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+{"metadata":{"id":"0032b40ec1e0d2aed0c0198fe1307247","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/76cec50f-8982-4e63-86cc-3b23c32f1b7f/retrieve"},"pageCount":25,"title":"How to make a milk market: A case study from the Ethiopian highlands Socio-economics and Policy Research Working Paper 28","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"A healthy, enlivened debate at the recent conference 'Agro-industrialization, globalization and economic development' (Nashville, Tennessee, USA, 5-6 August 1999) supports two conclusions. First, while we are reasonably sure about the ceteris paribus impacts of increased commercialisation in developing food systems, we know less about its 'trickle-down' effects on the rural poor, their predisposition towards exchange, and the institutional and production innovations that underlie these impacts. Second, given the necessary data, there is enormous scope for empirical inquiry around these themes and the use of modern techniques to derive sound policy conclusions. This paper considers one recent trend in the commercialisation of subsistence agriculture that has potential to catalyse market participation, enhance the velocity of transactions and sustain economic growth in rural communities. The topic is the emergence of co-operative sales organisations among resource-poor, dairy producers in peri-urban settings."},{"index":2,"size":177,"text":"Small-scale dairy production is an important source of cash income for subsistence farmers in the East African highlands. Dairy products are a traditional consumption item with strong demand and the temperate climate allows the cross-breeding of local cows with European dairy breeds to increase productivity. Particularly where infrastructure and expertise in dairy processing exist, such markets allow smallholders to participate in the agro-industrial subsector and potentially in regional export markets and beyond. Moreover, growth in dairy demand in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is projected to increase over the next 20 years due to expected population and income growth. Milk production and dairy product consumption are expected to grow in the region of 3.8% to 4% annually between 1993 and 2020 (Delgado et al. 1999). Increased domestic dairy production has the potential in much of SSA to generate additional income and employment and thereby improve the welfare of rural populations (Walshe et al. 1991;Staal et al. 1997). However, there are concerns that the benefits of this expected growth may bypass resource-poor livestock producers unless specific policy actions are taken."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"Barriers to smallholder participation in dairy production range from the availability and cost of animals to the labour needed to bring products to market. Despite the potential, smallholder participation in market-led dairy development has not been widespread in SSA outside of Kenya. Even in regions with favourable climates for livestock development, such as the Ethiopian highlands, participation in liquid milk markets by rural smallholders has been limited. Changes in sectoral and macro-economic policies are frequently necessary, but not sufficient, to provide the requisite incentives for smallholders to participate in markets."},{"index":4,"size":136,"text":"Small-scale milk producers face many hidden costs that make it difficult for them to gain access to markets and productive assets (Staal et al. 1997). Among the barriers that may be influenced by policy are transactions costs-the pecuniary and non-pecuniary costs associated with arranging and carrying out an exchange of goods or services. The existence of relatively high marketing costs for liquid milk in Africa, the prevalence of thinness in liquid milk markets and the risk attached to marketing perishables in the tropics suggest that transactions costs play a central role in dairy production and marketing. Under such conditions, producer marketing co-operatives that effectively reduce transactions costs may enhance participation. Hence, it is vital to know what governments can do to better support these organisations and their emergence, and determine whether alternative institutions should be encouraged."},{"index":5,"size":39,"text":"This paper explores the impact of household-level transactions costs and the choice of production technique on the decision of farmers to sell liquid milk to marketing co-operatives using a detailed sample of observations from the Ethiopian highlands (Nicholson 1997)."},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"Covariates representing factors affecting production, consumption and marketable surplus are examined to determine the extent to which they influence the milk marketing decision."},{"index":7,"size":121,"text":"In the conceptual framework we use, transactions costs include not only the costs of exchange but also the complete set of costs implied when households must reorganise and reallocate labour to generate a marketable surplus. These costs may be substantial, may dominate other, observable (pecuniary) costs and therefore are scrutinised. In the interests of parsimony we focus on a set of factors conjectured to affect transactions costs, namely, a modern production practice (crossbred cow use), a traditional production practice (indigenous cow use), three intellectual-capital-forming variables (experience, education and extension) and the provision of infrastructure (as measured by time to transport milk to market). We compute estimates from a Tobit specification of marketable surplus and use the estimates to draw policy conclusions."},{"index":8,"size":80,"text":"Chapter 2 provides a background on the transactions costs issue, considers co-operatives as examples of an agro-industrial innovation with the potential to catalyse the emergence of milk markets, and presents a brief introduction to the organisation of milk marketing in the Ethiopian highlands. Chapter 3 describes the household survey and presents the data. Chapter 4 motivates the Tobit model and presents results. Chapter 5 reports the policyimportant distance estimates. Discussion and conclusions are offered, respectively, in Chapters 6 and 7."}]},{"head":"Transactions costs, co-operatives and milk market development","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"2.1 Co-operatives as catalysts"}]},{"head":"Experience in Ethiopia","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Transactions costs are the embodiment of barriers to access to market participation by resource poor smallholders. They include the costs of searching for a partner with whom to exchange, screening potential trading partners to ascertain their trustworthiness, bargaining with potential trading partners (and officials) to reach an agreement, transferring the product, monitoring the agreement to see that its conditions are fulfilled and enforcing the exchange agreement."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"The nature of milk and its derivatives in part explains the high transactions costs associated with exchanges of liquid milk. Raw milk is highly perishable and, thus, requires rapid transportation to consumption centres or for processing into less perishable forms. Further, bulking of milk from multiple suppliers increases the potential level of losses due to spoilage. These losses limit marketing options for small and remote dairy producers, increase transport costs and imply greater losses due to spoilage than for commodities such as grains. Because milk production typically is a year-round activity, dairy producers often must be concerned with maintaining outlets for their production."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"The search for stable market outlets by producers is complicated by significant seasonal variation in milk production and dairy product consumption (Debrah and Berhanu Anteneh 1991;Jaffee 1994). In part due to high perishability, but also due to natural variation, milk quality is variable. Some of its properties (e.g. bacterial counts) are also not ascertained easily. Although not a perfect proxy, we conjecture that distance between production and purchasing points is highly correlated with quality, which declines rapidly after milking. The lack of easily measurable quality standards may also allow agents purchasing raw milk from producers to reject milk without just cause when they have contracted to purchase more milk than can be sold profitably."},{"index":4,"size":151,"text":"Differential transactions costs among households stem from asymmetries in access to assets, information, services and remunerative markets (Delgado 1999). Handling these access problems requires institutional innovation. First, the asset-deficit problem of smallholders is often so great that a net transfer (such as a heifer) is necessary to induce entry. Second, technical and market information for new commercial items is more likely to be useful to individuals with higher levels of schooling, greater work experience, better access to management and technical advice, and better knowledge of market opportunities. Smallholders may require particular support in information and management. Third, access to services is often unequally distributed within communities. Poor infrastructure, low population density and low effective demand necessitate institutions for risk sharing and economies of scale in provision of agricultural services, especially in remoter areas. Fourth, better access to remunerative markets for high value-to-weight items is necessary for promoting growth of smallholder agriculture."}]},{"head":"Co-operatives as catalysts","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"A common form of collective action to address access problems of this type is a participatory, farmer-led co-operative that handles input purchasing and distribution and output marketing, usually after some form of bulking or processing. Farmers gain the benefit of assured supplies of the right inputs at the right time. Frequently, these include credit against output deliveries and an assured market for the output at a price that is not always known in advance but is applied equally to all farmers in a given location and time period. Extension is sometimes part of the services provided, typically at higher levels (and quality) than state extension services. Co-operatives, by providing bulking and bargaining services, increase outlet market access and help farmers avoid the hazards of being encumbered with a perishable product with no rural demand. In short, participatory co-operatives are very helpful in overcoming access barriers to assets, information, services and, indeed, to the markets within which smallholders wish to produce high-value items."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"Like contract farming, producer co-operatives can offer processors/marketers the advantage of an assured supply of the commodity at known intervals at a fixed price and a controlled quality. They can also provide the option of making collateralised loans to farmers. For processors or marketers, such arrangements eliminate the principal-agent issues faced by collectives and outgrower schemes in monitoring effort by the individual producer, providing better relations with local communities than large-scale farms, avoiding the expense and risk of investing in such enterprises, sharing production risk with the farmer and helping ensure that farmers provide produce of a consistent quality (Grosh 1994;Delgado 1999)."},{"index":3,"size":164,"text":"Producer co-operatives, however, are unlike contract farming schemes with respect to negotiations among different partners. If the issue in contract farming revolves around the power of farmers to negotiate with processors in producer co-operatives, the issue in the cooperatives themselves is the power of members, collectively, to hold management accountable. Producer co-operatives in Africa have had a generally unhappy history because of difficulties in holding management accountable to the members (i.e. moral hazard) leading to inappropriate political activities or financial irregularities in management (de Janvry et al. 1993;Akwabi-Ameyaw 1997) and also due to over-ambitious investment in scale and enterprises beyond management's capability. The degree of moral hazard seems to be greater if co-operatives are general in their orientations rather than created for specific purposes, such as farmer-run local milk marketing co-operatives in Uganda and Kenya (Staal et al. 1997). In Ethiopia, however, the perception exists (Nicholson 1997) that there may be enormous potential for their role, in concert with production innovations, as market precipitators."}]},{"head":"Experience in Ethiopia","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"The traditional system of milk production in Ethiopia, comprising small rural and peri-urban farmers, uses local breeds, which produce about 400-680 kg of milk/cow per lactation period."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"More recently, intensive systems as diverse as state enterprises and small and large private farms use exotic breeds and their crosses, which have the potential to produce 1120-2500 litres over a 279-day lactation (Debrah and Berhanu Anteneh 1991). Fresh milk marketing is channelled through both formal and informal outlets, with informal markets supplying some 85% of total fresh milk in the Addis Ababa area (Staal 1995). The major formal outlets are dominated by a government enterprise called the Dairy Development Enterprise (DDE), which has established numerous collection centres that buy milk at a uniform government controlled price that requires no minimum delivery. In 1992-93, the DDE supplied 12% of total fresh milk sales in Addis Ababa (Staal 1995). The DDE is concerned primarily with liquid milk marketing, although it does make some cheese and yoghurt in its Addis Ababa processing facilities."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"The informal fresh milk market involves direct delivery of raw milk by producers to consumers in the immediate neighbourhood and sales to itinerant traders or individuals in nearby towns."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"Milk is transported to towns on foot, by donkey, by horse or public transport and frequently commands a higher price than in the originating locale (Debrah and Berhanu Anteneh 1991)."},{"index":5,"size":220,"text":"In Ethiopia, fresh milk sales by smallholder farmers are important only when they are close to formal milk marketing facilities such as government enterprises or milk groups. Results from a sample of farmers in northern Shewa in 1986 estimated that 96% of the marketable milk was sold to the DDE (Debrah and Berhanu Anteneh 1991). Farmers far from such formal marketing outlets prefer to produce other dairy products instead, such as cooking butter and cottage cheese (Table 1). In fact, the vast majority of milk produced outside urban centres in Ethiopia is processed into products by the farm household and sold to traders or other households in local markets. The other principal outlets for milk are 'milk groups,' which are milk marketing co-operatives recently established by the Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture's Smallholder Dairy Development Project (SDDP) with the support of the Finnish International Development Association. The milk groups buy milk from both members and non-members, process it and sell the derivative products to traders and local consumers. Although the milk groups sometimes sell liquid milk products such as sour milk, skim milk or buttermilk, most of their revenue is generated by sales of processed dairy products, butter and cottage cheese (Nicholson 1997). The groups do not currently represent a significant source of fresh milk for either rural or urban markets."}]},{"head":"Empirical application","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Data collection procedures","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"The SDDP milk groups purchase raw milk from farmers, then use hand-operated equipment to process the milk into butter, local cottage-type cheese (ayib) and yoghurt-like sour milk (ergo). These dairy products are sold to local households, to local restaurateurs and to traders who, in turn, market them to major urban centres. Typically, the value added from processing the liquid milk into products (less funds retained for maintenance of the groups' facilities) is returned as a semi-annual, lump-sum payment to group members and others who have supplied the group during the period since the previous payment."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"At the time of data collection four of these milk groups existed, two in the Shewa Region north of Addis Ababa and two in the Arsi Region near the regional centre Asela. The activities of these groups are focused exclusively on the processing and selling of dairy products. They provide no additional services (i.e. no credit, feeds, veterinary services etc.) to farmers nor to buyers and, therefore, represent the simpler end of the continuum of activities that cooperative organisations might undertake."},{"index":3,"size":132,"text":"Although the number of farmers and the amount of milk received at each group is not a large proportion of regional totals, the formation of these groups has created a new outlet for sales of liquid milk by producers. Before the formation of the groups, the households processed nearly all locally produced milk into butter and ayib. Even now, most milk produced in these areas is marketed as home-processed dairy products and sold to traders or other households in local markets. Thus, the milk groups can be considered organisational innovations that increase the number of marketing options available to smallholder dairy farmers and mitigate some of the principal transactions costs that retard entry. We now turn to the identification of remaining factors (technology, infrastructure and household capital accumulation) that may forestall entry."}]},{"head":"Data collection procedures","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"Data were collected from four rural communities called 'Peasant Associations' (PAs) (which are state-designated partitions of rural districts) near two of the four milk groups formed by the SDDP. Preliminary surveys were undertaken in December 1996 and January 1997 to ascertain the extent of crossbred cow ownership. On the basis of the preliminary surveys, the Mirti and Ashebaka PAs in the area of the Lemu Ariya milk group were selected from the Arsi Region, and the Ilu-Kura and Archo PAs were selected near the Edoro milk group in the Shewa Region. One PA in each region was close enough to the milk group that co-operative selling occurred; the other was distant enough that sales were precluded. None of the households in the Ashebaka and Archo PAs participated in the milk groups, whereas a proportion of the households in Mirti and Ilu-Kura PAs delivered milk to the groups."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"A census of households in these four PAs was conducted to develop a sampling frame. Using the census results, a sample of 36 households was selected in each of the PAs, stratified by whether the household owned crossbred cows, participated in the milk group and their distance to the milk group or to another local market where dairy products could be sold."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"During June 1997, baseline surveys of household characteristics and current cattle management practices were administered to 144 households. From June 1997 to October 1997, data on milk allocation and marketing, significant events occurring in the cattle herd (births, deaths, purchases, sales, illness etc.) and cow feeding practices were collected every 2 to 3 weeks."},{"index":4,"size":145,"text":"From the survey, we focus on the 68 households in the Mirti and Ilu-Kura PAs for which samples were observed on milk sales in the 7 days before 3 respective visits, yielding a total of 1428 = 68 × 7 × 3 observations. Table 2 summarises the data by market participation status. We use a Tobit specification using a Markov-chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) method to derive estimates of the quantities of interest. Although relatively new, MCMC methods are now widely used in Bayesian inference; however, applications in development economics have thus far been few. Details of the procedure are presented in Chib (1992). His approach combines Gibbs sampling with data augmentation. Seminal contributions in these two areas are Tanner and Wong (1987) and Gelfand and Smith (1990) but very readable introductions are provided by Casella and George (1992), Tanner (1993) and Chib and Greenberg (1995)."},{"index":5,"size":55,"text":"The approach is motivated in three steps. First, household maximisation is formalised. Second, relaxing the non-negativity restriction on marketable surplus, a set of latent values are implied for the non-participating households. Third, because we observe the value zero for these households rather than the latent quantities, the data are censored and Tobit estimation is relevant."},{"index":6,"size":163,"text":"Let F i (.) denote the level of some objective of interest in household 'i' (say, the level of expected utility); let j i (.) denote its first-order partial derivative with respect to variable vi (the level of marketable surplus from the household); and let x i º (x li , x 2i , ..., x mi ) denote a vector of factors affecting the choice of vi (the composition of the physical capital in the household, the physical distance that it resides from the market and the stocks of intellectual capital that the household has accumulated). 1   1. As highlighted by an internal reviewer's comment, despite the generality afforded the analysis through the general specification of the objective function, it is important to recognise that it is some transformation of the value of marketable surplus to the household that is being maximised and not the quantity of marketable surplus itself. Marketable surplus is, of course, the choice variable at the household's disposal."},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"Then, across each of the households i = 1, 2, ..., N, we are concerned with the problem:"},{"index":8,"size":7,"text":"the derivative condition on the objective function:"},{"index":9,"size":6,"text":"the non-negativity restriction on marketable surplus:"},{"index":10,"size":4,"text":"and the complementary-slackness condition:"},{"index":11,"size":23,"text":"Ignoring the restriction in (3) for the moment and assuming strict equality in (2), a first-order MacLaurin-series expansion in the left-hand side yields:"},{"index":12,"size":219,"text":"where the function j i and the partial derivatives j vi and j xki k = 1, 2, ..., m, are evaluated at the point v i = 0, x i = 0. Accordingly, we have a (locally) valid expression relating the household's choice of vi to the levels of the covariates, x ki , k = 1, 2, ..., m, in the linear equation: where ß 0 ºj i j vi -1 and ß k º j xki j vi -1 , k = 1, 2, ..., m. But, when vi is negative we actually observe zero and, therefore, the relevant statistical framework is the censored regression model: where e i ~ N( 0 , s 2 ) and we observe y i = max { Z i , 0 } Although some interest resides with the parameters in (7), our fundamental concern lies with the levels of the covariates that are required for participation in the market, that is, the measures beyond which positive marketable surplus is implied for the non-participants in the (censor) set c º { i : Z i£ 0 }. The values of interest follow naturally from setting marketable surplus to zero in (7); solving for each of the covariates: and computing means across the set of non-participating households, say n in total:"},{"index":13,"size":227,"text":"Table 3 reports results of the estimation. All but one of the covariates (experience) is significant at the 5% level. Thus, each of the other covariates has a significant impact on marketable surplus and, therefore, entry into the milk market. Focusing on the parameter estimates themselves, the addition of one crossbred cow increases surplus by about 4.4 litres of milk per day and the addition of one local cow increases surplus by about 1.8 litres-a clear and obvious difference between the modern and the traditional production techniques. Conversely, distance to market causes surplus to decline. We estimate that for each one-hour reduction in return time to walk to the milk group, marketable surplus increases by about 3.5 litres. Of the capital-forming variables (experience, education and extension), education and visits by an extension agent are significant but marketable surplus is unresponsive to farm experience. The estimates of the responses to education and extension are, perhaps, more important for our study because these variables are potentially more likely to be affected directly by policy. 2 For each additional year of formal schooling of the farm decisionmaker, daily marketable surplus increases by about 0.30 litres and, for each additional visit by an extension agent, increases by almost 1.0 litre. The summary statistics suggest a reasonable amount of fit given the high proportion of censoring in the sample-approximately 85% are non-participants."},{"index":14,"size":174,"text":"2. One appealing interpretation offered by a reviewer is that the so termed intellectual-capitalforming variables are actually reflective of the household's ability-cum-inability to access information.  The estimates for numbers of crossbred cows, numbers of indigenous cows, time to the milk group and extension are each significant at the 5% level; the estimate for marketable surplus is significant at the 10% level; years of farm experience and years of formal schooling are both insignificant. The results indicate that, to effect entry, the representative non-participant must increase surplus by about 9.8 litres per day. Such an increase, it appears, could be effected by a variety of (ceteris paribus) techniques, including additions to the milking herd of 2.5 crossbred animals or, instead, by an addition of 6.4 local cows, a feasible but nonetheless substantial increase in productive assets. Of the remaining covariates for which the distance estimates are significant, entry could also be effected by reducing transport time by almost 2 hours or by increasing the frequency of extension visits to around 10 per household per year."}]},{"head":"Average distance estimates","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":178,"text":"In interpreting the figures, conceptual problems arise when the covariate coefficient estimate is negative. In this case, only the distance-to-market variable has a negative impact on marketable surplus (Table 1). When considering reductions in time to market as a feasible, ceteris paribus policy, the maximum reduction possible is, of course, bounded by the household's observed distance from the market. It follows that the range between zero and the household's actual distance dictates the feasible range for policy. The same is not the case for a covariate that has a positive impact on marketable surplus (as is the case, for example, with respect to crossbred cows, local cows and extension visits). In the latter cases, the feasible range for policy (although it is obviously bounded above by institutional and, possibly, political factors, let alone the respective costs of each policy) is not bounded in the same way. Put simply, when the estimated distance measure for the negative-impact covariate lies outside the stated range, reductions in the level of the variable per se is an infeasible policy for effecting participation."},{"index":2,"size":230,"text":"Figure 1 illustrates the situation for three, hypothetical covariates. The vertical axis reports marketable surplus and the horizontal axis reports the corresponding covariate value. The respective line segments AB, CD and EF report the (hypothetical) relationship between marketable surplus and the three, respective covariates. The covariate corresponding to line segment AB has a positive relationship with marketable surplus whereas the covariates corresponding to line segments CD and EF have negative relationships. Note that the intercept values are different in all three cases. This observation is important and arises due to the fact that in each respective case, a different quantity (viz. the sum of the Tobit regression coefficients multiplied by the average values of each of the remaining covariates) is being held constant. Line segment AB signifies that (positive) quantity B is required for the agent to enter the market and that entry occurs at all covariate values to the right of point B. Line segment CD indicates that (positive) quantity C is required for entry and that entry occurs at all covariate values below quantity C. Line segment EF, however, predicts that (negative) quantity E is required for entry and that all quantities below E will also call forth entry. Clearly, when each of the covariates is positive valued-as they are, currently, in our empirical example-only quantities B and C represent feasible policies. Quantity E is an infeasible measure."}]},{"head":"Figure 1.","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Interpreting the distance estimates."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"The distance estimate corresponding to the time-to-market variable coincides with a situation like point F and line segment EF. The distance estimate, therefore, represents an infeasible, ceteris paribus policy. In comparing the distance-to-market estimate in Table 4 (-114 min) with the observed level for the average non-participant in the sample from Table 2 (46 min) we find that reductions in time to transport milk-to-market (whether enacted through improvements in infrastructure or through capital improvements leading to vehicular transport) is not a potent policy for the sample of households we are studying. However, increases in numbers of crossbred cows, local cows and visits by an extension agent appear to be feasible for the representative household. Recommendations about the impacts of increases in each of the other covariates (experience and education) are marred by lack of precision."}]},{"head":"Individual distance estimates","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Turning focus away from the average non-participant, a potentially revealing set of conclusions arises about the precise impacts of adjustments across the entire sample of nonparticipating households. Figures 2-5 plot the effects on participation of adjustments in the levels of crossbred cows, local cows, time to the milk market and visits by an extension agent when these adjustments are granted to each non-participant in the sample."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"The regression model predicts that 84 households (observations) are participants, given their currently observed covariate endowments; and we study the required levels of adjustment needed to effect entry in the entire (1428 observations) sample. From Figure 2 we see that the rate of response of entry to a one-unit addition to the crossbred milking herd to each nonparticipant increases participation only slightly. More responsive rates are achieved with the second-and third-unit additions and only modest increments are achieved with the fourth-and fifth-unit additions, at which point the entire sample participates in the market. A similar relationship is observed in response to the addition of local milking cows (Figure 3)."},{"index":3,"size":274,"text":"Responses per unit addition are lowest for the first three animals and for the last three animals but they are greatest for the fourth-to seventh-unit additions; the entire sample is predicted to participate if each non-participant is granted 11 additional animals.   Finally, responses to extension are quite linear (Figure 5), with the entire sample predicted to participate given an additional 20 visits per year. The policy-relevant variables having the greatest impact on participation in liquid milk markets are cow numbers, time to the milk group and visits by an extension agent. Deriving a precise account of their impacts on marketable surplus from the household is, of course, difficult because without further restrictions on household preferences and technology, most comparative static effects are ambiguous. Nevertheless, a credible account proceeds as follows. The number of cows kept affects marketable surplus through both total production and the marginal costs of production. An increase in total milk production by the household decreases the marginal utility of milk consumption and, thus, should increase marketable surplus. In the case where additional cows lower marginal costs of production, this also increases marketable surplus because the household is assumed to equate marginal costs of production and milk price net of transaction costs. Finally, a higher marketable surplus per farm potentially reduces that farm's average costs of milk transfer to the group, as well as lowering average production costs on the farm. Thus, pooling activities, especially milk collection and transport activities, has potential to mitigate costs. However, problems of coordinating and monitoring agreements between participants and the costs engendered by such ventures is likely to dissipate any potential gains from exploiting scale economies."},{"index":4,"size":160,"text":"Our empirical analysis does not distinguish among possible scale effects but this does not appear to be crucial for policy purposes given the net, positive impacts of cow numbers (of both breeds) on marketable surplus. The difference between the impacts of local and crossbred cows on marketable surplus and liquid milk market participation has more relevance for policy. In theory, the marginal costs of milk production are equated for crossbred and local cows if the household owns both types. However, not all households own both types of cows and other market imperfections (e.g. feed and services availability) may imply higher marginal costs for crossbred animals. Higher marginal costs for crossbred cows imply a negative gross effect (despite the positive net impact of crossbreds) on marketable surplus compared with local cows. The magnitude of this effect can be approximated using annualised milk yield per day for crossbred cows and local cows, and multiplying these by the 'distance' estimates from Table 4."},{"index":5,"size":301,"text":"Annualised milk yields per day from a farm survey in the peri-urban area of Addis Ababa are 3.9 litres for crossbred cows and 1.2 litres for local cows. Multiplying these milk yields by the Tobit distance estimates of cow requirements (2.52 and 6.45 for crossbred and indigenous cows, respectively) daily milk production levels implied for market entry are 9.8 litres for crossbred cows and 7.7 litres for local cows. If the estimates reflected only the transactions costs related to the level of marketable surplus, we would expect the difference between these two values to be statistically insignificant. The difference in milk requirement is 2.1 litres, which appears to be fairly large when compared with the mean daily milk production from the sample (3.25 litres). Further, given the standard deviation of output in the sample (3.07 litres), the difference does not appear to be significant. In addition, since milk prices paid to farmers in this sample do not distinguish between milk from local and crossbred cows, milk quality can be assumed safely not to contribute to this difference. The difference can thus be presumed to relate to differences in technology (including scale effects). Thus the higher level of milk production needed from crossbred cows suggests that some 27% more 'milk production potential' (capacity) is needed in the form of crossbred cows compared with local cows to effect entry. Whether this is related to downside risk of disease, different feed requirements or differential scale effects on unit production and transfer costs, is uncertain. However, the size of the difference suggests that although transactions costs related to technological obstacles are evident, they are not insurmountable. Further, to the extent that policy and other interventions can reduce this difference in marginal costs, crossbred cows will have a larger impact on marketable surplus of liquid milk."},{"index":6,"size":264,"text":"The Tobit estimate of time to milk group shows that sales to the milk group could be effected by reducing the milk delivery time from farm to collection point by an average of 114 minutes. This is clearly related to the transactions costs of reallocating family labour to milk delivery. Given the current limited number of milk groups in Ethiopia and the very large number of rural households with cattle, this result suggests a potentially simple policy intervention. Currently, many potential liquid milk-marketing households are hours distant from any milk group. Setting up new groups would clearly reduce the time to group for a number of households close to the group. Of course, the actual number of households that would benefit depends on local population densities. A reviewer identifies another point that is worth emphasising. This is the importance of keeping newly emerging milk groups small and geographically limited to ensure proximity and avoid large groups that would tend to increase average travel times. Any policy support to increase smallholder participation in milk marketing based on our analysis of factors influencing liquid milk sales would necessarily have to weigh public costs against the expected gains by smallholder households, the magnitudes of any positive or negative externalities that arise and so on. In this context, a limiting factor in the blanket increase of crossbred animals lies in the possibility that increased intensity may lead to increases in disease. This issue is important in comparing an increase in crossbred animals and an increase in the number of cooperatives as viable, alternative strategies that expand market participation."},{"index":7,"size":168,"text":"The existing milk groups were established by a development project at an estimated cost of 44,350 Ethiopian birr (EB) each (US $ 1 = EB 8.198 at 22 May 2000). Given prices at the time of group formation, the cost of a milk group is roughly equivalent in market value to some 10 crossbred cows. Granted the density of households in many parts of rural Ethiopia, one such investment is likely to bring about market entry of more than four households, the number implied by the yield of 10 cows. Further, the availability of crossbred cows for purchase by smallholders is limited. Policies to promote expansion of crossbred numbers-currently less than 100,000 in Ethiopia-rely on expansion of the domestic herd, largely at governmentowned facilities. Imports of crossbred cattle are severely restricted (particularly from Kenya) due to fears of disease risk. The resulting slow growth of the domestic herd of crossbred animals also provides support for the formation of co-operatives, with or without the provision of additional crossbred animals."},{"index":8,"size":79,"text":"The ultimate benefits of participation in liquid milk sales-and the survival of the milk groups themselves-will depend on their continued ability to capture the value added in dairy processing and return that added-value to their members. This, in turn, relies on the groups' abilities to offer producers a higher return net of transactions cost than alternative market outlets. Whether they will continue to do so remains to be seen but first impressions from our two sample sites are positive."},{"index":9,"size":186,"text":"The ideas developed here are simple and so is the message we are motivating. Institutional innovations by themselves are insufficient to catalyse entry; a mix of other inputs including infrastructure, knowledge and asset accumulation in the household must accompany them. Although it is not surprising that milk groups increase the participation of smallholders in liquid milk markets in Ethiopia's highlands, our empirical results provide insights about how to promote further market participation by smallholder producers. Locating groups so as to minimise the time required to market milk increases the number of participating producers and the level of marketable surplus. Given the difficulty and cost of providing crossbred animals (as experienced by such heifer loan schemes as the Heifer Project International in other parts of Africa (Morton et al. 1999)), investment in infrastructure such as milk groups provides a lowcost mechanism for increasing smallholder participation and furthering the integration of traditional producers into agro-industrial systems. These results are likely to hold relevance for other perishable and time-constrained agricultural products, such as winter vegetables, cut flowers and the like and, perhaps, a wide and broader set of circumstances."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Impact of crossbred cows on market participation. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Impact of local cows on market participation. "},{"text":"Figure 4 Figure4reports rates of response to reductions in the time it takes to walk milk to the cooperative. In reviewing the figure, one must keep in mind that the maximum observed return time is 130 minutes. This figure should be compared with the estimated level that is required to effect entry for the entire sample, which is 313 minutes. The correct interpretation is that beyond the 130-minute reduction, the remaining impact of time reduction must be channelled through another source (say, additions to the milking herds or through extension) and must be equivalent in impact to a time reduction in the order of around 183 minutes. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Impact of distance on market participation. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Impact of extension on market participation. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Household sales composition and distance to market. Distance from the DDE 1 collection centre Distance from the DDE 1 collection centre 0-3 km 3-10 km 0-3 km3-10 km  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Selected characteristics of survey households, by market participation status. Sample means (standard errors) Sample means (standard errors) Sold to the milk Did not sell to the milk Sold to the milkDid not sell to the milk group (168 group (1260 group (168group (1260 observations) observations) observations)observations)  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Marketable-surplus Tobit-equation estimates.  Estimate Estimate Regressor (standard error) Regressor(standard error) Number of crossbred cows 4.43 Number of crossbred cows4.43  (0.38) (0.38) Number of local cows 1.81 Number of local cows1.81  (0.26) (0.26) Time to the milk group (min) -0.06 Time to the milk group (min)-0.06  (0.01) (0.01) Farm experience of household head (years) 0.0027 Farm experience of household head (years)0.0027  (0.0233) (0.0233) Formal schooling of household head (years) 0.28 Formal schooling of household head (years)0.28  (0.10) (0.10) Extension agent visits during the past year 0.94 Extension agent visits during the past year0.94  (0.11) (0.11) Constant -12.40 Constant-12.40  (1.39) (1.39) Square root of the variance 27.47 Square root of the variance27.47  (3.98) (3.98)  Summary statistics Summary statistics  Uncensored Uncensored  observations observations R 2 0.35 R 20.35 Positive predicted values 63 Positive predicted values63 Negative predicted values 105 Negative predicted values105  Censored observations Censored observations R 2 0.98 R 20.98 Positive predicted values 21 Positive predicted values21 Negative predicted values 1239 Negative predicted values1239  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Table4reports point estimates of the 'distance' statistics (equation 9). These estimates report levels of change in the covariates that are required, ceteris paribus, for the representative non-participant to enter the market. It is important to emphasise that these reports are in the nature of comparative static experiments wherein other possible changes are set to zero. Distance estimates. Distance estimate Distance estimate (standard error) (standard error)  "}],"sieverID":"b9cb0075-a2e5-48fd-8ebb-443d1c9e1e73","abstract":"LPAP working papers contain results of research done by ILRI scientists, consultants and collaborators. The author(s) alone is (are) responsible for the contents."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"010157a12aed57c9f1211c3c05afd602","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H033367.pdf"},"pageCount":17,"title":"THE GROUNDSWELL OF PUMPS: MULTI-LEVEL IMPACTS OF A SILENT REVOLUTION","keywords":["Groundwater","pumps","irrigation","water management","aquifer"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":328,"text":"In the wake of the Green Revolution, another more silent but probably as crucial transformation has occurred in the management of water resources for irrigation. The dissemination of relatively cheap pumping technology has revolutionized access to both underground water (deep wells or shallow wells) and surface water (tapping rivers, drains and low flows in irrigation canals). Pumps and tubewells have played a prominent role in irrigation in the semi-arid regions for many decades. However, with the steady decline in costs pumps are to a large degree privately owned and have spread rapidly from the semi-arid into the monsoon areas of Asia. Depending on the physical and socio-economic context, different types of pumping devices (fixed/mobile, collective/individual, private/public, shallow/deep) have emerged. The superimposition of a logic of individual, flexible and on-demand access to water to the distribution patterns of large-scale irrigation schemes has far-reaching, yet overlooked, both positive and negative implications. In the first place, water allocation and distribution, as well as their related levels of efficiency and equity, are impacted by the uncoordinated nature of the abstraction of additional sources: rivers, drains, ponds, aquifers. This generally occurs when water rights are ill-defined, a case in which conflicts are likely to develop. Second, collective action in water management (whether surface or groundwater systems) is potentially undermined by the development of individual strategies fostered by the possibility to access water individually. However, this may also lead to the re-working of arrangements and collective rules. Third, both the spread and the partial individualisation of pumping have an implication on costs and on the amount of energy spent on food production, and more generally on cost-recovery and irrigation financing. To date, there is no available comprehensive assessment of the magnitude and importance of the spread of pumps, nor of their global impact on groundwater resources. The following sections do not intend to make up for this lack but, rather, to illustrate these points through a few examples drawn from Asia and the Middle-east."}]},{"head":"THE UPSURGE AND SPREAD OF PUMPS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"There is a tendency to associate irrigated agriculture in the developing world with canals, dams, tanks, and reservoirs. By contrast, largely hidden from attention, a worldwide explosion has occurred in the use of wells and pumps for irrigation, domestic, and industrial use. A few statistics give a graphic illustration of this upsurge."},{"index":2,"size":290,"text":"Figure 4 shows the evolution during the 80s and 90s decade of the number of pumps in Sri Lanka, Vietnam and Pakistan. Both the rate of increase and the actual absolute number of pumps are astonishing. Vietnam, for example, saw the number of pumps multiplied by 5 in the 90s decade only. Data on Thailand ( Figure 5) are also impressive: the total of pumps in the kingdom in 1998 reached 3 million in 1998, 56% of which were found in the Central region. In Iran, a total of 365,000 tubewells are pumped to produce 45 km 3 of groundwater (Hekmat 2002). In India, the number of pumps, used mostly for groundwater irrigation, grew from less than 100,000 in 1960 to over 19 million by the turn of the century and at current rate, India's population of irrigation pumps will be close to 25 million by 2007 as suggested in Figure 7 (Moench 2001). India has varied hydrological regimes. The Indo-Gangetic basin which has some of the best aquifers can sustain intensive groundwater irrigation with pumps. However, wildfire growth in pumps in India is not confined to such well-endowed regions. As the following map from Debroy and Shah (2002)-which overlays density of irrigation pumps on density of human population-shows (Figure 9), even in the semi-arid regions of India and Pakistan Punjab, groundwater irrigation has grown steadily since the 1960s to the point where groundwater exceeds surface systems as a source of irrigation. Each black dot in the map represents 5000 pumps; the concentration of pumps tends to be higher in regions with high density of human population.  1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 Source: Barker and Molle (2003) Figure 5. Evolution of the number of pumps in Thailand (1000 units)    "}]},{"head":"A","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"While all these figures exemplify the rather recent groundswell in pumps, it should be noted that the expansion in use of pumps has occurred over a much longer time period in semi-arid regions such as Pakistan (see later) than in monsoonal areas such as Vietnam and Sri Lanka. Large pumps have been widely used in the Red River since the 1950s. These statistics are not deprived of ambiguity. It is not always clear how yearly figures are extrapolated, nor whether pump sets which are out-of-order are computed. The type of pump is also not specified and the figures may pool devices like low-lift axial pumps powered by two wheel tractors together with larger diesel powered suction pumps, or even large-scale pumping stations. For all these shortcomings, the data presented above are sufficient to convey the sense of an upsurge which may not be unworthy of the term \"revolution\"."}]},{"head":"PUMPS IN VARIOUS ENVIRONMENTS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":280,"text":"In discussing pumps and wells it is useful to distinguish between several environments with very different management problems. First, a distinction can be made between situations where abstracted water is surface or underground water. A second distinction can be made between high-discharge and low-lift pumping operations!, and a third one between whether the use is individual or collective. When the use of water is collective, management can be either collective, and in that case either state-driven or not, or individuaL These categories appear in Table 10, and are illustrated by several examples. Surface water low-lift pump operations are best illustrated by Asian deltas. In the Chao Phraya delta, Thailand, 80% of farmers have at least one pumping device, in their great majority axial-pumps powered by the ubiquitous 2-wheel tractors. These pumps are used for all sorts of operations: pumping water into paddy plots from adjacent canals, ditches or drains, but also pumping water out after land preparation or to speed drainage in case of heavy rainfall. Small pump sets are also used to pump water from farm ponds. In the Mekong delta, the most common low-lift device is the shrimp-tail pump, which consists in using the propeller of a boat to put water under pressure in a box and deliver it through a hose. This service is often collective, delivered by entrepreneurs who move their boats around in the network of channels and supply several groups of farmers on a seasonal contract basis. Alternative management patterns have been tested with limited success. A cooperative established at the instigation of the state using a fixed pumping station has tried to offer pumping service but could not operate with the required flexibility."},{"index":2,"size":323,"text":"On the contrary, collective pumping stations implemented by localities in the Red River delta, are all the more successful. Because of the failure of the large-scale state-run irrigation units in delivering flexible and satisfactory irrigation and drainage services, these \"local stations\" have mushroomed in the delta, superimposing themselves upon the existing hydraulic network. In Bac Hung Hai, for example, the largest polder in the delta, there were 814 local stations in 1996 supplying 54,487 ha, against 324 centralized stations supplying 41,490 ha (Fontenelle and Molle 2002). High-lift operations of surface water are typical along (steep-sided) river valleys. They are implemented by farmers who find a crop with returns high enough to offset the costs of pumping (unless electricity is highly subsidized). A good example is that of almonds grower along the upper reach of the Zayandeh Rud river, in Iran, who pump water up to the bordering plateaus, 300 m higher. State run pumping schemes with significant head can also be found (e.g. certain districts in China), but are not widespread because of the O&M costs. Low-lift groundwater abstraction is generally the tapping of shallow alluvial which are usually replenished every year. Such aquifers are common in the low-lying areas and valleys of Asia where rice is grown. Depending on the physical characteristics of the soil and the discharge desired, tubewells or large dug wells are dug. Typical dug wells are the \"agrowells\" of Sri Lanka. Since the depth of abstraction is limited by the 8-10 meter constraint of suction pumps, there is often the need to lower the body of the pump when the water level drops further. In dug wells, this is rather easy but for tubewells, this requires sinking round shaped concrete rings to allow for accommodating the pump in a lower position, a technique Thai farmers are good masters of High-lift water abstraction from deep aquifers can be found in virtually all countries in the world, particularly in arid-countries. "}]},{"head":"CONSEQUENCES OF THE PUMP REVOLUTION","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"All these different situations show the diversity of environments where pumps playa role in irrigated agriculture, often a major one. The picture gets even more complex when one considers their incidence both on the hydrological cycle and on collective action or management."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"Hydrology-wise, particularly in the semi-arid regions, the picture is little encouraging. The groundswell of pumps and wells has had a critical impact on poverty alleviation, but has led to massive groundwater withdrawals which have altered the hydrology of the river basins (e.g. drying up of springs), jeopardized intergenerational equity (mining of main aquifers) and provoked environmental damages ( coastal saline water intrusion, contamination, land subsidence). While groundwater has contributed much to the growth in agricultural productivity, the overexploitation of groundwater is affecting both the quantity and quality of water available for agriculture, domestic use, and other purposes (Shah et aI. 2000)."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Management-wise, the consequences are equally critical. Pumps are being used not only for groundwater extraction but also for providing greater flexibility in the reliability and delivery of surface water. Kikuchi et aI. ( 2003) comment as follows:"},{"index":4,"size":180,"text":"In the history of irrigation and irrigated agriculture in monsoon Asia in the tropics, the last few decades of the 20 th century will be remembered as the decades of well and pump diffusion that enabled individual peasant farmers to irrigate their crops at their discretion, as opposed to those in gravity irrigation systems in which decision making as to water allocation and distribution rests at best on groups of farmers or at worst on bureaucratic government agency totally unaccountable to farmer beneficiaries. In the areas where surface and groundwater systems are hydrologically strongly linked, conjunctive use has not led to conjunctive management. The growing ascendancy of private investment in groundwater has undermined collective management by fostering individualistic strategies. Farmers who have acquired pumps may be less willing to participate in irrigation associations or the widely promoted participatory irrigation schemes. But failure to maintain the surface irrigation systems can in tum affect the groundwater recharge and increase the cost of pumping as groundwater tables fall. This section provides a few illustrations of all these interrelated aspects of the pump revolution."}]},{"head":"Iran","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":589,"text":"\"The leitmotiv of the country's irrigation ecology\" (McLachlan 1988), qanats are widely believed to have originated in Iran, where they were common as far back as the 600 Be. Qanats are galleries with a gentle slope which drain aquifers and provide regular flow at their outlet, and can be seen as man-made springs. Estimates of the number of qanats in Iran vary between 30,000 and 40,000 (McLachlan 1988, Beaumont 1989) but a large part of them is now out of order. After the nationalization of water resources in 1968, the growing intervention of the state came together with a modernist ethos, whereby traditional village irrigation was considered as primitive, backward and inefficient (McLachlan 1988, Ehlers andSaidi 1989). The demise of qanats became apparent in the 60s (Ehlers and Saidi 1989) when landlords withdrew money from annual repair of qanats to invest in wells, despite a 1943 law obliging them to take steps whenever necessary (Lambton 1953). Qanats enjoyed a renewed interest and consideration during the post-revolution time but the emphasis on self-sufficiency and production eventually favored the wells. Wells provide a more flexible and more abundant source. Their great advantage is to allow over-exploitation of aquifers in periods of drought, thus ensuring a regulation of supply. On the other hand, uncontrolled expansion of wells leads to the overdraft of aquifers, and jeopardizes this regulation advantage due to reduced yield, declining water quality, or growing costs. Year after year, wells took a heavy toll on qanats. While in 1950 the contribution of tube wells was negligible and existent qanats were providing 60% of all supplies and servin r 1,200,000 ha of irrigated land, by the mid-1970s wells were already providing 8 billion m , against 9 billion m 3 for qanats (McLahan 1988). The history of the destruction of qanats by wells is documented by several studies (e.g. Ehlers andSaide 1989, Lambton 1969). What have been the implications of such a change? In many instances, qanat right-owners have often also been the beneficiaries of well development, either because they were encouraged by the government to expand production, or because they felt forced to do so to weather pressure over resources. In all cases, this resulted in growing local abstraction and reduced sub superficial flows to downstream. Consequently, users who were tapping these flows (either through other qanats, or after the re-emergence of these groundwater flows in downstream river streams) were impacted. In closed basins, where all the water is used up, this is tantamount to a spatial redistribution of water use or, more to the point, to are-appropriation of water by upstream users. In other cases, where qanat right-owners could not make up for the loss of their qanat with adequate alternative sources, they were stripped of their water by those having the financial capacity to invest in wells and pumps. The social cohesion of villages depending on a sole and vital source like a qanat had several managerial, legal, and economic dimensions (Spooner 1974). Obviously, the breakdown of the qanat also had social implications. In some cases, qanat shareholders themselves invested together in wells and pumps, building or existing social arrangements and cohesion (Molle and Miranzadeh 2003). In other cases, landlords were able to get most of the benefits from the change and social links tended to disaggregate, including traditional dependencies between peasants and landlords. While this is not necessarily deplorable, the new order has failed to bring more equity. According to Ehlers and Saidi's (1989) case studies, \"modernization worsened in the long run existing social and economic discrepancies\"."}]},{"head":"Western and Peninsular India","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"This same story got repeated in vast regions of India where tanks, like Iran's qanats, were the mainstay of rural communities and their livelihoods over the millennia. At the time ofIndia's independence in 1847, the three south Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka had between them over 300,000 such tanks, many in cascades. Northern states too had tanks and tank like structures in large numbers. Like Iran's qanats and Afghanistan's kareze's, India's tanks too have fallen into disrepair. Many factors played a role but the most important culprit has been the rise of the pump irrigation economy. As large affluent farmers in command areas of tanks were able to secure captive water source in the form of a tubewell and a pump, they increasingly lost incentive and interest in adhering to traditional customs and rules for sustained management of tanks. Privately owned tubewells thus became the enemy of common property tanks."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"Unlike many other parts of the world, semi-arid areas in India are now coming a full circle when it comes to tanks. As groundwater economies have grown, farmers are increasingly finding that the only way their wells remain productive is by keeping their tanks in good shape. While the interest in tanks for flow irrigation ebbed, there is a new found interest in tanks as groundwater recharge structures. During the past decade, in western Indian states like Gujarat and Rajasthan, communities have constructed largely from their own contributions, tens of thousands of new tanks and tank-like water storage structures primarily to enhance local recharge which they can use to save their crops from moisture stress (Shah 2000)."}]},{"head":"Thailand","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":503,"text":"In the central plain of Thailand, three kinds of pumping operations can be found. The frrst one, generalized in the delta flat, is the use of axial pl!mps to achieve water transfers between plots and adjacent channels, with very low lift-heads. This is done by farmers individually and generates few problems. A second situation is found on some alluvial terraces, where shallow wells are exploited when supply in the irrigation canals is unsatisfactory. These wells have low costs and are operated individually, although two or more farmers may share the investment. Aquifers may drop but they are usually replenished during the next wet season. They are, to some extent self-regulating. A more interesting situation is that created by the need to compensate for the insufficient water level in traditional gravity schemes, as found in the upper part ofthe delta (see Molle et al. 2000). Low water levels in main canals mean poor or no inflow into lateral canals. Farmers thus ensure inflow by closing the regulator and pumping at the head of lateral canals with the use of their low-lift axial pumps (tho phayanak), generally powered by a two-wheel tractor. Sometimes, up to 15 pumps can be set at the same time, although 5 or 6 are generally the maximum number of pumps activated at the same time 3 . This operation is more complex than it may appear at first sight: in what order do farmers pump? The accepted right is that whoever comes first (i.e whoever has an urgent need of water for his plot) pumps first. Latecomers must wait for those who have set their pump first to finish filling up their rice fields. Farmers with no pump (a minority) do not engage in risky cropping or pay neighbours to pump for them. Things get complex because pumping water from the main canal into the lateral is not enough to raise the water level as to ensure gravity inflow into tertiaries or into plots adjacent to the canal. It follows that whoever pumps at the canal head must also pump a second time in the lateral, at his plot or where the tertiary leading to his plot branches off. Whoever has only one pump set will try to team with a neighbour and will pump at the head while the neighbour pumps at the plot level. Costs are balanced and shared on an area basis. Obviously, cases arise in which one farmer uses a more powerful pump near his plot than the one he uses at the head of the canal (typically an axial pump of 8\" in diameter against one of 6\"). Normally, this is observed by fellow farmers and the trespasser is told to change his system at the next rotation or can be barred by the other farmers out the next opportunity. However, complacency with particular cases seems to be rather common (\"he has high land\", \"his land is dry\", \"he lost his rice last year\", ..). The system functions rather smoothly and is internally controlled 4"},{"index":2,"size":285,"text":". Some inequity is accepted as far as it is not perceived as outright cheating. This example shows that, in a context reputed for its lack of effective Water User Groups, the possibility offered by pumps to partly redress the deficiencies of gravity water supply are successfully taken advantage of through ad hoc social arrangements. While such individual and collective pumping strategies have allowed farmers (but more particularly head-enders) a better access to water, it is all the more true that-in return-this has discouraged whatever regulation improvements the Royal Irrigation Department (RID) would have otherwise been pushed to achieve. Rotational arrangements are part of the paraphernalia but as their implementation entails significant transaction costs, RID officials understandably prefer the actual status quo where their role is to ensure water in the canal, even with a low level. The embracing (or the strengthening) of a pervasive individualistic concept of gaining access to water implicitly reinforced the acceptance of the first-pumping first-served principle, and the idea that locational advantages necessarily translate into privileged access to water, thus privileging head-enders and choking claims of greater equity. This also ended up altering the role and power of the RID as water manager. Apart from these agricultural uses of pumps and/or groundwater, it is worth mentioning the overdraft of Bangkok aquifers by tubewells, which provide 95% of the water used by industries in Bangkok Metropolitan Area (BMA) (Christensen and Boon-Long, 1994). The actual pumping rate is approximately 3 million m3/day, against a sustainable level of 1 million m3 (Molle et al. 2001). Despite critical externalities in terms of land subsidence and flood damage, the overdraft is continuing, although recent drastic measures taken by the government seem to bear some fruitss."}]},{"head":"Egypt","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"The irrigation of the Nile delta is based on the supply of water through different arms of the river which feed branch (and sub-branch) canals, generally with an on-and-off pattern. From these channels, water is elevated by traditional lifting devices (saquia) or by using diesel pumps and flows to tertiaries (mesqa) and quaternaries (marva). The extension and intensity of cropping has therefore always been contingent upon the overall abstraction capacity, including its manpower, animal power, and machinez components. Although the first steam powered pumps appeared in the last quarter of the 19 century and diesel pumps in the 1930s, the number of mechanical lifting devices became significant in the 1980s. More recently, the drilling of deep wells has also become very common. These wells provide a supply of water which is independent from the distribution network."},{"index":2,"size":359,"text":"Two conflicting logics are making progress in the delta. On the one hand, there is a trend towards dispersion, individualization, and conjunctive use of water. The quest for higher reliability and flexibility is based on a growth of the pumping capacity (going well beyond that corresponding to flat water requirements), and on the tapping of multiple sources (canals, drains, groundwater). This, however, comes with higher energy costs and lower average water quality, and greatly complexifies the understanding of water flows in the delta (Pintus 1997). On the other hand, there is a rationalizing process going-on, whereby a hierarchical management structure is intended to parallel a modernized network of distribution of the Nile waters. It includes the modernization of the mesqa level (limitation of losses as a way to reduce pumping O&M costs and the time required for irrigation: Depeweg and Bekheit 1997; Hvidt 1995), and attempts to increase the predictability of water supply at the branch level, in view of transferring the management of the latter to Water Boards. This policy towards management transfer appears to be neatly driven by financial considerations, with water Boards expected to gradually share O&M costs of irrigation and drainage (Abdel-Aziz 2003). Because of its vital role in agriculture and the collective nature of its ownership and management, the saquia is part and pieces of the Egyptian landscape and social fabric (Mehanna et al. 1983). The introduction of mobile pumps was deemed to impact negatively on the pre-existing traditional structure of water management based on the saqia unit. However, Pintus' s (1997) fieldwork in the Menoufeyya Province shows that saquia and pumps did not really conflict with each other and that the gains in flexibility have contributed to reducing the occurrence of conflicts. Traditional structures were still needed for the management of the pumps themselves and for their inclusion in the mesqa system. The spread of pumps also appears to be boosted by external factors, including the policy to lower water levels in the delta initiated in the 1970s, the growing difficulties to raise the cattle needed for power, the opportunity cost of labour outside agriculture, and the social prestige of modem mechanical devices."}]},{"head":"Vietnam","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":347,"text":"Both the Red River and Mekong delta offer a few lessons on the spread of pumps. As mentioned earlier, with the failure of large-scale state-run irrigation units to deliver flexible and satisfactory irrigation and drainage services in the Red River delta, \"local\" pumping stations have been implemented by cooperatives and communes, often with public financial support (Phong 2002). Here, again, pumps have been instrumental in raising control over water by users, including better satisfaction of water requirements, quicker land preparation, flexibilization of cropping calendars, better conveyance efficiency (Fontenelle and Tessier, 1997;Mai Van Hai, 1999). If this change is on the whole technically and socially positive, it also has implications on financial sustainability, since the implementation of local pumping stations amounted to a duplication of investments and resulted in high -and costly-pumping capacity per ha. The distribution of operation and maintenance costs over farmers, cooperatives, district hydraulic companies, provincial hydraulic companies, and finally the state, appears to be a complex issue (Fontenelle and Molle 2002). It is also a highly political issue, where the strategies, the political weight and the room for maneuver of the different actors of these embedded levels eventually define who pays what and how much. The historical and physical context of the Mekong delta has generated different responses to the challenge of controlling water. As mentioned earlier, pumping from the millions of channels that crisscross the delta has developed thanks to entrepreneurs providing pumping services using mobile pumpsets on boats (northern part of the delta), as well as individuals (often using 'shrimp-tail pumps'). This dramatic supply of pumping capacity, added to the growing availability of fresh water in the lower delta, contributed to boost dry-season cropping all over the delta 6. The resulting effect of this change is to radically -albeit gradually-alter the outflow to the sea. In dry years, this effect is bound to result in severe saline intrusions into the arms of the river and to damage plantations, notably orchards. This example shows how the combined effect of scattered and un-controlled pumping operations may significantly alter the hydrologic regime and increase vulnerability."}]},{"head":"Yemen","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":556,"text":"Home of an ancient and remarkably efficient system of terracing and irrigation (Milton 2001), Yemen has seen its agriculture completely changed by the irruption of pumping technologies, leading to severe overdraft of aquifers. Water use is estimated at 3.4 Bm3, in excess of35% of renewable resources (2.5 Bm2) (Kohler 2000), but the situation is much worse in some localities. The extraction rate in Sana'a area, for example, is believed to be four times higher than the sustainable yield (Ward 1998). It is estimated that there are about 45,000 private wells in the country (although some estimates are considerably higher) and about 200 drilling rigs (Ward 1998) with largely uncontrolled activities. In other words, despite providing significant short terms benefit to rural populations, the pump revolution has gone awry. The current water crisis is the result of several internal factors (popUlation growth at 3.5%, government and international development agencies' support to the \"modernization\" of agriculture through tubewell technology in the 1970s (Milton 2001, Ward 2001), subsidies for oil and pumps, and protective measures for qat production), as well as external ones (absorption of 1.2 million people expulsed from Gulf countries after the first Gulf War, mostly in the agricultural sector; supply of cheap groundwater extraction technologies). Main consequences of the overdraft are of course the unsustainable nature of current agriculture, which has already driven some farmers out of business, as well as the growing costs of supply to cities, which must look for deeper or more distant resources. In some of the most stressed areas of the country, agriculture is running out of water. In wadi Bani Khawlan, near Ta'iz, uncontrolled groundwater extraction and upstream riparian use development have drained aquifers, drying up springs and leading to the abandonment of agriculture further down the wadi (Ward 2001). In the Hadramaut coastal region as well as in the western highlands, pumps have also dried up most of the ancient qanats (Lightfoot 2003). While spate irrigation from wadis had traditionally been regulated by strict tribal codes and enduring social arrangements, the groundswell of individual boreholes has escaped local control (Al-Sakkaf et al. 1999). This can be partly attributed to the lack of awareness of the finite nature of groundwater resources and to the inadequacy of customary laws: the necessity of collective management was not perceived, local costumes were not adapted to the technological revolution brought about by pumps, and the individual nature of the investment made local control more difficult. Like in the Iranian case, the pump revolution has worsened inequities by favouring those with higher financial capacity, including larger landowners who sell water to surrounding poorer farmers (Ward 1998, Milton 2001). Due to the prevalence of local tribal power over state power and to the specificity of each locality, there is a large consensus that solutions must be devised locally, with involvement of stakeholders and traditional structures 7 (Milich and AI-Sabbry 1995, Ward 1998, Kohler  2000), rather than believing that formal state-driven legal approaches will suffice. In addition, instead of ignoring the importance of qat in the water problem, Milich and AI-Sabbry (1995) emphasize that the state should invest in research and development as a way to improve water productivity. Other solutions advocated by analysts to resolve the gridlock include new legal provisions, the end of subsidies (already partly implemented), price incentives or water markets, or conservation measures."}]},{"head":"South Asia and North China Plains","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":222,"text":"Unlike in Thailand, most pump irrigation schemes in South Asian region and in North China plains are dependent on groundwater. In these predominantly agrarian regions, the booming groundwater economies have assumed growing significance from viewpoints of livelihoods and food security. However, their significance as engines of rural and regional economic growth has remained under-studied. There are several ways to consider the scale of the groundwater economy, but one practical measure is the economic value of the groundwater production. India, Pakistan, Bangladesh have active markets in pump irrigation services in which tubewell owners sell groundwater irrigation to their neighbours at a price that exceeds their marginal cost of pumping. This price offers a market valuation of groundwater use in irrigation. Table 11 constructs a profile of the groundwater economy in three Asian countries (India, Pakistan and China) using such valuation and suggests that groundwater irrigation in Asia may well be a US $ 10-12 b/year business. It needs to be noted that this figure is likely to understate the contribution of groundwater to the agricultural economy of the regions covered, which may be several times greater, more likely near US $ 25-30 b. Thus the groundwater economy of South Asia is of huge size and the unique feature of this economy is that it is mostly at the hands of the farmers. 3."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Wang (2000)"},{"index":3,"size":125,"text":"India's 100,000 public tubewells and Pakistan's 15,000 Salinity Control and Reclamation Project (SCARP) tubewells 8 represent a small 'public' component in the total groundwater capital stock of these countries. In China, groundwater capital stock was for long mainly financed by local village and township governments with varying levels of central government subsidies prior to the implementation of household production responsibility system (HRS) in the late 1970s. Till then, farmers contributed mostly in labour and collective ownership dominated all groundwater irrigation. With the implementation ofHRS, the shares of the collective and government in groundwater irrigation investment declined from 21 % and 12% in the 1983 to 5% and 3% in 1998, respectively. During this period, the share offarmers' investment increased from 67% to 92% (Wang 2000)."},{"index":4,"size":223,"text":"Throughout South Asia, public initiative played a strong promotional role in the historical evolution of groundwater irrigation in early 1950s. In India, for example, government program to establish public tubewells in Uttar Pradesh way back in the 1930s provided the first exposure to farmers to the advantages of the modern tubewell technology. Two decades later, in Pakistan too, government initiative to set up SCARP tubewells gave the first impetus to groundwater irrigation development. In all these countries, however, private tubewells soon took over and left the government sector marginalized. Today, India's public tubewell program and Pakistan's SCARP tubewell program lie in complete disarray, while the private tubewell economy is booming. In China, groundwater economy took a somewhat more circuitous path but its organization has eventually assumed pretty much the same shape as in South Asia. Much groundwater irrigation capital in PRC was collectively created and owned before the end of the 1970s. However, collective ownership has gradually given way to a more market-oriented private or quasi-private irrigation ownership since the 1980s. In a study of 30 villages in Hebei province of NCP, Wang and co-researchers found that the share of collective property rights declined from 83% in 1983 to 31% in 1998, while the share of non collective property rights increased from 17% in 1983 to 6<)010 in 1998 (Wang et al. 2000)."},{"index":5,"size":307,"text":"Today, we find four types of tubewell ownership arrangements in China: private individual, private share holding, pure-collective and quasi-collective in the NCP. In pure collective system, village collectives invest in all pumping related facilities and also manage the operation of the tubewell, while in quasi collective arrangements, village collectives only invest in tubewell (drilling the bore of the tubewell); other investments-such as in the pump and pipe line-are made by one or more private farmers.  Institutional development in groundwater economies of these regions in Asia has responded essentially to the economic opportunity it has offered for agrarian wealth creation through accessing modem tubewell and pump technology. Where the resource itself is concerned, unrestricted open access has been the general rule even in regions that have begun to face depletion or deterioration of the resource through over use. Nowhere in Asia do we find credible informal rules or formal laws that seek to ensure either the protection of the resource itself or a modicum of equity in access to it. Private ownership of groundwater structures throughout these regions has tended to reflect the inequality in land ownership and wealth in the rural socio-economic structures. As tubewells have emerged at the centre-stage of the spread of Green Revolution technologies, ensuring some equity in access to groundwater has become an important concern. In India and Bangladesh, this concern has prompted the governments to institute a range of policies-subsidies to the poor on the cost of pumps and wells, credit support from public sector financial institutions, generalized subsidies on power supply to agriculture-that have shaped the evolution of the sector. Other countries, notably Pakistan and China, have recognized but ignored the equity-in-access issues; Pakistan did offer some subsidies in the 1960's; but today, government policies in these countries do little to promote the access of the resource poor to groundwater irrigation."},{"index":6,"size":256,"text":"During the 1980s and 90s, there has been growing interest in the functioning of pump irrigation markets as an institution that enables poor farmers to access groundwater irrigation without having to own wells and pumps. However, while these are pervasive and dominant in South Asia, their role has been limited in the PRe. In seeking efficiency, equity and sustainability in surface and groundwater management, developing countries have tried public management, administrative regulation, farmer groups and co-operatives, but with only limited success. A growing debate on water markets has opened up new directions in thinking about water resources management. Interest in South Asian groundwater markets has been fuelled by their spontaneous emergence and rise to a position of centrality in agrarian economies and their wide-ranging efficiency and equity impacts. Water markets have the potential to move water from low to high value uses, to promote investment in increasing the efficiency of water use, and to transform water from being a 'scarce but free' resource into an economic good with an opportunity cost. The South Asian experience has shown that groundwater markets have opened up new big livelihood opportunities for the poor who would be worse off in their absence. Groundwater markets have also created new powerful instruments for public policies to influence millions of pumpers and their water buyers. On the flip side, groundwater markets exacerbate the problems of over-exploitation in areas with fragile groundwater ecology. Either way, understanding their working is central to formulating effective public policies in water resource sector (Shah 1993;Shah and Hussain 2000)."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":836,"text":"Several observations and lessons can be drawn from the various examples given above. In addition to the typology proposed earlier, it appears that pumps are used in four main situations, each of them presenting different constraints, problems and threats! a) to tap deep or shallow aquifers to expand agriculture or increase cropping intensity (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Yemen, Iran; most MENA countries); these developments are in most cases the result of unchecked individual initiatives and are very hard to control. Aquifer mining, declining water table and water quality, land subsidence and rising pumping costs are the most common threats. Management problems are those related to open-access resources and lor associated with states with low regulation and enforcement capacity. Poor farmers also generally cannot afford costs (Pakistan, India, Yemen). b) to ease the lifting of water from nearby channels in deltaic environments (Nile, Red River, Mekong, and Chao Phraya deltas); problems are limited to overcapacity, costs and sometimes water quality. The combination of all un-coordinated local pumping operations may also impact the hydrological regime (or disrupt hydraulic regulation). c) to gain flexibility and reliability in surface irrigation schemes with poor management (Thailand, Northern Vietnam); water is pumped in general from drains or shallow aquifers, more rarely deep aquifers. Hydraulic regulation is disrupted and collective management weakened. d) to compensate for the decline of existing surface water sources (YeHow River in China, Iran). Problems combine those affecting cases a) and c). The different types of impact identified in the above examples can also be broken down and summarized as follows: Hydrological impact. Pumps in large numbers may significantly, sometimes radically, alter the hydrological regime. They may not only deplete aquifers but by doing so also dry springs and qanats, and reduce the baseflow to rivers. These modifications of flow regimes also impact the quality of water and, through irrigation, the evolution of soil salinity. Overall, the actual degree of overdraft of groundwater in the world is a very critical question with implications on the sustainability of food production. Social impacts. Where pumps are owned/managed collectively, it is in general because of economies of scale and/or because of a technical choice oriented by a collectivist ideology (Vietnam, initially China). User groups are sometimes defined based on existing social structures or groups of water right holders (Egypt, Iran). In a majority of cases, pumps tend to be owned individually. The may be used for their owner's benefit but also to sell water to other users. Since they require access to capital, they also tend to exclude poorer users. The hydrological disruptions mentioned above also impact on pre-existing uses. Whenever collective dependency upon vital water resources defines a tight knitting between the social structure and arrangements around water management, the disruption of supply, as for example caused by the expansion of area served by private pumps, necessarily have social implications (Iran, or the breakdown of the bethma system in some parts of Sri Lankat Management impact. Because pumps easily multiply in large numbers and are often mobile, they are not easily taken into consideration in basin-level water management. By altering the balance and the flows between surface and underground water, they make integrated management more complex. While, on the one hand, pumps are managed locally and by users, obviating the need of large scale infrastructure and bureaucracies, they pose challenges both at the scheme level (when they complement surface irrigation water supply) and at the basin level. Their control, when becoming necessary, calls for the provision of laws and regulations. These, however, are typically marred with enforcement problems. Economic aspects. The first economic impact of pumps is that their action on the hydrological cycle is often tantamount to a redistribution -or spatial re-appropriation-of water. Third-party impacts are very common, especially in closing basins (Molle and Miranzadeh 2003), although they are often made 'invisible' by the complexity of surface water/underground water interactions. A second economic impact is that pumps often tap a resource that would/could otherwise be diverted by gravity somewhere further downstream, thus adding energy costs to the re-allocation. Last, because their main attractiveness resides in the flexibility and security of the supply of water they allow, there is a tendency towards over capacity, the installed capacity of all the pumps being several times the requirements of the crops (Red River delta). This brief review of the \"pump revolution\" in diverse contexts has showed the variety and complexity of the implications of the spread of pumping devices. It claims that this revolution has often been 'silent' and that its importance and significance are generally overlooked. Pumps are the main instrument of both water reuse/recycling and of the tapping of groundwater: as such they are central to the most crucial aspects of the closing of river basins and to the much heralded need for integrated water management. Pumps have also largely shifted from communal or state control towards private ownership and management. They are, therefore, a central element of the articulation between public and private spheres, including political, managerial and financial dimensions."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Figure 4 "},{"text":"Figure 7 .FillureFigure 9 . Figure 7. Growth of energized pump sets "},{"text":" Their use in agriculture is usually individual but, notably in India and Pakistan, such well may be owned and operated by entrepreneurs who sell water to users around. In other cases, such as the Sukhothai Project in upper central Thailand, wells are operated by the government and serve several hundreds or thousands hectares of land divided among small (or large) holders. In western Indian state of Gujarat, where farmers have depleted excellent aquifers over decades of sustained overdraft, tubewells go to the depth of 400 m or more. Here farmers use 90-150 hp pumps to produce a discharge of 60-90 litres /second, and use complex network of buried pipes to distribute this water.      The cost of making The cost of making such tubewells often amounts to US $ 15-20,000. Since no farmer is large enough to mobilize such tubewells often amounts to US $ 15-20,000. Since no farmer is large enough to mobilize such capital, tubewells here are typically built and owned by informal 'tubewell companies' in such capital, tubewells here are typically built and owned by informal 'tubewell companies' in which farmers share capital, costs, profit and losses in proportion to their land in the which farmers share capital, costs, profit and losses in proportion to their land in the command (Shah 1996).   command (Shah 1996). Table 10. Typology of uses of pumps in irrigation, with some examples. Table 10. Typology of uses of pumps in irrigation, with some examples.   Low-lift  High-lift Low-liftHigh-lift   Individual use Collective use Individual use Collective use Individual useCollective useIndividual useCollective use      State Private StatePrivate      management management managementmanagement  Surface Deltas (Mekong, Mekong delta, River sides China SurfaceDeltas (Mekong,Mekong delta,River sidesChina  water Chao Phraya, etc) Red river delta  waterChao Phraya, etc) Red river delta   Valley aquifers, Agrowells Morocco, Iran, China China, India, Valley aquifers,AgrowellsMorocco, Iran,ChinaChina, India, I Groundwater paddy areas Agrowells  India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal Thailand (Sukhothai) Pakistan, Iran IGroundwater paddy areas AgrowellsIndia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, NepalThailand (Sukhothai)Pakistan, Iran  "},{"text":"Table 11 . The size of the Agricultural Groundwater Economy of India, Pakistan, China. India Pakistan China IndiaPakistanChina  "},{"text":" Table 12 provides an overview of changing institutional arrangements for the ownership of groundwater structures in the 30 village study in Hebei province by Wang et al. (2000).  "},{"text":"Table 12 . Changing structure (%) of property rights in groundwater irrigation system, 1983-98. iYear Collective vs non-collective Within collective Within non-collective iYearCollective vs non-collectiveWithin collectiveWithin non-collective  Collective Non-collective Pure Quasi Shareholding Private CollectiveNon-collectivePureQuasiShareholdingPrivate 1983 83 17 52 48 100 0 1983831752481000 1990 56 44 24 76 99 1 199056442476991 1 1997 32 68 16 84 87 13 1 1997326816848713 1998 31 69 18 82 86 14 1998316918828614 Source: Wang and Huang 2000     Source: Wang and Huang 2000  "}],"sieverID":"616fbea9-dc8e-4f11-8647-3e84626db1d9","abstract":"In the wake of the \"green revolution\" another more silent and crucial transformation is occurring. The dissemination of relatively cheap pumping technology has revolutionized access to both underground water (deep wells or shallow wells) and surface water (tapping rivers and drains and flows in irrigation canals). Pumps and tubewells have played a prominent role in irrigation in the semi-arid regions for many decades. However, with the steady decline in costs, pumps are now to a large degree privately owned and have spread rapidly, especially in the monsoon regions of Asia. This has superimposed a logic of individual, flexible, and on-demand access to water which has far-reaching and as yet overlooked implications for the regulation and management of our water resources. The first part of the paper describes the upsurge in the use of pumps and the wide variety of physical conditions and institutional arrangements under which pumps are owned and operated. The second part of the paper through a series of examples in selected countries examines the consequences of the spread of cheap pumping technology -water rights and the reordering of access to water, private ownership and collective action, and the implications for integrated management of privately owned pumps with publicly operated surface irrigation systems. These examples serve as a basis for the conclusion, which spells out the hydrological social, management, and economic impacts of the pump revolution."}

