as sprinting, when the rate of demand for energy is high, glucose is broken down and oxidized to pyruvate , and lactate is then produced from the pyruvate faster than the body can process it, causing lactate concentrations to rise. The production of lactate is beneficial for NAD+ regeneration (pyruvate is reduced to lactate while NADH is oxidized to NAD+), which is used up in oxidation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate during production of pyruvate from glucose, and this ensures that energy production is maintained and exercise can continue. During intense exercise, the respiratory chain cannot keep up with the amount of hydrogen ions that join to form NADH, and cannot regenerate NAD+ quickly enough. However, lactate is continually formed at rest and during all exercise intensities. With the use of stable isotopic tracers URLe Brooks and colleagues, at the University of California, Berkeley, observed that lactate served as a metabolic fuel being produced and oxidatively disposed in resting and exercising muscle. Some causes of this are metabolism in red blood cells that lack mitochondria, and limitations resulting from the enzyme activity that occurs in muscle fibers having high glycolytic capacity. In 2004, Robergs et al. maintained that lactic acidosis during exercise is a "construct" or myth, pointing out that part of the H+ comes from ATP hydrolysis (ATP4 + H2O ADP3 + + H+), and that reducing pyruvate to lactate (pyruvate + NADH + H+ lactate + NAD+) actually consumes H+. Lindinger et al. countered that they had ignored the causative factors of the increase in [H+]. After all, the production of lactate from a neutral molecule must increase [H+] to maintain electroneutrality. The point of Robergs's paper, however, was that lactate is produced from pyruvate, which has the same charge. It is pyruvate production from neutral glucose that generates H+: C6H12O6 + 2NAD+ + 2ADP3 + 2 2 + 2H+ + 2NADH + 2ATP4 + 2H2O Subsequent lactate production absorbs these protons: 2 + 2H+ + 2NADH 2 + 2NAD+ Overall: C6H12O6 + 2NAD+ + 2ADP3 + 2 2 + 2H+ + 2NADH + 2ATP4 + 2H2O 2 + 2NAD+ + 2ATP4 + 2H2O Although the reaction glucose 2lactate + 2H+ releases two H+ when viewed on its own, the H+ are absorbed in the production of ATP. On the other hand, the absorbed acidity is released during subsequent hydrolysis of ATP: ATP4 + H2O ADP3 + + H+. So once the use of ATP is included, the overall reaction is C6H12O6 2 + 2H+

Exercise and lactate During power exercises such as sprinting, when the rate of demand for energy is high, glucose is broken down and oxidized to pyruvate . Lactate is then produced from the pyruvate faster than the body can process it, causing lactate concentrations to rise. Lactate is the end product of glycolysis and increased circulating levels of lactate are associated with increased muscle glycogen breakdown with exercise. Circulating lactate levels have been found higher in heat-sensitive patients with variants in genes encoding the skeletal muscle calcium release channel, as compared to asymptomatic carriers of the same variants. The production of lactate is beneficial for NAD+ regeneration (pyruvate is reduced to lactate while NADH is oxidized to NAD+), which is used up in oxidation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate during production of pyruvate from glucose, and this ensures that energy production is maintained and exercise can continue. During intense exercise, the respiratory chain cannot keep up with the amount of hydrogen ions that join to form NADH, and cannot regenerate NAD+ quickly enough. Lactate served as a metabolic fuel being produced and oxidatively disposed in resting and exercising muscle. In 2004, Robergs et al. maintained that lactic acidosis during exercise is a "construct" or myth, pointing out that part of the H+ comes from ATP hydrolysis (ATP4 + H2O ADP3 + + H+), and that reducing pyruvate to lactate (pyruvate + NADH + H+ lactate + NAD+) actually consumes H+. Lindinger et al. countered that they had ignored the causative factors of the increase in [H+]. After all, the production of lactate from a neutral molecule must increase [H+] to maintain electroneutrality. The point of Robergs's paper, however, was that lactate is produced from pyruvate, which has the same charge. It is pyruvate production from neutral glucose that generates H+: C6H12O6 + 2NAD+ + 2ADP3 + 2 2 + 2H+ + 2NADH + 2ATP4 + 2H2O Subsequent lactate production absorbs these protons: 2 + 2H+ + 2NADH 2 + 2NAD+ Overall: C6H12O6 + 2NAD+ + 2ADP3 + 2 2 + 2H+ + 2NADH + 2ATP4 + 2H2O 2 + 2NAD+ + 2ATP4 + 2H2O Although the reaction glucose 2lactate + 2H+ releases two H+ when viewed on its own, the H+ are absorbed in the production of ATP. On the other hand, the absorbed acidity is released during subsequent hydrolysis of ATP: ATP4 + H2O ADP3 + + H+. So once the use of ATP is included, the overall reaction is C6H12O6 2 + 2H+

wiki

172474

Exercise and lactate During power exercises such as sprinting, when the rate of demand for energy is high, glucose is broken down and oxidized to pyruvate . Lactate is then produced from the pyruvate faster than the body can process it, causing lactate concentrations to rise. Lactate is the end product of glycolysis and increased circulating levels of lactate are associated with increased muscle glycogen breakdown with exercise. Circulating lactate levels have been found higher in heat-sensitive patients with variants in genes encoding the skeletal muscle calcium release channel, as compared to asymptomatic carriers of the same variants. The production of lactate is beneficial for NAD+ regeneration (pyruvate is reduced to lactate while NADH is oxidized to NAD+), which is used up in oxidation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate during production of pyruvate from glucose, and this ensures that energy production is maintained and exercise can continue. During intense exercise, the respiratory chain cannot keep up with the amount of hydrogen ions that join to form NADH, and cannot regenerate NAD+ quickly enough. Lactate served as a metabolic fuel being produced and oxidatively disposed in resting and exercising muscle. In 2004, Robergs et al. maintained that lactic acidosis during exercise is a "construct" or myth, pointing out that part of the H+ comes from ATP hydrolysis (ATP4 + H2O ADP3 + + H+), and that reducing pyruvate to lactate (pyruvate + NADH + H+ lactate + NAD+) actually consumes H+. Lindinger et al. countered that they had ignored the causative factors of the increase in [H+]. After all, the production of lactate from a neutral molecule must increase [H+] to maintain electroneutrality. The point of Robergs's paper, however, was that lactate is produced from pyruvate, which has the same charge. It is pyruvate production from neutral glucose that generates H+: C6H12O6 + 2NAD+ + 2ADP3 + 2 2 + 2H+ + 2NADH + 2ATP4 + 2H2O Subsequent lactate production absorbs these protons: 2 + 2H+ + 2NADH 2 + 2NAD+ Overall: C6H12O6 + 2NAD+ + 2ADP3 + 2 2 + 2H+ + 2NADH + 2ATP4 + 2H2O 2 + 2NAD+ + 2ATP4 + 2H2O Although the reaction glucose 2lactate + 2H+ releases two H+ when viewed on its own, the H+ are absorbed in the production of ATP. On the other hand, the absorbed acidity is released during subsequent hydrolysis of ATP: ATP4 + H2O ADP3 + + H+. So once the use of ATP is included, the overall reaction is C6H12O6 2 + 2H+

Exercise and lactate During power exercises such as sprinting, when the rate of demand for energy is high, glucose is broken down and oxidized to pyruvate , and lactate is then produced from the pyruvate faster than the body can process it, causing lactate concentrations to rise. The production of lactate is beneficial for NAD+ regeneration (pyruvate is reduced to lactate while NADH is oxidized to NAD+), which is used up in oxidation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate during production of pyruvate from glucose, and this ensures that energy production is maintained and exercise can continue. During intense exercise, the respiratory chain cannot keep up with the amount of hydrogen ions that join to form NADH, and cannot regenerate NAD+ quickly enough. However, lactate is continually formed at rest and during all exercise intensities. With the use of stable isotopic tracers URLe Brooks and colleagues, at the University of California, Berkeley, observed that lactate served as a metabolic fuel being produced and oxidatively disposed in resting and exercising muscle. Some causes of this are metabolism in red blood cells that lack mitochondria, and limitations resulting from the enzyme activity that occurs in muscle fibers having high glycolytic capacity. In 2004, Robergs et al. maintained that lactic acidosis during exercise is a "construct" or myth, pointing out that part of the H+ comes from ATP hydrolysis (ATP4 + H2O ADP3 + + H+), and that reducing pyruvate to lactate (pyruvate + NADH + H+ lactate + NAD+) actually consumes H+. Lindinger et al. countered that they had ignored the causative factors of the increase in [H+]. After all, the production of lactate from a neutral molecule must increase [H+] to maintain electroneutrality. The point of Robergs's paper, however, was that lactate is produced from pyruvate, which has the same charge. It is pyruvate production from neutral glucose that generates H+: C6H12O6 + 2NAD+ + 2ADP3 + 2 2 + 2H+ + 2NADH + 2ATP4 + 2H2O Subsequent lactate production absorbs these protons: 2 + 2H+ + 2NADH 2 + 2NAD+ Overall: C6H12O6 + 2NAD+ + 2ADP3 + 2 2 + 2H+ + 2NADH + 2ATP4 + 2H2O 2 + 2NAD+ + 2ATP4 + 2H2O Although the reaction glucose 2lactate + 2H+ releases two H+ when viewed on its own, the H+ are absorbed in the production of ATP. On the other hand, the absorbed acidity is released during subsequent hydrolysis of ATP: ATP4 + H2O ADP3 + + H+. So once the use of ATP is included, the overall reaction is C6H12O6 2 + 2H+

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17250911

Early life Benjamin Thomas Atkins was born on August 26, 1968 in Detroit, the younger of two sons. His family lived in a poor neighborhood, and both of his parents were drug and alcohol abusers. Shortly after his birth, Tony's father left the family. In 1970, Benjamin ran away from home, and without parental supervision, wound up in an orphanage, where he spent his childhood and youth. While living there, he was physically assaulted by other children, and at the age of 10, was raped by one of the employees. Over the next five years, he was continuously subjected to sexual harassment by other boys, until he eventually escaped and reunited with his mother. For sometime, he lived together with her and his older brother, but one day, Tony realised that his mother worked as a prostitute. Due to this, both Atkins and his brother saw her have sex with clients at the house on several occasions. Disgusted with his mother's actions, he left the house again in the late 1980s, living on the streets and doing drugs, and eventually developed a drug addiction. Because he lacked formal education, Atkins was forced to work in low-skilled labor jobs for low wages, and spent the nights at homeless shelters. In his free time, he frequented places inhabited by pimps and prostitutes, but was never arrested for any serious crimes. Most of his acquaintances claimed to be very fond of him, but at the same time noted that when drunk or on drugs, he showed signs of an antisocial personality and displayed misogynistic behavior.

Early life Benjamin Thomas Atkins was born on August 26, 1968 in Detroit, the younger of two sons. His family lived in a poor neighborhood, and both of his parents were drug and alcohol abusers. Shortly after his birth, Tony's father left the family. In 1970, Benjamin ran away from home, and without parental supervision, wound up in an orphanage, where he spent his childhood and youth. While living there, he was physically assaulted by other children, and at the age of 10, was raped by one of the employees. Over the next five years, he was continuously subjected to sexual harassment by other boys, until he eventually escaped and reunited with his mother. For sometime, he lived together with her and his older brother, but realised that his mother worked as a prostitute. Both Atkins and his brother saw her have sex with clients at the house on several occasions. Atkins left the house again in the late 1980s, living on the streets and doing drugs, and eventually developed a drug addiction. Because he lacked formal education, Atkins was forced to work in low-skilled labor jobs for low wages, and spent the nights at homeless shelters. Acquaintances claimed to be very fond of him, but at the same time noted that when drunk or on drugs, he showed signs of an antisocial personality and displayed misogynistic behavior.

17250911

Early life Benjamin Thomas Atkins was born on August 26, 1968 in Detroit, the younger of two sons. His family lived in a poor neighborhood, and both of his parents were drug and alcohol abusers. Shortly after his birth, Tony's father left the family. In 1970, Benjamin ran away from home, and without parental supervision, wound up in an orphanage, where he spent his childhood and youth. While living there, he was physically assaulted by other children, and at the age of 10, was raped by one of the employees. Over the next five years, he was continuously subjected to sexual harassment by other boys, until he eventually escaped and reunited with his mother. For sometime, he lived together with her and his older brother, but realised that his mother worked as a prostitute. Both Atkins and his brother saw her have sex with clients at the house on several occasions. Atkins left the house again in the late 1980s, living on the streets and doing drugs, and eventually developed a drug addiction. Because he lacked formal education, Atkins was forced to work in low-skilled labor jobs for low wages, and spent the nights at homeless shelters. Acquaintances claimed to be very fond of him, but at the same time noted that when drunk or on drugs, he showed signs of an antisocial personality and displayed misogynistic behavior. Murders As victims, Atkins chose vulnerable women, often prostitutes or drug addicts. He would lure them to abandoned buildings and houses, where he sexually assaulted them. After strangling his victims, he would leave the bodies at the crime scenes, with some of them discovered months after their deaths. The first victim to be discovered was 30-year-old Debbie Ann Friday, found on December 14, 1991, after she had gone missing on December 8th. A few days later, on December 30th, the body of 26-year-old Bertha Jean Mason was found. She had gone missing on December 11th, and was last seen leaving her home and entering a store, after which she was never seen alive again. On January 3, 1992, while demolishing an abandoned house, workmen discovered the body of 36-year-old prostitute and drug addict Patricia Cannon URLe, who had been put on a wanted list in early December 1991 following a drug den bust within Woodward Corridor. On January 25th, the body of 39-year-old Vickie Truelove was located: like the other victims, she had been sodomized, raped and strangled. At the end of January, Atkins was arrested at an abandoned building and taken to the police station for interrogation. Due to lack of evidence to prove his guilt in the murders, he was released. On February 17th, the corpses of three women were found in three separate rooms in the former Monterey Hotel in Highland Park: they were 34-year-old Valerie Chalk, 23-year-old Juanita Hardy and a Jane Doe whose identity remains unknown. All of them had been raped and strangled . Relatives of Chalk told the police that after she was put on a wanted list in early November 1991, Valerie went missing. On April 9th, the body of 28-year-old Brenda Mitchell was found in an abandoned house, after she had gone missing four days earlier . Despite the fact Mitchell was found almost completely naked with a scarf wrapped around her neck , her death was originally classified as an overdose. %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% A few days later, on the 15th, the partially decomposed corpse of 27-year-old Vicki Beasley-Brown, who was last seen alive on March 25th, was discovered. On June 15th, the body of 45-year-old Joanne O'Rourke was found. Arrest Atkins was arrested on rape charges on August 21, 1992, after he was identified on a Detroit street by 34-year-old Darlene Saunders, who had been sodomized and raped by him in October 1991. %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% He was questioned again, but categorically denied any involvement, claiming that he had no interest in women and was a homosexual. After further interrogations, the police officers familiarized him with the psychological portrait they had compiled of the killer, which, after 12 hours, caused Atkins to admit to the murders of 11 women. He described in detail the appearance and clothing of the victims, and even indicated the whereabouts of the bodies of the 10th and 11th victims, 21-year-old Ocinena Waymer and 29-year-old LaTanya Showanda Smith. Their disappearances were not connected to the murders until Atkins' confession, and the bodies were found on the indicated place that same day. During the interrogation, Atkins said that the motive for the murders was his misogynistic views against girls and women engaged in prostitution. Contrary to the official version of the investigation, Atkins revealed that the first victim had actually been Patricia URLe, whom he killed in the fall of 1991. According to his testimony, he didn't plan on killing the woman, but simply planned to smoke crack cocaine with her. When she decided to leave him, he flew into a rage and killed her. In several cases, he was unable to explain why he committed the murders: this was the case with Hardy, with whom Benjamin had an intimate relationship, but after doing drugs together, he said he strangled her for no apparent reason.

Early life Benjamin Thomas Atkins was born on August 26, 1968 in Detroit, the younger of two sons. His family lived in a poor neighborhood, and both of his parents were drug and alcohol abusers. Shortly after his birth, Tony's father left the family. In 1970, Benjamin ran away from home, and without parental supervision, wound up in an orphanage, where he spent his childhood and youth. While living there, he was physically assaulted by other children, and at the age of 10, was raped by one of the employees. Over the next five years, he was continuously subjected to sexual harassment by other boys, until he eventually escaped and reunited with his mother. For sometime, he lived together with her and his older brother, but one day, Tony realised that his mother worked as a prostitute. Due to this, both Atkins and his brother saw her have sex with clients at the house on several occasions. Disgusted with his mother's actions, he left the house again in the late 1980s, living on the streets and doing drugs, and eventually developed a drug addiction. Because he lacked formal education, Atkins was forced to work in low-skilled labor jobs for low wages, and spent the nights at homeless shelters. In his free time, he frequented places inhabited by pimps and prostitutes, but was never arrested for any serious crimes. Most of his acquaintances claimed to be very fond of him, but at the same time noted that when drunk or on drugs, he showed signs of an antisocial personality and displayed misogynistic behavior. Murders As victims, Atkins chose young and middle-aged destitute women, often prostitutes or drug addicts. He would lure them to abandoned buildings and houses, where he sexually assaulted and sodomized them. After strangling his victims, he would leave the bodies at the crime scenes, with some of them discovered months after their deaths. The first victim to be discovered was 30-year-old Debbie Ann Friday, found on December 14, 1991, after she had gone missing on December 8th. A few days later, on December 30th, the body of 26-year-old Bertha Jean Mason was found. She had gone missing on December 11th, and was last seen leaving her home and entering a store, after which she was never seen alive again. On January 3, 1992, while demolishing an abandoned house, workmen discovered the body of 36-year-old prostitute and drug addict Patricia Cannon URLe, who had been put on a wanted list in early December 1991 following a drug den bust within Woodward Corridor. On January 25th, the body of 39-year-old Vickie Truelove was located: like the other victims, she had been sodomized, raped and strangled. At the end of January, Atkins was arrested at an abandoned building and taken to the police station for interrogation. Due to lack of evidence to prove his guilt in the murders, he was released. On February 17th, the corpses of three girls were found in three separate rooms in the former Monterey Hotel in Highland Park: they were 34-year-old Valerie Chalk, 23-year-old Juanita Hardy and a Jane Doe whose identity remains unknown. All of them had been sodomized and raped prior to their strangulations . Relatives of Chalk told the police that after she was put on a wanted list in early November 1991, Valerie went missing. On April 9th, the body of 28-year-old Brenda Mitchell was found in an abandoned house, after she had gone missing four days earlier with her two kids to go to the store. Mitchell was found almost completely naked , except for a scarf wrapped around her neck . A forensic examination determined that she had taken a lethal dose of drugs prior to her death, leading to her death being classified as an overdose. %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% A few days later, on the 15th, the partially decomposed corpse of 27-year-old Vicki Beasley-Brown, who was last seen alive on March 25th, was discovered. On June 15th, the body of 45-year-old Joanne O'Rourke was found. Arrest Atkins was arrested on rape charges on August 21, 1992, after he was identified on a Detroit street by 34-year-old Darlene Saunders, who had been sodomized and raped by him in October 1991. %DIFDELCMD < %DIFDELCMD < %%% He was questioned again, but categorically denied any involvement, claiming that he had no interest in women and was a homosexual. After further interrogations, the police officers familiarized him with the psychological portrait they had compiled of the killer, which, after 12 hours, caused Tony admit to the murders of 11 women. He described in detail the appearance and clothing of the victims, and even indicated the whereabouts of the 10th and 11th victims, 21-year-old Ocinena Waymer and 29-year-old LaTanya Showanda Smith. Their disappearances were not connected to the murders until Atkins' confession, and the bodies were found on the indicated place that same day. During the interrogation, Atkins said that the motive for the murders was his misogynistic views against girls and women engaged in prostitution. He stated that he lured his victims into abandoned houses by offering them drugs and alcohol, in addition to paying for their sexual services. Contrary to the official version of the investigation, Tony revealed that the first victim had actually been Patricia URLe, whom he killed in the fall of 1991. According to his testimony, he didn't plan on killing the woman, but simply planned to smoke crack cocaine with her. When she decided to leave him, he flew into a rage and killed her. In several cases, he was unable to explain why he committed the murders: this was the case with Hardy, with whom Benjamin had an intimate relationship, but after doing drugs together, he sodomized and strangled her for no apparent reason.

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17468235

Finger bowl from the 1880s A finger bowl is a bowl of water that dinner guests use for rinsing their fingers. In a formal meal served la russe , the finger bowl is brought to the table at the time of the last course of the meal (the dessert course or the fruit course) . In less formal service, the finger bowl may be presented after any course that involves finger food and may even be presented after more than one such course in a single meal. Formal service The finger bowl is typically delivered with the dessert plate. alt=Finger bowl|The finger bowl is moved to the upper left before dessert is served. After dessert, the guests dip their fingers into the bowl and dry them with the napkin.In formal service, the finger bowl is most commonly brought to the table with the dessert plate; there is a linen doily under the bowl, and the dessert fork and spoon are placed on either side of the bowl. The arrangement of plates and flatware are set before each guest, who then move the flatware to the sides of the dessert plate and the finger bowl with the doily to the upper left of the plate. "This is the only time during a formal meal that a guest takes part in placing the appointments for a course". If a separate fruit course follows dessert, the finger bowl is brought in with the fruit plate and fruit fork and knife, arranged as they would be on a dessert plate. Alternatively, a full array of dessert and fruit dishes can be brought out at once, with the finger bowl on top of the dessert plate with its fork and spoon, and the dessert plate on top of the fruit plate, with doilies between each dish; in this type of service, the fruit fork and knife are brought out after the dessert plates and silver are cleared. After dessert (or after the fruit, if it is offered as a separate course), guests lightly dip their fingertips into the water, one hand at a time, and then wipe them on the napkin in their lap.

Finger bowl from the 1880s A finger bowl is a bowl of water that dinner guests use for rinsing their fingers. In a formal meal , the finger bowl is brought to the table at the time of the last course of the meal (the dessert course or the fruit course) , and guests set it aside for use after the last course, just before leaving the table . In less formal service, the finger bowl may be presented after any course that involves finger food and may even be presented after more than one such course in a single meal. Formal service The finger bowl is typically delivered with the dessert plate. alt=Finger bowl|The finger bowl is moved to the upper left before dessert is served. After dessert, the guests dip their fingers into the bowl and dry them with the napkin.In formal service, the finger bowl is most commonly brought to the table with the dessert plate; there is a linen doily under the bowl, and the dessert fork and spoon are placed on either side of the bowl. The arrangement of plates and flatware are set before each guest, who then move the flatware to the sides of the dessert plate , and move the finger bowl with the doily to the upper left of the plate. "This is the only time during a formal meal that a guest takes part in placing the appointments for a course". If a separate fruit course follows dessert, the finger bowl is instead brought in with the fruit plate and fruit fork and knife, arranged as they would be on a dessert plate. Alternatively, a full array of dessert and fruit dishes can be brought out at once, with the finger bowl on top of the dessert plate with its fork and spoon, and the dessert plate on top of the fruit plate, with doilies between each dish; in this type of service, the fruit fork and knife are brought out after the dessert plates and silver are cleared. After dessert (or after the fruit, if that forms the last course), guests lightly dip their fingertips into the water, one hand at a time, and then wipe them on the napkin in their lap.

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17468235

In American restaurants in the mid-20th century, finger bowls were often presented at the end of the meal in high-end restaurants . In chop houses and lobster palaces of the time , finger bowls were often presented after any course with finger foods or drawn butter .

In high-end American restaurants of the early to mid-20th century, finger bowls were presented at the end of the meal . In chop houses and lobster palaces of the period , finger bowls were often presented after any course with finger foods or drawn butter . In some styles of informal and restaurant service, the dessert fork and spoon are set along the top edge of the plate when all the flatware is laid at the start of the meal. Near the end of the meal, the finger bowl is presented with the dessert plate , similar to formal service; and the guests set the bowl aside and move the fork and spoon to the sides of the plate for the dessert course. After dessert, the guests use the finger bowl before leaving the table .

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17608461

Overview Wireless identity theft is a relatively new technique of gathering an individual' s personal information from RF-enabled cards carried on a person in their access control, credit, debit, or government issued identification cards.. Each of these cards carry a Radio frequency identification chip which responds to certain radio frequencies. When these "tags" come into contact with radio waves, they respond with a slightly altered signal. The response can contain encoded personal identifying information, including the card holder's name, address, Social Security Number, phone number, and pertinent account or employee information.

Overview Wireless identity theft is a relatively new technique for gathering individuals' personal information from RF-enabled cards carried on a person in their access control, credit, debit, or government issued identification cards.. Each of these cards carry a radio frequency identification chip which responds to certain radio frequencies. When these "tags" come into contact with radio waves, they respond with a slightly altered signal. The response can contain encoded personally identifying information, including the card holder's name, address, Social Security Number, phone number, and pertinent account or employee information.

wiki

1809568

Early life and career Syed Kamal was born in Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, British India on 27 April 1937.Syed Kamal 1937 2009 The News International (newspaper), Published 2 October 2009, Retrieved 24 February 2019 Syed Kamal was a popular film star in the 1960s and the 1970s. Kamal, whose film Tauba (1963) became a success at the box office, had a striking resemblance to the Indian filmstar Raj Kapoor, and he was not evasive about this issue. He once said, "People used to mistake me for Raj Kapoor while I was in Bombay and I enjoyed it". In fact, according to Pakistani script writer Ali Sufyan Afaqi, Kamal used to practice Raj Kapoor's scenes in front of a mirror. Kamal's first appearance in his Pakistani movie by producer Shabab Keranvi Thandi Sarak (1957) was meant to resemble Raj Kapoor. Syed Kamal won a Nigar Award (Special Award) for film Behan Bhai (1968)1968 Nigar Award for Syed Kamal for film Behan Bhai Retrieved 23 February 2019 and also a Nigar Award ('Lifetime Achievement Award') in 2000. Achievements and awards Among his other activities, he founded the Karachi Film Guild and Pakistan Film and TV Academy. Special Nigar Award (Lifetime Achievement Award) in 2000Syed Kamal's Special Nigar Award (Lifetime Achievement Award) on Motion Pictures Archive of Pakistan URL) website Retrieved 15 February 2020 The following films were directed by Syed Kamal: Shehnai (1968) starring (Syed Kamal-Deeba) Syed Kamal in film Shehnai (1968) on Complete Index To World Film (C.I.T.W.F.) website Retrieved 23 February 2019 Insaan Aur Gadha (1973) starring (Syed Kamal-Nisho-Rozina) Yahan Say Wahan Tak starring (Syed Kamal-Mumtaz) Honeymoon (1970) starring (Syed Kamal-Husna-Rozina) Syed Kamal in film Honeymoon (1970) on C.I.T.W.F. website Retrieved 23 February 2019 Roop Behroop starring (producer-director-actor Syed Kamal opposite Nisho) Doosri Maan starring (Syed Kamal-Shamim Ara) Meray Bacchay Meri Aankhein starring (Syed Kamal-Deeba) Dard-E-Dil starring (Syed Kamal and Zeba) Aaliya starring (Syed Kamal and Shamim Ara) Jatt Kurrian Taun Darda (1976) A Punjabi film, starring Syed Kamal, Neelo and Aslam PervaizSyed Kamal in film Jatt Kurrian Taun Darda (1976) on Complete Index To World Film (C.I.T.W.F.) website Retrieved 23 February 2019 Ajj Dian Kurrian (1977) A Punjabi film, starring Syed Kamal and Neelo Kal De Munday (1978) Jat Kamala Gaya Dubai (1984) Siyasat (1986)

Early life and career Syed Kamal was born in Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, British India on 27 April 1937.Syed Kamal 1937 2009 The News International (newspaper), Published 2 October 2009, Retrieved 3 July 2021 Syed Kamal was a popular film star in the 1960s and the 1970s. Kamal, whose film Tauba (1963) became a success at the box office, had a striking resemblance to the Indian filmstar Raj Kapoor, and he was not evasive about this issue. He once said, "People used to mistake me for Raj Kapoor while I was in Bombay and I enjoyed it". In fact, according to Pakistani script writer Ali Sufyan Afaqi, Kamal used to practice Raj Kapoor's scenes in front of a mirror. Kamal's first appearance in his Pakistani movie by producer Shabab Keranvi Thandi Sarak (1957) was meant to resemble Raj Kapoor. Achievements and awards Syed Kamal won a Nigar Award (Special Award) for film Behan Bhai (1968)1968 Nigar Award for Syed Kamal for film Behan Bhai Retrieved 23 February 2019 and also a Nigar Award ('Lifetime Achievement Award') in 2000. Special Nigar Award (Lifetime Achievement Award) in 2000. Among his other activities, he founded the Karachi Film Guild and Pakistan Film and TV Academy. The following films were directed by Syed Kamal: Shehnai (1968) starring (Syed Kamal-Deeba) Insaan Aur Gadha (1973) starring (Syed Kamal-Nisho-Rozina) Yahan Say Wahan Tak starring (Syed Kamal-Mumtaz) Honeymoon (1970) starring (Syed Kamal-Husna-Rozina) Roop Behroop starring (producer-director-actor Syed Kamal opposite Nisho) Doosri Maan starring (Syed Kamal-Shamim Ara) Meray Bacchay Meri Aankhein starring (Syed Kamal-Deeba) Dard-E-Dil starring (Syed Kamal and Zeba) Aaliya starring (Syed Kamal and Shamim Ara) Jatt Kurrian Taun Darda (1976) A Punjabi film, starring Syed Kamal, Neelo and Aslam Pervaiz Ajj Dian Kurrian (1977) A Punjabi film, starring Syed Kamal and Neelo Kal De Munday (1978) Jat Kamala Gaya Dubai (1984) Siyasat (1986)

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Death and legacy Syed Kamal died on 1 October 2009 at Karachi after a lingering illness at age 72. He had been a heart patient for many years and had fallen accidentally at his home about a month ago. He was bedridden since his fall. His survivors include his wife, his son Ghalib Kamal and three daughters. Retrieved 23 February 2019Film star Syed Kamal passes away Dawn (newspaper), Published 2 Oct 2009, Retrieved 23 February 2019 Filmography Syed Kamal's notable films as an actor : Thandi Sarak (1957)Actor Kamal dies The Nation (newspaper), Published 2 October 2009, Retrieved 24 February 2019 Sawera (1959) Apna Paraya (1959) Banjaran (1962) Tauba (1963) Aashiana (1964) Aisa Bhi Hota Hai (1965) Behan Bhai (1968) Nai Laila Naya Majnoon (1969) Road To Swat (1970) Insan Aur Gadha (1973) The following films were directed by Syed Kamal: Shehnai (1968) starring (Syed Kamal-Deeba) Insaan Aur Gadha (1973) starring (Syed Kamal-Nisho-Rozina) Yahan Say Wahan Tak starring (Syed Kamal-Mumtaz) Honeymoon (1970) starring (Syed Kamal-Husna-Rozina) Roop Behroop starring (producer-director-actor Syed Kamal opposite Nisho) Doosri Maan starring (Syed Kamal-Shamim Ara) Meray Bacchay Meri Aankhein starring (Syed Kamal-Deeba) Dard-E-Dil starring (Syed Kamal and Zeba) Aaliya starring (Syed Kamal and Shamim Ara) Jatt Kurrian Taun Darda (1976) A Punjabi film, starring Syed Kamal, Neelo and Aslam Pervaiz Ajj Dian Kurrian (1977) A Punjabi film, starring Syed Kamal and Neelo Kal De Munday (1978) Jat Kamala Gaya Dubai (1984) Siyasat (1986)

Death and legacy Syed Kamal died on 1 October 2009 at Karachi after a lingering illness at age 72. He had been a heart patient for many years and had fallen accidentally at his home about a month ago. He was bedridden since his fall. His survivors include his wife, his son Ghalib Kamal and three daughters. Retrieved 23 February 2019Film star Syed Kamal passes away Dawn (newspaper), Published 2 Oct 2009, Retrieved 3 July 2021 Filmography As an actor Thandi Sarak (1957)Actor Kamal dies The Nation (newspaper), Published 2 October 2009, Retrieved 24 February 2019 Sawera (1959) Apna Paraya (1959) Banjaran (1962) Tauba (1963) Aashiana (1964) Aisa Bhi Hota Hai (1965) Behan Bhai (1968) Nai Laila Naya Majnoon (1969) Road To Swat (1970) Insan Aur Gadha (1973) As a director Shehnai (1968) starring (Syed Kamal-Deeba) Insaan Aur Gadha (1973) starring (Syed Kamal-Nisho-Rozina) Yahan Say Wahan Tak starring (Syed Kamal-Mumtaz) Honeymoon (1970) starring (Syed Kamal-Husna-Rozina) Roop Behroop starring (producer-director-actor Syed Kamal opposite Nisho) Doosri Maan starring (Syed Kamal-Shamim Ara) Meray Bacchay Meri Aankhein starring (Syed Kamal-Deeba) Dard-E-Dil starring (Syed Kamal and Zeba) Aaliya starring (Syed Kamal and Shamim Ara) Jatt Kurrian Taun Darda (1976) A Punjabi film, starring Syed Kamal, Neelo and Aslam Pervaiz Ajj Dian Kurrian (1977) A Punjabi film, starring Syed Kamal and Neelo Kal De Munday (1978) Jat Kamala Gaya Dubai (1984) Siyasat (1986)

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Integrated Business Planning (IBP) is a process for translating desired business outcomes into financial and operational resource requirements, with the overarching objective of maximizing profit and / or cash flow, while minimizing risk. The business outcomes, on which IBP processes focus, can be expressed in terms of the achievement of the following types of targets: History The term Integrated Business Planning is an outgrowth of Sales and Operations Planning, or S&OP , a term referring to processes that balance demand with manufacturing resources. There has been a lot of focus on Integrated Business Planning in the context of Sales and Operations Planning . Gartner refers to a 5-stage S&OP Maturity model wherein IBP is referred to as the Phased 4 & 5. Integrated Business Planning however is broader than S&OP. It is an approach that combines Enterprise Performance Management (EPM) and S&OP to provide incremental capabilities that neither provides individually. In so doing, IBP platforms address long-standing challenges that financial and operational professionals have struggled to overcome. The result: opportunities for step change improvements to how manufacturers plan, manage and govern their business. Here, the focus is on strengthening the financial integration and reconciliation of plans, as well as increasing the responsiveness of the supply chain using ad-hoc reports and what-if scenario analyses. To better predict customer demand, machine-learning technology helps to identify correlation patterns and automate the detection of demand changes.

Integrated business planning (IBP) is a process for translating desired business outcomes into financial and operational resource requirements, with the overarching objective of maximizing profit and / or cash flow, while minimizing risk. The business outcomes, on which IBP processes focus, can be expressed in terms of the achievement of the following types of targets: History The term integrated business planning is an outgrowth of sales and operations planning ( S&OP ) a term referring to processes that balance demand with manufacturing resources. There has been a lot of focus on integrated business planning in the context of sales and operations planning . Gartner refers to a 5-stage S&OP maturity model wherein IBP is referred to as the Phased 4 & 5. Integrated Business Planning however is broader than S&OP. It is an approach that combines Enterprise Performance Management (EPM) and S&OP to provide incremental capabilities that neither provides individually. In so doing, IBP platforms address long-standing challenges that financial and operational professionals have struggled to overcome. The result: opportunities for step change improvements to how manufacturers plan, manage and govern their business. Here, the focus is on strengthening the financial integration and reconciliation of plans, as well as increasing the responsiveness of the supply chain using ad-hoc reports and what-if scenario analyses. To better predict customer demand, machine-learning technology helps to identify correlation patterns and automate the detection of demand changes.

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A discordant system or pattern does not correlate to the topography and geology of the area. Discordant drainage patterns are classified into two main types: antecedent and superimposed, while anteposition drainage patterns combine the two. In antecedent drainage, a river's vertical incision ability matches that of land uplift due to tectonic forces. Superimposed drainage develops differently: initially, a drainage system develops on a surface composed of 'younger' rocks, but due to denudative activities this surface of younger rocks is removed and the river continues to flow over a seemingly new surface, but one in fact made up of rocks of old geological formation. Dendritic drainage patterns Dendritic drainage pattern Dendritic drainage systems (from Greek , dendrites, "of or like a tree") are not straight and are the most common form of drainage system. In this, there are many sub-tributaries (analogous to the twigs of a tree), which merge into tributaries of the main river (the branches and the trunk of the tree, respectively). They are seen to feed a river channel that matches and is strongly accordant to the overriding gradient of the land. Truly dendritic systems form in V-shaped valleys; as a result, the rock types must be quite impervious and non-porous. Trellis drainage pattern The geometry of a trellis drainage system is similar to that of a common garden trellis. Along a strike valley, smaller tributaries feed into from the steep slopes of mountain sides . These tributaries enter the main river about perpendicular, causing a trellis-like appearance of the system. They form where hard and soft formations exist on both banks of the main river, and are reflective of height, accentuated by erosion. Trellis drainage is characteristic of folded mountains, such as the Appalachian Mountains in North America and in the north part of Trinidad.Ritter, Michael E., The Physical Environment: an Introduction to Physical Geography. 2006 Rectangular drainage pattern Rectangular drainage develops on rocks that are of approximately uniform resistance to erosion, but which have two directions of jointing at approximately right angles or 90 degrees. The joints are usually less resistant to erosion than the bulk rock so erosion tends to preferentially open the joints and streams eventually develop along the joints. The result is a stream system in which streams consist mainly of straight line segments with right angle bends and tributaries join larger streams at right angles. This pattern can be found with the Arun River in Nepal.

A discordant system or pattern does not correlate to the topography and geology of the area. Discordant drainage patterns are classified into two main types: antecedent and superimposed, while ante position drainage patterns combine the two. In antecedent drainage, a river's vertical incision ability matches that of land uplift due to tectonic forces. Superimposed drainage develops differently: initially, a drainage system develops on a surface composed of 'younger' rocks, but due to denudation activities this surface of younger rocks is removed and the river continues to flow over a seemingly new surface, but one in fact made up of rocks of old geological formation. Dendritic drainage patterns Dendritic drainage pattern Dendritic drainage systems (from Greek , dendrites, "of or like a tree") are not straight and are the most common form of the drainage system. In this, there are many sub-tributaries (analogous to the twigs of a tree), which merge into tributaries of the main river (the branches and the trunk of the tree, respectively). They are seen to feed a river channel that matches and is strongly accordant to the overriding gradient of the land. Truly dendritic systems form in V-shaped valleys; as a result, the rock types must be quite obviously impervious and non-porous. Trellis drainage pattern The geometry of a trellis drainage system is similar to that of a common garden trellis. Along a strike valley, smaller tributaries feed into the steep slopes of mountainsides . These tributaries enter the main river about perpendicular, causing a trellis-like appearance of the system. They form where hard and soft formations exist on both banks of the main river, and are reflective of height, accentuated by erosion. Trellis drainage is characteristic of folded mountains, such as the Appalachian Mountains in North America and in the north part of Trinidad.Ritter, Michael E., The Physical Environment: an Introduction to Physical Geography. 2006 Rectangular drainage pattern Rectangular drainage develops on rocks that are of approximately uniform resistance to erosion, but which have two directions of jointing at approximately right angles or 90 degrees. The joints are usually less resistant to erosion than the bulk rock so erosion tends to preferentially open the joints and streams eventually develop along the joints. The result is a stream system in which streams consist mainly of straight line segments with right-angle bends and tributaries join larger streams at right angles. This pattern can be found with the Arun River in Nepal.

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An example of an integrated drainage is the watershed of the Rio Grande River. The sedimentary basins forming the modern Rio Grande Valley were not integrated into a single river system draining into the Gulf of Mexico until relatively recent geologic time. Instead, the basins formed by the opening of the Rio Grande rift were initially bolsons, with no external drainage and a central playa. An axial river existed in the Espanola Basin as early as 13 million years ago, reaching the Santo Domingo Basin by 6.9 million years ago. However, at this time, the river drained into a playa in the southern Albuquerque Basin where it deposited the Popotosa Formation. The upper reach of this river corresponded to the modern Rio Chama, but by 5 million years ago, an ancestral Rio Grande draining the eastern San Juan Mountains had joined the ancestral Rio Chama. The ancestral Rio Grande progressively integrated basins to the south, reaching the Palomas basin by 4.5 million years , the Mesilla basin by 3.1 million years, to Texas by 2.06 million years, and finally joining the Pecos River at 800,000 years to drain into the Gulf of Mexico. Volcanism in the Taos Plateau reduced drainage from the San Luis Basin until a spillover event 440,000 years ago that drained Lake Alamosa and fully reintegrated the San Luis Basin into the Rio Grande watershed .

An example of an integrated drainage is the area drained by the Rio Grande River. The sedimentary basins forming the modern Rio Grande Valley were not integrated into a single river system draining into the Gulf of Mexico until relatively recent geologic time. Instead, the basins formed by the opening of the Rio Grande rift were initially bolsons, with no external drainage and a central playa. An axial river existed in the Espanola Basin as early as 13 million years ago, reaching the Santo Domingo Basin by 6.9 million years ago. However, at this time, the river drained into a playa in the southern Albuquerque Basin where it deposited the Popotosa Formation. The upper reach of this river corresponded to the modern Rio Chama, but by 5 million years ago, an ancestral Rio Grande draining the eastern San Juan Mountains had joined the ancestral Rio Chama. The ancestral Rio Grande progressively integrated basins to the south, reaching the Palomas basin by 4.5 million years ago , the Mesilla basin by 3.1 million years, to Texas by 2.06 million years, and finally joining the Pecos River at 800,000 years to drain into the Gulf of Mexico. Volcanism in the Taos Plateau reduced drainage from the San Luis basin until a spillover event 440,000 years ago that drained Lake Alamosa and fully reintegrated the San Luis basin into the Rio Grande basin .

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Derived characters In the science fiction themed Lost Universe, Kanzaka's another media franchise, the traits and personas of Lina and Gourry were mixed together to create its male protagonist, Kain Blueriver. Several different versions of Lina populate the Slayers world itself, due to various plots. In one story from the prequels, Lina and Naga are exposed to a mirror that creates an exact opposite of whoever looks in it. The wizard using it expects this to produce dark and violent version of the two that would side with him and destroy the originals, but the mirror copies turn out sweet, kind, generous, and extremely concerned about the feelings of each other and everyone around them. In their attempts to break the spell, Lina and Naga actually wind up creating dozens of such doppelgngers of themselves, which go on to found an entire village full of philanthropic Linas and Nagas. A slightly adapted version of this story, which resulted in the mirror being destroyed without creating more than the initial copies, served as the basis of the Slayers Special OAV episode "Mirror Mirror". In the Slayers TV series, Gourry and Lina are both the subject of an attempt at cloning, which spawns a number of miniature, super deformed versions of them both; the tiny clones fight to humorous effect, and after the mini Linas win, they all disintegrate. Even more, in this case mostly lifelike, clones of Lina were created by Xellos' master Zellas Metallium in the video game Slayers in which one of them, who believes herself to be the real Lina, is a playable character and the game's initial protagonist. In the film Slayers Great , a super deformed, giant, toylike fighting golem named "Piko-Piko Lina-chan" is constructed in a distorted image of Lina's that emphasises her kawaii (cute) attributes, much to Lina's dismay and anger as she believed she had been chosen to model for its creation because of her (self-imagined) great beauty . It is also featured in the video game Slayers Royal 2. The manga miniseries Slayers Light Magic features a young boy named Light Inverse who dreams to become a mage in a scientifically advanced futuristic world.

Derived characters Several different versions of Lina populate the world of Slayers due to various plots. In one story from the prequels, Lina and Naga are exposed to a mirror that creates an exact opposite of whoever looks in it. The wizard using it expects this to produce dark and violent version of the two that would side with him and destroy the originals, but the mirror copies turn out sweet, kind, generous, and extremely concerned about the feelings of each other and everyone around them. In their attempts to break the spell, Lina and Naga actually wind up creating dozens of such doppelgngers of themselves, which go on to found an entire village full of philanthropic Linas and Nagas. A slightly adapted version of this story, which resulted in the mirror being destroyed without creating more than the initial copies, served as the basis of the Slayers Special OAV episode "Mirror Mirror". In the Slayers TV series, Gourry and Lina are both the subject of an attempt at cloning, which spawns a number of miniature, super deformed versions of them both; the tiny clones fight to humorous effect, and after the mini Linas win, they all disintegrate. Even more, in this case mostly lifelike, clones of Lina were created by Xellos' master Zellas Metallium in the video game Slayers in which one of them, who believes herself to be the real Lina, is a playable character and the game's initial protagonist. Furthermore , a super deformed, giant, toylike fighting golem named "Piko-Piko Lina-chan" is constructed in the film Slayers Great in a distorted image of Lina's that emphasises her kawaii (cute) attributes, much to Lina's dismay and anger as she believed she had been chosen to model for its creation because of her (self-imagined) great beauty ; it is also featured in the video game Slayers Royal 2. In the science fiction themed Lost Universe, Kanzaka's another media franchise, the traits and personas of Lina and Gourry were mixed together to create its male protagonist, Kain Blueriver. The manga miniseries Slayers Light Magic features a young boy named Light Inverse who dreams to become a mage in a scientifically advanced futuristic world.