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It has an impact on animal productivity, health and welfare, product quality and safety, producer incomes, household security, land use and land use change, water pollution and greenhouse gas emissions Irrespective of species and production system, animal feed and feeding accounts for about 70% of the production cost (Makkar, 2013). Livestock feed is therefore cited as the single most important constraint to improved productivity for smallholder farmers."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The FEAST study was undertaken by researchers from ILRI with the assistance of four livestock officers from Babati district. The assessment was carried out through a farmer-centred-diagnosis research methodology, which involves holding focus group discussions and one-on-one interviews. The aim is to systematically analyse farmers' knowledge of the local farming system, feed-related problems and potential solutions."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"The exercise was carried out in three villages in Babati district: Shaurimoyo, Matufa and Hallu. A total of 47 participants (30 males and 17 females) who practise both livestock and crop farming took part in the focus group discussions with nine from each site selected for the one-on-one interviews (Table 1). The criterion used to select the nine farmers was to have three participants from each of the three landholding categories: small, medium and large. These farmers were then individually interviewed to collect information on feed resources and feeding practices. The average time taken at each site was about 3 hours 20 minutes. "}]},{"head":"Results and discussions","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study area","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"The average farm and household sizes in the three villages are 1.6 hectares and 7 persons respectively (Table 2). "}]},{"head":"Landholding categories","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"The landholding categories of the three surveyed villages are shown in Table 3. The majority of the households in Shaurimoyo have small to medium landholdings, while Matufa and Hallu have farmers with medium to large landholdings. "}]},{"head":"Contribution of livelihood activities","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Agriculture and livestock production contribute to the livelihoods of the farmers in all three locations. Agriculture is predominant in Shaurimoyo and Hallu while livestock production is the main source of income in Matufa. Farmers also reported that business (11-24 %) and labour (6-14) contribute to their household income."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Labour is available throughout the year and is in high demand during the cropping season. The average cost of labour per day is TSH 5,000 (USD 2.2) and cultivating 0.4 hectares of land costs TSH 35,000 (USD 15.2)."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"Figure "}]},{"head":"Crops and cropping seasons","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"There are three main cropping seasons in the area (Table 4), namely masika (long rains), vuli (short rains), kiangazi (dry period), each with its own particular activity. The perception of seasons was quite different between the three villages, e.g. the core season for the long rains seems to vary from village to village. This shows high variability in this particular area that could be ascribed to the varied relief of highlands and lowlands. "}]},{"head":"Crops grown in Shaurimoyo, Matufa and Hallu villages","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Mixed or multiple cropping is a common practice in all three villages, with at least four crops intercropped per season. Farmers reported that the demand for more land is increasing, mainly due to an increase in the population. This has caused many farmers to resort to multiple cropping. The main crops that are grown in this area during the cropping season are maize, rice, pigeon pea, beans and sunflower (Figure 2). Other crops include sweet potato, pumpkin, cowpea, sorghum and wheat. Crops are used both as a source of food and for income generation.  "}]},{"head":"2c) Crops grown in Hallu village","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Livestock production systems","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Shaurimoyo has more livestock per household than the other two villages, mainly of the local breeds. This might be due to the type of production system practised in the area. The village is home to many pastoralists who keep local breeds of cattle far from the main roads, which makes it difficult for development partners to introduce improved cattle breeds. Matufa and Hallu villages are easily accessible by road and have a higher presence of improved cattle breeds. Development partners (governmental and non-governmental) have taken advantage of the improved infrastructure by introducing improved breeds via sponsored programmes and projects. Dairy production is common in both Matufa and Hallu villages."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Other livestock types raised in the district include sheep, goats and poultry (Figure 3), but also pigs, donkeys and draught cattle. The main functions of the livestock are as a source of food and income, manure, draught, transport and for payment of dowry. Table 5 shows the major livestock species owned per household, their uses, the proportion of households that own each kind; the average number of animals owned is shown in Figure 3 "}]},{"head":"Feed availability","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":207,"text":"Figure 4 below shows the availability of different feed resources and rainfall in Shaurimoyo, Matufa and Hallu villages over an average year. Rainfall was estimated by farmers on a scale of 1-10 where 10 is abundant and 1 is very scarce. Similarly feed availability was estimated by farmers on a scale of 10-100 where 100 corresponds to abundant feed available and 10 denotes very little feed. Pasture is the dominant feed for ruminant livestock in all three villages. The quality of natural pasture varies with the season and stage of growth: large quantity and good quality pasture are available during the long rain (Masika) of March, April and May and during the short rain (Vuli) of October to February. After these months, the quantity and quality of planted forages decline during the dry seasons, affecting livestock production and productivity. Crop residues contribute to the feed resource base of livestock in Shaurimoyo and Hallu during the dry season months of May to August. The most common crop residues are maize stover and legume crop residues such as pigeon pea, sunflower and common bean haulms. Rice straw is not commonly used despite paddy production because farmers have realized it has a low feeding value compared to other crop residues."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"In Matufa and Hallu villages, many farmers practise stall feeding and natural grasses and legumes are the major sources of feed. A cut and carry system of forage feeding is commonly practised by farmers. Fodder is usually collected from the roadside, riverbanks and uncultivated land. Crop residues, mainly maize stover, pigeon pea, sunflower chaff, groundnuts and common bean haulms are collected after crop harvest and stored and fed during the dry season."},{"index":3,"size":103,"text":"Livestock farmers reported challenges of proper storage facilities for the collected crop residues. Vermin and pests readily attack the stored crop, which also gets soaked by the rains when not protected properly. Concentrates are provided to lactating animals and to calves, but many farmers do not give their animals a balanced feed ratio due to lack of knowledge. This adversely affects the health and productivity of animals in various ways and reduces the net daily income of milk producers (Blummel et al., 2018). Hay or silage making and chemical or biological treatment of crop residues to improve their feed value is not common. "}]},{"head":"Feed types","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Table 6 provides a summary of the main feed types and sources in the three villages; these differ depending on the production system (including livestock system and type of livestock species kept) and the agro-ecological conditions of the village. Forage cultivation is practised in all three villages. Figure 5a, 5b and 5c: Forage/crop residue chopper used to process crop residues, chopped maize stover and cultivated forage"}]},{"head":"Dietary compositions","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Figure 6 describes the nutrient contribution of the various diets available in the villages. In Shaurimoyo village, grazing contributes 79% of the dry matter (DM), 65% of the crude protein (CP) and 72% of the metabolisable energy (ME) intake. Although cultivated fodder contributes only 5% of the DM, it accounts for 11% of the CP intake of the ruminant's diet, indicating it has high feed value content. Similarly, purchased feed contributes 6% of the total DM, and 13% of the total CP content."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"In Matufa village, naturally occurring collected grasses and legumes contribute 59% of the total DM content, 60% of CP and 54% of ME in the diet. The purchased feeds have a contribution of 17% DM, 20% CP and 33% ME in the total diet. This indicates that the purchased feeds are mainly an energy rather than a protein source."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"In Hallu village, grazing contributes 65% of the total DM, 59% of CP and 72% of ME. The purchased feeds contribute 4% of DM, 22% of CP and 8% of ME in the total diet. This indicates that the purchased feeds are a high protein rather than an energy source."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"In all three villages, cultivated fodder mixed with legumes improves the CP content of the diets, while for those farmers who practise stall-feeding, inclusion of purchased feed ingredients that have a high CP content would further improve the protein content of the diets. "}]},{"head":"Agriculture and livestock inputs and services","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"The supply and availability of agricultural and livestock inputs and services vary between the three villages. In Shaurimoyo, due to distance and poor infrastructure, it is difficult for many input suppliers to provide services in the village. This has resulted in service inputs in Shaurimonyo being offered at a higher price compared to the other two villages. In Matufa and Hallu villages the supply of agricultural inputs is better due to improved infrastructure and the villages have access to extension services. There are no formal credit facilities in the area, however the traditional recognition of livestock as a guarantee for obtaining credits is commonly used."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 2a , Figure 2a, 2b and 2c: Crops grown in Shaurimoyo, Matufa and Hallu villages (total of 9 participants) "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Availability of feed resources in the villages a) Shaurimoyo b) Matufa c) Hallu "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Number of participants per site for FEAST exercise Village Number of participants Males Females VillageNumber of participantsMalesFemales Shaurimoyo 17 10 (5) 7 (4) Shaurimoyo1710 (5)7 (4) Matufa 16 12 (7) 4 (2) Matufa1612 (7)4 (2) Hallu 14 8 (5) 6 (4) Hallu148 (5)6 (4) (Numbers in brackets are farmers (individuals) interviewed with a questionnaire)  (Numbers in brackets are farmers (individuals) interviewed with a questionnaire)  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Average farm and household sizes in Shaurimoyo, Matufa and Hallu villages, Babati district Village Average farm size (hectare) Household size (persons) VillageAverage farm size (hectare)Household size (persons) Shaurimoyo 2 7 Shaurimoyo27 Matufa 1.2 5 Matufa1.25 Hallu 2 10 Hallu210  "},{"text":"Table 3 : The different landholding categories in Shaurimoyo, Matufa and Hallu villages, Babati district  Shaurimoyo Matufa Hallu ShaurimoyoMatufaHallu Category of farmer Range of land size (ha)  Category of farmerRange of land size (ha)  "},{"text":"HH falling into the category (%) Range of land size (ha) HH falling into the category (%) Range of land size (ha) HH falling into the category (%)  Small 0.2 -0.4 40 0.2 -0.8 15 0.4 -0.8 20 Small0.2 -0.4400.2 -0.8150.4 -0.820 Medium 0.8 -2 50 1.2 -2 45 >0.8 -2 36 Medium0.8 -2501.2 -245>0.8 -236 Large >2.4 10 >2 -4 40 >2 -6 44 Large>2.410>2 -440>2 -644  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Cropping seasons in three villages of Shaurimoyo, Matufa and Hallu Shaurimoyo  "},{"text":"village Season Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Long rains (Masika) Dry period (Kiangazi) Kipupwe Short rains (Vuli) Matufa village Season Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Long rains (Masika) Dry period (Kiangazi) Short rains (Vuli) Hallu village Season Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Long rains (Masika) Dry period (Kiangazi) Short rains (Vuli)   "},{"text":"Table 5 : . Types, uses and ownership of livestock in Shaurimoyo, Matufa and Hallu villages a) Average livestock holdings per household -dominant species (TLU) in  a) Average livestock holdings per household -dominant species (TLU) in  Shaurimoyo   Shaurimoyo 12.00    12.00 10.00    10.00 8.00    8.00 6.00    6.00 4.00    4.00 2.00    2.00 0.00    0.00 Local Dairy Cattle Fattening and draught Goats Improved Dairy cattle Sheep Local Dairy Cattle Fattening and draughtGoatsImproved Dairy cattleSheep cattle    cattle  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Main feed type and sources found in Shaurimoyo, Matufa and Hallu villages in Babati district Site/Village Type Source Feed processing Site/VillageTypeSourceFeed processing Shaurimoyo Natural grass Grazing None ShaurimoyoNatural grassGrazingNone  Crop residues: maize stover, Grazing and purchased Use of chopper machine Crop residues: maize stover,Grazing and purchasedUse of chopper machine  rice straw, pigeon pea, bean   rice straw, pigeon pea, bean  and cowpea haulms   and cowpea haulms  Concentrates: maize bran Purchased feed from Use of miller/mixing Concentrates: maize branPurchased feed fromUse of miller/mixing   milling machine millingmachine  Fodder crop: Napier grass and Cultivated fodder Use of chopper machine Fodder crop: Napier grass andCultivated fodderUse of chopper machine  lablab   lablab Matufa Naturally occurring collected Collected grass from the None MatufaNaturally occurring collectedCollected grass from theNone  grasses and legumes roadside, own farms,  grasses and legumesroadside, own farms,   riverbanks and  riverbanks and   uncultivated land  uncultivated land  Crop residues: maize stover, Collected on own farm Use of forage chopper Crop residues: maize stover,Collected on own farmUse of forage chopper  rice straw, pigeon pea, bean, and purchased from  rice straw, pigeon pea, bean,and purchased from  cowpea and groundnut neighbour's farm  cowpea and groundnutneighbour's farm  haulms   haulms  Concentrate ingredients: Purchased feeds from Mixed locally by farmers Concentrate ingredients:Purchased feeds fromMixed locally by farmers  maize bran, sunflower seed milling and input  maize bran, sunflower seedmilling and input  cake, minerals, molasses suppliers  cake, minerals, molassessuppliers  Fodder crop: Napier grass and Cultivated fodder Chopper machine Fodder crop: Napier grass andCultivated fodderChopper machine  lablab   lablab Hallu Naturally occurring collected Collected grass from the None HalluNaturally occurring collectedCollected grass from theNone  grasses and legumes roadside, own farms,  grasses and legumesroadside, own farms,   riverbanks and  riverbanks and   uncultivated land  uncultivated land  Crop residues: maize stover, Collected on own farm Chopper machine Crop residues: maize stover,Collected on own farmChopper machine  rice straw, pigeon pea, bean, and purchased from  rice straw, pigeon pea, bean,and purchased from  cowpea and groundnut neighbour's farm  cowpea and groundnutneighbour's farm  haulms   haulms  Concentrate ingredients: Purchased feeds from Mixed locally by farmers Concentrate ingredients:Purchased feeds fromMixed locally by farmers  maize bran, sunflower seed milling and input  maize bran, sunflower seedmilling and input  cake, minerals suppliers  cake, mineralssuppliers  Fodder crop: Napier grass and Cultivated fodder None Fodder crop: Napier grass andCultivated fodderNone  lablab   lablab  "}],"sieverID":"9e3b4f6f-b516-4a12-aaf4-859c18b6663d","abstract":"The three villages were chosen as they belong to three different agro-ecological zones, marking their variation in production systems and other livestock and agriculture activities. Feeding practices are mainly carried out in two ways, open grazing and cut and carry systems. However, it was observed that open grazing systems were used more in Shaurimoyo village compared to the other two villages. The key issues identified by farmers were lack of improved dairy breeds, market (price) for both live animals and livestock products, and a shortage of livestock feeds especially during the dry seasons. This may be a potential entry point for interventions in each village."}

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data/part_4/02e3e1094dbea4a5ae53583af5f1d8e9.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02e3e1094dbea4a5ae53583af5f1d8e9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0cfa638f-5c69-4040-9f36-6f6b362a76bb/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"El nuevo diplomado \"El Enfoque Territorios Sostenibles Adaptados al Clima\": una alianza para el escalamiento de experiencias y prácticas de adaptación en el Corredor Seco de Guatemala","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Mensajes clave","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"En su primera edición, 32 profesionales de 14 organizaciones del Corredor Seco del país adquirieron e intercambiaron conocimientos para la adaptación al cambio climático de la agricultura y manejo de recursos naturales."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Los proyectos formulados por estos profesionales al final del diplomado reflejan tanto el enfoque territorial como los conceptos, prácticas y estrategias difundidas."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"El segundo resultado positivo es que todos identificaron oportunidades para aplicar estas innovaciones teóricas y prácticas a través de actividades ya planificadas en sus organizaciones."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"La definición de acuerdos y proyectos concretos con las organizaciones interesadas en la capacitación de sus profesionales será el punto de partida para una segunda edición del diplomado. Se espera así incrementar aún más las oportunidades para el escalamiento del enfoque TeSAC."},{"index":5,"size":68,"text":"Se presenta una síntesis del nuevo diplomado \"El Enfoque Territorios Sostenibles Adaptados al Clima (TeSAC) en el Corredor Seco del Oriente de Guatemala\", desarrollado entre septiembre y diciembre de 2019; así como recomendaciones para su futuro desarrollo. El diplomado se llevó a cabo en 2019 en el Centro Universitario de Oriente (CUNORI), una unidad académica de la Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala en la ciudad de Chiquimula."}]},{"head":"Contexto y antecedentes","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Guatemala es uno de los países más vulnerables al cambio climático en América Latina. En la región llamada Corredor Seco, la sequía cíclica de verano coincide con una fase crítica en la producción agrícola; y en los últimos años esta sequía ha comenzado antes, ha durado más tiempo y/o ha sido más intensa. Esto ha tenido graves impactos en la fuente principal de alimentos (maíz y frijol) y de ingresos (venta de mano de obra para el cultivo de café, hortalizas y frutas) de las familias agricultoras a pequeña escala."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"El CCAFS colabora desde 2014 con organizaciones campesinas, gobiernos locales, organizaciones de gobierno y ONG para implementar el enfoque TeSAC de manera participativa, en doble vía y a múltiples escalas en el Corredor Seco de Guatemala. En este contexto, la alianza con la academia es clave para escalar conceptos enfoques de adaptación al cambio climático a través de la formación de recursos humanos."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"Entre los actores de la región destaca el Centro Universitario de Oriente (CUNORI). El CUNORI analiza y difunde conceptos, prácticas y tecnologías de adaptación en colaboración con entidades gubernamentales y no gubernamentales en diferentes carreras, posgrados y diplomados. En particular, el CUNORI ha puesto en práctica diferentes diplomados o programas cortos de formación que combinan sesiones presenciales y virtuales para introducir, discutir y profundizar estos conceptos, prácticas y tecnologías en el marco de las experiencias de los y las profesionales participantes."}]},{"head":"Descripción del diplomado","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Estudiantes de la primera edición del diplomado. Chiquimula, diciembre 2019 / V. Sandoval."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"El diplomado, diseñado conjuntamente entre el CUNORI, la Alianza de Bioversity Internacional y CIAT, y CCAFS, tuvo el objetivo de fortalecer la capacidad técnica del recurso humano del Corredor Seco de Guatemala para liderar la construcción y el desarrollo sostenible de TeSAC. El diplomado se organizó en cuatro módulos:"},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"1. Prácticas y tecnologías de adaptación al cambio climático en el Corredor Seco de Guatemala: sistematización de experiencias y criterios de selección para su puesta en práctica."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"2. Gestión de información climática para la toma de decisiones sobre agricultura y seguridad alimentaria."},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"3. Oportunidades de colaboración y financiamiento para la adaptación al cambio climático en la región."},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"4. Diseño y planeación de iniciativas de adaptación al cambio climático."},{"index":7,"size":47,"text":"En los dos módulos iniciales se priorizó la difusión de conceptos, prácticas y tecnologías de adaptación; mientras en que los dos últimos se centraron en conceptos e instrumentos para aterrizar lo aprendido en el diseño de perfiles de proyectos de adaptación en el contexto del Corredor Seco."},{"index":8,"size":14,"text":"Los módulos constaron de tres jornadas presenciales cada uno. En estas jornadas se combinaron:"}]},{"head":"Presentaciones conceptuales","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Presentaciones de experiencias de la región en las cuales colaboraron al menos 15 representantes de diferentes organizaciones (ver Agradecimientos), y Sesiones de discusión entre instructores y participantes."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Esta combinación de conocimientos entre instructoresexpertos locales y estudiantes fue especialmente relevante para la construcción de conocimientos significativos porque los procesos de adaptación son complejos, dinámicos y específicos en cada contexto."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"Las jornadas presenciales incluyeron también sesiones de trabajo en grupos para integrar los conocimientos adquiridos en ejercicios prácticos. Además, entre las jornadas presenciales se promovió la revisión y discusión de diferentes documentos y la realización de ejercicios individuales y grupales a través de una plataforma virtual."}]},{"head":"Resultados del diplomado","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Grupo de participantes diverso. En el diplomado se inscribieron 32 personas (13 mujeres y 19 varones), de las cuales 30 obtuvieron diplomas de graduación y participación (21 y nueve respectivamente) al cumplir con diferentes niveles de asistencia y entrega de trabajos individuales. Solo dos personas se retiraron del diplomado durante el desarrollo de los módulos, lo cual constituye un desgranamiento normal si se compara con otros diplomados dentro y fuera del CUNORI."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Las diferentes trayectorias y experiencias de los profesionales también favorecieron el intercambio de conocimiento. Participaron tanto técnicos como profesionales con grado de licenciatura o ingeniería de diferentes carreras; y todas estas personas trabajan activamente en organizaciones del Corredor Seco del país, como extensionistas, técnicos, promotores y gestores de proyectos en 14 organizaciones; en nueve municipios del Corredor Seco de Guatemala y uno de Honduras."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Inserción de lo aprendido en el quehacer institucional. Los participantes identificaron oportunidades concretas para aplicar lo aprendido a corto plazo. Un ejemplo de esto lo proporciona el ejercicio realizado por personal del Ministerio de Agricultura, Ganadería y Alimentación (MAGA):"}]},{"head":"¿Qué oportunidades existen para la aplicación de lo aprendido en el diplomado en 2020, en actividades ya planeadas o a planear?","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Las podemos aplicar en cada Agencia Municipal de Extensión Rural (AMER) capacitando y fortaleciendo los conocimientos de cada técnico para la implementación o fortalecimiento en los Centros de Aprendizaje para el Desarrollo Rural (CADER) de cada municipio.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Fortaleciendo la aplicación de metodología Campesino a Campesino."}]},{"head":"Insertándolo en el Programa de Agricultura Familiar para el Fortalecimiento de la Economía Campesina (PAFFEC).","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Ejemplo de inserción de lo aprendido en el diplomado en el quehacer institucional / V. Sandoval."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Integración de lo aprendido en la formulación de propuestas de adaptación. Lo aprendido en los tres primeros módulos fue aplicado por los participantes en un ejercicio de diseño de proyectos de adaptación. Los participantes se organizaron en grupos de acuerdo con su interés en temas particulares de adaptación. Ellos organizaron diagnósticos y teorías de cambio dirigidas a influir positivamente en la adopción de medidas de adaptación apropiadas para el contexto por parte de las familias productoras. Algunos ejemplos de objetivos principales de diferentes proyectos que ilustran lo anterior son:"}]},{"head":"Las familias productoras usan variedades de frijol apropiadas para cada temporada en la comunidad","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Las familias productoras deciden las prácticas agrícolas en sus parcelas con apoyo de las recomendaciones de la Mesa Técnica Agroclimática"}]},{"head":"Las familias instalan y mantienen infraestructura de captación de agua","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"En las teorías de cambio de cada proyecto, los participantes identificaron también cambios deseados en grupos comunitarios, municipios, consorcios de organizaciones y otros actores que trabajan con las familias productoras. Algunos ejemplos de estos cambios que muestran el uso de información agroclimática, enfoque territorial y estrategias de escalamiento son:"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"La Mesa Técnica Agroclimática valida boletines agroclimáticos según las necesidades de las familias productoras."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"Los Centros de Aprendizaje para el Desarrollo Rural difunden entre las familias productoras las opciones de semillas para diferentes condiciones climáticas."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"Los grupos organizados de productores de café, apoyados por el Comité de Microcuenca, gestionan financiamiento para establecer sistemas forestales."}]},{"head":"Recomendaciones para futuras ediciones del diplomado","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"A partir de la reflexión de los participantes y organizadores del diplomado, se identifican aspectos que deben permanecer en futuras ediciones del diplomado y otros que deben modificarse y mejorar:"},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"Selección de participantes. Se mantendrán grupos de 25 a 30 participantes porque su tamaño favorece discusiones de alto nivel teórico y práctico. Para esto, se deberá mantener también los criterios utilizados para favorecer diversidad en el grupo, promoviendo la participación de mujeres y personas con experiencia de campo de organizaciones locales."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Compromiso institucional y diseño basado en los usuarios. En futuras ediciones, se establecerán acuerdos con las organizaciones de los participantes seleccionados. Estos acuerdos tendrán dos objetivos."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"El primero será definir las necesidades específicas de capacitación en temas de adaptación al cambio climático en el marco del enfoque TeSAC, para ajustar el contenido y material didáctico del diplomado de acuerdo. El segundo, será la definición de planes operativos para la ejecución de acciones posteriores al diplomado. Así se busca que la inversión en el diplomado sea más estratégica para el escalamiento del enfoque TeSAC."},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"Estructura del diplomado. El diseño del diplomado ha sido validado en esta primera edición, y la percepción de instructores y estudiantes es positiva en cuanto a la relevancia de los temas seleccionados, la lógica y consistencia de la secuencia. Sin embargo, el diseño tendrá un grado de flexibilidad para atender a las necesidades de los usuarios (ver punto anterior)."},{"index":6,"size":48,"text":"Estrategias didácticas. Este aspecto contiene varias oportunidades de mejora, como actividades de inducción a instructores y estudiantes para un mejor aprovechamiento de la plataforma virtual; análisis del Ejercicio grupal: análisis de las relaciones de cooperación entre las organizaciones que tienen incidencia en el Corredor Seco / R. Vernooy."},{"index":7,"size":37,"text":"material didáctico para evitar vacíos y redundancias; y evaluación continua para promover que los participantes se mantengan al día y en sintonía. También se modificará el módulo 4 para formular o revisar proyectos reales en cada organización."},{"index":8,"size":41,"text":"Seguimiento. El seguimiento y evaluación de impacto del diplomado en las organizaciones participantes es clave, por lo que se diseñará y aplicará un protocolo para entrevistas de seguimiento para conocer si se están aplicando los conceptos y prácticas difundidos y cómo."}]},{"head":"Fuentes de información","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Este documento se basa en la reflexión de los autores durante la organización y dictado del diplomado, así como expresiones de los estudiantes y resultados de ejercicios académicos realizados durante el mismo. "}]},{"head":"Referencias","index":13,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Ph D (sociología del desarrollo rural), tiene un extenso récord en el campo del desarrollo rural, la biodiversidad agrícola y el manejo de recursos naturales. Es especialista en políticas de recursos genéticos en la Alianza de Bioversity International y CIAT,Wageningen,  Holanda. [email protected]     CCAFS. Territorios Sostenibles Adaptados al Clima CCAFS. Territorios Sostenibles Adaptados al Clima en América Latina. en América Latina. Vernooy R, Bouroncle C. 2019. Avanzando hacia un Vernooy R, Bouroncle C. 2019. Avanzando hacia un Territorio Sostenible Adaptado al Clima: Territorio Sostenible Adaptado al Clima: oportunidades y desafíos para escalar iniciativas de oportunidades y desafíos para escalar iniciativas de adaptación en el Corredor Seco de Guatemala. adaptación en el Corredor Seco de Guatemala. CCAFS InfoNote. CCAFS InfoNote. Vernooy R, Bouroncle C. 2019. Climate-smart Vernooy R, Bouroncle C. 2019. Climate-smart agriculture: in need of a theory of scaling. CCAFS agriculture: in need of a theory of scaling. CCAFS working paper No. 256, Wageningen, The working paper No. 256, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Netherlands. Claudia Bouroncle, candidata PhD (desarrollo Claudia Bouroncle, candidata PhD (desarrollo local), cuenta con 25 años de experiencia en local), cuenta con 25 años de experiencia en manejo de recursos naturales y agricultura en manejo de recursos naturales y agricultura en América Latina. Se desempeña como consultora América Latina. Se desempeña como consultora independiente. [email protected] independiente. [email protected] Ronnie Vernooy, Víctor Sandoval, M Sc (desarrollo rural y cambio Ronnie Vernooy, Víctor Sandoval, M Sc (desarrollo rural y cambio climático) cuenta con experiencia en recursos climático) cuenta con experiencia en recursos naturales y coordinación de diplomados en bosques, naturales y coordinación de diplomados en bosques, recursos hídricos, cambio climático, liderazgo recursos hídricos, cambio climático, liderazgo comunitario y seguridad alimentaria y nutricional. comunitario y seguridad alimentaria y nutricional. Labora en la carrera de ingeniería en Gestión Labora en la carrera de ingeniería en Gestión Ambiental Local del CUNORI -USAC. Ambiental Local del CUNORI -USAC. [email protected] [email protected]  "}],"sieverID":"45db2e2f-889c-456e-bcd9-99ef5d162e56","abstract":""}

data/part_4/02f3acce1ea3e9e4e4ce4e6ffb527108.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02f3acce1ea3e9e4e4ce4e6ffb527108","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f7140152-20f4-47d7-a7d4-b373721f02e2/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"Innovative approaches to integrating gender into conventional maize breeding: lessons from the Seed Production Technology for Africa project","keywords":["gender","crop breeding","on-farm trials","social inclusion","tricot","citizen science"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Gender integration in breeding programs responds to concerns that men and women are not taking up new crop varieties at equal rates (Orr et al., 2018;Tufan et al., 2018;CGIAR Excellence in Breeding Initiative, 2020). Crop breeding programs may seek to address gender gaps in variety uptake either through gender-responsive breeding or gender-intentional breeding. While the former involves assessing gender-based differences in farmers' needs, priorities, and constraints, and monitoring and mitigating any negative gendered impacts, the latter may involve deliberately developing varieties that directly benefit women and/or address gender inequalities (Ashby and Polar, 2021)."},{"index":2,"size":168,"text":"The gender gap in uptake of improved varieties appears to hold true for maize seed in Africa, as illustrated in comparisons of maleand female-managed plots or male-and female-headed households (Kassa, 2013;Fisher and Kandiwa, 2014;Fisher and Carr, 2015;Fisher et al., 2019). This raises questions about whether maize breeding programs in Africa, which involve national agricultural research and extension organizations (NARES), the private sector, and CGIAR research centers, are adequately responding to the needs and priorities of women farmers (Voss et al., 2021). Much of the vanguard work on gender and breeding has focused on beans, roots, and tubers (Orr et al., 2018;Tufan et al., 2018), while maize breeding programs have arguably lagged behind. This may be linked to the CGIAR Gender and Breeding Initiative's initial priorities; women's outsized role in the production of tuber and legume crops relative to maize, which is more often jointly managed (Voss et al., 2023); and evidence that genderbased differences in maize preferences are less clear than for other crops (Voss et al., 2021)."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"Despite the high interest in gender integration into major conventional breeding programs such as maize (CGIAR Excellence in Breeding Initiative, 2020;Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, 2021), this process presents challenges. The pursuit of either genderresponsive or gender-intentional breeding often requires a reordering of priorities and reallocation of resources within breeding institutions, which could have implications for breeding efficiency. It is therefore of critical interest to understand how these reforms can be realized in large, well-established breeding programs."},{"index":4,"size":127,"text":"In the case study that follows, we document the process of gender integration into a centralized maize breeding project in eastern and southern Africa (ESA). For this, we use an innovation history analysis approach (Douthwaite and Ashby, 2005). We draw on the authors' personal experiences and project materials to document an innovative recent project, reflect on success and challenges, and identify lessons learned. We ground this case study in institutional and structuration theories as we examine processes of institutional change as a function of actions and interactions between actors within breeding programs (Barley and Tolbert, 1997). Through this analysis, we document how negotiations between actors within breeding programs can shift scripts, expectations, and behaviors in a way that create space for institutional innovation around gender and breeding."}]},{"head":"Context","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"Women's heavy involvement in maize production in Africa and its general importance as a food source underscore the relevance of gender integration in maize breeding. Maize is widely grown as a staple crop in ESA, typically by both men and women, and often for both household consumption and commercial sales. Crop management varies by locale, with men and women independently cultivating maize in some regions with larger farm sizes, e.g., Zimbabwe (Cairns et al., 2021a), and jointly cultivating maize with their spouses in other regions, e.g., Kenya (Voss et al., 2023). In Tanzania and Mozambique, the family as a whole is often involved in land preparation, weeding, harvesting, and threshing of maize, although specific tasks can skew toward women or men depending on the context (Adam et al., 2020a,b)."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"Studies of maize systems in ESA highlight differences in management and gender gaps in productivity between male-and female-managed plots and male-and female-headed households. In Zimbabwe, significant differences were found in variety choice, use of intercropping, and recycled seed use between men's and women's maize plots (Cairns et al., 2021a). Women's plots in maize-growing regions have also been shown to be less productive than men's (Cairns et al., 2021b). Productivity gaps are generally attributed to men's advantages in accessing and controlling resources, including fertile land (Burke et al., 2018;Burke and Jayne, 2021), fertilizer (Adam et al., 2021), labor and labor-saving technologies (Andersson Djurfeldt et al., 2019), and information about new technologies (Fisher et al., 2019)."},{"index":3,"size":245,"text":"Efforts to mainstream gender in maize breeding programs in Africa began in earnest in 2015, when a large project at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) set out to incorporate gender-preferred traits into the maize breeding pipeline. The breeding team, with minimal training around gender and limited guidance from social scientists and gender researchers (for whom turnover in this period was high), started to routinely solicit gender-disaggregated preferences in on-farm trials to identify traits relevant for women. Collection of preference and adoption data became standard, frequently through gender-disaggregated studies of variety adoption (Fisher et al., 2015(Fisher et al., , 2019) ) or participatory varietal selection (PVS). In PVS, breeders and social science collaborators invited women and men farmers to regional varietal trials, which were \"on-farm, \" but for which researchers supplied inputs. Farmers invited to visit these trials typically scored up to 20 varieties on a range of traits, and breeding teams used these data to validate advancement decisions and assess preferences along gender lines (Setimela et al., 2017;Worku et al., 2020). Because trial-hosting farmers often wanted to demonstrate their skills and field agents' priority was to execute successful trials with reliable farmers, this type of on-farm trial was not optimal for allowing a diversity of farmers to individually test and evaluate varieties in their farm environments. Fundamentally, neither PVS nor adoption studies have generated clear or consistent insight into gender-based preferences to guide gender-responsive or -intentional maize breeding (Voss et al., 2021)."}]},{"head":"Details: Seed Production Technology for Africa project","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"It was in this context that the Seed Production Technology for Africa project (SPTA) launched at CIMMYT in 2016, in follow up to the Improved Maize for African Soils (IMAS) project, with a second phase (SPTA2) funded in 2020. In collaboration with Corteva AgriScience, SPTA evaluated the use of a non-pollen producing maize gene, Ms44, to reduce the complexity of hybrid maize seed production by removing the need to detassel female parents in seed production. Hybrids produced using Ms44 segregate 1:1 for pollen producing and non-pollen producing plants and are thus referred to as 50% non-pollen producing (FNP). This technology offers three key benefits: (1) increased female seed yield because detasseling is unnecessary, (2) improved quality assurance during seed production, and (3) increased yield of FNP hybrids due to reduced tassel growth and greater partitioning of nitrogen to the ear, increasing nitrogen use efficiency (NUE; Fox et al., 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":161,"text":"The SPTA team at CIMMYT was smaller than many breeding projects. The project leader (PL), a male breeder, was highly committed to serving the most vulnerable farmers. In previous work in the private sector, he had engaged superficially with market segmentation research, and was greatly inspired by a CGIAR Gender Platform workshop on farmer typologies and gender (where he reported being one of the few breeders in the room). This engagement motivated him to consider not only standard genotypeby-environment interactions, but genotype-by-environment-byfarmer interactions. He had also been deeply influenced by a colleague's presentation on the gender gap in use of improved maize varieties. Although he had long been familiar with the \"gender narrative, \" the robust and compelling econometric data she shared drove home the relevance of gender. During SPTA's implementation, the PL made it a priority to visit a subset of on-farm trials every year and speak to household members, which further underscored concerns around gender, labor, and resource access."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"The primary breeding team also involved two female scientists (one of whom was deeply interested in gender issues) and three male breeders (from CIMMYT and NARES). Two female gender researchers at CIMMYT worked on the project consecutively alongside several male social scientists. These team members regularly exchanged knowledge and ideas informally in monthly project meetings and together worked to center gender concerns."}]},{"head":"Early recognition of potential gendered impacts","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"The PL, having had some exposure to gender and breeding work, quickly recognized the potential implications of the Ms44 gene for women and other resource-constrained farmers in Africa. Early research in the United States showed FNP hybrids had a higher yield than their pollen-producing pairs under sub-optimal nitrogen levels, suggesting relevance for low-fertility soils and low-input systems (Fox et al., 2017). The project proposals for SPTA's precursor, IMAS, discussed the genetic technology's anticipated benefits to women and resource-poor farmers but outlined no plans for collection and analysis of gender data, nor did it involve any social scientists."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"In 2013, donors to the CGIAR MAIZE Research Program mandated a \"gender audit\" of the wider breeding program. The resulting report emphasized that while many CIMMYT projects engaged superficially with gender concerns, gender data and analysis were often lacking. The SPTA PL thus advocated for funding for gender research in SPTA, leveraging the gender audit report and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation's new mandate that the breeding projects they fund address gender. The SPTA proposal included funding for a gender specialist to collect and analyze gender data on preferences and assess potential social and economic impacts."},{"index":3,"size":139,"text":"At the start of SPTA1, the gender researcher conducted a review underscoring that women in sub-Saharan Africa typically use less fertilizer than men (Adam et al., 2021). This challenge is frequently compounded by women's cultivation of smaller plots (Udry, 1996;Chirwa et al., 2011;Kilic et al., 2013) with lower quality soils (Ndiritu et al., 2014;Burke et al., 2018;Burke and Jayne, 2021). This review led the breeding team to explicitly target women and resource-poor farmers as end-users; the SPTA technology offered the possibility to increase yields on women's fields without the requirement that they increase fertilizer use-which, while desirable, is not always feasibleand increase the return on fertilizer investments. Understanding any gender-based differences in the performance of or preferences for new FNP maize varieties became a priority and led to pronounced shifts in the project's approach to variety evaluations (Figure 1)."}]},{"head":"Making variety trials more responsive to farmer realities and gender","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"A critical first step for SPTA was to validate the yield benefit of the FNP trait in low-input environments in ESA. In the first year of SPTA1, the PL judged that varieties had been adequately validated on-station, so resources for on-station trials were re-allocated to several dozen on-farm trials managed by the breeding team. The first year of data from on-farm testing in Kenya ( 2016) showed that yield levels in the trials were significantly higher than average for the area. This is a familiar problem in on-farm trials, which have been scrutinized for input and yield levels that are not representative of most smallholders' realities (De Roo et al., 2017;Laajaj et al., 2020). In this case, discussion between project breeders and extension agents revealed that many farmers were treating trials as demonstration plots and prioritizing them with their own fertilizer inputs."},{"index":2,"size":267,"text":"As such, the SPTA team adjusted the on-farm trial protocols to better enable evaluation under reduced inputs levels. In the second Timeline of gender integration into Seed Production Technology for Africa (SPTA) activities. Voss et al. 10.3389/fsoc.2023.1254595 Frontiers in Sociology 04 frontiersin.org year of expanded on-farm trials (2017), farmers were given seed and fertilizer specifically to create a dedicated demonstration plot, separate from their trial plot where clear protocols ensured yield levels would be more representative. To satisfy basic gender inclusivity requirements, trials were hosted by both male and female household heads and plot managers. However, some tensions emerged around trials with female plot managers in cases where their husbands did not support the handover of control over trials, likely due to social norms around household headship and decision-making. Attentive members of the breeding team recognized that they had created unintended pressures on the women involved by overlooking household power dynamics. The project team saw this as an important learning opportunity, highlighting the need for more sensitivity to gender dynamics in on-farm trial execution. These early on-farm assessments of FNP hybrids in large-scale trials showed a yield benefit of 200 kg ha −1 across yield levels, translating to a larger proportionate yield increase for farmers with the lowest yields (Collinson et al., 2022). Farmer evaluations in on-farm trials were conducted using gender-disaggregated PVS. These assessments showed acceptance, across genders, of the FNP trait; although farmers noticed differences in tassel and pollen formation between FNP hybrids and conventional hybrids, they favored FNP hybrids overall due to the improved ear size and increased yield (De Groote et al., 2023)."}]},{"head":"Revamping the on-farm trial approach","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":180,"text":"Members of the SPTA team had repeatedly observed that women's management and variety choices appeared to differ meaningfully from men's, despite similarities in stated preferences. In 2019, SPTA team members in Zimbabwe conducted a study on gender and maize management in partnership with a male systems agronomist. They found significant gender-based differences in management practices, including wider use of intercropping and recycled seed on femalemanaged plots and in female-headed households (Cairns et al., 2021a). The study also showed discrepancies between farmers' stated preferences in PVS evaluations and varieties they used at homeespecially among women. These findings highlighted, first, that although SPTA's improved on-farm trial design enabled evaluation of FNP hybrids under realistic input levels, the prescription of other management practices might have unintentionally excluded agronomic practices used disproportionately by women. This led the breeding support specialist to advocate for two actions: to study the yield benefit associated with the FNP trait when seeds were recycled, in partnership with a female Ph.D. student, and to explore new approaches to on-farm trials that could enable variety evaluations under farmers' preferred management practices."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"Second, the survey indicated that PVS-based evaluations of farmer preferences were not adequate to predict real-world demand for varieties. As the core questions of varietal performance in SPTA had been answered, the PL felt that the central challenge for the project was understanding what farmers would actually purchase. This would require a new approach to on-farm trials that would treat them as real-world testing grounds where resource-poor farmers could more directly evaluate new varieties. The PL believed seed demand was best assessed by economists and other social scientists, so the second phase of SPTA included modest funding for a gender researcher and economists to support research on demand creation. The PL also shifted responsibility for on-farm trials to the social science team with inputs from the breeding team."},{"index":3,"size":162,"text":"The PL, having read about the triadic comparison of technologies (\"tricot\") approach to on-farm trials (van Etten et al., 2019), worked with the gender researcher and other members of the breeding team to develop a revised trial protocol. Building on previous experiences in participatory variety selection, the tricot approach engages a large number of \"citizen scientists\" to evaluate technologies under representative crop management conditions chosen by the farmer, using incomplete blocks of three varieties, with digital support throughout the process (van Etten et al., 2020). This approach minimizes researcher control, allows farmers with limited land to participate, and enables participants to test technologies on land they know well and make observations throughout the season. Although trial yields are often lower and more variable when researcher involvement is limited (Kool et al., 2020;Laajaj et al., 2020), the tricot approach allows for a large number of trials to be conducted within a set budget, and can thereby compensate for less robust data (Figure 2)."},{"index":4,"size":132,"text":"The SPTA team piloted an on-farm trial methodology following the tricot approach in 2021 with 112 farmers (55% women) in Kenya. This approach enabled farmer evaluations that were grounded in men's and women's personal realities, including their labor contributions, land quality, and input access. The SPTA team provided participating farmers with a set number of maize kernels (200 per variety) and only basic guidance, i.e., to plant trials in the middle of their maize field, away from trees, and ensure relatively consistent growing conditions (e.g., slope and soil type) among subplots. Otherwise, farmers were requested to practice their preferred management, including intercropping, but to apply consistent crop management across subplots. The team collected spacing data from farmers and field agents to estimate yields and genetic gains in lieu of standardizing planting arrangements."},{"index":5,"size":107,"text":"The SPTA team also used the tricot trials to pilot new gender data collection methods. First, recognizing the prevalence of \"joint\" plot management, the gender researcher pushed for both men and women within households to participate in variety evaluations if both helped manage the trials. The gender researcher and breeding support specialist also advocated for expansion of the farmer evaluations to include processing, cooking, storage, and consumption traits (such as flour yield, flour quality, and taste), given that end-use traits are often a driver of gender-differentiated farmer preferences (Weltzien et al., 2019). CIMMYT breeding programs had not previously evaluated end-use preferences in on-farm maize trials (Figure 3)."},{"index":6,"size":131,"text":"Challenges emerged in verifying the managerial roles of different individuals within households and ensuring that the three trial varieties were stored, milled, and cooked separately across over 100 households. The CIMMYT and NARES team implementing the trials had limited capacity to refine approaches and improve data quality while attempting to scale-out the trials. As such, the team chose to abandon end-use trait evaluations after the pilot and narrowed evaluations to one individual per household (understanding end-use traits' importance remained a priority in separate research by the CIMMYT team). In partnership with the 1000FARMS project, SPTA tricot trials expanded to 356 farmers (65% women) in Kenya in 2022, and 1,380 farmers (56% women) in 2023. The team's experiences provided insights that helped other CIMMYT breeding projects adapt the tricot approach in ESA. "}]},{"head":"Role of gender in project activities","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"The SPTA project is a case in which gender considerations were present from the earliest stages of the project due to the commitment and training of breeding team members. However, collection and analysis of gender data was not included until SPTA1, when a donor mandated inclusion of gender considerations and funding. In SPTA2, the gradual expansion of social scientists' involvement and funding increased the project's attention to gender (Table 1). The discussion above highlights SPTA's focus on gender through PVS, social science surveys, trait preference studies, and ultimately, trials using a citizen science approach. Social science surveys intentionally sought to uncover variation in management practices and seed choice between male-and female-headed households and male and female plot managers. Both PVS and tricot trials prioritized equal representation of men and women in evaluations. Social scientists and breeders centered gender in trial planning and analysis, working together to refined approaches."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"The Seed Production Technology for Africa project's growing gender focus culminated in adoption of the tricot approach. Tricot trials allowed for wider integration of gender considerations and diverse farmer needs, constraints, and preferences in the breeding process, rather than limiting gender assessments to ex post studies of technology acceptance. Tricot evaluations allowed farmers to assess varieties in their household and farm context, accounting for gender-related concerns such as labor requirements, end-use traits, and performance on low-fertility land. Although these were clear advantages of the tricot approach, the team also encountered challenges in collecting additional gender data, primarily in overseeing post-harvest storage and use and engaging with multiple respondents within households."}]},{"head":"Changes to breeding processes and practices","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"Fundamentally, the integration of gender into SPTA's breeding processes generated greater confidence in the FNP trait's appeal. The pilot tricot trials provided experientially-derived gender preference data that showed no major gender-based differences in preferences to necessitate gender-intentional breeding. Rather, these methods enabled gender-responsive breeding-confirming that new FNP varieties do not generate negative gendered impacts and hold appeal under women's and men's real-world production conditions. As expanded tricot trials generate more data, clearer insights around gender-based preferences may emerge. For now, since the FNP trait showed particular promise for farmers with low yield expectations, the trait will be made available in key new stress tolerant hybrids to ensure that diverse farmer preferences do not limit access to or use of the FNP trait."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"The Seed Production Technology for Africa project on-farm trial data did highlight wide variation in farmers' management practices, including widespread use of intercropping among both women and men in Kenya (Figure 4). In combination with evidence of variation in farm practices along gender lines (Cairns et al., 2021a), these data validate the wider use of decentralized on-farm testing under farmer management."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"Research in SPTA has influenced on-farm testing and advancement decisions within CIMMYT's wider breeding programs, including expanded use of gender-disaggregated data. On-farm trials for product advancement throughout the maize breeding program have shifted to accommodate farmers' preferred management practices. However, the long-term impacts of these changes to the breeding process are yet to be seen. While no varieties developed through SPTA have yet been released, FNP hybrids have entered the varietal release process in Kenya and South Africa."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"A number of \"good practices\" are evident in this case study, including trainings on gender for breeders; provision of funding for gender research; accounting for gender in identification of end users, breeding objectives, and variety design; and especially, attention to gender in farmer assessments and on-farm trial design. Each of these elements contributed to changing scripts and behaviors within institutions involved in maize breeding."}]},{"head":"Creating space and budget for gender research and interdisciplinarity","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"The SPTA story drives home, perhaps above all else, the value of productive and respective collaborations across disciplines. In this case, the collaboration was enabled by PLs who embraced social scientists' and gender researchers' contributions and allocated funding to support them beginning in SPTA1. This allowed exploration of gender-relevant topics and testing of new gender-responsive variety evaluation tools."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Unfortunately, an openness to serious gender integration is not universal within breeding teams (Tarjem, 2023). Gender analyses are sometimes perceived to be overly complex, not adequately rigorous, and/or a distraction from the core goals of breeding. In the SPTA case, an understanding of the relevance of gender grew in part from prior trainings and exposure to robust gender data. This led actors to break with traditional institutional scripts about how breeders should interact with social scientists in breeding projects."},{"index":3,"size":128,"text":"Opportunities for gender integration widened with a shift in control over on-farm trials to social scientists, an action that challenged existing behavioral scripts around breeding. Such shifts in dynamics can generate tension, but in SPTA, open collaboration between social scientists and the breeding team enabled the joint design of gender-responsive on-farm trials. The breeding team and social science teams each welcomed the knowledge and experience of the other, while the small size of the team enabled closer collaboration than is feasible in many larger scale projects. Furthermore, the PL and breeding program director added explicit mention of gender research to the job description for the female CIMMYT scientist on the project breeding team, empowering her to more actively and intentionally pursue these topics within her scope of work."}]},{"head":"Accounting for gender in identification of end-users and market segments","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"The Improved Maize for African Soils and SPTA projects emerged from a specific desire to increase maize yields under low-input conditions. Even in the earliest project proposals, women and other resource-constrained farmers were identified as potential target  demographics, and the SPTA PL's dedication to serving the most vulnerable market segments strengthened this focus. After an early donor gender audit identified the need for added attention to gendered project impacts, project leaders increased the focus on farmer assessments and expanded research questions to include those relevant specifically to women (e.g., impacts of the FNP trait on seed recycling)."}]},{"head":"Breeding activities undertaken","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Gender focus in activities","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Accounting for gender in breeding objectives","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"From the earliest stages of the project, breeding varieties for performance under low-input conditions was a priority-initially through on-station trials and later through on-farm trials. In breeding, on-station trials are critical to ensuring high repeatability while allowing many varieties to be screened together. The focus of SPTA trials was to confirm performance and acceptance of the trait within the target population of environments (TPE), and later to engage farmers as citizen scientists. The breeding team actively took up recommendations of the donor gender audit, engaging gender specialists and other researchers to explore differences in management and resource constraints. This allowed for refinement of on-farm testing protocols, culminating in a design geared specifically toward understanding performance under diverse management practices and capturing farmer preferences in their personal household context."}]},{"head":"Accounting for gender in variety design decisions","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Gender integration in SPTA was not focused on breeding separate varieties for women and men, but rather on validating the genderresponsiveness and utility of the FNP trait for resource-poor farmers."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Recognizing that men and women may seek a range of maize varieties for various reasons, the breeding team prioritized inclusion of the FNP trait into key female lines developed for stress prone environments. Men and women farmers were then allowed to evaluate FNP hybrids on their own farms to ensure their other variety needs and priorities were met. However, without clear indications of differing preferences, there are no signs that varieties specifically targeted at women are necessary."}]},{"head":"Accounting for gender in on-farm trial design","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"A key innovation in the SPTA project was partnership between the breeding and social science teams in developing gender-responsive The number of (A) women farmers in Embu, (B) men in Embu, (C) women in Kiriyanga, and (D) men in Kiriyanga using monocropping and intercropping illustrate the diversity of farmer management in 2022 tricot trials in Kenya. Voss et al. 10.3389/fsoc.2023.1254595 Frontiers in Sociology 08 frontiersin.org on-farm testing methods. These approaches ensured, initially, that centralized on-farm trials were representative of management by women and resource-poor farmers. Later, on-farm trials were redesigned to be decentralized, inclusive, participatory, and reflective of diverse farmer management. In that sense, SPTA stepped beyond the gendered trait and variety assessments typically used to assess variety acceptance in breeding programs (e.g., passive PVS). Increased participation of men and women farmers in the SPTA breeding process turned farmers from relatively passive recipients of new technologies into active developers of those technologies; citizen science approaches allowed for farmer evaluation of varieties in their real-world context. These changes also increased the breeding team's confidence that FNP varieties respond to women's needs and priorities."}]},{"head":"Accounting for gender in farmer evaluations","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Recognizing the potential benefits of the SPTA technology to women, SPTA prioritized equitable participation of men and women as on-farm trial hosts and in PVS, yielding over 50% participation by women and included many resource-poor farmers. Although the social science team piloted inclusion of gender-relevant end-use traits in tricot evaluations, these assessments proved too challenging to manage at scale with available capacity; other projects have found success in more structured consumer testing via home preparation using a tricot approach (Moyo et al., 2021). Still, given the participation by a diversity of farmers, the project breeding team gained increased confidence about the performance and appeal of FNP varieties under realistic farmer management conditions, including women's unique management practices."}]},{"head":"Lessons learned and case study limitations","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"Central to gender integration in this project was greater involvement of social scientists, including gender researchers, in on-farm trial design and management. The handover of on-farm trials to the social science team was unprecedented within maize breeding programs. There are many reasons why breeders might be reluctant to relinquish control over trials, including a desire to standardize approaches across projects, concern that social science teams and farmers lack the experience or technical knowledge to implement effective on-farm trials, or reticence to reform a system that has functioned adequately for decades in developing improved germplasm. Territoriality between breeders and social scientists may be worsened by programmatic divisions within research institutes; in this case, gender research fell under the purview of a program that is separate from the breeding program."},{"index":2,"size":138,"text":"Another challenge in shifting control over on-farm trials involved trade-offs between researcher-managed trials and citizen science approaches. On-farm trials in breeding programs must provide evidence that new varieties perform in the TPE. Researcher-managed trials may provide more internally valid varietal comparison data to guide breeders' advancement decisions, although this has been questioned (Kool et al., 2020). Citizen science approaches generate more realistic performance data and have higher external validity-a growing priority for donors, breeders, and social scientists working to understand adoption. Generating robust data requires either highly standardized on-farm protocols or extensive and resource-intensive on-farm trial networks (e.g., tricot trials). Although the decentralized on-farm trial approach in SPTA has proved useful for validating FNP varieties, including gender-responsiveness, these data have not yet been used in maize variety release decisions in ESA, which still rely on national performance trials."},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":"The tricot approach has also introduced new challenges for NARES field staff who have typically implemented researchermanaged on-farm trials. Tricot trials are often more complicated to oversee than standardized trials because they hand over management to smaller-scale, resource-poor farmers without experience hosting trials. Indeed, some data quality concerns persisted in SPTA's on-farm trials, but the project team was actively developing and implementing methods to improve data quality (e.g., use of multiple tiers of supervision, spot-checking, and distribution of visually detailed instruction booklets, variety scorecards, and storage bags). Transitioning on-farm trials to more participatory approaches requires capacity building and collaborative design processes that balance these trade-offs and acknowledge required changes to institutional scripts."},{"index":4,"size":193,"text":"The heightened involvement of social scientists in SPTA required breeding team members to make space (including financially) for collaborators to conduct research and implement changes. In this case, this was enabled by specific actors, including the SPTA's PL-someone deeply committed to serving the most vulnerable farmers and trained to think about farmer heterogeneity. He felt that social scientists rather than breeders were those best trained to assess seed demand and sought to strengthen their role in the project, in a departure from existing institutional scripts around breeding. Other project team members, two of whom were women, and one of whom was independently interested in gender integration, also embraced greater engagement with social scientists. It is worth noting that the PL's interest in gender emerged from voluntary participation in trainings and a colleague's presentation of robust, quantitative gender data, which captured his attention in ways that other gender discussions never had. This is an excellent example of a social scientist researcher using compelling quantitative data to speak persuasively to collaborators in the biophysical sciences, illustrating the importance of the type and quality of gender data that gender researchers produce and share with breeder colleagues."},{"index":5,"size":332,"text":"Breeding projects seeking to achieve similar gender integration can take several lessons from this case. This includes the value of seeking out allies in breeding and social science teams who are willing to collaborate, test innovative approaches, and critically examine entrenched behavioral scripts in breeding institutions. Identifying such allies is not always easy, and building institutional capacity for and commitment to interdisciplinarity is critical. This includes, for example, ensuring that breeders are regularly exposed to accessible, carefully thought-through trainings related to gender and farmer behavior, and that social scientists in crop research institutes have adequate understanding of breeders' data needs and decision-making processes. In the world of crop improvement, such collaboration and interdisciplinarity is not always rewarded. Social scientists are often pressured to generate meaningful independent research in their fields, so collaborations with breeders may not advance their careers. Breeders' success, meanwhile, is measured in reference to trials with Frontiers in Sociology 09 frontiersin.org adequate heritability, which means trials' internal validity is paramount while reaching under-served populations may go unrewarded. These incentive structures must be examined to ensure that breeders' and social scientists' shared goal of effective product development is prioritized. As seen in this case, breeders' active partnership with social scientists in on-farm trials may increase confidence in collaboration and trust across project teams. Finally, the SPTA case highlights the value in starting small. This was a limited project within a larger breeding portfolio where a close team could build productive partnerships. By first collaborating to pilot and develop proof of concept for new models, the team began reforming long-standing practices. Ultimately, the project team's willingness to collaborate generated important proof of concept, know-how, and protocols that have helped shift how on-farm trials in other maize breeding projects, all of which are managed by breeding teams, are designed. Shifting the institutional scripts governing gender and breeding is a sea change and will not happen overnight, but the actions and interactions of a dedicated group of multidisciplinary collaborators may start the process."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FIGURE 1 FIGURE 1 "},{"text":"FIGURE 2 FIGURE 2Participants in on-farm tricot trials received visual guidance emphasizing that they should practice their preferred management within the trial setup. Image provided by the 1000FARMS and Scaling Tricot projects: https://climmob.net/blog/wiki/graphic-resources/. "},{"text":"FIGURE 4 FIGURE 4 "},{"text":"TABLE 1 Methods and approaches in the Seed Production Technology for Africa (SPTA) project case.  "}],"sieverID":"3a30bad1-4e66-43f0-841f-317dde8b109a","abstract":"The integration of gender concerns in crop breeding programs aims to improve the suitability and appeal of new varieties to both women and men, in response to concerns about unequal adoption of improved seed. However, few conventional breeding programs have sought to center social inclusion concerns. This community case study documents efforts to integrate gender into the maize-focused Seed Production Technology for Africa (SPTA) project using innovation history analysis drawing on project documents and the authors' experiences. These efforts included deliberate exploration of potential gendered impacts of project technologies and innovations in the project's approach to variety evaluation, culminating in the use of decentralized on-farm trials using the tricot approach. Through this case study, we illustrate the power of active and respectful collaborations between breeders and social scientists, spurred by donor mandates to address gender and social inclusion. Gender integration in this case was further facilitated by open-minded project leaders and allocation of funding for gender research. SPTA proved to be fertile ground for experimentation and interdisciplinary collaboration around gender and maize breeding, and has provided proof of concept for larger breeding projects seeking to integrate gender considerations."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03186828848f2d8662c73b7f1b78fb03","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1711dfd1-3106-4d98-b460-1a091c0efdb2/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Enabling Decision-Making for Agricultural Interventions TOOL KIT","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Description","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The Enabling Decision--Making for Agricultural Interventions approach can be broken down into nine steps:"}]},{"head":"Decision framing and stakeholder identification","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The method starts by framing the decision to be modeled. Gaining clarity on specifics of the decision and its context is a key step providing useful advice to decision--makers. Once the decision is clarified, all relevant stakeholders can be identified. A small group of experts (decision--makers, stakeholders, advisers) with a good understanding of the decision is selected."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"The modeling team consists of this group of experts and the decision analysts."}]},{"head":"Participatory analysis of the decision problem","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"During a workshop, the expert group engages in a participatory analysis of the decision problem. Participants discuss the decision's objectives and identify any factors they deem important for the proposed interventions, such as costs, benefits or project risks that may affect the outcome."}]},{"head":"Development of the conceptual model","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"The information collected earlier in the participatory analysis of the decision problem is assembled into a conceptual, graphical model. This is constructed as a causal impact pathway with causal relationships based on experts' expectations, gathered during brainstorming sessions. Conceptual model development aims to capture the \"big picture\" of the decision by gathering all system dynamics and relevant issues, without taking constraints of measurement into account."}]},{"head":"Development of the mathematical model","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"The conceptual model is then translated into a mathematical model and coded as a function for the R programming language (R Development Core Team, 2017). It is represented by a set of equations that reflect as much as possible the experts' understanding of the decision. For the computer modeling, R's decisionSupport package can be used (available online; Luedeling and Göhring, 2016)."}]},{"head":"Calibration of experts","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"All experts are required to undergo 'calibration training', which teaches them how to make estimates as reliably as possible. The training consists of a series of procedures, grounded on research findings in cognitive psychology. Basically, participants learn how to assess their state of uncertainty and reduce errors of judgement through exercises that reveal to them their personal biases (overconfidence or underconfidence). To this end, they compare their performance in responding to trivia questions to the correct answers to these questions. Rather than providing 'best guesses', participants are requested to provide two numbers, for which they are 90% sure that the correct answer is between these numbers. Perfectly 'calibrated' estimators should get 90% of their range estimates correct. Once exposed to their biases (most people are initially overconfident), experts are instructed in a set of mental techniques that has been shown to improve people's ability to provide accurate estimates. More information can be found in Hubbard (2014)."}]},{"head":"Parameterization of the model","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Where no reliable data are available, experts' knowledge is the main source of information. At this stage, the team is requested to provide estimations of the model's input variables."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Estimates consist of a probability distribution and a confidence interval. The confidence interval (defined by the upper and lower bounds) has a predefined chance (e.g. 90%) of containing the right value. In practice, if respondents do not feel confident in selecting the most appropriate probability distribution, the normal distribution is selected and only the confidence interval is requested from the participants."