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History Among the tribal names given in " Ashkharatsuyts " there is an ethnonym ashtigor, which is considered to be the name of the Digors . This fact, and other linguistic considerations, have led experts to believe that Digor dialect became separated from Proto-Ossetian during the Mongol conquests. In "Ashkharatsuyts" Ashtigors are given separately from Alans - the ancestors of present-day Ossetians. Also starting from the 18th century the ethnonym digor is widely used by travelers and in Russian official documents. Based on these facts, Ossetian Soviet linguist-Iranist Vasily Abaev suppose that the Digors could be an iranized Circassian tribe and the first part of the name - dig- can have the same roots with the Circassian endonym Adyge and -or can be just a prefix for plurality as in many contemporary Caucasian languages. Digors make the majority of the Ossetians in Digoria - the western part of the North OssetiaAlania (Digorsky and Irafsky districts) and in Kabardino-Balkaria. In the beginning of the 19th century some families from Digoria resettled in Mozdoksky District and there are 2 large settlements of them. Digoria was annexed to the Russian Empire quite late compared to the rest of Ossetia. The Digors were converted to Sunni Islam in the 17-18th centuries under the influence of the neighboring Kabarday people who introduced Islam to them. In the second half of the 19th century large numbers of Muslim Digors emigrated to the Ottoman Empire. (see: Ossetians in Turkey) During World War II, North OssetiaAlania was occupied by German armies in 1942. While under Nazi occupation the Ossetians remained unmoved, after the Germans were forced out of the region the Muslim Digors, like other Muslim peoples, were accused of Collaboration with the Germans and deported to Central Asia. Estimates say 50\% of the Digors died during deportation. Their reputation was rehabilitated in the mid 1950s , and they were allowed to return to their homelands .

Name Scholars generally link the root dig- with the Circassian endonym A-dyg-e, where the suffix -or could be a mark of plurality as found in many contemporary Caucasian languages. Ossetian Soviet linguist Vasily Abaev conjectured that the Digors may be an Iranized Circassian tribe. History The early medieval Ashkharatsuyts makes mention of the " nation of the Ash-Tigor Alans " (azg Alanac' A-Tigor), or simply the "Dikor nation" (Dik'ori-n), which is generally regarded as an early reference to the Digor . This fact, and other linguistic considerations, have led scholars to believe that Digor dialect became separated from Proto-Ossetian during the Mongol conquests. Starting from the 18th century , the ethnonym digor became widely used by travelers and in Russian official documents. Digoria was annexed to the Russian Empire quite late compared to the rest of Ossetia. The Digors were converted to Sunni Islam in the 17-18th centuries , under the influence of the neighboring Kabarday people who introduced Islam to them. In the second half of the 19th century , large numbers of Muslim Digors emigrated to the Ottoman Empire. During World War II, North OssetiaAlania was occupied by German armies in 1942. After the Germans were forced out of the region , the Muslim Digors, like other Muslim peoples, were accused of Collaboration with the Germans and deported to Central Asia. Estimates say 50\% of the Digors died during deportation. Their reputation was rehabilitated in the mid-1950s , and they were allowed to return to their homelands . Demographics Digors make the majority of the Ossetians in Digoria, the western part of the North OssetiaAlania (Digorsky and Irafsky districts), and in Kabardino-Balkaria. In the beginning of the 19th century some families from Digoria resettled in Mozdoksky District, where there are 2 large settlements of them .

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Ocean temperatures depends on the amount of solar radiation falling on its surface. In the tropics, the temperature of the surface layers can rise to over while near the poles the temperature in equilibrium with the sea ice is about . Deep seawater has a temperature between and in all parts of the globe. There is a continuous circulation of water in the oceans . An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of seawater generated by a number of forces acting upon the water, including wind, the Coriolis effect, temperature and salinity differences. Ocean currents have different origins, such as tidesfor tidal currents, or wind and waves for surface currents . The global pattern of winds or atmospheric circulation creates a global pattern of ocean currents driven by the wind and the effect the circulation of the earth or the coriolis force. Theses major ocean currents include the Gulf Stream, Kuroshio current, Agulhas current and Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Collectively, currents move enormous amounts of water and heat around the globe. This circulation has important impacts on global climate and the uptake and redistribution of pollutants such as carbon dioxide by moving these contaminants from the surface into the deep ocean.

Ocean temperatures depend on the amount of solar radiation reaching the ocean surface. In the tropics, surface temperatures can rise to over . Near the poles, where sea ice forms, the temperature in equilibrium is about . Deep seawater temperature is between and in all parts of the ocean. Water continuously circulates in the oceans creating ocean currents which are directed movements of seawater. Currents are generated by a number of forces acting upon the water, including wind, the Coriolis effect, temperature and salinity differences. Tidal currents originate from tides, while surface currents are caused by wind and waves . The global pattern of winds and atmospheric circulation creates a global pattern of ocean currents driven by the wind and the effect the circulation of the earth or the coriolis force. These major ocean currents include the Gulf Stream, Kuroshio current, Agulhas current and Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Collectively, currents move enormous amounts of water and heat around the globe. This circulation has important impacts on global climate and the uptake and redistribution of pollutants such as carbon dioxide by moving these contaminants from the surface into the deep ocean.

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The flowering plants, also known as Angiospermae (), or Magnoliophyta (), are the most diverse group of land plants, with 64 orders, 416 families, approximately 13,000 known genera and 300,000 known species. Like gymnosperms, angiosperms are seed-producing plants . They are distinguished from gymnosperms by characteristics including flowers, endosperm within their seeds , and the production of fruits that contain the seeds. Etymologically, "angiosperm" literally means a plant that produces seeds within an enclosure; in other words, a fruiting plant. The term comes from the Greek words ('case') and ('seed') . The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from the common ancestor of all living gymnosperms during the Carboniferous, over 300 million years ago, with the earliest record of angiosperm pollen appearing around 134 million years ago. The first remains of flowering plants are known from 125 million years ago. They diversified extensively during the Early Cretaceous, became widespread by 120 million years ago, and replaced conifers as the dominant trees from 60 to 100 million years ago.

The flowering plants, also known as Angiospermae (), or Magnoliophyta (), are the most diverse group of land plants, with 64 orders, 416 families, approximately 13,000 known genera and 300,000 known species. Like gymnosperms, angiosperms are seed-producing plants , but regarding seeds, they differ from gymnosperms in their production of three critical structures: flowers; endosperm within their seeds ; and fruits that encase their seeds. Etymologically, "angiosperm" comes from the Greek words ('case') and ('seed') ; the term means a plant that produces seeds encased within an enclosure, say a 'fruit'. In other words, a fruiting plant. The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from the common ancestor of all living gymnosperms during the Carboniferous, over 300 million years ago, with the earliest record of angiosperm pollen appearing around 134 million years ago. The first remains of flowering plants are known from 125 million years ago. They diversified extensively during the Early Cretaceous, became widespread by 120 million years ago, and replaced conifers as the dominant trees from 100 to 60 million years ago.

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The flowering plants, also known as Angiospermae (), or Magnoliophyta (), are the most diverse group of land plants, with 64 orders, 416 families, approximately 13,000 known genera and 300,000 known species. Like gymnosperms, angiosperms are seed-producing plants , but regarding seeds, they differ from gymnosperms in their production of three critical structures: flowers; endosperm within their seeds ; and fruits that encase their seeds. Etymologically, "angiosperm" comes from the Greek words ('case') and ('seed') ; the term means a plant that produces seeds encased within an enclosure, say a 'fruit'. In other words, a fruiting plant. The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from the common ancestor of all living gymnosperms during the Carboniferous, over 300 million years ago, with the earliest record of angiosperm pollen appearing around 134 million years ago. The first remains of flowering plants are known from 125 million years ago. They diversified extensively during the Early Cretaceous, became widespread by 120 million years ago, and replaced conifers as the dominant trees from 100 to 60 million years ago.

The flowering plants, also known as Angiospermae (), or Magnoliophyta (), are the most diverse group of land plants, with 64 orders, 416 families, approximately 13,000 known genera and 300,000 known species. Like gymnosperms, angiosperms are seed-producing plants . They are distinguished from gymnosperms by characteristics including flowers, endosperm within their seeds , and the production of fruits that contain the seeds. Etymologically, "angiosperm" literally means a plant that produces seeds within an enclosure; in other words, a fruiting plant. The term comes from the Greek words ('case') and ('seed') . The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from the common ancestor of all living gymnosperms during the Carboniferous, over 300 million years ago, with the earliest record of angiosperm pollen appearing around 134 million years ago. The first remains of flowering plants are known from 125 million years ago. They diversified extensively during the Early Cretaceous, became widespread by 120 million years ago, and replaced conifers as the dominant trees from 60 to 100 million years ago.

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Smiths and miners within medieval society Metallurgists throughout medieval Europe were free to move within different regions. German metallurgists in search of rich precious metal ores, for instance, took the leading part in mining and affected the course of metal production, not only in East and South Germany but in almost all Central Europe and the Eastern Alps. As mining gradually became a task for specialized craftsmen, miners moved in large groups and they formed settlements with their own customs close to mines. They were always welcomed by the regional authorities since the latter were interested in increasing the revenue and the exploitation of the mineral-rich subsurface was quite profitable. The authorities claimed a part of the output, and smiths and miners were provided with land for cottages, mills, URLes, farming, and pasture, and they were allowed to use streams and lumber (Nef 1987, 706-715). In medieval societies, liberal and mechanical arts were considered as totally different from each other . Metallurgists, as all craftsmen and artisans, lacked the methodical intellectual background but they were the pioneers of causal thinking , based on empirical observation and experimentation (Zilsel 2000).

Smiths and miners within medieval society Metallurgists throughout medieval Europe were generally free to move within different regions. German metallurgists in search of rich precious metal ores, for instance, took the leading part in mining and affected the course of metal production, not only in East and South Germany but in almost all Central Europe and the Eastern Alps. As mining gradually became a task for specialized craftsmen, miners moved in large groups and formed settlements with their own customs close to mines. They were always welcomed by the regional authorities , since the latter were interested in increasing the revenue and the exploitation of the mineral-rich subsurface was quite profitable. These authorities claimed a part of the output, and smiths and miners were provided with land for cottages, mills, URLes, farming, and pasture, and they were allowed to use streams and lumber (Nef 1987, 706-715). In medieval societies, liberal and mechanical arts were considered to be totally different disciplines . Metallurgists, as all craftsmen and artisans, almost always lacked the formal education that would inform a methodical intellectual background . However, they were the pioneers of causal thinking based on empirical observation and experimentation (Zilsel 2000).

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Early Middle Ages, 500-1000 AD The social, political, economic stagnation and decline that followed the Roman World affected Europe throughout the early medieval period, and had critical impact upon technological progress, trade and URLanization. Technological developments that affected the course of metal production were only feasible within a stable political environment, and this was not the case until the 9th century (Martinon-Torres & Rehren in press, a). During the first medieval centuries, the output of metal was in a steady decline and constraint in small scale activities. Miners adopted methods much less efficient than those of the Roman times. Ores were extracted only from shallow depths or from remnants of former abandoned mines. The vicinity of the mine to villages or towns was also a determinant factor when deciding about working on site , because of the high cost of material transportation (Martinon-Torres & Rehren in press, b). Apparently only the output of iron diminished less in relation to the other base and precious metals until the 8th century. This fact, correlated with the dramatic decrease in copper production, may indicate a possible displacement of copper and bronze artifacts by iron ones (Forbes 1957, 64; Bayley et al. 2008, 50). By the end of the 9th century, economic and social conditions , that dictated the increased need of metal for agriculture, arms, stirrups and decoration, started to favor metallurgy and a slow but steady general progress was noted . Starting from the reign of the emperor Otto I in the 960s, smelting sites were multiplied. New mines were discovered and exploited, like the well-known Mines of Rammelsberg, close to the town of Goslar in the Harz Mountains. Open-cast mining and metallurgical activities were mostly concentrated in the Eastern Alps, Saxony, Bohemia, Tuscany, the Rhineland, Gaul and Spain (Nef 1987). French, Flemish, but mainly German miners and metallurgists were the generators of metal production .

Early Middle Ages, 500-1000 AD The social, political, economic stagnation and decline that followed the Roman World affected Europe throughout the early medieval period, leaving a critical impact upon technological progress, trade and URLanization. Technological developments that affected the course of metal production were only feasible within a stable political environment, and this was not the case until the 9th century (Martinon-Torres & Rehren in press, a). During the first medieval centuries, the output of metal was in a steady decline and constraint in small scale activities. Miners adopted methods much less efficient than those of the Roman times. Ores were extracted only from shallow depths or from remnants of former abandoned mines. The vicinity of the mine to villages or towns was also a determinant factor when deciding about working on site due to the high cost of material transportation (Martinon-Torres & Rehren in press, b). Only the output of iron diminished less in relation to the other base and precious metals until the 8th century. This fact, correlated with the dramatic decrease in copper production, may indicate a possible displacement of copper and bronze artifacts by iron ones (Forbes 1957, 64; Bayley et al. 2008, 50). By the end of the 9th century, economic , and social conditions dictated a greater need of metal for agriculture, arms, stirrups , and decoration. Consequently, conditions began to favor metallurgy and a slow but steady general progress developed . Starting from the reign of the emperor Otto I in the 960s, smelting sites were multiplied. New mines were discovered and exploited, like the well-known Mines of Rammelsberg, close to the town of Goslar in the Harz Mountains. Open-cast mining and metallurgical activities were mostly concentrated in the Eastern Alps, Saxony, Bohemia, Tuscany, the Rhineland, Gaul , and Spain (Nef 1987). It was mostly mainly German miners and metallurgists were the generators of metal production , but the French and Flemish made contributions to the developments .

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The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere (i.e. the upper limit of the atmosphere). It extends from the exobase, which is located at the top of the thermosphere at an altitude of about 700 km above sea level, to about 10,000 km (6,200 mi; 33,000,000 ft) where it merges into the solar wind. The exosphere is located too far above Earth for any meteorological phenomena to be possible. However, the aurora borealis and aurora australis sometimes occur in the lower part of the exosphere, where they overlap into the thermosphere. The exosphere contains many of the satellites orbiting Earth.

The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere (i.e. the upper limit of the atmosphere). It extends from the thermopause, at the top of the thermosphere at an altitude of about 700 km above sea level, to about 10,000 km (6,200 mi; 33,000,000 ft) , where it merges into the solar wind. The exosphere is too far above Earth for meteorological phenomena to be possible. However, Earth's auroras— the aurora borealis (northern lights) and aurora australis (southern lights)— sometimes occur in the lower part of the exosphere, where they overlap into the thermosphere. The exosphere contains many of the artificial satellites that orbit Earth.

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Post-trial commutation of death sentence Peterson maintains his innocence. Peterson was granted post-conviction relief and re-sentenced to 120 years in prison December 12, 2004. His sentence was later commuted to 120 years in prison. He is scheduled for release on April 16th, 2051 according to the Indiana Department of Corrections .

Reversal of death sentence and resentencing Peterson maintains his innocence. Peterson was granted post-conviction relief and re-sentenced to a total of 120 years in prison December 12, 2004. He is scheduled for release on April 16th, 2051 according to the Indiana Department of Correction .

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Gesture music Sofia Gubaidulina Silence in music happens when the music stops during a performance. It is sometimes replaced by gesture music. In his Sofia Gubaidulina biography,Michael Kurtz Sofia Gubaidulina: A Biography, p. 184, english translation Indiana University Press, 2007 (written 2001) Michael Kurtz mentions the silent solo performance by the conductor included in ...Stimmenn... verstummen..., an orchestral work from 1986. Milan Knizak From 1960, the International Fluxus Movement created a number of Events or Verbal Pieces, whose temporal structures were typically vague so as to be sometimes without beginning nor end, with or without sound, with or without music. A remarkable example is that of Czech artist Milan Knizak's 1965 Snowstorm N1 whose score states: Paper gliders are distributed to an idle and waiting audience. Helmut Lachenmann Lachenmann composed Salut Fr Caldwell for 2 guitars in 1977. The piece includes silent moments when "the players silent motions and gestures created a space of unheard music ". Michael KurtzMichael Kurtz Sofia Gubaidulina: A Biography, p. 192, English translation Indiana University Press, 2007 (written 2001) Takehisa Kosugi In 1963 Takehisa Kosugi composed for Fluxus 1 a musical piece called Theatre Music in the form of a rectangle of cardstock that bore the trace of a spiral of moving feet. This was paired with the instructions: "Keep walking intently".Charles Mereweather ed., Art Anti-Art Non-Art, Getty Research Institute, 2007, p. 21 Juan Mara Solare His work Gestenstcke (2008) is a collection of five pieces for 4 performers in which a musical structure is used to put order in non-sounding elements, concretely gestures. For instance, the first piece of the cycle is a canon of gestures. Premiere: University Bremen, Ensemble Neues Musiktheater, June 12, 2008. Another non-sounding piece is his conceptual work called Tense Atmosphere a graphic score which consists of a silence with a sforzato sign (2013). The optophonic piano Wladimir Baranoff-RossinSee Baranoff-Rossin 's official web page started building his optophonic piano in the 1915s. A set of painted glass discs are rotated via the small keyboard. Light is projected through the discs onto the wall. The player can control intensity of light and speed of rotation. 6 or 8 keys of the 3-octaves keyboard are devoted to colored discs. It is not clear what kind of sound the keyboard is able to produce. Oscillator frequencies (as stated in some articles) are rather unlikely between 1915-1920. More probably the light show was performed with piano accompaniment, maybe performed on the reduced keyboard of the Optosonic Piano, akin to a toy piano. Unfinished/aborted music At one point, the music exists in the composer's mind. In 1928, Edgard Varse started working on an opera called L'Astronome based on North American Indian legends, a project he never completed and destroyed the drafts. In 1932, he asked Antonin Artaud to write the libretto of a large scale oratorio, Il n'ya plus de firmament (There is no longer any firmament). In his book Phantasmatic Radio Allen S. Weiss translates the beginning of Artaud's text: {{cquote|Darkness. Explosions in this darkness. Harmonies suddenly broken off. Harsh sounds. Depressurized soundings. The music will give the impression of a distant cataclysm and will fill the room, falling as from vertiginous heights. Chords will originate in the sky and then deteriorate, going from one extreme to the other. Sounds will fall as if from very high, then suddenly stop and spread out in bursts, forming vaults and parasols. Tiers of sounds... in Phantasmatic Radio Allen S. Weiss, Phantasmatic Radio, Duke University Press, 1995, page 42}} The piece was never completed and Varse turned to other projects, including a radiophonic work involving various synchronised choirs located in different places of the world. He never found the technology for it. In 1948, Artaud insisted on having noise sounds included in his Pour en finir avec le judgement de Dieu (To have done with the judgment of God). This was done in the Radiodiffusion Television Franaise studios where Pierre Schaeffer was working at the time. Silent music Silent Music (1994)Bernd Schulz (editor) Silent Music - zwischen Klangkunst und Akustikdesign/Between Sound Art and Acoustic Design, book+CD, 1999 is an installation work by Canadian artist Robin Minard (b1953) with several hundred wall-mounted piezo loudspeakers and four-channel audio. The miniature loudspeakers are displayed in plant-like shapes on the walls of public spaces. They reproduce the minuscule ambient sounds of the public space where they are installed or play random synthetic sounds at barely audible volume. Minard deals with remote sounds best suited to intimate listening. In 2006 he created 'A voir en silence', a small artist book with loudspeakers and hand-written text.Susan Meinhardt Silent Music/Adelaide Festival DVD, Australia, 2007 Discursive music Marcel Proust The Vinteuil Sonata is an imaginary violin and piano sonata by fictitious composer Vinteuil recurring several times in Marcel Proust's la recherche du temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time), particularly in Un amour de Swann (1913). In the latter volume, Charles Swann associates strong emotions and memories to the melody composed by Vinteuil. The French composer Reynaldo Hahn noticed how much Marcel Proust "vivait la musique de son temps" (experienced contemporary music).See Adrien De Vries' article : Sources de la Sonate de Vinteuil, April 2007 (in French) For example, Proust immediately praised and enjoyed Debussy's 1902 Pellas et Mlisande opera. Critics disagree on which composer inspired the sonata. Possibly Gabriel FaurSee Margaret Hunter and Abigail Al-Doory's article: L'homme et la Musique Dans Un Amour de Swann, 1996 or Csar Franck. In Les plaisirs et les jours (1896), Proust focusses on Hans Sachs's monologue from Wagner's Die Meistersinger von Nrnberg, act 2. In Jean Santeuil (1952), a Camille Saint-Sans sonata for violin and piano (Op. 75, 1885) plays a key role and is presumably the model for the Sonate de Vinteuil. In Un amour de Swann , the Vinteuil Sonata is played during evenings at the Verdurins' by pianist Dechambre. The main character's emotions are mirrored by Proust's musical reminiscences. Walter Marchetti A good example of imaginary music can be found in a Walter Marchetti poem where he mentions a Juan Hidalgo imaginary composition (both Hidalgo and Marchetti were members of the Spanish Zaj Group of Madrid in the late 1950s). <poem style="margin-left: 2em;">Eat an iced popsicle and thus perform his free transcription, for only one performer, ofMusic For Five Dogs, an iced Popsicle and Six Male Performers by Juan Hidalgo. Walter Marchetti in A Zaj SamplerSomething Else Press, New York, 1967, reissued by Great Bear Pamphlets

Gesture music Sofia Gubaidulina Silence in music happens when the music stops during a performance. It is sometimes replaced by gesture music. In his Sofia Gubaidulina biography,Michael Kurtz Sofia Gubaidulina: A Biography, p. 184, english translation Indiana University Press, 2007 (written 2001) Michael Kurtz mentions the silent solo performance by the conductor included in ...Stimmenn... verstummen..., an orchestral work from 1986. The symphony is notable for its careful and innovative use of silence. Though the eighth movement has the largest proportions of the work, the climax actually takes place in the ninth movement when the conductor motions before a silent orchestra. The motions the conductor makes are meant to make his hands move increasingly farther apart from each other according to the Fibonacci sequence. This "conductor solo" is repeated at the end of the work, when after the last note is sounded the conductor continues to motion for several minutes. Milan Knizak From 1960, the International Fluxus Movement created a number of Events or Verbal Pieces, whose temporal structures were typically vague so as to be sometimes without beginning nor end, with or without sound, with or without music. An example is that of Czech artist Milan Knizak's 1965 Snowstorm N1 whose score states: Paper gliders are distributed to an idle and waiting audience. What results is a snowstorm of quietly gliding paper airplanes as the audience returns them back and forth and so on. The exchange of sheets is experimentally beautiful, like the caring gesture toward the instrument as tended by Brecht.James Martin Harding and John Rouse (editors) Not the Other Avant-Garde: The Transnational Foundations of Avant-Garde Performance, University of Michigan Press, 2006, , Other examples Helmut Lachenmann composed Salut Fr Caldwell for 2 guitars in 1977. The piece includes silent moments when "the players silent motions and gestures created a space of unheard music ". Michael Kurtz Sofia Gubaidulina: A Biography, p. 192, English translation Indiana University Press, 2007 (written 2001) In 1963 Takehisa Kosugi composed for Fluxus 1 a musical piece called Theatre Music in the form of a rectangle of cardstock that bore the trace of a spiral of moving feet. This was paired with the instructions: "Keep walking intently".Charles Mereweather ed., Art Anti-Art Non-Art, Getty Research Institute, 2007, p. 21 Juan Mara Solare 's work Gestenstcke (2008) is a collection of five pieces for 4 performers in which a musical structure is used to put order in non-sounding elements, concretely gestures. For instance, the first piece of the cycle is a canon of gestures. Premiere: University Bremen, Ensemble Neues Musiktheater, June 12, 2008. Another non-sounding piece is his conceptual work called Tense Atmosphere a graphic score which consists of a silence with a sforzato sign (2013). The optophonic piano Wladimir Baranoff-Rossin started building his optophonic piano in the 1915s. A set of painted glass discs are rotated via the small keyboard. Light is projected through the discs onto the wall. The player can control intensity of light and speed of rotation. 6 or 8 keys of the 3-octaves keyboard are devoted to colored discs. It is not clear what kind of sound the keyboard is able to produce. Oscillator frequencies are rather unlikely between 1915-1920. More probably the light show was performed with piano accompaniment, maybe performed on the reduced keyboard of the Optosonic Piano, akin to a toy piano. Unfinished/aborted music At one point, the music exists in the composer's mind. In 1928, Edgard Varse started working on an opera called L'Astronome based on North American Indian legends, a project he never completed and destroyed the drafts. In 1932, he asked Antonin Artaud to write the libretto of a large scale oratorio, Il n'ya plus de firmament (There is no longer any firmament). In his book Phantasmatic Radio Allen S. Weiss translates the beginning of Artaud's text: {{cquote|Darkness. Explosions in this darkness. Harmonies suddenly broken off. Harsh sounds. Depressurized soundings. The music will give the impression of a distant cataclysm and will fill the room, falling as from vertiginous heights. Chords will originate in the sky and then deteriorate, going from one extreme to the other. Sounds will fall as if from very high, then suddenly stop and spread out in bursts, forming vaults and parasols. Tiers of sounds... Allen S. Weiss, Phantasmatic Radio, Duke University Press, 1995, page 42}} The piece was never completed and Varse turned to other projects, including a radiophonic work involving various synchronised choirs located in different places of the world. He never found the technology for it. In 1948, Artaud insisted on having noise sounds included in his Pour en finir avec le judgement de Dieu (To have done with the judgment of God). This was done in the Radiodiffusion Television Franaise studios where Pierre Schaeffer was working at the time. Silent music Silent Music (1994)Bernd Schulz (editor) Silent Music - zwischen Klangkunst und Akustikdesign/Between Sound Art and Acoustic Design, book+CD, 1999 is an installation work by Canadian artist Robin Minard with several hundred wall-mounted piezo loudspeakers and four-channel audio. The miniature loudspeakers are displayed in plant-like shapes on the walls of public spaces. They reproduce the minuscule ambient sounds of the public space where they are installed or play random synthetic sounds at barely audible volume. Minard deals with remote sounds best suited to intimate listening. In 2006 he created 'A voir en silence', a small artist book with loudspeakers and hand-written text.Susan Meinhardt Silent Music/Adelaide Festival DVD, Australia, 2007 Discursive music Marcel Proust The Vinteuil Sonata is an imaginary violin and piano sonata by fictitious composer Vinteuil recurring several times in Marcel Proust's la recherche du temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time), particularly in Un amour de Swann (1913). In the latter volume, Charles Swann associates strong emotions and memories to the melody composed by Vinteuil. The French composer Reynaldo Hahn noticed how much Marcel Proust "vivait la musique de son temps" (experienced contemporary music).See Adrien De Vries' article : Sources de la Sonate de Vinteuil, April 2007 (in French) For example, Proust immediately praised and enjoyed Debussy's 1902 Pellas et Mlisande opera. Critics disagree on which composer inspired the sonata. Possibly Gabriel FaurSee Margaret Hunter and Abigail Al-Doory's article: L'homme et la Musique Dans Un Amour de Swann, 1996 or Csar Franck. In Les plaisirs et les jours (1896), Proust focusses on Hans Sachs's monologue from Wagner's Die Meistersinger von Nrnberg, act 2. In Jean Santeuil (1952), a Camille Saint-Sans sonata for violin and piano (Op. 75, 1885) plays a key role and is presumably the model for the Sonate de Vinteuil. In Un amour de Swann '' , the Vinteuil Sonata is played during evenings at the Verdurins' by pianist Dechambre. The main character's emotions are mirrored by Proust's musical reminiscences. Walter Marchetti An example of imaginary music can be found in a Walter Marchetti poem where he mentions a Juan Hidalgo imaginary composition (both Hidalgo and Marchetti were members of the Spanish Zaj Group of Madrid in the late 1950s).

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Asbestos (pronounced: or ) is a naturally occurring fibrous silicate mineral. There are six types, all of which are composed of long and thin fibrous crystals, each fibre being composed of many microscopic "fibrils" that can be released into the atmosphere by abrasion and other processes. Asbestos is an excellent electrical insulator and is highly heat-resistant, so for many years it was used as a building material.Bureau of Naval Personnel, Basic Electricity. 1969: US Navy. However, it is now a notorious health and safety hazard and the use of asbestos as a building material is illegal in many countries. Inhalation of asbestos fibres can lead to various serious lung conditions, including asbestosis and cancer . Archaeological studies have found evidence of asbestos being used as far back as the Stone Age to strengthen ceramic pots, but large-scale mining began at the end of the 19th century when manufacturers and builders began using asbestos for its desirable physical properties. Asbestos was widely used during the 20th century until the 1970s when public recognition of the health hazards of asbestos dust led to its prohibition in mainstream construction and fireproofing in most countries. Despite this, and in part because the consequences of exposure can take decades to arise, at least 100,000 people are thought to die each year from diseases related to asbestos exposure. Despite the severity of asbestos-related diseases, the material has been widely used all over the world, and most buildings constructed before the 1980s are thought to contain asbestos. Many developing countries still support the use of asbestos as a building material, and mining of asbestos is ongoing, with top producer Russia having estimated production of 790,000 tonnes in 2020.

Asbestos (pronounced: or ) is a naturally occurring fibrous silicate mineral. There are six types, all of which are composed of long and thin fibrous crystals, each fibre being composed of many microscopic "fibrils" that can be released into the atmosphere by abrasion and other processes. Inhalation of asbestos fibres can lead to various serious lung conditions, including asbestosis and cancer , so it is now notorious as a health and safety hazard . Archaeological studies have found evidence of asbestos being used as far back as the Stone Age to strengthen ceramic pots, but large-scale mining began at the end of the 19th century when manufacturers and builders began using asbestos for its desirable physical properties. Asbestos is an excellent electrical insulator and is highly heat-resistant, so for much of the 20th century it was widely used across the world as a building material until its effects on human health were recognized in the 1970s .Bureau of Naval Personnel, Basic Electricity. 1969: US Navy. Many modern buildings constructed before the 1980s are thought to contain asbestos. Inhalation of asbestos fibres can lead to various serious lung conditions, including asbestosis and cancer, so it is now notorious as a health and safety hazard. The use of asbestos for construction and fireproofing has been made illegal in many countries. Despite this, at least 100,000 people are thought to die each year from diseases related to asbestos exposure. In part, this is because many older buildings still contain asbestos; in addition, the consequences of exposure can take decades to arise. Many developing countries still support the use of asbestos as a building material, and mining of asbestos is ongoing, with top producer Russia having an estimated production of 790,000 tonnes in 2020.

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Sisulu was born in Ngcobo in the Union of South Africa. His mother, Alice Mase Sisulu, was a Xhosa domestic worker and his father, Albert Victor Dickinson, who was white. Dickinson worked in the Railway Department of the Cape Colony from 1903 to 1909 and was transferred to the Office of the Chief Magistrate in Umtata in 1910.David Beresford, "Walter Sisulu" (obituary), The Guardian, 7 May 2003. His mother was related to Evelyn Mase, Nelson Mandela's first wife. Dickinson did not play a part in his son's upbringing, and the boy and his sister, Rosabella, were raised by his mother's family, who were descended from the Thembu clan.Walter Sisulu Walter Sisulu Dickinson later went on to become the Attorney General of the Transvaal. He founded Sitha Investments in 1939. It was situated at Barclay Arcade between West Street and Commissioner Street in the business district of Johannesburg. Its objective is to help blacks and Indians to buy houses in Apartheid South Africa. During its operations, Sitha was the only black-owned estate agency in South Africa. An adopted daughter, Beryl Rose Sisulu, served as ambassador from the Republic of South Africa to Norway.Female ambassadors luncheon. He joined the ANC in 1941. In 1943, together with Nelson Mandela and Oliver Tambo, he joined the ANC Youth League, founded by Anton Lembede, of which he was initially the treasurer. He later distanced himself from Lembede after Lembede, who died in 1947, had ridiculed his parentage (Sisulu was the son of a white foreman). Sisulu was a political networker and had a prominent planning role in the militant Umkhonto we Sizwe ("Spear of the Nation"). He was made secretary general of the ANC in 1949, displacing the more passive older leadership, and held that post until 1954. He also joined the South African Communist Party.

Sisulu was born in Ngcobo in the Union of South Africa. His mother, Alice Mase Sisulu, was a Xhosa domestic worker and his father, Albert Victor Dickinson, who was white. Dickinson worked in the Railway Department of the Cape Colony from 1903 to 1909 and was transferred to the Office of the Chief Magistrate in Umtata in 1910.David Beresford, "Walter Sisulu" (obituary), The Guardian, 7 May 2003. Sisulu's mother was related to Evelyn Mase, Nelson Mandela's first wife. Dickinson did not play a part in his son's upbringing, and the boy and his sister, Rosabella, were raised by his mother's family, who were descended from the Thembu clan.Walter Sisulu Walter Sisulu Dickinson later went on to become the Attorney General of the Transvaal. He founded Sitha Investments in 1939. It was situated at Barclay Arcade between West Street and Commissioner Street in the business district of Johannesburg. Its objective was to help blacks and Indians buy houses in Apartheid South Africa. During its operations, Sitha was the only black-owned real estate agency in South Africa. An adopted daughter, Beryl Rose Sisulu, served as ambassador for the Republic of South Africa in Norway.Female ambassadors luncheon. He joined the ANC in 1941. In 1943, together with Nelson Mandela and Oliver Tambo, he joined the ANC Youth League, founded by Anton Lembede, of which he was initially the treasurer. He later distanced himself from Lembede after Lembede, who died in 1947, had ridiculed his parentage (Sisulu was the son of a white foreman). Sisulu was a political networker and had a prominent planning role in the militant Umkhonto we Sizwe ("Spear of the Nation"). He became secretary general of the ANC in 1949, displacing the more passive older leadership, in a post he held until 1954. He also joined the South African Communist Party.

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Following the 1956 Loi Cadre, rudiments of internal rule were created with the Territorial Assembly of Niger elected by popular vote, but holding only advisory and administrative powers. In 1958 the French Union succeed the French Community On 25 August 1958, the Lieutenant Governor became High Commissioner of Niger, but remained Head of State of a quasi-independent state which controlled some purely internal administration. The Constitution of 25 February 1959 was created by and then ratified vote of the Constituent Assembly of Niger, a body created for this purpose from the elected Territorial Assembly of Niger in December 1958. On 12 March 1959 the Constituent Assembly became the Legislative Assembly of Niger, with the head of government, Hamani Diori, retaining the title of President of the Council. Nominal executive powers were vested in the Assembly, with the constitution establishing elements, such as the Flag of Niger, the National anthem of Niger and the Coat of Arms of Niger, along with language on naming of political bodies, rights and powers which have been retained in subsequent texts.

Following the 1956 Loi Cadre, rudiments of internal rule were created with the Territorial Assembly of Niger elected by popular vote, but holding only advisory and administrative powers. In 1958 the French Community succeed the French Union. On 25 August 1958, the Lieutenant Governor became High Commissioner of Niger, but remained Head of State of a quasi-independent state which controlled some purely internal administration. The Constitution of 25 February 1959 was ratified by the Constituent Assembly of Niger, a body created for this purpose from the Territorial Assembly of Niger elected in December 1958. On 12 March 1959 the Constituent Assembly became the Legislative Assembly of Niger, with the head of government, Hamani Diori, retaining the title of President of the Council. Nominal executive powers were vested in the Assembly, with the constitution establishing elements, such as the Flag of Niger, the National anthem of Niger and the Coat of Arms of Niger, along with language on naming of political bodies, rights and powers which have been retained in subsequent texts.

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The India Office was a British government department established in London in 1858 to oversee the administration, through a Viceroy and other officials, of the Provinces of British India. These territories comprised most of the modern-day nations of Bangladesh, Burma, India, and Pakistan, as well as Aden and other territories around the Indian Ocean. The department was headed by the Secretary of State for India, a member of the British cabinet, who was formally advised by the Council of India.Kaminsky, 1986. Upon the partition of British India in 1947 into the two new independent dominions of India and Pakistan, the India Office was closed down. Responsibility for the United Kingdom's relations with the two new countries was transferred to the Commonwealth Relations Office (formerly the Dominions Office).

The India Office was a British government department established in London in 1858 to oversee the administration, through a Viceroy and other officials, of the Provinces of British India. These territories comprised most of the modern-day nations of Indian Subcontinent as well as Yemen and other territories around the Indian Ocean. The department was headed by the Secretary of State for India, a member of the British cabinet, who was formally advised by the Council of India.Kaminsky, 1986. Upon the independence of India in 1947 into the new independent dominion of India of the India Office was closed down. Responsibility for the United Kingdom's relations with the new country was transferred to the Commonwealth Relations Office (formerly the Dominions Office).

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The history of Pakistan encompasses the region of the Indus Valley, which spans the northwestern expanse of the Indian subcontinent and the eastern Iranian plateau. The region served both as the fertile ground of a major civilisation and as the gateway of South Asia to Central Asia and the Near East. Quote: "Numerous passageways through the western frontiers of the Indian subcontinent in modern Pakistan and Afghanistan served as migration routes to South Asia from the Iranian plateau and the Central Asian steppes. Prehistoric and protohistoric exchanges across the Hindu Kush, Karakoram, and Himalaya ranges demonstrate earlier precedents for routes through the high mountain passes and river valleys in later historical periods. Typological similarities between Northern Neolithic sites in Kashmir and Swat and sites in the Tibetan plateau and northern China show that 'Mountain chains have often integrated rather than isolated peoples.' Ties between the trading post of Shortughai in Badakhshan (northeastern Afghanistan) and the lower Indus valley provide evidence for long-distance commercial networks and 'polymorphous relations' across the Hindu Kush until c. 1800 B.C.' The Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) may have functioned as a 'filter' for the introduction of Indo-Iranian languages to the northwestern Indian subcontinent, although routes and chronologies remain hypothetical. (page 55)" Quote: "Here also, in ancient days, was the meeting-place of three great trade-routes , one, from Hindustan and Eastern India, which was to become the ' royal highway' described by Megasthenes as running from Pataliputra to the north-west of the Maurya empire; the second from Western Asia through Bactria, Kapisi and Pushkalavati and so across the Indus at Ohind to Taxila; and the third from Kashmir and Central Asia by way of the Srinagar valley and Baramula to Mansehra and so down the Haripur valley. These three trade-routes, which carried the bulk of the traffic passing by land between India and Central and Western Asia, played an all-important part in the history of Taxila. (page 1)"

The history of Pakistan for the period preceding the country's creation in 1947Pakistan was created as the Dominion of Pakistan on 14 August 1947 after the end of British rule in, and partition of British India. is shared with that of Afghanistan, India, and Iran. Spanning the western expanse of the Indian subcontinent and the eastern borderlands of the Iranian plateau, the region of present-day Pakistan served both as the fertile ground of a major civilization and as the gateway of South Asia to Central Asia and the Near East. Quote: "Numerous passageways through the northwestern frontiers of the Indian subcontinent in modern Pakistan and Afghanistan served as migration routes to South Asia from the Iranian plateau and the Central Asian steppes. Prehistoric and protohistoric exchanges across the Hindu Kush, Karakoram, and Himalaya ranges demonstrate earlier precedents for routes through the high mountain passes and river valleys in later historical periods. Typological similarities between Northern Neolithic sites in Kashmir and Swat and sites in the Tibetan plateau and northern China show that 'Mountain chains have often integrated rather than isolated peoples.' Ties between the trading post of Shortughai in Badakhshan (northeastern Afghanistan) and the lower Indus valley provide evidence for long-distance commercial networks and 'polymorphous relations' across the Hindu Kush until c. 1800 B.C.' The Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) may have functioned as a 'filter' for the introduction of Indo-Iranian languages to the northwestern Indian subcontinent, although routes and chronologies remain hypothetical. (page 55)" Quote: "Here also, in ancient days, was the meeting-place of three great trade-routes , one, from Hindustan and Eastern India, which was to become the ` royal highway' described by Megasthenes as running from Pataliputra to the north-west of the Maurya empire; the second from Western Asia through Bactria, Kapisi and Pushkalavati and so across the Indus at Ohind to Taxila; and the third from Kashmir and Central Asia by way of the Srinagar valley and Baramula to Mansehra and so down the Haripur valley. These three trade-routes, which carried the bulk of the traffic passing by land between India and Central and Western Asia, played an all-important part in the history of Taxila. (page 1)"

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Another source of dispute has been the Baghdad stone i ption in a Turkish script , which some interpret saying Baba Nanak Fakir was there in 15111512 , while some state 15211522 (and that he lived in the Middle East for 11 years away from his family). Others, particularly Western scholars, argue that the stone inscription is from the 19th century and the stone is not a reliable evidence that Guru Nanak visited Baghdad in early 16th century. Moreover, beyond the stone, no evidence or mention of Guru Nanak's journey in the Middle East has been found in any other Middle Eastern textual or epigraphical records. Claims have been asserted of additional inscriptions, but no one has been able to locate and verify them.

Another source of dispute has been the Baghdad stone , bearing an inscription in a Turkish script . Some interpret the inscription as saying Baba Nanak Fakir was there in 15111512 ; others read it as saying 15211522 (and that he lived in the Middle East for 11 years away from his family). Others, particularly Western scholars, argue that the stone inscription is from the 19th century and the stone is not a reliable evidence that Guru Nanak visited Baghdad in early 16th century. Moreover, beyond the stone, no evidence or mention of Guru Nanak's journey in the Middle East has been found in any other Middle Eastern textual or epigraphical records. Claims have been asserted of additional inscriptions, but no one has been able to locate and verify them.

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House of Carlos Jose Gonzalez Llorente. Cry of Independence, Bogota. The Colombian Declaration of Independence refers to the events of July 20, 1810 , in Santa Fe de Bogota, in the Spanish colonial Viceroyalty of New Granada . They resulted in the establishment of a Junta de Santa Fe that day. The experience in self-government eventually led to the creation of the Republic of Colombia.(Note: The initial ambitious area, in accordance with the Viceroyalty of New Granada and Captaincy of Venezuela, included much more than current Colombia; to differentiate it , historians call this supra-nation: Republic of Gran Colombia.) Political background And finally, Torres defended the right of the Viceroyalty of New Granada to establish a junta given the political circumstances. Although the draft expressed many of common sentiments of Criollos at the time and probably was discussed by prominent members of the capital's society, it was never adopted by the cabildo. It would be published for the first time only in 1832.

House of Carlos Jose Gonzalez Llorente. Cry of Independence, Bogota. The Colombian Declaration of Independence occurred on July 20, 1810 when the Junta de Santa Fe was formed in Santa Fe de Bogota, the capital of the Spanish colonial Viceroyalty of New Granada , to govern the territory autonomously from Spain. The event inspired similar independence movements across Latin America, and triggered an almost decade-long rebellion culminating in the founding of the Republic of Gran Colombia, which spanned present-day Colombia, mainland Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela, along with parts of northern Peru and northwestern Brazil.At the time, the state was known as Colombia; the term Gran Colombia is used historiographically to distinguish it from the current Republic of Colombia, which is also the official name of the former state. Although Gran Colombia would ultimately dissolve in 1831, it was for a time among the most powerful countries in the Western Hemisphere, and played an influential role in shaping the political development of other newly sovereign Latin American states. The modern nation-state of Colombia recognizes the event as its national independence day. Political background Torres defended the right of the Viceroyalty of New Granada to establish a junta given the political circumstances. Although the draft expressed many of common sentiments of Criollos at the time and probably was discussed by prominent members of the capital's society, it was never adopted by the cabildo. It would be published for the first time only in 1832.

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In the 1850s the term 'Aryan' was adopted as a racial category by French writer Arthur de Gobineau, who, through the later works of Houston Stewart Chamberlain, influenced the Nazi racial ideology. Under Nazi rule (19331945), the term applied to the inhabitants of Germany of non-Jewish origin; 'non-Aryans ' were discriminated against , then the target of systematic mass killings known as the Holocaust. The atrocities committed in the name of Aryanist supremacist ideologies have led academics to avoid the term 'Aryan', which has been replaced in most cases by 'Indo-Iranian', with only the South Asian branch still being called 'Indo-Aryan'.