}]},{"head":"Simulation of the decision","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Once the model is parameterized, the decision model is run a large number of times (normally 10,000 times) as a probabilistic Monte Carlo simulation. Each run provides one possible outcome. The totality of all model runs generates a probability distribution illustrating the outcomes that are plausible given the experts' current state of uncertainty. R's decisionSupport package (Luedeling and Göhring, 2016) is an efficient tool to generate probabilistic outcomes of the decision."}]},{"head":"Analysis of results and identification of the most important knowledge gaps","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":211,"text":"The output of the Monte Carlo simulations can reveal a clearly preferred option (e.g. a specific intervention in a group of possible interventions). However, high uncertainty in the input variables (e.g. wide confidence intervals) may result in a range of potential outcomes that is too wide to give effective guidance as to which decision option is preferable. In such a case, when no clearly preferred option emerges, Partial Least Squares (PLS) analysis, in particular its Variable Importance in Projection (VIP) metric, which is provided in R's decisonSupport package (Luedeling and Göhring, 2016), allows for identification of variables that most affect the uncertainty of the overall outcome of the model. In addition to this sensitivity analysis, decision analysts also compute the Expected Value of Perfect Information (EVPI), which can be interpreted as a rational willingness--to--pay to gain access to perfect information. Rather than referring to the absolute value of the decision outcome, the EVPI is concerned only with whether the outcome is positive or negative, because this is the only criterion that decides on which option should be preferred by a rational decision--maker. Measurements of input variables with the highest EVPI, which can be used to update the decision model, can help to narrow uncertainty about how the decision should be taken."}]},{"head":"Model refinement","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"The process described in step 8 (additional measurements and modeling procedure) is repeated until the best option is determined. For decision support activities to be effective, it is highly desirable that decision--makers perceive they can make a well--informed decision in order to ensure that the model results are considered in the decision--making process (Fig. 1)."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Graphic from Luedeling and Shepherd (2016)"}]},{"head":"Figure 1. Illustration of the Decision Analysis process","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Example from Lagdwenda, Burkina--Faso"},{"index":2,"size":203,"text":"The approach has been implemented to study intervention alternatives to prevent sedimentation in the reservoir of Lagdwenda, Burkina--Faso. The Lagdwenda reservoir is used for the irrigation of crops (vegetables and rice) and is critical for the livelihoods of local communities. An intervention decision model was developed to identify the best of several intervention options to secure agricultural production. With this aim in mind, a workshop was help to engage local experts (key stakeholders and decision-makers) in a participatory process. The participants discussed the sedimentation issue and co-designed three interventions for sedimentation control: 1) dredging along the main inlet, 2) building rock dams along the streams upstream and 3) implementing a buffer protection scheme around the reservoir. They then collaboratively built a model that attempted to project the impacts of these interventions on agricultural production.  EVPI is the difference between the expected value of a decision made with perfect information and the expected value of the decision with current imperfect information. For example, results show that the profit generated per ton of vegetables presents a non--zero information value. This means that a rational decision--maker should be willing to pay up to the value indicated by the analysis to get full information on this variable."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"The VIP gives the level of significance of a variable for explaining variation in the simulated outcome. On the figure, the threshold for considering a variable important is represented by the vertical black straight line. Above this threshold, variables positively correlated with the outcome are shown in green and in red if the correlation is negative. In the example, the analysis of the VIP scores revealed that the most influential variable is the profit per ton of vegetables. The second most important uncertainty is the discount rate."}]},{"head":"Recommendations","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"•"}]},{"head":"State the objectives","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"As stated above, it is fundamentally important that the decision to be addressed is clearly described. Without clear objectives, the effectiveness of an intervention cannot be assessed and no preferred option will appear. Without clear objectives, the benefit of better information for a specific input variable would be difficult to evaluate, since it is directly related to its impact on the uncertainty of the overall outcome of the model."}]},{"head":"• Include decision--makers","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"The inclusion of decision--makers in the team of experts is crucial. This can help to close the gap between research and practice. It allows the decision team to explicitly take decision--makers' preferences into account and strengthen the analysis' impact by increasing the probability that research outcomes will be considered in relevant decisions."}]},{"head":"• Beware of decision analysts' biases","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"The conceptual model begins as a graphical representation of causal relationships between variables and is later translated into equations and converted into computer code by the decision analysts. In so doing, they attempt to interpret the experts' perception of the impact pathway, but there is a possibility that they can introduce their own biases and perceptions into the decision model. Therefore, it is important that the team (experts and decision analysts) discusses all points in detail during the workshop to clearly understand what is meant by each risk specified in the model. It is also critical to obtain feedback from experts on the resulting model."}]},{"head":"• Do not look for perfection","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Research able to deliver site--specific decision support actually rarely exists. The proposed approach is intended to be put into practice on concrete decision cases with limited resources dedicated to field research. Thus, it has advantages over resource--intensive research projects, which often aim to produce knowledge on a system rather than targeted information for decision--making."}]},{"head":"• Integrate diversity of risks and uncertainties","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"It would be hard to know ALL the risks and uncertainties that exist in complex agricultural systems. However, decision--analysts should attempt to think beyond the variables that seem the most important to them. They should also consider risk and uncertainty around external variables, e.g. include effects of institutional or behavioral factors, when considering ecological effects such as climate variability. There is no way to know in advance which risks and uncertainties are most critical for the success of an intervention. Efficient and holistic workshop facilitation (that allows elicitation of relevant information) can safeguard against the temptation to focus only on the most obvious ones."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" In a second phase of the Lagdwenda case, the conceptual model developed by the team was converted into computer code as a Monte Carlo--based decision model. The model was parameterized by the team of experts and used to assess interventions or combinations of interventions. Simulation results show that the preferred option (out of seven) is a combination of the three interventions. The outcome for this option is presented in Fig. 2. Graphical representations of the decision analysis consist of four illustrations. The Net Present Value (upper left) and the cash flow (bottom left) refer to measures that determine the rate of return of the investment. The NPV gives the number of times (\"frequency\") that each outcome of the distribution (bar of the histogram) was realized when the model was simulated. The cash flow is a series of monetary values, either negative (e.g. initial investment costs of interventions) or positive (e.g. marginal revenue generated by the interventions in a specific year) over a time period. On the figure, uncertainty on the value of the cash flow is represented by quantiles around the median. The Expected Value of Perfect Information (top right) and the Variable Importance in the Projection (bottom right) regard the value of information analysis that seeks to assign a value to reduction of uncertainty about specific variables. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Simulated outcomes of implementing all three interventions "}],"sieverID":"f8d8f5b7-337a-4b48-bef9-a66dcaf45ddc","abstract":"Agricultural systems are influenced by a range of environmental, economic and socio--cultural factors. Due to this complexity, policymakers in agricultural development need science--based guidance to make decisions. Classical research approaches, using data--driven models, often fail to inform intervention decisions due to insufficient and low quality data. Given their multifaceted and complex nature, agricultural issues require the integration of knowledge and systems thinking from beyond the discipline--specific approaches that are often used. Enabling Decision--Making for Agricultural Interventions can provide a new approach and numerical tools to support practical decisions on agricultural systems in the face of risk and imperfect information. This holistic, transdisciplinary methodology allows decision makers: • To carry out rapid assessment of agricultural development interventions when precise information is not available • To explicitly incorporate risk and uncertainty in the analysis through probabilistic simulation of decision outcomes • To identify priorities for further investigations and efficiently allocate limited budgets for measurements with the aim to reduce decision uncertainty • To make rational recommendations on which decision(s) should be taken, given the available information"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0388f2be8740a71a897f080f9b733447","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/infobrief/8636-Infobrief.pdf"},"pageCount":6,"title":"Adapting Global Palm Oil Deforestationfree Trade to Benefit Local Economies and Landscapes","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"This brief aims to understand how public and private trade-related initiatives affect value added distribution and environmental sustainability for palm oil at the local landscape in Indonesia. To achieve this, we developed a Palm Oil Trade and Landscape Simulation model. This model provides scenarios for policy makers and sustainability leaders of different future palm oil pathways to achieve globally recognized levels of sustainability."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"It is predicted that national and international demand for palm oil will grow until 2050 (Byerlee et al. 2016;Meijaard et al. 2020). Despite the challenges of market pressures and economic-environmental trade-offs, the palm oil sector continues to provide significant benefits and remains economically resilient. Although the palm oil sector experienced declines in demand and pricing due to the 1998 and 2008 economic crises, as well as the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, national revenue from this sector remained strong during these periods (Olivia et al. 2020;Suryana et al. 2020)."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"Market awareness of sustainability has become a cornerstone for global value chain governance through sustainability standards and certification systems. The Roundtable of Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) is a prominent certification system for palm oil global value chain governance, particularly for the EU market (Pacheco et al. 2017;Schleifer and Sun 2018). However, RSPO uptake is relatively low, as some countries still accept palm oil that is not RSPO certified (Schleifer 2016)."},{"index":4,"size":152,"text":"Public initiatives in buyer countries also increase pressure on the palm oil trade. The most prominent of these is the European Union's (EU) Renewable Energy Directive (RED) as part of its efforts to reduce transport sector emissions. First published in 2009, the EU's RED was updated in 2018 (RED II), taking into account high-risk indirect-land-use-change biofuels, including palm oil. In November 2021, the EU issued a proposal for regulation of deforestation-free products, which recommended that as of 31 December 2020, all commodities produced on land subject to deforestation be prohibited from entering the EU market. The proposal further recommended a due diligence process for relevant commodities to be implemented in line with the EU's RED II. Similarly, at the end of 2020, the United Kingdom (UK) government proposed a due diligence law on forest risk commodities to limit deforestation. Both the EU and UK proposals include palm oil as a relevant commodity."}]},{"head":"Palm Oil Trade and Landscape Simulation block diagram and interface","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"The palm oil value chain begins with corporations and smallholders converting 'forest areas' or 'other use areas' into palm oil plantations. In Indonesia, 'forest areas' (known Palm oil crops require four years to begin producing their first fresh fruit bunches. Once harvested, fresh fruit bunches are transported to mills where they are processed to produce crude palm oil or palm kernel oil. Some crude palm oil and palm kernel oil is allocated for export, while the remainder is transported to refineries for downstream industries. Products from these downstream industries are distributed to domestic consumers, exporters and overseas consumers. Part of the crude palm oil and palm kernel oil that is allocated for export is transported to overseas refineries before reaching end consumers. Figure 1 details the palm oil value chain, resources, trade schemes, economy and environmental indicators."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"The location selected for analysis in this brief is Kotawaringin Barat district (commonly abbreviated to Kobar), which is located in Central Kalimantan province, Indonesia (Figure 2). Central Kalimantan is host to 800,000 ha of palm oil plantations, and is the second largest palm oil producing province in Indonesia, after Riau province. Kobar was selected as it is predominantly a high-risk forest landscape located near Tanjung Puting National Park. Palm oil plantations in Kobar encroach on forests in Tanjung Puting National Park, as well as other forest areas that are categorized for protection, conservation or production."}]},{"head":"Palm oil future projections under Business As Usual","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"In Indonesia, new palm oil plantations are established in different forest area classifications (i.e., convertible production forest (Hutan Produksi Konversi), production forest (Hutan Produksi), protected forest (Hutan Lindung), and non-forest area or other land uses (Areal Penggunaan Lain)). This brief focuses on plantations that are established in forest areas classified as deforestation in Kotawaringin Barat. In 2017, palm oil plantation conversion accounted for a total deforestation of 9,500 ha. During this same period, almost 50% of all conversion occurred through the conversion of production forests, followed by convertible production forests and protection forests (Figure 3). After 25 years, our model suggested that no more forest is available for conversion, and deforestation will stop. The deforestation trend is decreasing toward zero deforestation after 25 years. Not all palm oil plantations in Indonesia are established through a process of deforestation. Some plantations are established in non-forest areas or other land use areas."}]},{"head":"Trade Schemes","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"UK-FRC, EU-DFP, and RSPO Certi cation","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Palm oil chains","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Resources","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Indicators","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Oil palm plantations","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Forest and peatland","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Biodiversity loss and gain","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Material ow","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"In uencing Indicated by result of peat oxidation, mills, plantation operations and refinery emissions. It is projected that land use and forestry will experience negative emissions after 22 years. This negative emissions projection is expected to be primarily driven by CO 2 absorption from palm oil plantations that are established on previously non-vegetation lands or on lands with less carbon stock than palm oil."}]},{"head":"Carbon emission and absorption","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Value added obtained by actors","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Trade policy schemes and impact projection","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"The UK proposed law on Forest Risk Commodity (UK-FRC) will impact the illegal expansion of palm oil plantations into forest areas, peatland clearance for palm oil production, and CO 2 emissions from the palm trade. Table 1 details these technical specifications."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"Figure 5 details the trade-off impacts of the UK-FRC on the local landscape, palm oil products, and economy. If the landscape seeks to comply with the UK-FRC, it will be required to stop palm oil expansion through illegal forest conversion and peatland clearance, and incentivize reductions in CO 2 emissions. Such measures will reduce deforestation in the landscape from 4,000 ha annually to 0 ha in less than 25 years, reduce CO 2 emissions and maintain biodiversity. However, these same measures will also reduce crude palm oil and palm kernel oil production by 500,000 tons and negatively impact employment levels. Furthermore, the palm oil economy will decrease by 30% from current levels, equal to an estimated USD 2 billion."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"In Figure 6 we outline proposed policies and actions to adapt to green deals while sustaining the palm oil economy. We compensate for the decrease in the palm oil economy due to the UK-FRC, EU-DFP, and RSPO by proposing a carbon tax (PES option 1), rewarding the forest ecosystem (PES option 2), and implementing ecological fiscal transfers (PES option 3)."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"In 2017, total deforestation was 9,500 ha, comprising 4,100 ha of legal deforestation and 5,400 ha of illegal deforestation. The relative biodiversity index at the landscape level decreases following deforestation."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"Conversion from forest and peatland to palm oil reduces biodiversity, whilst conversely, planting palm oil in areas without vegetation or on bare land increases biodiversity."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"In 2017, total emissions were 3 million tons CO 2 e, with a projected increase to 6.3 million tons after 21 years (Figure 4). The highest sources of emissions levels were a No. 369"},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"August 2022 No action is needed."}]},{"head":"Expansion from illegal forest conversion","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Yes Palm oil expansion into forest areas such as production, protection, and conservation forests is not allowed."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Stop palm oil expansion into forest areas, but acceptable for the non-forest areas (other land uses)."}]},{"head":"Peatland usage Yes","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Palm oil expansion into peatland is not allowed."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Stop peatland conversion to palm oil plantation."}]},{"head":"Emissions consideration Yes","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Emissions levels from palm oil (dis) incentivizes trade to the UK."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Reduce CO 2 emissions from the palm oil value chain (plantation, mill, refinery, trade, and government) to enable participation in carbon trade or tax schemes. • Scenario F: The implementation of PES and crude palm oil premium price (Run 6). The implementation of Scenario E with an increase of crude palm oil price by 50%."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"An analysis of the simulation results indicates that the BAU scenario (Run 1, not shown in Figure 6) of the palm oil economy cannot be compensated for by Scenario E (Run 5), even with the implementation of policy options 1, 2, 3 (Run 4). In Scenario E, we set the CO 2 price at USD 5/ton, rewarding forest ecosystem at USD 100/ha, and ecological fiscal transfer at USD 230/ha. However, the BAU scenario can be compensated by Scenario F (Run 6), which is equivalent to Scenario E plus an increase of the crude palm oil price by 50%."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"No. 369 "}]},{"head":"Scenarios to adapt green deals and sustain the palm oil economy","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Current BAU practices of palm oil plantations in highrisk landscapes such as Kobar will lead to legal and illegal deforestation, biodiversity reduction, and CO 2 emissions. However, we note that the palm oil industry is a key economy for corporations, smallholders, and the government and is a significant source of employment."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"The BAU is representative of the palm oil economy that occurs in Kobar and other districts in Indonesia. However, the research in this brief has the potential to calculate and project future impacts of different trade schemes and how the landscape authorities (district, provincial, and national governments) can adapt to green deals and act to compensate economic loss in the palm oil sector at the landscape level. The key findings are summarized in Table 2."},{"index":3,"size":116,"text":"Green deals will alter the current palm oil sector by establishing trade-offs between the economy and the environment. Green deals like the UK-FRC and EU-Deforestation Free Products (Scenario B) and international certification such as RSPO standard (Scenario C) will eradicate illegal and legal deforestation. Green deals alone will not prevent legal deforestation in the landscape but RSPO will. Green deals endorse the carbon economy more clearly than RSPO. However, the carbon tax (PES option 1) implemented by the government (Scenario D) will not be adequate to recover a shrinking palm oil economy caused by green deals and RSPO. Consequently, in addition to a carbon tax, we suggest the need to employ other environmental service payment mechanisms."},{"index":4,"size":103,"text":"Rewarding the forest ecosystem (PES option 2) and implementing ecological fiscal transfers (PES option 3), Scenario E produces a high PES economy in the region. However, this increase will not compensate for the overall reduction in the palm oil economy. Therefore, to increase the efficacy of green deals, the price of crude and refined palm oil must increase. This requires downsizing or scarcity, and the increased costs of greener or more sustainable crude palm oil production must be reflected in its price. The costs of scarcity and green crude palm oil is significant, suggested to be 50% of the original or BAU price."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"These findings suggest that the method of implementing green deals on palm oil must be negotiated between producing and consuming countries, i.e., Indonesia and Malaysia, and the UK and EU country members. We suggest that the UK and EU could mitigate potential economic losses by adjusting palm oil prices and providing support and a market for carbon and forest ecosystem services."},{"index":6,"size":98,"text":"We further recommend significant adjustments in palm oil prices due to the increased costs associated with green deals or RSPO certification. To this end, we also recommend labelling those palm oils that meet green deals and RSPO certification. For example, labelling protocols could be developed based on a particular jurisdiction such as sub-district, district or province. These protocols could be developed once the governance of palm oil is in place. This will require that all processes of interactions of laws, norms, and power of a particular jurisdiction lead to the implementation and endorsement of green deals and certification."},{"index":7,"size":2,"text":"No. 369"},{"index":8,"size":2,"text":"August 2022"}]},{"head":"Recommendations","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"This brief makes four key recommendations, as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"• All palm oil stakeholders at the sub-national, national and international levels should understand and address the trade-offs between environmental and economic benefits in the sector. • All palm oil producing and market countries should understand and negotiate steps and timetables for green deals and certification implementation. • Palm oil market countries should identify additional incentives to the PES economy as this is not substantial enough to compensate for the economic losses resulting from green deals. • Sustainable, or green, palm oil must attract a significantly higher price than un-clear palm oil. "}]},{"head":"CIFOR-ICRAF","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"The Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and World Agroforestry (ICRAF) envision a more equitable world where trees in all landscapes, from drylands to the humid tropics, enhance the environment and well-being for all. CIFOR and ICRAF are CGIAR Research Centers."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Figure 1. Model block diagram "},{"text":"Figure Figure 2. Distribution of palm oil concessions and planted palm oil in Kobar "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Economic and environmental trade-offs between BAU (Run 1) and UK Law on Forest Risk Commodity (UK-FRC) (Run 2) "},{"text":" Figure 6. Simulation outputs of Scenario A, B (Run 2), C (Run 3), D (Run 4), E (Run 5), and F (Run 6) "},{"text":"Table 1 . The impact of UK law on Forest Risk Commodity (UK-FRC) Trade Scheme Influence on landscape UK- FRC Impact on landscape and trade How to comply with UK-FRC  Expansion from legal No Palm oil expansion into 'convertible Expansion from legalNoPalm oil expansion into 'convertible forest conversion  production forest' is allowed. The forest conversionproduction forest' is allowed. The   products can enter UK markets. products can enter UK markets.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Comparison of simulation results from green deals and RSPO if implemented and endorsed globally  Scenario A: B: Green C: RSPO D: Green deals, RSPO, E: Scenario F: Scenario E and ScenarioA:B: GreenC: RSPOD: Green deals, RSPO,E: ScenarioF: Scenario E and Indicator BAU deals certification and carbon policy D and PES premium price IndicatorBAUdealscertificationand carbon policyD and PESpremium price Deforestation H L N N N N DeforestationHLNNNN CO 2 emission H L L L L L CO 2 emissionHLLLLL crude palm oil production H L L L L L crude palm oil production HLLLLL Carbon economy N H N H H H Carbon economyNHNHHH PES economy N N N N H H PES economyNNNNHH Palm oil economy H L L L L H Palm oil economyHLLLLH Total palm oil economy and ecosystem services H L L L L H Total palm oil economy and ecosystem servicesHLLLLH N=None; L=Low; H=High       N=None; L=Low; H=High  "}],"sieverID":"d76fead8-9bd6-4c86-b38d-8181174eb383","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03f9d89c11e34fbf64cf67aba780d6a7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/019e43ed-cefe-40f8-931a-e3f61f5fabc7/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Effluent Quality of Wet Process Coffee Processing Factories in Coffee Growing Ecological Zones in Burundi","keywords":["Water pollution","BOD 5","Effluent quality","Wastewater","Wet coffee processing"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":211,"text":"Coffee is one of the most known important agricultural commodities in the world. Burundi is among the coffee-dependent producing countries for export, with an average of $ 50 to 60 million per year in export earnings, which corresponds to between 70 and 80 % of national export earnings [1]. Coffee belongs to the family Rubiaceae and it has many species. Arabica Coffee (93%) and Robusta (7%) are the two predominant varieties of the subfamily cultivated in Burundi for commercial purposes [2]. Processing of coffee cherries into green coffee is generally divided into wet method and dry method (coffee Arabica -100% wet method, coffee Robusta 58% wet method and 42% dry method) [2]. Most of the coffee produced in Burundi is Arabica coffee which is processed using the wet method. The wet processing method requires specific equipment and adequate amount of water with the effluent being discharged to receiving water bodies. Surface water is prone to pollution especially from agriculture activities, domestic and industrial wastewater hence the need to establish the levels of pollution in industrial wastewater [3]. Kayanza, Gitega and Makamba are the major coffee growing agroecological zones in Burundi. There are a number of coffee processing factories located along the rivers and streams with an impulsive degree of hydraulic ascents."}]},{"head":"International Journal of Water and Wastewater Treatment","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":188,"text":"Open Access Journal dilution, being because it's easier to put a piece of sugar in a cup of coffee than to come out of it [7]. Moving wastes from one place to another does not solve the sanitation problem. These options are temporary alternatives that only transfer the problem. Hence the necessity to fight against pollution in all its forms, in particular the pollution of waters. Considering the volume generated and the pollutants released through the wastewater, coffee processing agro-industry represents one of the main contributors of water pollution problems. Despite the severe pollution problems, it was found that none of the public coffee processing factories have any effluent treatment plants [8]. They directly discharge untreated, colored and acidic effluent into the nearby water bodies, streams and open land [8]. Furthermore, it has been found that coffee processing wastewater is very harmful to the surrounding water bodies and aquatics life if discharged into surface water [5,9] as well as to human health (causing many severe health problems, such as dizziness, eyes, ear and skin irritation, stomach, pain, nausea and breathing problems) among the residents of nearby areas [10]."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"There are no studies that have investigated effluent quality in Burundi to assess the level of the problem to propose solutions and recommendations. This goal of the study was therefore to provide data on the water pollution from coffee processing. The findings will aid in characterizing the coffee processing wastewater and effect of wet coffee washing station effluents on the quality of receiving water bodies in some coffee growing ecological zones in Burundi."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"The aim of this study was to determine the wastewater quality from Coffee Processing Technology (CPT) factories Kayanza, Gitega and Makamba coffee growing areas."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Description of the study","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"The study was conducted in Kayanza, Gitega and Makamba coffee growing agro-ecological Zones in Burundi. Kayanza province is in the humid Central Plateau, in Buyenzi region. It is the best Cafeicultura production area. Gitega province (Political capital of Burundi), is in the dry Central Plateau, in Kirimiro region, Makamba province is in Eastern depression, in Buragane region (Figure 1,Table 1)."}]},{"head":"Wastewater sampling and pretreatment","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Nineteen (19) wet coffee processing factories were selected in the coffee growing zones in Burundi according Mugenda and Mugenda [11]. Wastewater samples were collected from coffee processing factories in coffee growing areas of Kayanza, Gitega and Makamba during the months of April and June 2020. The wastewater samples were collected using sampling procedures described in American Public Health Association (APHA) [7]. On site pretreatment was done by adding H 2 SO 4 for COD, phosphates and ammonium analysis, HCl for Nitrates and nitrites analysis and HNO 3 for Lead and Copper analysis."}]},{"head":"Experimental design and data collection","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"The experimental was conducted using a Complete Randomized Design (CRD) with triplicate sample analysis for accuracy. A total of 16 quantitative physical and chemical analyses were carried out to characterize the coffee wastewater Samples were analyzed for; pH, Temperature (T °), salinity, Electrical Conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS) and dissolved oxygen (DO) by using Trace2o Hydrocheck HC1000 multi-parameter Electrochemical Meter kit T20-AN-P270. The samples were properly and carefully labeled and transported to the laboratory of Institute of Agronomic Sciences of Burundi (ISABU) and to the Laboratory of University of Burundi to determine chloride (Cl -), Nitrite (NO 2 ), Lead (Pb), Copper (Cu), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD 5 ). The methods of analysis are those described by standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater [12] and the standards [14]. Phosphates, nitrites and nitrates were analyzed by UV-vis spectrophotometer (BK-UV 1800PC Biobase) with 1cm matched quartz cells in the Laboratory (LASPA) according to the standard methods [12,13]."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Samples were analyzed for COD using colorimetric method NOVA 60 according to the standards methods and BOD 5 [12] using manometric method using amber colored bottles topped with an \"OXYTOP®\" head."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"TSS was determined by filtration (Filtered with whatman N ° 41) of a volume of water (1liter) and dried at 105 °c in an oven WT-Binder 7200Tuttling/Germany during 24h. TSS was given by the following formula [14]:"},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"Where M 0 =Mass of the filter before use (mg / l); M 1 =Mass of the filter after use (mg / l); V=Volume of water used (in ml). Ammonium ions were analyzed in an alkaline environment, ammonia was displaced, entrained by water vapor and then carried out on the distillate by volumetric method. The ammonium content expressed in milligrams per liter was given by the following relationship [14]:"},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"(2)  Where V 1 =Volume of titrant used for titration of sample; V 2 =Volume of sample and V 0 =Volume of titrant used for titration of blank."},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"The wastewater samples were analyzed for dissolved heavy metal concentrations a using Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer Perkin-Elmer Analyst 400 (Hi-tech Detection systems) directly after filtration with a Whatman No.41 filter paper."},{"index":7,"size":24,"text":"The concentrations of chloride were determined by titrimetric method, the equipment's used were conical flask, pipette and Burette. The chloride was determined using [13]."},{"index":8,"size":1,"text":"(3)"},{"index":9,"size":12,"text":"Where X=Volume of titrant used for titration of sample; V=Volume of sample."},{"index":10,"size":15,"text":"All the chemical reagents used are of analytical grade and their expiration dates were checked."},{"index":11,"size":16,"text":"The results of all tests were fairly and cautiously recorded on a prepared data registration format."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"The data was subjected to statistical analysis; such as Rstudio-1.0.153, Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA) determine whether there was any significant among Kayanza, Gitega and Makamba. The comparison between the results recorded in April and June was done by using Paired-samples T Test (SSPS)."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussions","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"The obtained results from the effluent released from wet coffee processing plant show that there were variations in physico-chemical parameters between and among sites. The study found that wastewater does not meet Burundi Effluent Discharge standards [15] for TSS, COD, BOD 5 , pH. However, Nitrates, Nitrites, DO, Phosphates, salinity, EC, TDS, Chlorides, Pb, Cu and 4 + were in conformity with the set standards."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Mean (n=114) concentrations of selected physicochemical parameters of coffee wastewater compared with wastewater with maximum allowable standard concentration for wastewater discharged to water bodies."},{"index":3,"size":214,"text":"pH values vary from one location to another and from one coffee processing factory to another, the pH varied between 4.1 ± 0.3 to 4.2 ± 0.4 (Tables 2, 3) at the study location while the pH value was in the range between 4.0 ± 0.3 to 4.3 ± 0.5 (Table 4) at various coffee processing factories ownerships. These results show that the wastewater were highly acidic. The acidic pH is due to the presence of organic acids such as carboxylic acids in berry skin and pulp. According to the findings of Hue NV, et al. [16], the pH ranged from 3.5 to 4.5 in wastewater from coffee fruits processing. These findings are in agreement with what was reported by the authors [8,17]. The mean values were significantly lower (acidic) in the coffee effluent. This could be due to fermentation of mucilage, sugars in the fermentation tank. The sugar ferments in the presence of yeasts to alcohol and CO 2 . However, in this situation the alcohol is quickly converted to acetic acid in the fermented pulping water. The acidification of sugars dropped to the pH around 4 [10]. T Test results at 95% confidence level, indicate that there was no significant difference in levels of pH between the period of April and June."},{"index":4,"size":327,"text":"Mean Concentration of TSS was in the range of 2481.3 ± 45.6 to 2640.9 ± 60.0 mg/l according to the locations (Table 3) and from 2258.2 ± 108.6 to 2709.3 ± 71.4 mg/l in accordance to various wet coffee processing factories (Table 4). The higher value of TSS in coffee processing wastewater could be due to the presence of pectin, protein and sugar which are biodegradable in nature. The concentration of the organics also varied with quantity of water used for processing of coffee berries [9]. These results were higher than the acceptable limit [15] and did not change significantly due to the seasons. Based on the standard discharge limit value, the TSS adversely affect the nearby rivers or streams by increasing the dissolved oxygen demand by  The pollution profiles for Chemical Oxygen Demand in the effluent released from wet coffee processing factories was in range of 10025 ± 498.0 to 14019.2 ± 392.9 mg/l (Table 3) and 11610 ± 618.2 to 14273 ± 476.3 gm/l (Table 4) in accordance to locations and various wet coffee processing factories respectively. BOD 5 values were in the range of 5792.5 ± 488.1 to 7300 ± 388.0 mg/l (Table 3) according to locations and 5940.9 ± 253 to 7525.3 ± 574.6 mg/l (Table 4) according to Various wet coffee processing factories/ownships, these results changed significantly (P< 0.05) due to the seasons. This change in results recorded in April and June might be attributed to the different air temperature which affects the fermentation. Burundi effluent discharge standards has a limit value of COD (150mg/l) and BOD 5 (30mg/l) [15,18]. This high level of BOD 5 , COD in the coffee processing effluent could be due to the presence of high amount of organic substances and to the slowly degrading compounds present. Various researchers reported high pollution from wet processing [16,11,19] caused by COD and BOD 5 contents of coffee effluent. The maximum effluent COD and BOD 5 concentrations obtained from this"}]},{"head":"International Journal of Water and Wastewater Treatment","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Open Access Journal study were higher than the acceptable limit respectively representing the pollution strength of the coffee wastewaters. This shows that large amount of chemical and biochemical substances in the effluent are released from the coffee processing wastewater into the rivers or streams."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"They also indicate that there could be low oxygen available for living organisms in the wastewater when employing the organic matter present. The wet processing factories use large amount of water for pulping, fermentation and washing of the coffee cherries. Large quantities of wastewater and the coffee effluents are therefore generated and discharged without treatment into the nearby rivers or streams, except a small number of factories which are privately or cooperatively owned. The results displayed in the tables 2, 3, 4, and 5 indicate that the wastewater was deeply polluted with high acidity, organic load and suspended matter in April and June. Organic load was measured in terms of COD and BOD 5 , acidity in terms of pH, suspended solid in terms of total suspended solids."},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":"TDS values of the coffee wastewater effluent among locations and all the wet coffee processing factories varied respectively between 414.5 ± 83.3 to 443.0 ± 56.4 mg/l (Table 3) and 397.6 ± 48.2 to 451.3 ± 54.4 mg/l (Table 4), all the results were underneath along the sampling points (Tables 2-5) and they did not change significantly due to the seasons (April & June). The amount of TDS at all sites might be qualified to the high mucilage coming out of the fermentation tanks. The high TDS can be toxic to freshwater animals causing osmotic stress and can give increase to obnoxious odors from the decay of organic matter and vulgar smell."},{"index":4,"size":120,"text":"The nitrate concentration level of coffee effluent at all locations and wet coffee processing ownerships varied between 18.1 ± 3.9 to 22.7 ± 4.1 mg/l (Table 3) and from 17.5 ± 3.1 to 24.5 ± 8.3 mg/l (Table 4) respectively. The results recorded in April and June (Table 4) differed significantly at P<0.05, this difference might be due to the fertilizers used by the farmers in their fields that is discharged to the water bodies by runoff in which the same contaminated water is also used in pulping, fermentation and coffee washing because most of the wet coffee processing factories in Burundi use the water from rivers and streams. The nitrates concentrations level was in conformity with the standards [15]."},{"index":5,"size":214,"text":"In the present study the pH level has a strong significant negative correlation with DO, this value shows that with increase or decrease in their values of pH, DO also decreases or increases in their values. A significant positive correlation was found between TDS and EC, Salinity, and Nitrates, so with increase or decrease in the values of TDS, the values of EC, Salinity, and Nitrates ion increases or decreases. DO bears significant positive correlation with Ammonium ion and nitrates ion [20]. COD has a strong significant positive correlation with TSS, BOD 5 and vice-versa. This also shows that with increase or decrease in the values of COD, TSS, BOD 5 and vice versa also exhibit increase or decrease in their values. Ammonium concentrations were in range of 4.9 ± 0.8 to 6.6 ± 1.8 mg/l (Table 3) and 4.4 ± 2.1 to 6.6 ± 2.3 mg/l (Table 4), respectively between locations and various wet coffee processing factories. Ammonium is critical parameter for fish in aquaculture due to its toxicity and it can eventually cause cell death in the central nervous system when it is in high concentration [21]. The results showed that there was significant difference in all sampling sites (P<0.05) and temperature was below the permissible limit for discharge effluents (Tables 2-5)."},{"index":6,"size":65,"text":"The average values of coffee wastewater temperature ranged at all locations and various wet coffee processing plants between 21.3 ± 1.1 to 23.7 ± 1.1 °C (Table 3) and 20.8 ± 1.2 to 23.0 ± 1.2 °C (Table 4) respectively. The results showed that there was significant difference in all sampling sites (P<0.05) and temperature was below the permissible limit for discharge effluents (Tables 2-5)."},{"index":7,"size":80,"text":"The Electrical Conductivity (EC) ranged between 734.5 ± 15.8 to 867.9 ± 54.7μS/cm (Table 3) and from 798.3 ± 20.5 to 924.9 ± 97.1 μS/ cm (Table 4) respectively among the locations and various wet coffee processing factories. The EC rose steadily with increase in TDS and salinity [22]. High significant variation is observed between types of coffee washing station and EC and these results showed that they did not differ significantly at 95% confidence interval due to the seasons."},{"index":8,"size":141,"text":"The DO values were in range of 2.8μ0.3 to 8.7 ± 0.4 mg/l (Table 3) and 6.3 ± 1.0 to 7.1 ± 1.5 mg/l (Table 4) in coffee wastewater samples collected between locations and various wet coffee processing plants respectively. The lowest values were obtained from Makamba during wet season (Table 2). The variation may be attributed to oxygen consumption by aerobic organisms due to increase in oxygen demanding wastes. DO concentrations below 1 mg/l may adversely affect the surrounding river or stream and survival of biological communities and hence all water pollution. DO concentration value changed significantly at 95% confidence interval in most of periods and highly significant (P<0.01) correlation was observed between DO and Ammonium (Table 6). The biological indicators were negative correlated with pH and DO while positive correlations were noticed in BOD and COD of coffee wastewater."},{"index":9,"size":105,"text":"Phosphates concentration levels were in range of 6.0 ± 1.6 to 9.5 ± 1.5 mg/l (Table 3) and 6.2 ± 1.4 to 6.51.2 mg/l (Table 4) in accordance of respectively locations and various wet coffee processing factories. The concentrations of phosphates were statistically significant (p<0.05) among all the locations and changed significantly at 95% confidence interval as compared to the results recorded in April and June. The phosphates concentrations of the effluent do not appear to pose any threat to the receiving water bodies (Tables 3-5). The concentrations level of nitrites in the coffee wastewater were found to be statistically significant (P<0.05) among all locations."},{"index":10,"size":109,"text":"The average nitrite concentrations were in range of 0.6 ± 0.1 to 0.8 ± 0.2 mg/l (Table 3) and from 0.4 ± 0.1 to 0.8 ± 0.1 mg/l (Table 4), respectively in accordance of locations and various wet coffee processing factories. The nitrites concentrations of the effluent do not appear to pose any threat to the receiving water bodies as compared the standard for discharge effluent [15]. The concentrations level of nitrites in the coffee wastewater were found to be statistically significant (P<0.05) among all locations. The results recorded in April and June differed significantly. This might be due to the runoff containing the fertilizer from the farmers [23,24]."},{"index":11,"size":55,"text":"The concentrations of chloride were in range of 35.7 ± 6.4mg/l at Makamba to 61.6 ± 7.8 mg/l at Gitega and from 51.4 ± 15.9mg/l (Public) to 68.6 ± 24.6 mg/l (cooperative), respectively at the study locations (Table 3) and wet coffee processing owners (Table 4). This was in conformity with Burundi environmental discharge effluent."},{"index":12,"size":69,"text":"The mean concentrations of copper were in conformity with standards level and varied between 0.2 ± 0.02 to 0.4 ± 0.2 mg/l and 0.2 ± 0.02 to 0.3 ± 0.01 mg/l respectively in accordance of locations and various wet coffee processing factories. These concentrations do not appear to cause problems to the nearby rivers and streams. Lead concentrations were always below the Limit of Detection (LOD) of the AAS. "}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Based on the findings of this study, the wastewater generated from wet coffee processing technologies in Kayanza, Gitega and Makamba had pH, BOD, COD and total suspended solids values higher than the set standard by Burundi and WHO there is therefore need to develop and install appropriate wastewater treatment technologies in all coffee processing factories to improve the quality of the wastewater to meet discharge standards. This is in order to protect the health of the environment and that of humans."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Results of the present study can be used by policy makers to come up with policy strategies to protect the environment and health of the receiving water bodies. The government should also explore the possibility of installation of other environment friendly coffee processing technologies."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Map of Burundi showing the study areas location. "},{"text":" sedimentation and establishing oxygen demand mud deposit, which cause turbidity in the receiving water bodies and may change the habitat of aquatic microorganisms. "},{"text":"Table 1 : Description of the study areas. Variable Unit Kayanza Gitega Makamba VariableUnitKayanzaGitegaMakamba Longitude Degree (°) 29.6278°E 29.9246°E 29.8034°E LongitudeDegree (°) 29.6278°E 29.9246°E 29.8034°E Latitude Degree (°) 2.9235°S 3.4273°S 4.1385°S LatitudeDegree (°)2.9235°S3.4273°S4.1385°S Elevation m 1500-1850 1500-1650 1250-1400 Elevationm1500-1850 1500-1650 1250-1400 Rainfall amount mm 1200-1400 1200-1300 1200-1300 Rainfall amountmm1200-1400 1200-1300 1200-1300 Air temperature °C 15-17 17-19 19-23 Air temperature°C15-1717-1919-23  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Average values and SD for the physico-chemical parameters of wastewater at the study areas among the study months.International Journal of Water and Wastewater Treatment   Kayanza Gitega Makamba KayanzaGitegaMakamba Variables  April June April June April June VariablesAprilJuneAprilJuneAprilJune Physical        Physical pH  4.2 ± 0.4 4.0 ± 0.4 4.1 ± 0.2 4.2 ± 0.3 4.1 ± 0.4 4.1 ± 0.3 pH4.2 ± 0.44.0 ± 0.44.1 ± 0.24.2 ± 0.34.1 ± 0.44.1 ± 0.3 Temperature °C 21.0 ± 1.2 21.5 ± 1.0 23.1 ± 0.9 24.4 ± 0.9 22.8 ± 0.3 23.1 ± 0.4 Temperature°C21.0 ± 1.221.5 ± 1.023.1 ± 0.924.4 ± 0.922.8 ± 0.323.1 ± 0.4 EC μS/cm 841.6 ± 86.3 927.9 ± 76.8 973.4 ± 84.6 762.3 ± 115.1 707.2 ± 57.8 1017.7 ± 29.9 ECμS/cm841.6 ± 86.3927.9 ± 76.8973.4 ± 84.6762.3 ± 115.1707.2 ± 57.81017.7 ± 29.9 TDS mg/l 420.1 ± 90.8 465.9 ± 117.5 478.1 ± 83.8 350.9 ± 115.1 353.7 ± 80.3 510.2 ± 29.9 TDSmg/l420.1 ± 90.8465.9 ± 117.5478.1 ± 83.8350.9 ± 115.1353.7 ± 80.3510.2 ± 29.9 DO mg/l 10.2 ± 5.23 7.2 ± 1.7 5.8 ± 2.3 3.3 ± 0.4 0.8 ± 0.1 4.8 ± 0.9 DOmg/l10.2 ± 5.237.2 ± 1.75.8 ± 2.33.3 ± 0.40.8 ± 0.14.8 ± 0.9 Salinity mg/l 409.7 ± 89.0 455.6 ± 56.6 333.3 ± 68.8 346.4 ± 77.7 345.0 ± 76.8 505.0 ± 35.4 Salinitymg/l409.7 ± 89.0455.6 ± 56.6333.3 ± 68.8346.4 ± 77.7345.0 ± 76.8505.0 ± 35.4 TSS mg/l 2444.0 ± 100.7 2522.6 ± 214.7 2679.9 ± 180.8 2601.9 ± 166.3 2751.8 ± 158.6 2440.0 ± 120.0 TSSmg/l2444.0 ± 100.72522.6 ± 214.72679.9 ± 180.82601.9 ± 166.32751.8 ± 158.62440.0 ± 120.0 Chemical        Chemical BOD 5 mg/l 7481.6 ± 451.1 5996.1 ± 402.7 7300.0 ± 371.5 7250.0 ± 615.6 5792.5 ± 332.9 5710.1 ± 332.9 BOD 5mg/l7481.6 ± 451.15996.1 ± 402.77300.0 ± 371.57250.0 ± 615.65792.5 ± 332.95710.1 ± 332.9 COD mg/l 12745.6 ± 417.9 11127.3 ± 694.3 14416.8 ± 456.1 13621 ± 892.4 10200 ± 545.6 9820.0 ± 500.6 CODmg/l12745.6 ± 417.9 11127.3 ± 694.3 14416.8 ± 456.113621 ± 892.410200 ± 545.69820.0 ± 500.6 PO 4 3- mg/l 7.8 ± 1.8 4.2 ± 1.9 12.6 ± 2.1 2.2 ± 1.4 12.5 ± 1.39 6.5 ± 0.3 PO 4 3-mg/l7.8 ± 1.84.2 ± 1.912.6 ± 2.12.2 ± 1.412.5 ± 1.396.5 ± 0.3 Cl - mg/l 67.3 ± 17.3 55.9 ± 17.2 42.3 ± 16.8 68.9 ± 21.1 34.9 ± 10.9 63.6 ± 10.9 Cl -mg/l67.3 ± 17.355.9 ± 17.242.3 ± 16.868.9 ± 21.134.9 ± 10.963.6 ± 10.9 NH 4 + mg/l 6.2 ± 2.4 6.7 ± 2.7 6.8 ± 1.5 4.5 ± 1.7 5.3 ± 0.6 4.4 ± 0.3 NH 4 +mg/l6.2 ± 2.46.7 ± 2.76.8 ± 1.54.5 ± 1.75.3 ± 0.64.4 ± 0.3 NO 3 - mg/l 23.7 ± 4.7 12.6 ± 2.9 27.4 ± 3.8 18.0 ± 3.0 18.1 ± 4.8 19.5 ± 2.8 NO 3 -mg/l23.7 ± 4.712.6 ± 2.927.4 ± 3.818.0 ± 3.018.1 ± 4.819.5 ± 2.8 NO 2 - mg/l 0.9 ± 0.2 0.3 ± 0.1 1.3 ± 0.3 0.1 ± 0.01 1.3 ± 0.08 0.2 ± 0.1 NO 2 -mg/l0.9 ± 0.20.3 ± 0.11.3 ± 0.30.1 ± 0.011.3 ± 0.080.2 ± 0.1 Cu mg/l 0.2 ± 0.1 0.2 ± 0.1 0.2 ± 0.06 0.4 ± 0.1 0.3 ± 0.03 0.6 ± 0.1 Cumg/l0.2 ± 0.10.2 ± 0.10.2 ± 0.060.4 ± 0.10.3 ± 0.030.6 ± 0.1 Pb mg/l <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 Pbmg/l<0.01<0.01<0.01<0.01<0.010.01  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Physico-chemical properties of wastewater from wet coffee processing at the study locations.Means (n=114) with different letters in the same row are significantly different (Student-Newman-Keuls test at p<0.05) at 5. Variable Unit Private Public Cooperative Standard level VariableUnitPrivatePublicCooperativeStandard level Physical      Physical pH pH scale 4.1 ± 0.2 4.0 ± 0.3 4.3 ± 0.5 6-9 pHpH scale4.1 ± 0.24.0 ± 0.34.3 ± 0.56-9 Temperature °C 20.8 ± 1.2 23.0 ± 1.2 21.7 ± 1.3 35 Temperature°C20.8 ± 1.223.0 ± 1.221.7 ± 1.335 EC μS/cm 798.3 ± 20.5 924.9 ± 97.1 844.0 ± 81.5 - ECμS/cm798.3 ± 20.5924.9 ± 97.1844.0 ± 81.5- TDS mg/l 397.6 ± 48.2 451.3 ± 54.4 424.2 ± 87.3 1200 TDSmg/l397.6 ± 48.2451.3 ± 54.4424.2 ± 87.31200 DO mg/l 7.1 ± 1.5 6.9 ± 2.1 6.3 ± 1.0 >1 DOmg/l7.1 ± 1.56.9 ± 2.16.3 ± 1.0>1 Salinity mg/l 391.3 ± 50.9 399.3 ± 71.0 412.7 ± 85.6 - Salinitymg/l391.3 ± 50.9399.3 ± 71.0412.7 ± 85.6- TSS mg/l 2258.2 ± 32.6 2575.2 ± 108.6 2709.3 ± 71.4 50 TSSmg/l2258.2 ± 32.62575.2 ± 108.62709.3 ± 71.450 Chemical      Chemical BOD 5 mg/l 7431.6 ± 832.9 5940.9 ± 253.0 7525.3 ± 574.6 30 BOD 5mg/l7431.6 ± 832.95940.9 ± 253.07525.3 ± 574.630 COD mg/l 12000 ± 844.5 11610 ± 618.2 14273 ± 476.3 150 CODmg/l12000 ± 844.511610 ± 618.214273 ± 476.3150 PO 4 3- mg/l 6.2 ± 1.4 7.2 ± 1.6 6.5 ± 1.2 30 PO 4 3-mg/l6.2 ± 1.47.2 ± 1.66.5 ± 1.230 Cl - mg/l 56.5 ± 17.7 51.4 ± 15.9 68.6 ± 24.6 250 Cl -mg/l56.5 ± 17.751.4 ± 15.968.6 ± 24.6250 NH 4 + mg/l 4.4 ± 2.1 6.5 ± 2.3 6.3 ± 1.9 - NH 4 +mg/l4.4 ± 2.16.5 ± 2.36.3 ± 1.9- NO 3 - mg/l 24.5 ± 8.3 17.5 ± 3.1 20.1 ± 9.2 50 NO 3 -mg/l24.5 ± 8.317.5 ± 3.120.1 ± 9.250 NO 2 - mg/l 0.8 ± 0.1 0.7 ± 0.2 0.4 ± 0.1 - NO 2 -mg/l0.8 ± 0.10.7 ± 0.20.4 ± 0.1- Cu mg/l 0.2 ± 0.02 0.3 ± 0.02 0.3 ± 0.01 1 Cumg/l0.2 ± 0.020.3 ± 0.020.3 ± 0.011 Pb mg/l <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.05 Pbmg/l<0.01<0.01<0.010.05  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Physico  "},{"text":"Table 5 : International Journal of Water and Wastewater Treatment Physico-chemical Quality parameters of wastewater at wet coffee processing plants in wet and dry months, Mean ± std. dev (n=57). Open Access Journal Open Access Journal  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Correlations values among physico-chemical parameters. *= Correlation is significant at P=0.05 probability levels and **= Correlation is significant at P=0.01 probability levels.  "}],"sieverID":"c2359189-dc5d-4a75-890c-dd0789c45e27","abstract":"According to the National Confederation of Coffee Producers' Associations, Burundi has more than 250 coffee processing factories [4]. The rise in the number of wet processing plants has therefore resulted in the generation of large amounts of processing by-products mainly coffee pulp and effluents, which are discharged into nearby natural water ways which flow into rivers and/or infiltrate into ground water and hence become a threat to the surrounding water bodies, human health and aquatic life [5]. Coffee pulp contains large amounts of organic compounds like fatty acids, lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose, and other polysaccharides that justify its valorization. Wet processing of coffee cherries is an alternative method, however it generates a huge amount of effluent that is rich in suspended organic matter, dissolved organic and inorganic compounds, with great polluting potential, which require quality correction to meet discharge standards set by regulatory agencies of Burundi before discharge into the environment. A wide range of technologies for wastewater exist; Microbial Fuel Cells (MFC), a bio electrochemical system, is a reliable alternative technology over conventional wastewater treatment systems that offers an additional benefit of direct bioenergy recovery with concomitant wastewater treatment [6].Most coffee processing factories discharge their effluents to nearby streams. According to Lipsey\" the solution of pollution must not be"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04cd739c925752f3d61e4ada608cb0a4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c0a58bc7-36ee-463d-8926-990c6c8779ee/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"Zimbabwe Dialogue on Inclusive Agribusiness Summary Report Work Package 5, Ukama Ustawi","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"The authors","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Kristin Davis, International Food Policy Research Institute Abiyot Anbacha, International Rice Research Institute Ojongetakah Enokenwa Baa, International Water Management Institute"}]},{"head":"Acknowledgement","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"This work was carried out under the CGIAR Initiative on Diversification in East and Southern Africa, which is grateful for the support of CGIAR Trust Fund contributors (www.cgiar.org/funders)."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"The CGIAR Initiative on Diversification in East and Southern Africa aims to help smallholders transition to sustainably intensified, diversified, and derisked agri-food systems based on maize in 12 ESA countries. Specifically, it seeks to enable 50,000 value chain actors, including farmers (at least 40% women, 40% youth), to adopt climate-smart maize-based intensification and diversification practices and one million to access digital agro-advisory services. Emphasizing the importance of gender equality and social inclusion in driving transformation within the private and public sectors. UU targets to support at least 30 start-ups and SMEs."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"Disclaimer: This publication has been prepared as an output of the CGIAR Initiative on Diversification in East and Southern Africa, and has not been independently peer-reviewed. Responsibility for editing, proofreading, and layout, opinions expressed and any possible errors lies with the author and not the institutions involved."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"The agribusiness ecosystem is a critical engine for agricultural and economic development for climate change adaptation and for achieving strategic gender gains and youth engagement in agriculture. The CGIAR Initiative on Diversification in East and Southern Africa (Ukama Ustawimeaning \"wellbeing\") is focused on diversification for resilient agribusiness ecosystems in Eastern and Southern Africa, also known as Ukama Ustawi (UU)."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"Work package 5 of UU focuses on empowering and engaging marginalized social groups in agribusiness through capacity strengthening and influencing an enabling policy and institutional context. Focal countries in 2022 include Ethiopia, Kenya, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. In each country, work package 5 engaged in dialogues with partners and key stakeholders as part of a meta-analysis of social, economic, and institutional bottlenecks, barriers, and opportunities to more inclusive agribusiness."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"Following the meta-analysis in 2022, the work package will establish a gender equality and social inclusion agribusiness network in the region; strengthen capacity of marginalized women and youth as successful entrepreneurs; and inform policies and strategies for more inclusive agribusiness."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"In Zimbabwe, work package 5 held a dialogue to (a) identify key stakeholders in agribusiness; (b) discuss bottlenecks and opportunities to more inclusive agribusiness; and (c) discuss next steps for work package 5 activities in Zimbabwe in 2023-2024. Twenty stakeholders (including two virtual) from businesses, networks, governments, academia, and research attended the half-day dialogue."}]},{"head":"DIALOGUE OPENING","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"The dialogue was divided into three sessions (opening session and remarks, presentation, and group discussion). The moderator, Dr Kristin Davis from the International Food Policy Research Institute started off proceedings by inviting opening remarks from the speaker. He further asked participants to support the efforts of work package 5 by sharing their knowledge on the agribusiness ecosystem in Zimbabwe. He highlighted that with many farmers engaged in maize production, the workshop was an opportunity for them to discuss challenges and opportunities to leverage for their inclusion within the agribusiness sector."}]},{"head":"Opening Session and","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Ukama Ustawi Overview by Dr Kristin Davis from the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"The moderator, Dr Kristin Davis (IFPRI) gave an overview of Ukama Ustawi and presented an overview and purpose of the dialogue. She stated that the UU Initiative supports climateresilient agriculture and livelihoods in 12 countries in East and Southern Africa by helping millions of smallholders intensify, diversify and reduce risks in maize-based farming through improved extension services, small and medium enterprise development, supporting governance frameworks and increased investment with a gender and social inclusion lens. In Zimbabwe, the UU initiative will engage in the following activities:"},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"-Mapping suitability/feasibility of climate-smart nutrition technologies and mechanization/ irrigation options -Developing climate-smart, productive, profitable, environmentally sound sustainable intensification practices, enabling diversification of farming systems in Bindura, Shamva, Murehwa, Mutoko, and Masvingo districts -Capacity building and scaling on the above"}]},{"head":"Purpose of the Dialogue","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"With activities on gender and social inclusion being led by work package 5, the UU initiative aims to:"},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"-Empower and engage marginalized social groups in agribusiness with focal countries in 2022 being Ethiopia, Kenya, Zambia, Zimbabwe. -Examine social, economic, institutional bottlenecks, barriers, and opportunities to more inclusive agribusiness in each country. -Finalize actionable gender equality and social inclusion (GESI) framework."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"-Establish gender equality and social inclusion agribusiness network."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"-Strengthen capacity of marginalized women and youth as successful entrepreneurs."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"-Inform policies and strategies for more inclusive agribusiness."},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"Having explained this, the moderator noted that for this workshop, the aim was to:"},{"index":7,"size":7,"text":"-Identify key stakeholders in agribusiness in Zimbabwe."},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"-Discuss bottlenecks and opportunities to more inclusive agribusiness in Zimbabwe."},{"index":9,"size":9,"text":"-Discuss next steps for activities in Zimbabwe in 2023-2024."}]},{"head":"PRESENTATION","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"This session was moderated by Dr Abiyot Anbacha, a consultant for IWMI, who gave an overview of gender equality and social inclusion (GESI). She pointed out that there is need for a GESI framework in agribusiness to unpack issues of exclusion based on gender, age, caste, ethnic groups for inclusive growth. Hence, the rational for a GESI framework is to recognize that within the agribusiness value chain there are differences in society which tends to impact marginalized and excluded groups from benefitting."},{"index":2,"size":134,"text":"To ensure that social inequality and inclusion are addressed in agricultural value chains, Dr Anbacha gave some insight on the concept and operational framework drawing from the BMGF women's empowerment conceptual model. This framework brings an intersectional lens to ensure women, girls, and youth are empowered and allow users to explore work often not recognized (care and household work by women and girls), not equitably paid (gender pay gap by young men and women),or done under vulnerable conditions within agricultural value chains. The operational framework looks at five dimensions to gender equality and social inclusion: i) agency, ii) choice, voice and power, iii) resources, iv) institutional structures, and v) intersectionality and engaging men and boys. The existing barriers and opportunities later discussed by the stakeholders were based on these dimensions drawn from the framework."}]},{"head":"Working Groups Discussions","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The participants then split into two working groups to (1) undertake stakeholder analysis on the Zimbabwe agribusiness ecosystem and (2) discuss how to improve the Zimbabwe agribusiness ecosystem."}]},{"head":"Group 1 Stakeholder Analysis","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Under working group 1, stakeholder analysis focused on identifying major excluded groups, factors contributing to their exclusion and existing opportunities to leverage for their inclusion (Table 1)."}]},{"head":"Table 1. Stakeholder Analysis Questions Responses","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Who are the excluded groups? List any excluded groups."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Youth: -young women even more excluded restricted access to resources, land, restricted to mobility, those living with disabilities, those in urban areas, even more marginalized with minimum chance to access land "}]},{"head":"Group 2 Improving the Agribusiness Ecosystem","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"The second group discussed on the major challenges for inclusive agribusiness and measures to be taken to improve the ecosystem in Zimbabwe (Table 2). As per the group discussion, women in Zimbabwe play tremendous role in agricultural value chain. However, their role is less recognized and undervalued. On top of that, women have less access to land, inputs, market, credit, and information, limiting their productivity. Some of the agricultural markets are not safe for women and the market time is not convenient for women due to other responsibilities in the household. As a result, women were obligated to sell their products through their husbands or other male relatives. Thus, there is an urgent need to improve the agribusiness ecosystem to enhance participation of all social groups and thus enhance productivity."}]},{"head":"Table 2. Improving the Agribusiness Ecosystem Questions Responses","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"How can we improve gender equality and social inclusion in agribusiness in Zimbabwe?"},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"1. Large livestock ownership. a. Advocate for traditional and local leaders to foster social power balances regarding power dynamics of women owning and inheriting large livestock b. Start small with goats, sheep or pigs -then scale up to cattle 2. Land. Women own only 13% of commercial land."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"a. Address land audit outcomes b. Improve access to documentation on land application to excluded groups; translate forms local or contextual languages 3. Fundamental structural issues. Governance, language. 4. Improve financial inclusion. Explain needs and disseminate funds. Women pay back loan is high."},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"a. Look at the financial inclusion strategy by government b. Explain and disseminate to local communities 5. Policy environment. Supportive framework that includes consultation of youth, women, small and medium enterprises. a. Consult more with these groups b. Provide equal participation in policy formulation and decision making c. Target women and youth economic empowerment, gender-centric funding and leadership, e.g., inclusion in local leadership as councilors, 6. Improve market access. Market access is not gender-sensitive."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"a. Improve women's access to market only facilitating high end/low end producers 7. Political participation. Women are subjected to harassment and intimidation that cannot addressed by law currently 8. Transport. Transport is a way to include youth -easy entry. Rural women and youth have less access to licenses for transporting agricultural products."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"Identify a few case studies to further provide information on barriers and opportunities"},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"• Zone specific food processing; export processing zones "}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS AND NEXT STEPS","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"In Zimbabwe women play a significant role in agricultural value chains. However, women and other marginalized groups face multifaceted problems affecting their livelihoods. Women and youth have less access to productive resources including land, livestock, information, technology, credit, and education. Thus, there is an urgent need to identify major challenges and opportunities for inclusive agribusiness and design appropriate interventions that transform agriculture in changing climate. To ensure food security, reduce poverty, and make a resilient economy, the agribusiness ecosystem must be more inclusive. Therefore, this dialogue was organized for diverse stakeholders to discuss the challenges and opportunities of inclusive agribusiness and propose appropriate interventions under Ukama Ustawi."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"The next steps are to identify potential cases of gender equality and social inclusion in agribusiness in Zimbabwe, hold further dialogue on criteria for the cases with the stakeholder group, and obtain more information about potential cases."}]},{"head":"ABOUT THE ORGANIZERS","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"International Water Management Institute (IWMI)","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":189,"text":"The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) is an international, research-fordevelopment organization. Headquartered in Colombo, Sri Lanka, IWMI is a CGIAR Research Center with offices in 14 countries and a global network of scientists operating in more than 30 countries. IWMI targets to help address water and land management challenges faced by poor communities in developing countries, and through this contributes towards the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of reducing poverty and hunger and maintaining a sustainable environment. Based on evidence and knowledge drawn from science, innovative technologies, and testing of business models, IWMI works with governments, farmers, water managers, development partners, and businesses to solve water problems and scale up solutions. Together with its partners, IWMI combines research with data to build and enhance knowledge, information services and products, strengthen capacity, convene dialogue, and deliver actionable policy analysis to support the implementation of solutions for water management. In 2012, IWMI was awarded the prestigious Stockholm Water Prize Laureate for its pioneering research, which has helped to improve agricultural water management, food security, and environmental health and alleviate poverty in developing countries. More information is available at: www.iwmi.cgiar.org."}]},{"head":"CGIAR","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future. CGIAR science is dedicated to transforming food, land, and water systems in a climate crisis. Its research is carried out by 13 CGIAR Centers/Alliances in close collaboration with hundreds of partners, including national and regional research institutes, civil society organizations, academia, development organizations and the private sector. We would like to thank all funders who support this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: www.cgiar.org/funders. To learn more about Ukama Ustawi and other initiatives in the CGIAR research portfolio, please visit www.cgiar.org/cgiar-portfolio."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Welcome Remarks from Dr Isaiah Nyagumbo from the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT)  The opening remarks also highlighted CGIAR 2030 research and innovation strategy and areas The opening remarks also highlighted CGIAR 2030 research and innovation strategy and areas for impacts. The impact areas mentioned were: i) nutrition, health, and food security, ii) for impacts. The impact areas mentioned were: i) nutrition, health, and food security, ii) poverty reduction, livelihoods, and jobs, iii) gender equality, youth, and inclusion, iv) climate poverty reduction, livelihoods, and jobs, iii) gender equality, youth, and inclusion, iv) climate adaptation and mitigation, and v) environmental health and biodiversity. He spoke about adaptation and mitigation, and v) environmental health and biodiversity. He spoke about what the CGIAR Initiative on Diversification in East and Southern Africa is doing in Zimbabwe what the CGIAR Initiative on Diversification in East and Southern Africa is doing in Zimbabwe . . Dr Isaiah Nyagumbo (CIMMYT) gave an overview of Dr Isaiah Nyagumbo (CIMMYT) gave an overview of CIMMYT's main programs in Southern Africa. These CIMMYT's main programs in Southern Africa. These programs are: i) maize program (breeding, physiology, programs are: i) maize program (breeding, physiology, seed systems) and ii) sustainable agri-food systems seed systems) and ii) sustainable agri-food systems (agronomy; mechanization; socio-economic research). (agronomy; mechanization; socio-economic research). He indicated that CIMMYT's mission is to transform He indicated that CIMMYT's mission is to transform research into large-scale farm level impacts through research into large-scale farm level impacts through strong established partnerships. strong established partnerships.  "},{"text":"with disabilities Commercial sex workers Ethnicity, single women, household size, gender Entitlement issues: youth are not allowed to open an account before 18 years , labelling or stigma, ('young people are mobile and hard to plan with them' they are 'immature', lack of skill) People with disability: stigmatization common here too Women: cultural institutions unfair for women-women can't inherit land & other basic resources, lack of access to finance, lack of collateral to get credit, gender roles-labor divisions, women empowerment initiatives not considered, time poverty of women, males take productive roles while women busy with non-productive roles & lack of improved technology that reduce time poverty of women Women in general-single women even more excluded Ethnicity groups-minority languages People living with disability who may not access programs or move freely People in prisons who cannot access programs or move freely Internally displaced people, refugees, flood victims, former farm workers Age: young people can be marginalized due to access to resources, marital status Policy initiatives, a young & women desk in each ministry, women focal person in every ministry Ministry of women affairs & gender commission Proportional representation at policy level National development strategy on gender, education Financial inclusion recently issued by reserve bank Awareness created on gender equality & social inclusion Youth bank, women's bank Affirmative action universities Civil society organizations-village level training Research based evidence generation gender equality bill-waiting to be presented on parliament Change in school curriculum Women empowerment thematic groups Donors, civil society organizations, government & its arms, vocational training centers, universities, financial services, member association and People living What are the major What are the socially constructed categories in Zimbabwe? constraints/challenges contributing to their exclusion? What are the existing opportunities (enablers) for their inclusion and why? Identify major stakeholders working on inclusion on capacity building networks, empowerment groups, NGOs, research organizations Women in general-single women even more excluded Ethnicity groups-minority languages People living with disability who may not access programs or move freely People in prisons who cannot access programs or move freely Internally displaced people, refugees, flood victims, former farm workers Age: young people can be marginalized due to access to resources, marital status Policy initiatives, a young & women desk in each ministry, women focal person in every ministry Ministry of women affairs & gender commission Proportional representation at policy level National development strategy on gender, education Financial inclusion recently issued by reserve bank Awareness created on gender equality & social inclusion Youth bank, women's bank Affirmative action universities Civil society organizations-village level training Research based evidence generation gender equality bill-waiting to be presented on parliament Change in school curriculum Women empowerment thematic groups Donors, civil society organizations, government & its arms, vocational training centers, universities, financial services, member association and People living What are the major What are the socially constructed categories in Zimbabwe? constraints/challenges contributing to their exclusion? What are the existing opportunities (enablers) for their inclusion and why? Identify major stakeholders working on inclusion on capacity building networks, empowerment groups, NGOs, research organizations  "},{"text":" • Processing equipment -Link youth food processing groups and transporters to producers • Area-specific solution development • Potential cases o E-Agro -Sustainable digital tech-solutions for farmers o Fresh in a Box -Founder rented land, buys stuff from others, created app, sells veg, fruit, dairy, meat, groceries. Did study on profitability of local chicken (road runners). o Butcher Box -Delivers grass-fed beef, free-range organic chicken, humanely raised pork, and wild-caught seafood directly to consumers. o Yanaya -also delivers food to consumers via a website. o Food Solutions o Netherlands Development Agency SNV Opportunities for Youth Employment (OYE)incubation hubs in urban areas that support rural youth. Processing oils, peanut butter. o USAID tech innovation bootcamp  "}],"sieverID":"da8056a4-faa1-48f8-90c4-536fc2d63ff4","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04f58300912a31ad44cf0bfe4973e84b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d124c440-1ecc-41ea-a4a9-d344d2be1ccb/retrieve"},"pageCount":19,"title":"Sustainability transitions in West African agriculture and food systems","keywords":["food security","food system transformation","multi-level perspective","niche","sustainability transitions","sustainability","sustainable agriculture","sustainable food systems"],"chapters":[{"head":"I. INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":215,"text":"In West Africa, agriculture has a high contribution to the gross domestic product (from 4.4% in Cabo Verde to 59.5% in Sierra Leone versus 4.3% worldwide) and employment (from 11% in Cabo Verde to 73% in Niger versus 27% globally). Meanwhile, food insecurity and malnutrition are big challenges in the region (Table 1). Indeed, the prevalence of undernourishment in the total population is still high in the region, averaging 12.5%; it ranged from 4.1% in Ghana to 38.3% in Liberia over the period 2019-21. The situation is even more alarming considering the prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity that reached 57.0% region-wide over the same period, ranging from 35.4% in Cabo Verde to 86.7% in Sierra Leone. Furthermore, evidence shows that the impacts of climate change will be high in Sub-Saharan Africa in general [1]-[4] and West Africa and the Sahel in particular [1], [4]. Agriculture, predominantly rain-fed, is highly vulnerable to climate variability. In this regard, Sultan and Gaetani [5] put that \"West Africa is known to be particularly vulnerable to climate change due to high climate variability, high reliance on rain-fed agriculture, and limited economic and institutional capacity to respond to climate variability and change\". These challenges show the urgent need to transition towards sustainable and resilient agri-food systems in the region."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"There are different definitions of sustainability transitions i.e. transitions towards sustainability. According to Markard et al. [8], sustainability transitions refer to \"long-term, multi-dimensional and fundamental transformation processes through which established socio-technical systems shift to more sustainable modes of production and consumption\" (p. 956). Meanwhile, Geels [9] posits that \"socio-technical transitions […] involve not just changes in technology but also changes in consumer practices, policies, cultural meanings, infrastructures, and business models\". Kern and Markard [10] highlight that sustainability transitions are long-term, complex, uncertain, multi-dimensional and context-dependent processes. Different frameworks have been used to study and comprehend the transition towards sustainability [8], [11]- [14]. Lachman [11] reviews the most prominent transition frameworks: the Multi-Level Perspective on socio-technical transitions (MLP), Transition Management (TM), Strategic Niche Management (SNM), Technological"},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Innovation Systems (TIS), Techno-Economic Paradigm (TEP) shifts, and Socio-Metabolic Transitions. The socio-technical transitions approach includes a family of frameworks such as the Multi-Level Perspective [15], [16], Strategic Niche Management [17]- [19] and Transition Management [20]- [22]. FAO et al."},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"[7] GDP: Gross domestic product."},{"index":5,"size":312,"text":"Since the publication of the first research agenda on sustainability transitions in July 2010 [23], the research field has deepened intellectually, broadened empirically and extended geographically. An increasing number of studies address sustainability transitions in the agriculture and food sectors [24]- [29]. However, sustainability transitions scholarship tended to overlook agri-food systems [8], [29]- [32]. The research field on agri-food sustainability transitions is rather young, still marginal in the mother field of sustainability transitions, and mainly performed in European universities and research centers [33]. This confirms the North-South gap [33]; sustainability transition studies are still largely carried out in developed countries of the Global North [11], [34]. Among the sub-sectors of agriculture (viz. crop production, fisheries/aquaculture and animal production), fisheries and animal production are underserved in the research field. Regarding the food chain stages, production (mainly crop production) is the most studied stage [33]. The considered niches include organic agriculture, agroecology, conservation agriculture, urban agriculture, permaculture, integrated agriculture/farming, care farming and alternative food networks (AFNs) [35]. The literature on sustainability transitions in agri-food systems is diverse and deals with all the themes of the research agenda of the Sustainability Transitions Research Network [36]. However, it focuses largely on 'governing and managing transitions', 'sustainable consumption' and 'power and politics in transitions', whereas the themes of 'modelling transitions', 'civil society, social movements and culture in transitions', and 'role of industries and firms in transitions' remain largely underserved [29]. In a systematic review, El Bilali [33] found that food and nutrition security is still a marginal topic in the research on agri-food sustainability transitions. In this context, the present paper analyses the scholarly literature on sustainability transitions in West African agriculture and food systems. In particular, it investigates the bibliometrics and geography of the research field and explores whether and how it addresses key topics such as transition frameworks, niches, food security pillars and sustainability dimensions."}]},{"head":"II. MATERIAL AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":236,"text":"The present systematic review follows the PRISMA guidelines (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) [37], [38]. It draws upon a search performed on the Web of Science (WoS) on July 7 th , 2022, using the following search string: (sustainability OR sustainable) AND (transition OR transformation) AND (agriculture OR food) AND (\"West* Africa\" OR Sahel OR Benin OR Burkina OR \"Cape Verde\" OR \"Cabo Verde\" OR Gambia OR Ghana OR Guinea OR \"Guinea-Bissau\" OR \"Ivory Coast\" OR \"Côte d'Ivoire\" OR Liberia OR Mali OR Mauritania OR Niger OR Nigeria OR Senegal OR \"Sierra Leone\" OR Togo). The initial search on WoS returned 128 documents. The selection of the documents to be included in the systematic review was informed by the methodology adopted by El Bilali [39], [40]. Table 2 describes the selection steps and process. Particularly, three inclusion/eligibility criteria were considered: geographical coverage (viz. the document deals with at least one West African country); thematic focus (viz. the document deals with transition/transformation in agri-food systems); and document type (viz. only articles, chapters or conference papers were selected; letters to editors, editorials, commentaries and/or notes were discarded). Only the documents that met all three criteria were included in the systematic review. For the purpose of the present paper, the terms 'transition' and 'transformation' are used interchangeably so that the article includes both papers dealing with transitions in agri-food systems as well as agri-food system transformation."