In the 1850s the term 'Aryan' was adopted as a racial category by French writer Arthur de Gobineau, who, through the later works of Houston Stewart Chamberlain, influenced the Nazi racial ideology. Under Nazi rule (19331945), the term applied to most inhabitants of Germany who were not Jews, Poles, Slavs, or Russians. Those classified as 'non-Aryans ,' especially Jews, were discriminated against before suffering the systematic mass killing known as the Holocaust. The atrocities committed in the name of Aryanist supremacist ideologies have led academics to avoid the term 'Aryan', which has been replaced in most cases by 'Indo-Iranian', with only the South Asian branch still being called 'Indo-Aryan'.

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The role of the librarian has changed much over time, with the past century in particular bringing many new media and technologies into play. From the earliest libraries in the ancient world to the modern information hub, there have been keepers and disseminators of the information held in data stores. Roles and responsibilities vary widely depending on the type of library and specialist librarian, from academic libraries to public libraries, as well as the functions needed behind the scenes to maintain the collection and make it available to its users. The Great Library of Alexandria, created by Ptolemy I after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, was created to house the entirety of Greek literature. It was notable for its famous librarians: Demetrius, Zenodotus, Eratosthenes, Apollonius, Aristophanes, Aristarchus, and Callimachus. These scholars contributed significantly to the collection and cataloging of the wide variety of scrolls in the library's collection. Most notably, Callimachus created what is considered to be the first subject catalogue of the library holdings, called the pinakes. The pinakes contained 120 scrolls arranged into ten subject classes; each class was then subdivided, listing authors alphabetically by titles. The librarians at Alexandria were considered the "custodians of learning". As the crisis escalated, was a high demand for contact tracers, and the CDC had earlier named librarians as key public health staff to support COVID-19 case investigation and contact tracing, so many librarians and library staff volunteered to help with contact tracing. Librarians also supported their community in other ways such as staffing non-emergency hotlines and manning shelters for the homeless, for which they were able to retain their income, while others were furloughed for a time. Additional responsibilities Experienced librarians may take administrative positions such as library or information center director or learning resource officer. Similar to the management of any URLanization, they are concerned with the long-term planning of the library, and its relationship with its URLanization (the city or county for a public library, the college/university for an academic library, or URLanization served by a special library). In smaller or specialized libraries, librarians typically perform a wide range of the different duties. upJustin Winsor, Librarian of Congress, c. 1885 Representative examples of librarian responsibilities: Researching topics of interest for their constituencies. Referring patrons to other URLanizations and government offices. Suggesting appropriate books ("readers' advisory") for children of different reading levels, and recommending novels for recreational reading. Reviewing books and journal databases Working with other URLanisations to establish continual, lifelong learning and further education initiatives Facilitating and promoting reading clubs. Developing programs for library users of all ages and backgrounds. Managing access to electronic information resources. Assessing library services and collections in order to best meet library users' needs. Building and maintaining collections to respond to changing community needs or demands Creating pathfinders Writing grants to gain funding for expanded program or collections Digitizing collections for online access Publishing articles in library science journals Answering incoming reference questions via telephone, postal mail, email, fax, and chat delivering arts and cultural activities to local communities Initiating and establishing creative digital activities to introduce children to coding, engineering and website building Marking promotion and advocacy of library services Assisting job seekers and local businesses Making and enforcing computer appointments on the public access Internet computers."The librarian's Internet survival guide: strategies for the high-tech reference desk", Irene E. McDermott, Barbara E. Quint, p. 1-2, Information Today, Special library Special libraries can be described as libraries designed to perform some specific function to a particular set of people or URLanization i.e. some include news, law, medical, theological, prison, corporate, museum, or any other type of library owned and operated by URLanization . They can be highly specialized, serving a discrete user group with a restricted collection area. In an increasingly global and virtual workplace, many special librarians may not even work in a library at all but instead manage and facilitate the use of electronic collections. Funding for special libraries varies widely. Librarians in some types of special libraries may be required to have additional training, such as a law degree for a librarian in an academic law library or appropriate subject degrees for subject specialties such as chemistry, engineering, etc. Many belong to the Special Libraries Association. There are also more specific associations such as the American Association of Law Libraries, Art Libraries Society of North America, the American Theological Library Association, the Medical Library Association, or the Visual Resources Association.

The role of the librarian has changed much over time, with the past century in particular bringing many new media and technologies into play. From the earliest libraries in the ancient world to the modern information hub, there have been keepers and disseminators of the information held in data stores. Roles and responsibilities vary widely depending on the type of library , the specialty of the librarian, and the functions needed to maintain collections and make them available to its users. The Great Library of Alexandria, created by Ptolemy I after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, was created to house the entirety of Greek literature. It was notable for its famous librarians: Demetrius, Zenodotus, Eratosthenes, Apollonius, Aristophanes, Aristarchus, and Callimachus. These scholars contributed significantly to the collection and cataloging of the wide variety of scrolls in the library's collection. Most notably, Callimachus created what is considered to be the first subject catalog of the library holdings, called the pinakes. The pinakes contained 120 scrolls arranged into ten subject classes; each class was then subdivided, listing authors alphabetically by titles. The librarians at Alexandria were considered the "custodians of learning". As the crisis escalated, there was a high demand for contact tracers, and the CDC had earlier named librarians as key public health staff to support COVID-19 case investigation and contact tracing, so many librarians and library staff volunteered to help with contact tracing. Librarians also supported their community in other ways , such as staffing non-emergency hotlines and manning shelters for the homeless, for which they were able to retain their income, while others were furloughed for a time. Additional responsibilities Experienced librarians may take administrative positions such as library or information center director or learning resource officer. Similar to the management of any URLanization, they are concerned with the long-term planning of the library, and its relationship with its URLanization (the city or county for a public library, the college/university for an academic library, or URLanization served by a special library). In smaller or specialized libraries, librarians typically perform a wide range of the different duties. upJustin Winsor, Librarian of Congress, c. 1885 Representative examples of librarian responsibilities: Researching topics of interest for their constituencies. Referring patrons to other URLanizations and government offices. Suggesting appropriate books ("readers' advisory") for children of different reading levels, and recommending novels for recreational reading. Reviewing books and journal databases Working with other URLanisations to establish continual, lifelong learning and further education initiatives Facilitating and promoting reading clubs. Developing programs for library users of all ages and backgrounds. Managing access to electronic information resources. Assessing library services and collections in order to best meet library users' needs. Building and maintaining collections to respond to changing community needs or demands Creating pathfinders Writing grants to gain funding for expanded program or collections Digitizing collections for online access Publishing articles in library science journals Answering incoming reference questions via telephone, postal mail, email, fax, and chat Delivering arts and cultural activities to local communities Initiating and establishing creative digital activities to introduce children to coding, engineering and website building Marking promotion and advocacy of library services Assisting job seekers and local businesses Making and enforcing computer appointments on the public access Internet computers."The librarian's Internet survival guide: strategies for the high-tech reference desk", Irene E. McDermott, Barbara E. Quint, p. 1-2, Information Today, Special library Special libraries are libraries designed to perform some specific function for a particular set of people or URLanization , i.e. news, law, medical, theological, prison, corporate, or museum . They can be highly specialized, serving a discrete user group with a restricted collection area. In an increasingly global and virtual workplace, many special librarians may not even work in a library at all but instead manage and facilitate the use of electronic collections. Funding for special libraries varies widely. Librarians in some types of special libraries may be required to have additional training, such as a law degree for a librarian in an academic law library or appropriate subject degrees for subject specialties such as chemistry, engineering, etc. Many belong to the Special Libraries Association. There are also more specific associations such as the American Association of Law Libraries, Art Libraries Society of North America, the American Theological Library Association, the Medical Library Association, or the Visual Resources Association.

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While Aristotle considered Socrates a major philosopher, his writing didn't focus on him to the same degree as it did on other, pre-Socratic philosophers, and most of his followers didn't comment on Socrates at all. One of Aristotle pupil's unleashed an ad hominem attack on Socrates: Aristoxenus authored a book full of Socrates' scandals; it was not well-received by ancient critics. The Epicureans later weaponized Socratic irony in their polemic against Socrates. They also attacked him for superstition, given his story with the Delphi oracle. Epicurus, the founder of epicureanism, living in the 3rd and 4th century BC, came across various currents claiming to be Socratic. They criticized Socrates for his character and various faults, and focused mostly on his irony, which was deemed inappropriate for a philosopher , anti-pedagogical . Also, his Socratic ignorance didn't resonate well with their criteria of truths.

While Aristotle considered Socrates a major philosopher, his writing didn't focus on him to the same degree as it did on other, pre-Socratic philosophers, and most of his followers didn't comment on Socrates at all. One of Aristotle pupil's unleashed an ad hominem attack on Socrates: Aristoxenus authored a book full of Socrates' scandals; it was not well-received by ancient critics. The Epicureans later weaponized Socratic irony in their polemic against Socrates. They also attacked him for superstition, given his story with the Delphi oracle. Epicurus, the founder of epicureanism, living in the 4th and 3rd century BC, came across various currents claiming to be Socratic. The Epicureans criticized Socrates for his character and various faults, and focused mostly on his irony, which was deemed inappropriate for a philosopher and unsuitable for teaching . Also, his Socratic ignorance didn't resonate well with their criteria of truths.

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Love Socrates and Alcibiades, by Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg There exist textual passages suggesting that Socrates had a love affair with Alcibiades and other young males while other texts suggest that Socrates' friendship with young boys sought to improve them and were not sexual. In URLias, Socrates claims he was a dual lover of Alcibiades and philosophy, and his flirtatiousness is evident in Protagoras, Meno (76ac) and Phaedrus (227cd). However, the exact nature of the relation is not clear since Socrates was known for his self-restraint, while Alcibiades admits in the Symposium that he had tried to seduce Socrates but failed. The Socratic theory of love is mostly deduced from Lysis, where Socrates talks about love at a wrestling school with Lysis and his friends. They start their dialogue by investigating parental love and how it manifests with respect to the freedom and boundaries they set for their child. Socrates concludes that if Lysis is utterly useless, nobody will love him, not even his parents. While most scholars consider this text to be humorous in intention, Gregory Vlastos suggests that it reveals the Socratic doctrine on love, which is an egoistic one, according to which we only love people that are useful to us in some way. Others scholars disagree with Vlastos' view; some argue that Socrates leaves room for non-egoistical love for a spouse, while others deny that Socrates is suggesting any egoistical motivation at all. A form of utility children have for parents, as Socrates claims in Symposium, is that they offer the false impression of immortality. Scholars note that for Socrates, love is rational.

Love Socrates and Alcibiades, by Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg There exist textual passages suggesting that Socrates had a love affair with Alcibiades and other young males , while other texts suggest that Socrates' friendship with young boys sought only to improve them and were not sexual. In URLias, Socrates claims he was a dual lover of Alcibiades and philosophy, and his flirtatiousness is evident in Protagoras, Meno (76ac) and Phaedrus (227cd). However, the exact nature of his relationship with Alcibiades is not clear since Socrates was known for his self-restraint, while Alcibiades admits in the Symposium that he had tried to seduce Socrates but failed. The Socratic theory of love is mostly deduced from Lysis, where Socrates engages in a discussion about love at a wrestling school in the company of Lysis and his friends. They start their dialogue by investigating parental love and how it manifests with respect to the freedom and boundaries which parents set for their child. Socrates concludes that if Lysis is utterly useless, nobody will love him, not even his parents. While most scholars consider this text to be humorous in intention, Gregory Vlastos suggests that it reveals the Socratic doctrine on love, which is an egoistic one, according to which we only love people that are useful to us in some way. Others scholars disagree with Vlastos' view; some argue that Socrates leaves room for non-egoistical love for a spouse, while others deny that Socrates is suggesting any egoistical motivation at all. A form of utility children have for parents, as Socrates claims in Symposium, is that they offer the false impression of immortality. Scholars note that for Socrates, love is rational.

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When breast cancer is surgically excised, it can come back (local recurrence) in the remaining breast or on the chest wall in a small proportion of women. Adjuvant radiotherapy is necessary if breast cancer is treated by removing only the cancerous lump with a rim of surrounding normal tissue, as it reduces the chance of local recurrence significantly . When cancer does come back, it most commonly occurs in the tissues surrounding the original cancer (the tumour bed), even though there are multicentric cancers in remote areas of the breast. This suggests that it is most important to treat the tumour bed. The rationale for TARGIT is to deliver a high dose of radiation precisely to the tumour bed. Conventional radiation techniques such as external beam radiotherapy (EBRT) following surgical removal of the tumour have been time tested and proven to be effective. EBRT is usually given as a course of whole breast radiotherapy and an additional tumour bed boost . However, it has a few drawbacks; for example, the tumour bed where the boost dose should be applied can be missed ("geographical miss") due to the difficulties in localization of the complex wound cavity even when modern radiotherapy planning is used. Additionally, the usual delay ("temporal miss") between the surgical removal of the tumour and EBRT may allow a repopulation of the tumour cells . These potentially harmful effects can be avoided by delivering the radiation more precisely to the targeted tissues leading to immediate sterilization of residual tumour cells. Furthermore, TARGIT inhibits the stimulating effects of wound fluid on cancer cells, suggesting for the first time, a beneficial effect of intraoperative radiotherapy (IORT) on tumour microenvironment. In these studies, women treated with TARGIT-IORT during lumpectomy for breast cancer combined with whole breast radiotherapy had a significantly low mortality from non-breast-cancer causes, such as cardiovascular and lung complications, as well as other cancers compared with those who received whole breast radiotherapy. Therefore, this reduction was thought to be due to the delivery of TARGIT-IORT to the fresh tumour bed during the trauma of surgery rather than avoidance of scattered radiation from whole breast radiotherapy .

When breast cancer is surgically excised, it can come back (local recurrence) in the remaining breast or on the chest wall in a small proportion of women. Adjuvant radiotherapy is necessary if breast cancer is treated by removing only the cancerous lump with a rim of surrounding normal tissue, as it reduces the chance of local recurrence . When cancer does come back, it most commonly occurs in the tissues surrounding the original cancer (the tumour bed), even though there are multicentric cancers in remote areas of the breast. This suggests that it is most important to treat the tumour bed. The rationale for TARGIT is to deliver a high dose of radiation precisely to the tumour bed. Conventional radiation techniques such as external beam radiotherapy (EBRT) following surgical removal of the tumour have been time tested and proven to be effective. EBRT is usually given as a course of whole breast radiotherapy and an additional tumour bed boost , or partial breast irradiation of a smaller area . However, it has a few drawbacks; for example, the tumour bed where the boost dose should be applied can be missed due to the difficulties in localization of the complex wound cavity ("geographical miss"), even when modern radiotherapy planning is used. Additionally, the usual delay between the surgical removal of the tumour and EBRT may allow a repopulation of the tumour cells ("temporal miss") . These potentially harmful effects may be avoided by delivering the radiation more precisely to the targeted tissues leading to immediate sterilization of residual tumour cells. The use in TARGIT of a small treatment device which can be positioned in close physical proximity to the treatment site aims to avoid some of these practical issues. TARGIT irradiation has also been shown to affect the properties of wound fluid, which may be linked to cancer cell proliferation and possibly local recurrence. The TARGIT technique is the subject of clinical trials. A major phase III trial comparing TARGIT-IORT to EBRT during lumpectomy for breast cancer completed in 2012, with long-term follow-up ongoing .

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Targeted intra-operative radiotherapy, also known as targeted IORT or TARGIT (TARGeted Intraoperative radioTherapy) is a technique of giving radiotherapy to the tissues surrounding a cancer after its surgical removal, a form of intraoperative radiation therapy. The technique was designed in 1998 at the University College London. In patients having lumpectomy for breast cancer, the TARGIT-A(lone) randomized controlled trial (recruitment from 20002012) tested whether TARGIT within a risk-adapted approach is non-inferior to conventional course of external beam postoperative radiotherapy given over several weeks. TARGIT is a method where the radiation is applied during an operation and targeted to the peri-tumoural tissues. TARGIT technique was designed at University College London by Jayant S Vaidya (who coined the TARGIT acronym) and Michael Baum along with Jeffrey S Tobias in 1998. The term was first used when the technique was described, and the protocol for a randomised trial was published by The Lancet. Technique TARGeted Intraoperative radioTherapy (TARGIT) IORT for breast cancer The machine used for TARGIT is Intrabeam (Carl Zeiss , Germany) . It is a miniature and mobile X-ray source which emits low energy X-ray radiation (max. 50 kV) in isotropic distribution. Due to the higher ionization density caused by soft X-ray radiation in the tissue, the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of low-energy X-rays on tumour cells is higher when compared to high-energy X-rays or gamma rays which are delivered by linear accelerators. The radiation which is produced by mobile radiation systems has a limited range . For this reason, conventional walls are regarded sufficient to stop the radiation scatter produced in the operating room and no extra measures for radiation protection are necessary. This makes IORT for breast cancer by the TARGIT technique available in most operating rooms. The surgical technique is relatively simple but needs to be meticulously followed .

Targeted intra-operative radiotherapy, also known as targeted IORT is a technique of giving radiotherapy to the tissues surrounding a cancer after its surgical removal, a form of intraoperative radiation therapy. The technique was designed in 1998 at the University College London. In patients having lumpectomy for breast cancer, the TARGIT-A(lone) randomized controlled trial (recruitment from 20002012) tested whether TARGIT within a risk-adapted approach is non-inferior to conventional course of external beam postoperative radiotherapy given over several weeks. One IORT technique is known as TARGIT (TARGeted Intraoperative radioTherapy). TARGIT is a method where the radiation is applied during an operation and targeted to the peri-tumoural tissues. TARGIT technique was designed at University College London by Jayant S Vaidya (who coined the TARGIT acronym) and Michael Baum along with Jeffrey S Tobias in 1998. The term was first used when the technique was described, and the protocol for a randomised trial was published by The Lancet. Technique The Intrabeam system, manufactured by Carl Zeiss AG, is used for TARGIT . It is a miniature and mobile X-ray source which emits low energy X-ray radiation (max. 50 kV) in isotropic distribution. Due to the higher ionisation density caused by soft X-ray radiation in the tissue, the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of low-energy X-rays on tumour cells is higher when compared to high-energy X-rays or gamma rays which are delivered by linear accelerators. Lower energy radiation such as this has a limited range , and therefore conventional walls may be sufficient to stop the radiation scatter produced in the operating room without extra measures for radiation protection .

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The Ngqika people are a Xhosa monarchy who lived west of the Great Kei River2017. Ngqika ka Mlawu, 3rd Paramount Chief of the amaRarabe. Geni. Accessed 13 March. in what is today the Eastern Cape of South Africa. They were first ruled by Rarabe kaPhalo who died with his son Mlawu, who was destined for chieftaincy. The clan would be named after Ngqika ka Mlawu, the son of the then late Mlawu.2017. Maqoma's final resistance. News24. Accessed 13 March. It would be years before the child would rule his people who fought in the Xhosa Wars following the invasion of the British and Dutch settlers . In colonial times, the Ngqika lands were known as British Kaffraria. Later the Apartheid government gave them a form of independence as the former "Ciskei" homeland. The occupation by white settlers(Dutch and British) resulted in the century of Xhosa Wars (commonly known as the Frontier Wars) from 1779 to 1879 involving Xhosa tribes (including the Ngqika), Khoikhoi and San people. Relations between the European invaders were fluid throughout this period with the varying indigenous people and Europeans working for or against one another to secure land, resources and cattle. These groups changed allies depending on who would help advance their objectives over the years. In 1793, in collaboration with other Xhosa clans, the Ngqikas fought against white settlers during the Second Frontier War. The native groups lost most of their land and were absorbed into the British empire during this century. The Xhosa eventually lost access to the fertile land between the Great Kei River and Great Fish River to British colonists . 2017. Battle of Amalinde. Buffalo City. Accessed 13 March.

The Ngqika people are a Xhosa monarchy who lived west of the Great Kei River2017. Ngqika ka Mlawu, 3rd Paramount Chief of the amaRarabe. Geni. Accessed 13 March. in what is today the Eastern Cape of South Africa. They were first ruled by Rarabe kaPhalo who died with his son Mlawu, who was destined for chieftaincy. The clan would be named after Ngqika ka Mlawu, the son of the then late Mlawu.2017. Maqoma's final resistance. News24. Accessed 13 March. It would be years before the child would rule his people who fought in the Xhosa Wars , which were sparked by the encroachment of European settlers on Xhosa lands . In colonial times, the Ngqika lands were known as British Kaffraria. Later the , Apartheid government of South Africa gave them a form of independence as the former "Ciskei" homeland. Encroachment by European settlers, beginning in the Dutch colonial period, resulted in the century of Xhosa Wars (commonly known as the Frontier Wars) from 1779 to 1879 involving Xhosa tribes (including the Ngqika), Khoikhoi and San people. Relations between the European invaders were fluid throughout this period with the varying indigenous people and Europeans working for or against one another to secure land, resources and cattle. These groups changed allies depending on who would help advance their objectives over the years. In 1793, in collaboration with other Xhosa clans, the Ngqikas fought against white settlers during the Second Frontier War. The native groups lost most of their land and were absorbed into the Cape Colony during this century. The Xhosa eventually lost access to the fertile land between the Great Kei River and Great Fish River to encroaching European settlers . 2017. Battle of Amalinde. Buffalo City. Accessed 13 March.

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Northern Rhodesia's first commemorative stamps were a set of five on 30 May 1953, marking the birth centennial of Cecil Rhodes, along with another stamp issued on the same day for the Rhodes Centenary Exhibition. As Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom was already on the throne, the stamps included her profile, even though the official coronation stamp did not come out until 2 June. This was followed in September by a definitive series using the same design as before, with the monarch's profile updated once again. Only a few months later, these stamps were withdrawn, and stamps of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland issued in their place , i. e. NR QEII stamps are relatively rare. Northern Rhodesia used the Federation's stamps from 1954 until it was dissolved in 1963. On 10 December 1963, a new definitive series depicted the Queen and the territory's arms were issued , but withdrawn on 23 October 1964 when Zambia became URL Retrieved 12 August 2018.

Northern Rhodesia's first commemorative stamps were a set of five on 30 May 1953, marking the birth centennial of Cecil Rhodes, along with another stamp issued on the same day for the Rhodes Centenary Exhibition. As Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom was already on the throne, the stamps included her profile, even though the official coronation stamp did not come out until 2 June. This was followed in September by a definitive series using the same design as before, with the monarch's profile updated once again. Only a few months later, these stamps were withdrawn, and stamps of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland issued in their place . Northern Rhodesia used the Federation's stamps from 1954 until it was dissolved in 1963. For an interim period, the stamps of Northern Rhodesia were valid for postage in all three territories: Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia Nyasaland. On 10 December 1963, a new definitive series depicted the Queen and the territory's arms were issued . These were hastily printed by Harrison Sons Ltd and can be found with multiple errors such as missing values and double printing or missing colours. This definitive series was withdrawn on 23 October 1964 when Northern Rhodesia achieved independence and became the Republic of URL Retrieved 12 August 2018.

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Examples of drought deciduous species Drought deciduous plants are very commonly found near the borders of desert or long the coastal areas in the Northern Americas. Encelia fairnosa (commonly known as brittlebush) is a very common broadleaf drought deciduous plant species near the desert around the Northern part of Mexico and along the West Coast of the United States. Ambrosia Dumosa (commonly known as Burroweed) is a common microphylllous drought deciduous species which is found near the mentioned areas and live within similar ecosystems as the brittlebush. These two examples although both possess the ability of undergoing abscission due to droughts or dry seasons, they are of different plant families.

Examples of drought deciduous species Drought deciduous plants are very commonly found near the borders of deserts or along the coastal areas in the Northern Americas. Encelia fairnosa (commonly known as brittlebush) is a very common broadleaf drought deciduous plant species found near the desert around the northern part of Mexico and along the West Coast of the United States. Ambrosia Dumosa (commonly known as Burroweed) is a common microphyllous drought deciduous species which is found near those same areas as it lives within similar ecosystems as the brittlebush. Although both these examples are able to undergo abscission in response to droughts or dry seasons, they are from different plant families.

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Noon sights obtain the observer's Latitude. It is impossible to determine longitude with an accuracy better than 10nmi by means of a noon sight. A noon sight is called a Meridian Altitude.Basic Principles of Marine Navigation by D A Moore Published by Kandy p81 While it is very easy to determine the observer's latitude at noon without knowing the exact time, longitude cannot accurately be measured at noon. At noon the sun's change of altitude is very slow, so determining the exact time that the sun is at its zenith by direct observation is impossible, and therefore it is impossible to obtain an accurate longitude at the moment of Zenith . However, it is possible to determine the time of zenith for longitude with a useful accuracy by performing a mean time of observation when the sun is on its ascent and descent prior to and following its moment of Zenith . By taking a sextant reading within 15 to 30 minutes prior to local noon ( zenith ) and noting the time, then leaving the sextant set to the same angle and subsequently observing the moment in time at which the sun passes through the sight tube on its descent from Zenith between a half-hour and hour later, the two times can be averaged to obtain a longitude sufficiently accurate for navigation (within 2nmi).American Practical Navigator (bowditch) by Nathanial Bowditch p253

Noon sights obtain the observer's Latitude. It is impossible to determine longitude with an accuracy better than 10nmi by means of a noon sight. A noon sight is called a Meridian Altitude.Basic Principles of Marine Navigation by D A Moore Published by Kandy p81 While it is very easy to determine the observer's latitude at noon without knowing the exact time, longitude cannot accurately be measured at noon. At noon the sun's change of altitude is very slow, so determining the exact time that the sun is at its highest by direct observation is impossible, and therefore it is impossible to obtain an accurate longitude at the moment of culmination . However, it is possible to determine the time of culmination for longitude with a useful accuracy by performing a mean time of observation when the sun is on its ascent and descent prior to and following its moment of culmination . By taking a sextant reading within 15 to 30 minutes prior to local noon ( culmination ) and noting the time, then leaving the sextant set to the same angle and subsequently observing the moment in time at which the sun passes through the sight tube on its descent from its highest altitude between a half-hour and hour later, the two times can be averaged to obtain a longitude sufficiently accurate for navigation (within 2nmi).American Practical Navigator (bowditch) by Nathanial Bowditch p253

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Once the figure for the Meridian Zenith Distance is obtained the sum or the difference is obtained between it and the declination of the object to obtain the latitude . This is the latitude where the position line crosses the DR longitude.

Once the value of the Meridian Zenith Distance is obtained the algebraic sum of it with the declination of the object gives the latitude of a point where the position line crosses the meridian of DR longitude.

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Ex- Meridian is an astronomical navigation method of calculating an observer’s position on earth . The method gives the observer a position line on which the observer is situated. It is usually used when the sun is obscured at noon and as a result a meridian altitude is not possible. The navigator measures the altitude of the sun as close to noon as possible and then calculates where the position line lies.

Ex-meridian is a celestial navigation method of calculating an observer’s position on Earth . The method gives the observer a position line on which the observer is situated. It is usually used when the Sun is obscured at noon , and as a result , a meridian altitude is not possible. The navigator measures the altitude of the Sun as close to noon as possible and then calculates where the position line lies.

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Yuma Proving Ground The 16-inch HARP gun at Yuma Proving Ground was constructed in 1966 in order to establish a functional 16-inch gun on American soil and holds the record for achieving the highest projectile launched. It was almost identical to the 16-inch gun on Barbados, being 119ft long, but was limited by a 35-mile range restriction. However, unlike the Barbados gun, its projectiles could be recovered since they were not lost in the ocean upon their journey back down. The Yuma 16-inch gun was primarily used for flight tests, such as those testing altitude control and telemetry components. In 1966, the 16-inch Yuma gun underwent three firing series using wooden slugs, Martlet 2C's, and a Low Altitude High Velocity cone. +Performance Test of Yuma 16-inch HARP gun in 1966DateRound numberAll projectiles used for this test were Martlet 2C's, except for the ones indicated with (W), i.e. wooded slugs, and (L), i.e. Low Altitude High Velocity cone.Mass (lb)Muzzle velocity (ft/s)Apogee (kilofeet)June 7001 (W)7003360No trackJune 8002 (W)8003190No trackJune 13003 (W)6604810No trackJune 130047605930415June 130057805810398June 140067806060400June 140078006270DamagedJune 150087605630375June 150097805850410Oct. 2501010955250310Oct. 2601112255950410Oct. 260129206800540Oct. 27013 (L)9007100No trackOct. 2701412755900415Oct. 270159206780535Oct. 270169507040DamagedNov. 1601712905900396Nov. 1601812925900395Nov. 1601912965850415Nov.1702012965950415Nov. 170211290NADamagedNov. 1802212635900400Nov. 1802312635850410Nov. 180249226650510Nov. 180258806400490Nov. 190269106650530Nov. 1902712705850400Nov. 190289607000590Nov. 190291270NADamagedNov. 190309606350480Nov. 1903112705650367Nov. 1903212705650370Nov. 190338806750550 There were several models of test projectiles fired or designed during Project HARP: These projectiles were fired on the island of Barbados and some were fired by the US Army's Ballistic Research Lab. The slender design of the tube which contained the rocket's payload was very narrow and long, limiting what objects could be inserted into the tube. This limitation on size was extremely inconvenient when considering the future proposed payloads of Martlet rockets which included satellites and space probes. The cannon-like design also eliminated the capacity for crewed space travel as well as the launching of satellites carrying extremely sensitive scientific instruments and payloads due to the extreme acceleration placed on the projectile during firing. Martlet 2A, 2B, 2C family The Martlet 2A, 2B, and 2C represented the earliest of the Martlet 2 16-inch (406mm) test projectiles. Marlet 2A was designed simultaneously with the Martlet 1 with a range of interest being 70 to 200 kilometers. Most carried multi-type research payloads studying the upper atmosphere and near-space conditions. Due to their low cost per missile launch, they were used to test out single payloads. Despite similarities in missile air frame , the Martlet 2A, 2B, and 2C featured differences in their structural materials and mechanical details. For the Martlet 2A, the liquid payload was loaded into an aluminum, tapered liner inside the missile body. But by the development of the Martlet 2C series, the aluminum insert was abandoned altogether to allow the liquid payload to be housed in contact with the steel body, increasing the quantity of the liquid payload that could be carried.

Yuma Proving Ground The 16-inch HARP gun at Yuma Proving Ground was constructed in 1966 in order to establish a functional 16-inch gun on American soil and holds the record for achieving the highest projectile launched. It was almost identical to the 16-inch gun on Barbados, being 119ft long, but was limited by a 35-mile range restriction. However, unlike the Barbados gun, its projectiles could be recovered since they were not lost in the ocean upon their journey back down. The Yuma 16-inch gun was primarily used for flight tests, such as those testing altitude control and telemetry components. In 1966, the 16-inch Yuma gun underwent three firing series using wooden slugs, Martlet 2C's, and a Low Altitude High-Velocity cone. +Performance Test of Yuma 16-inch HARP gun in 1966DateRound numberAll projectiles used for this test were Martlet 2C's, except for the ones indicated with (W), i.e. wooded slugs, and (L), i.e. Low Altitude High Velocity cone.Mass (lb)Muzzle velocity (ft/s)Apogee (kilofeet)June 7001 (W)7003360No trackJune 8002 (W)8003190No trackJune 13003 (W)6604810No trackJune 130047605930415June 130057805810398June 140067806060400June 140078006270DamagedJune 150087605630375June 150097805850410Oct. 2501010955250310Oct. 2601112255950410Oct. 260129206800540Oct. 27013 (L)9007100No trackOct. 2701412755900415Oct. 270159206780535Oct. 270169507040DamagedNov. 1601712905900396Nov. 1601812925900395Nov. 1601912965850415Nov.1702012965950415Nov. 170211290NADamagedNov. 1802212635900400Nov. 1802312635850410Nov. 180249226650510Nov. 180258806400490Nov. 190269106650530Nov. 1902712705850400Nov. 190289607000590Nov. 190291270NADamagedNov. 190309606350480Nov. 1903112705650367Nov. 1903212705650370Nov. 190338806750550 Several models of test projectiles were fired or designed during Project HARP: These projectiles were fired on the island of Barbados and some were fired by the US Army's Ballistic Research Lab. The tube's slender design, which contained the rocket's payload , was very narrow and long, limiting what objects could be inserted into the tube. This limitation on size was extremely inconvenient when considering the future proposed payloads of Martlet rockets , including satellites and space probes. The cannon-like design also eliminated the capacity for crewed space travel as well as the launching of satellites carrying extremely sensitive scientific instruments and payloads due to the extreme acceleration placed on the projectile during firing. Martlet 2A, 2B, 2C family The Martlet 2A, 2B, and 2C represented the earliest of the Martlet 2 16-inch (406mm) test projectiles. Martlet 2A was designed simultaneously with the Martlet 1 with a range of interest being 70 to 200 kilometers. Most carried multi-type research payloads studying the upper atmosphere and near-space conditions. Due to their low cost per missile launch, they were used to test out single payloads. Despite similarities in missile airframe , the Martlet 2A, 2B, and 2C featured differences in their structural materials and mechanical details. For the Martlet 2A, the liquid payload was loaded into an aluminum, tapered liner inside the missile body. But by the development of the Martlet 2C series, the aluminum insert was abandoned altogether to allow the liquid payload to be housed in contact with the steel body, increasing the quantity of the liquid payload that could be carried.

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Martlet 2G and 2G-1 The Martlet 2G was an advanced test projectile that had nearly all of its total 350lb (160kg) weight in the projectile. It was tested successfully with the Highwater gun and the Barbados gun but never proceeded beyond the engineering flight testing stage. The Martlet 2G-1 was a proposed space launch vehicle variant of Martlet 2G, which had a solid rocket motor in the projectile. The follow-on 2G-2 proposal was to have had a second rocket motor in order to be able to place the second stage in orbit, though with little or no payload. After development, it underwent horizontal development firings from the Highwater gun in 1966 but failed to be properly tested in time. Martlet 3 The Martlet 3 series consisted of advanced rocket-propelled projectiles. They were built and tested for the HARP project but were ultimately not successful due to restrictions in funding and a severe lack of technical information regarding the behavior of large rocket grains under high acceleration loading. When testing these projectiles, the danger of in-bore detonation was considered a very serious potential problem. Martlet 3A The Martlet 3A was an diameter, gun-fired rocket projectile that theoretically was able to reach 500km altitude. As HARP's first attempt at a low-cost sabotted rocket system, the projectile was built with fiberglass or aluminum bodies. A standard 6-inch rocket was bonded to an aluminum case , and the rocket nozzle was supported by a pusher plate, which would impart the acceleration thrust to the missile through the aluminum wall casing. Fiberglass limited acceleration to 3600g (corresponding to a velocity of at rocket ignition). The Martlet 3A's original objective was to carry a 40-lbs payload to an altitude of 500km, which theoretically was feasible if the system could be launched at full gun pressures. The rocket motors' solid propellant deformed during firing and the design was never successful, despite several test firings.

Martlet 2G and 2G-1 The Martlet 2G was an advanced test projectile with nearly all of its total 350lb (160kg) weight in the projectile. It was tested successfully with the Highwater gun and the Barbados gun but never proceeded beyond the engineering flight testing stage. The Martlet 2G-1 was a proposed space launch vehicle variant of Martlet 2G, which had a solid rocket motor in the projectile. The follow-on 2G-2 proposal was to have had a second rocket motor to place the second stage in orbit, though with little or no payload. After development, it underwent horizontal development firings from the Highwater gun in 1966 but failed to be properly tested in time. Martlet 3 The Martlet 3 series consisted of advanced rocket-propelled projectiles. They were built and tested for the HARP project but were ultimately not successful due to restrictions in funding and a severe lack of technical information regarding large rocket grains ' behaviour under high acceleration loading. When testing these projectiles, the danger of in-bore detonation was considered a severe potential problem. Martlet 3A The Martlet 3A was an diameter, gun-fired rocket projectile that theoretically could reach 500km altitude. As HARP's first attempt at a low-cost sabotted rocket system, the projectile was built with fiberglass or aluminum bodies. A standard 6-inch rocket was bonded to an aluminum case . The rocket nozzle was supported by a pusher plate, which would impart the missile's acceleration through the aluminum wall casing. Fiberglass limited acceleration to 3600g (corresponding to a velocity of at rocket ignition). The Martlet 3A's original objective was to carry a 40-lbs payload to an altitude of 500km, which theoretically was feasible if the system could be launched at full gun pressures. The rocket motors' solid propellant deformed during firing and the design was never successful, despite several test firings.

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Marlet 3B The Martlet 3B was similar to the Martlet 3A but using steel casings and attempting to solve some of the 3A model's other problems. The casings survived , but the propellant failed at . This was solved for later rockets by filling the propellant cavity with liquid, but only after development of the 3B model had ended. Martlet 3E The Martlet 3E was a suborbital solid rocket designed to be fired from a smaller, 7-inch (180mm) cannon used in the HARP project. Its basic concept revolved around packaging the rocket grain in a case with elastic properties to transmit the lateral strain to the gun tube. The 3E model utilized a new technique of rocket grain construction that consisted of laminating sheet double-base propellant grain under hydraulic pressure. Martlet 4 By July 1964, the Marlet 4 program pursued the development of an orbit capable multi-stage rocket system to be launched from the 16" Barbados gun. Two versions of full-scale orbital launch vehicle projectiles were proposed in the Martlet 4 series. The first was to have used three solid rocket motor stages and was planned to orbit approximately 50 pounds of payload. The second used liquid rocket motors and was planned to have orbited 200 pounds of payload. Both were about long and in diameter, weighing about at launch. However, no Martlet 4 vehicles were built; the project was halted before the design was completed. Martlet 4 Control Systems A guidance and control system was developed for the orbital mission by Aviation Electric Limited of Montreal under the direction of McGill-BRL-Harry Diamond Laboratory group. Infrared horizon sensors and sun sensors were included to calculate vehicle attitude. Information for on-board sensors was to be processed by the logic module which provided commands to a cold gas thruster system which in turn adjusted the orientation of the vehicle . The components of the guidance and control assembly were integrated into a 6.25 inch diameter test projectile. Sun sensors, horizon sensors, telemetry packs, receiving/transmitting antenna, hydraulic systems, logic modules, and gas thruster attitude control systems were all test fired to approximately 10,000 g's.

Marlet 3B The Martlet 3B was similar to the Martlet 3A but using steel casings and attempting to solve some of the 3A model's other problems. The casings survived , but the propellant failed at . This was solved for later rockets by filling the propellant cavity with liquid, but only after developing the 3B model had ended. Martlet 3E The Martlet 3E was a solid suborbital rocket designed to be fired from a smaller, 7-inch (180mm) cannon used in the HARP project. Its basic concept revolved around packaging the rocket grain in a case with elastic properties to transmit the lateral strain to the gun tube. The 3E model utilized a new rocket grain construction technique that consisted of laminating sheet double-base propellant grain under hydraulic pressure. Martlet 4 By July 1964, the Marlet 4 program pursued developing an orbit capable multi-stage rocket system to be launched from the 16" Barbados gun. Two versions of full-scale orbital launch vehicle projectiles were proposed in the Martlet 4 series. The first was to have used three solid rocket motor stages and was planned to orbit approximately 50 pounds of payload. The second used liquid rocket motors and was planned to have orbited 200 pounds of payload. Both were about long and in diameter, weighing about at launch. However, no Martlet 4 vehicles were built; the project was halted before the design was completed. Martlet 4 Control Systems A guidance and control system were developed for the orbital mission by Aviation Electric Limited of Montreal under the direction of McGill-BRL-Harry Diamond Laboratory group. Infrared horizon sensors and sun sensors were included in calculating vehicle attitude. Information for on-board sensors was to be processed by the logic module , which provided commands to a cold gas thruster system which in turn adjusted the vehicle's orientation . The components of the guidance and control assembly were integrated into a 6.25 -inch diameter test projectile. Sun sensors, horizon sensors, telemetry packs, receiving/transmitting antenna, hydraulic systems, logic modules, and gas thruster attitude control systems were all test-fired to approximately 10,000 g's.

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Research has examined goal orientation as a motivation variable that is useful for recruitment, climate and culture, performance appraisal, and choice.DeGeest, D., & Brown, K. G. (2011). The role of goal orientation in leadership development. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 22(2), 157-175. Studies have also used goal orientation to predict sales performance, adaptive performanceStasielowicz, L. (2019). Goal orientation and performance adaptation: A meta-analysis. Journal of Research in Personality, 82., goal setting, learning and adaptive behaviors in training, and leadership. Historical perspective Dweck proposed that there are two types of goal orientation: learning orientation and performance orientation.Dweck, C.S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41, 1040-1048. Dweck postulated that children with learning goals were believed to approach situations to master the acquisition of new skills, while children with performance goals were believed to approach situations to gain approval from peers and teachers. Like Eison, Dweck conceptualized goal orientation as a two-dimension construct. Individuals with a learning goal orientation (sometimes referred to as mastery goal orientation; abbreviated as LGO) seek to develop their competence by acquiring new skills and mastering new situations. They are not concerned about their performance relative to others, but rather with furthering their understanding of a given topic or task.Hendricks, J.W., & Payne, S.C. (2007). Beyond the Big Five: Leader goal orientation as a predictor of leadership effectiveness. Human Performance, 20, 317-343. Individuals with a performance goal orientation seek to demonstrate and validate the adequacy of their competence to receive favorable compliments while avoiding negative judgments. Although Dweck's work in this area built on the foundation laid by Nicholls, the fundamental difference between the two scholars' works was the attribution of an individual's goal orientation: Nicholls believed that the goal orientation held by an individual was a result of the possession of either an internal or external referent, while Dweck considered the adoption of a particular goal orientation to be related to the theory of intelligence held by that individual. Subsequent work by Eison and colleagues in 1982 led to a change in the conceptualization of these orientations from two ends of a continuum to two separate constructs.Eison, J.A., Pollio, H., & Milton, O. (1982). LOGO II: A user's manual. Knoxville: University of Tennessee, Learning Research Center. More recently, researchers have embraced the idea that individuals can adopt the two orientation styles simultaneously: persons can be independently high or low in learning and performance orientations. Ultimately, individuals can entertain multiple competing goal orientations at the same time, and strive to both outperform competitors and improve their performance. This line of thinking led to the conceptualization of two separate continua: one for learning goal orientation and one for performance goal orientation.Eison, J. A., Pollio, H., & Milton, O. (1986). Educational and personal characteristics of four different types of learning- and grade-oriented students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 11, 5467. State versus trait There has been great debate as to whether goal orientation should be operationalized as a state or as a trait. Throughout the goal orientation literature, there are inconsistencies about the conceptualization of the stability of the construct. For example, DeShon & Gillespie stated that in the literature, DeShon, R. P., & Gillespie, J. Z. (2005). A motivated action theory account of goal orientation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(6), 1096-1127. goal orientation has been conceptualized as a trait, quasi-trait, and state. They states that whether researchers conceptualize goal orientation as a trait or a state "depends on the breadth of the inference that the researcher is attempting to support". State goal orientation refers to the goal one has in a particular situation . It is similar to trait goal orientation in that it represents one's preference in an achievement situation. Button, Mathieu, & Zajac take an integrative view of the construct,Button, S. B., Mathieu, J. E., & Zajac, D. M. (1996, July). Goal orientation URLanizational research: A conceptual and empirical foundation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 67(1), 26-48. stating that goal orientation is best categorized as a relatively stable individual difference variable that can be influenced by situational and contextual characteristics. They found that when few situational cues are present, individuals will adopt their dispositional goal orientations. However, when "dispositional goal orientations predispose individuals to adopt particular response patterns across situations, situational characteristics may cause them to adopt a different or less acute response pattern for a specific situation". Therefore, trait and state goal orientations interact, and both should be considered simultaneously. Types Since the realization that performance goal orientation is most effectively split into two separate parts, researchers have conducted validation studies to demonstrate the statistical and conceptual distinction of three dimensions to goal orientation. Conceptual and empirical work by Elliot and Church and VandeWalle demonstrated that the factor structure of goal orientation lends itself to three distinct dimensions as summarized below .Elliot, A. J. Church, M. A. (1997). A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 218-232. An explanation of the learning-approach and learning-avoidance goal orientations are also included for completeness. Antecedents Throughout the goal orientation literature, many studies have examined relationships between goal orientation and various antecedents. These antecedents have been identified to have varying levels of importance. In a meta-analysis by Payne et al., both the need for achievement and the Big Five personality traits were identified as important antecedents of goal orientation, while cognitive ability was found to have almost no relationship with goal orientation. The following sections go into more detail about each antecedent. Payne and her colleagues did not distinguish between proximal and distal antecedents. Another factor to consider when examining the relationship between goal orientation and goal setting is the level of inherent complexity in the situation or task. In situations with more complex tasks, it appears that "do your best" goals may lead to higher performance than specific goals. It is possible that in complex tasks, a specific, difficult goal imposes greater cognitive demands on employees, making it difficult for them to learn the complex task due to this increased pressure.Latham, G.P & Seijts, G.H. (1999). The effects of proximal and distal goals on performance on a moderately complex task. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2, 81-127. Kanfer and Ackerman found that in an air traffic controller simulation (a highly complex task),Kanfer, R. Ackerman, P. L. (1989). Motivation and cognitive abilities: An integrative/aptitude-treatment interaction approach to skill acquisition. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 657-690. performance-outcome goals interfered with acquiring the knowledge necessary to perform the task, and individuals performed better when they were asked to do their best, suggesting that adopting a learning orientation may be appropriate for complex tasks or in specific settings. However, it may be possible to set a specific, difficult learning goal. Latham and Brown found that when MBA students set specific, difficult learning goals such as mastering complex course material,Latham, G. P. Brown, T. C. (2006). The effect of learning vs. outcome goals on self-efficacy and satisfaction in an MBA program. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 55, 606-623. they outperformed MBA students who set a performance goal for GPA. Locke and Latham claim that creating a specific, difficult learning goal in this type of situation facilitates meta-cognition which is particularly helpful in complex environments with limited guidance, such as in an MBA program. Organizational outcomes Goal orientation has also been linked URLanizational outcomes, specifically job performance. Payne et al. found that individuals with high levels of trait and state LGO and low levels of trait APGO had better job performance, that PPGO was unrelated to performance, and that LGO predicted job performance above and beyond both cognitive ability and the Big Five personality characteristics. Their findings suggest that LGO is a valuable predictor of job performance and it may be in the best interest URLanizations to create a climate in which learning is valued over performance.