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Following the screening of titles, 10 documents were excluded as they do not refer to West Africa; documents covering wider geographical areas (e.g. Sahel, Sub-Saharan Africa) or those where the geographical scope is not reported in the title were kept for further analysis. Additional 80 documents were excluded following the scrutiny of abstracts as they do not meet at least one of the eligibility criteria. For example, some documents refer to Aspergillus niger, a fungus, that has nothing to do with 'Niger' country."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"Moreover, 'Guinea' refers sometimes to Papua New Guinea instead of the two Western African countries (viz. Guinea and Guinea-Bissau). Documents that deal with land use/cover changes without any clear reference to the transition theory were discarded. Likewise, articles dealing with energy without referring to agriculture and food (e.g. biodiesels/biofuels) were excluded. Furthermore, 15 ineligible documents were discarded following the analysis of full-texts. The analysis of the selected documents regarded both the bibliometrics and topics addressed. Indeed, the analysis focused on bibliographical metrics, research geography, agriculture subsectors, food chain stages, transition frameworks, niches, food security pillars and sustainability dimensions (Table 4). "}]},{"head":"III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"A. Bibliometrics and research geography","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"The analysis of the selected eligible documents suggests that research on sustainability transitions in agri-food systems is rather young in West Africa; the first document indexed in WoS [63] dates back to 2012. The annual output of articles is rather low but the peak of the number of publications in 2021 (7 articles) might suggest that interest in the research field is increasing across the region."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"Concerning sources, the analysis of the results shows that the maximum number of articles was published in Sustainability (8 articles), which is so far the most important publication outlet. However, the findings of the research on sustainability transitions in West African agri-food systems were published in 17 further sources and journals. Most of the selected articles fall under the research areas of environmental sciencesecology (12 out of 23 articles, 52.2%), science technology (11 articles, 47.8%), agriculture (8 articles, 34.8%) and plant sciences (2, 8.7%). Nevertheless, the selected 23 publications can be categorized in 11 research areas (e.g. food science technology, geography, sociology), which shows that the research field is multidisciplinary."},{"index":3,"size":110,"text":"The bibliometric analysis shows that the most prominent, productive authors are Sebastien Boillat, Patrick Bottazzi and Robert Zougmoré (2 articles each). Nevertheless, the fact that 106 scholars co-authored the 23 eligible articles shows, on the one side, that there is an extended collaboration in the research field but, on the other side, might suggest a lack of consistency and specialization in the research field i.e. even authors dealing with this research field sporadically do that. This, in turn, might be due to the absence of structured research projects/programs because of the lack of investments in research on sustainability transitions in general and agri-food sustainability transitions in particular in West Africa."},{"index":4,"size":415,"text":"The analysis of countries and affiliations suggests that the most active country in the research field is the Netherlands (7 articles, 30.4%) followed by France and Burkina Faso (4 articles each). The  The analysis of the geography of research in the region suggests that there are considerable differences among West African countries (Table 5). Indeed, research on sustainability transitions in agri-food systems was mainly performed in Nigeria (4 studies), Ghana (3 studies), and Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast (2 studies each). Meanwhile, no article deals specifically with sustainability transitions in agri-food systems in many West African countries viz. Benin, Cabo Verde, Gambia, Guinea, Liberia, Mauritania, Niger, Sierra Leone and Togo. This suggests a huge gap in this research field in the concerned countries. Furthermore, there is no single study that addresses sustainability transitions in agri-food systems in the whole of West Africa but there are some multi-country studies. For instance, Karg et al. [43] analyze food flows and the roles of cities in food distribution networks in Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso), Bamako (Mali), Tamale (Ghana) and Bamenda (Cameroon). Likewise, Thondhlana et al. [49]  B. Agriculture subsectors and food chain stages Concerning the agriculture subsectors, the analysis of the selected documents suggests that the literature on sustainability transitions in West African agri-food systems mainly deals with crop production whereas animal production/pastoralism and fisheries/aquaculture are generally overlooked. Indeed, only a few articles deal with animal production/livestock [47] and fisheries [48]. As for crop production, the majority of the papers focus on staple crops or cash, export ones. Indeed, several articles deals with cocoa [46], cassava [60], cashew [55], [56] and soybean [60]. Interestingly, some articles also deal with the role of neglected and underutilized crop species in food system transformation [51] as well as the introduction of exotic cultivated species [57]. Only a few articles deal with integrated agriculture systems. For instance, Morris et al. [47] investigate the multi-stakeholder social learning processes within mixed crop-livestock communities in several African countries (viz. Burkina Faso, Ethiopia and Tanzania). Nevertheless, many articles deal with the transformation of consumption patterns and distribution networks without any distinction between agriculture subsectors or focusing on specific crops [41], [43]. Other articles go a step further and analyze transition processes beyond the agricultural sector or at the interface between agriculture and other sectors (e.g. energy). This is particularly the case of studies dealing with the development, successes but also failures, of biofuels in general [61] or specific examples of biofuel plants such as jatropha [54], [59]."},{"index":5,"size":120,"text":"As for the food chain stages, most of the selected documents deal with either the upstream (cf. production) or downstream (cf. marketing/consumption) of the food chain; intermediate stages (e.g. processing, packing) are often overlooked. As for production, the selected articles focus, inter alia, on different alternative agriculture production systems and models such as agroforestry [46], agroecology [42], [44] agriculture [52]. Meanwhile, some studies focus on transition in specific agricultural techniques and practices such as irrigation [62]. Articles addressing the downstream of the food chain focus, among others, on shifts in patterns of daily food consumption [41] and changing distribution networks/markets [43], [63]. Some articles take a more holistic, systemic approach and analyze the processes of transformation within different stages of "}]},{"head":"C. Transition frameworks","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"The results of the systematic review show that only a few articles (6 articles out of the 23 selected ones) refer to a clear transition framework. These are the Multi-Level Perspective (MLP), Social Practice Approach (SPA) and Innovation systems. As expected, the quantitative analysis of the results shows that the MLP is the most prominent framework [42], [48], [59] followed by innovations systems [56], [58] and SPA (cf. practice-based approach) [41], [42]. Meanwhile, no study refers to Transition Management (TM) and Strategic Niche Management (SNM). Furthermore, the analysis suggests that only a few of the selected articles integrate different transition frameworks. For example, Boillat et al. [42] combine MLP and Bourdieu's theory of practices (cf. SPA) to analyze the agroecological transition in Senegal. However, some studies integrate transition frameworks with other methods, such as the social network analysis [42], to better grasp and comprehend the transition dynamics and processes. Others rely completely on alternative methods, such as institutional logics theory [60] and actor network theory [63], without any reference to the transition frameworks."},{"index":2,"size":189,"text":"The analysis of the literature also shows that there is a correspondence between the used transition framework and the food chain stage that is addressed. For instance, the SPA is mainly used to analyze transition in consumption patterns and practices [41] whereas the MLP is generally utilized to investigate shifts in production practices and systems as well as the adoption of new technologies in agriculture [42], [48], [59]. For instance, Adeosun et al. [41] use a practice-based approach to analyze the interrelations and interactions between daily lives and out-of-home food consumption practices among the urban poor in Ibadan city, Nigeria. Sanon et al. [48] use the MLP to investigate the dynamics of transition in inland fisheries and the development of the fish farming niche in Burkina Faso. Meanwhile, the innovation system approach [56] is more concerned with the diffusion of innovation as well as the functioning and governance of the territorial innovation ecosystem. For instance, Audouin et al. [56] use the example of the cashew trees in Burkina Faso to conceptualize and analyze how place-specificities and spatial/territorial relationships affect the dynamics and functioning of the technological innovation systems (TIS)."}]},{"head":"D. Niches","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":271,"text":"The results of the analysis of the niches addressed in the selected documents are in line with those obtained at the global level [35] The addressed niches mainly regard alternative agriculture systems and new agriculture techniques that are considered to contribute to the transition toward more sustainable agriculture and food systems. Indeed, the selected articles deal with different alternative agriculture production models such as agroecology [42], [44], [53], agroforestry [46], climate-smart agriculture [45], [50], conservation agriculture [52] and fish farming/aquaculture [48]. Boillat et al. [42] conceptualize the agroecological network in Senegal as a niche, with its protective space, shaped by the flows of resources, knowledge and capitals and analyze the role of transnational links on the empowerment potential of the agroecological niche. Kouassi et al. [46] analyze the barriers to the adoption of agroforestry by cocoa farmers in the southwestern Ivory Coast. Jagustović et al. [45] identify short-and long-term trade-offs and synergies in climate-smart agriculture to inform the sustainable transformation processes of agri-food systems in northern Ghana. Meanwhile, Zougmoré et al. [50] investigate the role of climate-smart agriculture in the transformation of agri-food systems in Sub-Saharan Africa (viz. Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Mali, Rwanda, Senegal, Tanzania) under the pressure of climate change and variability. Olawuyi and Mushunje [52] shed light on the relationships between the acquisition of information by smallholder farmers in Southwestern Nigeria and the adoption of conservation agriculture. Sanon et al. [48] analyze the dynamics of transition in inland fisheries and the development of the aquaculture niche in Burkina Faso and explore its implications for the sustainable management of natural resources (cf. water resources), food security and livelihoods."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"Niches can also relate to some components of the agricultural system such as crops. These include studies analyzing the development of crops such as biofuel ones [54], [59] and cashew [56]. For instance, Nygaard and Bolwig [59] cast light on the development of the jatropha biofuel value chain in Ghana and relate it to the rise and fall of foreign private investment in the biofuel sector. In the meantime, some studies focus on the adoption of new agricultural techniques and practices such as irrigation [62], which, anyway, imply a transition from rainfed to irrigated agriculture. For example, Amjath-Babu et al. [62] analyze the dynamics of transitioning from rainfed agriculture to groundwater-irrigated intensive agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa (viz. Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Ghana, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, Zambia, Zimbabwe)."}]},{"head":"E. Food security","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"The literature review suggests that only a few studies on sustainability transitions in West African agri-food systems deal with food security and nutrition. This result is in line with the finding of the systematic review on food security and nutrition in studies on agri-food sustainability transitions carried out by El Bilali [33]. Indeed, he found that food security and nutrition are still marginal topics in the research field. However, this result is rather surprising considering the specific context of West Africa. Indeed, whereas most studies on agri-food sustainability transitions are carried out in the Global North [33], where food insecurity and malnutrition are not relevant challenges, the prevalence of undernourishment and food insecurity is still high in West Africa [66]. Therefore, one would expect paying more attention to these central topics in the studies on agri-food sustainability transitions in the region."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"In general, many studies refer to food (in)security to justify and ground the need for agri-food sustainability transitions [46], [48]-[50], [53], [57], [60], [62]. However, only a few of them refer to food security when addressing the impacts and implications of sustainability transition processes."},{"index":3,"size":170,"text":"As for the food security dimensions and pillars (viz. availability, access, utilization and stability), most of the selected articles that deal with food security address food production and supply, and consequently food availability [45], [48], [51], [57], [60], [62], whereas the other three dimensions are generally overlooked. As for food access, Karg et al. [43] investigate the roles of cities in food distribution networks and food flows across Western Africa (Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso; Bamako, Mali; Tamale, Ghana) and Central Africa (Bamenda, Cameroon). Regarding food use, Adeosun et al. [41] analyze the interaction between the urban daily lives of the urban poor and shifts in the out-of-home food consumption patterns in Nigeria. Other studies suggest that sustainability transitions contribute to improved nutrition and dietary diversity [48], [51]. Concerning the stability dimension, studies that deal with mitigation of and adaptation to climate change also refer to agriculture and food system resilience. This is mainly the case of studies that analyze the effects of the adoption and upscaling of climate-smart agriculture [45], [50]."},{"index":4,"size":137,"text":"Some studies show that agri-food sustainability transitions can affect simultaneously different dimensions of food security. For instance, Jagustović et al. [45] suggest that the transition to climate-smart agriculture can increase productivity (cf. food availability), income (cf. food access), and agriculture resilience (cf. stability dimension) in northern Ghana. Meanwhile, Sanon et al. [48] argue that the development of fish farming in Burkina Faso will contribute to increasing fish availability and accessibility in remote areas (cf. food availability/access), improving the income and livelihoods of rural communities (cf. food access) and increasing dietary diversity by fostering fish consumption (cf. food use). Borelli et al. [51] suggest that the increased cultivation and/or use of orphan crops and wild edible species can improve food availability, affordability (cf. food access), nutrition and dietary diversity (cf. food use), and agricultural systems climate-resilience (cf. stability)."}]},{"head":"F. Sustainability dimensions","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Many articles refer to the current challenges and problems in West Africa to substantiate and corroborate the need for the transformation of agri-food systems in the region. These challenges fall under the environmental, social and economic dimensions of sustainability. Environmental challenges include climate change [45], [46], [48]-[50], [54], [55], [60], [62], resources depletion and degradation [46], [48], [52],"},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"[53], biodiversity loss [46], [51], [57], pollution [49] and waste generation [63]. Socio-economic challenges relate to food insecurity and malnutrition [46], [48] [62], poverty and livelihoods vulnerability [46], [48], population growth [45], [53], [62], rapid urbanization [41], [43], [49], [63], land tenure insecurity [55], [59], and health issues relating, among others, to non-communicable diseases (NCD) and food safety [51]."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"Meanwhile, also the analyses of sustainability transition processes and outcomes are often carried out through one of the sustainability dimensions. For instance, some articles focus on resource efficiency and productivity gains [48], [50]. Indeed, sustainability transitions, especially through the adoption of alternative agriculture systems, are argued to increase the productivity and efficiency of the use of different resources such as water [50], land [52] and reduce waste [50], [63]. They are also assumed to contribute to climate change mitigation and/or adaptation [50], [51], [55],"},{"index":4,"size":225,"text":"[58] and biodiversity conservation [51]. Other studies mainly deal with the socio-economic implications and impacts of sustainability transitions [44], [47], [48], [50], [54], [58]. The positive socio-economic impacts of agri-food sustainability in West Africa regard food security and nutrition [47], [48], [51], income and livelihoods [47], [48], [50], empowerment [42], [48], [60], and knowledge sharing and learning [52], [58]. Investment is a central element in sustainability transition endeavors as shown by the example of biofuels [54], [59]. Other studies are mainly concerned with the politics and governance of transition processes [42], [44], [48] However, as in the case of food security, some analyses address at the same time the different dimensions of sustainability. For instance, Sanon et al. [48] investigate the implications of the ongoing transition in inland fisheries in Burkina Faso in terms of sustainable management of natural resources (cf. environmental dimension), food security and livelihoods (cf. socio-economic dimension) and explore how transition processes are shaped by policy trends and developments (cf. policy and governance dimension). Jagustović et al. [45] suggest that the transition to climate-smart agriculture can improve climate resilience (cf. environmental dimensions), food security and nutrition (social dimension) and income (cf. economic dimension). Borelli et al. [51] posit that the increased cultivation and use of orphan crops can improve food security, nutrition and livelihoods (socio-economic dimension) and climate resilience (cf. environmental dimension)."},{"index":5,"size":83,"text":"Apart from the multi-dimensional impacts and outcomes of sustainability transition processes, some scholars combine the different dimensions even in their analyses [42], [44], [53]. For instance, Boillat et al. [42] analyse the effects of transnational links/partnerships and uneven empowerment (cf. policy/governance) on agroecological transition (cf. environment) in Senegal. Meanwhile, Bottazzi and Boillat [44] address 'Political Agroecology' in Senegal. Tapsoba et al. [53] shed light on the political, institutional, organizational, and social levers and barriers for an agroecological transition in Burkina Faso and Benin."},{"index":6,"size":71,"text":"Some studies address sustainability alongside resilience. They suggest that sustainability transition processes not only improve the sustainability of agriculture and food systems but also their resilience [58]. For instance, Ilieva and Hernandez [58] argue that grassroots, social and bottom-up innovations have enabled local communities to drive system-wide transformations toward climate adaptation, sustainability and resilience in the agri-food systems in different socioeconomic and geographic contexts (cf. Brazil, New York -USA, and Senegal)."},{"index":7,"size":168,"text":"Studies also suggest that transitions in agri-food systems are far from being a panacea and they can create synergies as well as trade-offs among the sustainability dimensions. For instance, the development of biofuels [54], [59], [61] can help mitigate climate change (cf. environmental dimension) but can also have negative implications in terms of food security (social dimension) and, even, land degradation (environmental dimension). Meanwhile, referring to climate-smart agriculture in Northern Ghana, Jagustović et al. [45] put that \"results reveal short-term progress towards the goal of increased productivity and income, with trade-offs in the goals of GHG removal, climate adaptation, and resilience\". Referring to sustainable livestock transformation in Sub-Saharan Africa (viz. Burkina Faso, Ethiopia and Tanzania), Morris et al. [47] found that there are numerous trade-offs such as between household food and animal feed, and between livestock for labor, income and/or cultural functions. Meanwhile, the transition to irrigated agriculture [62] can improve livelihoods and food security (social dimension) but may lead to the depletion of underground water (environmental dimension)."}]},{"head":"IV. CONCLUSIONS","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"To the best of our knowledge, this is the first Web of Science-based systematic review that analyses comprehensively the scholarly literature on agri-food sustainability transitions in West Africa. The analysis shows an increasing interest in the nascent research field, but the low number of papers and annual output suggest that it is still marginal in the domestic research system. This is confirmed also by the large share of articles authored by scholars and researchers affiliated with institutions based outside West Africa. Furthermore, the most important funding agencies are also based outside the region. However, the situation within the region is far from being homogeneous; research on sustainability transitions in agri-food systems was mainly performed in Nigeria, Ghana, Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast, whereas the other West African countries lag behind."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"The literature on sustainability transitions in West African agri-food systems mainly deals with crop production whereas animal production/pastoralism and fisheries/aquaculture are generally overlooked. Some articles analyze transition processes beyond the agricultural sector or at the interface between agriculture and other sectors (e.g. energy). Meanwhile, most of the selected documents deal with either the upstream (cf. production) or downstream (cf. marketing/consumption) of the food chain; intermediate stages (e.g. processing, packing) are often overlooked. However, some articles take a more holistic, systemic approach and analyze transformation processes within different stages of the food system. Only a few articles refer to a clear transition framework. These are MLP, SPA and innovation systems."},{"index":3,"size":165,"text":"There is a correspondence between the used transition framework and the food chain stage that is addressed; SPA is mainly used to analyze transition in consumption patterns and practices whereas the MLP is generally utilized to investigate shifts in production practices and systems. The addressed niches mainly regard alternative agriculture systems and new agriculture techniques. Indeed, the selected articles deal with different alternative agriculture production models such as agroecology, agroforestry, climate-smart agriculture, conservation agriculture and fish farming/aquaculture. Niches also relate to some components of the agricultural system such as new crops or agricultural techniques and practices (e.g. irrigation). Only a few studies on sustainability transitions in West African agri-food systems deal with food security and nutrition. This result is rather surprising as food insecurity and malnutrition are still relevant challenges in West Africa. Most of the selected articles that deal with food security address food production and supply, and consequently food availability, whereas the other three dimensions (viz. access, utilization and stability) are generally overlooked."},{"index":4,"size":152,"text":"Many articles refer to the current challenges and problems in West Africa to substantiate and corroborate the need for the transformation of agri-food systems in the region. These challenges fall under the environmental (e.g. climate change, resources depletion and degradation, biodiversity loss, pollution), socio-economic (e.g. food insecurity and malnutrition, poverty, livelihoods vulnerability, urbanization, health) dimensions of sustainability. Meanwhile, sustainability transitions are argued to increase resource use efficiency and productivity, and contribute to climate change mitigation and/or adaptation and biodiversity conservation. The positive socio-economic impacts of agri-food sustainability in West Africa regard food security and nutrition, income and livelihoods, and the empowerment of stakeholders. Some studies argue that sustainability transition processes not only improve the sustainability of agriculture and food systems but also their resilience. Studies also suggest that sustainability transitions in agri-food systems are far from being a panacea and they can create synergies as well as trade-offs among the sustainability dimensions."},{"index":5,"size":81,"text":"The promotion of research on sustainability transitions in West African agri-food systems is highly needed to address the multiple environmental, social and economic challenges that the region faces and where agri-food systems play a central role. This will allow not only to understand the dynamics and processes of transitions as well as their sustainability impacts and outcomes but also to design evidence-based interventions to bring about the needed transformation to make the regional agriculture and food systems more resilient and sustainable."}]},{"head":"V. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"This "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 . Agriculture and food security in West Africa. Country Agriculture, forestry, and fishing, value added (% of GDP) -(year) Employment in agriculture (% of total employment) - 2019 Prevalence of undernourishment (% population) -2019-21 Prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity (% population) -2019-21 CountryAgriculture, forestry, andfishing, value added (% ofGDP) -(year) Employment in agriculture(% of total employment) -2019 Prevalence ofundernourishment (%population) -2019-21 Prevalence of moderate orsevere food insecurity (%population) -2019-21 Benin 27.1 38 7.4 67.9  Benin27.138 7.4 67.9  (2020)        (2020) Burkina Faso 18.4 26 18.0 52.6  Burkina Faso18.426 18.0 52.6  (2020)        (2020) Cabo Verde / 4.4 11 17.7 35.4  Cabo Verde /4.411 17.7 35.4 Cape Verde (2021)        Cape Verde(2021) Côte d'Ivoire / 21.4 40 4.4 42.8  Côte d'Ivoire /21.440 4.4 42.8 Ivory Coast (2020)        Ivory Coast(2020) The Gambia 19.7 27 21.6 58.0  The Gambia19.727 21.6 58.0  (2021)        (2021) Ghana 19.7 30 4.1 36.6  Ghana19.730 4.1 36.6  (2021)        (2021) Guinea 25.5 61 n. a. 73.3  Guinea25.561 n. a. 73.3  (2021)        (2021) Guinea-Bissau 30.9 60 31.7 75.0  Guinea-Bissau 30.960 31.7 75.0  (2020)        (2020) Liberia 37.2 43 38.3 80.6  Liberia37.243 38.3 80.6  (2021)        (2021) Mali 36.0 62 9.8 n. a.  Mali36.062 9.8 n. a.  (2021)        (2021) Mauritania 20.2 31 10.1 45.3  Mauritania20.231 10.1 45.3  (2020)        (2020) Niger 36.4        Niger36.4  (2021)        (2021)  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Articles selection process. Selection steps  Number of selected Number of documents excluded and Selection stepsNumber of selectedNumber of documents excluded and   documents exclusion reasons documentsexclusion reasons Search on WoS  128 -- Search on WoS128-- Screening of 128 10 documents excluded because they deal Screeningof12810 documents excluded because they deal documents based on  with countries outside West Africa e.g. documents based onwith countries outside West Africa e.g. titles   Algeria, Chad, Fiji, Indonesia, Papua New titlesAlgeria, Chad, Fiji, Indonesia, Papua New    Guinea, Rwanda and Tanzania Guinea, Rwanda and Tanzania Screening of 118 80 documents excluded: Screeningof11880 documents excluded: documents based on  • 4 documents that do not deal with West documents based on• 4 documents that do not deal with West abstracts   Africa/West African countries abstractsAfrica/West African countries    • 5 documents that do not address agri-food • 5 documents that do not address agri-food    systems systems    • 71 documents that do not deal with • 71 documents that do not deal with    transition/transformation transition/transformation Scrutiny of full-texts 38 15 documents excluded since they do not Scrutiny of full-texts3815 documents excluded since they do not    address transition/transformation in agri-food address transition/transformation in agri-food    systems systems Inclusion in the 23 -- Inclusion in the23-- systematic review    systematic review  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Analyses undergone by the selected documents. Item Description    Method reference ItemDescriptionMethod reference Bibliographical metrics Sources/journals, research areas, authors, El Bilali [39], Bibliographical metricsSources/journals, research areas, authors,El Bilali [39],  affiliation institutions/organizations and [40] affiliationinstitutions/organizationsand[40]  countries    countries Research geography West African countries where studies were El Bilali [39], Research geographyWest African countries where studies wereEl Bilali [39],  performed    [40] performed[40] Agriculture subsectors Crop production (and main crops addressed), El Bilali [39], Agriculture subsectorsCrop production (and main crops addressed),El Bilali [39],  animal production/pastoralism and [40] animalproduction/pastoralismand[40]  fisheries/aquaculture   fisheries/aquaculture Food chain stages Production, processing, distribution/ El Bilali [39], Food chain stagesProduction,processing,distribution/El Bilali [39],  retail/marketing, consumption and waste [40] retail/marketing, consumption and waste[40]  management    management Transition frameworks Multi-Level Perspective (MLP), Transition El Bilali [64] Transition frameworksMulti-Level Perspective (MLP), TransitionEl Bilali [64]  Management (TM), Strategic Niche Management(TM),StrategicNiche  Management (SNM),  Technological Management(SNM),Technological  Innovation Systems (TIS), Social Practice Innovation Systems (TIS), Social Practice  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Geography of research on agri-food sustainability transitions in West Africa. provide a provide a  "},{"text":" work was carried out within the project SUSTLIVES (SUSTaining and improving local crop patrimony in Burkina Faso and Niger for better LIVes and EcoSystems -https://www.sustlives.eu), of the DeSIRA initiative (Development Smart Innovation through Research in Agriculture), VI. REFERENCES 1. B. O. K. Lokonon, A. Y. G. Egbendewe, N. Coulibaly, and C. Atewamba, 'The Potential Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture in West Africa: A Bio-Economic Modeling Approach', Clim Chang Econ (Singap), vol. 10, no. 04, p. 1950015, Nov. 2019, doi: 10.1142/S2010007819500155. 2. B. Bakshi, R. J. Nawrotzki, J. R. Donato, and L. S. Lelis, 'Exploring the link between climate variability and mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa', International Journal of Environment and Sustainable Development, vol. 18, no. 2, p. 206, 2019, doi: 10.1504/IJESD.2019.099518. 3. R. M. Hassan, 'The double challenge of adapting to climate change while accelerating development in sub-Saharan Africa', Environ Dev Econ, vol. 15, no. 6, Sultan and M. Gaetani, 'Agriculture in West Africa in the Twenty-First Century: Climate Change and Impacts Scenarios, and Potential for Adaptation', Front Plant Sci, vol. 7, p. e1262, Aug. 2016, doi: 10.3389/fpls.2016.01262. 6. World Bank, 'The World Bank Data', /data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV. AGR.TOTL.ZS (accessed Dec. 09, 2022). 7. FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, and WHO, 'The State of Food Security and Nutrition financed by the European Union financedbytheEuropeanUnion (contribution   agreement (contributionagreement FOOD/2021/422-681).   FOOD/2021/422-681). pp. 661-685, Dec. 2010, doi: pp.661-685,Dec.2010,doi: 10.1017/S1355770X10000306. 10.1017/S1355770X10000306. 4. F. Baarsch et al., 'The impact of climate 4. F. Baarsch et al., 'The impact of climate change on incomes and convergence in change on incomes and convergence in Africa', World Dev, vol. 126, p. 104699, Africa', World Dev, vol. 126, p. 104699, Feb.  2020,  doi: Feb.2020,doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104699. 10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104699. 5. B. World Bank, Dec. 09, 2022. 5. B. WorldBank,Dec.09,2022. https:/    https:/  "}],"sieverID":"c450fed6-7632-439f-9344-60b48edddd3d","abstract":"Scientific evidence is crucial for the transition towards sustainable and resilient agri-food systems. However, sustainability transitions research has been so far north-biased and overlooked the Global South. This paper analyses the scholarly literature on sustainability transitions in West African agriculture and food systems. In particular, it investigates the bibliometrics and geographical coverage of the research field and explores whether and how it addresses topics such as transition frameworks, niches, food security and sustainability. The paper draws upon a systematic review of documents indexed in the Web of Science performed in July 2022. The low number of papers suggests that the research field is still marginal. The literature mainly deals with crop production whereas animal production and fisheries are generally overlooked. Only a few articles refer to a clear transition framework (e.g. Multi-Level Perspective). The addressed niches regard alternative agriculture systems (e.g. agroecology, agroforestry, climate-smart agriculture, conservation agriculture) and new agriculture techniques (e.g. irrigation). Food security and nutrition are still marginal topics in the research field. Sustainability transitions are argued to have positive environmental and socio-economic impacts. The promotion of research on sustainability transitions in West African agri-food systems is highly needed to address the multiple challenges that the region faces."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"050417ee4d0e5c2ce90b143a1423c5c3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/605c8cc9-e606-4e9f-88f7-470f4b7f3983/retrieve"},"pageCount":42,"title":"Program for climate-smart livestock systems Country stocktake: Uganda December 2019","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction and background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"The livestock sector is a major contributor to food security in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), contributing a vital source of income to many rural poor people as well as providing critical nutritional benefits through animal source foods that are protein dense and that contain a wide array of micronutrients. Agricultural production in general is highly vulnerable to climate change, and in the drylands, livestock systems mainly depend on scarce water and vegetation resources. In the future, more frequent and intense extreme events such as drought will exacerbate the challenges faced by livestock keepers in the region. Livestock production is not only affected by climate change but also contributes to it. In many countries in the region, the agricultural sector is the largest source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, a large proportion of which comes from livestock production. Such emissions are released during the digestive process of ruminants, the storage and application of manure, and fodder production. Poor animal health and low-quality feeds leading to low productivity contribute to the GHG burden."},{"index":2,"size":311,"text":"The Program for Climate-Smart Livestock Systems (PCSL), funded and coordinated by the German Corporation for International Cooperation GmbH (GIZ) and implemented by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in partnership with the World Bank, was set up to support the identification and uptake of interventions to increase the contribution of livestock production to the three key pillars of climate smart agriculture (CSA): increased productivity, mitigation of GHG emissions, and adaptation to climate change (Lipper et al., 2014). The program, running from 2018 to 2022, is being implemented across major livestock productions systems in three focus countries: Kenya, Ethiopia and Uganda. The objective of the program is that key livestock stakeholders will increasingly direct their practices, sector strategies and policies and investments towards more climate-smart livestock systems. PCSL is supporting governments, the private sector, and local stakeholders in realizing their development objectives. The program is supporting countries to improve their monitoring and reporting of their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) in the livestock sector, helping them to achieve their adaptation and mitigation goals. This document focuses on Uganda. Section 2 summarises information on the prevailing livestock systems in the country, along with their baseline performance. The livestock systems in the PCSL study region are briefly characterised. Section 3 contains a stocktake of what is known about the impacts of climate change on livestock production and livestock systems in the country. A summary of adaption and mitigation options in Ugandan livestock systems is presented in section 4. Section 5 summarises some recent work on foresight and the future of livestock systems and the livestock sector in Uganda. Section 6 considers the national livestock policy environment, and in section 7, the paper concludes with a consideration of system intervention points and major gaps in knowledge, to help guide future project activities. This stocktake draws on a large amount of existing information assembled from different sources."}]},{"head":"Livestock systems and their characterisation","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"Uganda is a lower-income country with a current population of about 43 million and an expected GDP per capita of about USD 770 in 2019 (World Bank, 2019). The population is growing at about 3.3 percent per year, equivalent to a doubling of the population in 21 years. The GDP of Uganda grew 5.7 percent on average annually from 2008 to 2017, expanding by nearly 60 percent in real terms. Agriculture is a major sector in the country, contributing nearly 25 percent to GDP and 71 percent to employment. Industry and services contribute around 20 percent and 47 percent to GDP, respectively (FAO, 2019). Agriculture in Uganda comprises a great mix of farm sizes and different levels of efficiency, although small-scale producers dominate, growing cereals, coffee, plantains, cassava, sweet potatoes and beans. Many keep cattle, small ruminants, poultry and pigs. Beekeeping and aquaculture are gaining in importance (FAO, 2019). More than 40 percent of the agricultural land of the country is semi-arid, a major constraint to agricultural productivity."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"Nearly 42 percent of the population live below the poverty line (World Bank, 2019). The country is overwhelmingly rural: 78 percent of the population live in the rural areas, although the rate of urbanisation is more than 5 percent per year: projections indicate that by 2040, more than 20 million people in Uganda will live in cities. More than 40 percent of the population are undernourished, and 25 percent are food insecure. Low rainfall and droughts affect Uganda regularly, particularly the Karamoja region in the northeast of the country (Figure 1). Currently, about 4 percent of the wetlands and forests are converted to agricultural use annually."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"Approximately 6.3 million or 23 percent of Uganda's rural population (2010 estimates) were classified as poor livestock keepers, when poverty lines are determined nationally (see Table 1a)."},{"index":4,"size":268,"text":"Livestock sector activities account for nearly 25 percent of the total contributions from all agricultural activities to national income in Uganda. There are around 14 million cattle, 4.5 million sheep, 16 million goats, 4.1 million pigs and nearly 48 million poultry birds (Table 1b). The livestock sector accounts for around 4 percent income of the general economy, and contributes 1-1.5 percent to the country's export trade value, mostly via dairy products and eggs.   Sources: data on prevalence of underweight is a 3-year average (World Bank, 2019). The data on the other indicators are 3-year averages of published national statistics (FAOSTAT, 2019). Cattle are spread throughout the country in a variety of different livestock production systems (Figure 1), based on the classification system of Seré and Steinfeld (1996). Grassland-based systems are those in which more than 90 percent of dry matter fed to animals comes from rangelands, pastures, annual forages and purchased feeds and less than 10 percent of the total value of production comes from non-livestock farming activities. The mixed systems are those in which more than 10 percent of the dry matter fed to animals comes from crop by-products or stubble, or more than 10 percent of the total value of production comes from non-livestock farming activities (Seré and Steinfeld, 1996). The mixed systems are further split into those that are rainfed and those that are irrigated. These three major system types (mixed crop-livestock rainfed, mixed crop-livestock irrigated, and pastoral / agropastoral) are then broken down on the basis of temperature and length of growing period (Robinson et al., 2011).  (1996) mapped in Robinson et al., (2011)."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"LG, pastoral / agro-pastoral systems (in which >90 percent of dry matter fed to animals comes from rangelands, pastures, annual forages and purchased feeds and <10 percent of the total value of production comes from nonlivestock farming activities."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"M, mixed crop-livestock systems (MR, rainfed; MI, irrigated) in which >10 percent of the dry matter fed to animals comes from crop by-products or stubble, or >10 percent of the total value of production comes from non-livestock farming activities."},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"A, arid / semi-arid; H, humid / subhumid; T, tropical highland."},{"index":8,"size":142,"text":"UBOS (2014) estimated that there are more than 8.5 million people living in households keeping cattle and producing some beef. Using a somewhat different (but closely related) livestock classification system, ASL (2018) estimate that there are about 5.7 million people raising cattle in agro-pastoral (mixed) systems with 49 percent of the national herd, 2.5 million in pastoral systems with 41 percent of the national herd, and 0.4 million in semi-intensive (mixed) systems, with 2 percent of the national herd (Table 2; Figure 2). The ranching systems account for about 8 percent of the national cattle herd. Off-farm and non-farm income are important sources of income for all of the three major cattle systems, contributing 11-25 percent of household income (ASL, 2018), via employment generated along the beef value chain. Milk sales make up 20-48 percent of cattle income in the three systems."},{"index":9,"size":16,"text":"The study region identified for PCSL project activities is in the Southwestern region of the country."},{"index":10,"size":133,"text":"Some household characteristics of this broad area using existing survey data are shown in Box 1.  For the livestock systems, projections indicate some increases in net primary productivity in the highlands, and some reductions in the drier areas, though less extensive reductions than in the Sahel and parts of southern Africa, for example (Boone et al., 2018). Other projections indicate widespread negative impacts on forage quality and thus on livestock productivity, with cascading impacts on incomes and food security (Thornton et al., 2015;Thornton et al., 2018). In addition to climate change effects on the quantity and quality of feeds, other effects are anticipated on water availability in livestock systems, and on the distribution and severity of livestock diseases and their vectors (see, for example, reviews in Rojas-Downing et al., 2017;Mbow and Rosenzweig, 2019)."},{"index":11,"size":28,"text":"Other, more indirect effects of climate change on agriculture and food systems are gaining in importance. Recently, Smith and Myers (2018) projected that the effects of elevated CO2"},{"index":12,"size":188,"text":"concentrations by the 2050s on the sufficiency of dietary intake of iron, zinc and protein an additional 175 million people will be zinc deficient and an additional 122 million people will be protein deficient. The mechanism is via more carbohydrates being produced in C3 crops at the expense of other nutrients such as protein, iron and zinc. Similar effects on forage quality have been found in forages (Augustine et al., 2018). About 57 percent of grasses globally are C3 plants (Osborne et al., 2014) and thus susceptible to CO2 effects on their nutritional quality. These impacts will result in greater nutritional stress in grazing animals as well as reduced meat and milk production. Another impact of climate change is that of higher temperatures on the capacity of people to work in the fields (Watts et al., 2017) and on the ability of livestock to cope with heat stress. Both may have major implications for livelihoods based on livestock keeping; for Uganda, preliminary analyses indicate that heat stress in cattle may become a widespread and serious problem, particularly for dairy systems, as the century progresses (Thornton et al., 2020)."},{"index":13,"size":143,"text":"While there is growing evidence that the risk of extreme events will increase in the future, the ways in which these risks will manifest themselves and affect agricultural systems are not always that clear (Thornton et al., 2014). Increasing climate variability and extremes have been identified as one of the key drivers behind the recent rise in global hunger and a leading cause of severe food crises (FAO, 2018), affecting both crop and livestock systems. Forage production and animal stocking rates can be significantly affected by drought intensities and durations as well as by longterm climate trends. After a drought event, herd size recovery times in semi-arid rangelands may span years to decades in the absence of proactive restocking through animal purchases, for example (Godde et al., 2019). Indeed, increasing climate variability may threaten the long-term viability of agriculture-based livelihoods in many places."},{"index":14,"size":78,"text":"A summary of some of the climate hazards in Uganda is shown in Figure 3 (from Thornton et al., 2019). The areas of vulnerability were projected for the 2050s based on RCP 8.5, a high GHG emission scenario, using the methods in Jones and Thornton (2013;2015), overlaid on cropland and pastureland from the data set of Ramankutty et al. (2008). In these areas of cropland, pastureland or mixed land-use, hazards were mapped with respect to three main hazards:"},{"index":15,"size":75,"text":"• Areas where the coefficient of variation of annual rainfall (the standard deviation divided by the mean, expressed as a percentage) is currently greater than the median value for the global tropics (24 percent). In lower latitudes, climate change is projected to increase this variability, making both cropping and rangeland production more risky. Because there is little information on the nature of this variability change, current variability is used as a proxy for future variability."},{"index":16,"size":33,"text":"• A reduction in the number of reliable crop growing days per year below 90, a critical threshold for rainfed cropping (Nachtergaele et al.,2002), mostly due to changes in rainfall distributions and amounts."}]},{"head":"•","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Increases in average maximum temperature during the primary growing season above 30 ⁰C), a critical threshold for several major crops (Boote et al., 1998;Prasad et al., 2008)."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Areas where more than one of these hazards is projected to be present are also shown in Figure 3."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"Two other important climate hazards are the frequency and severity of drought and of flood. Table 3 lists the PCSL intervention sites in Uganda with respect to agro-ecological zone, livestock system, and the climate hazards shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4. The location of the districts containing these intervention sites are shown in Figure 5.    Sub-humid: 9-12 wet months per year, 1200-1500 mm annual rainfall. Semi-humid: 6-9 wet months per year, 950-1200 mm annual rainfall. Semi-humid to semi-arid: 4-6 wet months per year, 500-1000 mm annual rainfall."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"Agro-ecological zones modified from Karanja (2006)."}]},{"head":"Adaptation and mitigation options","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"From a technical viewpoint, there is a wide range of interventions in livestock systems that can help livestock keepers adapt and become more resilient to climate change; many of these have mitigation co-benefits too. Table 4 from Bell et al. (2018) lists some of these practices, scored for their potential to address climate risks including those shown in Figure 3."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Table 4. Interventions in livestock systems and their potential to address different climate hazards."},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"From Bell et al. (2018)."},{"index":4,"size":120,"text":"Direction (+, -) relates to whether a practice has a positive (ameliorating) or negative (exacerbating) impact on the climate risk. Magnitude is shown by the intensity of the color in the gradient and the number of symbols, where more symbols is a larger impact. Boxes with a +/-sign indicate practices that either (1) do not address the climate risk, (2) there is not enough known to make a recommendation, or (3) the effect may be highly context specific.  on the type of intervention package considered. Large production increases are achievable with interventions such as better feeding and wider use of crossbred animals (Herrero et al., 2016). In many places, overcoming biomass constraints will be key to achieving such productivity increases."},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":"Cross-breeding dairy animals can substantially raise milk productivity, with the prospect of achieving production targets with fewer animals; but this will only work if higher quality feed is available (Herrero et al., 2016;Mayberry et al., 2017)."},{"index":6,"size":90,"text":"In Ugandan dairy systems, forage grasses may be important feed sources during both wet and dry seasons. Climate change will have impacts on the suitability of different forage grasses in the future. Kekae et al. (2019) shows that in some parts of the region, Buffel grass is likely to be negatively affected by climate change in some regions of the country, while Rhodes grass and improvement can all have substantial effects on emissions intensity reduction as well as increasing the productivity and resilience of livestock systems (Njeru et al., 2016)."},{"index":7,"size":123,"text":"Targeting such interventions at broad scale remains challenging because of the variation in local agro-ecological and socio-economic contexts. In addition, there are several barriers to widespread uptake of livestock interventions in Uganda. For the diary systems of Southwestern region, for example, farmers reported a range of issues, including limited capital, animal diseases, difficulties posed by an unpredictable climate, poor quality veterinary drugs, and lack of capacity development (de Vries, 2019). There may also be limits to the agricultural adaptation that is achievable at the household level: Call et al. (2019) suggest that in the future, smallholders in parts of Uganda will struggle to maintain their livelihood portfolio and agricultural productivity during extended periods of heat stress, and new livelihood strategies may be necessary."},{"index":8,"size":83,"text":"As the agricultural sector in Uganda transforms in the future, FAO (2019) highlight one issue concerning the increased prevalence of urban, peri-urban middle-scale commercial livestock operations and value chains. These entities will frequently be operating near densely populated urban areas, and these hotspots of human-animal interaction will need to be properly regulated, as any disease outbreak would escalate rapidly in such densely populated areas (FAO, 2019). The national-to-local policy environment is a key enabler of uptake; this is considered in section 6 below."}]},{"head":"Livestock systems in the future","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Several studies have investigated the possible futures associated with livestock systems in countries of sub-Saharan Africa (e.g., Herrero et al., 2014;FAO, 2019). Enahoro et al. (2019) extracted a set of global projections for Uganda, and this section draws on and summarises that work."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"Projections of demand and supply of livestock-derived food in 2030 and 2050 were developed by Enahoro et al. (2019) for several countries including Uganda using the IMPACT model, an integrated modelling system that links information from climate models, crop simulation models and water models to a core global, partial equilibrium, multimarket model focused on the agriculture sector (Robinson et al., 2015). IMPACT's multi-market model simulates the operations of global and national markets for more than 60 agricultural commodities, covering the bulk of food and cash crops traded globally. It solves for production, demand and prices that equate global supply and demand of these agricultural commodities. For the results briefly discussed below, several scenarios were simulated, based on the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs) and"},{"index":3,"size":251,"text":"Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) jointly developed by research communities under the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) initiative (Riahi, 2014). The SSPs are a set of narratives that together describe the alternative demographic and economic developments determinizing energy, land use and related trajectories globally; while the RCPs are trajectories of greenhouse gas concentrations. Simulations were carried out for 16 scenarios (Table 5); the scenario with moderate economic growth and no climate change assumed (alphabet codes A and C in Table 6) was selected as the baseline. All other scenarios were compared with the year 2010 and 2030/50 results for this baseline. IMPACT generates country-level outcomes of food production, demand, and prices. These are reported below, along with livestock feed demand linked to production. Food supply was used as a proxy for average consumption and intake (thus in effect using the three terms interchangeably). However, only food availability can be inferred from the aggregate data that are readily available (FAO national statistics and IMPACT measures). In 2010, the supply of livestock derived foods in Uganda was around 141 kcal per person per day (Table 6). This supply was 54 percent meat, 44 percent milk and 2 percent eggs. Of the meat supply, pork made up 54 percent, beef 30 percent, and lamb and poultry each around 8 percent.   Total Dairy Demand, '000 MTs Total Dairy Production, '000 MTs year of the model simulations. Figure 9 presents the model simulations on net imports of beef, lamb and poultry relative to their aggregate demands."}]},{"head":"Figure 9. Model projections of poultry and lamb imports in Uganda","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"There is not much variation in the import shares of demand for beef, poultry and lamb under the different scenarios of 2050. The projected changes in all LDF demand in Uganda however lead to important changes in the demand for livestock feed biomass (Figure10). Nevertheless, results do give some initial indications about areas in which policies that emanate from or affect the livestock sector in Uganda may need to evolve. The effects of higher local and global demand for ruminant animals and animal products, and of international trade in these commodities, need to be included in livestock, environment and land use policy design and implementation in the future. Concerns about food prices, poverty reduction, agricultural biodiversity and environmental sustainability, amongst others, will also be central in livestock sector planning. These issues are briefly returned to in section 7 below."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"In Uganda, it appears the demand for livestock-derived foods will be more diversified in 2050 compared with 2010. Dairy and pork demand decrease relative to non-pork meat types. Possibly these trends may be explained by demographic factors such as income growth and urbanization, but they need to be explored better through research. An understanding of what drives LDF diversification in a country will be important for assessing what changes can be anticipated in food and nutrition security, economic welfare, and environmental impacts as livestock sector-related determinants change."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"Assuming the quantitative scenarios used have adequately captured the essence of key assumptions about the future, the results here suggest that country-level solutions that effectively manage the livestock sector under one future will do so in event of the otherat least with respect to factors that impact directly on LDF supply (though see para above on limitations of the IMPACT analysis). Robust policies, i.e., those that will hold up under all/most of the identified possible futures may however not be so straightforward to attain. For one, the analysis has focused on country-level interactions within the livestock sub-sector, and national aggregates of indicators."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"Additional analyses will be needed to understand how the results will play out at more disaggregated levels. For example, to understand who the losers and winners are from increasing production gaps, what categories of livestock producers and production need to be better supported, managed or regulated, and how different livestock value chains and end consumers may possibly be affected differently by the status quo and by interventions."}]},{"head":"The national livestock policy environment","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"This section is taken from Ashley (2019) and Enahoro et al. (2019)."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"In Uganda, agriculture is overseen by the ministry of Agriculture, Animal industry and Fisheries (MAAIF), a cabinet-level ministry of the government, charged with creating an enabling environment in the agricultural sector. Its role is to support, promote and guide production of crops, livestock and fisheries to ensure qualitative and quantitative supply of these products for domestic consumption, food security and export. As noted above, the livestock sector is important to the livelihood of many households in Uganda. Uganda's policy record on the intersection of the The NAMA identifies additional conditions inhibiting the dairy sector, many of which are also relevant for broader livestock sector adaptation and mitigation including:"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"▪ low animal productivity due to poor feeding and animal health;"},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"▪ low level of commercialisation and lack of regulation of hay and concentrated feed production;"},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"▪ low adoption of improved management practices and technologies;"},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"▪ no standards or labelling for animal feeds;"},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"▪ extremely limited infrastructure for collection, storage and chilling of milk across the country;"},{"index":8,"size":16,"text":"▪ limited incentives for smallholders and informal milk traders to participate in the formal segment; and"},{"index":9,"size":10,"text":"▪ no quality control, standards, or labelling for milk production."},{"index":10,"size":58,"text":"In addition to issues of support for mobility, an issue of concern in rangelands is that a rush to secure mineral and oil mining deposits is threatening communal rangelands including through ▪ The NAP-Ag, 2018, provides the most holistic approach to livestock sector adaptation, is aligned with NDP II, and has synergies with adaptation strategies across policy areas."},{"index":11,"size":45,"text":"▪ Robust options to support adaptation in extensive livestock systems are lacking including insufficient attention to mobility, protecting rangelands from encroachment and degradation, and improving feeding in pastoral production. The focus on commercialisation and agricultural intensification and limited attention to pastoralism risks leaving pastoralists behind."},{"index":12,"size":21,"text":"▪ Efforts to explore livestock insurance options are minimal; agriculture insurance is only referenced in the NCCP, NDP II, and NAP-Ag. "}]},{"head":"Conclusions: system intervention points","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Uganda faces some major challenges to the middle of the century. These include a population growing from 42 to 106 million people, more than 40 percent of whom will live in urban areas."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Calorie consumption from livestock-derived food is expected to increase by 70 percent, which will entail a quadrupling of beef and chicken meat production and a trebling of milk and egg production."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"By 2040, Uganda's vision is to transform the country from a predominantly low-income one to a competitive upper middle-income country with a per capita income of USD 9,500. These are ambitious targets, particularly in the context of climate change, and achieving these targets through a sustainable and equitable development pathway will require considerable investment and prioritisation."},{"index":4,"size":130,"text":"There is relatively little literature on the national impacts of climate change on Ugandan livestock production, though regional and continental analyses from the IPCC and other sources show clearly what can be expected. Increased frequency and severity of extreme events such as drought and heat will increasingly test the resilience of livestock keepers and their animals, particularly in the pastoral and agropastoral lands. Substantial knowledge gaps exist on the impacts of climate change on non-ruminants, its potential effects of water availability in livestock systems, and effects on zoonotic and other livestock diseases. Preliminary research suggests that rising temperatures will result in marked increases in heat stress in cattle. Such considerations highlight the need for characterisation of species and breeds of livestock that may have high adaptive capacities to climate change."},{"index":5,"size":147,"text":"At the same time, a wide range of adaptation options is available, particularly to address increasing climate risk, and many of these have mitigation co-benefits. Targeting these at broad scale is challenging because of the variation in local agro-ecological and socio-economic contexts. In addition, there are several barriers to widespread uptake of livestock interventions in Uganda. For the diary systems of Southwestern region, for example, farmers reported a range of issues, including limited capital, animal diseases, difficulties posed by an unpredictable climate, poor quality veterinary drugs, and lack of capacity development (de Vries, 2019). There may also be limits to the agricultural adaptation that is achievable at the household level: Call et al. (2019) suggest that in the future, smallholders in parts of Uganda will struggle to maintain their livelihood portfolio and agricultural productivity during extended periods of heat stress, and new livelihood strategies may be necessary."},{"index":6,"size":151,"text":"With respect to the policy and enabling environment, several opportunities exist for engagement with climate-livestock policy in the country. The national focus on commercialisation, for example, particularly across agriculture and development policy, brings considerable opportunities for interventions along different value chains. Multiple policy documents refer to improving natural resource management (including rangeland management and sustainable land management) as a key adaptation and mitigation strategy. At the same time, livestock could be better integrated into climate policies and climate into livestock policies for adaptation and mitigation objectives. In view of the considerable expansion of the beef sector envisaged, robust strategies for mitigation across the livestock sector need to be developed. The focus on commercialisation and agricultural intensification runs the risk of leaving pastoralists behind; increased attention may need to be paid to mobility, protecting rangelands from encroachment and degradation, improving feeding in pastoral production, and implementing risk protection instruments such as insurance."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Livestock systems of Uganda, according to the classification of Sere and Steinfeld "},{"text":" limited, the main climate change impacts expected to affect agriculture in Uganda in the future include higher temperatures, more erratic and heavy rainfall, changes in the timing and distribution of rainfall, and an increase in the frequency and duration of droughts.Climate projections for the country based on the CMIP5 models of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) project an increase in temperatures of 2 °C to the middle of the century and 2.5 °C to 2100, under Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 4.5. For RCP 8.5 the projected temperature increases are 2.5 °C and 4.5 °C for the same time horizons, respectively.Rainfall projections are highly uncertain, but some increases in total annual rainfall are indicated over much of the country under both RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5. Crop suitability areas are projected to change as a result of shifts in rainfall amounts and patterns and increases in temperatures. Beans are projected to be particularly badly affected, with up to 25 percent reduction in suitable area to the middle of the century. Small reductions are projected for sorghum and maize suitability, with small increases for cassava, millet, banana and groundnut (CIAT, 2017). Overall, however, Uganda is highly vulnerable to climate change and weather variability. Parts of the country already experiences unreliable rainfall, frequent drought and periodic floods. "},{"text":" Figure 4 shows relative drought risk and flood hazard distribution maps for the East African region, from Dilley et al. (2005), CHRR/CIESIN (2005), and CHRR/CIESIN/IRI (2005). "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Areas of high agricultural risk for selected climate hazards in vulnerable areas of Uganda (from Thornton et al., 2019). "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Left: drought risk, 1989-2000, deciles (1 low, 10 high). Source: Dilley et al. (2005), CHRR/CIESIN/IRI (2005) "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. PCSL intervention districts in Uganda "},{"text":"Figure 6 Figure6shows two CSA practices with reasonable climate smartness scores according to expert evaluations, from a more extensive list developed for Uganda: rotational grazing, and use of "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. \"Smartness\" assessment for two ongoing CSA practices in cattle meat production systems as implemented in Uganda. From CIAT (2017). "},{"text":" Napier grass are likely to have improved suitability under future climates. Improved tropical grasses for the mid-altitude areas of Uganda include Chloris, Brachiaria, Cenchrus and Panicum, for example. Such forage grasses in the future could contribute substantially to national feed demands, although adoption of improved forages is currently low. The impacts of climate change on forage species' nutritional density (and hence changes in their value as livestock feed) are still not known with any certainty and warrant further research.Many adaptation options are available, and often there are mitigation co-benefits associated(Thornton and Herrero, 2014;Bell et al., 2018;ERA, 2019). Uganda's GHG emissions are approximately 36.5 million tonnes of carbon dioxide per year, about 0.01 percent of global emissions (ASL/FAO, 2018). The cattle sector accounts for about 38 percent of Uganda's emissions, mostly from enteric fermentation and manure management. Poultry emissions amount to about a third of a million t CO2 per year, mostly from feed production (ASL/FAO, 2018). As seen in Figure5, improved pasture management using rotational grazing or other methods of reducing open grazing can have mitigation benefits through decreasing the emission intensity of milk and meat. Combining livestock with agroforestry can increase livestock productivity and carbon sequestration in the system. Feed improvement, forage development, and livestock breed "},{"text":" Under the scenario of moderate economic growth and constant climate change (the baseline), LDF supply increased to 181 kcal in 2030 (28 percent from 2010) and 246 kcal in 2050 (104 percent from 2010), thus more than doubling by 2050. The share of all meats in LDF demand increases in 2050 to 64 percent (while dairy declines to 34 percent from 44 percent). Within the meat demand, however, share of pork goes down while the shares of other meat types, i.e., poultry, beef and lamb go up. The supply of poultry increases the most (by 3 percent) in relative terms.The IMPACT model projects aggregate pork demand of 124,400 MT in Uganda in 2010. This is projected to increase to 630,000 MT in 2050 under the baseline scenario, i.e., a 406 percent increase from 2010. Pork production, which is 113,400 MT in 2010, is projected to increase by 166 percent to 2050. Figure7presents pork demand and production for the economic growth and climate change scenarios simulated using IMPACT. National production of pork is 91 percent of the total demand by households in 2010, but down to 48 percent on average in 2050. The gaps between aggregate demand and production are not very variable for the different scenarios of 2050. What is consistent is that large increases are anticipated in pork importation given the projected trends in household consumption and national production. "},{"text":"Figure 7 .Figure 8 . Figure 7. Model projections of pork demand and production in Uganda "},{"text":"Figure 10 . Figure 10. Model projections of livestock feed demand in Uganda "},{"text":"▪ Uganda's National Agriculture Policy, 2013, has a focus on commercialisation of agriculture with limited integration of mitigation strategies; this could lead to increasing GHG emissions. ▪ The NAP-Ag framework, 2018, discusses the limited relevance for many smallholders of focusing on commercialisation in agriculture (the aim of the National Agriculture Policy). With the NAP-Ag released only in November 2018, it remains an open question whether the NAP-Ag or National Agriculture Policy will drive government interventions. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1a - d. Selected statistics for Uganda and livestock  "},{"text":"Table 1a . Selected macro-indicators Estimates are for 2017 and come from the World Bank Indicators(World Bank, 2019). Estimates of the % of rural people and of percent who keep livestock and live below nationally defined poverty lines are fromRobinson et al. (2011). Total human Rural Poor livestock Annual GDP per GDP growth (% Population Total humanRuralPoor livestockAnnual GDP perGDP growth (%Population population population (% keepers (% rural capita (constant annual, avg. growth (% populationpopulation (%keepers (% ruralcapita (constantannual, avg.growth (% (million) total) population) 2010 USD) 2008-2017) annual, avg. (million)total)population)2010 USD)2008-2017)annual, avg.      2008-2017) 2008-2017) 42.8 78% 23% 770 5.7 3.37 42.878%23%7705.73.37  "},{"text":"Table 1b . Contribution of livestock to national income (GDP) and stocks of live animals Contribution of Agricultural Contribution Livestock population (millions)   Contribution ofAgriculturalContributionLivestock population (millions) livestock sector GDP to of livestock      livestock sectorGDP toof livestock to agricultural national sector to Cattle Sheep Goats Pigs Poultry to agriculturalnationalsector toCattleSheepGoatsPigsPoultry GDP (%) GDP (%) GDP (%)     birds GDP (%)GDP (%)GDP (%)birds 24.63 25.03 4.23 15.39 2.06 15.67 2.64 35.68 24.6325.034.2315.392.0615.672.6435.68    (14.37)3 (4.20)3 (16.03)3 (4.11)3 (47.58)3 (14.37)3(4.20)3(16.03)3(4.11)3(47.58)3  "},{"text":"Table 1c . Selected measures of livestock production, food availability and nutrition Meat Dairy & egg Per capita supply of LDF % of food LDF % of protein Prevalence of MeatDairy & eggPer capita supply ofLDF % of foodLDF % of proteinPrevalence of production production LDF (Kg / person / supply (Kcal / supply (g / person / underweight productionproductionLDF (Kg / person /supply (Kcal /supply (g / person /underweight ('000 MTs) ('000 MTs) year) person / day) day) children <5 (%) ('000 MTs)('000 MTs)year)person / day)day)children <5 (%) 445.28 1,506.23 50.94 8.6% 23.4 13.1% 445.281,506.2350.948.6%23.413.1%  "},{"text":"Table 1d . Number of 'poor livestock keepers' by system Pastoral Mixed crop-livestock Other All systems PastoralMixed crop-livestockOtherAll systems 85,000 6,073,000 196,000 6,354,000 85,0006,073,000196,0006,354,000  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Short description of cattle production systems in Uganda (ASL, 2018). Production Production  "},{"text":"system Short description Number of people living in cattle- keeping households Beef cattle distribution in Uganda by production system (ASL, 2018).  Cattle produce beef and milk, hides, manure and horns and  Cattle produce beef and milk, hides, manure and horns and  draught power. Investments in improved husbandry practices,  draught power. Investments in improved husbandry practices,  including animal health, are none to minimal. This system is  including animal health, are none to minimal. This system is  present in the Eastern, Central 2, Western, North and West Nile  present in the Eastern, Central 2, Western, North and West Nile  Sub-regions.  Sub-regions. Semi-intensive Farmers keep cattle, mainly cross-bred, confined in kraals, 370,060 Semi-intensiveFarmers keep cattle, mainly cross-bred, confined in kraals,370,060 (mixed) paddocks and cattle barns/stalls and feed them with compound  (mixed)paddocks and cattle barns/stalls and feed them with compound  feed. They also make significant investments in animal health,  feed. They also make significant investments in animal health,  such as in vaccination and deworming. Cattle produce milk and  such as in vaccination and deworming. Cattle produce milk and  beef. This system is mainly found in Central 1 and 2 and the  beef. This system is mainly found in Central 1 and 2 and the  Southwest subregions.  Southwest subregions. Figure 2.   Figure 2. Ranching Farmers keep large number of animals (500-3000 per holding) No estimate RanchingFarmers keep large number of animals (500-3000 per holding)No estimate  in perimeter fencing, paddocked structures and grazing fields.  in perimeter fencing, paddocked structures and grazing fields.  They keep a mixture of indigenous, cross and exotic beef  They keep a mixture of indigenous, cross and exotic beef  animals and make substantial investment in animal health  animals and make substantial investment in animal health  management, to produce and market beef, with milk as a by-  management, to produce and market beef, with milk as a by-  product. The system is prevalent in the Southwest and the  product. The system is prevalent in the Southwest and the  Central 2 sub-regions.  Central 2 sub-regions. Pastoral In pastoral or free grazing systems, farmers move cattle from 2,447,490 PastoralIn pastoral or free grazing systems, farmers move cattle from2,447,490  place to place in search of pastures and water. They keep  place to place in search of pastures and water. They keep  indigenous breeds, with herd size ranging from few to 100  indigenous breeds, with herd size ranging from few to 100  heads. Main products include beef, milk, blood, hides, manure  heads. Main products include beef, milk, blood, hides, manure  and horns. This system is dominant in the Northeastern sub-  and horns. This system is dominant in the Northeastern sub-  region.  region. Agro-pastoral Farmers graze mostly indigenous cattle in both private and 5,697,300 Agro-pastoralFarmers graze mostly indigenous cattle in both private and5,697,300 (mixed) public pastures and also feed them with crops by-products.  (mixed)public pastures and also feed them with crops by-products.  "},{"text":"A. Location of 553 households surveyed (LSMS ISA survey, 2011-2012) Box 1. Data summary sheet for Western Uganda B. Key information  Average number of sheep 0.2 (1.0) Average number of sheep0.2 (1.0) Total farm income generated [USD PPP corrected per household per yr] 298 Total farm income generated [USD PPP corrected per household per yr]298 Total livestock income generated [USD PPP corrected per household per 73.4 Total livestock income generated [USD PPP corrected per household per73.4 yr]  yr] Total value of livestock produce consumed [USD PPP corrected per hh per 24.7 Total value of livestock produce consumed [USD PPP corrected per hh per24.7 yr]  yr] Average milk production per cow (l/producing animal/day) 1.2 (0.9) Average milk production per cow (l/producing animal/day)1.2 (0.9) Milk production per cow of 10 percent best producing farms (l/producing 2.8 (0.3) Milk production per cow of 10 percent best producing farms (l/producing2.8 (0.3) animal/day)  animal/day) Average egg production per chicken [d-1] 0.1 (0.14) Average egg production per chicken [d-1]0.1 (0.14) Egg production per chicken of 10 percent best producing farms 0.4 (0.3) Egg production per chicken of 10 percent best producing farms0.4 (0.3) Variable Value VariableValue Average farm size [ha] (stdev) 1.0 (1.0) Average farm size [ha] (stdev)1.0 (1.0) Average livestock holding [tlu] 1.8 (4.5) Average livestock holding [tlu]1.8 (4.5) Average number of cattle 1.1 (2.5) Average number of cattle1.1 (2.5) Average number of chicken 2.7 (4.6) Average number of chicken2.7 (4.6) Average number of goats 2.6 (4.2) Average number of goats2.6 (4.2)  "},{"text":"Distribution of cattle holdings per household D. Distribution of cultivated land size per household E. Major crops grown by households  3. Impacts of climate change on livestock systems and 3. Impacts of climate change on livestock systems and livestock production livestock production Temperatures in Uganda are relatively moderate throughout the year, with a mean of about 21 °C, Temperatures in Uganda are relatively moderate throughout the year, with a mean of about 21 °C, with the average monthly temperatures ranging from a minimum of 15 °C in July to a maximum of with the average monthly temperatures ranging from a minimum of 15 °C in July to a maximum of 30 °C in February. Higher temperatures occur in the North and North-East, with lower 30 °C in February. Higher temperatures occur in the North and North-East, with lower temperatures across the South. There has been significant warming: an average temperature temperatures across the South. There has been significant warming: an average temperature increase of 0.28 °C per decade between 1960 and 2010, January and February being most increase of 0.28 °C per decade between 1960 and 2010, January and February being most affected by this warming trend, averaging an increase of 0.37 °C per decade (CIAT, 2017). The affected by this warming trend, averaging an increase of 0.37 °C per decade (CIAT, 2017). The frequency of hot days in the country has increased significantly, while the frequency of cold days frequency of hot days in the country has increased significantly, while the frequency of cold days has decreased. has decreased. Annual rainfall varies between 500 mm to 2800 mm, the wettest districts being located within the Annual rainfall varies between 500 mm to 2800 mm, the wettest districts being located within the Lake Victoria Basin, eastern and the north-western parts of the country. Rainfall is bimodal in the Lake Victoria Basin, eastern and the north-western parts of the country. Rainfall is bimodal in the south to central parts of Uganda, with two rainy seasons from March to June and from October to south to central parts of Uganda, with two rainy seasons from March to June and from October to January. The northeast region has one rainy season. Floods and droughts are the most frequent January. The northeast region has one rainy season. Floods and droughts are the most frequent climate hazards. The drylands are prone to drought, and the northern region in particular is climate hazards. The drylands are prone to drought, and the northern region in particular is especially vulnerable to both floods and droughts. While trends are uncertain and data remain especially vulnerable to both floods and droughts. While trends are uncertain and data remain  "},{"text":"Table 3 . PCSL intervention districts in Uganda. Site Region District Predominant Livestock system Climate hazard(s) SiteRegionDistrictPredominantLivestock systemClimate hazard(s)    Agro-Ecological   Agro-Ecological    Zone   Zone 1 Western Bushenyi Lower Highland, Mixed rainfed crop- Low flood risk 1WesternBushenyiLower Highland,Mixed rainfed crop-Low flood risk    Sub-humid livestock / agro-pastoral High flood risk Sub-humidlivestock / agro-pastoralHigh flood risk 2 Western Kiruhura Upper Midland, Mixed rainfed crop- Low flood risk 2WesternKiruhuraUpper Midland,Mixed rainfed crop-Low flood risk    Semi-humid to semi-arid livestock / agro-pastoral Medium-high flood risk Semi-humid to semi-aridlivestock / agro-pastoralMedium-high flood risk 3 Western Isingiro Upper Midland, Mixed rainfed crop- Growing season 3WesternIsingiroUpper Midland,Mixed rainfed crop-Growing season    Semi-humid to livestock / agro- reduction Semi-humid tolivestock / agro-reduction    semi-arid pastoral Low flood risk semi-aridpastoralLow flood risk      Medium-high flood risk Medium-high flood risk  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Descriptions of IMPACT model scenarios included in the analysis(Enahoro et al., 2019). Alphabet Scenario Code Pace of Year(s) RCP Earth System Model AlphabetScenario CodePace ofYear(s)RCPEarth System Model code  economic  simulation (ESM)1 codeeconomicsimulation(ESM)1   growth    growth A MiddleNoCC Moderate 2010 None None AMiddleNoCCModerate2010NoneNone B FragmenNoCC Slow 2030/50 None None BFragmenNoCCSlow2030/50NoneNone C MiddleNoCC Moderate 2030/50 None None CMiddleNoCCModerate2030/50NoneNone D SustainNoCC High 2030/50 None None DSustainNoCCHigh2030/50NoneNone E FragmenGFDL_RCP_6.0 Slow 2030/50 6.0 GFDL EFragmenGFDL_RCP_6.0Slow2030/506.0GFDL F FragmenHGEM_RCP_6.0 Slow 2030/50 6.0 HADGEM FFragmenHGEM_RCP_6.0Slow2030/506.0HADGEM G FragmenIPSL_RCP_6.0 Slow 2030/50 6.0 IPSL GFragmenIPSL_RCP_6.0Slow2030/506.0IPSL H FragmenMIRO_RCP_6.0 Slow 2030/50 6.0 MIROC HFragmenMIRO_RCP_6.0Slow2030/506.0MIROC I Middle GFDL_RCP_6.0 Moderate 2030/50 6.0 GFDL IMiddle GFDL_RCP_6.0Moderate2030/506.0GFDL J Middle HGEM_RCP_6.0 Moderate 2030/50 6.0 HADGEM JMiddle HGEM_RCP_6.0Moderate2030/506.0HADGEM K Middle IPSL_RCP_6.0 Moderate 2030/50 6.0 IPSL KMiddle IPSL_RCP_6.0Moderate2030/506.0IPSL L Middle MIRO_RCP_6.0 Moderate 2030/50 6.0 MIROC LMiddle MIRO_RCP_6.0Moderate2030/506.0MIROC M SustainGFDL_RCP_6.0 High 2030/50 6.0 GFDL MSustainGFDL_RCP_6.0High2030/506.0GFDL N SustainHGEM_RCP_6.0 High 2030/50 6.0 HADGEM NSustainHGEM_RCP_6.0High2030/506.0HADGEM O SustainIPSL_RCP_6.0 High 2030/50 6.0 IPSL OSustainIPSL_RCP_6.0High2030/506.0IPSL P SustainMIRO_RCP_6.0 High 2030/50 6.0 MIROC PSustainMIRO_RCP_6.0High2030/506.0MIROC  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Projections of the supply of different livestock-derived food (LDF) types in Uganda in 2010, 2030 and 2050*   2010, 2030 and 2050*  2010 2030 2050 201020302050   (kilocalories per person per day) (kilocalories per person per day) Beef 23.0 32.9 49.8 Beef23.032.949.8 Pork 41.5 54.4 75.3 Pork41.554.475.3 Lamb 6.4 9.3 15.0 Lamb6.49.315.0 Poultry 5.9 9.7 17.0 Poultry5.99.717.0 Dairy 62.4 71.8 84.7 Dairy62.471.884.7 Eggs 2.1 2.8 3.9 Eggs2.12.83.9 All meats 76.9 106.2 157.0 All meats76.9106.2157.0 All LDF 141.4 180.8 245.7 All LDF141.4180.8245.7 The model projections of dairy demand and production are presented in Figure 8. Demand for The model projections of dairy demand and production are presented in Figure 8. Demand for dairy is 1.203 million MT in 2010 and 4.6 million MT in 2050 when the baseline scenario is dairy is 1.203 million MT in 2010 and 4.6 million MT in 2050 when the baseline scenario is considered. Uganda is a net importer of dairy products, by a small margin (9 percent of demand) in considered. Uganda is a net importer of dairy products, by a small margin (9 percent of demand) in 2010. In 2050, dairy imports are at least 48 percent of the total household demand for dairy, under 2010. In 2050, dairy imports are at least 48 percent of the total household demand for dairy, under all scenarios tested. Household demand as a percentage of national production, is highest for the all scenarios tested. Household demand as a percentage of national production, is highest for the low growth scenarios (i.e., E, F, G, H) and lowest for the high or fast economic growth scenarios low growth scenarios (i.e., E, F, G, H) and lowest for the high or fast economic growth scenarios (i.e., M, N, O, P).    (i.e., M, N, O, P).  "},{"text":" Across policy areas, there is consistent recognition of climate risks and impacts to the country's agricultural production. There is less dedicated attention, however, to the livestock sector. Uganda's NAP-Ag, 2018, notes that livestock contributes just 1.9 percent to the country's GDP, which may account for the somewhat limited attention devoted to the sector across policy areas. Climate adaptation strategies in the livestock sector are referenced but rarely well-elaborated outside of the recent NAP-Ag framework. Meanwhile, livestock sector mitigation strategies are absent or nascent across policy areas outside of the country's REDD+ Strategy, 2017, and NAMA for the dairy sector, 2017. In contrast to Kenya and Ethiopia, where development policy fairly strongly integrates climate-livestock issues, Uganda's national development policies (NDP II, Green Growth Development Strategy) give them less attention. Uganda did, along with Ethiopia, join the Global Research Alliance on Agricultural Greenhouse Gases in 2018.Uganda's climate dedicated policies began somewhat later than those in Kenya or Ethiopia, outside of the 2007 NAPA. After the NAPA, the National Climate Change Policy (NCCP), 2015, was the next climate policy and is the foundation of the country's climate action. The policy notes that, like the EAC regional policy, it emphasises adaptation over mitigation. The NCCP includes agriculture as a priority sector and provides brief treatment of a range of livestock sector adaptation strategies from improving natural resource management and water availability, to supporting value chains and breeding, to better climate information services and early warning systems. The NCCP also aims to mainstream mitigation in agriculture but provides just one mitigation strategy for the livestock sector (sustainable rangeland management). REDD+) and improved feed and value chains (NAMA). The NAMA explicitly aims to improve climate resilience in the dairy sector in addition to permanently reducing GHG emissions through a value chain approach. Uganda's NDC references livestock under \"additional mitigation ambition\" with the strategy of livestock breeding research and manure management.Livestock breeding is also referenced in REDD+ Strategy and manure management in the NAMA for the dairy sector but not in other policies as a mitigation strategy. Ag further examines constraints related to overlapping mandates among government entities leading to conflicts or lack of accountability and weak institutional coordination among the Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Water and Environment. The NAP-Ag notes that the Climate Change Department faces low staffing and that skewed budget allocations leave climate impacted sectors including agriculture, natural resources, and land management with the smallest proportion of the budget. Additionally, national policies rarely include adequate consideration of communitylevel social, cultural, environmental and economic challenges and contexts (NAP-Ag, 2018). livestock sector and climate change has been strengthened by the recent NAP-Ag framework of 2018. Uganda's Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action (NAMA) for climate-smart dairy livestock value chains (2017) provides robust and thorough mitigation approaches many of which have relevance beyond the dairy sector. Generally, however, development, agriculture, land, and environment policies have limited integration of livestock-climate considerations. Uganda has long recognised the threat of climate change as evidenced in the National Environmental Policy, 1995. Uganda's development and agriculture policies aim to commercialise agriculture and increase agricultural exports three-fold from 2015 to 2020. These ambitious goals are important for economic development, but the lack of policy focus on integrating mitigation measures and limited recognition of the role of pastoralists create two distinct risks: dramatically increasing livestock sector emissions and excluding pastoralists from development and resilience initiatives. Uganda's livestock sector is guided by the Agriculture Sector Strategy Plan (ASSP), 2015, and NAP-Ag framework in addition to development policy. The ASSP provides numerous strategies for livestock breeding and feeding that provide important opportunities for adaptation and mitigation, but strategies tend to target productivity with little explicit integration of climate resilience or mitigation. The ASSP does reference a national climate smart agriculture initiative and the NAP-Ag released in 2018 could shift government focus toward adaptation and mitigation co-benefits. This provides a robust approach to livestock sector adaptation action and well-detailed strategies. The framework includes a thorough evaluation of current and projected climate change impacts, the policy context for agriculture, and strategies responsive to the climate and policy context. Uganda's National REDD+ Strategy and Action Plan, 2017, and NAMA for climate-smart dairy livestock value chains, 2017, provide the most detailed rational, strategies, and implementation guidance for mitigation. These policies address important potential adaptation co-benefits particularly related to increasing livestock productivity through improving feed and water quality (PPCR). The Strategic Programme on Climate Resilience component includes proposed investment projects for climate smart agriculture (including for livestock), improved natural resource management, and strengthening climate information services (CIF, 2017). Livestock adaptation and mitigation efforts in Uganda face the constraints of the overall livestock sector. This includes the lack of a holistic government approach to agriculture until recently (NAMA, 2017). The ASSP, 2015, identifies specific constraints on the sector including: ▪ a weak policy and regulatory framework, ▪ production constraints including limited availability of quality feeds, Ampaire et al. (2017) found that in Rakai district, many climate related policy strategies were not being implemented due to a disconnect between national and district level authorities, inadequate consultation with stakeholders, lack of technical capacity to implement adaptation strategies, and availability (Uganda is participating in the Climate Investment Funds Pilot Programme on Climate Resilience insufficient budgets, and political interference. livestock sector and climate change has been strengthened by the recent NAP-Ag framework of 2018. Uganda's Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action (NAMA) for climate-smart dairy livestock value chains (2017) provides robust and thorough mitigation approaches many of which have relevance beyond the dairy sector. Generally, however, development, agriculture, land, and environment policies have limited integration of livestock-climate considerations. Uganda has long recognised the threat of climate change as evidenced in the National Environmental Policy, 1995. Uganda's development and agriculture policies aim to commercialise agriculture and increase agricultural exports three-fold from 2015 to 2020. These ambitious goals are important for economic development, but the lack of policy focus on integrating mitigation measures and limited recognition of the role of pastoralists create two distinct risks: dramatically increasing livestock sector emissions and excluding pastoralists from development and resilience initiatives. Uganda's livestock sector is guided by the Agriculture Sector Strategy Plan (ASSP), 2015, and NAP-Ag framework in addition to development policy. The ASSP provides numerous strategies for livestock breeding and feeding that provide important opportunities for adaptation and mitigation, but strategies tend to target productivity with little explicit integration of climate resilience or mitigation. The ASSP does reference a national climate smart agriculture initiative and the NAP-Ag released in 2018 could shift government focus toward adaptation and mitigation co-benefits. This provides a robust approach to livestock sector adaptation action and well-detailed strategies. The framework includes a thorough evaluation of current and projected climate change impacts, the policy context for agriculture, and strategies responsive to the climate and policy context. Uganda's National REDD+ Strategy and Action Plan, 2017, and NAMA for climate-smart dairy livestock value chains, 2017, provide the most detailed rational, strategies, and implementation guidance for mitigation. These policies address important potential adaptation co-benefits particularly related to increasing livestock productivity through improving feed and water quality (PPCR). The Strategic Programme on Climate Resilience component includes proposed investment projects for climate smart agriculture (including for livestock), improved natural resource management, and strengthening climate information services (CIF, 2017). Livestock adaptation and mitigation efforts in Uganda face the constraints of the overall livestock sector. This includes the lack of a holistic government approach to agriculture until recently (NAMA, 2017). The ASSP, 2015, identifies specific constraints on the sector including: ▪ a weak policy and regulatory framework, ▪ production constraints including limited availability of quality feeds, Ampaire et al. (2017) found that in Rakai district, many climate related policy strategies were not being implemented due to a disconnect between national and district level authorities, inadequate consultation with stakeholders, lack of technical capacity to implement adaptation strategies, and availability (Uganda is participating in the Climate Investment Funds Pilot Programme on Climate Resilience insufficient budgets, and political interference.  "},{"text":" cases of land grabbing. Many customary owners lack formalised rights over land and are unable to exclude mining interests or benefit from royalties sharing(Land Policy, 2013). There are concerns that communal land holders are being displaced with inadequate compensation and resettlement options. While customary tenure remains the primary type of tenure in much of Uganda, traditional institutions of land governance and management have not been legally accepted and integrated(Land Policy, 2013). The REDD+ Strategy identifies the lack of adoption of the Draft Rangeland Management and Pastoralism Policy (2014) as a disabling condition. Additionally, the country does Management and Pastoralism Policy (2014) as a disabling condition. Additionally, the country does not have a dedicated livestock policy. not have a dedicated livestock policy. Policy coherence Policy coherence Ashley (2019) examined each policy area for integration of livestock sector climate change Ashley (2019) examined each policy area for integration of livestock sector climate change adaptation and mitigation and alignment with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs; UN, adaptation and mitigation and alignment with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs; UN, 2015) and national development goals. Policies were scored for extent of integration of livestock 2015) and national development goals. Policies were scored for extent of integration of livestock sector adaptation and mitigation, and results are summarised in Table 7. Higher scores designate sector adaptation and mitigation, and results are summarised in Table 7. Higher scores designate more dedicated and detailed climate related strategies for the livestock sector. From this analysis, more dedicated and detailed climate related strategies for the livestock sector. From this analysis, Ashley (2019) identified several opportunities for engagement with climate-livestock policy in Ashley (2019) identified several opportunities for engagement with climate-livestock policy in Uganda, in relation to synergies, gaps and potential conflicts. Uganda, in relation to synergies, gaps and potential conflicts. Strongest synergies across policies: Strongest synergies across policies: ▪ Improving natural resource management (including rangeland management and ▪ Improving natural resource management (including rangeland management and sustainable land management) is the most commonly identified adaptation strategy and sustainable land management) is the most commonly identified adaptation strategy and one of the most prominent mitigation strategies. one of the most prominent mitigation strategies.  "}],"sieverID":"669cf143-b86e-40ee-af25-2b26497a0636","abstract":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above.The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"052205d35693bb4c130c26354df01d44","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6c66d3fc-1c5c-4722-aadd-fd2fb7b7e475/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Goat Annual Reproductive Performance Index (G-ARPI)","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"f16ddd45-570a-4624-b3f3-6ee6d0d25cbf","abstract":"Measuring goat reproductive performance is an important productivity indicator, but cannot be done using a single parameter, hence comparison across projects or impact evaluation of interventions is difficult. We developed a new index that builds on different reproductive parameters (including age at first kidding, kidding interval, number of pregnancies, number of kids born, number of kids survived to wean, number of abortions, number of defective births) to give a more objective performance measure."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0532838cc3081f8f8d2a882944423009","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9b06f6b2-5dbe-4ba8-97e9-75a4bb75858f/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"¿Por qué son necesarios los Incentivos para la Conservación y el Uso de la Agrobiodiversidad?","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":231,"text":"Un limitante crítico en la implementación de estrategias de conservación es que a pesar de que cada vez se reconocen más los beneficios de la biodiversidad agrícola, su valor total a menudo no es considerado completamente por parte de los individuos y la sociedad en general. Esto se debe a que numerosos componentes de la biodiversidad agrícola proporcionan una combinación de beneficios al agricultor (como beneficios privados, por ejemplo, relacionados con la producción de alimentos y fibras) y beneficios a la sociedad en general (como beneficios públicos, por ejemplo, relacionados con la resiliencia del agroecosistema y el mantenimiento de los procesos evolutivos y opciones futuras). Los mercados capturan solamente una parte de este valor económico total, subestimando así el verdadero valor de estos recursos. De esta forma se crean sesgos en contra de las actividades compatibles con la conservación y el uso sostenible de los recursos naturales. Dado que los costos de conservación tienden a ser locales (a nivel de agricultor), mientras que los beneficios tienden a ser regionales, nacionales o incluso mundiales, no se puede esperar que los agricultores de escasos recursos puedan asumir los costos de conservación de los recursos genéticos vegetales y animales (RGVA) meramente para el beneficio de la sociedad en general sin contar con los incentivos adecuados para tal fin. Las gráficas y explicaciones ofrecidas a continuación nos ayudan a comprender el origen de esta situación."}]},{"head":"Un marco conceptual para la pérdida de la agrobiodiversidad","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Se puede percibir la erosión de la agrobiodiversidad en la sustitución del variado acervo existente de RGVA por un rango más reducido de recursos genéticos especializados mejorados. Esta sustitución se presenta como parte de un proceso de desarrollo agrícola enfocado en la intensificación, es decir, la manipulación de los insumos y los productos generados con miras a incrementar el crecimiento agrícola a corto plazo."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Puede esperarse que los RGVA locales muestren un mejor rendimiento que los RGVA mejorados en entornos marginales de producción, y que han sido modificados ligeramente por insumos externos. Con la intensificación agrícola, los RGVA mejorados (desarrollados para lograr rasgos productivos bajo entornos modificados) se hacen más productivos debido a su mayor capacidad de respuesta ante insumos externos, especialmente en áreas favorables en términos de potencial agronómico y acceso al mercado."},{"index":3,"size":143,"text":"Como se puede apreciar en la Figura 1, los RGVA locales sobrepasarían el rendimiento de los RGVA mejorados en términos de los ingresos que generan para los agricultores a un nivel determinado de intensidad 1 del sistema de producción , I*(0). Tras alcanzar el nivel I*(0), los agricultores encuentran cada vez más atractivo reemplazar los RGVA locales por los mejorados, ya que la curva de los RGVA Mejorados se encuentra en este momento por encima de la curva de los RGVA Locales. Para convencer a los agricultores de mantener los RGVA locales más allá de este punto, sería necesario un incentivo o pago adecuado para compensar al agricultor por la pérdida asociada a la variedad mejorada que deja de sembrar. Se puede determinar la proporción del incentivo requerido teniendo en cuenta la diferencia observada entre las dos curvas después del punto I* (0)."}]},{"head":"Proyecto \"Pagos por Servicios de Conservación de la Agrobiodiversidad (PACS)\"","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Bioversity International","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Via dei Tre Denari 472a 00057 Maccarese Roma, Italia Contacto: Adam Drucker [email protected] ¿Pero qué justificaría la creación de tales incentivos? Acaso estas estrategias de conservación no interferirían con el proceso de crecimiento agrícola y la generación de ingresos? De hecho, existen una serie de razones que sugieren que la sustitución de RGVA locales por RGVA mejorados se está presentando bastante prematuramente. Tal sustitución solamente debería presentarse en niveles superiores de intensificación de las fincas, como lo muestra el punto I*' en la Figura 2. Entre estas razones se encuentran las siguientes:"},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"1) Se ignoran los valores asociados con la conservación, no asociados al mercado y/o bienes públicos. Es altamente probable que esto tenga particular relevancia en el caso de la agrobiodiversidad. Las características de los bienes públicos no solamente se limitan a los valores de uso directo asociados con la producción de alimentos y fibras, sino que también incluyen los beneficios privados asociados con el uso de la agrobiodiversidad para minimizar riesgos relacionados con impactos externos, como eventos climáticos extremos, plagas y enfermedades. Sin embargo, a escalas geográficas más extensas, el uso de la agrobiodiversidad también cumple un rol de bien público al apoyar la resiliencia de los agroecosistemas, el mantenimiento de las tradiciones socioculturales, identidades locales y conocimientos tradicionales, al igual que el mantenimiento de los procesos evolutivos, el flujo genético y los valores de opción globales."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"2) Se puede haber sobreestimado el rendimiento de los RGVA mejorados, por ejemplo, en caso de haber obtenido menos producción en fincas de lo esperado en comparación con los resultados en las estaciones experimentales y la existencia de impactos ambientales no previstos."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"3) La existencia de subsidios para el uso de RGVA mejorados los hace más atractivos a primera vista. Estos subsidios pueden darse de muchas formas, entre ellas, el libre acceso a semillas mejoradas, subsidios en capital para insumos como fertilizantes o pesticidas, servicios de apoyo gratis o subsidiados, precios de mercado subsidiados."},{"index":5,"size":124,"text":"Como resultado los agricultores probablemente se enfrenten a incentivos financieros (es decir, privados) que no corresponden con los valores económicos reales o totales (es decir, los valores públicos que incluyen beneficios y costos no asociados al mercado), de modo que lo que sería el punto de sustitución óptimo a nivel social bien podría estar a la derecha del punto I*. Esto significa que la sustitución actual de RGVA por variedades mejoradas trae como resultado el mantenimiento de una cantidad de agrobiodiversidad inferior a la socialmente óptima. Aunque la distancia precisa entre I* y I*' se podría teóricamente determinar conociendo las elasticidades relativas (inclinaciones) de las curvas de los RGVA locales y mejorados, es posible extraer algunas conclusiones generales prácticas de este sencillo modelo analítico."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"a. Hacia la izquierda de I* se puede pensar que los agricultores tienen incentivos financieros para no reemplazar los RGVA locales, conservando así aquello que provee altos valores económicos."},{"index":7,"size":36,"text":"b. Solamente más allá de I*' , la sustitución de los RGVA locales por RGVA mejorados estaría justificada financiera y económicamente (aunque esto no puede usarse para justificar la sustitución al punto de extinción de RGVA)."},{"index":8,"size":62,"text":"c. Una sustitución que se presenta entre I* y I*' se asocia con una pérdida sub-óptima de RGVA locales, aunque la sustitución parece financieramente deseable desde la perspectiva privada/del agricultor, no puede estar justificada económicamente desde un punto de vista social. Esto se debe a que la pérdida adicional de los valores no asociados al mercado supera los beneficios de la sustitución."},{"index":9,"size":130,"text":"Como se aprecia en la Figura 2, las estrategias de conservación en marcos regulatorios para alcanzar el punto de sustitución óptimo, y por ende el nivel óptimo de servicios de conservación de la agrobiodiversidad, incluirían: (a) la consideración de externalidades negativas y eliminación de subsidios (con el fin de abordar los puntos [2] y [3] anteriores), lo cual movería la curva para los RGVA mejorados abajo hacia la derecha (hasta MEJORADOS'); y (b) en donde existen valores de no mercado y valores públicos significativos de RGVA locales (de acuerdo al punto [1] anterior), se requiere implementar unos mecanismos adicionales para permitir la 'captura' de los valores económicos totales asociados con los RGVA locales de modo que la curva para los RGVA locales se mueva arriba hacia la izquierda (hasta LOCALES')."}]},{"head":"Estos mecanismos podrían incluir:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"• Desarrollo de mercados de nicho para productos asociados con los RGVA locales • Recompensas tipo PSA (pagos por servicios ambientales) para la utilización en finca de los RGVA, denominados PACS (pagos por servicios de conservación de la agrobiodiversidad)."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Este último además podría aplicarse para alcanzar I*' aun cuando no se corrijan los puntos (2) y (3), o para motivar a los agricultores a conservar los RGVA locales en posiciones a la derecha de I*' -es decir, con el propósito de evitar pérdidas irreversibles estableciendo Figura 1: Sustitución de la agrobiodiversidad desde el punto de vista de la economía (Perspectiva Financiera/Privada) a otros RGVA amenazados (conocido como efecto de \"fuga\")."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"En este contexto, los esquemas PACS podrían proporcionar unas bases más sólidas y flexibles para las actividades de conservación, y pueden ser más adecuados para asegurar la conservación in situ de poblaciones de RGVA."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"La relación entre el desarrollo de mercados de nicho y los PACS puede entonces verse como una relación complementaria. De hecho, una estrategia de conservación amplia podría incorporar una combinación de instrumentos para incentivos, y como tal podría combinar el desarrollo de mercados de nicho con esquemas PACS."}]},{"head":"Puntos clave:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Se necesita valorar debidamente la biodiversidad agrícola e implementar mecanismos que permitan la \"captura\" de aquellos valores por parte de los agricultores que incurren en los costos de conservación, proporcionándoles un incentivo para conservar aquello que beneficia a la sociedad en general. Esto requiere el desarrollo de métodos económicos adecuados, herramientas de apoyo para la toma de decisiones y estrategias adecuadas de intervención política."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Aunque un instrumento potencial para la conservación de la biodiversidad nodomesticada -como \"los PSA\"-ha sido aclamado por algunos observadores como \"tal vez la innovación más promisoria en conservación desde Río 1992\", los esquemas PSA no han abordado hasta la fecha la conservación de la agrobiodiversidad. Al contrario, han mostrado una tendencia a enfocarse en el secuestro y almacenamiento de carbono; protección de la biodiversidad no-domesticada, protección de líneas divisorias de aguas y protección de la estética paisajística."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"La capacidad de los PSA relacionados con la agrobiodiversidad, denominados esquemas de \"pagos por servicios de conservación de la agrobiodiversidad\" (PACS), para permitir la \"captura\" de los valores públicos de su conservación a nivel del agricultor, creando así incentivos para la conservación de la agrobiodiversidad y apoyando el alivio de la pobreza rural, parece ser por tanto algo que vale la pena explorar."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"un limitante de sostenibilidad--, en tanto compensen a los agricultores al menos por sus costos de oportunidad 2 de utilizar los RGVA locales."}]},{"head":"Desarrollo de mercados de productos nicho y su complementariedad con PACS","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"El desarrollo de mercados de productos nicho para productos relacionados con la agrobiodiversidad se promueve cada vez con mayor fuerza como un medio para lograr de manera sostenible la conservación a través de la utilización directa de los recursos a conservar. Estos \"enfoques de conservación a través del desarrollo\" son potencialmente sostenibles, ya que parten de los canales de mercados agrícolas ya existentes, y de esta manera se pueden emplear para generar una fuente sostenible de financiamiento."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Sin embargo, cabe recordar que depender exclusivamente del desarrollo de mercados puede ser una estrategia arriesgada para la conservación de un acervo variado de recursos genéticos, especialmente considerando que las condiciones del mercado pueden variar con rapidez y generalmente los consumidores y el agro-negocio tienden a favorecer un grupo reducido de especies/variedades de cultivos o razas animales."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"Los enfoques basados en cadenas de mercado también pueden requerir unas inversiones iniciales relativamente altas para generar volúmenes apropiados de producto, estando estos volúmenes bastante por encima de los requeridos para lograr unas metas modestas de conservación, y en donde el tener demasiado éxito puede incluso desplazar 2 En este contexto, los costos de oportunidad son los beneficios que se prevén de cultivar RGVA locales en lugar de los RGVA mejorados más atractivos a nivel financiero."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"Figura 2: Sustitución de la agrobiodiversidad desde el punto de vista de la economía (Perspectiva Económica/Social) "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"d729a6a1-d5ac-41d1-86bd-e8b5ceb8702a","abstract":"La importancia de la agrobiodiversidad y la consideración de su valor económico total La biodiversidad agrícola es la base para la supervivencia y bienestar del ser humano. Sin embargo, a pesar de su importancia, la biodiversidad agrícola a nivel de ecosistemas, especies y genética continúa perdiéndose a un ritmo acelerado. Entre los factores causantes se encuentran la sustitución y cambios indiscriminados en los sistemas de producción, cambios en las preferencias de los consumidores, el crecimiento económico y la globalización de los mercados, estrategias desacertadas de marcos regulatorios (incluyendo los subsidios), epidemias, desastres naturales y conflictos civiles."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"055b817bbb621536a75ff2026c5d938c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/3798/602cccf49665ce707c31670573b9c6fd.pdf"},"pageCount":8,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Remember that: 1) Only cluster leaders and co-leaders and product leaders and co-leaders may create new deliverables through the Activity/Product Manage section."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"2) Everyone can add Capacity Development Activities at CRP level. The platform gives the option to link CDAs with relative projects or products (see below how to do this).  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Option 1 : Click on the Planning menu and then on <<New Capacity Development Activity>> 4 How to plan Capacity Development Activities (CDAs) You can use the list of Capacity Development activities displayed in the planning dashboard under the section CapDev to plan for a new activity by clicking on \"New Capacity Development Activity\". . Product leaders/co-leaders can add or edit CDAs through the <<Manage>> functionality beside the Product of interest. If you do not have accurate information for filling in all the 5 steps, then Save as Draft. This allows to edit the information successively. If the information is updated and accurate, and you are ready to report it, click on <<Submit>>. Once submitted it is no longer possible to edit. The CDA will then go for review and approval to the Cap Dev coordinator. How to plan Capacity Development Activities (CDAs)The Edit Action to check and modify the information entered to ensure completion an accuracy.For a detailed guideline on how to add /edit a New Capacity Development Activity, follow up the steps described in Add New Capacity Development (CapDev) Activity page. "},{"text":"For more detailed information on how to use MEL please use the online guide You need support? Chat with us or send us and email Thanks for using MEL 8 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"030aa3dd-2178-4c88-901f-d944a19a595c","abstract":"How to plan Capacity Development Activities (CDAs) * Once you have clicked on Add New, it will open a window with 5 steps -each asking necessary information. On step 2 (Funding info) you can specify the Project or Product and corresponding output(s) under which the CDA is produced/linked to."}

data/part_4/05662268f2d01c1ebe13f1562a20f9f6.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05662268f2d01c1ebe13f1562a20f9f6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/024aeea3-7ea8-4a20-b73d-310b6139a4ca/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"Post-harvest food losses in a maize-based farming system of semi-arid savannah area of Tanzania","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"More than 70% of the sub-Saharan African population is directly involved in agriculture as the primary source of income and food security. Therefore, growth in agriculture production and productivity are critical for eradicating extreme poverty and hunger in the continent. However, sub-Saharan African agriculture productivity and the per capita value of agriculture output is the lowest in the world (FARA, 2006). Despite the low total agricultural productivity, post-harvest losses of the food being produced are significant (World Bank et al., 2011)."},{"index":2,"size":157,"text":"Post-harvest and marketing system is a chain of interconnected activities from the time of harvest to the delivery of the food to the consumers. Agricultural commodities produced on the farm have to undergo several procedures like harvesting, drying, threshing, winnowing, processing, bagging, storage, transportation, and exchange before reaching the final consumer. The primary role of an effective post-harvest system is to ensure that the harvested food reaches the consumer, while fulfilling customer satisfaction in terms of quality, volume and safety. Post-harvest losses in the developed countries are lower than in the developing countries because of more efficient farming systems, better transport infrastructure, better farm management, and effective storage and processing facilities that ensure a larger proportion of the harvested foods is delivered to the market in the most desired quality and safety. For the low income countries, pre-harvesting management, processing, storage infrastructure and market facilities are either not available or are inadequate (World Bank et al., 2011)."},{"index":3,"size":180,"text":"Post-harvest loss in terms of value and consumer quality attributes can occur at any stage between harvest and consumption. The major physiological, physical and environmental causes of post-harvest losses are high crop perishability; mechanical damage; excessive exposure to high ambient temperature, relative humidity and rain; contamination by spoilage fungal and bacteria; invasion by birds, rodents, insects and other pests; and inappropriate handling, storage and processing techniques (World Bank et al., 2011). Losses may be aggravated by poor infrastructure, harvesting methods, post-harvest handling procedures, distribution, sales and marketing policies (World Bank et al., 2011). According to Tyler (1982), the economic importance of the factors leading to high post-harvest losses varies from commodity to commodity, season to season, and the enormous diversity of circumstances under which commodities are grown, harvested, stored, processed and marketed. In Eastern and Southern Africa alone, post-harvest losses are valued at US $1.6 billion per year, or about 13.5% of the US $11 billion total value of grain production (World Bank et al., 2011). Indeed, this calls for more reliable and verifiable data on post-harvest losses (Obeng-Ofori, 2011)."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"Post-harvest losses in Africa are often estimated to be between 20 and 40% (World Bank et al., 2011). Such losses are a combination of those which occur on the field, in storage, during processing and other marketing activities."},{"index":5,"size":295,"text":"In West Africa, farmers store their crops in homes, on the field, in the open, jute or polypropylene bags, conical structures, raised platforms, clay structures and baskets (Motte et al., 1995, Addo et al., 2002;Ofosu et al., 1995;Hell et al., 2000). In East and Southern Africa, farmers store crops in small bags with cow dung ash, in wood and wire cribs, pits, metal bins, wooden open-air or roofed cribs, and in raised platforms and roofed iron drums enclosed with mud (Wambugu et al., 2009;Kankolongo et al., 2009). The larger grain borer Prostephanus truncatus (Horn), grain weevil Sitophilus granarius (L.) and the lesser grain borer Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) are some of the predominant food grain storage pests in Africa (Bourne, 1977;Dick, 1988;Holst et al., 2000;Hodges, 2012). Unfortunately, farmers and crop handlers, especially women, do not have adequate information on proper crop harvesting and handling methods, resulting in significant damage by insect pests during storage and marketing (Rugumamu, 2009;Kereth et al., 2013). In addition to storage losses, losses during crop processing could be significant. Calverley (1996) showed that losses during harvesting/drying ranged from 6 to 10% for maize in some African countries: about 7% for rice in Madagascar, 4.3% in China and 4% in many Asian countries. Harvesting, drying and threshing losses reported for sorghum and millet were 11.3% and 12.2% respectively, while losses of 3.5% and 4.5% were recorded in Zambia and Zimbabwe respectively, for maize dried on raised platforms (Calverley, 1996). Threshing and shelling losses in smallholder manual methods for Zimbabwe was estimated at 1e 2.5%, while it was 3.5%, where mechanized shelling was done (Hodges, 2012). Losses for rice during threshing were 6.5% and 6% in Madagascar and Ethiopia respectively, and were 2.5% and 5% respectively during winnowing in the same countries (Hodges, 2012)."},{"index":6,"size":64,"text":"Hodges (2012) also estimated quantitative grain losses (prior to processing) to be in the range of 10e20%, but losses of over 50% in cereals and up to 100% in pulses have been reported by other investigators (Obeng-Ofori, 2011). In Tanzania, the maize weevil Sitophilus zeamais Motshulsky causes significant damage, although new studies showed that some maize varieties are more resistant to attack (Rugumamu, 2012)."},{"index":7,"size":91,"text":"Identifying best practices and innovative arrangements for increasing agricultural productivity to improve income and nutrition of farm households is a priority of most African countries. For this reason, improving post-harvest management systems is a priority for farmers and policy-makers (Rugumamu et al., 1997). New technologies and improved post-harvest management knowledge are required by the farmers. However, the report of Kimenju and de Groote, (2010) on the technological and economic implications of new maize storage techniques in Kenya emphasized that economic analysis should be carried out before introducing new techniques to farmers."},{"index":8,"size":197,"text":"The agricultural transformation programs in many African countries give priority to post-harvest processing of crops such as rice, cassava, millet and sorghum, following a value chain approach. The National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP, 2005) and the current policy on Agriculture First (\"Kilimo Kwanza\") in Tanzania (MAFSC, 2009) underscore the importance of reducing post-harvest losses. However, the financing and actual institutionalization of post-harvest storage and loss prevention strategies are still negligible compared to primary production-related activities. There is an ongoing debate among scientists, policy makers and development agencies about the merits of agricultural intensification, whether it will improve or worsen food security and poverty of the households that lack the capacity to preserve their excess production (Greeley, 2008). A possible higher cost of intensification with possible higher post-harvest losses may reduce the total farm profitability for the smallholders. For this purpose, the extent and causes of post-harvest losses of smallholder farmers need to be established. Additionally, appropriate interventions must be identified for each farming system as part of a broader agriculture intensification program aiming to increase food security, nutrition and rural livelihoods. Therefore, the specific postharvest characterization of each farming system would be required."},{"index":9,"size":62,"text":"This paper presents the results of an audit of post-harvest practices and constraints in a maize-based farming system in the semi-arid area of Central and Northern Tanzania. The purpose was to identify the factors that contribute to post-harvest losses and the general food insecurity of smallholder farmers, and to propose strategies for improving smallholder food security in similar farming systems in Africa."}]},{"head":"Material and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":185,"text":"A cross-sectional survey approach was used to collect data from fifteen communities in the semi-arid areas comprising two regions of central and northern Tanzania; Dodoma and Manyara. These regions constitute one of the most food insecure areas of Tanzania. Questionnaires with open and closed-ended questions were used to elicit responses from 333 households. The data collected included the dominant socio-economic and farming system characteristics; crop importance; methods of processing, storage and marketing practices; farmers' knowledge of the causes of postharvest losses and loss prevention measures; and perceptions of farmers about the causes of food insecurity. Crop losses were estimated by relying on the traditional knowledge of the farmers to recall the extent and relative losses that occur for each crop and at each stage of post-harvest handling: harvesting, transportation, drying, threshing, processing and storage (Teshome et al., 1999). The individual household interviews were complemented with 15 focus group interviews, one in each village, to validate the loss assessment and other questionnaire survey information. In total, 270 farmers made up of village leaderships, youth, women and village cooperative groups, took part in the focus group discussions."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"At the peak of the harvesting season in June/July 2012, and after storage for one and six months, storage areas and structures of 4e5 randomly selected households per village were inspected for physical conditions, prevalence of storage pests, and food stock. A total of 97 storage areas were inspected to further validate the information gathered through questionnaires, check-lists, and focus group discussions. The field data was entered into Microsoft Office Excel 2007, coded and analyzed using SPSS program, version 16."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"3.1. Characteristics of the farming system and the farmers Part of the surveyed area (Dodoma region) is characterized by the savanna vegetation with unimodal rainfall from FebruaryeJuly while the second part (Manyara region) is in the bimodal area, characterized by a long rainy season (Masika) from MarcheMay and short rainy season (Vuli), occurring sometime between September and December. Fifty-two percent of the sampled farming population in the study area were female, and the average household size was seven. Twenty-two percent of the population, either did not have any formal education, or did not complete primary education, and 39% were above the age of 49 years. Twenty-four percent were engaged in livestock farming and 18% engaged in supply of labor, self-employment or petty business, or were government employees (Table 1)."},{"index":2,"size":166,"text":"At least 17 crops were cultivated in the study area. A majority of the crops were those classified as durables, which can be stored or preserved for a very long time without major pre-processing (Appert, 1987). These included maize, sunflower, pigeon peas, beans, groundnuts, millet, sorghum and sesame. Perishable crops such as potato, cassava and vegetables are also grown. The three dominant crops, maize, sunflower and pigeon peas were cultivated by 32%, 16% and 12% of the population respectively (Table 2). About 28% of the population kept poultry, and 26% kept both cattle and goats. The average number of poultry per household was 12, followed by 9 for cattle and 8 for goats (Fig. 1). The farmers kept cattle for land cultivation (ox ploughing), manure, meat, milk and sale for income; while goats were kept as an asset for immediate sale, meat, manure, milk and exchange for other items. Chickens were kept for meat and sale, while donkeys were used as draught animals and for transportation."}]},{"head":"Harvesting periods and price of crops at various cycles of production","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Most crops are harvested during MayeJuly (Fig. 2). Maize is harvested from June to July. However, beans, groundnuts and sunflower are harvested over a longer period, from March to July, and pigeon peas, being perennial, are harvested mainly from August to December but continuously throughout the year."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Very few farmers harvested any crops from November to February. In effect, the interval between two harvesting seasons of most crops was about 7e9 months. This might have an implication on food security and food prices from one season to another. Effective storage facilities and sufficient storage capacity are required to maintain household food supplies."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"As expected, maize was harvested and stored in the largest amount in the study area compared to other crops (Fig. 3). On average, households harvested 1.2 tonnes maize and stored 75% while 67% of sunflower and groundnuts were stored. But within a month of storage, merely 13% of the households had maize in the store, and stocks were reduced by 63e94% for most crops, with the exception of groundnuts that were reduced by 7% (Fig. 3). The quick reduction of stock may be because maize is grown as a cash crop and therefore the aim is to sell nearly all of it."},{"index":4,"size":234,"text":"The majority of the farmers market their crops: sunflower (82%), sesame (59%), groundnuts (79%), and pigeon peas (74%), soon after harvest to traders who buy them from their homes while the balance is transported to the market for sale, by tractors (27%), motorcycles (23%), head-loads (23%) and by the use of animals (23%). The three crops with the highest average amounts recorded in the survey, maize, pigeon pea and sunflower, in the previous season sold 0.49 tonnes, 0.46 tonnes and 0.5 tonnes, respectively. There were also high amounts of beans (0.51 tonnes), and groundnuts (0.47 tonnes) sold that year. Variations in market prices were observed between the peak harvest seasons and at the end of storage period of six months (Table 3). A significant (P 0.05) variation in price were observed for most of the crops including beans, sesame, groundnuts, green grams, pigeon peas, and cowpeas. Beans were sold at an average price of US$ 320 and US$ 610 per ton, during the peak season and at the end of the storage period, respectively. The variations in prices of major crops such as maize, sunflower, cowpeas, pearl millet, and sorghum were not significantly different (P > 0.05) by the end of the storage period. The price for a ton of sesame, beans, groundnuts and green grams, at the end of storage period was estimated at US$ 579, US$605, US$ 462, and US$ 441, respectively."},{"index":5,"size":213,"text":"Three factors emerged as the key reasons that compelled the farmers to sell their crops soon after harvest. These were household expenditure needs (54%), cash needs for school fees (38%), and perception of surplus produce above storage capability (8%). This confirms the observation of Stathers et al. (2013), that farmers sell off their crops because of financial pressure. In a similar study, Schulten and Westwood (1972) reported that farmers who grew hybrid maize sold the hybrid varieties soon after harvest to keep losses low because the hybrids had low storability compared with the local varieties. The farmers in this current survey did not make a comparison of the storability of local varieties and any improved maize hybrids. However, the implication of early sale of crops soon after harvest is that the farmers miss the opportunity to increase the revenue from sale of the crops. Tefera et al. (2011a,b) had earlier hinted that the smallholder farmers' practice of selling their farm outputs soon after harvesting, only to buy the stocks back at an expensive price, just a few months after harvesting, constitutes a pathway to poverty. Hence, an ability to store the crops until when market prices are much higher provides important income opportunities to the smallholders and can possibly contribute to poverty reduction."}]},{"head":"Pre-harvest handling, post-harvest processing methods and storage practices","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Pre-harvest handling of crops mainly involves leaving the crops on the field to fully mature, ripen and/or dry. After maturity, ripening or field drying, basic harvesting and processing methods are used for shelling, de-hulling, winnowing, sorting, milling and oil extraction. Although every farmer does some cleaning or processing to transform the farm outputs into various products, only 65% of the surveyed farmers claim to be involved in processing. Kernels are processed from pigeon peas (77%, n ¼ 27), beans (55%, n ¼ 12) and some other crops. Flour is processed from maize (97%, n ¼ 210), sorghum (95%, n ¼ 20), and pearl millet (91%, n ¼ 30). Oils are extracted from sunflower (93%, n ¼ 93) and groundnuts (47%, n ¼ 8)."},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"Many processing activities in the survey areas (winnowing, dehulling, drying, sorting and shelling) were carried out manually, almost entirely by women. In the case of shelling, pickets are used for beating the maize cobs, heads of sorghum, millet and sometimes rice. The farmers reported that the manual processing methods were tiresome and take considerable time of all the household members. Despite these constraints, the motivation for income seems to sustain the use of indigenous methods of crop processing. Dehulling, milling and oil extraction were the most mechanized cereal and legume post-harvest processing activities in all the surveyed villages (Fig. 4). More women (72%) engage in manual processing activities than men (43%).    The predominance of mechanized dehulling, milling and oil extraction machines in the villages translate into the observed higher levels of maize, sunflower, and millet processing, implying that mechanization of processing activities could increase utilization of crops and possibly improve household nutrition."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"Pigeon peas and sesame, the well known cash crops in these areas, are not mechanically processed, although the farmers reported selling about 86% and 100% of the crops, respectively."},{"index":4,"size":113,"text":"For the livestock farmers, there were no improved technologies for cream separation from milk. Thirty-five percent of the fat in milk is in form of cream. Separating the cream from the milk reduces the rate of deterioration of the milk because the fat degrades quickly and causes off-flavor in full-fat fresh milk. However, when separated from milk, the milk kept longer and the cream serves as an important high value ingredient for cash or household cooking. All the livestock farmers, consisting of 44% of the total surveyed farmers, that indigenous practices of milk storage and processing caused off-flavor, poor color, and contamination by sand as well as poor recovery of cream from milk."},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"Seventy-six percent of the farmers reported the use of polypropylene sacks for storage of processed and unprocessed crops, while granaries made with mud and plant materials, known as kihenge, were used by 17% of the farmers to store their crops (Fig. 5). Granaries made of traditional mudded bricks, sometimes cemented, were also used by very small number of households."}]},{"head":"Losses associated with pre-and post-harvest handling practices","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":507,"text":"The study revealed that 70% of the surveyed farmers experience food losses during pre-and post-harvest handling operations, including during manual processing that cause mechanical breakage and spillage of the food, and irksomeness to the processor. Crop losses occur during pre-harvest drying on the field were caused by wild animals, birds and rodents. In worst cases, up to 32% of maize-on-cobs could be lost to birds, monkeys, other rodents before harvest, and through qualitative spoilage by mould and fungi which could be extensive in wet conditions. Similar qualitative loss through aflatoxin contamination of maize and cassava in Tanzania and Congo had been reported (Manjula et al., 2009). In terms of proportion of matured crops, 15% was estimated as preharvest field loss for most grain and legume crops. The farmers expressed their inability and skills to effectively prevent or control field losses by pests and rodents. An estimated 1.5% of the maize, millet, sorghum and groundnut outputs were estimated to be lost during harvesting. Losses during transportation of the crops by head-loads, on bicycles and other means were 2.5%. This compares with 2.25% losses recorded during transportation of rice from the field to the store and 1% from the store to the market for maize in Madagascar (Hodges, 2012). An estimated loss of 13.4% for maize (P ¼ 0.009), 20% for millet and sunflower, 18% for groundnut, 10% for pigeon pea, 6% for sorghum and 5% for sesame occur when manual methods of processing were used (Table 4). The losses were in form of mechanical damage such as breakage, puncture, compression, rupture, dent bruises, or spillages of the crops. Calverley (1996) estimated about 7% loss for rice in Madagascar, 4.3% rice loss in China and 4% for many Asian countries, and 6e10% losses during harvesting/drying of maize in Africa. Harvesting, drying and threshing losses reported by the farmers in the current study for sorghum and millet were 11.3% and 12.2% respectively. Losses of 3.5% and 4.5% were recorded for maize dried on raised platforms in Zambia and Zimbabwe respectively (Calverley, 1996). Threshing and shelling losses in smallholder manual method for Zimbabwe was estimated at 1e2.5%, while it was 3.5% where mechanized shelling was used (Hodges, 2012). Losses for rice   during threshing were 6.5% and 6% in Madagascar and Ethiopia respectively and were 2.5% and 5% respectively during winnowing (Hodges, 2012). Following the model of Bourne (1977) and proposal of Obeng-Ofori ( 2011) the leaky food pipeline with the post-harvest (PH) practices in the study area, loss agents and the most affected crops at each stage of the supply chain are shown in Fig. 6. Indigenous post-harvest practices such as harvesting by hand, head-load transportation, manual processing, and storage on the floor/in the open, or in oxygen and moisture permeable bags, cribs or granaries are the dominant causes of crop losses. Some post-harvest handling practices such as the use of poor harvesting tools, storage in oxygen and moisture permeable bags and reuse of dirty and contaminated gunny bags are either unable to prevent food losses or they exacerbate post-harvest losses."},{"index":2,"size":245,"text":"Although significant variations may exist in the proportions of food lost in the field and during storage, the farmers estimated that the total crop loss from the field until final marketing in the study area was between 25% and 40%. This agrees with the range of 20e30% losses by weight estimated for grains by Tefera et al. (2011b). Hodges (2012) estimated post-harvest loss of grains in Tanzania as 22% (excluding field loss) and 27% for Benin Republic. The Feed the Future (FtF) program of the USAID estimated that as much as 40% of each harvest in Tanzania is lost because of lack of good storage, and poor processing and transportation systems. A study in Tanzania to compare different methods of processing and modes of transporting fish (Latesniloticus) from Lake Victoria to Dar-es-Salaam markets by rail or by air revealed that the highest losses occur during processing, but transporting the fish by air gave the best monetary return (Cheke and Ward, 1998). The farmers in the current survey summarized that, in general terms, the losses that occur in the field are of more economic significance than those which occur during any other single activity from harvesting to marketing. Nonetheless, the losses that result from incorrect harvesting methods; poor handling, threshing, shelling, cleaning, sorting or drying practices; and bad transport and loading practices, cannot be ignored. Therefore, access to appropriate storage technology is a critical need for the smallholder producers (Golob et al., 2002;Bokusheva et al., 2012)."}]},{"head":"Storage structures and incidence of storage pests","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The assessment of the farmers' storage areas after six months of storage revealed that crops were damaged in the storage structures by insect pests. As shown in Table 5, the major pests identified in the storage areas of most farmers were larger grain borer (Prostephanus truncatus), grain weevil (Sitophilus granarius) and lesser grain borer (Rhizopertha dominica)."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"Granaries in the storage area, mostly made of mud and plant materials, were dilapidated and were not able to maintain air tightness required to eliminate insect pests in storage. World Bank et al., (2011) observed that the traditional mud granaries are being abandoned for lack of knowledge of how to construct them, lack of space as they take up a lot of room even when empty compared to sacks, lack of ability to move them rapidly in case of fire or flood and less easy to market the stored grain rapidly in case of emergencies."},{"index":3,"size":110,"text":"The farmers believed that the weevils account for 36% of the total loss for maize while the large grain borers (LGB) account for more than half of the losses recorded for maize. In a similar study, Dick (1988) reported that the LGB alone could increase losses of stored maize and dried cassava to 30%. A similar observation was made in Sudan where 8.34% of sorghum inside non-airtight sweibas (cylindrical mud bins) for 8 months was lost. But, the loss was reduced to 2.23%, when the sweibas were hermetically sealed and raised above the ground (Shazali and Ahmed, 1998).  3.6. Farmers' perceptions about post-harvest losses and knowledge on the control measures"},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"Most farmers considered changes in weather (40%), pest damage in the field (33%) and storage pests (16%) as the three major factors that exacerbate post-harvest losses (Fig. 7)."},{"index":5,"size":128,"text":"An assessment of the farmers' knowledge of post-harvest loss control revealed high level of awareness of the need for control measures. Farmers reported to have previously applied control measures against post-harvest losses, about 23% using herbs and 20% using wood ash, while 51% of the farmers used commercial chemicals, considered to be a modern pest control method. On the other hand, 94e99% of the surveyed farmers had no appreciation of proper drying, maintenance of hygienic conditions, pre-processing, proper handling and packaging of their crops, or use of metal silos and other hermetic storage devices as control measures against post-harvest losses (Table 6). Many farmers reuse sacks which are often dirty, contaminated with insects or have holes in them, thereby increasing the possibility of damage of the stored crops."},{"index":6,"size":79,"text":"Two challenges emerged as the major stumbling blocks in the consistent use of the control measures. These are higher prices of the artificial chemicals (71%) and the need for large volumes of the chemicals (29%). Some of the modern technologies for controlling post-harvest loss include contact insecticides and fumigants, botanicals, inert dusts, biological control agents, hermetic storage technologies in form of metal silos and high-density polyethylene that reduces gas exchange (Obeng-Ofori, 2011;Tefera et al., 2011a). De Groote et al."},{"index":7,"size":110,"text":"(2013) demonstrated that metal silos were effective in controlling maize weevils and the larger grain borer without the use of pesticides such as Actellic Super and Phostoxin. It was not known during the current study whether the farmers were able to handle or apply the chemical pesticides correctly according to the manufacturers' prescriptions, but Rugumamu (2011) previously highlighted the difficulties faced by farmers in Tanzania regarding the high cost, limited availability, and uncertain genuineness of the available pesticides. Nonetheless, there is sufficient evidence to suggest the need for increasing the skills and capacity of smallholder farmers, traders, transporters, marketers, and other stakeholders in the application of modern pest control measures."},{"index":8,"size":49,"text":"The majority of the farmers (96%) reported that they had limited knowledge in relation to the proper post-harvest management methods, especially for crop storage and pest control, and 55% of them expressed the desire to receive training from agriculture extension officers on management of pest and diseases (Table 6)."}]},{"head":"Farmers' perceptions about the causes of food insecurity","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":235,"text":"The study estimated average crop outputs of the farmers as 1.2 tons of maize, 432 kg of pigeon peas, 401 kg of sunflower and 368 kg of beans. Manyara Region is estimated to have a significantly higher amount of stored maize, sunflower, beans and pigeon peas (P 0.05), than Dodoma region. Most of the surveyed farmers (77%) affirmed that their households did not have adequate food during the previous year. The proportion of households with inadequate food was significantly (P 0.05) higher in Dodoma (81%) compared to Manyara region (71%). In addition, 41% of the surveyed households reported to have received an average of 42.5 kg of food aid in the previous season (Table 7). During focus group discussions, low crop outputs were identified as a factor responsible for food insecurity. And, 70% of the surveyed households attributed the low crop output to weather changes. Weather changes were described as erratic rainfall and low amount of rain with poor distribution, which negatively affects crop performance. In some occasions, the planting of seeds close to the onset of rainfall did not guarantee good yields because the rainfall was inadequate to support crop growth. Again, weather changes were noted to aggravate postharvest losses; sometimes when mature crops needed to dry, suddenly rainfall was experienced, causing significant food losses, and reducing both the quantity and quality, in terms of nutrients and taste, and significantly diminishing the market value."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Previous investigators in post-harvest have observed that postharvest losses are aggravated by climatic variability (Hodges, 2012;Stathers et al., 2013). It was observed in Swaziland that harvesting and drying-losses of 16.3% occurred when maize was harvested under damp conditions compared with 6e10% when maize was harvested during more favorable dry conditions in other locations (Hodges, 2012)."},{"index":3,"size":140,"text":"The farmers in the current study believed that the combination of poor crop yields and high post-harvest losses, caused by climate variability, are responsible for widespread food insecurity. Many studies and common opinion is that the negative effect of climate variability on food insecurity of African smallholders is likely to get worse in future (Parry et al., 2009) and more Africans are likely to depend on imported food (Schmidhuber and Tubiello, 2007). As debatable as such projections or observations may be, the farmers' perspective of the role of climate change in their food security status underscores the need for further investigation and understanding of how climate change might impact on post-harvest issues at smallholder level and then develop both institutional and technological changes that will reduce vulnerability in the face of climate variability and even change (Stathers et al., 2013)."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":171,"text":"Climate variability has, at a minimum, twin-consequences on smallholder farmers e low agricultural productivity and high postharvest losses. The poor state of available post-harvest handling infrastructure and farmers' inadequate knowledge on proper postharvest handling methods seems to further aggravate the already fragile food insecurity. In addition, losses during manual processing and during storage deprive the farmers the opportunity to gain from increased market prices of processed products, thereby worsening poverty. Processing offers farmers an advantage to diversify their incomes and food by processing their agriculture commodities to different products. However, the current manual processing practices, being labor intensive, time-taking and with low yield, deprive the farmers, particularly women, of the opportunity to diversity the market options and be financially rewarded. Therefore, large farming operations with increased productivity per unit farm area do not appear to be attractive to the smallholders. Increasing productivity whilst the farmers lack the ability to store excess farm outputs may increase post-harvest losses, reduce economic viability and profitability, and may be a disincentive for investment in agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Any strategies to help smallholders to simultaneously adapt their farming systems to climate variability, improve their capability to use modern farming tools, and improve their ability to use suitable processing and storage methods could be the pathway out of hunger and poverty. Therefore, the dissemination of improved agro-processing technologies and training of the smallholders is necessary in order to achieve food security and improved nutrition."},{"index":3,"size":154,"text":"From the policy perspectives, national agricultural development strategies need to guarantee the availability of effective community-based storage infrastructure. This would have a positive effect on the food security situation and food prices, especially in the scenarios where crop yields are low, total farm outputs are small, or diets are insufficiently diversified in communities with high dependency on a few staple foods. Indeed, targeting of postharvest technologies based on cropelivestock production systems is likely to improve food security. Appropriate processing machines and tools of varying scales will reduce processing time, labor, and food losses, and will have a significant impact on women since they are chiefly involved in food processing. Finally, increasing the knowledge of farmers on proper use of improved post-harvest storage technologies will have an impact on the ability of smallholder households to reduce food losses but appropriate policies are needed to effect measures that can reduce market imperfections and other market risks."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. Livestock ownership. "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. Harvesting periods for various crops. "},{"text":"Fig. 3 . Fig.3. Food storage and stock balance after one month storage. "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . Fig. 4. Unit operations carried out by the farmers during crop processing. "},{"text":"Fig. 5 . Fig. 5. Storage technologies and materials. "},{"text":"Fig. 6 . Fig. 6. Post-harvest loss characteristics in the maize-based system. "},{"text":"Table 1 Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the farmers. Background characteristic Overall sample Survey area  Background characteristicOverall sampleSurvey area   Dodoma Manyara DodomaManyara  % % % %%% Sex    Sex Male 48.2 47.6 49.0 Male48.247.649.0 Female 51.8 52.4 51.0 Female51.852.451.0 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 Total100.0100.0100.0 Education    Education No formal education 6.6 6.3 7.0 No formal education6.66.37.0 Not completed primary school 21.0 23.7 17.5 Not completed primary school21.023.717.5 Completed primary school 68.5 65.8 72.0 Completed primary school68.565.872.0 Completed secondary school 3.9 4.2 3.5 Completed secondary school3.94.23.5 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 Total100.0100.0100.0 Household size    Household size 1e3 10.5 11.6 9.1 1e310.511.69.1 4e6 41.7 43.7 39.2 4e641.743.739.2 >6 47.7 44.7 51.7 >647.744.751.7 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 Total100.0100.0100.0 Age of respondents    Age of respondents From 18 to 49 years 61.3 57.9 65.7 From 18 to 49 years61.357.965.7 Above 49 years 38.7 42.1 34.3 Above 49 years38.742.134.3 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 Total100.0100.0100.0 Means of livelihood    Means of livelihood Crop production 55.3 57.8 52.4 Crop production55.357.852.4 Livestock farming 24.1 14.0 36.3 Livestock farming24.114.036.3 Casual labor, self-employment/ 18.4 26.1 9.1 Casual labor, self-employment/18.426.19.1 petty business    petty business Charcoal making 1.9 1.5 2.2 Charcoal making1.91.52.2 Government employee 0.3 0.6 e Government employee0.30.6e Total 100.0 100 100 Total100.0100100  "},{"text":"Table 3 Price variation from peak harvest season to end of storage. Crop Peak season End of storage P-value CropPeak seasonEnd of storageP-value  N Average market N Average market  NAverage marketNAverage market   price (US$/ton)  price (US$/ton)  price (US$/ton)price (US$/ton) Beans 35 315.18 36 605.90 0.001 Beans35315.1836605.900.001 Sesame 34 260.66 25 578.75 0.001 Sesame34260.6625578.750.001 Groundnuts 34 279.96 33 461.74 0.004 Groundnuts34279.9633461.740.004 Green grams 15 302.92 11 441.48 0.020 Green grams15302.9211441.480.020 Pigeon peas 90 326.39 71 428.79 0.001 Pigeon peas90326.3971428.790.001 Cowpeas 15 260.42 19 402.96 0.220 Cowpeas15260.4219402.960.220 Sunflower 110 288.86 88 296.91 0.509 Sunflower110288.8688296.910.509 Pearl millet 18 259.83 22 295.46 0.415 Pearl millet18259.8322295.460.415 Sorghum 13 245.19 23 268.48 0.317 Sorghum13245.1923268.480.317 Maize 99 237.56 139 247.73 0.211 Maize99237.56139247.730.211  "},{"text":"Table 4 Percentage losses during manual processing practices. Crops N Average CropsNAverage   processing processing   loss (%) loss (%) Maize 119 13.45 Maize11913.45 Sunflower 57 20.01 Sunflower5720.01 Pigeon peas 17 10.20 Pigeon peas1710.20 Pearl millet 11 20.18 Pearl millet1120.18 Sorghum 10 6.48 Sorghum106.48 Groundnuts 5 18.48 Groundnuts518.48 Sesame 4 5.38 Sesame45.38 Beans 6 2.03 Beans62.03 Paddy 2 3.50 Paddy23.50 Bambara nuts 4 1.28 Bambara nuts41.28  "},{"text":"Table 5 Types of insect pests and contribution to total loss. Type of insect pest N % Type of insect pestN% Larger grain borers (Prostephanus truncatus) 55 56.7 Larger grain borers (Prostephanus truncatus)5556.7 Grain weevil (Sitophilus granaries) 35 36.1 Grain weevil (Sitophilus granaries)3536.1 Lesser grain borer (Rhizopthera dominica) 7 7.2 Lesser grain borer (Rhizopthera dominica)77.2 Total 97 100 Total97100  "},{"text":"Table 6 Application of the control measures, effectiveness and challenges.Fig. 7. Farmers' perceptions about the factors responsible for post-harvest losses. Variable N % Table 7   VariableN%Table 7 Farmers who applied a control measure 265 79.6 Farmers' perception about the causes of food insecurity.   Farmers who applied a control measure26579.6Farmers' perception about the causes of food insecurity. Farmers who did not apply any control measures Total 68 333 20.4 100.0 Food security situation n % Farmers who did not apply any control measures Total68 33320.4 100.0Food security situationn% Control measures used   Food insecure households (2011) 255 76.6 Control measures usedFood insecure households (2011)25576.6 Commercial chemicals 135 50.9 Food insecure households-Dodoma 153 80.5 Commercial chemicals13550.9Food insecure households-Dodoma15380.5 Traditional herbs 60 22.6 Food insecure households-Manyara 102 71.3 Traditional herbs6022.6Food insecure households-Manyara10271.3 Ash 52 19.6 Households that received food aid in 2011 137 41.1 Ash5219.6Households that received food aid in 201113741.1 Others (traps, proper drying, maintaining good 18 6.9 Farmers' perception about causes of food insecurity   Others (traps, proper drying, maintaining good186.9Farmers' perception about causes of food insecurity hygienic conditions, pre-processing, proper   Weather change 233 70.0 hygienic conditions, pre-processing, properWeather change23370.0 handling and packaging   Poor processing techniques 26 7.8 handling and packagingPoor processing techniques267.8 Total 265 100.0 Pest, disease 23 6.9 Total265100.0Pest, disease236.9 Farmers' knowledge gap in applying the control measures  Low harvest 18 5.4 Farmers' knowledge gap in applying the control measuresLow harvest185.4 Management of pest and diseases 184 55.3 Low rainfall 14 4.2 Management of pest and diseases18455.3Low rainfall144.2 Proper use of storage facilities 66 19.8 Poor rainfall distribution 8 2.4 Proper use of storage facilities6619.8Poor rainfall distribution82.4 Processing of perishable crops 56 16.8 Poor weather 4 1.2 Processing of perishable crops5616.8Poor weather41.2 Sorting and packaging 27 8.1 Not hard working 4 1.2 Sorting and packaging278.1Not hard working41.2 Total 333 100.0 Poor infrastructure 3 0.9 Total333100.0Poor infrastructure30.9  "}],"sieverID":"4e6fa2d6-c6c8-4ec5-843c-c1637b1fb956","abstract":"An assessment of post-harvest handling practices and food losses in a maize-based farming system in semi-arid areas of Central and Northern Tanzania was carried out in 2012. Seventeen crops were mostly cultivated by the farmers in the surveyed areas; maize (32%), sunflower (16%) and pigeon peas (12%) were the most cultivated while maize was the most stored. There are at least 7 months between two harvest seasons of each crop; while farmers sold the crops soon after harvest to cater for household expenditure (54%) and school fees (38%), the market prices increased significantly (P 0.05) within six months of storage. Most processing activities (winnowing, dehulling, drying, sorting and shelling) were carried out manually, almost entirely by women, but mechanized processing for maize, sunflower, millet, and sorghum were commonly practiced. Quantitative post-harvest losses of economic importance occur in the field (15%); during processing (13e20%), and during storage (15e25%). The main storage pests responsible for the losses are larger grain borers (Prostephanus truncatus), grain weevils (Sitophilus granarius) and, the lesser grain borer (Rhyzopertha dominica). Most of the farmers considered changes in weather (40%), field damage (33%), and storage pests (16%) as the three most important factors causing poor crop yields and aggravating food losses. However, survey results suggest that the farmers' poor knowledge and skills on post-harvest management are largely responsible for the food losses. 77% of the surveyed farmers reported inadequate household foods and 41% received food aid during the previous year. Increasing farmers' technical know-how on adaptation of the farming systems to climate variability, and training on post-harvest management could reduce food losses, and improve poverty and household food security."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0597935616097b091156ae9fc437468d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/2869/1426.pdf"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Both those contributions are derived from papers presented at the International Workshop on Traditional Marine Tenure and the Sustainable Management of Marine Resources in Asia and the Pacific, held at the University of the South Pacific last July (see note in the Information Section)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Daniel Pauly (1993) has defined 'Malthusian overfishing' as a situation where small-scale fishers in developing countries engage in 'wholesale resource destruction in their effort to maintain their incomes.'"},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"The cause of this situation is seen to be an excess of fishers over available resources, and an inability of fishers to move to other forms of employment, even in the face of resource decline, because of lack of alternative employment opportunities. Pauly (1993) states that the key element in a strategy to mitigate Malthusian overfishing is to provide women the means to limit the number of children they want to bear. He also proposes alternative employment opportunities, 'traditional' management mechanisms, 'modern' gear restrictions, and sanctuaries as means to alleviate pressure on fisheries."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"There is good reason for drawing attention to the issue of population in fishing villages. Clearly, the number of people in artisanal fisheries has exploded in recent decades, with dire consequences for the state of coastal and aquatic resources. The prognosis is that the population of coastal areas will grow enormously in decades to come (WRI/UNEP/ UNDP, 1992)."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"Be that as it may, it may be ill-advised to put population control front and centre among the possible ways to confront the problem of overfishing."},{"index":5,"size":88,"text":"There are four general reasons for this. First, rapid population growth may be an epiphenomenon of other social forces causing overfishing. Second, small-scale fishers are not the only party responsible for over-exploitation of coastal fisheries. Third, some of the growth in the numbers of small-scale fishers may not be attributable to population growth per se. Fourth, it is not clear that the path out of fishing to non-fishing livelihoods is blocked, as is commonly thought. This article will explain each of these four lines of reasoning in sequence."},{"index":6,"size":70,"text":"It should be noted in advance that there are not sufficient data to support the concept of Malthusian overfishing. Nor are there sufficient data to refute the concept out of hand. It is possible, however, to raise preliminary objections at the level of theory and on the basis of case study information. This article will merely summarise some of these preliminary objections while pointing out the need for further research."}]},{"head":"Abstract","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"Daniel Pauly's concept of Malthusian overfishing states that fisheries over-exploitation in tropical developing countries is caused primarily by excess human population. While it is certainly true that growing numbers of people are causing pressure on fishing resources, the concept of Malthusian overfishing downplays other, possibly causally prior factors such as relations of power in society, income distribution, and technological development. This article points out some possible pitfalls of making family planning the cornerstone of efforts to alleviate fishing pressure."}]},{"head":"Theories of population growth","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"One of the central tenets of Malthusian and neo-Malthusian theory is to see the growth of human population as an independent, exogenous force governing the state of human affairs. 1 It has frequently been stated in neo-Malthusian writings, for example, that population increase is the primary cause of poverty, famine and environmental degradation. 2 It has also been assumed in neo-Malthusian theory that parents who bear children beyond the limits of their material resources are being irrational."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"Non-Malthusian theory reverses this causal sequence and sees rapid population growth in the developing world as a consequence of poverty and income inequality. 3 A corollary of this view is that poor people bear large numbers of children as a rational survival strategy. Often, for resource-poor families, it is argued, the larger the number of children, the larger the amount of household income from childhood labour and remittances, and the greater the degree of security of parents when they reach old age. The implication of this theory is that rapid population growth can only be adequately addressed by first taking measures to alleviate poverty."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Over the years, proponents of both theories have made concessions. For example, some of the more ardent past proponents of neo-Malthusianism now readily acknowledge that socio-economic conditions have a strong role in conditioning fertility rates. 4   Many non-Malthusians concede that there is much unmet demand for family planning services among the poor in developing countries. However, significant differences between the two bodies of theory remain."},{"index":4,"size":142,"text":"The point here is not to take sides in the demographic debate, but rather to point out thatregardless of what theory is assumed -it is by no means clear that fertility control should be the first order of business in confronting overfishing. In fishing villages where poverty underlies a perceived need to have many children, a focus on family planning will not be an effective way to safeguard the fishery. In fishing villages where there is unmet demand for contraception and fertility control, family planning will not be an effective way to safeguard the fishery. In this situation, family planning services may help in alleviating resource pressure. However, for reasons that are explained below, even in the latter case, we must be wary of exaggerated expectations of how much fertility control can, or even should, accomplish toward resolving the problem of overfishing."}]},{"head":"Commercial exploitation of coastal fisheries","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Small-scale and commercial fishers often compete for the same resources in coastal capture fisheries (Smith, 1979;Thomson 1980;Bailey, 1986;Bailey, 1987a). In some cases, we know that the proportion of fish taken by commercial gears is quite substantial."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"In San Miguel Bay, Philippines, it was found in 1980 that 75 small trawlers, 3 per cent of the fishing units, were earning more than the remaining 2,300 fishing units in the Bay (Smith & Mines, 1982). On the north coast of Java, small-scale fishers experienced a serious decline of catches and some were forced to leave fishing as the numbers of commercial trawlers grew in the 1970s (Bailey, 1986;Bailey, 1987a;Bailey, 1988). With the imposition of a trawl ban in 1980, there was a remarkable recovery of demersal fish stocks (Dwiponggo, 1992), the fisheries were able to accommodate a growing number of smallscale fishers, and the incomes of these fishers reportedly grew (Bailey, 1987a;Chong et al., 1987)."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"These two cases suggest that we cannot conclude that a growing number of small-scale fishers is invariably the primary cause of overfishing. The experience in North Java should provoke us to ask if there are other fisheries in the developing world where a ban on trawls or other forms of commercial fishing might alleviate fishing pressure and also raise the living standards of marginal fishers. Furthermore, in cases where the premises of non-Malthusian theory are correct, a trawl ban and subsequent increase in the living standard of marginal fishers might help induce those fishers to bear fewer children."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"1 Malthusian theory (as espoused by its originator, the economist Thomas Malthus) promoted sexual abstinence, celibacy and delayed marriage as the means to control fertility. The theory did not promote contraception, viewing it as a vice. Neo-Malthusianism differs in believing that contraceptive technology is a necessary and harmless means to control population (Humphrey & Buttel, 1980:36 & 72)."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"2 See for example Ehrlich (1968), Hardin (1977), and Brown et al. (1985)."},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"3 See for example the work of Mamdani (1972) and Murdoch (1980)."}]},{"head":"4","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Of particular note is the change over time in the writings of Ehrlich (1968Ehrlich ( , 1991) ) and passages on population in the State of the World reports of the Worldwatch Institute."}]},{"head":"Migration into the fishing sector","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"In his article, Pauly (1993) explains that population increase in artisanal fishing villages results both from internal growth and also from migration into these villages 5 . It is possible to argue that migration of resource-poor people into fishing is merely part and parcel of the broader problem of excessive human population growth at-large in a given country. But this is not necessarily the case. Entry into fishing can also be viewed as a shift in employment caused by various forms of migration-inducing factors. Among these we might consider distributional, technological, and ecological causes of displacement."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"'Distributional displacement' would involve the migration of people as a result of a re-apportionment of resources from less powerful to more powerful sectors in society. A national-level example would be appropriation of land resources by rural elites, forcing farmers (under conditions of resource scarcity) to look for non-farm employment. 6 An international-level example might be the combined effects of the declining world prices for primary agricultural commodities since the early 1980s, and the declining terms of trade and increasing debt of developing countries. Lower profits, in particular for marginal agricultural livelihoods, may have propelled some people into fishing."},{"index":3,"size":128,"text":"An example of 'technological displacement' would be the effect of farm mechanisation on the rural labour force. Investment in large-scale, capital-intensive agriculture and the use of 'labor-saving' machinery is one of the reasons for migration out of farming (UNFPA 1993:13). 7 'Ecological displacement' may be one of the reasons for increasing population in fishing villages. Examples would include farmers entering fishing after trying and failing to make a living on marginal/fragile land, or fishers migrating from an over-exploited fishery to one not yet overfished. Here again, one of the underlying causes may be overall population growth, but we cannot ignore possible non-demographic causes of ecological damage. For example, farming in ecologically sen-sitive areas can result from 'distributional displacement', or from other factors disrupting the lives of rural people."},{"index":4,"size":175,"text":"The case of south-eastern Rajasthan in India is instructive. There, the government has assisted 2,300 people in three tribal groups to transfer out of forest-degrading livelihoods and into fishing. An excess of people over available land resources was clearly part of the problem. However, another dimension of the problem is the ethnic history of the region. The tribal groups have taken refuge in hilly lands and jungles to avoid persecution by the dominant Rajput people; this is one key reason why they have taken up forest-based employment on marginal land (Kulshreshtha, 1990). Pauly (1993) notes that alternative employment options for fishers are limited and he implies that labour mobility and/or migration out of fishing is not a leading option for mitigating overfishing. This may be true in some settings, but not others. Panayotou & Panayotou (1986), in their longitudinal study of Thai fishing villages in four coastal provinces, found that mobility in and out of the villages is considerable and that '(m)obility of labour out of fishing is, if anything, greater than mobility into fishing'."}]},{"head":"Spontaneous adjustment to overfishing","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":209,"text":"Research in overfished San Miguel Bay, Philippines, found that although the absolute numbers of fishers had increased between 1939 and 1980, there had been a substantial net outmigration over that period of time (Bailey, 1982). A recent study of the same area found that the population of the Bay's 74 fishing villages had grown 25 per cent between 1980 and 1993, but the numbers of fishers had declined (unpublished data). It appears that under conditions of overfishing, the local non-fishery sector has been absorbing a greater share of growth in the labour force than in the past and may also be accommodating some people who have left fishing. Since many of the government's efforts to provide alternative employment for fishers in the Bay have failed, one can only conclude that there 5 For references to movement from agriculture and inland areas into coastal fishing in developing countries, see Cordell (1973), Smith (1979), Bailey (1982), Cordell & McKean (1986), Panayotou & Panayotou (1986), Bailey (1987b), Signey (1987), Kendrick (1988), andPauly &Thia-Eng (1988). 6 Kendrick (1988) observed that several fishers in a small fishing village in Masbate, Philippines, originally moved to the village to avoid armed conflict occurring inland. This form of migration is possibly a derivative of 'distributional displacement.' 7"},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"In some areas of Asia, technological displacement may have occurred on a significant scale in spite of the labour-absorbing effects of the Green Revolution. Boyce (1993) has shown that -on balance -the combined effect of the Green Revolution and farm mechanisation in rice agriculture in the Philippines has been displacement of labour. Similar trends have been observed in other Asian countries (Jayasuriya & Shand 1986)."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"has been a degree of unplanned adjustment in the Bay economy to the problem of overfishing. These two cases do not necessarily demonstrate that non-fisheries livelihood options offer a better way to deal with overfishing than family planning. They do, however, demonstrate the need to know if spontaneous adjustments to the problem of overfishing offer more promise as a solution than previously thought."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Daniel Pauly has made a contribution to fisheries science by drawing attention to the damaging effect of growing human population on the longterm integrity of fisheries resources. He has made the important observation that the capture fisheries sector -unlike agriculture -cannot be made to produce more fish through mechanical or biochemical intervention."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Nonetheless, the concept of Malthusian overfishing suffers from a serious drawback. In the tradition of Malthusianism and neo-Malthusianism, Pauly's concept focuses on the poor as agents of environmental decay, with scant attention to the structural antecedents of poverty and high fertility. The concept gives disproportionate attention to physical rather than systemic agency in environmental degradation."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"In spite of these weaknesses in Pauly's (1993) formulation of the problem of overfishing, he has clearly demonstrated elsewhere a thoughtful understanding of the need to consider socio-economic factors influencing human reproduction. For example, with regard to the problem of population pressure on fisheries, he has written: 'Because poverty is the root of an array of fishery-related and other socioeconomic problems, solutions to fishing problems will be forthcoming only when the central issue, poverty itself, has been resolved' (Pauly & Thia-Eng 1988). Pauly's future writings on the problem of overfishing would have greater theoretical rigor and would be more persuasive if they more consistently followed this line of reasoning."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"If a workable theory of overfishing is to be constructed, it must: (l) avoid those tenets of Malthusianism and neoMalthusianism that are questionable; (2) take due account of the structural/systemic factors leading to overfishing; and (3) give attention to the specifically non-demographic factors underpinning the problem of overfishing."},{"index":5,"size":77,"text":"Fisheries management in tropical developing countries would be well served by a cogent theory of overfishing focussing on the human dimension. For lack of such a theory, we run the risk of treating symptoms as causes and of not getting at the root of the problem. In order to create a well-grounded theory, research must be conducted on the relative significance of social and economic factors leading to overfishing, and on the causal relationships among these factors."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"46e6ddc7-b5b2-49ab-8870-0a6f893fe0f6","abstract":"A fourth contribution, by Michael D. Lieber, describes traditional fishing methods and strategies on the Polynesian atoll of Kapingamarangi, Pohnpei State, FSM. It is based on his recently published monograph, More than a living: fishing and the social order on a Polynesian atoll, Westview Press, Boulder (1994). This monograph will be reviewed in the next Information Bulletin."}