Research has examined goal orientation as a motivation variable that is useful for recruitment, climate and culture, performance appraisal, and choice.DeGeest, D., & Brown, K. G. (2011). The role of goal orientation in leadership development. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 22(2), 157-175. It has also been used to predict sales performance, adaptive performanceStasielowicz, L. (2019). Goal orientation and performance adaptation: A meta-analysis. Journal of Research in Personality, 82., goal setting, learning and adaptive behaviors in training, and leadership. Historical perspective Dweck proposed that there are two types of goal orientation: learning orientation and performance orientation.Dweck, C.S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41, 1040-1048. Dweck postulated that children with learning goals were believed to approach situations to master the acquisition of new skills, while children with performance goals were believed to approach situations to gain approval from peers and teachers. Like Eison, Dweck conceptualized goal orientation as a two-dimension construct. Individuals with a learning goal orientation (sometimes referred to as mastery goal orientation; abbreviated as LGO) seek to develop their competence by acquiring new skills and mastering new situations. They are not concerned about their performance relative to others, but rather with furthering their understanding of a given topic or task.Hendricks, J.W., & Payne, S.C. (2007). Beyond the Big Five: Leader goal orientation as a predictor of leadership effectiveness. Human Performance, 20, 317-343. Individuals with a performance goal orientation seek to demonstrate and validate the adequacy of their competence to receive favorable compliments while avoiding negative judgments. Although Dweck's work in this area built on the foundation laid by Nicholls, the fundamental difference between the two scholars' works is the attribution of an individual's goal orientation: Nicholls believed that the goal orientation held by an individual was a result of the possession of either an internal or external referent, while Dweck considered the adoption of a particular goal orientation to be related to the theory of intelligence held by that individual. Subsequent work by Eison and colleagues in 1982 led to a change in the conceptualization of these orientations from two ends of a continuum to two separate constructs.Eison, J.A., Pollio, H., & Milton, O. (1982). LOGO II: A user's manual. Knoxville: University of Tennessee, Learning Research Center. More recently, researchers have embraced the idea that individuals can adopt the two orientation styles simultaneously: individuals can be independently high or low in learning and performance orientations. Ultimately, they can entertain multiple competing goal orientations at the same time, and strive to both outperform competitors and improve their performance. This line of thinking led to the conceptualization of two separate continua: one for learning goal orientation and one for performance goal orientation.Eison, J. A., Pollio, H., & Milton, O. (1986). Educational and personal characteristics of four different types of learning- and grade-oriented students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 11, 5467. State versus trait There has been debate as to whether goal orientation should be operationalized as a state or as a trait. Throughout the goal orientation literature, there are inconsistencies about the conceptualization of the stability of the construct. For example, DeShon & Gillespie stated that goal orientation has been conceptualized as a trait, quasi-trait, and state. DeShon, R. P., & Gillespie, J. Z. (2005). A motivated action theory account of goal orientation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(6), 1096-1127. They assert that whether researchers conceptualize goal orientation as a trait or a state "depends on the breadth of the inference that the researcher is attempting to support". State goal orientation refers to the goal one has in a particular situation , and is similar to trait goal orientation in that it represents one's preference in an achievement situation. Button, Mathieu, & Zajac take an integrative view of the construct,Button, S. B., Mathieu, J. E., & Zajac, D. M. (1996, July). Goal orientation URLanizational research: A conceptual and empirical foundation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 67(1), 26-48. stating that goal orientation is best categorized as a relatively stable individual difference variable that can be influenced by situational and contextual characteristics. They found that when few situational cues are present, individuals adopt their dispositional goal orientations. However, when "dispositional goal orientations predispose individuals to adopt particular response patterns across situations, situational characteristics may cause them to adopt a different or less acute response pattern for a specific situation". Therefore, trait and state goal orientations interact, and both should be considered simultaneously. Types Since the realization that performance goal orientation is most effectively split into two separate parts, researchers have conducted validation studies to demonstrate the statistical and conceptual distinction of three dimensions to goal orientation. Conceptual and empirical work by Elliot and Church and VandeWalle demonstrated that the factor structure of goal orientation lends itself to three distinct dimensions .Elliot, A. J. Church, M. A. (1997). A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 218-232. An explanation of the learning-approach and learning-avoidance goal orientations are also included for completeness. Antecedents Many studies have examined relationships between goal orientation and various antecedents. These antecedents have been identified to have varying levels of importance. In a meta-analysis by Payne et al., both the need for achievement and the Big Five personality traits were identified as important antecedents of goal orientation, while cognitive ability was found to have almost no relationship with goal orientation. The following sections go into more detail about each antecedent. Payne and her colleagues did not distinguish between proximal and distal antecedents. Another factor to consider when examining the relationship between goal orientation and goal setting is the level of inherent complexity in the situation or task. In situations with more complex tasks, "do your best" goals may lead to higher performance than specific goals. It is possible that in complex tasks, a specific, difficult goal imposes greater cognitive demands on employees, making it difficult for them to learn the complex task due to this increased pressure.Latham, G.P & Seijts, G.H. (1999). The effects of proximal and distal goals on performance on a moderately complex task. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2, 81-127. Kanfer and Ackerman found that in an air traffic controller simulation (a highly complex task),Kanfer, R. Ackerman, P. L. (1989). Motivation and cognitive abilities: An integrative/aptitude-treatment interaction approach to skill acquisition. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 657-690. performance-outcome goals interfered with acquiring the knowledge necessary to perform the task, and individuals performed better when they were asked to do their best, suggesting that adopting a learning orientation may be appropriate for complex tasks or in specific settings. However, it may be possible to set a specific, difficult learning goal. Latham and Brown found that when MBA students set specific, difficult learning goals such as mastering complex course material,Latham, G. P. Brown, T. C. (2006). The effect of learning vs. outcome goals on self-efficacy and satisfaction in an MBA program. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 55, 606-623. they outperformed MBA students who set a performance goal for GPA. Locke and Latham claim that creating a specific, difficult learning goal in this type of situation facilitates meta-cognition which is particularly helpful in complex environments with limited guidance, such as in an MBA program. Organizational outcomes Goal orientation has also been linked URLanizational outcomes, specifically job performance. Payne et al. found that individuals with high levels of trait and state LGO and low levels of trait APGO had better job performance, PPGO was unrelated to performance, and LGO predicted job performance more accurately than both cognitive ability and the Big Five personality characteristics. Their findings suggest that LGO is a valuable predictor of job performance and it may be in the best interest URLanizations to create a climate in which learning is valued over performance.

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Psychological projection is a defense mechanism in which the ego defends itself against unconscious impulses or qualities (both positive and negative) by denying their existence in themselves by attributing them to others.Sigmund Freud, Case Histories II (PFL 9) p. 132 For example, a bully may project their own feelings of vulnerability onto the target, or a person who is confused will project their own feelings of confusion and inadequacy onto other people. Instead, Newman, Duff, and Baumeister (1997) proposed a new model of defensive projection . In this view, repressors try to suppress thoughts of their undesirable traits , and these efforts make those trait categories highly accessibleso that they are then used all the more often when forming impressions of others. The projection is then only a by-product of the real defensive mechanism.

Psychological projection is a defense mechanism in which the ego defends itself against unconscious impulses or qualities (both positive and negative) by denying their existence in themselves and attributing them to others.Sigmund Freud, Case Histories II (PFL 9) p. 132 For example, a bully may project their own feelings of vulnerability onto the target, or a person who is confused will project their own feelings of confusion and inadequacy onto other people. Instead, Newman, Duff, and Baumeister (1997) proposed a new model of defensive projection in which the repressors efforts to suppress thoughts of their undesirable traits make those trait categories highly accessibleso that they are then used all the more often when forming impressions of others. The projection is then only a byproduct of the real defensive mechanism.

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The method of managed projection is a type of projective technique. The basic principle of the method is that a subject is presented with their own verbal portrait named by the name of another person, as well as with a portrait of their fictional opposition (V. V. Stolin, 1981). Some studies were critical of Freud's theory. Research on social projection supports the existence of a false-consensus effect whereby humans have a broad tendency to believe that others are similar to themselves, and thus "project" their personal traits onto others. This applies to good traits as well as bad traitsand is not a defense mechanism for denying the existence of the trait within the self. Instead, Newman, Duff, and Baumeister (1997) proposed a new model of defensive projection in which the repressors efforts to suppress thoughts of their undesirable traits make those trait categories highly accessible—so that they are then used all the more often when forming impressions of others. The projection is then only a byproduct of the real defensive mechanism.

The method of managed projection is a projective technique. The basic principle of this method is that a subject is presented with their own verbal portrait named by the name of another person, as well as with a portrait of their fictional opposition (V. V. Stolin, 1981). Some studies were critical of Freud's theory. Research on social projection supports the existence of a false-consensus effect whereby humans have a broad tendency to believe that others are similar to themselves, and thus "project" their personal traits onto others. This applies to both good and bad traits; it is not a defense mechanism for denying the existence of the trait within the self. Instead, Newman, Duff, and Baumeister (1997) proposed a new model of defensive projection in which the repressor's efforts to suppress thoughts of their undesirable traits make those trait categories highly accessible—so that they are then used all the more often when forming impressions of others. The projection is then only a byproduct of the real defensive mechanism.

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President Michelle Bachelet with presidential sash and the O'Higgins Pioche, 11 March 2014 The O'Higgins Pioche In Chile, O'Higgins Pioche is a piece regarded as the true symbol of presidential power that is placed in the bottom of the presidential sash of office. The O'Higgins Pioche is a five-pointed star of about 7cm in diameter, enameled in red. This name was given a medal O'Higgins ordered to bring in the presidential sash. This relic was given by the hero Jos Gregorio Argomedo (17671830) after his abdication (1823). During the inauguration of the monument in the Alameda (1872), the descendants of Argomedo gave it to President Federico Errzuriz Zaartu, who put the presidential sash in inaugurating a tradition that continues. The original piocha remained intact until the 1973 coup, when it disappeared during the bombing of La Moneda Palace. During the military regime was drawn up a new in the bases of original photographs . Only used in conjunction with the presidential sash. The "Pioche de O'Higgins" is the element in the transfer of power from one president to another symbolizes the transfer of power .Sabas Que?

President Michelle Bachelet with presidential sash and the O'Higgins Pioche, 11 March 2014 The O'Higgins Pioche In Chile, the O'Higgins Pioche is a piece regarded as the true symbol of presidential power , which is placed in the lower end of the presidential sash of office. The O'Higgins Pioche is a five-pointed star of about 7cm in diameter, enameled in red. This was the name given to a medal that Bernardo O'Higgins ordered to be put on the presidential sash. The relic was a gift by O'Higgins to Jos Gregorio Argomedo (17671830) after his abdication on January 1823. During the inauguration of the monument in the Alameda (1872), descendants of Argomedo gave it to President Federico Errzuriz Zaartu, who put it on the presidential sash in inaugurating a tradition that continues. The original piocha remained intact until the 1973 coup, when it disappeared during the bombing of La Moneda Palace. During the military regime , a replica was made in the base of photographs of the original. The piocha is only to be used in conjunction with the presidential sash. The "Pioche de O'Higgins" is the element that symbolizes the transfer of power from one president to the next one during the ceremony of change of command .Sabas Que?

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The philatelic business activities of the Tuvalu Philatelic Bureau are authorised by the Tuvalu Philatelic Bureau Ordinance (1982). Karl Tili was the first Tuvaluan appointed to the post of general manager of the Tuvalu Philatelic Bureau and was the general manager from 1989 to 31 December 2011. The Government of Tuvalu are proposing to merge the Tuvalu Philatelic Bureau with the Tuvalu Post Office . The Tuvaluan post office is regulated by the Tuvalu Post Office Act 1977. Addresses in Tuvalu Addressing in Tuvalu has been virtually non-existent. As at 2018, fewer than 10 streets in the capital Funafuti were named, and only 100 homes and 10 businesses had a postal address. Most people had to travel to send or retrieve mail, and some did not have access to postal services at all. In 2018, Tuvalu Post, the countrys official postal operator, made what3words a national standard for addresses, enabling home deliveries for the first time.Tuvalu Post starts delivering more with what3words Tuvalu Philatelic Bureau Newsletter The first newsletter was published in March 1976, under the name News and Views. In 1999 the name was changed to the Tuvalu Philatelic Bureau Newsletter. The Tuvalu Philatelic Bureau Newsletter is published 3 to 4 times a year and provides information about new stamps issues and articles about Tuvalu.

Tuvalu became a member of the Universal Postal Union on 3 February 1981. The philatelic business activities are authorised by the Tuvalu Philatelic Bureau Ordinance (1982). Karl Tili was the first Tuvaluan general manager of the Bureau from 1989 to 31 December 2011. In 2013, the Tuvalu government was proposing to merge the Bureau with the Tuvalu Post Office , which is regulated by the Tuvalu Post Office Act 1977. The Tuvalu Post Office is not separately constituted and is a government department. Addresses in Tuvalu Addressing in Tuvalu has been virtually non-existent. As at 2018, fewer than 10 streets in the capital Funafuti were named, and only 100 homes and 10 businesses had a postal address. Most people had to travel to send or retrieve mail, and some did not have access to postal services at all. In 2018, Tuvalu Post, the countrys official postal operator, made what3words a national standard for addresses, enabling home deliveries for the first time.Tuvalu Post starts delivering more with what3words

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In the USA Wilderness Areas (NWPS) are the strictest category of protected area. They are designated by law in accordance with the Wilderness Act of 1964 by the United States Congress. They must be large enough to adequately preserve its resources and may only be entered on foot, by canoe or on horseback. Exceptions are the extensive areas of wilderness in Alaska. At the beginning of 2010 there were over 750 recognised Wilderness Areas .

In the USA Wilderness Areas (NWPS) are the strictest category of protected area. They are designated by law in accordance with the Wilderness Act of 1964 by the United States Congress. They must be large enough to adequately preserve their resources and may only be entered on foot, by canoe or on horseback. Limited exceptions are the extensive areas of wilderness in Alaska. There are over 800 recognised wilderness areas .

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In many Hindu temples, the temple structure reflects the symbolism of the Hindu association of the spiritual transition from daily life to spiritual perfection as a journey through stages. Ambulatory passageways for circumambulation are present through which worshipers move in a clockwise direction, starting at the sanctuary doorway and moving inward toward the inner sanctum where the deity is enshrined. This is a translation of the spiritual concept of transition through levels in life into bodily movements by the worshipers as they move inwardly through ambulatory halls to the most sacred centre of spiritual energy of the deity. Circumambulation is done in a clockwise direction and in an odd rather than even number of times. Circumambulatory walking around the shrine, by keeping time, is a common form of Hindu prayer. The circumambulatory pathway made of stone around the shrine is called the Pradakshina path.

In many Hindu temples, the temple structure reflects the symbolism of the Hindu association of the spiritual transition from daily life to spiritual perfection as a journey through stages. Passageways for circumambulation are present through which worshipers move in a clockwise direction, starting at the sanctuary doorway and moving inward toward the inner sanctum where the deity is enshrined. This is a translation of the spiritual concept of transition through levels in life into bodily movements by the worshipers as they move inwardly through ambulatory halls to the most sacred centre of spiritual energy of the deity. It is done in a clockwise direction and in an odd rather than even number of times. Circumambulatory walking around the shrine, by keeping time, is a common form of Hindu prayer. The ambulatory pathway made of stone around the shrine is called the Pradakshina path.

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Christianity In the Catholic Church, a priest sometimes circumambulates an altar while incensing it with a thurible. Also, at some Catholic shrines, it is a tradition to circumambulate around the cult object of the place, usually relics of a saint or an image of Jesus or the Virgin Mary. Often this is performed three times, as a reference to the Trinity. In Romania, there is an Easter custom to circumambulate the church three times by singing priests leading the people, just before finishing Easter Liturgy. It symbolizes the funerary procession of the burial of Jesus URL Circumambulation is common in many Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox services. In the Coptic tradition, during the liturgy, the priest circumambulates while an acolyte (altar boy) holds a cross high on the opposite side of the altar . This is also a common practice in Lutheran, Roman Catholic, Anglican and Methodist churches during Lent when Stations of the Cross services are celebrated. The priest along with altar servers process around the circumambulate around the interior of the church visiting each of the 14 stations.

Christianity In the Catholic Church, a priest sometimes circumambulates an altar while incensing it with a thurible. Also, at some Catholic shrines, it is a tradition to circle the cult object of the place, usually relics of a saint or an image of Jesus or the Virgin Mary. Often this is performed three times, as a reference to the Trinity. In Romania, there is an Easter custom to process around the church three times by singing priests leading the people, just before finishing Easter Liturgy. It symbolizes the funerary procession of the burial of Jesus URL Circumambulation is common in many Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox services. In the Coptic tradition, during the liturgy, the priest circles the altar while an acolyte (altar boy) holds a cross high on the opposite side . This is also a common practice in Lutheran, Roman Catholic, Anglican and Methodist churches during Lent when Stations of the Cross services are celebrated. The priest along with altar servers process around the interior of the church visiting each of the 14 stations.

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Description Bee pollinating a sunflower. Pollen is transferred from anther of one plant to stigma of another as bee collects nectar Pollen tubes are unique to plants and their structures have evolved over the history of seed plants . Pollen tube formation is complex and the mechanism is not fully understood, but is of great interest to scientists . Pollen tube formation is important for sexual reproduction to occur in seed plants. Wind, water or pollinators transport pollen grains to the female gametophyte. Once a pollen grain has implanted on a compatible stigma via self-incompatibility mechanisms, the germination process is initiated. During this process, the pollen grain undergoes a conformational change whereupon a given section begins to protrude outwards to form a tube-like structure, known as the pollen tube. This structure rapidly descends down the length of the style via tip-directed growth, reaching rates of 1cm/h, whilst carrying two non-motile sperm cells. Upon reaching the ovule the pollen tube ruptures, thereby delivering the sperm cells to the female gametophyte, ultimately resulting in a double fertilization event. The first fertilization event produces a diploid zygote and the second fertilization event produces a triploid endosperm.

Description Bee pollinating a sunflower. Pollen is transferred from anther of one plant to stigma of another as bee collects nectar Pollen tubes are unique to plants and their structures have evolved over the history of seed plants . Pollen tube formation is complex and the mechanism is not fully understood, but is of great interest to scientists because pollen tubes transport the male gametes produced by pollen grains to the female gametophyte. Once a pollen grain has implanted on a compatible stigma , its germination is initiated. During this process, the pollen grain begins to bulge outwards to form a tube-like structure, known as the pollen tube. The pollen tube structure rapidly descends down the length of the style via tip-directed growth, reaching rates of 1cm/h, whilst carrying two non-motile sperm cells. Upon reaching the ovule the pollen tube ruptures, thereby delivering the sperm cells to the female gametophyte, ultimately resulting in a double fertilization event. The first fertilization event produces a diploid zygote and the second fertilization event produces a triploid endosperm.

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The Sullubawa are a Fulani clan in Northern Nigeria, the current ruling houses of Kano, Ringim and Katsina belong to the clan and another amongst the four ruling Houses of Zazzau Emirate . They are also found in Kano, Jigawa, Katsina and Sokoto states. They are said to have originated from Futa Toro, in what is now Senegal, and are associated with the Torodbe (Toronkawa) , the Sullubawa originated from Sissilo the husband of Cippowo a sister of Uthman Toroddo ancestor of Usman dan Fodio as such they are regarded as the cousins of Toronkawa, they initially belong to the Wangarawa stock, they had Mandigo element in their ancestry and they were related to the Mandika, mandika are the descendants of the Mali Empire , the Sullubawa spoke Wakore before they became absorbed into the Fulani group losing their original language and adopting the Fulani language. They played a key role in the Fulani Jihad led by Usman dan Fodio, which founded the Sokoto Caliphate. Sullubawa became "hereditary beneficiaries of all positions of authority in all but one Hausa state". In the 19th century, the Sullubawa controlled many of the fiefdoms of the Kano Emirate. The clan benefitted from British colonization and indirect rule which saw their influence increase. Sullubawa clansmen later attained positions of power following the fall of the first republic ; with one of them Umaru Musa Yar'Adua becoming President of Nigeria.

The Sullubawa are a Fulani royal clan that historically featured prominently in the Fulani War, which founded the Sokoto Caliphate. The ruling houses of the ancient Sahelian city-states of Kano and Katsina belong to the clan and another amongst the four ruling Houses of Zazzau . They are also found in Kano, Jigawa, Katsina and Sokoto states. They are said to have originated from Futa Toro, in what is now Senegal, and are cousins with the Torodbe (Toronkawa) from Sissilo, the husband of Cippowo , a sister of Uthman Toroddo ancestor of Usman dan Fodio . The clan became culturally assimilated with the Fulani adopting the culture and language. The ancestral origin of the Sullubawa is bild as-sdn ( ) and they are descendants of the Mali Empire and the Wangarawa mercantile tribe which dominated the gold trade in the region. They played a key role in the Fulani Jihad led by Usman dan Fodio, which founded the Sokoto Caliphate. Sullubawa became "hereditary beneficiaries of all positions of authority in all but one Hausa state". In the 19th century, the Sullubawa controlled many of the fiefdoms of the Kano Emirate. The clan benefitted from British colonization and indirect rule which saw their influence increase. Sullubawa clansmen later attained positions of power following independence ; with one of them Umaru Musa Yar'Adua becoming President of Nigeria.

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In this way, Persian became a second language to many across North India; Alam contends that it neared the status of a first language. By the 18th century, many Indians in the north of the subcontinent had a "native speaker's competence in Persian".Faruqi, Shamsur Rahman (2003), "A Long History of Urdu Literarature, Part 1", in Pollock (ed.), Literary cultures in history: reconstructions from South Asia, p. 849, Decline Following Aurangzeb's death, Persian began to fall into decline, being displaced by Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu). The arrival and strengthening of British political power added a growing influence of English as well. However, for a long time Persian was still the dominant language of the subcontinent, used in education, Muslim rule, the judiciary, and literature. The East India Company acknowledged Persian as a "language of command", necessary to communicate with and control the Indian population. Hence many British officials arriving in India learned Persian in colleges established by the Company. The teachers in these colleges were often Indian. In some cases, Britishers even took over as Persian professors, sidelining the role of the Indians. Deccan A Persian poem produced in the Deccan. 17th century.|346x346px Although considerably distanced from North India, the Deccan was also a recipient of Persian's linguistic impact. Persianate culture was brought to the Deccan fleetingly through the efforts of the Delhi Sultanate in the early 14th century. Persian finally gained a foothold in the region with the establishment of the Bahmani Sultanate in 1347, which used the language for official purposes. The dynasty had a great interest in Persian culture, and several members were proficient in the language, producing their own literature. Literati from Northern India found themselves welcome at the court, and scholars from Iran were invited as well. Madrasas were built over the expanse of the kingdom, most notably the Mahmud Gawan Madrasa at Bidar, where Persian was taught. In spite of this, Persian did not achieve the linguistic penetration it had in the north of the subcontinent. Richard Eaton writes that Persian was much less widely understood in the region than vernacular languages . During the turn of the 16th century, the Bahmani Sultanate splintered into the Deccan Sultanates, which were also Persianate in culture. They used Persian as a courtly language, as well as for official and administrative purposes. The language received literary patronage . However, the sultans simultaneously promoted regional languages such as Telugu, Marathi, and Deccani (the southern variety of Hindustani), at times even using them in administration. The reign of the Deccan Sultanates lasted until the late 17th century, when Aurangzeb brought the region into the Mughal Empire and established Aurangabad as the Deccan's capital. As was Mughal practice, Persian was used in many levels of administration. Major cities of this region that served as centres of Persian patronage included Gulbarga, Bidar, Bijapur, and Golconda. Notable Persian literature produced includes Futuh-us-Salatin, and the Bahmannamh . Influence on Indic languages As a prestige language and lingua franca over a period of 800 years in the Indian subcontinent, Classical Persian exerted a vast influence over numerous Indic languages. Generally speaking, the degree of impact is seen to increase the more one moves towards the north-west of the subcontinent, i.e. the Indo-Iranian frontier. For example, the Indo-Aryan languages have the most impact from Persian; this ranges from a high appearance in Punjabi, Sindhi, Kashmiri, and Gujarati, to more moderate representation in Bengali and Marathi. The largest foreign element in the Indo-Aryan languages is Persian. Conversely, the Dravidian languages have seen a low level of influence from Persian. They still feature loans from the language, some of which are direct, and some through Deccani (the southern variety of Hindustani), due to the Islamic rulers of the Deccan. Telugu is a good example of this (see Telangana Baasha for the Telugu dialect accentuated with these features). A categorised list of Persian vocabulary found in the Indic languages is provided below, and is far from exhaustive: +Loan categoryExamplesNounsProper namesMuslim names: Akhtar, Nawaz, Aftab, Dilshad Shah Bano, Zarina Non-Muslim names: Bahadur Shah, Chaman Lal, Iqbal Singh, Lal Bahadur, Roshan LalTitlesKhan Bahadur, Rai Bahadur, Yavar Jung, Salaar JungParts of the bodyjism (body), khn (blood), nkhn (nail, of fingers and toes), sn (chest), dil (heart), chehr (face), gardan (neck), zabn (tongue), halaq (throat)Place names (Suffixes)-bd, -stan, -ganj, -bagh, -sari (Hyderabad, Pakistan, Hazratganj, Arambagh, Mughalsarai)Kinship termsdmd (son-in-law), bb (father), shauhar (husband), birdar (brother)Foodsabz (vegetables), nn (bread), korm (curry) gsht (meat), km (minced meat), tandri (roasted) Clothingpaushk (dress), pajm (pyjamas), kamz (shirt), jeb (pocket), astar (inner, lining)Housegusalkhn (bathroom), pkhn (toilet), bwarchkhn (kitchen), darwz (door), diwr (wall)Ornamentszewar (ornaments), gulband (necklace), dastband (bracelet), pazeb (anklet)Fruitsseb (apple), anr (pomegranate), angr (grapes), nrang (tangerine), bdm (almond), kishmish (raisin)Vegetablesshalgam (turnip), qadd (pumpkin), sakarqand (sweet potato)Floracinr (plane tree), hin (henna), banafsh (pansy), gulb (rose), nlofar (water lily), ysmn (jasmine)Faunasher (lion), khargosh (rabbit), bulbul (nightingale), bz (falcon), kabutar (pigeon)Professionsdarz (tailor), hajjm (barber), sabz-farosh (greengrocer), khnsm (cook)Agriculturefasl (crop), rabi (spring), khrf (autumn), bpash (watering), nahar (canal), zamn (land)Timerz (day), sl (year), zamn (era)Lawadlat (court), qnn (law), muddai (plaintiff), vakl (lawyer), muakil (client)Administrationdarbr (court), pdshah (emperor), tehsldr (tax collector), zila (district)Writingqalam (pen), dawt (inkpot), syhi (ink), kgaz (paper)Religion (non-Arabic terms)rza (fasting), namz (ritual prayer), khud (God), paighambar (Prophet), bihisht (Paradise), pr (Sufi master)Measurementgaz (yard), ml (a mile), man (a mound), ser (a seer), murabb (square)Militarysiph (soldier), top (gun/cannon), topch (gunner), topkhn (artillery)Miscellaneousin (mirror), bzr (market), dst (friend), shehar (city)OtherModifiers:bilkul (surely/definitely), garm (hot), tz (fresh), zd (free/independent)Other Function words:khud (oneself), magar (but), lekin (but), afss (alas), shabsh (well done)Sources in order of importance: The Persian language is now largely defunct in the Indian subcontinent. However, it still lingers in some scholarly and literary circles; for example, the University of Kashmir in Srinagar has been publishing the Persian-language journal Dnish since 1969. Some colleges and universities in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh offer Persian as a course of study. Though Arabic largely dominates the realm of Islamic liturgy and theology in the Indian subcontinent, Persian can also be seen in some religious spheres: the dhikr sessions of Sufism often employ Persian poetry in song, and the Sufi devotional music genre of qawwali also uses Persian in parallel with local languages. Famed qawwali singer Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan sang sometimes in Persian.

In this way, Persian became a second language to many across North India; Muzaffar Alam contends that it neared the status of a first language. By the 18th century, many Indians in the north of the subcontinent had a "native speaker's competence in Persian".Faruqi, Shamsur Rahman (2003), "A Long History of Urdu Literarature, Part 1", in Pollock (ed.), Literary cultures in history: reconstructions from South Asia, p. 849, Decline Following Aurangzeb's death, Persian began to fall into decline, being displaced by Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu). The arrival and strengthening of British political power added a growing influence of English as well. However, for a long time Persian was still the dominant language of the subcontinent, used in education, Muslim rule, the judiciary, and literature. The East India Company acknowledged Persian as a "language of command", necessary to communicate with and control the Indian population. Hence many British officials arriving in India learned Persian in colleges established by the Company. The teachers in these colleges were often Indian. In some cases, Britishers even took over as Persian professors, sidelining the role of the Indians. Deccan A Persian poem produced in the Deccan. 17th century.|346x346px Although considerably distanced from North India, the Deccan was also a recipient of Persian's linguistic impact. Persianate culture was brought to the Deccan fleetingly through the efforts of the Delhi Sultanate in the early 14th century. Persian finally gained a foothold in the region with the establishment of the Bahmani Sultanate in 1347, which used the language for official purposes. The dynasty had a great interest in Persian culture, and several members were proficient in the language, producing their own literature. Literati from Northern India found themselves welcome at the court, and scholars from Iran were invited as well. Madrasas were built over the expanse of the kingdom, such as the the Mahmud Gawan Madrasa at Bidar, where Persian was taught. A notable poet patronised by the Bahmans was Abdul Isami, who wrote the first Persian history of the Muslim conquest of India titled Futuh-us-Salatin. In spite of this, Richard Eaton writes that Persian was much less widely understood in the Deccan region than vernacular languages , and contrasts this situation with the Persian proficiency in the north of the subcontinent . During the turn of the 16th century, the Bahmani Sultanate splintered into the Deccan Sultanates, which were also Persianate in culture. They used Persian as a courtly language, as well as for official and administrative purposes. The language received literary patronage ; for example, Persian poet Muhammad Zuhuri, author of the Sqnmah, was a prominent figure at Ibrahim Adil Shah II's court in Bijapur . However, the sultans simultaneously promoted regional languages such as Telugu, Marathi, and Deccani (the southern variety of Hindustani), at times even using them in administration. For example, Alam writes that Telugu was the language of the sultan for the Qutub Shahis, and that Persian was removed from the Bijapur Sultanate's administrative system by Ibrahim Adil Shah I in favour of Marathi; these are corroborated by Eaton. The reign of the Deccan Sultanates lasted until the late 17th century, when Aurangzeb brought the region into the Mughal Empire and established Aurangabad as the Deccan's capital. In the late 18th century, while Delhi courts began to turn to Urdu, literary cultivation in Persian remained healthy in the Deccan. It was finally eclipsed by Urdu in the 19th century . Influence on Indic languages As a prestige language and lingua franca over a period of 800 years in the Indian subcontinent, Classical Persian exerted a vast influence over numerous Indic languages. Generally speaking, the degree of impact is seen to increase the more one moves towards the north-west of the subcontinent, i.e. the Indo-Iranian frontier. For example, the Indo-Aryan languages have the most impact from Persian; this ranges from a high appearance in Punjabi, Sindhi, Kashmiri, and Gujarati, to more moderate representation in Bengali and Marathi. The largest foreign element in the Indo-Aryan languages is Persian. Conversely, the Dravidian languages have seen a low level of influence from Persian. They still feature loans from the language, some of which are direct, and some through Deccani (the southern variety of Hindustani), due to the Islamic rulers of the Deccan. A categorised list of Persian vocabulary found in the Indic languages is provided below, and is far from exhaustive: +Loan categoryExamplesNounsProper namesMuslim names: Akhtar, Nawaz, Aftab, Dilshad Shah Bano, Zarina Non-Muslim names: Bahadur Shah, Chaman Lal, Iqbal Singh, Lal Bahadur, Roshan LalTitlesKhan Bahadur, Rai Bahadur, Yavar Jung, Salaar JungParts of the bodyjism (body), khn (blood), nkhn (nail, of fingers and toes), sn (chest), dil (heart), chehr (face), gardan (neck), zabn (tongue), halaq (throat)Place names (Suffixes)-bd, -stan, -ganj, -bagh, -sari (Hyderabad, Pakistan, Hazratganj, Arambagh, Mughalsarai)Kinship termsdmd (son-in-law), bb (father), shauhar (husband), birdar (brother)Foodsabz (vegetables), nn (bread), korm (curry) gsht (meat), km (minced meat), tandri (roasted) Clothingpaushk (dress), pajm (pyjamas), kamz (shirt), jeb (pocket), astar (inner, lining)Housegusalkhn (bathroom), pkhn (toilet), bwarchkhn (kitchen), darwz (door), diwr (wall)Ornamentszewar (ornaments), gulband (necklace), dastband (bracelet), pazeb (anklet)Fruitsseb (apple), anr (pomegranate), angr (grapes), nrang (tangerine), bdm (almond), kishmish (raisin)Vegetablesshalgam (turnip), qadd (pumpkin), sakarqand (sweet potato)Floracinr (plane tree), hin (henna), banafsh (pansy), gulb (rose), nlofar (water lily), ysmn (jasmine)Faunasher (lion), khargosh (rabbit), bulbul (nightingale), bz (falcon), kabutar (pigeon)Professionsdarz (tailor), hajjm (barber), sabz-farosh (greengrocer), khnsm (cook)Agriculturefasl (crop), rabi (spring), khrf (autumn), bpash (watering), nahar (canal), zamn (land)Timerz (day), sl (year), zamn (era)Lawadlat (court), qnn (law), muddai (plaintiff), vakl (lawyer), muakil (client)Administrationdarbr (court), pdshah (emperor), tehsldr (tax collector), zila (district)Writingqalam (pen), dawt (inkpot), syhi (ink), kgaz (paper)Religion (non-Arabic terms)rza (fasting), namz (ritual prayer), khud (God), paighambar (Prophet), bihisht (Paradise), pr (Sufi master)Measurementgaz (yard), ml (a mile), man (a mound), ser (a seer), murabb (square)Militarysiph (soldier), top (gun/cannon), topch (gunner), topkhn (artillery)Miscellaneousin (mirror), bzr (market), dst (friend), shehar (city)OtherModifiers:bilkul (surely/definitely), garm (hot), tz (fresh), zd (free/independent)Other function words:khud (oneself), magar (but), lekin (but), afss (alas), shabsh (well done)Sources in order of importance: The Persian language is now largely defunct in the Indian subcontinent. However, it still lingers in some scholarly and literary circles; for example, the University of Kashmir in Srinagar has been publishing the Persian-language journal Dnish since 1969. Some colleges and universities in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh offer Persian as a course of study. Commenting on the state of the field in 2008, Abidi and Gargesh wrote that there was a "general lack of interest" in Persian studies. Though Arabic largely dominates the realm of Islamic liturgy and theology in the Indian subcontinent, Persian can be seen in some religious spheres: the dhikr sessions of Sufism often employ Persian poetry in song, and the Sufi devotional music genre of qawwali also uses Persian in parallel with local languages. Famed qawwali singer Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan sang sometimes in Persian.

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After the explosion, initial reports indicated that it had happened at a CNG station, but this was later denied. Iranian officials said that the blast at the missile base was an accident, and ruled out any URLanized by the United States and its regional allies. The Army of the Guardians of the Islamic Revolution said that the explosion "had taken place in an missile arms depot when munitions were being moved". On the Iranian parliament's website, icana.ir, Parviz Soroori, an Iranian MP, was quoted as saying, "No sabotage was involved in this incident. It has nothing to do with politics". However, Time magazine cited a "western intelligence source" as saying that Mossad was behind the blast, and other reports, which were attributed to western intelligence services , also mentioned the involvement of Israel's intelligence services. Speaking to The Guardian on condition of anonymity, an official with close links to the Iranian Government in Iran said that he believed the Bid Kaneh explosion was "part of the covert war against Iran, led by Israel".

After the explosion, initial reports indicated that it had happened at a CNG station, but this was later denied. Iranian officials said that the blast at the missile base was an accident, and ruled out any URLanized by the United States and its regional allies. The Army of the Guardians of the Islamic Revolution said that the explosion "had taken place in an missile arms depot when munitions were being moved". On the Iranian parliament's website, icana.ir, Parviz Soroori, an Iranian MP, was quoted as saying, "No sabotage was involved in this incident. It has nothing to do with politics". However, Time magazine reported claims from a "western intelligence source" that Israeli intelligence agency Mossad had orchestrated the explosion; other reports, which were also attributed to intelligence services in the West, likewise mentioned the involvement of Israel's intelligence services. An " official with close links to the Iranian Government " spoke to The Guardian anonymously and claimed that the blast was "part of the covert war against Iran, led by Israel".

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Resolution In the wake of attacks against the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), the Security Council today extended its mandate for two years , until 31 August 2013, condemning all terrorist attacks against it in the strongest terms. Unanimously adopting resolution 2004 (2011), the 15-member body strongly called upon all parties concerned to respect the cessation of hostilities, prevent any violation of the Blue Line and cooperate fully with UNIFIL. It called for the rapid finalization of Lebanons investigation into the 27 May and 26 July attacks on the Force so as to bring the perpetrators to justice, and urged all parties to abide scrupulously by their obligation to respect the safety of UNIFIL and other United Nations personnel.

Resolution In the wake of attacks against the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), the Security Council extended its mandate for one year , until 31 August 2012, and condemned all terrorist attacks against it in the strongest terms. The resolution was unanimously adopted, and the Security Council urged all parties concerned to respect the cessation of hostilities, prevent any violation of the Blue Line and cooperate fully with UNIFIL. The resolution called for the rapid finalization of Lebanons investigation into the 27 May and 26 July attacks on the Force so as to bring the perpetrators to justice, and urged all parties to abide scrupulously by their obligation to respect the safety of UNIFIL and other United Nations personnel.

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Fighting and outcome During the Civil War, Abdul Hakkul Mubin fled to Kinarut (in present-day Papar, Sabah, Malaysia) where, he stayed there for ten years, repelling repeated attacks by Sultan Muhyiddin. They returned to Brunei after a final attack by Muhyiddin's forces in which they failed to defeat Abdul Hakkul Mubin. Muhyiddin was concerned that the civil war was dragging on too long and asked the help of the sultan of Sulu to send forces. He reportedly promised the land of eastern Sabah as a reward for the Sulu's assistance. Muhyiddin eventually emerged victorious. Abdul Hakkul Mubin was killed in the civil war. It is not clear to historians whether Muhyiddin asked for Sulus help in the civil war. The Sultan of Sulu at that time on his part, however, claimed that he was asked by Brunei to help and was promised eastern Sabah as a reward. As promised, the Sultan of Sulu received eastern Sabah as an honorary gift from the Sultan of Brunei, for the Tausugs' help during the civil war (an event which traced the roots of the North Borneo dispute between Malaysia and the Philippines in the present-day).

Fighting and outcome During the Civil War, Abdul Hakkul Mubin fled to Kinarut (in present-day Papar, Sabah, Malaysia) where, he stayed there for ten years, repelling repeated attacks by Sultan Muhyiddin. They returned to Brunei after a final attack by Muhyiddin's forces in which they failed to defeat Abdul Hakkul Mubin. Muhyiddin was concerned that the civil war was dragging on too long and asked the help of the sultan of Sulu to send forces. He reportedly promised the land of eastern Sabah as a reward for the Sulu's assistance. Muhyiddin eventually emerged victorious. Abdul Hakkul Mubin was killed in the civil war. It is not clear to historians whether Muhyiddin asked for Sulus help in the civil war. The Sultan of Sulu at that time on his part, however, claimed that he was asked by Brunei to help and was promised eastern Sabah as a reward. Sultan of Sulu claimed eastern Sabah as a gift from the Sultan of Brunei, for the Tausugs' that never really help during the civil war (an event which traced the roots of the North Borneo dispute between Malaysia and the Philippines in the present-day).

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A pilot study, pilot project, pilot test, or pilot experiment is a small scale preliminary study conducted in order to evaluate feasibility, duration, cost, adverse events, and improve upon the study design prior to performance of a full-scale research project. Implementation Pilot experiments are frequently carried out before large-scale quantitative research, in an attempt to avoid time and money being used on an inadequately designed project. A pilot study is usually carried out on members of the relevant population. A pilot study is often used to test the design of the full-scale experiment which then can be adjusted. It is a potentially valuable insight and, should anything be missing in the pilot study, it can be added to the full-scale (and more expensive) experiment to improve the chances of a clear outcome. Other applications In the health researchcontext , studies conducted in preparation for a future randomized controlled trial are known as pilot and feasibility studies, where pilot studies are a subset of feasibility studies. A feasibility study asks whether something can be done, should we proceedwith it , and if so, how. A pilot study asks the same questions, but also has a specific design feature: in a pilot study, a future study or part of a future study is conducted on a smaller scale . Sandra M Eldridge, Gillian A Lancaster, Michael J Campbell, Lehana Thabane, Sally Hopewell, Claire L Coleman, Christine M Bond. Defining Feasibility and Pilot Studies in Preparation for Randomised Controlled Trials: Development of a Conceptual Framework. PLoS ONE. 2016; 11(3)

A pilot study, pilot project, pilot test, or pilot experiment is a small-scale preliminary study conducted to evaluate feasibility, duration, cost, adverse events, and improve upon the study design prior to performance of a full-scale research project. Implementation Pilot experiments are frequently carried out before large-scale quantitative research, in an attempt to avoid time and money being used on an inadequately designed project. A pilot study is usually carried out on members of the relevant population. A pilot study is used to formulate the design of the full-scale experiment which then can be adjusted. The pilot study is potentially a critical insight to clinical trial design, recruitment and sample size of participants, treatment testing, and statistical analysis to improve the power of testing the hypothesis of the study. Analysis from the pilot experiment can be added to the full-scale (and more expensive) experiment to improve the chances of a clear outcome. Applications In clinical research , studies conducted in preparation for a future randomized controlled trial are known as "pilot" and "feasibility" studies, where pilot studies are a subset of feasibility studies. A feasibility study asks whether the study should proceed , and if so, how. A pilot study asks the same questions, but also has a specific design feature: in a pilot study, a future study is conducted on a smaller scale , Sandra M Eldridge, Gillian A Lancaster, Michael J Campbell, Lehana Thabane, Sally Hopewell, Claire L Coleman, Christine M Bond. Defining Feasibility and Pilot Studies in Preparation for Randomised Controlled Trials: Development of a Conceptual Framework. PLoS ONE. 2016; 11(3) which, if having produced positive results, may lead to a Phase I clinical trial.

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