data/part_4/05bdcefda544407e5761a7d68885669c.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05bdcefda544407e5761a7d68885669c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2b4ff0cb-6597-436f-96e2-dc8b30ba0131/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"More Meat, Milk and Fish by and for the Poor","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"FISH FOR FOOD AND NUTRITION SECURITY","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Consumption of milk, meat, eggs and fi sh (the animal source foods) contributes signifi cantly to preventing undernutrition and achieving nutrition security. For many developing country communities, especially those living close to coastal and inland waters, fi sh are the dominant animal source food. Accounting for more than 50% of the animal protein in the diet for 400 million poor people in Africa and South Asia, fi sh provide both quality animal protein and critical micronutrients. This nutrition is especially important for vulnerable groups, such as infants, children, pregnant and nursing women and those living with HIV/AIDS."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Driven by rising population, urbanization and increasing expectations of a diversifi ed diet, demand among poor consumers will increase dramatically for many countries where fi sh are an important part of the diet. Meeting this demand will be especially challenging for Africa where per capita fi sh supply has remained low and relatively static for the last three decades."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"Globally, about 47% of fi sh for human consumption is now supplied by aquaculture. With most wild capture fi sheries either fully or over-exploited, achieving large scale, environmentally sustainable increases in supply of fi sh to poor consumers will require further aquaculture growth. This is especially true for Africa where aquaculture currently makes a much lower contribution to fi sh supply than the rest of the world. African aquaculture currently produces less than 2% of global aquaculture production, representing less than 5% of Africa's fi sh (FAOStat, 2010)."}]},{"head":"CGIAR RESEARCH ON ANIMAL SOURCE FOODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"As a member of the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), The WorldFish Center will partner with several other CGIAR Centers in the CGIAR Research Program 3.7 \"More Meat Milk and Fish by and for the Poor\" (CRP 3.7). Under this program we will work to help achieve large scale, environmentally sustainable increases in supply of fi sh to poor consumers in developing countries. We will do this by focusing our research to develop new seed and feed technologies, understand how to improve the institutional environment, and by testing an integrated value-chain approach to these issues in a limited number of countries. In doing so, we also recognize the importance of aquaculture as an engine for rural development and will seek to achieve these increases by strengthening aquaculturebased value chains in which the poor are able to capture a signifi cant share of the benefi ts."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"The program takes a themed approach that combines foundational technological research (Theme 1) with focussed programmatic engagement to support integrated value chain development in a few selected countries (Theme 2). A fi nal underpinning theme on Targetting Gender and Impact (Theme 3) is designed to support the program by: • Ensuring that gender and equity are mainstreamed into the program in a transformative way. • Ensuring that the program is well focussed and working to deliver its intended impact on target benefi ciaries. • Measuring whether the intended impact on target benefi ciaries are delivered. • Identifying and documenting the mechanisms and processes that brought success."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"With a budget of $25m over the fi rst three years, the program aims to deliver annual production growth rates of over 10% in priority countries, leading to gender equitable increases in per capita consumption of over 20% for 20m poor consumers by 2018, thereby contributing to reduced micronutrient defi ciencies among these populations."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"The focus of research for the fi sh components of the Program are on technology platform and integrated value chain research."}]},{"head":"TECHNOLOGY PLATFORM RESEARCH","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Research on aquaculture breed and feed technologies forms the platform for growth in the aquaculture sector. With a view to generating widely applicable international and regional public goods, we will work on these issues in a limited number of countries where there is emerging national demand for these technologies, and where institutional capacity exists to develop and apply them. The research agenda will focus on three broad themes:"},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Growth in aquaculture is essential if Africa is to produce enough fi sh to feed its people."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"i. Selective breeding of key species continues to deliver signifi cant productivity gains for aquaculture. The Program will therefore continue this work to provide improved strains suitable for developing country farmers. It will also provide technical backstopping to partner countries in Africa and Asia where there is potential for large scale increase in fi sh supply. This support will help develop and evaluate national breeding programs for species that are suited to the prevailing environmental, production and marketing conditions."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"ii. The risks associated with developing and disseminating genetically improved strains need to be managed. The Program will therefore work with partner countries to develop guidelines and tools that help do this and help implement them."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"iii. Improving feeds remains key to ensuring that enterprises remain profi table and sustainable. The program will work to identify approaches and share lessons on producing nutritritionally sound and environmentally sustainable feeds. We will give particular emphasis to identify onfarm and local sources for these inputs and potential synergies between the fi sh and livestock sector."}]},{"head":"INTEGRATED VALUE CHAIN RESEARCH","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"CRP 3.7 is based on the premise that a systematic and integrated approach to overcoming barriers to production is the best way to increase fi sh supplies and therefore improve food security and nutrition in poorer countries. To do this the program takes a whole value chain approach to overcoming the full range of technological, market and institutional barriers to substantial growth in production."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Most importantly, the approach places signifi cant emphasis on the stakeholders as valuable participants in the research process. In the case of aquaculture, value chains include all the input suppliers, farm production through to transporting, processing and marketing of outputs to creation of added value products through to consumption."},{"index":3,"size":118,"text":"Research and supporting action will fall under three broad themes that will support outcomes and innovations along the value chains. i. Using participatory market chain analysis we will work with stakeholders along the seed, feed and fi sh production value chains to understand their structure and dynamics and where value is captured. This diagnosis will also allow us to identify the constraints to be overcome and opportunities for improvement. It will also allow us to identify gender disparities that might be addressed. As part of this work we will facilitate the dialogues and learning networks among stakeholders that are needed to help aquaculture to develop in the country and support capacity development efforts through training and technical support."},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"ii. We will work with government and the private sector to identify how the national policy and institutional environment might better support the aquaculture sector and the investments that would be needed. This will include work to develop and improve markets for seed, feed and fi sh and to ensure equitable access to these markets, especially for women. It will also include research on how best to provide extension services and other support to value chain participants."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"iii. Drawing on our Theme 1 research and the diagnoses outlined above we will work to help farmers and other actors along the feed, seed and fi sh value chain adopt improved production practices and improve profi tability."},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"In doing so we will also work to ensure that approaches are environmentally sustainable and make best use of available resources."}]},{"head":"GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Our value chain research will focus on Uganda and Egypt, two countries with important fi sh consumption but signifi cant undernourishment, and an aquaculture sector that has potential for effective intervention (Table 1). Because their aquaculture sectors are at different stages of development the needs of each country are different and they provide different opportunities for learning (Figure 1)."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Egypt leads African aquaculture production with 700,000 tons per year, but the sector needs to grow substantially if it is to sustain per capita consumption. The goal will be to move from the current large number of small-scale enterprises with limited support and scattered technology innovations, to a consolidated sector with a mix of emerging medium scale enterprises and sustainable small scale farms supported by signifi cantly improved technology and services."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Fish farming has increased fi sh supply for consumers and maintained affordable prices. This has contributed to a doubling between 1994 and 2008 for the contribution that fi sh protein makes to total protein in the Egyptian"}]},{"head":"Policies and Institutional arrangements","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Technological research and support."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"In Egypt we believe a combination of upgrading farmers to produce at the level of the current best producers, expanding areas under production and technical innovation could increase annual average production growth rates to 10%, yielding an additional 615,000 tonnes by 2017. At current population growth rates, and assuming all other sources of fi sh supply remain static, this increase in tilapia alone would bring per capita fi sh supply from 15.37% in 2008 to 18.56% in 2017."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"Diagnosis, dialogue and knowledge sharing. Supply to local and regional markets and retail chains."}]},{"head":"Characteristic","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Maturing value chains."}]},{"head":"Scale of production","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"On farm Small scale enterprises Mainly small scale enterprise, but some MEs emerging."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Medium scale enterprises becoming dominant, some consolidation occurring."}]},{"head":"Feed and seed supply","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Rudimentary, with supply and quality problems."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Rudimentary, with supply and quality problems."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"Functioning, but considerable scope for improvements in quality Systems well developed and operating at a high standard."}]},{"head":"Production Practices","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Rudimentary, few adopted norms."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Rudimentary, few adopted norms."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"Broadly sound, but considerable scope for improvements."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"High standard. Focus on innovation to drive down production costs."}]},{"head":"Support services","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Poor to basic, farmer to farmer learning networks emerging."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Poor to basic, industry associations emerging."},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"Basic services available. Well developed."}]},{"head":"Primary","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Development","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Benefi ts","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Household food and nutrition security"}]},{"head":"Household food security","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Income generation for farmers."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Stable and affordable fi sh supplies for poor consumers."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"Employment and income through value chain participation."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"Stable and affordable fi sh supplies for poor consumers."},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"Employment and income through value chain participation."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"Figure 1. Stages of Aquaculture Development and the status of Uganda and Egypt."}]},{"head":"Uganda Egypt","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Table 1. Aquaculture production, the importance of fi sh in the diet and the level of undernourishment in the population for the top eight aquaculture producers in sub-Saharan Africa. diet (Box 1). But, despite this impressive growth and current value, aquaculture production will need to rise further to meet growing demand for fi sh. Even more will be required for fi sh to continue to be available to people with lower incomes."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"To meet projected national need for the next 10-15 years, a further 1.0-1.6 million tonnes of fi sh will be required. Analysis of the sector indicates that this growth will need to be based primarily on the expansion of tilapia aquaculture in semiintensive to intensive ponds."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Annual average production growth rates for tilapia between 2003 and 2008 were approximately 16%. In the absence of further investment in innovation, this growth is unlikely to be maintained. Growth of 5% annually until 2017 would yield an additional 213,000 tonnes over 2008 levels."},{"index":4,"size":100,"text":"Growth in aquaculture production has affected the affordability of fi sh for consumers. For the last decade wild capture supplies have been stable or declining, fi sh imports have remained relatively stable and exports have been In Uganda approximately 3,000 households participate in fi sh production in each of the priority regions and we believe this program can increase this total by 50% by 2017. Improving the livelihoods of both current farmers and these 3,000 new entrants would reach 9,000 households. A further 3,000 would benefi t from participating in the upstream and downstream linkages in the target value chains."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"Uganda has a looming food security crisis, with a predicted 14 million Ugandans becoming food insecure in the next 10 years (USDA Global Food Security Assessment 2010 -2020). The government of Uganda has identifi ed increased aquaculture production as a priority for helping to achieve this by meeting the local and regional fi sh supply gap."},{"index":6,"size":99,"text":"Ugandan aquaculture is growing rapidly, but from a low base of 2,400 tons in 2002 rising to 52,000 tons in 2008/9. With a strong culture of fi sh consumption, increasing income and population growth in urban areas, and an increasing and food insecure rural population demand for fi sh is projected to rise. (Jagger and Pender 2002). The goal in Uganda will be to move from a few small-scale enterprises with rudimentary value chains, technologies, production practices, and support services to a large number of smallscale enterprises and support services ready to rise to the next level of development."},{"index":7,"size":103,"text":"Two areas in Uganda have been chosen as the focus of the fi sh value chain research -a northern area that has a high unmet demand for fi sh and potential for cross border trade with southern Sudan and another area in south eastern Uganda where the demand for fi sh comes from urban markets and cross border trade from Kenya (Figure 2). The Government of Uganda has identifi ed both as priority regions for aquaculture development. WorldFish and partners believe that these regions not only provide the greatest potential for impact but also the contrasts between them offer excellent opportunities for learning. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fish biodiversity conservation and risk management. Development and dissemination of quality feeds for aquaculture. Development and dissemination of quality seedfor key aquaculture species. "},{"text":" minimal (Fig a). Yet, despite a population increase of 20m people, aquaculture increased per capita fi sh supply from 8.5 kg to 15.4 kg/person/yr from 1994 -2008 (Fig b). During this time tilapia, which constitutes over 50% of all farmed fi sh by weight, saw a trend of increasing price from 1994 to 1998 that was reversed over the next four years. Since then prices have risen slowly, but remain well short of the peak in 1997 (Fig c). Thus, aquaculture has increased fi sh supply for consumers and maintained affordable prices. This has contributed to a doubling between 1994 and 2008 of the contribution that fi sh protein makes to total protein in the Egyptian diet (Fig d). Prices for tilapia remain well below those for chicken meat; in urban markets they were 35% lower in 2007 and 42% lower in rural markets. Box 1. Aquaculture in Egypt increases access and affordability of fi sh. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"42705879-a405-46f4-9a9d-3a58c02e99bc","abstract":"• Milk, meat, eggs and fi sh are key components of a balanced and nutritious diet for most people.Inadequate supplies often result in malnutrition, especially among women and children.• The world is seeing an explosive growth in demand for these animal source foods. This is especially true of developing countries.• Increasing the availability and affordability of animal source foods to meet the needs of poor consumers will be essential to ensure food and nutrition security for all.• Increasing the supply of affordable fi sh to meet demand requires continued growth of small and medium enterprise aquaculture, serving national and regional markets.• This is especially true for Africa, where aquaculture production lags behind the rest of the world and is in urgent need of support to develop at scale."}

data/part_4/05f11047a02a4b39be78b5267b7804fc.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"05f11047a02a4b39be78b5267b7804fc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dc37f40a-58e7-4504-ad40-83611d1c17a4/retrieve"},"pageCount":21,"title":"Strengtb of Farmers' Knowledge and Participation in Crop Improvement and Managing Agrobiodiversity On-Farm","keywords":["Participatory","crop improyement","agrobiodiversity","germplasm","on-fann","and knowledge"],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"In many developing countries, farmers playa pivotal role in the conservation of gene tic resourees, thus maintaining biodiversity, sinee they hold the bulk ofthese resources (Worede 1992). From time inunemorial, farmers have experimented with naturally existing genetic variations in their own environments to produce present-day landraces (Sthapit and Joshi 1998). Farmers have grown, tested, utílized, developed, and finalIy, selectednew varieties and crop combinatíons to suit particular ecosystems. The role of farmers in creating agrobiodiversity is also evident from their involvement in seed storage and seed exehange. Of eourse, the need and preferences of individual farm families have driven them in ,the selectíon of crop species. For this reason, they have acquired a profound knowledge about landraces and niche-specific placement."},{"index":2,"size":174,"text":"Given the inherent advantages oftraditional practiees, on-farm landrace conservation and enhaneement provides a valuable option for observing genetic diversity (Worede 1992). A large number of subsistenee farmers still use traditional methods. Those using modern teebnology account for approximately 40% of global agriculture, while rest is under traditional agriculture, which provides between 15% and 20% of the world' s food (Franeis 1986;Sthapit and Joshi 1998). The mos! important factors that motivated fanners to diversifY crop and Iivestock in the past were probably ensuring Iivelihood and meeting qualitative preferences and requirements (Roder 1995;Sperling and Berkowitz 1994;Sthapit and Joshi 1998). Roder (1995), has reiterated the faetors motivating farmers in maintaining diversity as follows: One of the commítments made in Leípzig in 1996 during the NGO eonference on the access and control of agricultural biodiversity was to enable the formal sectors, through trsiníng, to recognize the value offarmers' and indigenous peoples' knowledge and practices in conserving and strengthening agricultural diversity, The following statements further stress tha! the documentation of farrners' knowledge and participation in crop improvement ís essentiaL"},{"index":3,"size":187,"text":"• To be able to define precísely the objectives, límits and means for implementing in situ conservation, it ís necessary lo obtain a better understanding of the structure of polymorphism witbin farmers' varieties, ways it evolves with farrners' practices and the methods and mechanism for managing Ibis source of diversity, (FAO 1989;Brush 1992;Louette and Smale 1996) • Recognizing farmers' knowledge and the farmers' role in developing landraces and mainlaíning theír genelic diversity through Ihe partnership of farmers wíth formal science institutes ís an important step in enhancíng Ihe maintenance ofbiological diversíty, agricultura) sustainabilíty and food security at the farrn, regional and globallevels. (Teshome 1997) This paper bigh1ights the role of farmers in crop improvement and agrobiodiversity management The different stages of crop development and different approaehes applíed to bring about current agrobiodiversity are explicated in the following chapters, The examples are maín1y from one ofthe sites of the project \"Strengthening the Scíentific Basis of in situ Conservation of Agrobiodiversity On-Farrn\" being implemenled in Nepal jointly by the Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC), Local Inítiatives for Biodiversity Researchand Development (LI-BIRD), and the lntemational Plant Genetíc Resources lnstitute (IPGRl),"}]},{"head":"Farmers' role in crop improvement","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":221,"text":"Crops have trsveled through different stages of natural evolution and systematíc crop breeding, Breedíng by different groups, such as routine seed selectíon by farrners and formal breeding in publíe and private institutíons, has played an important role in bringing erops and varieties to their present status, Crop specíes have been adapted to different agroecological conditions while evolving from a wild to a cultivated fonn through more refined landraces because of farrners' selectíons, Farrners' landraces have been extensively used to develop improved varieties through breeders' efforts and again through diffusion through formal and informal institutíons. Gene flow from wild relatives to farrners' landraces and from landraces to improved cultivars is a dynamic process and should be maintained if plant breeding is lo meet the growing needs of the world's populatíon (Vaughan and Stich 1991;Slhapit and Josbi 1998). Thís ís why the conservation ofplant genetic resources in situ has very recently been widely accepted by several formal and informal institutions worldwide. The inclusion ofa landrace as one ofthe parents in participatory plan! breeding and the involvementoffarmers in several stages ofits development is imperative ifthe needs offarmers are to be accurately met, leading to a successful conservation strategy. The figure below outlines the stages and the processes through whích crops have traveled and the important role played by farmers to make the story successful.  "},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Extension (E il1$t.fdevl NGO} , Adaptation. diffusíon "}]},{"head":"Nomenclature 01 traditiona/ varieties","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Farmers have given names to their traditional varieties of different crop species based on their ¡den-tifYing characteristics, whích can either be external appearance or internal quality. For sorne ofthe landraces, one can easíly dístinguish one from another on the basis of their names. Farmers' nomenclature has a scientific basis since words lhat constitute the name have an important meaning lhat reflects the characteristics ofthat variety. For instance, lal tengan is one landrace; it has been named for its red (lal) lemma and palea color and a long, stout tentacle/spur (a type offish called a tengar has spur like this). A few examples ofthe names offarmers' varíeties and theirmeanings are presented in table 1."}]},{"head":"On-farm varietal diversijication","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Varietal replacement has been taking place with the introduction of modern varíeties for several years, starting from the Oreen Revolution in Asia during the early 1970s. In many regions ofthe world, farmers have economic incentives to replace the varieties that have evolved witrun theír own ecosystems with ímproved, introduced varieties (Louette and Smale 1996). Landraces seem so  "}]},{"head":"9","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Parewa pankh fragile to maintain that farmers easily adopt improved varieties-they have a higher yield potentiality than farmers' traditional varieties. As a result, the number of fanners growing locallandraces and the area covered by fuose landraces is declining. To counteract this trend, there has been a big contribution to varietal diversification through fue varietal choices made by different institutions, and on-farm varietal diversity has further been enhanced by fanner-to-fanner dissemination of new rice varieties (Josm et al. 1997),"},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"Figure 2 gives examples of diversity created by different factors, For instance, rice varieties grown in ucha khet (upland) are different from fuose in nicha khet (low wetland) and man/pokhari (water-logged areas), Similarly, basmati, sathí, and khera fulfil cultural and religious requirements, while sokan and sotwa are valued for their medicinal qualities. Bhathi is grown for its unique characteristic of adapting in deep water, and sathi, mutmur, and sokan are grown in marginal uplands where no other landraces or modern varieties can be cultivated satisfactoríly. In contrast, fanners generally confine fuerr sources of planting material s to neighbors, relatíves, and whatever is available in a new envrronment,"}]},{"head":"ConvennonaJ breeding","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"The fanners' role in conventional breeding generally starts afier fue variety has been released, particularly for adoption and diffusion if the released varieties are preferred by fue fanners. Once a variety is released through the breeding system, it is made available to a few fanners for assessing acceptance and rejection. The farmers' role is stiU as a passive partner and as an end user. Fanners' responses about new teclmologies are collected through fanners' days, fanners' fíeld observations, and demonstrations,"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Khatiwada, and K.D. Joshi "}]},{"head":"Participatory plant breeding","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Partícipatory plant breeding (PPB) is widely used by different institutions, both government organizations and nongovernment organizations, and even by farmers. However, farmers' participatíon in PPB varies. The approach and methods ofPPB are described in detail by IPGRI (1996: 57-65), Sthapit, Joshi, and Witcombe (1996), and Witcombe el aL (1996). However, the stages where farmers' involvernent is most ímportant are plant selection, germplasm enhancement, seed selectíon, and management (Joshi et al. 2000). Table 2 summarizes the range offarmers' partícipation in the PPB process."}]},{"head":"Prospects for germplasm enhancement with farmers' empowerment","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"The germplasm of local landraces can be improved through pure-Hne or mass selection with the active partícipatíon of farmers and modest technical backstopping from formal institutions for most of the processes. This can be achíeved through farmers' active partícipation, with mínimum costs and Iittle effort for breeders. At the same time, the genetic potential oflocallandraces can be conserved by encouragíng in situ conservation."},{"index":2,"size":143,"text":"Farmers at Begnas, Kaski and Kachorwa Bara have recently taken the initiative for participatory germplasm enhancement (PGE) through pure-line selection. In these areas, farmers' knowledge about seed selection and storage were first documented. Gn the basis ofthis information, the farm- ers were next given an orientation on seed selection and gennplasm improvement. Finally, an agreement was made to follow a pure-line selection process in which fanners' participation in Ihe process was assured. Ihis process was designed to help impart a selection of skills to fanners and improve their cop varieties through pure-line selection if they wished. Ihey would also feel empowered through their own participation in the process. This process rnay be proven to be a holistic, less time-consuming, and more cost-effectíve approach to ímprove the quality of landraces, thus making them competitive with improved varieties and, eventually, invigorating in situ conservation on-farm."}]},{"head":"The traditional seed-supply system","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"The role of farmers in crop improvement and managing agrobiodiversity can best be explained by the traditional seed-supply system (figure 3). Approximately, 60% of global agrieulture ís perfonned by subsistence fanners using traditional methods-providing between 15% to 20% ofthe world'g food (Francís 1986;Sthapit and Joshi 1998). Diffusion in most parts ofNepal happens through the infonnal seed-supply system; the contrihution ofthe fonnal seed sector is less than 5% in major staple crops (Baniya et al. 2000). The traditional seed-flow system ineludes variety selection and adoption. seed seleetion, seed exchange, processing, and storage (Shrestha 1998), and al! of these processes are responsible for local crop improvement and creating agrobiodiversity. A review of ease studies from Bángladesh (Mazhar 1997), Indonesia (Winarto 1997), Nepal (Joshi el al. 1997;Sthapit et al. 1998), and Ethiopia (Worede 1992) shows a wide range of examples in different eountries where farmers-either independent1y or in collaboration with fonnal or infonnal institutions-have played an important role in erop improvement through seed production and russemination (see also figure 1)."}]},{"head":"Variety selection and adaptation","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"From time immemorial, farmers have been observing and selecting their crops and crop varieties, saving and maintaining the seeds for next season, and experimenting with new seeds exchanged with neighbors and relatives (Shrestha 1998). It is noteworthy tba! farmers have med to seleet the best available portion of the harvest for growing the subsequent year and also to meet the requirements offood and tradition. Fanners introduce new varieties in their localities to suit the different needs of 80il fertility, moisture, family, and society, and to spread labor and reduce risk. Hardon (1995) and Joshi et al. (1997) reported tha! farmers pos ses s the ability and knowledge to selee! crops and species that suit their environment and meet quality and other consumer requirements."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":".. Threshing \"Wínnowing    This process has created a diversity of crops and crop species, and thus, present-day landraces are no doubt the outcome of farmers' knowledge about and activities in crop improvement. Formal breeders in the narne of \"PPB\" have lately consolidated the role of farmers in crop improvement through regular seed seJection and exchange."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"There is a wide range of information about the particípatory methods practiced by scientists and breeders in severa! countries. Informal research and development (IRD), a type of particípatory varietal selection (PVS) is reported to be 43% more cost effective compared to the formal system (Joshi et aL 1996 andJoshi et aL 1997)."}]},{"head":"Seedflow","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":178,"text":"Tbe sources and directions of seed flow are vital to creating the diversity ofboth landraces and improved varieties. Al! the means through which seeds flow from one farmer to another contribute to diversity in totality. Seed flow inc1udes purchasing, exchanging, giving as a free gift, borrowing, and stealing. Sources of new seeds might be markets, neighbors, relatives, agriculture extensíon, and research stations (see figure 1). In these ways, plant genetic materials drift from one place to another, creating new diversity in each community. This creates opportunities for farmers to meet different needs, which they could not do with a single variety (Joshi et al. 1997). In one ofthe studies in Begnas, Kaski, Baniya et al. (1999) reported that rich farmers generally initiate variety introduction. Most farmers (85%) change seed lots or cultivars regularly, and about 49% follow this practice every one or two years. Ex situ conservation in gene banks being unaffordable, the fate of crop diversity in many mountain areas is largely govemed by the fate ofthe traditional seed-supply systern that exists within local comrnunities (Shrestha 1998)."}]},{"head":"Seed selection","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"For generations, farrners have been involved in seed selection, testing crop varieties to address single or multiple household needs such as food security, economic benefits, and religious and cultural requirements, as well as finding varieties that suit their land type depending upon the access or availability ofplanting material s (see figure 2)."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"The choices or preferences for varieties of a crop may, however, differ with differences in socioeconomic status. Religious and cultural considerations, level of education, and gender dimension are equally important in influencing the choices and preferences for different crops and varieties.  . Source: Chaudhary andJoshi (1999)."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"! airtight conditions, and sorne are spread on me floor. Baniya et al. (1999) reported on me different seed-storage practices followed by farroers in Begnas, Kaski, where there is a wide range of crop diversity even today. If farroers did not save seeds under proper storage condition, we would not have me diversity in both crops and crop species that we have today."}]},{"head":"Limitations of participatory approaches","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Participation","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"In the cornmercial world, there may be a lack of interest in participatory memods because resource-poor farroers might not appreciate irnmediate benefits from participation in research."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"They have a restricted time for contribution and limited resources to support research. On the omer hand, resource-rich farroers, especially in a high production-potential system (HPPS) are likely to migrate to urban areas, thereby discontinuíng active participation after ayear or more. Urbanization and cornmercialízation rnight have a negative ímpact on me partieipation sinee absentee landlords may have less time to thínk about aU mese participatory approaches, their being capable of supporting land for research purposes. Moreover, without compensation, long-term participation of farroers can not be assured, since the time for research activities can cause conflicts with fiumers' field activities,"}]},{"head":"Knowledge","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"Confining farroers to trsditional cultivation systems has made mem focus on traditional selection practíces; they are less aware of advances in agricultura! science for seed selection and varietal selection based on agroecology. Searching and procuring seeds becomes cumbersome and time conswning for individual farmer. Traditional ways of procuring seeds without adequate information about new varieties rnight in sorne cases adversely mect me farroers' yield, Lacking adequate kuowledge about seed selection, farroers keep mixtures in their selections to ensure adequate yields, but this also creates high diversíty. Furthermore, in most of the participatory approaches to crop improvement, gathering postharvest information trom rich people does not provide useful insights-they are not actually the end users, since they are likely sell a large portion oftheir produce in the market (Witcombe 1999)."}]},{"head":"Farmers' knowledge threatened","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Several areas ofknow!edge are associated with landraces, and with the elimination oflandraces, we not only lose genetic resources from our farming system or community but also the knowledge associated with them. With the ever-increasing dependence of farmers on modem technologies, accompanied by lhe use of chemical fertilizers and hazardous pesticides, farmers are being handicapped in severa! ways, inc1uding the area of indigenous knowledge. Farmers are, therefore, not only losing benefits from plant genetic resources, but more important, theyare losing the right to save, exchange, and improve their seeds (Mazhar 1997)."},{"index":2,"size":180,"text":"Despite several efforts, it has becn observed that no \"steady state\" is possib1e in populations of primitive cultivars because of technological changes in the farming systems that once produced them (Frankel 1970;Brush 1995). It is, therefore, certain that genetic erosion ls pervasive and may accelerate if no proper action is taken on time to check it. It is also true that gradually the habitats of the landraces will be changed, the strength ofthe planting material s will be weakened, development and revolutionary options for various species may be shut off in lhe process, diversity will be skewed, and farmers' decision-making and indigenous knowledge systems will be diluted. The hardest hit by this will be small and marginal farmers, whose situations will be further worsened by concomitant increases in uníformit;t and eJ(pensive market seeds, fertilizers, insecticides, and pesticides, irrespective of their quality. As a result, food deficiency will become more widespread and the [ives of people will be threatened. Thus, there is an urgent need to look for a solution that helps cope wilh food deficiency through lhe management of agrobiodiversity."}]},{"head":"Coping strategies","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"The threat to farmers' knowledge, as well as to agrobiodiversity, can be addressed through the following strategies."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"• Research should emphasize the process of responding to farmers' needs rather than designing fixed options in stándardized trials. Research-maoaged on-station and on-farm trials need to be combined with trials designed and run by farmers. Researchers therefore need to expand their focus and learn abou! the complex adaptations made by farmers."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"• Agricultural research needs to reflect farmers' own diverse conditions. It needs lo be adapted to different settings (e.g., both dry-field and wetland agriculture), lo different fieldconditions (e.g., a variety of soil types), and to different cropping patteros (e.g., multiple and intercropping pattems), rather than focusing on standardized, uníform tria! plots, so that the processes of local adaptation and the technology developed are understood and can be supported."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"• Farmers can be successfully empowered through training in the process of germplasm enhancement through pure-line and mass selection of their traditional varieties (Chaudhary and Joshi 1999), enhancing in situ conservation on-farm."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"• The seed-supply system can be strengthened for self-reliance and cost effectiveness through the use offarmers' networks ofinformation and seed exchange, involving grass-roots institurions (Joshi et aL 1997)."},{"index":6,"size":157,"text":"F anners' knowledge (skills) and routine involvement in the crop-improvement process is crucial to the management of agrobiodiversity on-fann, Fanners are key players, bringing a wild species through generations, creating diversity to suít to their different agroecologies and traditions, However, fanners' knowledge is being eroded and plant genetic materials are beíng lost forever, Our current need is to document agrobiodiversity and the knowledge associated with it to use in crop improvement in the future. It is essential to have an adequate scientific explanation of fanners' knowledge in order to better and or improve this knowledge for efficient and sustainable agriculture. This can be achieved through different strategies such as diversity fairs, community bíodiversity registers, poetry journeys (Rijal, et aL 2000), censuses, and field observations 01' transect walks. lt requires the cornmitrnent of fanners and strong Iinkages with fonnal scíence institutes to enhance tbe maintenance ofbiologicaI diversity, agricultural sustainability, and food security at the fann, regional, and globalleveL "}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"This paper basically deals with two issues: the first is the issue of advocacy and the need for advocaey in participatory crop improvement (per) and plant genetic resource enhancement (pGRE). It also analyzes the trend of global mechanisms to develop erops and or varieties wíthout the partícípation of real stakeholders and the threat to developing countries. The second part highlights the major processes of seed production and saving rice in the mid-hills ofNepaL The cases elaborate these processes along wíth gender dímensíons and the exclusíon of farmers from breedíng processes. Further to this, it bighlights sorne of the advocacy and operational work of the development organization taking place in the Jajarkot area. The cases we bighlíght are from Khotang, in the easternhills ofNepal for farmer-managed seed ptoduction, and Jajarkot, in the western bills ofNepaL Yamuna Ghale is foad right campaign co-ordinator with AcríonAid Nepal. Thi. paper was prepared with the assísrance ofKhadga Regmi, J.jarlcor Pennaculture Program (lPP); Dil Bahadur Rai; Jana Sewa Sarnaj; Min Bahadur Rokaya, fanner, laJarkot; and Pra!eemm Raí, farme<, Khotang."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"•"}]},{"head":"Need {or Advococy {or Effective Participatory Crop Improvement and Plant Genetic Resource Enhancemem","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"The need for advocacy in peI and PGRE"}]},{"head":"Wlzat is advocacy?","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Advocacy is public action directed towards wider social change. It is about changing the policies, practices, attitudes, positions, or programs of goveming institutions within the Pllblíc and prívate sectors that have a negative impact. The co-director of the Advocacy Institute says, \"To be meaningful, advocacy must be value based. It must be social, economic and políticaljustíce orientcd.\" In most cases, government is still resisting the advocacy role being assumed by civil society."}]},{"head":"Whyadvocacy?","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"Advocacy is not just another fad of development discourse; ir is, rather, importan! to the sustainability of development work as well as policies. Forthe basic reason that for development organizations to have an effect, there needs to be a bettcr undcrstanding of the policies and practices of powerful development actors and how these ean be changed in ways that benefit the large groups of poor farmers in their working areas. It is very important to reeognize the importance of ehallenging deep-rooted and sustained inequality and injustíce. In the age of globalization, polícies are increasingly influenced by mllltinational and transnational eorporations (MNCsrrNCs), which are not bound by rights-related laws and regulations. To have an influence at the poliey level, linkages between operational work and advoeacy should be developed, strengthening civil groups and alliances; lobbying decision makers directly; campaigning, promoting, and fucilitating participation in research; building coalitions; and :ngaging the media."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Soeiety is the cornmon element that supports advocacy, with advocacy holding goveming institutions to account on the behalf of citizens. There must be mechanisms to support nonrestrictive and robust debate on policy issues, procedures to resist harassment from authorities, and transparency in government. Civil organizations are increasingly expanding their activities beyond the provision of traditional services to include advocacy. Clear objeetives, targets, methods or taeties, and allies are very basic eIements of advocacy."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"In the eontext of participatory plant breeding (PPB) and PGRE, advoeacy can support cornmunities in demanding their rights in germplasm conservation, in having an input when government is formulating policies, in making the voice of the powerless heard when plant-breeding programs/plans are developed, and in bringing the promises to tbe ground."}]},{"head":"Advocacy in ActionAid Nepal","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"ActionAid Nepal' s definition of advocaey is a process, a deliberate, systematic ami organised way 01 influencing publíc policy, pub/k attitudes and polícy practíce in order to either change, maintain, implement or lonnulate new or altemative polícíes in lavour 01 the poorest and most disadvantaged people."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"It is a set of eoherent actions designed to introduce, influence, and change policies, practiees, attitudes, and decisions for a just and equitable world. With this basic principIe, ActionAid launehed the International Food Rights Campaign to safeguard the right ofpoor people to food. The campaign aims to ensure that international agricultural trade benefits the poor and protects farmer' s rights to seed and plant resources."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"As biodivefSity i5 owned by the community, there i5 an urgent need to include farmers in erop improvement and genetie resonree enhancement. The issue ofbiodiversity conservation is rooted at the grass-roots level, which needs program linkage to be developed betwecn operational work and advocacy. Therefore, ActionAid Nepal believes in strengthening the capacity of local organizalions working al the grass rools to develop macro-micro linkages and, hence, to tackle the root causes of poverty, and it works lO achieve this end."}]},{"head":"Threat of the trade related intellectual property rights (TRIPs) agreement to the crop-improvement process and PGRE","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"The TRIPs agreement provides eomprehensi ve rules and standards for the protection of intellectual property. Under this agreement, Artiele 27.3 (b) Patenting on Life Forms is a major tbreat for participatory plant breeding. It allows MNCs/TNCs to extend their control over the resourees required to produce food ín the South, as well as providing means to gaín rights over many traditional plants growing in the South. This completely ignores rights of indigenous farmefS to control and maintain the germplasm that fits in their lifestyles. There is a belief that TRIPs will have severe conse-quence5 for farmefS in the South, tha! they will no longer be able to research, use, or exchange seeds and may lose ownership over traditional varieties of plants as well. Therefore, there i8 an urgent need to work on advocacy forparticipatory plant breeding, which preserves the rights ofthe indigenous farming cornmunity."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Where do es the word participation fit in growing genetic engineering technology?"},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"In the global trend oftechnology development, genetic engineeringplays a crucial role in erop and or variety development. Ibis kind of sophisticated technology is promoted by profit-oriented MNCsrrNCs and is Iimited to the laboratory. Therefore, the participation offarmers in this process is only a dream, and will remain so. Ifwe are advocating participatory plant breeding, we must eonsider how we can play our role."}]},{"head":"Case studies","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"The general Kiranti (Tibeto-Burman group) myth about the paddy erop invention in Khotang is lhat the ancestor, Khokehilipu, ･ ｾ ｯ ｹ ･ ､ ＠ a pot ofrice cooked by his elder sistefS, Nana Toma and Nana Khema, the cotton weavers, and he unfortunately trod on the fire-stick while dancing in the jolly mood and overturned the pot of rice. Another myth from Dhumi Rai is the story of an irritable king who had the habit of eating one pathí (approximately 4 kg) of rice, which had to be dehusked by nails. Ifthis was not done properly, the cook was severely punished. These myths cJearly show that the people ofKhotang have grown a paddy erop sinee time irnmemorial."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"In the case of Jajarkot, it is known that riee has been grown for about 110 years, and was brought from neighboring districts by the people of Jajarkot when they mígrated. Patle, mehel, kaumaro, and dotelo are the main local varietíes grown in the arca."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"Rice is grown as major crop in both Jajarkot and Khotang, especially in the less steep irrigated lowlands. It i8 strongly related to the eating habits of the local people."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"3, chhomrong and badagaunle. In addítion, sorne ofthe new varieties such as the radha series and mansuli, have been introduced from district agriculture development. The lPP is working on advocaey in the promotion of indígenous seeds and technologies, and as a result, sorne of groups boycott the introduction ofhybrid seed; they are more curíous and alert about the value oflocal seeds and germplasm."}]},{"head":"Cultural significance","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"In the Rai culture, rice must be offered to the departed ancestors. The local faith healers offer rice to chicks before sacrificíng them as part of heáling ceremonies. This shows the relationship between the culture and rice growing in the area."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"In Jajarkot, the farmers celebrate Hare/o on the third and fourth Sundays of Shrawan (August). During this festival, they spray cow urine by the twigs of tilepati (Artemisia vulgaris) and worshíp the Harelo god with bhojpatra and pieces of red and whíte cloth."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"Another interesting activity is a visit to a Jhan temple by pilgrims every five years during night of the full moon of Paush (lan!Feb). There is a big trench below the ground where the pílgrims keep the rice grains they offered to the godo The grains replaced every five years to coincide with this celebration, so every five years there are new ones. When there is a famine and alI the seeds stored in the house have been used for consumption, this store is opened and the stored grain is used for seed."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"The first harvest is generally taken when there is sait (a good moment). The day offirst consumption is considered a special day, when relatives gather and eat delicious foods.• At the star! of lhat occasion, the harvest is first offered to the god, and this offering is later used for seed if needed."}]},{"head":"The role of intervening organizations","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":194,"text":"IPP has introduced a permaculture philosophy: making the earth live and grow on its own, with all bío-organisms surviving their full cycle. IPP has also encouraged farmers to use indigenous methods of farming and caring for nature. They have provided information on using green manure, on the use of skin-fermented water to control blast, and on patteros of crop rotation. JIP organized a farmers' level workshop on \"Impact of Genetic Engineering on Indigenous Knowledge and Seeds\" to raise awareness about the issues ofbiodíversity conservation. Now sorne ofthe women farmers' groups have dropped out ofthe cornmercíal vegetable production group, which advocates the use of external inputs for agricultural production. The farmers have also boycotted the introduction of hybrid seeds in two of the village development cornmittees. This means that farmers are able to make well-informed decisions if they have access to the right information. This will create a self-sustaining process among the farmers themselves, as well as helping to promote local biodiversity, in which they have the expertise of generations. Now lana Sewa Samaj, a nongovemmental organization working in the Khotang district is trying lo replicate the IPP model in the eastern hills of Nepal."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"The case studies reveal that the indigenous communíty continues to manage plant breeding and tha! PGRE is most cornmon in both case-study areas. Neither distinct formal-led nor farmer-led plant-breeding practices are cornmon. Now such cornmunity-managed plant-breedíng processes and genetíc resource management are severely threatened by globalízation, especially Article 27.3 (b) ofthe WTO TRIPs Agreement. ActionAid Nepal believes Ihat the food security of poor farmers and farmers' rights in seeds and plan! genetic resources should be protected from such threats, To minimize the negative impact of íntemational policies Ihat are unfavorable lo poor farmers, ActionAíd Nepal has implemented a food-rights campaign. Micro-macro Iínkages are extremely important in influencing tbe policies for which the food-rights campaign is working, JPP and lana Sewa Samaj are examples of strengtheníng and mobilizing local organizalions to work on community-based PGRE and PPB. "}]},{"head":"Beyond Taro","index":28,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Background","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"Samoa is a small independent Pacific Island country with two main islands (Upolu and Savaii) and five other small islands (figure 1).11 has a population of about 160,000 largely involved in agriculture. Most agricultura! househoJds grow a variety of crops, including taro, bananas, breadfruit, cocoa, and coconuts. Prior to 1993, taro (Colocasia esculenta) was the most important export of the country, with 96% of agricultural holdings cultivating the crop. 1t is estimated that the area under taro at that time was 14,600 ha, ofwruch 76% was grown as a monocrop. A single cultivar, taro Niue, dominated the cropping area because of domestic and export demando The appearance oftaro leafblight (TLB), caused by Phytophthora colocasíae, in 1993 demonstrated how vulnerable the íntensive production of taro had become, and production virtually ceased ovemighí. Since then the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Forests and Meteorology (MAFFM) has explored various approaches to overcoming the problem, incJuding plant breedíng. More recently, research staff at the University of the South Pacific (USP) have also become involved in breeding taro for resistance to the disease. There are clear signs that farmers in Samoa are slowly returning to taro again."}]},{"head":"Taro in Samoa","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Taro, an edible aroid that originated in the Indo-Malayan regíon, is grown as a staple or subsistence crop throughout the humid tropics but is of greatest importance in the Pacific Islands, where it accounts for about 20% ofthe root crop area. The corms are baked, roasted, or boiled and the leaves are eaten as palusami. Taro spread eastwards into the Pacific, probably reaching the Polynesian islands 2,000 years ago. There is now evidence to suggest that most cuJtivars found throughout the Pacific were no! brought by the frrst settlers from the Indo-MaJayan regíon but were domesticated from wild sources existing in the Melanesian regíon (Lebot 1992). There are now thought ro be  . ."}]},{"head":"Tuvaiu t Tokelau","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Samo,a.\", Americ.an -., Samoa Fiii '1\" ｔ ｾ ｮ ｧ ｡ ＠ Cook."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"T!.>. <t: Prior to !he arrival ofTLB, fanners in !he Pacific selected taro cultivars for a number of traits but not resistance to the disease. In the absence of this selection pressure, taro cultivars have reduced levels of resistance. At the turn of the century when the TLB pathogen began to spread into the regíon, it encountered a host plant that was genetically vulnerable."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"Taro is the most important plant in Samoa, having special cultural, dietary, and economic imporlance. It is considered an essential component of an everyday mea!. It is a plant witb high prestige and great importance as a presentation on formal occasions, It is also favored for its considerable productivity in !he fertile and high•rainfall environment of Samoa (Ward and Ashcroft 1998). In 1983. the returns from taro were three times higher than that from bananas and eight times higher !han from coconuts (Asían Development Bank 1985)."},{"index":4,"size":116,"text":"Impact of taro leaf blight in Samoa TLB was first observed on the island ofUpolu at Aleipata and two days later from Saanapu and adjacent districts in July 1993. The disease spread rapidly throughout the country, severely affecting alllocal cultivars, but it was most devastating on taro Niue, tbe cultivar of choice for cornmercial production because of its quality and taste. Various factors contributed to the rapid spread of!he disease in Samoa. The area planted to taro Niue at the time was extremely large and effectiveJy ensured a monocrop situation. Ihere was a continuous and abundant source oftaro for the disease because of the practice of fanners to interplant on old plantations and stagger their cultivatíon."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"Combined with the widespread movement of infected planting material and ideal weather conditions, the dísease quícldy reached epidemíc proportíons."},{"index":6,"size":89,"text":"In 1992, prior to the blight, the World Bank estirnated taro exports from Samoa at US$10 mi Ilion, with a similar value on the domestic market. Ihis placed taro as the dominant export and domestic market commodity. By 1995, the export value of taro had fallen to US$60,750, or less than 1% of pre-blight figures. Initial efforts by MAFFM to contain the disease, including fungicide spraying, quarantine efforts, and a public-awareness program, failed dramatically. The disease spread rapidly, and by 1996 only 200 farrners were growing taro in Samoa."}]},{"head":"Conventional taro breeding strategies in Samoa","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"In 1995, MAFFM, in conjunction with the Australian government-funded Westem Samoa Farrnlng Systems Project, initiated a program to evaluate exotic cultivars. Nine exotic cultivars were evaluated against taro Niue in preliminary trials in 1995 and 1996. The cultivars Pwetepwet, Pastora and Ioantal (originating from the Federated Sta!es ofMicronesia) and PSB-G2 (now known locally as taro FíIi and originally obtained from the Philippine Seed Board) were assessed in on-station trials for resistance to TLB. These trials indicated lhat all four cultivars were more resistant than Niue, the locally preferred cultivar. MAF.FM further evaluated these four cultivars in on-farro trials during 1996 and 1997. Farrners involved rated Fili as the best lasting and both FiIí and Pwetepwet as the most resistant to leafblight MAFFM began recornmending and distributing Fili to growers in late 1996."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"The identification oftaro Fili has allowed many farmers to retum to taro production, and over the last few years, the area under taro has slowly increased. However, the release ofthis single cultivar has no! been enough to mee! the needs of aH growers, and a few shortcomings have been reported. including the following:"},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"• relative susceptibility to the disease, especialIy in wetter areas of the country"},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":"• low yields"},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"• poor storabilíty, which is a problem with growers starting to export to markets in American Samoa and the United States"},{"index":6,"size":32,"text":"In addition, MAFFM imported a range of exotic taro cultivars from Palau in 1995. Field trials at the University ofHawaii bad shown that sorne ofthese cultivars bad good levels ofresistance to TLB."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"To date, no Palau cultivars have been released or recornmended by MAFFM."},{"index":8,"size":48,"text":"Efforts to breed taro with resistance to TLB in Samoa cornmenced in 1996. Crosses were made among introduced TLB-resistant cultivars and susceptible local cultivars. This cycIe-l population has been evaluated and 10 promísing clones have been selected. These clones are being further evaluated in multilocational trials in Samoa."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" p, Chaudhary is a site officer and KD. Jomi is a program officer with Loca) Initiatíves for Biodiversity Research and Development (U-BIRO). S.P. Khatiwada is a senior \",ieDtlSt with NRRP, Nepal Agricultura! Research Councíl (NARCl. • Ihe need for high self-sufficiency due lo communication problems • reduction of risk factors • labor considerations • lack of availability of suítable ímproved varieties • market fluctuations • traditional food preferences • specíal requírements for ceremoníes and rítuals "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Farmers' roles in the crop-improvement process "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Farmers' role iu the traditional seed-supply system "},{"text":"Q mixed in threshing floor because 01 a common floor used lO' a numbar 01 cultlvars a mixed because 01 uslng compost manure contaíníng the seeds 01 other cultlvars a blown by air and gettíng mixed a íntermixed during planking e mixed in seed bed because 01 flooding o mixed by birds in Ihe .sed beds o íntermixed during transplanting o carelul seed selaction process not performed in !he mixed population by the larmer o only a lew farmers mix intenlionally for ｭ ｯ ｮ ｾ ｯ ｲ ｹ ＠ profit or lO reduce the risk 01 lailura "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Samoa and its loeanon in the South Pacifie Ocean "},{"text":"Table 1 . Name and Meaning of a Few Selected Landraces S.No. LR Nome Type Name & meanlng Easy way to identíty/distinguísh S.No.LR NomeTypeName & meanlngEasy way to identíty/distinguísh 1 2 Nakhí sara Bhadaíya basmati Bhaasiya Nakh¡=awn, Saro=bhadaiya type • 8hadalya= .arly seasoned, Slightly ｲ ｡ ｮ ｧ ｯ ｾ ｬ ￭ ｫ ･ ＠ Long awn; yellowtsh lemma and palea (UP) color; fine grained 8as;:aroma 1 2Nakhí sara Bhadaíya basmatiBhaasiya Nakh¡=awn, Saro=bhadaiya type • 8hadalya= .arly seasoned, Slightly ｲ ｡ ｮ ｧ ｯ ｾ ｬ ￭ ｫ ･ ＠ Long awn; yellowtsh lemma and palea (UP) color; fine grained 8as;:aroma 3 4 BaSInatJ' Lal tengar Aghani • Lal=red, 8as=aroma Tenga,. type 01 fish with Like B, basmati: long panicle length; fine graio; aroma; awn on a few grajns Reddish UP color; boid graín INith long stout awn; grown rn shallow water 3 4BaSInatJ' Lal tengarAghani • Lal=red, 8as=aroma Tenga,. type 01 fish withLike B, basmati: long panicle length; fine graio; aroma; awn on a few grajns Reddish UP color; boid graín INith long stout awn; grown rn shallow water 5 Amaghauj stout spur • Ama=guava, Ghauj=cluster Yeflowish grain; two to fOUf grains originating from a single point giving ｣ Ｇ ｵ ｳ ｴ ･ ｲ ｾ ｬ ｩ ｫ ･ ＠ look; long and strong 5Amaghaujstout spur • Ama=guava, Ghauj=cluster Yeflowish grain; two to fOUf grains originating from a single point giving ｣ Ｇ ｵ ｳ ｴ ･ ｲ ｾ ｬ ｩ ｫ ･ ＠ look; long and strong 6 Dudhraj • Oudh=milk stalk Whitish UP color; m¡¡ky-white grain 6Dudhraj• Oudh=milkstalk Whitish UP color; m¡¡ky-white grain 7 La/ka fararo    7La/ka fararo  "},{"text":" Ttans¡!!on ot ucfra and m'cha + ｾ ｉ Ｇ ｉ ＠ vanenes     Nkhallow wetland  Basmati, ktlero, dtKJhraj, snga, chhatraj +-rnodem varietie$ Nkhallow wetlandBasmati, ktlero, dtKJhraj, snga, chhatraj +-rnodem varietie$   ,  \",' PoIrhatllwater loggtd h ahathi, Silhat, 3lt'18f}t1htJ1. sakhar, lal tengar no modsm vatietles I ,\",' PoIrhatllwater loggtd h ahathi, Silhat, 3lt'18f}t1htJ1. sakhar, lal tengar no modsm vatietles I  ｾ ＠ Need/lnter1tSt I CulturaVreigloos \"L Medicinal Basmati. sathi, khera Ｑ ｾ Ｍ Ｍ Ｍ Ｑ ＠ Sotwa. sokan I ｾ ＠Need/lnter1tStICulturaVreigloos \"L MedicinalBasmati. sathi, khera Ｑ ｾ Ｍ Ｍ Ｍ Ｑ ＠ Sotwa. sokanI I SELECTlON PRESSURE ｾ ＠ I SocloeconomlesJ , I Yleld :rr.\". H Basmeti, dudhl :>aIQ. nakhí sara, mansa,., AIl modem vnhes , -! Bloticlablotle stress Bhathi, nakhl ssro, snga +-aH oIher varieties ReSOOice l'lCh Bflsmali --,.,.. Re$0Uf'(';0 poor No basmati cuJtivated I I I I I I ISELECTlON PRESSURE ｾ ＠I SocloeconomlesJ , IYleld :rr.\". H Basmeti, dudhl :>aIQ. nakhí sara, mansa,., AIl modem vnhes , -! Bloticlablotle stress Bhathi, nakhl ssro, snga +-aH oIher varieties ReSOOice l'lCh Bflsmali --,.,.. Re$0Uf'(';0 poor No basmati cuJtivatedI I I I I I  -l AvallabUIty  Bhltthi, amagMuj, sakhat, faJ ｴ ･ Ｌ Ｌ ｾ ｲ ＠ (1)rought fTóm n.lghboring dlstrtctS) : aJl modm1 v,atietias I -l AvallabUItyBhltthi, amagMuj, sakhat, faJ ｴ ･ Ｌ Ｌ ｾ ｲ ＠(1)rought fTóm n.lghboring dlstrtctS) : aJl modm1 v,atietias I Figure 2. Agroecology and human-induced selection pressures on crop genetic resources Figure 2. Agroecology and human-induced selection pressures on crop genetic resources  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Level of Participation in Different PPB Processes Cilation Modes .of partieipation Level 01 participation byfarmers CilationModes .of partieipationLevel 01 participation byfarmers Witcombe (1996) Consulta!ive Rasearcher con su lIs farmers lo assess needs, sel breeding Witcombe (1996)Consulta!iveRasearcher con su lIs farmers lo assess needs, sel breeding   90a1s, and choose lesling sites, but researcher retains key 90a1s, and choose lesling sites, but researcher retains key   decision making decision making  CollaboraUve Expert larmers grow early, variable generations and seleet best CollaboraUveExpert larmers grow early, variable generations and seleet best   planls on !helr own fields planls on !helr own fields McGuire, Maoiead, Farmer-Ied PPB External agents support larmers' own system 01 crop McGuire, Maoiead,Farmer-Ied PPBExternal agents support larmers' own system 01 crop and Sperling (1999)  development and Sperling (1999)development  Forrnal-Ied PPB Farmers joio in lonmally initialed process 01 crop development Forrnal-Ied PPBFarmers joio in lonmally initialed process 01 crop development  "},{"text":" Traditional methods of seed selection in one of the rural areas in terai region of the country are presented in box 1. Box 1. Traditional Methods of Seed Selection at Kachorwa, BaraSeed processing and storage F armers have developed different seed-proeessing and storage practices for different crops and erop speeies, whieh help the seeds stay viable. The praetiees that are followed by seed-storage companies and researeh stations today are the results of farrners' experiments in seed storage, transferred from generation to generation. Where seed proeessing is coneemed, farrners keep the bare seeds ofsome erops, such as rice and wheat, or the eobs ofmaize orpanieles or bunches orthe fruit of sorne erop speeies, especially vegetables. For sorne crops, grains are cleaned and then dried well after threshing, while others require no such proeessing. Farrners store the seeds of sorne vegetable crops in the kitehen, where they are exposed to a eontinuous flow of smoke and heat. They dry the seeds of sorne other crops in the sun, sorne others (sueh as potatoes) in the shade.Sorne are kept in Box 2, Traditlonal Metbods of Seed Saleetion in tbe Terai Region of Nepal Reasons for mixture in rice seeds a Jharan: shattered seeds in !he rice fields e Kheraha: volunteer plants that emerge Irom jharan Seed-selection practices Seed-selection practices  "},{"text":"Need for Advocacy for Effective Participatory Crop Improvement and Plant Genetic Resource Enhancement: Case Studies on Rice-Breeding Processes from Khotang and Jajarkot Districts, Nepal AbstraetThis paper de.ls with advocacy for effective participatory crop improvement and plant genetic resource enhancement. First, the need for advoeacy is highlighted; second, cases on the community-managed pracess of managing plant genetic resources is discussed. Advocacy is public .ction directed towards wider social change. It is about changing !he polícíes, practices, attitudes, posilions or programs of governing institutions within the public and private seetors lhat have a negative imp.ct In Ihe age of globalization, multinationalltransnational corporations (MNCsfINCs) inereasingly influence polioies, bul Ihese organiza!ions are no! bound by righ!s-related laws and regulations. The lrade-related inteIlectual property rights (TRIPs) agreement under the World Trade Organisation (WTO) is a rnajorlhreat to erop and variety development and genetie resource enhaneement. Advancements in genetíe engineering promoted by profit-oriented MNCsfINCs is graduaIly taking over tbe elassical researeh-and-development precess. If we are concemed about participatory erop improvement, we bave to pínpoinl lhe issue now. We need to enfore. favorable policíes and effeelÍve implementation for the conservalÍon of our genetic resourees and partieipatory development of crops and varielies. Therefore, to have influenee al lhe poliey level, we have lo develop links between operational work and advoeaey. In tbis eontexl, advocaey can support eommunities demanding fueir righls in gennplasm conservalion. Yamuna Gha/e Yamuna Gha/e  "},{"text":"LeafBlight: A Participatory Approach for Plant Breeding and Selection for Taro Improvement in Samoa Josefa, c.J Delp, and P. Fonotí   Abstraet Tbe 1993 outbreak ofleafblight in Samoa resulted in Ihe devastation oftbe staple taro crop and farmer's ineomes from local and overseas markets. The preferred cultivars were all susceptible lo Ihe disease, .nd attempts to solve Ibe problem through fungicides and changed cultural practices have had li!tle impacto Efforts lO evalnale exolic cultivars and breed taro wilh disease resistance commenced in 1996. Recent iniliatives to facilitate Ihe breeding program in Samoa inelude a university breeders' elub and the Taro Improvement Project (TIP), involving university .nd ministry research staff, students, extension slaff, and farmers. Bolh initi.tives have becn motivated by an interest in gre.ter participation of students .nd farmers in Ibe breeding process aud evaluation of introduced taro cultivars. This paper revíews and_ evaluates experieneos in Samoa with participatory approaches to plant breeding using a breedors' club and a fanners' group (TIP), highlighting the benefits ofboth.  "}],"sieverID":"643844c9-91e1-4d9b-90bd-30b4487bebf9","abstract":"This paper highlights the role offanners iD crap improvemeDt and managiDg agrobiodiversity. The fiDd-iDgS are mostly based 00 focus-group discussions aDd tield observations. Documentation of faooers' knowledge and experienees in erop ímprovement and managíDg agrobiodiversity may serve as a referenee for individual breeders or inslitutions involved in participatory erap improvement through differeDt strategies like particípatory plant breedíDg, particípatory varietal seleetion, Of partieipatory geooplasm enhaneernenl. The strength of participatory crop improvement is that there is rnultistage inyolvemeDt of farmers, from parent seleclion through to eultivation and selectian ofplanting materials, because faooers have a wide range ofknowledge .nd experience, and they are the end-users as well. Sine. ancien! times, fanners have been dependent upon lhe Iraditional seed-supply system, which slill aceoun!s for over 90% of Ihe secd requirement in NepaL A variety of mechanisms like varietal selectinn, seed seleetion, seed proeessing and storage, and Ihe seed-flow system have contributed lo crop development, creating agrobiodíversity on-faoo. More reeently, participatory germplasm enhancemen! has arisen as a new stra!egy to enhance lhe germplasm ofloeallandraces, whieh will no! only empowerfarmers in improving lbeir landraces bu! .Iso strengthen in situ conservation of sueh landraces on-fann. The curren! need is to incorporale farmers' relevanl knowledge and use it in lhe oyerall crop-improvement process."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06496e14fa69b212077948e727fa8333","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5a4a5d5d-6ea1-4460-92f7-550d691671bc/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Study #3042 Contributing Projects: • P335 -Monitoring and learning for biofortification","keywords":["Farmers Union Malawi","CIAT","HarvestPlus"],"chapters":[{"head":"Part II: CGIAR system level reporting","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Links to the Strategic Results Framework: Sub-IDOs:"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Increased availability of diverse nutrient-rich foods "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Results are used as parameters in the Global Households Reached Projection Model which estimates the number of biofortified crop growing (and hence consuming) households in a given year. Data were analyzed, but not prepared for a formal report. This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:18 (GMT+0) Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Yes Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Yes SRF 2022/2030 targets: SRF 2022/2030 targets: • # of more people, of which 50% are women, without deficiencies of one or more of the following • # of more people, of which 50% are women, without deficiencies of one or more of the following essentials micronutrients: iron, zinc, iodine, vitamin A, folate and vitamin B12 essentials micronutrients: iron, zinc, iodine, vitamin A, folate and vitamin B12 Geographic scope: Geographic scope: • National • National Country(ies): Country(ies): • Malawi • Malawi Comments: <Not Defined> Comments: <Not Defined> Links to MELIA publications: Links to MELIA publications: 1 1  "}],"sieverID":"67414e01-e24b-46f0-b094-18b02603d44a","abstract":""}

data/part_4/06a146971f210c6774c1b4352fb3b595.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06a146971f210c6774c1b4352fb3b595","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/58ac28f8-4ae3-4587-958b-349a4d53de6c/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Strategies to reduce post-slaughter beef loss through evaluation of quality and application of Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) in slaughter centre in Ethiopia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Prologue (cont...)"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":" Presumed reasons and analysis of scarcely available data reveal that it may be related to quality and safety:"},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"-at the level of production and transportation of the beef animal -post slaughter handling and processing of the beef  Hence, beef quality is multidimensional (Brunsø, 2005) -product-oriented, process oriented and user-oriented  , 1995) "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Safety can be addressed by plant specific application of HACCP Prologue (cont...)  Inappropriate post slaughter activities can lead to post slaughter beef loss and/or endangering of the public health (FAO, 2003)  Regarding state of the art and knowledge gap? -feeding trials and thus comparative carcass studies were extensively conducted Prologue (cont...)  No reported efforts to understand the physiological and structural components of beef muscle which are essential to comprehend effects they have on beef quality, safety and associated post slaughter loss  It was also noted that regulatory authorities are moving towards production of safe and quality beef for export market and domestic use (EHNRI, 2004) Objectives -To investigate the effects of production systems on beef quality and safety -To assess hazards and identify sites of contamination -To examine muscle colour stability and tenderness -To evaluate the rate and extent of proteolysis Hypothesis  The following null hypotheses will be tested -H 0 : Horro beef muscles have no difference in colour stability -H 0 : Horro beef muscles do not have difference in WBSF -H 0 : Horro beef muscles do not have difference in consumer preference -H 0 : There is no hazard in Horro beef processing centre -H 0 : Sarcomere length do not affect tenderness of Horro beef muscles -H 0 : Aging of Horro beef muscles have no effect of proteolysis 2 Materials and Methods 2.1. The study area • Oromia (Dano-Bako districts) • Addis Ababa abattoir 2.2 Methodologies and data collection • Husbandry data designed to evaluate quality and safety (survey conducted) -data collection completed • Consumer panel evaluation of muscle quality (AMSA, 1995 and Meilgaard, 1991) -data collection completed Materials and Methods (cont …) • Analytical evaluation of mucle color pigment (Mendenhall, 1989) • Application of principles of HACCP in abattoir (Savell, 1995) • WBSF evaluation of muscles (Wheeler, 1997) • Examination of muscles sarcomere (Locker, 1960) -Partly completed • Quantification of CAF (Koohmaraie "}],"sieverID":"12acd0bd-2821-4df0-b4e2-ba9928408f77","abstract":"Food shortage can result from failure of appropriate pre and post slaughter handling and processing  In view of livestock resource of Ethiopia, beef is among the major food source and export item (FAO, 2004). Beef accounts for 40% of the meat off-take  The beef off-take is partly from Horro beef which is originated in Horro district of Oromia (Mason, 1996)     The present overall beef export amounts only to 75,900 MT  (FAO, 2004)  indicating under utilization of the potential"}

data/part_4/06a649e1011a71afa7969b36f853d6bd.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06a649e1011a71afa7969b36f853d6bd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/Brief/8510-SWB-Brief-6.pdf"},"pageCount":17,"title":"SUSTAINABLE WOODFUEL BRIEF #06","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Key lessons","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction A people-centred approach to community planning","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Kenya is highly dependent on woodfuel, which has supplied about 70% of the country's households with cooking and or heating energy for decades (Kendagor and Prevost 2013;Singh et al. 2019). Most of the traded charcoal is produced from wood in the drylands of Kitui, Makueni, Tana River, Kwale, Narok, Baringo, Kajiado, Garissa and Kwale counties (MoEF, 2018; MENR, 2013; Mutimba and Barasa, 2005; Burrow and Mogaka, 2007). The Governing Multifunctional Landscapes Sustainable Woodfuel project is being implemented in the counties of Kitui and Baringo, which are also major sources of charcoal in the country."},{"index":2,"size":208,"text":"The specific target areas -which include Mwingi Central and Kitui East subcounties, and Marigat subcounty in Kitui and Baringo counties, respectively -were recommended by stakeholders during the launch of project. Both counties are located in dryland landscapes, and Baringo County is heavily invaded by the Prosopis juliflora shrub, locally known as mathenge. Baringo County is facing a wide range of challenges associated with Prosopis, including loss of grazing and farming lands, loss of tree diversity, and displacement of people from their homesteads as the thorny plant takes over native vegetation. Prosopis thickets create a suitable breeding ground for mosquitoes, leading to increased incidences of malaria, and goats can suffer tooth loss from eating the sugary pods (Mbaabu et al. 2019;Maundu et al. 2009; Mwangi and Swallow 2008). However, as described in Brief 4 of this series, charcoal production using Prosopis can provide communities with a sustainable livelihood option while also managing the invasive species and clearing land for agriculture (Koech et al. 2021). Kitui, on the other hand, has experienced dwindling tree cover and tree diversity due to unsustainable charcoal production using native species (Ndegwa et al. 2020; Kipsisei 2011). Kenya's policy and legal framework on sustainable woodfuel emphasizes the empowerment of communities through charcoal producer associations (CPAs)."}]},{"head":"• Community action plans (CAPs) offer a low-cost option to promote","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"sustainable charcoal production. At a cost of around 13 USD per person per day, depending on the location, county governments could integrate CAP meetings into their activities."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"• Training of Trainers (ToT) is another cost-effective approach to scaling knowledge on sustainable charcoal production. Building capacity among community trainers on the CAP process would enable charcoal producer associations (CPAs) to manage CAP meetings using their revenues from charcoal trade."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"• Diversification of woodfuel products could reduce pressure on forests and trees, such as through the recovery of charcoal dust at processing sites and the use of tree branches and twigs for briquette production."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"• To ensure that policy requirements for sustainable woodfuel production are met, the Kenya Forest Service and county governments can collaborate with CPAs to strengthen organizational and institutional capacities."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"Therefore, there is a need to identify and test options for sustainable woodfuel (charcoal in particular) using inclusive and people-centred approaches that involve various stakeholders.  "}]},{"head":"Interventions prioritized by three communities in Marigat subcounty, Baringo County","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Ranking of priority interventions by location","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Five-year vision","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"A more sustainable 'green' environment for a secure community and livelihood 15"}]},{"head":"Community action planning for sustainable woodfuel production in Baringo and Kitui counties, Kenya","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Since his participation in a training of trainers (ToT) on the use of improved kilns, he has shared his knowledge and experience with other charcoal producers, who have in turn taken up and shared this approach to a more sustainable charcoal value chain."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"As a pastoralist and charcoal producer, he was all too aware of the challenges posed by the invasive Prosopis juliflora bush for his livestock and community. Since his participation in the GML sustainable woodfuel project, he now sees the potential to profit from the plant while controlling its spread."}]},{"head":"\"","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"The training showed us how to live with Prosopis -because it can't be eradicated,\" he said. \"We can control it by using it in a very productive way through improved charcoal production.\" The ban on charcoal production in Kenya has negatively affected families who depend on charcoal to buy food and pay school fees, as well as for daily household use. While some innovative people began to carve out new livelihood options by making chairs out of Prosopis branches, many others are hoping for an exemption on Prosopis charcoal from the current logging moratorium, so they can further develop the market for higher-quality, more sustainable charcoal."}]},{"head":"Stakeholder story Knowledge can spread as fast as Prosopis","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"The training showed us how to live with Prosopisbecause it can't be eradicated SUSTAINABLE WOODFUEL BRIEF #06 19 18","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Community action planning for sustainable woodfuel production in Baringo and Kitui counties, Kenya"}]},{"head":"Cost of conducting community action planning meetings in Kenya","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"The CAP meetings were conducted at the grassroots (location) level and at a central place that was easily accessible to community representatives from all the villages in the location. Cost was a deciding factor in the choice of meeting locations to ensure that transportation costs and accommodation were low, to ensure participants, especially women, could attend to their household responsibilities. The CAP meetings incurred costs of around 13 USD per person per day both in Baringo and Kitui counties, covering participants' two-way transport, breakfast and lunch, training supplies (pens, notebooks, and flipcharts), seating and rental of meeting hall. These costs may vary with the geographical location or country, meeting venue and incentives/provisions required for seamless community engagement. "}]},{"head":"•","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"The effects of the logging moratorium on the livelihoods of charcoal producers and traders persist."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"• There is a lack of market for briquettes promoted in Kitui County as an alternative energy source to charcoal. Promoting diversified woodfuel products such charcoal dust recovery at processing sites and use of tree branches and twigs for production of small pieces of charcoal for briquette production could reduce pressure on forests and trees by providing an additional marketable product for charcoal producers. However, they require support to establish linkages with briquette traders and users for effective marketing."}]},{"head":"Conclusion and recommendations","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Finally, the strengthening of organizational capacity is critical to ensure adherence to policy requirements for sustainable woodfuel production."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"To achieve this, the Kenya Forest Service and the relevant departments of county governments can work together with CPAs to ensure that much-needed capacity is built or strengthened."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" A community action plan (CAP) is a tool for identifying and prioritizing interventions through community meetings involving a range of stakeholders. This brief presents findings from research on CAP for sustainable charcoal production in Baringo and Kitui counties. There are four key steps to developing an action plan. First, the community is engaged in an analysis of the current situation using various tools to reflect on the status of natural resources, livelihoods, challenges and opportunities. The next step uses the information to craft a vision of the desired situation, including strategies and interventions needed to bring about that vision. In the third step, the community adopts participatory ranking tools to prioritize interventions for implementation. Finally, the community develops an action plan for implementing the priority interventions, as shown in the figure. In each one of these steps, gendered perspectives need to be intentionally sought out and incorporated. locations in Marigat subcounty, Baringo County. The three locations selected are among the areas vastly affected by Prosopis. A total of 160 community representatives (102 males and 58 females) participated in CAP meetings, which also brought together representatives from national and county governments, the Charcoal Producer Federation of Kenya (CPFK), the Adventist Development Relief Agency (ADRA) Kenya, and World Agroforestry (ICRAF). Outputs included resource maps (see photos), a gender-based calendar of activities, charcoal production trends, stakeholder analysis, a list of challenges faced by the community members and associated priority interventions, and a description of the communities' visions for the future (see box). the main challenges to achieving their desired outcomes and shared vision as: (i) the current charcoal ban; (ii) weak and inefficient CPAs; (iii) landscape degradation and loss of grazing and croplands associated with Prosopis; (iv) poor carbonization technologies; and (v) lack of access to improved technologies. These challenges make the value chain unsustainable and economically unattractive, especially to charcoal producers and other resource users such as beekeepers, farmers and pastoralists. To address these challenges, community members prioritized the following interventions: (i) training and stakeholder support with efficient charcoal production technologies; (ii) building the organizational and institutional capacities of CPAs; (iii) sustainable management and control of Prosopis; (iv) lifting the ban on Prosopis charcoal and trade; and others as shown in the table. "},{"text":" ranking: (***) high, (**) medium and (in Mwingi North, Mwingi Central, Kitui East and Kitui South subcounties of Kitui County, which are key charcoal production sites. Community action planning was conducted to inform piloting and capacity development activities for both the CPAs and general community members. The CAP meetings were conducted in four locations: Endui, Nguni and Ngomeni in Mwingi Central subcounty and Endau in Kitui East subcounty. The desired outcomes and vision for the communities in these four locations are shown in the box. "},{"text":" by the size, weight and texture of the charcoal whether it was produced by a traditional kiln or IEK,\" he said. \"People prefer the IEK after seeing its advantage over the TEK.\" He also noted the health benefits of using the IEK, as it produced much less smoke than the older, more wasteful method. "},{"text":" CPA meeting in a farm near Endui, Kitui County, Kenya (Axel Fassio/CIFOR-ICRAF) Prosopis charcoal production was identified as one of the priority interventions during the CAP in Baringo. The project implemented three main activities: 1. Twenty-four local charcoal producers and one primary school teacher participated in a training of trainers (ToTs) on more efficient carbonization technologies, management of Prosopis thickets into woodlots, and use of Prosopis twigs for briquette making and as biochar for soil improvement (Njenga et al. 2019). 2. Community ToT graduates facilitated peer-to-peer learning by training more than 359 other charcoal producers on charcoal production using the improved earth mound kiln and the drum kiln. Charcoal producers supported by the project in the use of the IEK reported higher yields, heavier charcoal, faster carbonization and less waste in form of dust and smoke compared to the traditional earth mound kiln. 3. A meeting with the Baringo County government's environment committee was held to discuss governance issues, and a draft county roadmap was developed to guide the development of a sustainable Prosopis woodfuel value chain in the county. The roadmap will include policy reforms to formalize the value chain, as well as increased support for natural resources management, including woodfuel resources. This will benefit vulnerable charcoal producers who are often exploited by unlicensed agents along the charcoal value chain. Increasing tree cover was a key aim in Kitui County. To meet this need, 90 representatives of charcoal producer groups (CPG) comprising 62 women and 28 men from four locations were trained in the establishment of tree nurseries, farmer managed natural regeneration (FMNR), enrichment planting, efficient carbonization technologies and briquette production. This led to the establishment of 10 tree nurseries, which grew a total of 11,200 indigenous tree seedlings. In addition, 4,000 mixed tree seedlings of exotic and indigenous origin were raised by individual farmers. The main tree species grown in the tree nurseries and by individual farmers include: Terminalia pruinodes, Acacia horrida, Cassia abbreviata, Senna siamea, Tamarindus indica, Melia volkensii, Moringa oleifera, Azadirachta indica, Mangifera indica and Persea americana. Organizational and institutional capacity development of CPAs and CPGs, particularly in business and marketing skills, was initiated in Endui, Nguni, Ngomeni and Endau locations in Kitui County. This was aimed at empowering members of the CPGs and CPAs to work well together in their organizations for effective natural resource management and sustainable charcoal production. In addition, two new CPGs were established in Ngomeni and Nguni locations in Kitui County. Organizing charcoal producers in groups provides communitylevel platforms that are useful in facilitating engagement and shared learning among local stakeholders for policy change and increased impacts on the ground. These community-level platforms have also raised awareness on the available legislation around sustainable charcoal production, and have initiated dialogue to influence policy change. rising water levels in the Baringo and Bogoria lakes, causing the displacement of target communities and submergence of demonstration plots for Prosopis management that were set up by trained charcoal producers. This slowed the transfer of knowledge to the rest of the community members. "},{"text":"At a cost of around 13 USD per person per day, depending on location, CAP meetings offer a low-cost, effective approach to promoting sustainable charcoal production systems and trade. Thus, with limited funding, county governments through their relevant departments could integrate the facilitation of CAP into their activities. Building capacity among community trainers on the CAP process would further enable CPAs to steer their own CAP meetings at minimum cost (i.e., only for facilitation) using the revenues collected from charcoal trade. There is a need for continued implementation of the prioritized options in natural resource management and efficient charcoal production technologies, as well as facilitation by development practitioners in collaboration with government bodies to promote more effective marketing systems, for enhanced income and environmental sustainability (Kamwilu et al. 2021). For instance, relevant county and national governments ministries and development partners could integrate these activities into their plans, programmes and training materials on improved charcoal and FMNR (Wanjira et al. 2020; Wanjira et al. 2021). CPAs, through their developed action plans or environmental conservation plans, can allocate funds from charcoal revenues to implement some of the activities, as recommended in the Charcoal (Forestry) Rules 2009 for Kenya. "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"b96712e7-1772-45bc-bb02-f6695f722f15","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06d1dda39c2f64dc2aef94f09beb547f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9f2cc842-367c-4f49-b684-ca5937646933/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Los problemas que afronta el agricultor de ｦ ｾ ｩ ｪ ｯ ｬ ＠ en América Latina son muy numerosos y complejos. De una manera general estos problemas, que afectan la produccibn, se pueden definir en","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"grupos:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"biológicos Ｈ ･ ｮ ｦ ･ ｾ ｭ ･ ､ ｡ ､ ･ ｳ Ｌ ＠ plagas, etc.l, edAficos (fertilidad pobre, bajo fósforo, etc.l y climAtices <sequl a, exceso de lluvias, etc. l. Adem.as, estos factores no ocurren aisladamente y casi siempre la ocurrencia de un factor exacerba a otro."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Por ejemplo, un exceso de lluvias durante el ciclo del cultivo en muchas regiones de América Central, resulta en una alta severidad de mustia y pérdidas muy altas en la producción, sobre todo en donde se ｳ ｩ ･ ｭ ｢ ｾ ｡ ｮ ＠ variedades susceptibles y no se usa otra medida de control."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"Existen muchos otros ejemplos."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"La solución a estos numerosos y complejos problemas es casi siempre dificil, sin importar la estrategia o estrategias que se utilizan."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"Por esa razbn dificilmente un solo profesional, ya sea fitomejorador, fitopatblogo o agrbnomo, podra por si solo"},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"variedades de frijol con color de ｧ ｾ ｡ ｮ ｯ ＠ comercial, de buen rendimiento y otras caracteristicas agronbmicas deseables, ademas de poseer resistencia a la mustia y al mosaico dorado, para un pals como la Repóblica Dominicana, por ejemplo."},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"AUn para una institucibn seria dificil la solucibn de estos "},{"index":8,"size":37,"text":"La participacibn de cada miembro del equipo de labores debe empezar en las primeras etapas del trabajo y el punto de partida mAs lógico empieza con el DIAGNOSTICO DEL PROBLEMA. Selección del sitio o sitios de evaluación."},{"index":9,"size":21,"text":"｡ ､ ･ ｭ ｾ ｳ ＠ de 1 as Este debe ser representativo de la zona frijolera, de las condiciones"},{"index":10,"size":16,"text":"del tipo de suelo y de los factores biolbgicos que ocurren en la zona de interes."}]},{"head":"2.","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Selección de épocas de siembra mas adecuadas para evaluar plagas o enfermedades."}]},{"head":"3.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"EvaluaciOn y muestreo de las poblaciones del patOgeno o insectos para determinar presencia de raza, cambios en la poblacien de estos. biotipos o 4. Diseho y metodologias de campo que estimulen y que permitan evaluar con facilidad los factores biolbgicos. Esto incluye el uso de esparcidores, inoculaciones artificiales, inoculaciones de la semilla, incorporacibn de residuos de cosecha infectada, y el uso de testigos de diferente reaccian, bien adaptados y conocidos. Tambien incluye manejo especial de ensayos: control de hongos si el interes es evaluar reacciOn a virus, por ejemplo, incorporaciOn a"}]},{"head":"5.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Manejo agronOmico adecuado."}]},{"head":"6.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Elaboracibn de escalas de evaluacibn apropiadas. La integración de grupos multidisciplinarios o trabajos en equipo es un tema que ha sido discutido en diferentes talleres de mejoramiento de frijol, y se ha con.cluido que es la manera mAs eficiente y r4pida para lograr los objetivos planteados."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"El problema se vuelve complejo para algunos programas nacionales de frijol en donde las pol!ticas institucionales no permiten la formación de grupos multidisciplinarios de investigacibn-validacibn-transferencia, no por desconocimiento de su importancia, sino en algunos casos para no romper un orden institucional establecido, lo cual incide directamente en la metodologia utilizada en donde cada tecnico realiza la labor de su especialidad, caminando con las demas disciplinas de trabajo en forma paralela, sin encontrar asi un objetivo coman que pueda alcanzar en una forma eficiente la solución a la problem4tica de la producción de frijol."},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":"El CIAT debera jugar, en el futuro, un papel de mucha importancia en este tema capacitando personal, de tal manera que la capacitación incluya la concientización de la integración de equipos de investigación, para que al regreso a su pais se integren a trabajar en forma conjunta y no en forma individual, para poder asl, en una forma ordenada y eficiente, buscar las alternativas de solucibn a la problematica del frijol de aquellos programas nacionales que a la fecha se encuentran trabajando en forma desordenada, ya sea por políticas de la i•nstitución o por la desintegración misma de un buen esquema de investigación. Buscar las soluciones de acuerdo a los recursos disponibles."}]},{"head":"4.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Definir las estrategias m4s adecuadas a considerar."}]},{"head":"5.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Elaborar un plan de trabajo que contemple: a. La seleccibn de los progenitores."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"b. La seleccibn de los segregantes."},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"c. Las evaluaciones a realizar."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"Algunas consideraciones a ､ ｩ ｳ ｣ ｵ ｾ ｩ ｲ Ｚ ＠"}]},{"head":"1.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"La realización del inventario del personal con que se cuenta en los programas nacionales. "}]},{"head":"4.","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"La evaluacibn del trabajo en equipo y sus avances."}]},{"head":"5.","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"El papel de las instituciones capacitadoras en lo que se refiere a la orientación de los especialistas y a la integración del trabajo en equipo."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"2c132e3e-e7cc-4cc6-ae5a-aca48a805730","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0754c8b8477067158d7bb385d70e83a0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4b5bafc6-c54f-4e46-9bad-0a5b02b3a1be/retrieve"},"pageCount":34,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Siembra al voleo muy ineficiente:"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"• playas con doble dosis de semilla → pérdida"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• playas sin sembrar → lote para malezas Siembra en el sitio muy eficiente:"},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"• uso preciso de semilla → más comida"},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"• 2-3 aporques → control de malezas Deshierba del maíz en país azteca, ca. 1500 Labranza en país belga, ca. 1500"},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"Lecturas adicionales: Butzer 1995, Debouck 2017, Diamond 1997 donde la difusión había operado: Oriente Próximo (trigo), SE Asia (arroz), Sahul (plátano) sureste asiático (yuca), Oriente Próximo (ají)"},{"index":7,"size":38,"text":"Ejes continentales mayores (Crosby 2004, Diamond 2002) gradiente de latitud en las Américas = impedimento a la difusión rápida de cultivos 4 ta explicación: masa continental y longitud Población de distintas partes del mundo en millones de personas"},{"index":8,"size":12,"text":"• América Latina: después de 1850: arroz asiático, trigo, pollo, cerdo, ganado"},{"index":9,"size":10,"text":"• Norteamérica: después de 1900: trigo, maíz, soja, cerdo, ganado"},{"index":10,"size":13,"text":"• África: factura de la esclavitud (10 7 personas); cultivos americanos, arroz asiático"},{"index":11,"size":12,"text":"• Europa: costo de varias guerras; papa, maíz, pollo, cerdo, ganado, medicina"},{"index":12,"size":15,"text":"• Asia: maíz, camote, con su arroz que es otro ecosistema (control de malezas/ plagas!)"},{"index":13,"size":20,"text":"Lecturas Criterios de selección de clones fuentes: Arias-García et al. 2005, Boster 1984, 1985, Emperaire et al. 1998, Reichel-Dolmatoff 1996 "}]},{"head":"Uso","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Producción Cultura "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"( fuente: Codex Florentino 1548\"La chute d'Icare\", Breugel el Viejo, 1560 "},{"text":" fuente: D.C. Turnley 1990 fuente: The Truth 1896 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" 1 ra explicación: llenando un vacío . . . 3 ra explicación: manejo hortícola geométrico siembra de trigo en Inglaterra, ca. 1850 siembra de papa en el Perú, ca. 1550 3 ra explicación: manejo hortícola geométrico siembra de trigo en Inglaterra, ca. 1850 siembra de papa en el Perú, ca. 1550 Cultivo  aporte (cosecha → menos trabajo) fuente Cultivoaporte (cosecha → menos trabajo)fuente ají  su 'pique'; antiséptico en alimentos Cultivos del Nuevo Mundo Cultivos del Viejo Mundo Toussaint-Samat 1992 ajísu 'pique'; antiséptico en alimentos Cultivos del Nuevo Mundo Cultivos del Viejo Mundo Toussaint-Samat 1992 algodón  mayor productividad de los tetraploides camote 7.1 arroz  Wendel 1995 7.3 algodónmayor productividad de los tetraploides camote 7.1 arrozWendel 1995 7.3 cacao  estimulante único (si mezclado con azúcar) maíz 7.3 avena  Coe & Coe 1996 5.5 cacaoestimulante único (si mezclado con azúcar) maíz 7.3 avenaCoe & Coe 1996 5.5 caucho Cultivo material único por su elasticidad papa 7.5 cebada Competidor/ región de impacto  Schultes 1984 5.1 fuente/ info adicional caucho Cultivomaterial único por su elasticidad papa 7.5 cebada Competidor/ región de impactoSchultes 1984 5.1 fuente/ info adicional fríjol ají menestra de grano grande con varios colores yuca 9.9 trigo pimienta negra/ Mediterráneo  Debouck 2017 4.2 Andrews 1995 t 0 fríjolajímenestra de grano grande con varios colores yuca 9.9 trigo pimienta negra/ MediterráneoDebouck 2017 4.2 Andrews 1995t 0 girasol maíz fríjol común ecología diferente frente a otras oleaginosas grano grande; dos cosechas/ año almorta/ Mediterráneo fríjol Lima caupí/ sabanas de África Heiser 1995 Jacob 1944 Hernández & Lora 1992 NRC 1979 t 1 girasol maíz fríjol común ecología diferente frente a otras oleaginosas grano grande; dos cosechas/ año almorta/ Mediterráneo fríjol Lima caupí/ sabanas de ÁfricaHeiser 1995 Jacob 1944 Hernández & Lora 1992 NRC 1979t 1 maní papa maíz yuca rendimiento y cosecha en el suelo balance nutricional/ kg: cal., prot., vit. mijo/ Sahel ñame/ sabanas de África  Smartt 1990 Butzer 1995 NRC 1996 Hall 1991 t 2 maní papamaíz yucarendimiento y cosecha en el suelo balance nutricional/ kg: cal., prot., vit. mijo/ Sahel ñame/ sabanas de ÁfricaSmartt 1990 Butzer 1995 NRC 1996 Hall 1991t 2 quina zapallo corteza contra la malaria zanahoria/ Europa  Rocco 2003 Ott 2012 quina zapallocorteza contra la malaria zanahoria/ EuropaRocco 2003 Ott 2012 tabaco  único contra el cansancio físico  Roze 1894 tabacoúnico contra el cansancio físicoRoze 1894 tomate papel único en salsas en platos mediterráneos Durante 1617, Torre 1991 adaptado de Stephens 1855 tomatepapel único en salsas en platos mediterráneos Durante 1617, Torre 1991 adaptado de Stephens 1855 vainilla  aroma único  Cameron 2011 vainillaaroma únicoCameron 2011 yuca   no. calorías/ ha/ mm lluvia  Jones 1959 yucano. calorías/ ha/ mm lluviaJones 1959 zapallo Champ aux coquelicots à Argenteuil, Claude Monet, 1875 valor nutricional que se conserva meses  Ott 2012 11/34 12/34 zapallo Champ aux coquelicots à Argenteuil, Claude Monet, 1875 valor nutricional que se conserva mesesOtt 201211/34 12/34  "},{"text":"Cuál ha sido el impacto de los RFGs americanos? Por qué? ? ?   1650 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 1650175018001850190019502000 África 100 95 PLAN 90 95 120 198 811 África10095PLAN 9095120198811 Asia (sin Rusia) 327 475 597 741 915 1,320 3,741 Asia (sin Rusia)3274755977419151,3203,741 Europa + Rusia 3. Consecuencias de esta rápida difusión 103 144 192 274 423 Norteamérica 1 1 6 26 81 593 168 817 312 Europa + Rusia 3. Consecuencias de esta rápida difusión 103 144 192 274 423 Norteamérica 1 1 6 26 81593 168817 312 3.1. Demografía en y migración desde el Viejo Continente América Latina 12 11 19 33 63 162 512 3.1. Demografía en y migración desde el Viejo Continente América Latina 12 11 19 33 63 162 512 3.2. Urbanización y Revolución industrial Oceanía 2 2 2 2 6 13 31 3.2. Urbanización y Revolución industrial Oceanía 2 2 2 2 61331 3.3. Expansión colonial     3.3. Expansión colonial 4. Una cuestión sensorial: de gustos y otros gustos  4. Una cuestión sensorial: de gustos y otros gustos 5. Epílogo: saber entender las Américas    5. Epílogo: saber entender las Américas        15/34 16/34 15/34 16/34  "},{"text":" Homo sapiens: no sé, pero una tremenda 2 da oportunidad! ▪ Impacto: el mundo como lo conocemos hoy no sería tal sin los RFGs americanos  flora original (hasta 1491), geografía física de las Américas, y la gente  valor genuino, verdadero complemento en la dieta y en la rotación en el Viejo Mundo 27/34 ▪ La gente, las agricultoras, han demostrado un talento sin igual en mejoramiento; hace ~12,000 años, frente a los niños, los únicos recursos: plantas y cerebro domesticar trigo relativamente fácil; maíz: era realmente transformar la planta ▪ Continente aún desconocido (744 nuevas sp./año), pero invadido y pérdida de habitats fragilidad  ratio de masas continentales con respecto al Viejo Mundo ejemplo de la extinción de la fauna suramericana en el cierre del Istmo de Panamá Y pérdida de conocimientos tradicionales; necesidad de avanzar de manera integral    Epílogo: saber entender las Américas Epílogo: saber entender las Américas     selección sobre esquejes/ parte aérea selección sobre esquejes/ parte aérea Pueblo  no. de clones fuente recuerdo de las características de la raíz Pueblono. de clonesfuenterecuerdo de las características de la raíz Tukano  61 Emperaire et al. 1998 campo de Suápiranga Tukano61Emperaire et al. 1998campo de Suápiranga Jívaro  127 Boster 1984 Amazonia, Brasil Jívaro127Boster 1984Amazonia, Brasil Amuesha color de la raíz Salick et al. 53 1997 productividad enlace con la familia Amueshacolor de la raíz Salick et al. 53 1997productividadenlace con la familia Shuar contenido en materia seca Bennett et 24 al. 2002 adaptabilidad enlace con creencia Shuarcontenido en materia seca Bennett et 24 al. 2002adaptabilidadenlace con creencia Ticuna  contenido en fibras linamarina (si aplica) Arias-García resistencia a enfermedades resistencia a depredadores 38 et al. 2005 valor estético valor de novedad Ticunacontenido en fibras linamarina (si aplica) Arias-García resistencia a enfermedades resistencia a depredadores 38 et al. 2005valor estético valor de novedad facilidad para pelar y rallar Caboclo 36 Fraser 2010 precocidad de cosecha facilidad para pelar y rallar Caboclo 36 Fraser 2010precocidad de cosecha deterioro de raíz calidad para cerveza de dónde? • de la madre o de la suegra facilidad de cosechar altura, ramificación 39 plantas de la colección mundial de deterioro de raíz calidad para cerveza de dónde? • de la madre o de la suegrafacilidad de cosechar altura, ramificación39 plantas de la colección mundial de • de otros miembros de la familia yuca conservada en • de otros miembros de la familiayuca conservada en • de vecinas o de la tienda el CIAT (> 5,100 clones) • de vecinas o de la tiendael CIAT (> 5,100 clones) • desde el río abajo (3%) • desde el río abajo (3%) • desde semilla (1%)  • desde semilla (1%)     Claude Aubriet 1700 Debouck 2013 Claude Aubriet 1700Debouck 2013  "}],"sieverID":"0e22572b-ff92-4dc2-8a90-d8c33257a921","abstract":""}

data/part_4/083250ba1140b38da9e5dfda44f8abf9.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"083250ba1140b38da9e5dfda44f8abf9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/79d065c9-f89e-4e08-91e9-b2b08643d225/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Maziwa Zaidi (More Milk) in Tanzania","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"• Investment in systems for dairy recording is crucial in order to meet production potentials at farm and national levels;"},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"• Information about animals within the farm are necessary to small holder and other categories of dairy farmers who need animals that are well suited to their environments;"},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"• The African Dairy Genetic Gain program aims at establishing the National Dairy Performance Centre (DPRC) for receiving and processing dairying data."},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"Opportunities to invest and scale "}]},{"head":"Pictured is a Tanzanian dairy cow with National Identification Tag","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Key results","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"• Data collected from the field, processed and analyzed to inform researchers and producers; • Farmers' or producers feedback on profitable dairy management will be relayed in feedback loops; • Information collected will be arrayed in relation to policy and investment requirements; • The same information will be used to inform policy and investment; • 12, 000 cattle will be registered and 10,000 farms included in the DPRC."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"This document is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. April 2017"},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"March 2017"}]},{"head":"Objectives and approach","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"• The African Dairy Genetic Gain (ADGG) is a multistakeholder and multi-partnership Program operating both in Tanzania and Ethiopia."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"• ADGG aims at application of genetic and genomics tools in identifying and certifying high performing bulls in order to ensure that the farmers in East Africa obtain high grade bulls that are suited to their production systems. Hosted at Tanzania's eGovernment Agency (eGA), the DPRC will be manned for data about farmers, dairy cattle, management and production aspects."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Maziwa Zaidi thanks all donors and organizations which globally support the work of ILRI and its partners through their contributions to the CGIAR system"}]},{"head":"A simple diagram showing how different components of the DPRC interface with each other","index":5,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Select high performing bulls suitable in particular areas for multiplication of high grade dairy cows; • Large and medium scale farmers to provide high grade bulls and cows; • Stakeholder forums and institutions such as Tanzania Dairy Board (TDB), Farmers' Forums, Research Institutions and Policy Forums use the data and information gathered. • Initial involvement of Local Government Authorities (LGAs) in • Initial involvement of Local Government Authorities (LGAs) in 24 administrative councils and seven regions of the milk shed 24 administrative councils and seven regions of the milk shed areas of Arusha, Tanga, Kilimanjaro, Iringa, Mbeya, Njombe and areas of Arusha, Tanga, Kilimanjaro, Iringa, Mbeya, Njombe and Songwe; Songwe; • Pictures • Pictures  "}],"sieverID":"af579312-3727-42e0-8b4e-c180c0ff3bd1","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0866cee66a10ffae1d35568f8415e2ec.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0866cee66a10ffae1d35568f8415e2ec","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7e911864-4042-4d5e-84f2-6a84e6e7c844/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Use and effects of GEM parboiling technique on farmers' income and food security in Sikasso and Segou regions of Mali","keywords":["Rice","parboiling","quality","income and nutrition"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Rice consumption in Mali, as well as in many other West African nations, has experienced a rapid surge. Between 2003 and 2022, the annual increase in rice consumption amounted to 54,255 tons, surpassing that of any other cereal (FAOSTAT, 2023). In 2022, the average per capita rice consumption in Mali reached 74 kg per inhabitant, surpassing the West African average of 52 kg per inhabitant (FAOSTAT, 2023). The spike in Mali's rice consumption is attributed to shifts in consumer preferences towards rice, population growth, and rising income (Dicko et al., 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"Significant growth in rice production was observed in Mali from 2003 to 2022, amounting to 57,795 tons per year, positioning Mali as the second-largest rice producer in West Africa after Nigeria. Currently, local rice production covers 94% of the domestic demand (FAOSTAT, 2023). Despite the importance of domestic production, locally produced rice faces tough competition from imported rice due to poor quality caused by high breakage rates and impurities, impacting the physical and nutritional qualities of the locally produced rice (Fiamohe et al., 2018)."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"Rice parboiling stands out as a highly effective strategy to enhance the physical and nutritional attributes of rice. This process involves soaking, heating, and drying raw rice. The benefits of parboiling include increased milling yields, improved nutritional value, and resistance to spoilage by insects and molds. Additionally, rice parboiling aims to cure the kernel, maximizing head rice yield and enhancing the nutritional and health benefits of parboiled rice (Demont et al., 2012)."},{"index":4,"size":119,"text":"Three major rice parboiling techniques are used in Mali: traditional rice parboiling, kit parboiling, and GEM parboiling. Traditional parboiling often involves pre-cooking paddy with excess water, leading to detrimental effects on quality. The kit parboiling method, equipped with a specific apparatus, results in higher-quality rice with lower breakage rates. Introduced under the World Bank-funded AICCRA project, the GEM parboiling technique, developed by AfricaRice, addresses challenges associated with traditional methods. GEM has high capacity, up to 1,000 kg per day, reduces labor input, and promotes environmental sustainability by using rice husk instead of charcoal (Ndindeng et al., 2015). The GEM parboiling was also shown to increase the micronutrient content particular zinc and Fe content of rice (Ndindeng et al., 2021)."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"However, a comprehensive assessment of the effects of different parboiling techniques on farmers' income and food security status is lacking. Such an evaluation is essential to recommend a parboiling technique that aligns with farmers' needs and socio-economic conditions. This study aims to evaluate the dissemination pathways of the GEM parboiling technique and compare the effects of the different parboiling techniques on farmers' income and food security status in Mali."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study area","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"The research was carried out in the Segou and Sikasso regions of Mali. The Segou region experiences a semi-arid climate, featuring two distinct seasons: a dry season and a rainy season. The rainy season spans from June to September, with an average annual rainfall of approximately 513 mm. On the other hand, Sikasso is situated in the semi-arid transition zone, receiving an annual rainfall of 1100 mm. Rice cultivation is the predominant economic activity in both areas. In Segou, rice is primarily grown using the submergence system, while in Sikasso, rice cultivation takes place in rainfed lowlands and uplands. The practice of parboiling is predominantly carried out by women after the rice harvest."}]},{"head":"Data collection and analysis","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"The study employed a two-stage random sampling technique to select households engaged in parboiling within the study area. One village was randomly chosen in each of the Sikasso and Segou regions from the list of villages where the local population utilized the three parboiling techniques (traditional parboiling, parboiling kit, and GEM parboiling). Subsequently, from each selected village, a comprehensive list of all rice parboilers was compiled. A total of 120 parboilers were randomly selected, comprising 30 individuals practicing traditional parboiling, 30 using the parboiling kit, and 30 employing the GEM parboiling technique."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"Data collection took place between September and November 2023 and covered various topics: socioeconomic and demographic characteristics, type of parboiling techniques used, performance metrics, quantity and pricing of parboiled rice, and food security indicators. The evaluation of parboiling equipment performance included the output rate, defined as the quantity of dehulled rice obtained from a 100 kg bag of paddy rice after the parboiling and dehulling process. Income calculations were based on multiplying the output rate per 100 kg of paddy by the average unit price of 1 kg of parboiled and milled rice."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"The assessment of the food security status of parboilers' households involved factors such as the number of foods consumed daily, perceptions of food quantity per meal, and the diversity of foods consumed. Continuous variables like household size, soaking time, steam treatment duration, paddy drying duration, percentage of burned, chalky, and whole grains, as well as production cost and income, were analyzed using descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, median, and interquartile range). Percentage shares were computed for categorical variables. Analysis of variance was conducted to determine significant differences in variables across different parboiling techniques. In cases of significance, mean separation tests were employed, with a designated significance level of ≤0.05."}]},{"head":"Results","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Women dominate the rice parboiling sector with a percentage of 93 -100% (Table 1). The average age of the investigated women was 42 years for traditional parboiling technology, 47 years for parboiling kits, and 30 years for GEM technology. Thirty-three percent of the women who use traditional parboiling technology received formal education, while 53% of women who use kits technology received formal education. Twenty-six percent of women who use GEM technology received a formal education. More than 70% of respondents are married and belong to a household of 7 to 10 people. "}]},{"head":"Dissemination of the GEM parboiling system","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"The GEM parboiling system comprises a soaking tank made of stainless steel (Inox 304 L), a steaming tank also constructed from stainless steel (Inox 304 L) featuring stainless steel (Inox 316 L) perforated basket positioned on a false-bottom within the steaming tank. The system also includes a hot water pump, a rail and hoist system, and an enhanced rocket stove built with fired bricks anchored to the ground. Positioned beneath a parboiling shade with a cemented surface, the system facilitates the retrieval of grains that may fall during the parboiling process, minimizing quantitative loss. Adjacent to the parboiling shade is a raised concrete surface enclosed by tarpaulins (Ndindeng et al., 2021)."},{"index":2,"size":158,"text":"In the framework of the implementation of the AICCRA project, the GEM parboiling technique was introduced in the Segou and Sikasso regions. Residents were trained to install the GEM parboiling device. Beneficiaries received training on how to select the best type and paddy for parboiling, such as slim varieties and rough rice that has not been affected by illness or de-husked during threshing. They were also instructed on the proper methods of rice cleaning through winnowing and washing to eliminate various impurities. This encompassed soaking at the correct initial temperature (85°C for most varieties and rough rice aged over 3 months), determining the optimal steaming time (20-25 minutes), and understanding the drying regimes and dehulling systems that yield the higher milling recovery. A total of 701 individuals from three local cooperatives, namely SABOUGNOUMAN (Finkolo Ganadougoun), BADENYA, and DJEKA BARA (Dioro), underwent training in the use of the GEM parboiling technique under the auspices of the AICCRA project implementation."}]},{"head":"Performance of different rice parboiling techniques","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"The performance of the different parboiling techniques is shown in Table 2. The duration of soaking, steaming, and drying was the highest with the traditional method followed by the kit parboiling, and was the lowest with GEM parboiling. On the contrary, the quantity of parboiled rice after husking was the highest with GEM parboiling followed by Kit, and was the lowest with the traditional parboiling technique. The percentages of burned grains and chalky grains were higher with the traditional parboiling compared with the Kit and GEM parboiling techniques. The percentage of whole grain was higher with the GEM and parboiling kit compared with the traditional parboiling technique. "},{"index":2,"size":153,"text":"3.4. Income and food security GEM parboiling provided the greatest income of 125,664 XOF for 100 kg of parboiled rice, which was 131% higher than the income of the traditional parboiling technique and 81% higher than the income of the parboiling kit. In terms of food security indicators, the traditional parboiling approach had the largest percentage of recipients experiencing inadequate food intake, followed by the kit parboiling, while the GEM parboiling had none. Similarly, the traditional parboiling had the highest frequency of insufficient food quantity intake, followed by the parboiling kit. None of the recipients who used the GEM parboiling method consumed an insufficient amount of food. Nine percent of recipients went to bed without eating, whereas the percentage was zero for the kit and GEM parboiling techniques. Overall, those who used the GEM parboiling approach had the best food security status, whereas those who used the traditional parboiling technique had the worst.  "}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"This study revealed that the traditional parboiling method leads to a higher percentage of burnt and chalky grains compared to GEM technology and parboiling kits. Conversely, GEM parboiling technology and parboiling kits yield higher rates of whole rice compared to the traditional method, indicating that rice parboiled with GEM technology and the parboiling kit exhibit superior quality. GEM parboiling also requires less time compared to the traditional method and the kit parboiling technique. The revenue generated by the parboiling activity was notably higher with the GEM parboiling method compared to both parboiling kits and the traditional method. Furthermore, the percentage of residents in a food-secure situation was higher when employing GEM and Kits technologies compared to the traditional parboiling method. In conclusion, the GEM method enhances the quality of rice grains and increases the beneficiaries' income and their food consumption score."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. Income of traditional parboiling, GEM parboiling, and parboiling kit. Error bars are the standard errors. Means with different lowercase letters across parboiling methods are significantly different at p ≤ 0.05. "},{"text":"Table 1 : Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents Variable Traditional parboiling Steaming KITS GEM steaming VariableTraditional parboiling Steaming KITS GEM steaming Gender Female 93 100 97 Gender Female9310097 Age (in completed year) 42 47 30 Age (in completed year)424730 Percentage with formal education 33 53 26 Percentage with formal education335326 Percentage who have been married 80 73 80 Percentage who have been married 807380 Household size 8 9.2 7.4 Household size89.27.4  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Duration of soaking, steaming, and rice drying, the quantity of parboiled rice after husking, percentage of burned grains, chalky grains, and whole grains Parboiling Soaking Steaming Drying Quantity of parboiled Percentage Chalky Whole ParboilingSoakingSteamingDryingQuantity of parboiledPercentageChalkyWhole technique duration in duration (min) duration rice in kg after of burned grain Grain techniqueduration induration (min)durationrice in kg afterof burnedgrainGrain  minutes (min)  (min) husking (kg) grains (%) content Rate (%) minutes (min)(min)husking (kg)grains (%)contentRate (%)       (%)  (%)  "},{"text":"Table 2 . percentage of beneficiatie Type of Proportion of recipients Frequency of insufficient Frequency of residents retiring Type ofProportion of recipientsFrequency of insufficientFrequency of residents retiring parboiling experiencing inadequate food food quantity consumption for the night without having parboilingexperiencing inadequate foodfood quantity consumptionfor the night without having  intake  eaten intakeeaten Traditional 69 80 9 Traditional69809 parboiling    parboiling Kit 25 20 0 Kit25200 parboiling    parboiling GEM 0 0 0 GEM000 parboiling    parboiling  "}],"sieverID":"ca53c9d4-ca6b-4b7f-a0c0-887cec1274f3","abstract":"Fortifying rice using parboiling has been shown to have a higher retention rate of nutrients and improve the physical and nutritional quality of rice. Recently, the Grain quality enhancer, Energy-efficient and durable Material (GEM)' developed by Africa Rice Center was introduced in Mali in the framework of the implementation of the World-Bank funded project 'Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA)'. Since then, several initiatives were taken for the large-scale dissemination of the GEM parboiling technique. However, no information is available of the relative performance of the GEM parboiling to the existing parboiling techniques. This study assessed the use and effects of the GEM technique on parboiling performance, as well as the income and food security status of parboilers in Mali. An inventory of GEM parboiler users was conducted, followed by a random sampling of 120 parboilers, including 30 using the traditional parboiling technique, 30 using GEM, and 30 using a parboiling kit. The results showed that the traditional parboiling method leads to a higher percentage of burnt and chalky grains compared to GEM technology and parboiling kits. Conversely, GEM parboiling technology and parboiling kits yield higher rates of whole rice compared to the traditional method, indicating that rice parboiled with GEM technology and the parboiling kit exhibit superior quality. GEM parboiling also requires less time compared to the traditional method and the kit parboiling technique. The revenue generated by the parboiling activity was notably higher with the GEM parboiling method compared to both parboiling kits and the traditional method. Furthermore, the percentage of residents in a food-secure situation was higher when employing GEM and Kits technologies compared to the traditional parboiling method. In conclusion, the GEM method enhances the quality of rice grains and increases the beneficiaries' income and their food consumption score."}

data/part_4/0891590c973d4091b734a928b424384e.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0891590c973d4091b734a928b424384e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/24546089-cb59-47ae-b3e0-e93a977f3637/retrieve"},"pageCount":32,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Ma'di buku ni si'di ri a'i konyi enga'di International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) dri eya'di Bioversity International dri si ri 'i. Alua ri ani amanzo ewo ru egbwe dri ta ndre'di lonya loso ru egbwe vua ozo ni ri idri rii ana konyi kwele rii vua buku 'di a 'a ni u'bika si."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"Ma'di buku ni si'di ri a'i eno engaka drilakwa idele konyi kwejo laki lofo USAID dri ri iga rii (Ewo lonya ru egbwe vua ozo dri ri ndrejo karealuga ewo amvu dri akwa dri ri tro ri dri 2014 si ri 'i), SWICHI dri iga rii (Mori goga dri vu ndutu dri ewo lonya ru egbwe vua ozo ni endre ni 'baciri tro ri itujo vua inzajo ri dri 2016 si ri 'i) vua ewo nza ta ndre'di ru egbwe dri Uganda 'a riti dri ri iga ri tro ri e'duka ni ra."}]},{"head":"Ta a'ika I'dojoadru ri 'i","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Buku 'di osiru ra kole kokweru ta kole kideru e'i a 'i ri idri. Ta ti ubale kole kideru karega si riti oko le'jo dri a'i isu 'di ti 'i;"},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"1. Ta kole kideru lonya ru egbwe ni riti ozo ni ri tro vua akwa ta mbaka vua amvu e'bu ideka tro inzajo ri 'i."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"2. Lonya rua lele ri e'buka 'i 3. Ta esule riti e'buka lonya ni vua ta ru egbwe ni ozo tro ri a ta mbajo ri 'i."}]},{"head":"Lonya ta mbaka ruwe ti pelere tro","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Le'jo dri alualu a itiga ta kole kideru riti lidri 'ba alualu lele riti koka ri koko vu ani rii le'jo rongogongo ite'dele ra riti ta kaki idea wa riti tro 'i. Ma'di 'ba ini'di ri kole konze aini losoloso le'jo rongorongo riti ta idele wa riti tro ri ideka si ri ni aini asi okpo kwejo ta idejo."}]},{"head":"Ovi buku sile 'di e'bujo riti 'i","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Buku 'di osiru 'ba ta inika riti ni e'bule; 1. Izuta lemu 'a rit ni 2. Izuta ta anda esujo riti ni 3. Ta izujo 'ba tro alualu TA ERALE RII: Izuta alualu udi ri i'do izuta ali'di pi ria 'a ni unyaka si 'Diti Lu'ba kole 'ba ta inika ri koko vu ani rii:"},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Step 1:"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Nyi'du ta kole kideru ri le'jo drisidrisi oko anyizuta driaru duwi."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"Step 2: Nyete ta rongorongo esule ta a'ika si riti ta idele wa ri si rii, vua nyi la aini ta kole kecoru lidri 'a riti."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"Step 3: Nyizi 'ba lemu ni a riti di ma'dizi ai i'a ka ta kole kideru ri ide na a'a ya."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"Step 4: Nya'i 'ba ta kole kideki riti Ideka ri konze 'baziti ni di kaki idea igoni ya 'i."},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"Step 5: Nyizi 'ba ta kole kideki ri ideka ra ri ni di ta loso aia esule ta lidri ecojo ri Idereaga ri a'du ya."},{"index":8,"size":15,"text":"Step 6: Nyesu ra 'ba ta kole kideki ki idekaa ku ri dri ri ni."},{"index":9,"size":29,"text":"Step 7: Nyamu ta rongorongo riti ta idele wa ri tro ri 'ba driso Idekaa ku riti ni, rarii nyete aini loso ta kole Ide riti ideka si riti."},{"index":10,"size":12,"text":"Step 8: Nyangwa ta idele ra ria 'a ni leti ali si."},{"index":11,"size":29,"text":"Step 9: Nya'i 'ba lemu ni 'a riti kotiki dri aiangasi ta ai kovu kidea mgbi izuta 'di ivu 'i vua nyikonyi ta Idele wa ri sireaga alualu anagasi."},{"index":12,"size":28,"text":"Step 10: Nyangwa 'ba nya inile ria tati u'bale ai kidea riti aia la'i ni ndrejo lemu andraga ri iga driso ta udi ri oca i'doaru ku 'i."},{"index":13,"size":30,"text":"Ta kole ondre kideru rii 1: : Ago ukunzi tro 'a e'i ri ka ra 'du karealuga ewo amvu dri idri vua ta amvu a kwele ri ebureaga si 'i."},{"index":14,"size":3,"text":"'Ba lele rii:"},{"index":15,"size":13,"text":"• 'Ba kole kesuki riti: Ago ukunzi tro e'i 'a si riti 'i"},{"index":16,"size":18,"text":"• 'Ba kole kondreki kideru riti: Amba ama ilofo riti amba dini dri riti tro Le'jo rongorongo riti:"},{"index":17,"size":29,"text":"• Ra cidru 'a le'jo ekwi a'a. Ukunzi dri sa ra loso amvu dri vua ta esule amvu rii vua ta ti ubaka familia ni limi esujo rii a'a."},{"index":18,"size":26,"text":"• 'Ba cidru familia a rii, ukunzi ago tro kole kizuki ta vua ka'iki ru amvu dri vua ta esule amvu a ri e'bujo ri idri."},{"index":19,"size":21,"text":"• 'Ba familia 'a e'bu ideka karealuga ri ka ra loso ri du awu si oza idekaa ku ri ti ra."},{"index":20,"size":23,"text":"• Ta Izuka 'ba familia 'a ri ilofo ri ko'ba ago ukunzi tro ka ta ide karealuga loso familia dri ri ni 'i."},{"index":21,"size":17,"text":"• Nyolu cece. Ira nvuka nza ka nyigoga ta okpo familia 'a ri izure a ga ci."},{"index":22,"size":4,"text":"Ta idele wa riti:"},{"index":23,"size":29,"text":"• Izi kolu anyu. kizuta vua kokwe ra amvu dri vua ta amvu a kwele ri idri. Woman, be confident. Discuss and contribute ideas on farming and farm inputs."},{"index":24,"size":93,"text":"• Amba ama ilofo riti amba dini dri riti tro kole kikonyi ago ukunzi tro ta izujo vua e'bu idejo kare aluga familia ni olujo alu. Local and religious leaders, encourage men and women to discuss and work together for family unity. Ta rongorongo icarale rii: Jo ago ukunzi tro ka ra amu amvu dri vua ta amvu a kwele ri idri iri, naa kole dubasi leco nza ri kolu olu alu familia dri 'i ga a'a vua ta esule ewo amvu dri iga ri isa ka ri nza ra e'i a 'i."}]},{"head":"LE'JO DRI 1:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Ta kole kideru ta ru egbwe ni vua ozo ni ri inzajo riti 'i Ta kole ondre kideru rii 2: Familia ka ta aia lele riti ni wa vua kaki ta ruleka lonya ni, ru egbwe ni vua lini ni riti u'ba kate ra ni wa."}]},{"head":"'Ba lele rii:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"• Ago uku tro"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• Amba ama ilofo riti amba dini dri riti tro Le'jo rongorongo rii:"},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"• Familia ku'ba ta ruleka e'i 'a ri a ti ni karealuga, ovidru kendre lonya, ru egbwe ta mbaka vua lini tro 'i."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"• Familia kole ku'baki siti baraga lonya a'ia sale kuru riti ujejo awusin ka lonya 'baru ri a mori ni inza."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"• Familia kole ko'baki baraga vu ate'di ra rii ori lonya dru rii, tubi ora, kwe o'a nyale riti ta ziti tro usajo nyale baru."},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"• Anye'bu leti ovi mgbwimgbwi udi amvu dri ta drile 'waka loso riti awu."},{"index":7,"size":19,"text":"• 'Ba familia 'a riti cidru kole kideki e'bu lonya esujo rii, awusini lonya kate ra familia 'a 'i."}]},{"head":"Ta idele wa riti 'i:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"• Familia ku'ba ta okpookpo ruleka e'i 'a ri a ti ni karealuga, ovidru kendre lonya, ru egbwe ta mbaka vua lini tro 'i. Vua di anyi vu a'a riti e'bua lonya ate'di ra ri ni igoni ya 'i, ovidru tubi ora, kwe o'a nyale riti ta ziti tro usajo nyale baru (maramgba, osu, fuli)."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• Anyesu ra goli'ba dri vua 'ba e'bu Ideka laki lofo riti dri leti amvu dri udi ri ti idri 'i."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"Ta rongorongo icarale rii: Familia ta ti u'baka karealuga ta ruleka riti ni rii kolu lidri loso ri si."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"Ta kole ondre kideru rii 3: Ago, anyi kwe saa nza e'bu 'baru ri idejo vua anya ukunzi ti ikonyijo anya 'baciri ti tro 'i."},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"'Ba lele rii:"},{"index":6,"size":4,"text":"• Ago uku tro"},{"index":7,"size":4,"text":"• 'Boronzi izonzi tro"},{"index":8,"size":7,"text":"• laponyia andriba tro Le'jo rongorongo rii:"},{"index":9,"size":22,"text":"• Ago loku riti ka ai ka 'ba ta mba wa ni ite'dea aia ukunzi ti ikonyika aia 'baciri ti tro si."},{"index":10,"size":54,"text":"• Ago konyi kweka e'bu 'baru riti idere a ga riti a asi ni okpo, kaki 'ba ta mba wa vua a'di ai ru. A'i ovi loso rii dru aia 'baciri ti ni 'i. Kaki a'ia ukunzi ti isa Ikonyi oluka 'baciri ciri ri tro si vua 'baciri ru egbwe ri ti utijo awu."},{"index":11,"size":20,"text":"• E'bu 'baru ri kweka 'baciri ni a'ia olure ciri riko'ba kaki engwi 'ba e'bu ideka mori si riti 'i."},{"index":12,"size":17,"text":"• Laponyia, anyikonyi 'ba 'baciri e'bu baru riti idere aga saa aia olure mbo ri si 'i."}]},{"head":"Ta idele wa riti 'i:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"• Ago, anyi konyi ta e'bu 'baru ri iga 'i kendre 'baciri ujeka vua lonya kweka a'i ni si 'i."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• Nyiya nya izi tro karealuga ewo ru egbwe dri iga 'i."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• Nyi konyi ta familia a ta esule amvu 'a ri jika soko 'a si."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• Ukunzi, anyi dru leti anyi ago ni etajo e'bu 'baru ri idejo."},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"• Ukunzi anyi nze anya ago ti a dribaa ni oto dri e'bu baru esu a'ia idele ku ri idere a ga 'i"},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"• Ago dri dru riti kole koluki ovidru e'bu e'I 'a ri idere a ga 'i."},{"index":7,"size":28,"text":"Ta rongorongo icarale rii: Jo nyi nya izi ni ikonyi ta 'baru riti idere a ga Iri, adi nyi ndrema'di anda letro vua 'ba ta mba'di ri 'i."}]},{"head":"LE'JO DRI 2:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Lonya ru a lele ra ri ideka 'i Ta kole ondre kideru rii 1: 'Baciri ori imba 0-6 riti kole okwe a'ini te ba lei awu."},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"'Ba lele rii:"},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"• 'Ba 'batika riti 'ba 'baciri imba ori 0-6 riti a ta mbaka ri tro • Ukunzi ru anzi rit a'ia ago ti tro Le'jo rongorongo rii:"},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"• 'Barangwa jo kenya na oca imba azia kuru iri, ana 'a ni driso oca lonya ziti nyajo kuru. Nyikwe nya 'barangwa ni te ba lei awu."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"• Endre kole du'basi kidoki a'ia 'baciri ti indruka saa ndindi isu atijoa dru oti dri ri evu ri iga. 'Di ko'ba ru ka ba lei ide."},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"• 'Barrangwa indruka ni ko'ba uda kafu emiadru."},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"• 'Ba lei ka 'barangwa igoga laza ovidru oca riti esure a ga ci."},{"index":8,"size":60,"text":"• 'Barangwa ni ba ndru loso ni ole 'oba kitiri ani loso vua endre tro Ire. Kole o'ba ani ba ni ga ewo anda ri iga. 'Ba 'batika riti kole koziki konyi 'ba CHEWs riti dri kusa 'ba ovidru riti dri vua 'ba ru egbwe dri lini ukweka laki ni riti dri ite'dejoa dru leti ce 'barangwa indrujo ri 'i."},{"index":9,"size":36,"text":"• Ba lei 'a ta cidru 'barangwa a lele kinta ani 'di si ri a'a. Ba lei a lonya eyi tro 'barangwa a lele imba ndindi azia ana lindri oti vu ri ni rii ate tri."},{"index":10,"size":27,"text":"• Kole 'barangwa kondru ba tee endre kitiri anini ba lei ga kusa iyo sa 'i. Jo 'barangwa ka ba ndru iri, ba lei ka ride nza."},{"index":11,"size":22,"text":"• Endre 'baciri indruka riti kole konyaki lonya ziti ta epeepe riti tro awusi ni a'ia ru ka ba lei ide nza."}]},{"head":"Ta idele wa riti 'i:","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"• Endre kole kokweki a'ia 'baciri ti ni te ba lei awu saa oti dri ivu 'i, vua ndi kofuki ca imba azia kpe, naivu oriki lonya ziti Ido kwele a'ia ni 'I."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"Mothers should give their baby only breast-milk immediately at birth and continue until the baby is 6months old after which, other foods can be introduced."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"Ta rongorongo icarale rii: Endre ka konyi esu ma'di CHEW ri dri, ma'di e'bu Ide'di erua jo 'a ri dri kusa ma'di ovi dru baba a'ini leti anda 'baciri indrujo ri ite'dejoa dri a'ini ri dri. Nyi kwe te ba lei awu imba azia atijoadru 'barangwa a lidri dri ri i'a 'i, ka ani ikonyi zojo vua olujo ru egbwe tro 'i."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"Ta kole ondre kideru rii 2: 'Barangwa imba azia ri ni lonya loso ru a lele ziti ri ka rido wa tee kaci andraga ba nruka tro sa 'i. Lonya ni kole kolu ate'di ra rii, saa anda ri si vua loso ri 'i."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"'Ba lele rii: Endre, ata vua 'ba 'baciri imba ori 6-24 isu ri a ta mbaka riti 'i."},{"index":6,"size":3,"text":"Le'jo rongorongo rii:"},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"• Lonya loso ri kweka 'baciri ni ni ko'ba kaki olu ru egbw tro, kaki zo vua kaki ri Inza loso."},{"index":8,"size":44,"text":"• 'Baciri imba 6 -9 riti kole kondruki ba kpe naivu ori a'ini ziti ari inza riti kwe a'ini ovi idele lidi ani ri si.Nyi fuli i'di inza lonya 'baciri dri i'a wa vua ta zit ovidru papaya kusa inju rit isa kwe wa."},{"index":9,"size":27,"text":"• 'Baciri imba 9 -24 riti ni kole okwe lonya vu Ina kusa isuo'du alu 'a 'i ndrejoadru a'ini lonya ate tri a'ia olure ga ri 'i."},{"index":10,"size":17,"text":"• 'Baciri ole kunyaki ta ziti ciriciri riti lonya a'ia nyale vu inakusa Isu diti ilofo 'i."},{"index":11,"size":22,"text":"• Oje dri kpe ori lonya Ide vua kwe 'baciri ni 'i ausi nika a'i igoga laza oca dri esure ga ci."},{"index":12,"size":13,"text":"• 'Barangwa indruka kole komu andraga bi ana imba kofu ca 24 kpe."}]},{"head":"Ta idele wa riti 'i:","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"• Lonya ari inzaka riti ideka 'barangwa imba azia ri ni ni komu andraga 'barangwa indruka tro 'i."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"• Kole nye'bu leti loso ru egbwe ta mbajo kendre soroni'bu vua dri jeka tro laza kendre oca ti ani ri igoga jo."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"• Kole nye'bu leti loso ru egbwe ta mbajo saa nya 'baciri ciri ri ni lonya Idere rii laza kendre oca ti o'bu tro ri igoga jo Ta rongorongo icarale rii: 'Baciri ciri riti ni lonya ru a lele riti kweka ni ka a'i Ikonyi zojo loso. Ausi 'barangwa kido mbaka, acika vua ta 'joka kinya anda ri si."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"Ta kole ondre kideru rii 3: Lonya 'baru ri Inzaka 'i."},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"'Ba lele rii:"},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"• 'Ba kole kesuki riti: Ago, uku vua 'baciri amba familia 'a si riti 'i"},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"• 'Ba kole kondreki kideru riti: 'Ba ciri a'i tro rii, CHEWs, 'ba lidri loso tro rii vua ma'di lini ukwe'di laki ni ri 'i"},{"index":8,"size":3,"text":"Le'jo rongorongo rii:"},{"index":9,"size":21,"text":"• Nyu'ba kare a'a ri a ti ni ndrejo atetri ori lonya dru riti sajo ori siti esujo ri tro 'i."},{"index":10,"size":34,"text":"• Ago, uku vua 'baciri amba familia 'a si ru egbwe vua da riti kole kideki e'bu kare aluga ndrejodru lonya ate 'di ra osaru, okuru vua pa otraru saa lele ri idri 'i."},{"index":11,"size":30,"text":"• Ori ovidru gbanda, endre, kaata, osu vua inju ti usaka ni ko'ba kolu amvu 'a para wa si ka konyi kwe lonya ni ceka ni indure ri a ga."},{"index":12,"size":26,"text":"• Familia ka ori lonya dru ri a drile mgbimgbi ri sa vu gaadru ri iga wa. 'Ba ziti anyi ilofo riti kite'dea anyi ni wa."}]},{"head":"Ta idele wa riti 'i:","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"• Familia 'a anyizu ta vua anya'i ru vu ate'di ori lonya dru sale riti idri 'i."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• Anyisa ori ovidru gbanda, endre, kaata, osu vua inju ti oluka amvu 'a para wa riti lonya ta mbajo awu."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• Anye'bu vu a'a riti ori azile riti usajo ori lonya dru ri tro."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"Ta rongorongo icarale rii: Jo nyu'ba ta ti vua isa ori lonya dru oluka para wa riti awu iri, nyidri familia 'a lonya kate tri kinya 'a 'i vua lonya sa oce ku."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"Ta kole ondre kideru rii 4: Households have diversity of foods produced in their gardens 'Ba lele rii:"},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"• 'Ba familia 'a rii cidru 'Ba kole kondreki kideru riti: Amba ama ilofo riti amba dini dri riti tro Le'jo rongorongo rii:"},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"• Ori lonya dru drile mgbimgbi ri saka ko'ba familia ka lonya drile mgbimgbi ri esu awu."},{"index":8,"size":26,"text":"• Familia kole ko'baki baraga vu akwasi ori drile eri azile, lonya dru kenre osu ti ani ri, tubi ora vua kwe o'a tro riti usajo."},{"index":9,"size":17,"text":"• Ori drile mgbimgbi ri usaka amvu 'a ko'ba lonya drile mbimgbi riti kolu familia 'a a'a."},{"index":10,"size":16,"text":"• A'u ta mbaka akwa tro ko'ba lonya ori zojo vua 'wajo loso ri kolu a'a."},{"index":11,"size":16,"text":"• Tubi ora usaka ni ka familia ikonyi lonya ate ra ru a lele ri esujo."},{"index":12,"size":44,"text":"• Anyi sa akwasi paipai pa isu, ovakado pa isu, matude pa isu vua inju pa isu awusi ni ka familia ikonyi lonya loso ru a lele riti esujo kwe o'a tro ndrole 'baciri ciri riti ukunzi ru anzi ri tro ri ni 'i."}]},{"head":"Ta idele wa riti 'i:","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"• Anyizuru vua anya'iru nya ewo tro vu 'bajo baraga akwasi ori drile eri azile, lonya dru kenre osu ti ani ri, tubi ora vua kwe o'a tro riti usajo."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"• Anye'bu ori meri dri 'i, anyisa tubi ora vua ori ziti lonya dru ri tro lonya drile mgbimgbi riti esujo e'i 'a 'i."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"• Anyumi amvu ta inijo riti awusini anyi ori lonya dru drile mgbimgbi riti usajo ri ini ra."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"• Anyumi vua nyini ta anya jirani ti ori lonya dru drile mgbimgbi riti usa'di ri dri."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"Ta rongorongo icarale rii: Lonya drile mgbimgbi riti esuka ni ka familia Ikonyi lonya drile mgbimgbi ru a lele riti esure a ga awusi olujo opko vua ru egbwe tro."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"Ta kole ondre kideru rii 5: Familia kole konyaki lonya akwasi vu ina odu alu 'a 'i 'Ba lele rii: 'Ba familia 'a riti cidru si Le'jo rongorongo rii:"},{"index":7,"size":29,"text":"• Ta nyaka o'du alu 'a vu ina kusa nza ni ka familia ikonyi olujo opko vua ru egbwe tro vua ka onjuka lonya ako si ni igoga ra."},{"index":8,"size":23,"text":"• E'bu 'baru ri amuka 'ba familia 'a riti ilofo ko'ba saa kate ra ma'di lonya 'di'di ri ni lonya loso ri 'dijo."},{"index":9,"size":34,"text":"• Lonya 'dika emuka e'bu ziti familia 'a ri tro, ovidru,nyi ta 'di vua nyiji ta so si kusa bongu jeka tro, ra rii nyiji ta acidri ri iceki si awusi ni kogwedru ku."},{"index":10,"size":21,"text":"• Ta ti u'baka eze familia 'a di a'du ko'di ni ya ni ka nyi ikonyi kwe lonya idejo saa dri."}]},{"head":"Ta idele wa riti 'i:","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"• Kendre familia ani, anyara anyi anyi ilofo kole ta konyaru vu Ina o'du alu 'a 'i, ndrole 'baciri ciri riti 'i, endre 'baciri indruka riti 'i vua ukunzi ru anzi ri ti sa tro."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"• Kendre familia ani anyupe di a'di ko'di ta ni vua anyu'ba saa ta 'dijo ri a ti ni ra."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"• Anyikonyi anyi ilofo e'bu 'baru riti Idere ga awusini ka anyini saa ate'di ra ri kwe lonya idejo wa."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"• Lonya 'dile ra ri a ta ni kombaru. Anyi mba ta ani ta ti tro ri i'a kusa anyili bugubi 'a."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"• Anyi'ba lonya 'a kole kpe odri nyaa."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"Ta rongorongo icarale rii: AFamilia lonya nya'di akwasi vu ina o'du alu 'a riti kole kaki olu opko vua ru egbwe tro vua laza sa oko a'i emiemi ku."},{"index":7,"size":20,"text":"Ta kole ondre kideru rii 6: Nyindre li ori lonya dru sale amvu 'a riti a lonya kwele ri atetri."},{"index":8,"size":3,"text":"'Ba lele rii:"},{"index":9,"size":8,"text":"• Ago, uku vua 'baciri amba riti 'i"},{"index":10,"size":18,"text":"• 'Ba kole kondreki kideru riti: Amba ama ilofo riti amba dini dri riti tro Le'jo rongorongo riti:"},{"index":11,"size":33,"text":"• Lonya azika ni ka lonya weli rule'di familia ri Induindu a'dusi ko'ba lonya oce ku. Jo nyazi lonya 'baru ri ni Iri, too nyi lonya alua ri je laje oru ri si."},{"index":12,"size":40,"text":"• Anyi'ba ovi tati u'bajo kare aluga ri kolu anyi ilofo ndrejoadru lonya rule'di familia 'a ri koce bi ori sale amvu a ri pa ni trajo kpe. Tesa anyi'ba lonya rule'di familia 'a riti baraga. Azi a'i kpodru ku."},{"index":13,"size":10,"text":"• Anyisa ori azile riti ori lonya dru ri tro."},{"index":14,"size":32,"text":"• Anyi mba akwa ciri ovidru a'u, indri, bilo kusa ngurue. Anyi a'i azi wa jo ile siti 'i rarii ori lonya dru ri a karega a'dusi osa a'i nyale e'i 'a."},{"index":15,"size":38,"text":"• Anye'bu siti esule ta ziti si rii lonya ziti ru a lele ra kendre nganze, a'uele, ebi tro nyale 'baru. Ta siti ejika riti ka nyi ikonyi siti esure a ga lonya jejo saa rule'd ri si."}]},{"head":"Ta idele wa riti 'i:","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"• Anyu'ba ta ti lonya weli vua ovi rule'di familia bi saa anya pa trajo ri kofu eca."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"• Anyisi ero lonya ta mbajo ri ci famili'a'i."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Ta rongorongo icarale rii: Jo nyidri lonya nya esule nyidri amvu rii ate tri iri, nyidri familia abiri kolu iyo Ta kole ondre kideru rii 1: Lonya ate'di ra rii taa mba e'bule 'baru kinya 'a ru."},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":"'Ba lele rii:"},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"• 'Ba kole kesuki riti: Familia"},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"• 'Ba kole kondreki kideru riti: Amba ama ilofo riti amba dini dri riti tro Le'jo rongorongo rii:"},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"• Anyitra anya pa emiemi jo eca ra 'i awusini ana rivoloka ni ka rindu ra."},{"index":8,"size":20,"text":"• Anya pa trale ra lonya dru ri kole i'wi ca leti pelere ri si ori 'baa ero aa 'i."},{"index":9,"size":14,"text":"• Leti ovi u'bi e'bule lonya ta mbajo loso anya laki ti ilofo a'a."},{"index":10,"size":21,"text":"A'i di'bati ovidru oko ta pa etrale ri i'wika na capete dri vua ziti umbea oru joga aci drile jokoni 'a."}]},{"head":"Ta idele wa riti 'i:","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"• Anya vua ori ziti tro pa ani traa saa dri vua i'wia andaanda kpe ori 'baa ta ani mbale 'i."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"• Lonya ziti kendre nganze, fuli vua tubi ora ani riti a ta kombaru nyale familia 'a too saa ta laje a tujo oru ri si 'i."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"• Anyusi ero esika ca riti lonya ta mbajo. Nyisi nya ero ni nya jo ni laga ire awusini nyi ta lidri ogu tro umia wa."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"• Nyisa ori lonya dru kolu amvu a para wa riti, ovidru gbanda, endre, kaata vua inju tro driciri lonya ta mbajo ri indujo."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"Ta rongorongo icarale rii: Jo imba lonya ate'di ra ri a ta ni ero 'a awu iri, nya familia ni lokudru lonya kolu a'a kinya 'a ru. Nya famiia ni a'di laru kwe ra laki 'a 'i."}]},{"head":"LE'JO DRI 3:","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Lonya ta mbaka ruwe vua pelere 'i Ta kole ondre kideru rii 2: 'Ba 'baru riti kole ku'baki ta ti vua ko'baki siti ate'di ra rii lonya ru a lele riti ujejo familia 'a."},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"'Ba lele rii:"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"• Ago, uku vua 'baciri amba familia 'a si riti 'i"},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"• 'Ba kole kondreki kideru riti: Amba ama ilofo riti amba dini dri riti tro Le'jo rongorongo riti:"},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"• Anyu'ba ta ti vua anyi'ba siti ate'di ra ri baraga lonya loso ru a lele ri ujejo awusini ka sale 'baru ri inza. 'Di ka lonya ru a lele familia a ri inza."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"• Ago lonya ujeka familia 'a riti ndrole kaki 'baciri ta mba vua ovi loso ri ite'de a'ini."},{"index":7,"size":33,"text":"• 'Ba familia 'a rii, ago ukunzi tro kole kizuki ta vua ko'duki ra karealuga di lonya ingoni riti uje awusini lonya kate dru familia 'a ra ndrole 'baciri ciri riti ni 'i."}]},{"head":"Ta idele wa riti 'i:","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"• Anyesu lonya ru a lele ra ki anyidri isa kuru riti oko anyu'ba siti ti jejoadru."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"• Anyumi vua nyini ta anya jirani ti leti ziti e'buka siti esujo ta ruleka a'idri 'baru riti ni ri dri si."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"• Anyi mba akwa ciri riti a ni awusi azika na adu vua 'disi anyiko anyi siti na e'bu lonya ruleka 'baru riti ni."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"Ta rongorongo icarale rii: Lonya ru a lele ri ujeka ka 'ba familia 'a ri ikonyi olujo opko vua ru egbwe tro."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"Ta kole ondre kideru rii 3: 'Ba 'baru riti kole kondreki 'balaga ni pelere, adi soroni'bu e'bu 'bu okoronya dri ti tro awu 'Ba lele rii:"},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"• 'Ba familia 'a riti cidru si oko 'baciri acika sukuru ga ri 'i vua amba ama ilofo riti tro"},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"• 'Ba kole kondreki kideru riti: Amba ama ilofo riti amba dini dri riti tro Le'jo rongorongo riti:"},{"index":8,"size":35,"text":"• Soroni'bu a oluka 'bu okorinya dri tro a'a e'i 'a ka anya familia ni ovi anda ri ite'de awu laki 'a 'i. Ani lete olujo ma'di anda ta ni'di ote laki a ri 'i."},{"index":9,"size":26,"text":"• Anye'bu soroni'bu awu ze ni udrwe tro, anyi'ba soroni'bu a ti ci awusini onyu eya laka ku vua anyu'be ze 'baciri dri ni soroni'bu 'a."},{"index":10,"size":23,"text":"• Anyi mba anya e'i a ta ni pelere. E'I nyidri ni ideka pelere ni ko'ba nyolu laki lofo ma'di rule ri 'i."},{"index":11,"size":32,"text":"• Amba laki dri rii kole kite'deki e'i soroni'bu vua 'bu okorinya dri tro riti laki andra. Nye'bu ovi 'di ani 'dii ta idejo lemu vua ta Idele laki lofo ri ni."}]},{"head":"Ta idele wa riti 'i:","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"• Anyisi soroni'bu lofo kate akwasi mete 30 jo dro 'i."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• Anyi'di 'bu okorinya dri ri lofo kate akwasi mete 10 jo dro 'i."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"• Kole anyi'ba cara laki ni du'basi e'i alualu dri soroni'bu kolu 'bu okorinya dri tro a'a."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"• Amba laki dri rii kole anyite'de e'i soroni'bu tro riti lama e'i dri iga vua lemu laki lofo riti iga si ovidru 'bani 'i."},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"Ta rongorongo icarale rii: Jo laki ka soroni'bu usi 'bu okorinya dri ti tro vua e'bua leti anda risi iri, kaki laza amgbu esule 'ba laga a oluka andi si riti igoga ra."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"Ta kole ondre kideru rii 4: 'Ba 'baru riti konyaki lonya cuwi rii vua konviki eyi pelere ri 'i."},{"index":7,"size":3,"text":"'Ba lele rii:"},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"• Ago, uku vua 'baciri amba familia 'a si riti 'i"},{"index":9,"size":3,"text":"Le'jo rongorongo riti:"},{"index":10,"size":22,"text":"• Lonya aji kusa endre'di ivolo ru ra ri ko'ba anyi laza unzi ri esu wa ovidru inyinya lonya 'a ri 'i."},{"index":11,"size":21,"text":"• Lonya aseka ta mbala nyale vule ri a ta ni omba ta pelere ri 'a vua aku ti na ci."},{"index":12,"size":18,"text":"• Lonya aseka ta nyale vule riti koe aa ko'di kpe awusini ka o'bu aru ri di pi."},{"index":13,"size":49,"text":"• Jo anya amvu ni lolu iri, anyi'di anya lonya ni amvu ni 'a si vua anyi nya driso ana olure aciaci ri 'i. Familia ka ta 'di inini wa vua kaki e'bea ati ni ga awusi ni kolu dru aci bi saa lonya ituaci ri nyajo ri si."},{"index":14,"size":45,"text":"• Anyi'di eyi nvule ri kpe kusa anye'bu erua kendre Aqua safe kusa Water guard ti ani ko'ba eyi kengwi pelere laza oca ti ani ri igogajo wa. Eyi nvule riti cidru kole ko'di tulatula kpe awusini ka o'bu eyi ni 'a riti u'di ra."},{"index":15,"size":27,"text":"• Anyimba eyi nvule ri a ta ni akajo pelere ri i'a vua e'bu kopo pelere ri i'bejoadru awu. 'Di ko'ba eyi kolu pelere vua o'bu ako."}]},{"head":"Ta idele wa riti 'i:","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"• Anya'bu lonya cidru 'dile ra riti a ti ti ci lonya 'baciri dri tro vua ta nvule kendre lei, lidi, juisi vua kwe o'a tro."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• Anyile lonya cidru aseka riti a 'a ni kpe ori nya."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• Anyi lonya ide inini vua bi saa lonya itu aci ri dri si."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"Ta rongorongo icarale rii: Jo anyi lonya loso ri unya vua anyi pelere ru egbwe dri a ta ni mba anyidri 'baru eyi tro iri, anya familia ni kole kolu ruwe laza amgbu 'a si sa 'i."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"Ta kole ondre kideru rii 5: Pelere ru egbwe dri 'baru riti iduka 'i 'Ba lele rii:"},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"• Ago, uku vua 'baciri amba familia 'a si riti 'i"},{"index":7,"size":3,"text":"Le'jo rongorongo riti:"},{"index":8,"size":28,"text":"• E'e aru adi ze 'baciri dri akwa dri tro ri u'be kare anda ri iga rii vua difo ta mbaa pelere laza icandi 'ba aru palanda ku."},{"index":9,"size":49,"text":"• Anyije dri saboni si eyi era'di ri iga kpe iri lonya ide kusa nyaa, engaka soroni'bu 'a nivu, 'barangwa ni zeledri ubika nivu vua jo anyelo ta andi riti 'i. 'Di ka anyi ikonyi lonya ta mbarega pelere oko ka anyi igoga lonya ni inyareaga vua oca esureaga."},{"index":10,"size":22,"text":"• Anyi'ba ta dri jejo ri ti kolu a'a dri jeka Idejo wa vua laza icale dri andi si riti igogajo wa."},{"index":11,"size":30,"text":"• Anyide palapala akwajo ajejo rii, anyi'di 'bu okorinya dri rii, vua anyu'di soroni'bu ci anya akwajo ti a ta mbajo anya difo ti tro pelere vua indika na igogajo."}]},{"head":"Ta idele wa riti 'i:","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"• Anyiwe anya difo 'baru riti o'du cidru si vua anyu'be ze akwa dri ti 'bu okorinya dri i'a."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"• Anyije dri saboni si eyi era'di ri iga kpe iri lonya ide kusa nyaa, engaka soroni'bu nivu vua jo a'i dri ti andi 'i."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"• Anyide palapala akwajo ajejo ri ci."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"Ta rongorongo icarale rii: Jo 'ba familia riti ka a'i dri ti uje saboni si eyi era'di ri iga kpe oriki lonya ide kusa nya iri, anya familia ni alusa laza oya icandia emiemi ku."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"Ta kole ondre kideru rii 6: Nyiji nya 'barangwa ni erua goga dri o'bu dri tro vua Vitamini A dri tro ri iga 'Ba lele rii:"},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"• 'Ba kole kesuki riti: 'Bá 'batika rii kusa 'ba 'baciri kinya tou esi vuru riti a ta mbaka riti 'i"},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"• 'Ba kole kondreki kideru riti: Amba ama ilofo riti amba dini dri riti tro, CHEWs"},{"index":8,"size":3,"text":"Le'jo rongorongo riti:"},{"index":9,"size":30,"text":"• Erua goga dri rii, o'bu dri ri vua Vitamini A dri ri adi kwea ilili erajo gavumete dri iga vua o'du 'baciri dri ru egbwe dri riti si 'i."},{"index":10,"size":16,"text":"• Nyiya kare 'baciri ndreaga ri iga cadi 'baciri dri ru egbwe dri ri esure 'i."},{"index":11,"size":52,"text":"• 'Ba ta ibika wa riti ovidru, kaki ata endre tro kusa 'ba 'baciri ta mbaka ikonyi 'ba e'bu Ideka eruajo ga riti umi 'ba CHEWs ri tro 'baciri ni ozo umire a ga. Ndrejo dru 'barangwa esu erwa goga dri rii, o'bu dri ri vua Vitamini A dri ruleka riti ra."},{"index":12,"size":25,"text":"• Erua goga dri rii ka 'barangwa igoga laza ovidru kendre okolo TB, okolo kilikli rii, lumara vua yeye dri 'baciri 'dika emiadru riti esureaga."},{"index":13,"size":29,"text":"• 'Barangwa ajika kare 'baciri undrea ri iga ka nyi ikonyi 'barangwa ni ozo umireaga vua ta unzi 'barangwa icandi'di ri inijo eze vua konyi anda ri kwejo wa."}]},{"head":"Ta idele wa riti 'i:","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"• Nyesu cadi 'barangwa dri ru egbwe dri ta cidru rukoka erua goga dri rii, o'bu dri ri vua Vitamini A dri tro ri ukwejo ri to ri 'i."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• Nyaya kare 'baciri ndreaga ri iga konyi 'barangwa a lele ri esure."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"• Nyizi ma'di e'bu ide'di eruajo 'a ri kusa or CHEW or ma'di ovidru ri kusa ma'di ta onza'di laki ni o'du ru egbwe dri 'baciri ni riti idri ri vua kole nyindre li nyi a'a vua nyesu andra loso kwele riti ra."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"Ta rongorongo icarale rii: Jo iji 'barangwa erua goga dri rii, o'bu dri ri vua Vitamini A dri riti iga saa lele riti si iri, nya 'barangwa ni ire kole kolu okpo vua ru egbwe rii sukuru a sa ka ta ide cuwi ri 'i. Nyi siti ta mba wa vua nyini saa kolu ta ziti okpookpo riti ni sa a'a."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"Ta kole ondre kideru rii 7: Ukunzi ru anzi kole kaciki erua/ANC drii iga kate akwasi vu isu i'dojo aia ru anzi a I'dore ri 'i, olobo ziti rukoka aia ru anzi tro ri esure, ozo 'barangwa dri 'aa si ri umire, vua ru ta mbaka 'barangwa loso ru egbwe ri tijo awu."},{"index":6,"size":3,"text":"'Ba lele rii:"},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"• Uku ru anji riti a'ia ago ti tro, vua 'ba e'bu ideka erwa jo 'a riti 'i."},{"index":8,"size":16,"text":"• 'Ba kole kondreki kideru riti: Amba ama ilofo riti amba dini dri riti tro, CHEWs."},{"index":9,"size":3,"text":"Le'jo rongorongo riti:"},{"index":10,"size":48,"text":"• Kole ukunzi ru anzi riti kaciki erua/ ANC drii ga kate akwasi vu isu i'dojo aia ruanzi a i'dore ri 'i, 'di ko'ba kaki ra esu olo'bo ziti tro ovi aini ru ta mbajo ru anzi 'a riidri. 'Di ko'ba 'bara ti endre tro aru kolu cuwi."},{"index":11,"size":19,"text":"• Acika erua/ANC dri Iga rii ko'ba 'ba ka ta unzi ekwi'di ruanzi 'a rii ni eze oko igogaa."},{"index":12,"size":60,"text":"• Ago aia ukuu ti ikonika e'bu joa risi saa ru anzi dri risi riti kaki ai ini. Ko'ba aia uku ti koolu okpo saa ruanzi dri nai'a ndutu. Uku ru anzi lonya ziti aya aaru a'a riti unyaka ovidru, dodo, osobi, iza, orobi ziti tro, vua bit roots tro riti laza ari ni ekojo 'baru rii oko ai ku."},{"index":13,"size":33,"text":"• Uku ru anzi o'du okoka tandarua erua ruaru a'a ri i'a riti kaki aia igoga laza malaria drii si wa. 'Di ka vua laza ari ni ikojo 'ba ru rii igoga wa."}]},{"head":"Ta idele wa riti 'i:","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"• Kole dubasi nyaci erua/ANC drii iga jo mgbe nyasu nya ru anzi 'i, awusini nyi ra esu nyaaru ta mbajo ruanzi 'a i."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• Ago 'baciri amba ritro kole kikonyikii uku ruanzi riti e'bu jo'a riti idereaga e'bu amvu'a ritro awusini ko'ba kakii ovu."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"• Nyinya akwasi lonya kate vu isu o'du alualu si vua lonya ciri ciri riti sa nyinya lonya nza ria vuga ra, awusi ka nyini lonya ru a lele rii kwe nyaa ru ni."},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"Ta rongorongo icarale rii: Jo izi ru anzi ri kaci ANC dri ri iga iri, ka saa esu ovujo,ka lonya loso ri unya awu vua ka ta eyieyi riti unvu okposi, vua ka o'du ko tandaroa erua tro ri i'a. Koko kolu okpo vua ru egbwe tro vua ka 'barangwa ru egbwe ri ti awu."},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"Ta kole ondre kideru rii 8: Mgbesa 'baciri avu riti ni adi erua kwe emiadru."},{"index":6,"size":3,"text":"'Ba lele rii:"},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"• 'Ba 'batika riti 'ba 'baciri ta mbaka ri tro"},{"index":8,"size":16,"text":"• 'Ba kole kondreki kideru riti: Amba ama ilofo riti amba dini dri riti tro, CHEWs"},{"index":9,"size":3,"text":"Le'jo rongorongo riti:"},{"index":10,"size":28,"text":"• Anyiji 'baciri avu riti eruajoga erua esure konyi tro emiemi mgbesa jo lazaori ni 'i koce ere unzi tro niku. Anye'bu acipa emi anya legaga riti 'i."},{"index":11,"size":40,"text":"• Saa cidru si anyi'ba siti baraga erua ni vua ta ru egbwe dri ru leka riti ni. Anyi a'u ta mba akwa tro wa awusini anya zia siti eujo ta ruleka 'baru emiemi laza ti ani ri ti ni."},{"index":12,"size":24,"text":"• 'Baciri ba leka ku kusa lonya leka ku riti kole kaki olu avu rere vua kole oji ai eruajo ga konyi esure emiemi."},{"index":13,"size":23,"text":"• Erua du'basi kole kovuru cara dakitari a 'jole a vu si vua kokweru ma'dizi familia 'a ani sa avu ri ni ku."}]},{"head":"Ta idele wa riti 'i:","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"• Anyizu ta 'baziti 'baru ri tro ta ziti unzi ka rite'de 'barangwa ru kole oji awusi emiemi eruajo ga riti idri."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• Anyimba orali/ORS ni ta joga vua anyini ta ovi osajoadru vua kwejoadru 'barangwa ce'di ri ni ri ote."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"• Jo 'barangwa ni ru emi aci iri, anyili ru ani bongu sule eyi bolobolo ri si vua anyiji ani emiemi eruajo ga."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"• A'u ta mbaka akwa tro vua alua ri ani ta ziti Idele dri si riti tro ideka azile siti esujo ta ruleka emiemi riti ni."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"• Anyimu andraga lonya ta eyieyi 'barangwa avu ri a lele riti kweka tro Ta rongorongo icarale rii: Jo nya 'barangwa avu ri esu erua emiemi iri, laza ni a si konga emia dru vua nyi ana lidri ni ari ra. Alua ri ani nyisa nyi laza a engwika anzi ni indu ra vua ana siti jika nza isa ka rindu ra."},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"Ta kole ondre kideru rii 1: Familia ka golomore tema ri 'ba vua kaki ewo limi ekwi'di ridrii 'ba lonya inzajo aia e'i ni 'a."},{"index":7,"size":3,"text":"'Ba lele rii:"},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"• Ago uku tro e'i a si riti 'i."},{"index":9,"size":3,"text":"Le'jo rongorongo riti:"},{"index":10,"size":41,"text":"• 'Ba mgbimgbi vua familia golomore u'baka riti oniki cuwidru aini silingi e'bule ta eya'di gboroo dru rini a'a. Kakii vua aia limii ni inza olu loso tro aia golomore u'bale rii e'buka ta aia lo'de ni inza'di rii uzeka si."},{"index":11,"size":36,"text":"• Nyikwi lemu golomore ta mba'di ri iga awusini nyisa nye'bi golomore tambareaga ci. Membaa anya lemu ni 'a riti ka nyi ekonyi golomore ta mbajo ta tema risi nyi 'bajo nya familia tro pa dri."},{"index":12,"size":55,"text":"• Ago aia ukuu ti ni mori kweka aisaa aini ta endajo wa riti ai 'ba asi 'baka vuozo ga ra vua lekaa ai kondre aia familia koozo riti 'i. Uku saa ka ta ozo ejika riti ide vua ta mba wa jo okwe aini lini loso riti konyi anga'di familia 'a ritro ra 'i."},{"index":13,"size":53,"text":"• E'bu joga riti amuka amvu 'a ritro, ta 'dika ti ani, vua akwajo bongu tro jeka, difo usika, mgbaka vua weka na tro oko 'baciri ta mbaka ka uku ni lofo kwe aini kwijo lemu 'a golomore ta mbare vua ta ziti laki lofo aini mugu'ba ejika aia e'ii ni tro wa."},{"index":14,"size":24,"text":"• E'i a'u tambaka akwa tro riti ka silingi esu ai azika si ta siti leka aia e'i ni 'a si riti ni wa."}]},{"head":"Ta idele wa riti 'i:","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"• Kole nyolu ra vua tati u'baka pelere golomore ta mbajo ritro."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• Kole nyikwi lemu golomore ta mbajo ri iga, nyiko nyini ta 'ba atiti golomore ta mbaka riti dri."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• Nyi'do ta mgbimgbi silingi ejika riti ideka, ovidru, a'u ta mbaka akwa tro."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"Ta rongorongo icarale rii: Jo ago ti izi tro okwi lemu golomore tambajo ri iga ra, ka ai eritrua rini mori kwe aia familia a ta ni mbajo kare aluga."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"Jo famia inza aia golomore ta mbaka ni ra, kaki aia olu loso e'iga rii idu ra, vua kai ta aia e'i a lele riti je wa."}]},{"head":"LE'JO DRI 4:","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Limi ekwi'di joga rii anzuka lonya ni lonya ru tambajo ri tro Ta kole ondre kideru rii 3: Families can get credit for buying useful assets and for off-farm businesses."},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"'Ba lele rii:"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"• • Ago, uku, lemu 'ba lofo riti 'i vua SACCOs"},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":"Le'jo rongorongo riti:"},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"• Mori esuka kusa koka ta anda rii idejo ni leti nyini ide e'dojo emi wa ri 'i kusa nyini silingi esujo ri 'i. Kole mori ko'duru te leti silingi esujo familia ni rini."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"• Ra esuka ta ruleka mori kojo wa, 'ba mori ukweka riti dri ni ko'ba nyi ride baba vua nyi ra anda rii 'du mori kojo awu."},{"index":7,"size":52,"text":"• Oluka ra anda ritro silingi nya 'dule mori dru ri e'bujo ni ko'ba nyi nia 'di gba ille mori nai ra ya 'i, vua nyi tiani ingwi Ingoni ya 'i. Kare ziti mori ukwereaga riti ka nyi ikonyi nya ra ni ndrejo di ra, vua kaki nyi ikonyi ra 'durega ra."},{"index":8,"size":23,"text":"• Anyamu ra vua anyairu nya wa'dizi tro mori ni dureaga, 'di anyi e'bua ingoni vua anyi tati u'ba ingwijoadru igoni ya 'i."}]},{"head":"Ta idele wa riti 'i:","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"• Nyi kwi lemu laki dri 'ba igenile wa vua nyikonika wa jo ile mori 'duka ritidri iga."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"• Nyemi lemu 'ba mori ukweka ridrii vua nyesu ra ovi silingi aijo mori dru ri idri."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"• Nyura ta ovi nyi Ide ingoni ri i'do awu ya nidri, nyiko nyi'do ide angwa nyini siti enda'di wa rini nyini silingi esujo nya familia ni, vua nyi'bi silingi na a ti Ingwie wa."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"Ta rongorongo icarale rii: Jo familia ozi ra ovi siti kole moridru rii e'bujo cuwi ni ingonia ni dri ra iri, kaki ciri aia ide idejo rii inza ra. Jo ago uku tro inza aia lo'de mori kojo rii ra iri, kaki ide 'bazi ni e'bu kwejo rii e'do ra vua aia ide a mugu'ba karinza ra."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"Ta kole ondre kideru rii 4: Familia ka o'wa amvu 'a soko na a'a rii sa awu."},{"index":6,"size":3,"text":"'Ba lele rii:"},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"• Ago, uku, lemu 'ba lofo riti 'i vua amba ama ilofo riti 'i"},{"index":8,"size":3,"text":"Le'jo rongorongo riti:"},{"index":9,"size":9,"text":"• Ekwika lemu amvu'ba dri i'a rii ka nyiekonyi,"},{"index":10,"size":20,"text":"• Lini ta sajo amvu'a nya amvua a mugu'ba ni inzajo vua ori soko na a'a rii kwe nyini ra."},{"index":11,"size":12,"text":"• Nyini ra vua ofu ori ce riti upejo rii kwe ra."},{"index":12,"size":12,"text":"• Nyi ori vua akwa soko na nza rii 'ba nyidri amvu'a"},{"index":13,"size":15,"text":"• Nyi vua ori ubile ca oko ovi ta sajo amvua cuwi rii e'bu awu."},{"index":14,"size":13,"text":"• Anyi e'bu ide 'baazi tro o'wa nyidri ria mugu'ba ni inza jo."},{"index":15,"size":38,"text":"• Nyi ero loso vua okp rii si nya anya a ta ni mbajo awu saa anya a edrejo nza risi 'i, nyiko nyazia saa anya a olujo iyo risi, koko ka nyini laje loso rii kwe awu."},{"index":16,"size":9,"text":"• Ta ite'de jo/Eno Ta idele wa riti 'i:"},{"index":17,"size":25,"text":"• Anyikwi kusa anyu'ba lemu amvu'ba dri riti a ti awusini anyesu dru lini ori sajo loso riti anyiko anyi soko ani ti esu wa."},{"index":18,"size":16,"text":"• Anyisa ori ta endaka nzaruleka soko 'a riti awu, awusi anyi azia laje pelere risi."},{"index":19,"size":24,"text":"• Anyusi ero esika miga ca vua okpo riti awu anya lonya tia ta mbajo saa lonya a mugu'ba ni e'dejo nza risi 'i."},{"index":20,"size":25,"text":"Ta rongorongo icarale rii: Jo goli'ba osa ori ta endaka nza riti awu, kakii soko ani esu emi rere vua kakii azia laje nza si."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"fd787251-b716-42b4-b06c-07ea1f945158","abstract":""}

data/part_4/08bed7c9ef5c70ddb4ebc8d3d7792258.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08bed7c9ef5c70ddb4ebc8d3d7792258","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/60503033-db22-49c5-95e8-7f5ebc1990f5/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"Does Retail Food Diversity in Urban Food Environments Influence Consumer Diets?","keywords":["food environment","market-level dietary diversity (MLDS)","individual dietary diversity","household dietary diversity","urban-poor consumers","Kenya"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"Food and nutrition security are still a major concern in most developing economies. In 2019, about nine per cent of the global population-690 million people-was undernourished [1]. This figure is expected to be much higher as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. Food and nutrition insecurity figures for 2019 were significantly higher in Africa, where more than 19 per cent of the population-250 million people-was undernourished; this represents a 1.5 per cent increase for Africa compared to 2014. Globally, just over 21 per cent of children under five years of age were stunted in 2019, of which 40 per cent were in Africa. In addition, 340 million children around the world were affected by micronutrient deficiencies in 2019, and 38.3 million (5.6 per cent) were overweight [1]."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"These nutrition and food insecurity challenges persist, while global population and urbanization are rapidly increasing. More than half of the global population currently live in urban areas, a share that is expected to increase to 70 per cent by 2050 [2]. Africa has the highest population growth and urbanization rates in the world; more than half of the projected global population growth between 2015 and 2050 will occur in Africa, and projections indicate that 56 per cent of the African population will be living in urban areas by 2050 [3]. Given these trends, there is an urgent need to identify ways to provide the growing population, across the wealth spectrum, with sufficient food and healthy diets, especially the urban poor."},{"index":3,"size":157,"text":"Income and food environment both influence household dietary choices. The food environment is the context in which consumers interact with food and what influences their choices; it encompasses key elements such as food availability, accessibility, affordability, desirability, convenience and marketing [4][5][6][7][8]. Given that most urbanites access food through markets, it would be important to ensure the affordability and accessibility of nutritious foods through these outlets [9]. While sufficient income is a key element to extending healthy diets among urban households, its role is somewhat contingent on the nature of the food environment. Rising incomes can influence food environments and have a positive effect on dietary diversity and quality, making healthy foods, such as vegetables, fruits, legumes and animal products, more widely available and affordable to consumers. Conversely, when inexpensive, low-quality, ultra-processed, highly-salted and sugary foods are primarily offered, negative dietary effects may be observed [4,10], particularly among resource-poor consumers whose limited budgets often influence their dietary choices."},{"index":4,"size":103,"text":"The food environment plays a crucial role in shaping consumers' dietary preferences, food choices and nutritional outcomes [11,12]. It is the interface that mediates one's food acquisition and consumption within the wider food system [9]. In simpler terms, the food environment comprises the range of foods available in food retail outlets such as supermarkets, grocery stores, wet markets, street food stalls, coffee shops, teahouses, school canteens, restaurants and all other venues where people procure and eat food. The types of food available in these outlets, their pricing and their proximity to households all play a role in determining what consumers purchase and consume."},{"index":5,"size":178,"text":"In developing economies, the food environment has undergone tremendous transformation in recent years, particularly the expansion of supermarkets [13]. The trend started in the early 1990s in Latin America and Asia, while in Africa the 'supermarket revolution' took off almost a decade later [14]. Since the late 1990s, the spread of supermarkets in Africa has been rapid, accounting for more than 10 per cent of all food retail outlets across this continent. In some countries, such as Kenya, this share rises to about 20 per cent in large cities [15,16]. The expansion of supermarkets generally implies the availability of diverse foods to urban consumers who traditionally rely on markets to procure food. However, while modern retail outlets, especially supermarkets and convenience stores, are mostly utilized by high-income consumers, traditional retail outlets such as wet markets, mom-and-pop shops, kiosks and informal tabletop vendors (mama mboga) remain the most important sources of food procurement for resource-poor consumers [17]. Therefore, studies assessing the role of the food environment on consumer behaviour must consider the co-existence of formal and informal markets [5]."},{"index":6,"size":96,"text":"From a policy-development perspective, it is important to consider how the food environment influences the food choices of resource-poor consumers. Information about the direct relationship between food environment and consumer choice is limited, especially for households located in urban informal settlements (slums), despite this category's higher vulnerability to all forms of malnutrition and poor health. Moreover, urban dwellers, including resource-poor consumers, depend on purchased food rather than on homegrown food. The urban food environment therefore needs to be clearly understood if it is to be leveraged to respond to the dietary needs of the urban poor."},{"index":7,"size":148,"text":"Urban and rural consumers live within differing food environments. In rural areas, the food environment is influenced by what households produce, in addition to what is available from markets. Recent studies have shown how production diversity influences dietary diversity among farm households [18][19][20][21]. Production diversity is positively associated with individual and household dietary diversity in some but not all cases. Sibhatu and Qaim, for instance, showed that farms would need to produce, on average, 16 additional crops or livestock species to increase their dietary diversity by one food group [18]. This indicates that the effect of production diversity on dietary diversity is relatively small. However, when coupled with improved market access, farm production diversity could boost access to diversified diets for rural farm households. While this may be an important development approach, it does not apply to urban households that rely almost entirely on market purchases for food."},{"index":8,"size":149,"text":"Many studies have focused on the role of modern retail outlets, especially supermarkets, in relation to consumer diets and nutrition [22][23][24][25][26]. They often look at whether or not consumers are using a specific kind of retail outlet, without providing deeper analysis of the food diversity offered in these outlets or how it is associated with consumer dietary diversity. In this study, we address these research gaps by analysing the way in which the food environment influences the food choice of resource-poor consumers in the urban slums of Nairobi, Kenya. Studies of dietary diversity in rural areas utilize a farm-level production diversity indicator, but we use the emerging market-level diversity score (MLDS) to show the association between diversity in the food environment and urban, resource-poor households and consumers [27,28]. To our knowledge, given that the MLDS indicator is a relatively new concept, no study to date has considered this relationship."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sampling and Data","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Data for this study were collected in 2017 from resource-poor consumers in two urban slums of Nairobi, Kenya. Household and retail outlet data were gathered through surveys, using structured questionnaires programmed into computer-aided personal interviewing technology. The questionnaires were well-tested prior to conducting the surveys. In addition, the data collection assistants were trained to ensure they understood the questionnaires, eliminating unnecessary data errors. Various types of data were collected, including household demographics, household and individual food consumption patterns and information about the commodities sold in the outlets. Location variables and Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates for households and outlets were taken and used to calculate the distances between households and outlets."},{"index":2,"size":155,"text":"Nairobi was selected because it is one of the largest cities in East Africa and the most urbanized in Kenya. In addition, more than half of its population is believed to live in informal settlements [29]. Two low-income study sites were selected based on census data from the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS): Kibra and Imara Daima [30]. Within Kibra, four sub-locations were selected, namely Kibera, Lindi, Makina and Siranga; within Imara Daima, the focus was placed on the Mukuru Kwa Njenga slum. The KNBS national census for Kenya categorizes our study sites as low-income locations. Study households from each sub-location were selected using a systematic random sampling procedure. In total, 187 households were interviewed across the two study locations. The target respondent for each household was the main food consumption decision-maker; in most cases, but not all, this was the spouse of the household head or the main female figure in the household."},{"index":3,"size":135,"text":"In defining the food environment, our study targeted formal outlets, represented by supermarkets, and informal outlets, represented by kiosks, mom-and-pop shops, tabletop vendors, cereal shops, open-air markets, street vendors and informal restaurants selling cooked foods. However, the representation of some retail outlets, particularly supermarkets, was low in some study sites. In total, 149 outlets were interviewed. The target respondent at the outlet level was the owner. The outlet operators were only interviewed if the owner was not available and if the operator had sufficient information about business operations. In our study, we expand upon earlier work conducted in the urban slums of Nairobi, which made an initial attempt at characterizing retail outlets, and reclassify some of these outlets to provide a better understanding of available outlets in the informal settlements of Nairobi (Table 1) [17]. "}]},{"head":"Type Description","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Supermarkets (formal)","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Fixed structures. Offer a large selection of types and brands of processed and ultra-processed foods."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Additionally offer packaged cereals and legumes, household goods and personal care products in small, less-diverse quantities. Rarely offer fresh fruits or vegetables. Independently owned; self-service; size: 300-500 m 2 . No possibility of purchasing on credit."}]},{"head":"Kiosks (informal)","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Small, temporary or mobile stands. Offer quick-service food and non-food products mostly in small quantities; repackage food and non-food products into smaller quantities for resale. Do not stock fresh produce. Individually-or family-owned; over the counter service; size: as small as 4 m 2 ; can offer purchase on credit to known customers."}]},{"head":"Mom-and-Pop Shops (informal)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Fixed structures. Offer a moderate variety of non-food items, processed and ultra-processed foods, especially cereals. Offer limited quantities of fruits and vegetables. Individually-or family-owned; service is by owner; smaller than supermarkets but larger than kiosks; can offer purchase on credit to known customers."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Tabletop Vendors or Mama Mboga (informal) Small mobile and temporary roadside stands. Offer fresh fruits, vegetables, and roots and tubers. Shred vegetables for customers on request. Individually-owned, mainly by women and youth; can offer credit, especially to well-known customers."}]},{"head":"Cereal Shops (informal)","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Small fixed structures. Offer cereals and legumes as grains and flour in 25, 50 or 90 kg bags, or packed in quantities according to demand. Individually-or family-owned; service is by operator; can offer credit to well-known customers."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Open-Air or Wet Markets (Informal)"},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"A cluster of semi-permanent structures operated by various retailers. Open on specific market days, weekly. Stock fresh fruit and vegetables, cereals, legumes, roots and tubers and spices. Some have a section with non-food items. Stalls are individually-owned; service is by operator; no credit offered."}]},{"head":"Cooked Food Street Vendors (Informal)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Small mobile and temporary roadside stands. Offer cooked foods. Most are set up daily, operating from late afternoon to late evenings. Individually-owned; no seating space for customers; no credit offered."}]},{"head":"Informal Restaurants (Informal)","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Small permanent or semi-permanent structures. Offer a diversity of cooked foods, including dishes prepared from cereals, legumes, vegetables and meat. Individually-owned; service by operator to customers who enter the structure and sit to eat; can offer credit to well-known customers."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Source: Adapted from Wanyama et al. [17], and updated based on field observations."},{"index":3,"size":177,"text":"Regarding the prevalence of the food retail outlets in the areas covered by this study, of the eight defined types (Table 1), only street vendors and informal restaurants sell cooked foods. In addition, only supermarkets can be broadly classified as modern retail establishments, given the variety of products they sell, their use of advertising and branding, procurement procedures and location. Supermarkets generally sell a wider range of food products than other outlets; this includes cereals, meat, dairy, sugar, fats and oils, and-to some extent-fruits and vegetables [17,23,31]. The rest of the studied outlets are regarded as traditional or informal outlets and are often characterized by the limited number of products they sell, although kiosks and mom-and-pop shops tend to be more diversified than the rest. The traditional/informal food retail outlets surveyed in this study were selected using a systematic random sampling approach, while for supermarkets, since there were very few in the study sites, we included all those present across the sites. The total number of outlets interviewed in the different categories is presented in Table 2."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"Figure 1 presents the study outlets in the two study locations (Imara Daima and Kibra). The different types of outlets are presented in different colours and positioned on the map using their Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates."}]},{"head":"Household and Individual Dietary Diversity Scores","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":347,"text":"Individual-level and household dietary diversity scores (HDDS) are a simple count of the number of food groups consumed by an individual or household within a specific recall period [32][33][34]. We used seven-day dietary recall data to compute the study participants' HDDS. Following Kennedy et al., we calculated HDDS based on a 12-group classification, counting: cereals and grains; eggs; fish; fruits; legumes and nuts; meat; milk and dairy products; oils and fats; roots and tubers; spices, condiments and beverages; sugar and sweets; and vegetables [32]. We also computed HDDS using a smaller, nine-group classification that excluded oils and fats; sugar and sweets; and spices, condiments and beverages, as these groups offer minimal contributions to micronutrient density. A full list of food groups by category is provided in Appendix A (Table A1). While a higher HDDS reflects a household's economic capacity to access food and consume a diverse diet, there is no agreed-upon threshold for HDDS as an indicator of a healthy diet [32]. At an individual level, we computed two scores: minimum dietary diversity for women (MDD-W) and minimum dietary diversity for children (IDD). The food groups included in each score are detailed in Appendix A (Table A1). MDD-W reflects the diversity and micronutrient adequacy of diets among women of reproductive age-15-49 years [35]. MDD-W is computed by comparing the target individual female's food consumption over the previous 24 h to a list of 10 food groups. A score of five or more food groups is considered to represent the minimum dietary diversity that is associated with adequate intake of 11 key micronutrients [35]; anything less than five indicates that an individual has not achieved the minimum dietary diversity. IDD considers the dietary diversity of children between six months and five years of age as a proxy for the micronutrient adequacy of their diets [32]. IDD counts seven food groups (Table A1); micronutrient adequacy is thought to be achieved if a child has consumed four of them during the recall period. Consuming at least four of the seven food groups is associated with better quality diets for children."}]},{"head":"Market-Level Diversity Scores","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Market-level diversity score (MLDS) is an indicator that shows the number of distinct foods or food groups available in a local market at a given point in time [27,28]. As with HDDS, it is computed using a 12-group classification (Table A1) in the Appendix [27,33]. Although still considered an 'emerging indicator', MLDS can provide an accurate understanding of local market supply, allowing for differentiated interventions to improve target consumers' dietary diversity [27,28]. A lower MLDS means that the market in question does not have a variety of food groups available for purchase; lack of supply reduces household and individual dietary diversity."}]},{"head":"Statistical Methods","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"We applied descriptive statistical and econometric analyses to the collected data. GPS data allowed us to compute the mean distance from households to nearby food retail outlets. We also calculated the market level diversity score (MLDS) and dietary diversity indicators at the household level and the individual level for women and children, both for the whole sample and disaggregated by study location. To show the influence of food environment on diets, we estimated a simple regression model using the following formula:"},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"where DD is the household or individual dietary diversity (DD) score, MLDS is the marketlevel diversity indicator for the food retail outlet in question, α and β are estimated parameters, and ε is the random error term. We estimated four separate models for each of the eight food retail outlet types to understand the association between retail outlet food diversity and consumption diversity. Positive values for β imply that a higher MLDS for the retail outlet has a positive influence on individual or household dietary diversity, while negative values imply a negative influence."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sample Characteristics","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Overall, 83 per cent of the sampled households were male-headed (Table 3). The average age of the household head was 34 years, and most had about 10 years of schooling, the equivalent of having completed primary education. The average annual household income across the two study sites was quite low (USD 3598), but those in Kibra had much lower average annual incomes (USD 1905) compared to households in Imara Daima (USD 5462)."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Slightly more than half of the household heads were dependent on salaried employment as their primary source of income. At 46 per cent, the next largest share of the households' incomes came from casual employment, which is typical of the livelihoods of the urban poor [36]. "}]},{"head":"Dietary Indicators","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":275,"text":"At the pooled sample level, household dietary diversity scores were high with 9 out of 12 food groups consumed (Table 4). When sweets and sugars, oils and fats, and spices, condiments and beverages were excluded, scores were 6.94 out of nine. Of the two location, households in Kibra have significantly lower IDD (3.23 out of 7) and MDD-W (6.79 out of 10) compared to those in Imara Daima location, whose averages were 3.91 and 8.01 respectively. When considering individual indicators, the results show that children's diets were characterized by low micronutrient adequacy. The overall IDD was 3.56 and all study locations also had a mean IDD of fewer than four food groups, which is below the minimum diet diversity threshold for children. Overall, 46 per cent of sampled children did not achieve the recommended minimum dietary diversity of four out of the seven food groups, and this number was significantly higher in Kibra (54 per cent) than in Imara Daima (37 per cent). Surprisingly, women's diets were better than the children's. Only 8 per cent of women in the study sample consumed fewer food groups than the recommended minimum dietary diversity of 5. Kibra had the highest share of women with inadequate diet diversity (14 per cent), while Imara Daima only had 1 per cent, and the difference was statistically significant. The disparities between locations could be attributed to differences in poverty levels. Wanyama et al. reported that income is one of the drivers of dietary patterns in slums [17,36]. Our study shows that residents of Imara Daima location on average had a slightly better economic situation than those in the Kibra slum (Table 3)."},{"index":2,"size":399,"text":"Regarding the diversity of products sold in the food retail outlets surveyed, organized according to the 12-food group categories, our results indicate that cereals were the most purchased food item (23 percent) followed by sugars and sweets (14 per cent), and spices, condiments and beverages (13 per cent) (Table 5). The least purchased foods were fish and meats, both with less than 1 per cent, roots and tubers (3 per cent) and eggs (5 per cent). Analysis of the foods sold in the various outlets showed that kiosks, mom-and-pop shops, street vendors and informal restaurants offered a larger diversity of food than other outlets (Table 5). Kiosks, for instance, sold almost all food groups, except fish. However, cereals, sugars and sweets, and spices, condiments and beverages comprised a significant share of kiosk food offered, indicating that retail diversity does not necessarily equate to good nutritional quality for consumers. A similar pattern was observed in the selection offered in mom-and-pop shops and supermarkets, where about 30 per cent of the foods sold were cereals and 20 per cent were sugars and sweets. The spices, condiments and beverages category accounted for 18 per cent of food commodities in mom-and-pop shops and 15 per cent in supermarkets. The sample size (n value) shows the number of times an outlet was mentioned as a point of purchase for items across food groups (Table 5). Overall, for uncooked foods, mom-and-pop shops were the most-utilized outlets, followed by kiosks; while open-air markets and supermarkets were the least exploited. Informal restaurants were the most common point of purchase for cooked foods.  While supermarkets generally offer fruits, vegetables and meats, our study showed that households in the poor urban settings did not purchase those food items from supermarkets. This could be due to the small size of these supermarkets and lack of refrigerated facilities needed to stock fresh foods. It could also be explained by price differences between products in supermarkets and similar products in informal outlets [36]. In such a case, poor households may prefer to purchase from the informal outlets where products are offered at lower prices. As expected, cereal shops offered legumes, nuts and cereals. Open-air markets and tabletop vendors were the least-diversified outlets, primarily selling vegetables and fruits. Overall, the most diverse retail outlets were dominated by unhealthy, highly-processed, sugar-laden and energy-dense foods rather than nutritious foods such as fruits, vegetables and meat."}]},{"head":"Food Group Kiosks","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Momand-Pop Shops","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Super markets","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Cereal Shops","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Open-Air Markets","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Informal","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Restaurants","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Tabletop","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Vendors","index":25,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Street","index":26,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Distance Between Households and Food Retail Outlets","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":171,"text":"The degree to which a household can access a food retail outlet could significantly influence individual and household dietary diversity. Using GPS coordinates for households and retail operations, we calculated the average distances between the two (Figure 2). Generally, most households were located within 1 km of all food retail outlet types, with the exception of open-air markets and supermarkets. On average, the two were located between 1.1 and 1.3 km, respectively, from the study households. Generally, tabletop vendors were closest at a mere 378 m. Mom-and-pop shops and cereals shops were 450-489 m from study households. Disaggregated by locations, households in Kibra location were furthest from food retail outlets, while those in Imara Daima were the closest, except for supermarkets. Nevertheless, households in Imara Daima had higher indicators for dietary diversity. This could be an indication that the proximity of retail outlets can influence dietary diversity, but it is not the only factor; it is likely that other food environment factors, such as availability and affordability, are also at play. "}]},{"head":"Market-Level Diversity Scores","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":244,"text":"To understand the availability of food in the sampled outlets, we computed the MLDS, which shows dietary options for consumers. In computing the MLDS we used both 9 and 12 food groups to assess market situation when all food groups (12 FG) and only the more nutritious foods are considered (9 FG). MLDS utilizes a food-group categorization similar to the HDDS. As expected, supermarkets had the highest MLDS (Figure 3), a finding that is consistent with literature on the expansion of supermarkets in low-and middle-income countries [13,14]. Cereal shops, open-air markets, and tabletop vendors offered the least diversity, with MLDS scores of less than three food groups. Mom-and-pop shops and kiosks offered almost equal levels of food diversity. These trends were unchanged even when excluding the less nutritious food groups: sweets and sugars; oils and fats; and spices, condiments and beverages. However, while cereal shops, open-air markets and tabletop vendors generally stocked low diversity (Figure 3), they also had few offerings from the sweets and sugars, oils and fats, and spices, condiments and beverages groups, all of which make minimal contributions to micronutrient density. Despite the high MLDS in supermarkets, evidence shows that the use of supermarkets is positively associated with income; the urban poor do not regularly patronize them [15,17,23,36]. Kiosks and mom-and-pop shops, second only to supermarkets in terms of MLDS, are more common in poor urban neighbourhoods, and could therefore be used to deliver healthy dietary options among the urban poor. "}]},{"head":"The Association of Market-Level and Consumption Diversity","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"In our final analysis, we combined data from retail outlets with consumer data to assess the association between MLDS and individual (MDD-W and IDD) or household (HDDS) diversity scores. Four models were estimated: HDDS with 12 food groups, HDDS with 9 food groups, MDD-W and IDD (Table 6)."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"Our analysis in Table 6 show that a higher MLDS for kiosks was positively and significantly associated children's dietary quality. More than 70 per cent of the foods sold in kiosks are energy-dense products falling into the cereals; oils and fats; sugar and sweets; or spices, condiments and beverages categories (Table 5). A positive and significant association was also observed between children's dietary diversity and diversity of products offered at cereal shops. About 90 per cent of cereal shop products fell within the cereal and legumes, nuts and seeds categories (Table 5). The correlation of kiosk and cereal shop diversity with children's nutrition status is in line with earlier studies [23,24,37]."},{"index":3,"size":216,"text":"Higher MLDS scores for mom-and-pop shops had a positive and significant association with HDD generally and dietary quality for women. Higher MLDS at informal restaurants also had a positive and significant association with HDD. Although supermarkets are often much more diversified than traditional outlets, we did not observe any significant association between supermarket MLDS and either household or individual dietary diversity. In fact, they had a negative influence on HDD and the dietary quality of women and children. The urban poor rarely purchase their food from supermarkets [36]. As a result, the diversity of products offered in these outlets is not reflected in resource-poor households' dietary diversity. Furthermore, supermarkets were located farther away from households than other outlets (Figure 2). Strikingly, the diversity of foods at the open-air markets has a negative and significant influence on both individual and household dietary diversity. Although open-air markets in the study areas had the highest share (73 per cent) of fruit and vegetable sales, overall consumption of these foods among resource-poor households was very low (Table 5). This may be due to the average distance of these markets from households, which represents a potential accessibility constraint (Figure 2). In fact, open-air markets were only mentioned 2.5 per cent of the time by study households as a point of purchase."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"We did not find any significant association between tabletop vendors and the dietary indicators for either households or individuals (Table 6). About 90 per cent of foods sold by tabletop vendors are fruits and vegetables. The low diversity in these outlets could be the reason we did not observe any significant association between their MLDS and dietary diversity indicators."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"We used market-, household-and individual-level data collected from poor neighbourhoods (slums) in Nairobi, Kenya to examine how food environments influence the diets of urban resource-poor consumers. Our findings contribute to the existing literature on the role played by food environments in the diets of consumers by using market level diversity score (MLDS) to describe the diversity of foods at sampled food retail outlets and by assessing the association between market-level diversity and diet diversity at the individual and household levels. MLDS shows the diversity of foods in the market at a particular time, providing insights into local market supply for different types of food items. This type of information can assist in designing interventions targeted at improving the supply of quality foods to positively influence consumer diets. Our retail outlet and household datasets were collected within the same areas and combined using GPS coordinates. We found that the food environments of the urban poor are characterized by a mix of modern and traditional food retail outlets, with the latter more common than the former."},{"index":2,"size":178,"text":"When describing the diversity of foods available in retail outlets, we find that the most diverse are dominated by unhealthy or energy-dense foods rather than nutritious foods such as vegetables, fruits and meat. Supermarkets have the highest MLDS, yet they have no significant influence on diets of resource-poor consumers. Earlier studies in Kenya have shown that supermarket patronage is influenced by income and this is still an important constraint on the urban poor, given their limited livelihood opportunities [36]. For instance, supermarkets account for less than 4 per cent of the food expenditures among slum households in Nairobi, Kenya and Kampala, Uganda [36]. Although diversity in supermarkets presents an opportunity to improve the diets of the urban poor, until they are more commonly utilized, their influence may continue to be minimal. Furthermore, our study shows that supermarkets were, on average, the second-furthest outlets from study households, which could be an indicator of inaccessibility. We find that supermarkets were the second least-common outlet for household food purchases, having been mentioned by only 15 per cent of the households surveyed."},{"index":3,"size":150,"text":"Mom-and-pop shops and kiosks are the two outlets most commonly used by the study households to purchase food items. They were also the most diverse of the traditional outlets, at least in terms of non-cooked food items. Furthermore, they were generally located closer to the study households. Informal outlets, specifically mom-and-pop shops are positively and significantly associated with household dietary diversity and dietary quality for women, while kiosks are positively and significantly associated with improved dietary quality for children. Diversity of foods at the open-air markets has a negative and significant association with both diet quality for women and children, and household dietary diversity. Although open-air markets in the study areas had the highest share of fruit and vegetable sales (73 per cent), their overall use by the resource-poor households was very low. This may be due to their long average distance from households, which represents a potential accessibility constraint."},{"index":4,"size":269,"text":"Our findings have various implications for policy makers and other food system actors. First, there is need to promote food diversity in informal retail outlets because this could facilitate accessibility of diverse foods among the urban resource-poor consumers-which could have positive implications on their health and nutrition status. Second, addressing diversity at the retail market alone may not lead to improved dietary intake, especially for the low-income consumers who rely on markets for their food purchases. It is also important to ensure access and affordability of commodities offered to the resource-poor consumers. In our study, we do not find a significant association between retail diversity at the supermarkets and dietary diversity at both household and individual levels, irrespective of the high retail diversity at the supermarkets. Commodities sold in supermarkets are often much more expensive compared to similar products on sale in informal outlets. In addition, the open-air markets-which are the outlets located furthest away from our study households-have a negative and significant association with both household and individual dietary diversities. These two findings emphasize the need for affordability and accessibility of commodities, respectively. Finally, as we promote the purchase of foods from traditional outlets, it is necessary to attend to food safety concerns, especially for vendors selling fresh produce and cooked foods. Previous studies in the urban slums of Nairobi have highlighted food safety risks among informal retailers due to the sources from which they obtain their commodities and the environments in which they sell their goods [38,39]. Further studies are necessary to examine food safety challenges and possible solutions for the informal food retailers in urban slums."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"As a final thought, the authors acknowledge the limitation of this study in terms of sample size. Follow-up studies using larger sample sizes are needed to validate the association between market level diversity and consumer dietary diversity especially in urban areas."},{"index":6,"size":84,"text":"Institutional Review Board Statement: All research protocols and questionnaires were developed in collaboration with scientists from KALRO in Kenya. Furthermore, ethical clearance as per the Kenya Agriculture and Livestock Research Act, no 17 of 2013, Article 5, Section 2 d; and the Science, Technology, and Innovation Act, no. 28 of 2013, Part IV, Article 12, Section 2 was obtained. Letters of permissions obtained by KALRO were sent to the local administration in the study sites introducing the survey and survey investigators to the communities."},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Global Positioning System (GPS)-generated mean distance in metres between households and retail outlets by type. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Market-level diversity scores (MLDS) using 9 and 12 food groups (FG) by type of retail outlet. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Categorization of food retail outlets in the informal settlements of Nairobi, Kenya.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Prevalence by type of retail outlets sampled. Distribution of sampled food retail outlets in the study areas by type. Source: Developed by authors. Type Frequency TypeFrequency Cereal Shops 20 Cereal Shops20 Informal Restaurants 22 Informal Restaurants22 Kiosks 18 Kiosks18 Mom-and-Pop Shops 25 Mom-and-Pop Shops25 Open-Air Markets 20 Open-Air Markets20 Street Vendors 20 Street Vendors20 Supermarkets 7 Supermarkets7 Tabletop Vendors 17 Tabletop Vendors17 Total 149 Total149  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Summary statistics of household sample characteristics. Variable (Household) Description Mean SD + Variable (Household)DescriptionMeanSD + Gender of Head =1 if household head is male (%) 83.40 37.28 Gender of Head=1 if household head is male (%)83.4037.28 Age of Head Age of the household head (years) 34.12 9.19 Age of HeadAge of the household head (years)34.129.19 Education of Head Education level of the household head (years) 9.79 4.10 Education of HeadEducation level of the household head (years)9.794.10 Income Average annual household income (USD) 3598.07 4381.73 IncomeAverage annual household income (USD)3598.074381.73  Kibra site 1905.22 1596.27 Kibra site1905.221596.27  Kibra 1988.35 1157.01 Kibra1988.351157.01  Lindi 2044.08 2085.61 Lindi2044.082085.61  Makina 1824.73 1364.75 Makina1824.731364.75  Siranga 1715.23 1169.80 Siranga1715.231169.80  Imara daima site 5462.11 5573.76 Imara daima site5462.115573.76 Occupation of head (%) None 1.60 12.60 Occupation of head (%)None1.6012.60  Farming 0.53 7.31 Farming0.537.31  Salaried employment 51.87 50.1 Salaried employment51.8750.1  Casual laborer 45.99 49.97 Casual laborer45.9949.97 Study location Kibra 52.41 50.06 Study locationKibra52.4150.06  Imara Daima 47.59 50.08 Imara Daima47.5950.08 Number of Households  187  Number of Households187  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Summary of dietary diversity indicators. Indicator Pooled Kibra Imara Daima Difference  † IndicatorPooledKibraImara DaimaDifference  † Household Dietary Diversity Score-HDDS12-(12 food groups) 9.91 9.74 10.09 −0.34 Household Dietary Diversity Score-HDDS12-(12 food groups)9.919.7410.09−0.34  (1.46) (1.50) (1.40) (0.21) (1.46)(1.50)(1.40)(0.21) Household Dietary Diversity Score-HDDS9-(9 food groups) 6.94 6.80 7.10 −0.31 Household Dietary Diversity Score-HDDS9-(9 food groups)6.946.807.10−0.31  (1.41) (1.42) (1.39) (0.21) (1.41)(1.42)(1.39)(0.21) Dietary Diversity Score for Children-IDD-(7 food groups) 3.56 3.23 3.91 −0.68 *** Dietary Diversity Score for Children-IDD-(7 food groups)3.563.233.91−0.68 ***  (1.34) (1.31) (1.29) (0.19) (1.34)(1.31)(1.29)(0.19) Children not Achieving Minimum Dietary Diversity (proportion) 0.46 0.54 0.37 0.17 ** Children not Achieving Minimum Dietary Diversity (proportion)0.460.540.370.17 **  (0.50) (0.50) (0.49) (0.07) (0.50)(0.50)(0.49)(0.07) Minimum Dietary Diversity for Women-MDD-W-(10 food groups) 7.37 6.79 8.01 −1.23 *** Minimum Dietary Diversity for Women-MDD-W-(10 food groups)7.376.798.01−1.23 ***  (1.87) (1.92) (1.60) (0.26) (1.87)(1.92)(1.60)(0.26) Women not Achieving Minimum Dietary Diversity (proportion) 0.08 0.14 0.01 0.13 *** Women not Achieving Minimum Dietary Diversity (proportion)0.080.140.010.13 ***  (0.27) (0.35) (0.11) (0.04) (0.27)(0.35)(0.11)(0.04) Observations 187 98 89 187 Observations1879889187  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Point of sale for raw food items belonging to different food groups by percentage.  "},{"text":" The n values in this table indicate the number of times the outlet was mentioned as a source of food items, not the number of outlets surveyed.         Vendors Total VendorsTotal Cereals 25.78 29.92 32.14 34.11 1.2 12.43 - 15.58 23.11 Cereals25.7829.9232.1434.111.212.43-15.5823.11 Roots and Tubers 2.48 0.99 1.02 0.47 10.84 4.14 5.94 11.00 2.96 Roots and Tubers2.480.991.020.4710.844.145.9411.002.96 Legumes, Nuts, Seeds 1.55 3.47 8.16 59.35 1.2 12.43 0.5 13.00 10.84 Legumes, Nuts, Seeds1.553.478.1659.351.212.430.513.0010.84 Vegetables 1.24 1.65 - - 40.96 - 67.82 - 9.78 Vegetables1.241.65--40.96-67.82-9.78 Fruits 2.17 0.66 - - 33.73 9.47 21.29 5.00 5.45 Fruits2.170.66--33.739.4721.295.005.45 Meat 0.62 - - - - 1.78 - 3.00 0.42 Meat0.62----1.78-3.000.42 Eggs 5.90 4.13 3.57 0.93 - 12.43 0.99 13.00 4.71 Eggs5.904.133.570.93-12.430.9913.004.71 Fish - - 0.51  - 0.59 - 0.93 0.21 Fish--0.51-0.59-0.930.21 Milk and Milk Products 9.01 10.91 9.18 2.34 - 11.24 - 3.00 7.4 Milk and Milk Products9.0110.919.182.34-11.24-3.007.4 Oils and Fats 10.25 9.59 10.2 1.4 - 12.43 - 17.00 8.04 Oils and Fats10.259.5910.21.4-12.43-17.008.04 Sugars and Sweets 22.05 20.33 19.9 0.47 - 10.65 - 5.00 13.59 Sugars and Sweets22.0520.3319.90.47-10.65-5.0013.59 Spices, Condiments, and Beverages 18.94 18.35 15.31 0.93 12.05 12.43 3.47 13.00 13.48 Spices, Condiments, and Beverages18.9418.3515.310.9312.0512.433.4713.0013.48 Number of observations 322 605 196 214 83 169 202 100 1891 Number of observations322605196214831692021001891 Notes:          Notes:  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Association between consumption dietary diversity and market-level diversity. Values shown are marginal effects from Poisson estimator with standard errors in parentheses. Abbreviations include household dietary diversity score (HDDS), minimum dietary diversity for women (MDD-W), dietary diversity for children (IDD), market-level diversity score (MLDS). The n value indicates the number of households that sourced foods from the specific outlets; *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1. Variables Kiosks Mom-and-Pop Shops Super markets Cereal Shops Open-Air Markets Informal Restaurants Tabletop Vendors Street Vendors VariablesKiosksMom-and-Pop ShopsSuper marketsCereal ShopsOpen-Air MarketsInformal RestaurantsTabletop VendorsStreet Vendors HDDS 12         HDDS 12 MLDS 0.000 0.804 *** −0.219 0.715 −1.329 ** 0.738 *** 0.188 −0.084 MLDS0.0000.804 ***−0.2190.715−1.329 **0.738 ***0.188−0.084  (0.000) (0.280) (0.251) (1.072) (0.580) (0.275) (0.314) (0.136) (0.000)(0.280)(0.251)(1.072)(0.580)(0.275)(0.314)(0.136) HDDS 9         HDDS 9 MLDS 0.000 0.623 ** −0.218 0.706 −1.315 ** 0.729 *** 0.139 −0.084 MLDS0.0000.623 **−0.2180.706−1.315 **0.729 ***0.139−0.084  (0.408) (0.250) (0.249) (1.047) (0.568) (0.268) (0.278) (0.135) (0.408)(0.250)(0.249)(1.047)(0.568)(0.268)(0.278)(0.135) MDD-W         MDD-W MLDS 0.625 1.127 * −0.540 −0.545 −2.537 *** 0.509 −0.200 −0.187 MLDS0.6251.127 *−0.540−0.545−2.537 ***0.509−0.200−0.187  (0.646) (0.598) (0.352) (1.603) (0.394) (0.410) (0.250) (0.160) (0.646)(0.598)(0.352)(1.603)(0.394)(0.410)(0.250)(0.160) IDD         IDD MLDS 1.249 *** 0.496 −0.346 0.704 ** −1.577 *** 0.140 −0.144 −0.044 MLDS1.249 ***0.496−0.3460.704 **−1.577 ***0.140−0.144−0.044  (0.412) (0.336) (0.299) (0.315) (0.356) (0.319) (0.186) (0.148) (0.412)(0.336)(0.299)(0.315)(0.356)(0.319)(0.186)(0.148) Observations (n) 25 30 29 19 21 18 29 16 Observations (n)2530291921182916 Notes:         Notes:  "}],"sieverID":"858ddbd1-4ba8-4882-a2c4-3f778a89433b","abstract":"The food environment influences consumer diets in significant yet underexplored ways. In this study, we assess the way in which the Nairobi urban food environment-availability, accessibility, affordability, desirability, convenience and marketing-influences the dietary choices and quality of poor urban consumers, by combining market-level diversity scores (MLDS) with household and individual data collected from resource-poor (slum) neighbourhoods in Nairobi, Kenya. We find that urban-poor settings are characterized by a variety of food retail venues, including informal markets such as kiosks, mom-and-pop shops and tabletop vendors, as well as modern retail outlets such as supermarkets. Most of these food outlets predominantly sell unhealthy, highly-processed and energy-dense foods rather than nutritious foods such as vegetables, fruits and animal products. Our analyses show that supermarkets have the highest MLDS, yet they do not significantly influence the diets of resource-poor households. However, a high MLDS among informal retail outlets has a positive association with diet quality; conversely, open-air markets have a negative association. The nutritional status of urban-poor consumers can be improved by promoting the diversification of healthy, nutritious foods across traditional retail outlets and improving accessibility of the outlets to consumers."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09716d43948778272dab974091617c4d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Other/PDF/community_engagement_in_small-scale_irrigation_training_curriculum-participant_workbook.pdf"},"pageCount":30,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Course Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"This course provides 5 training modules for hands-on training to develop field-workers expertise in engaging communities, applied to small-scale irrigation schemes. It has been successfully tested in two countries, Nepal and Ghana, and the content is well supported by research."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"It is essential that the community that uses the water plays a leading role in planning and implementing any improvements in water services. The modules in this training curriculum provide you with a hands-on way of learning and strengthening your skills. You can then apply your skills in a range of different contexts to work effectively with communities in developing appropriate, sustainable water service systems. This course is suitable for local circumstances where water-users need to work together to manage shared water resources such as small reservoirs (less than 1 million cubic meters of storage) and canal networks, and where crop irrigation is an important use."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"The course is designed for about 15 trainees at a time, and throughout the central 3 modules there is an emphasis on working alongside at least an equivalent number of participants representing the community. As a trainee you will be expected to collaborate with other participants in listening, collecting information, making decisions and solving problems. You will be required to bring your own expertise to the groups that you work within and appreciate and respect the expertise of others. "}]},{"head":"Overview of Course Sessions","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Using Your Participant Workbook","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Use this workbook to record anything that is useful to you during the process of the course. You can write and draw in it, and it is yours to keep for future use and reference. There is space to keep samples at the back of the binder."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"If the exercises require worksheets or examples, you will find them in this workbook so that you can refer to them at any time. Each module has a simple round icon (above) which you can use to help find your way around."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"The learning outcomes for the course are included in this workbook and you can use them to track your progress and evaluate your achievements. "}]},{"head":"Program Summary","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Module Worksheets, Guidance & Case Study Materials","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The following pages include all the worksheets, group guidance and case study materials for your course. You can add your own notes, drawings and diagrams wherever you like."}]},{"head":"Overview of Participatory Methods","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"An important feature of many of the methods listed is that they do not require or pre-suppose literacy"}]},{"head":"Method Summary Appreciative Inquiry (AI)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Strengths-based approach to problem-solving, focusing on appreciation, valuing the best, building on what works, using the 4 processes 'Discover, Dream, Design, Destiny' in sequence"}]},{"head":"Building on Strengths","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Approach empowering people to take control of their own lives in meaningful and sustainable ways, focusing on what is working, feasible and sustainable to identify the existing resources available to effect change"}]},{"head":"Charettes","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Intensive time-bound final design workshop (often used by architects) which may involve the public"}]},{"head":"Community Organisation","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Process whereby the community is mobilized and then acts in their shared self-interest"}]},{"head":"Future Search","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Collaboration method for large groups to achieve specific future-related outputs, using self-managing subgroups to work and reporting to the whole group"}]},{"head":"Institutional Analysis & Development","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"A focus on a systematic study of people's collective behavior, and the rules under which they operate Interactive Design Sketches, models, community consultation phases used in architecture & engineering to bring schemes 'to life' Participatory Logframe Analysis (LFA)"},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"A project design methodology that engages all key stakeholders and provides a systematic structure for identifying, planning and managing projects Participatory Rapid Appraisal (PRA) Also known as Participatory Rural Appraisal, an approach that aims to incorporate the knowledge and opinions of rural people in the planning and management of development projects and programs"}]},{"head":"PRA Transect Walk","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Tool for describing and showing the location and distribution of resources, features, landscape, main land uses along a given transect ZOPP (GOPP) Goal Orientated Project Planning ZOPP (Zielorientierte Projektplanung) is a systematic structure for project planning and management developed through workshops with stakeholders. The process generates a structured planning matrix known as a logical project framework which highlights links between inputs, activities and results"}]},{"head":"Appreciative Interview Question Guide Community Collective Action","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":213,"text":"Groups of people and communities often work together to improve their situation, whether building or improving things such as roads, paths, wells, markets, ponds, or canals; or organizing events and services, such as religious and customary celebrations, funeral societies, revolving credit groups, cooperating to buy agricultural inputs or sell products and so forth. This may be something that a community does on their own or with assistance from an outside organization. It may be something large, or small and simple such as a minor improvement to a well, simple bridge for a pathway, cleaning up streets and paths, etc. Such collective action is often done through people working together in ways they find fun and enjoy, as well as producing useful results. Questions 1. Describe a time when you were part of some activity by a group or community to build or improve some shared resource, perhaps a water resource or something else, or worked together to provide a shared service that made people better off. a. What was the high point of this activity? b. How did it make you feel? c. What was your contribution? d. In your view, what could be learned from that experience about how people could work together to improve irrigation and water resources in your community?"},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"2. Imagine it is five years from now and a shared water resource had been successfully improved and managed through the community's efforts. Describe the results. Talk about what people did to make this possible."}]},{"head":"(If question 2 seems to be too hard to answer)","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Identify three major problems in this community. For each problem, suggest things the community could do using its own resources to help solve the problem. Ideas about government assistance may also be suggested, but for each problem, at one or things the community could do using its own resources should be identified."}]},{"head":"Stakeholder Analysis","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"This is an extension of the appreciative interview exercise and could be carried out if time is available during module 1 or 2, or as homework. It can be done in groups or individually."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"Steps 1. On cards, write the names of different kinds of stakeholders who might be affected, positively or negatively by improvements. 2. Note that one person may have multiple stakeholder roles, e.g. upstream irrigator, domestic water user. 3. Cluster cards according to similarity between different stakeholders. 4. For each type of stakeholder identify whether they are likely to benefit or suffer due to the kind of improvements discussed in the case study. Use on two or three plus marks depending on the expected impact. 5. Note that some stakeholders may have both positive and negative impacts. 6. If you are working with others, present your results in turn. Everybody should add their cards, followed by discussion."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"For information on PRA and related approaches to participatory learning and action, the IIED website is a good starting point: http://pubs.iied.org/search.php?s=PLA"}]},{"head":"Case Study Materials","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"You will be working with your small group to role-play the planning and implementation of a new water system improvement scheme."}]},{"head":"Case study resources in this workbook","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Resource Description Introductory description Introduction to the case study including a description of major local accomplishments in developing irrigation and multiple use water management, and one or two major design challenges"}]},{"head":"Role Descriptions","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Roles to be played during the case study exercise"}]},{"head":"Sketch map","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"System features, problems, and opportunities"}]},{"head":"Prioritized list","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"This type of list would be produced through an irrigation system walkthrough and public consultation. It includes problems, opportunities, and proposed improvements which may be changes in operations and rules as well as infrastructure"}]},{"head":"Community livelihood calendar","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Showing major crop cultivation activities and other important times, such as periods of food deficit, fisheries activities, migration, major holidays"}]},{"head":"Social network map","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Venn diagram or other illustration of relevant local organizations and how close villagers feel to them"}]},{"head":"Rules","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Summary of major existing rules-in-use, e.g. how people are supposed to behave in watering their crops and maintaining the system"}]},{"head":"District Authority Briefing & Community Introduction","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"This is the program summary describing the aims, purpose and scope of the project. It can be used as a basis for the introductory meetings with district and sub-district authorities and the local community."}]},{"head":"System Walkthrough","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Please ensure that you are suitably dressed for the weather and have appropriate footwear."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"The walkthrough will take several hours. You should take the most convenient route to the main water source and from there follow a route that covers the major water uses e. During the walkthrough discuss and take note of relevant details under the following headings: 1. Primary water source Upstream and downstream water uses and rights, flow (seasonal variation), water quality. How is the system managed now? Could it be operated and maintained better? 2. Potential improvements and their implications"},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"Identify key locations for potential improvements. What would be the implications for changes in any aspect of the system, what are the alternatives, what are the potential costs and what cooperative partnerships would they need to succeed? 3. Other water sources How might these be included in attempts to improve the system? 4. Past and present efforts to manage water What do users want from the changes? How has co-operation with other systems been planned or problems resolved? What resources does the community have that can support the changes? How would the new system be maintained?"}]},{"head":"Community Interviews","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"The purpose of the interviews is to learn about conditions in the community, and gather stories about successful collective action for irrigation and other activities. During the process you should identify the local capacity for collective action, learn what people feel makes it good and discover what they would like to make even better."}]},{"head":"Instructions","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Work in pairs. Allow about 30 minutes per interview. You should carry out at least two interviews each: one with a woman and one with a man, and with different kinds of stakeholders, e.g. headend/tail-end; smallholder/larger landowner; different type of water user."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Interviews may be with specific individuals or with groups (informal or formal), and can be public or private. This should depend on the preference of your interviewees. In the public forum, after initial responses, others who are present should be welcomed to add comments and discuss."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"Finding things people are enthusiastic about and enjoy talking about is a central goal of the Appreciative Inquiry Process. Problems should be noted, but the focus should be on successes, things people feel good about and would like more of. Emphasize the focus on local collective action and look for examples where the community has used it's own resources and abilities to take action or solve a problem."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"Good listening is central to interviewing. The goal is to hear and understand what people have to say."}]},{"head":"Some points to keep in mind:","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"• When working in pairs, one person takes the lead in asking questions and the other person records both the question (if necessary) and summarizes the responses. • The person recording should jot a note for his/her follow-on question, but should not interrupt the interviewer until finished. • Often it is best to ask simple questions that set the stage and relax the respondent but that lead to specific issues the interview wants to understand. • Phrase the question so that short answers are possible not a long list of issues and questions."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Lead the respondent from one level to the next to get to the information of interest. • As you listen, do not correcting the respondent but instead ask further probing questions."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"• It is often a good idea for the interviewer and recorder to periodically switch roles-especially if the pair has different backgrounds/disciplines."}]},{"head":"Analysis & Design Discussions","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Within your group, develop a visual tool to present the current situation and the changes you propose."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"You will be allocated a topic from the list below. Your task is to produce the tool. In addition you must produce a short-list of what you see as the three to seven most important changes needed to achieve successful development of the water resources, or more productive, equitable and sustainable use of the water."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"Your final summary should include overall changes and changes specifically relating to their topic. You will then be asked to present your tool and conclusions to the other participants."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"Steps 1. Develop a tool to show the current situation."},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"2. As a group, list each major change on a card (1 change per card)."},{"index":6,"size":81,"text":"3. Take turns presenting your cards to one another and then group the cards into clusters and rank them according to importance. 4. Add the proposed changes to your tool. 5. Discuss the benefits and costs of each change and add a summary to the tool. 6. Discuss any changes that might be needed in governance arrangements to support and enable the improvements. Add a summary to the tool. 7. Plan how to present your tool back to the other participants."}]},{"head":"Topics Topic to consider Tool to produce Layout","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"System map Infrastructure Concept drawings for physical improvements Livelihood Calendar"}]},{"head":"Schedule of cropping and other uses Value Chain","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Chart showing access to agricultural inputs and output markets"}]},{"head":"Organization","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Chart showing key roles and WUO structure, relationships to other organizations Impacts Matrix identifying benefits and costs, including differences by gender, farm size and location, ethnicity, poverty, etc."}]},{"head":"Governance","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Rules about access to water and land, resource mobilization, etc."}]},{"head":"Task Group Topic Briefing","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Layout Tool: Sketch Map Brief: Prepare a simple sketch map of the system showing the locations of possible improvements."},{"index":2,"size":159,"text":"Steps 1. Create a rough sketch map showing the major locations in the water resources system, including the full range of closely related water sources and uses. 2. Consider including: stream, reservoir, or other water sources, intake, outlets, locations that have required extra effort to build and maintain, major division points, fields particularly vulnerable to water shortage, flooding or other problems, areas with different cropping patterns, areas incorporated in the system at different times, locations used for livestock water, clothes washing, etc., areas under pump or recession irrigation, and potential expansion areas. 3. Include other important features, such as roads, paths, springs, forests, markets, etc. 4. Prepare a simple table, perhaps in a corner of the map, summarizing the area irrigated by season and other uses of water, and number of households that use water, by different types of uses. 5. Identify the location of potential improvements on the sketch map. 6. Discuss the available options and identify priorities."}]},{"head":"Infrastructure","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Tool: Concept Drawings Brief: Prepare simple conceptual design drawings showing potential infrastructure construction or improvements, in easily understood form."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Steps 1. Discuss the possible changes in infrastructure (and related water allocation and distribution) in more depth, either on location in the field or back in the community, or both. 2. Create simple drawings to show the possible infrastructure construction or improvements, including the alternatives for any cases where multiple options seem to need to be considered. 3. If possible, add rough estimates of costs, e.g. using standard rates or examples from previous experience."}]},{"head":"Livelihood Calendar","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Tool: Livelihood Calendar Brief: Prepare a livelihood calendar showing the schedule of cropping of irrigated crops, and other water uses."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"Steps 1. Discuss the agricultural cycle, current cropping patterns and potential changes. 2. Create a livelihood calendar showing the current schedule. It should show the months of the year across the top and the activities (major agricultural events, other activities) below. 3. Identify a good starting point in the local agricultural cycle, e.g. before the wet season. 4. Ensure that the calendar includes important times such as periods of harvest, food shortage, fisheries activities, labor outmigration, major holidays etc. 5. Highlight the activities and times that are most critical for small reservoir or canal system development, e.g. in terms of labor availability, need to adjust irrigation schedules, etc. 6. Using a different color, add the possible changes in the type and timing for irrigated crops. 7. Include the possible changes in timing for other water uses."}]},{"head":"Value Chain","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Tool: Value Chain Chart Brief: Prepare a value chain chart with four sections from left to right showing: 1. Suppliers/sources, 2. Inputs (including knowledge and technical advice), 3. Major crops or types of crops (e.g. Vegetables, and 4. Buyers and other users (including home use, local exchange, gifts, etc.)"},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Steps 1. Discuss the inputs needed to produce crops and how crops are currently sold or used (including home consumption, local exchange, gifts, etc.) 2. Identify which links would be most beneficial for farmers if they could be improved. 3. Draw links between suppliers, inputs, crops and markets/uses. It may be helpful to use different colors for different crops, or separate charts for different crops. 4. Discuss which links would be most beneficial for farmers if they could be improved, and highlight them."}]},{"head":"Organization","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Tool: Organization Chart Brief: Prepare an organization chart, showing the structure of local water management and links to related organizations, both current and after any proposed changes."},{"index":2,"size":181,"text":"Steps 1. Discuss the individuals and organizations that have major roles related to irrigation and water resources management. 2. Identify the current local institutions responsible for regulating water use and related activities, and any local relationships with various organizations, including government units, NGOs, and others. 3. Identify who currently does what tasks related to controlling access to water, operating and maintaining water resources, mobilizing resources, enforcing rules, resolving conflicts, etc. 4. On the chart, show formal organizations, e.g. water user associations, as well as customary and informal institutions. 5. Identify organizations, agency offices, projects, etc., that are relevant to the community, particularly in relation to irrigation development and water management. 6. Write names or abbreviations on cards, and discuss how close they are to the community, in terms of ease of communication and access, frequency of interaction, etc. 7. With tape on back of cards, position cards as nearer to or more distant from the community. 8. Add the information from the cards to the chart, to show all the organizations and their relationships with each other and with the community."}]},{"head":"Impacts","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Tool: Initial Impact Analysis Brief: Prepare a matrix / table that identifies the benefits and costs of changes to water management for different water users."},{"index":2,"size":160,"text":"Steps 1. The goal of this tool is to review how the project may affect people differently, including differences between women and men, those who are wealthier or poorer, nearer and farther away from the water resource, and those belonging to different social groups. The objective is to find ways to prevent problems and improve equity in sharing benefits. 2. Using a two-column format, in the left hand column, identify different activities related to water use. 3. If data is available from village records or other sources, prepare a simple table summarizing the number of households who currently use water for different purposes, and estimated total numbers of men and women. If women are active in farming, then they should be included in the count of agricultural water users. All domestic users, male and female, old and young, should be included in the estimate. 4. If information is available dividing the population by age, also prepare a table summarizing this."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"If watering livestock is a major use, estimate the number of livestock, including seasonal use and use by those who do not live full time in the area."},{"index":4,"size":133,"text":"5. Discuss how potential changes in irrigation, or in management of the water source (e.g. reservoir) would affect women and men, including likely impacts on labor, income, health, participation in decisions, and other aspects of their lives. Cover both positive and negative impacts. 6. Formulate recommendations for ensuring equitable sharing of project benefits. In the righthand column of the table, summarize likely social differences in impacts, and suggested measures to avoid problems and improve equity, in a few word for each impact. 7. It may be useful to distinguish different subgroups, e.g. head and tail areas, or existing irrigators and those in expansion areas. It may also be useful to rate the impacts from highly positive (++) to highly negative (--) including types of impacts that may be both highly positive and negative."}]},{"head":"Governance","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Tool: Summary of Rules Brief: Summarise and record current rules about access to water and land, resource mobilization, etc."},{"index":2,"size":216,"text":"Steps 1. The purpose of reviewing rules that affect water use is to ensure that the system will be sustained with equitable sharing. In particular, attention should be paid to making changes that are provide as many benefits as possible, especially to those who are poorer. 2. Discuss current rules (which may be customary or informal) about who can use water, who takes part in operating and maintaining the system, how benefits and costs are shared, how decisions are made, and how compliance with rules is monitored and enforced and conflicts resolved, with particular attention to perceived problems and opportunities for making things better. 3. Use a two-column table to summarize the main current rules on the left, and the proposed changes on the right. 4. Identify key points where participants feel rules should be adjusted, or their application improved, or would benefit from being expressed in writing. 5. Keep the process simple by concentrating on the main changes in rules that may be needed to achieve local aspirations. Do not try to list all customary or formal rules that might apply. 6. Highlight changes where there seems to be a consensus on a preferred option. 7. Identify issues where there is not yet a clear consensus, and plan how further discussion can be carried out."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"A timeline could also be prepared, showing the roles of the community and service providers, step-by-step in the sequence of activities for planning, implementation, and subsequent operation and maintenance."}]},{"head":"Local Population Data","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"This data will help you to ensure that your designs and proposals are suitable to the site community."}]},{"head":"Planning for Participation","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Use the flow chart or timeline (Gantt Chart) created in Module 3. In your small group, review and modify the chart."},{"index":2,"size":148,"text":"Steps 1. In discussion, review the series of activities involved in the implementation of water resources development. 2. Modify the timeline/flow chart created in Module 3, or prepare a new one, to ensure that it includes all major activities from the earliest steps to continuing operation, maintenance, monitoring, and evaluation, by the community and by any other organizations. 3. Highlight those steps where there are opportunities to improve community engagement and success in system development. 4. Using a different marker, highlight any changes revising rules, higher level approval, etc. 5. Use a two-column format, cards or other methods to summarize specific recommendations for how participation and success in system development could be improved. 6. For any changes that require higher level approval, formulate written recommendations to be sent to the relevant decision makers. 7. You will need to report your main recommendations to the wider group for discussion."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"This exercise could also be used at the end of a year, or beginning of a year to review experience and identify opportunities for improvement, either within a particular team or by a group including the full range of stakeholders."}]},{"head":"Training Evaluation Form","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Please answer as fully as you can so that we can revise and improve the course for future cohorts. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" 1. What did you like best about the course? 2. What did you like least about the course? 3. What are your suggestions? Please return this form to your trainer(s) before you leave. Thank you for your feedback. "}],"sieverID":"1b6a24a3-31d3-4991-93d9-fa860a66079c","abstract":""}

data/part_4/09737aac48c52b57f081810b01496227.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09737aac48c52b57f081810b01496227","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8903a8c6-125e-43ce-b994-cd73611ab6c2/retrieve"},"pageCount":17,"title":"May 25, 2023 | Addis Ababa","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Sustainable Intensification (SI)","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"• SI-Increasing food production from existing farmland while minimizing negative impacts on the environment and NRs."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"• Agricultural production is now exploiting almost 40% of the Earth's land surface, and it has become a major source of environmental problems, including climate change."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"• The increase in global population and demand for food-feed-energy are putting further pressure on land, which already has a limited expansion capacity."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"• In order to ensure future food-feed-energy security and meet the current need, SI has been put forward as one of the key approaches."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"• SI is assessed through SIAF ( Sustainable Intensification Assessment Framework)."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"• The framework was developed to provide indicators for assessing the relative sustainability of an innovation across the five domains (productivity, economic, environment, human condition, and social domains)."},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"Livestock Feed and Forage Current and Future Situation  "}]},{"head":"Forage grasses","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"• Biomass yields from validated forage crops are making significant contributions to fill feed gaps (oat/ vetch-12 t DM ha -1 ; fodder beet-> 20 t DM ha -1 ; tree lucerne, 4-7 t DM ha -1 )."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• Supplementation of oat/vetch mixture and fodder beet has increased milk yield from 30-50%."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"• Feeding trough and storage shed have reduced feed wastage from 30-50%. Scaling up: is institutionalizing mechanisms of scaling."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"Scale jumping: expanding decision making power to higher levels."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"Scaling down: devolution of power of scaling to local actors."}]},{"head":"Scale bending:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"surmounting or even resisting scaling constraints. "}]},{"head":"Media Engagement","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Mass media/ Radio is considered as the most effective means to reach rural communities and create awareness about new or existing feed and forage innovations."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Sharing short films through smart phones is another option to create awareness and speed up scaling of feed and forage innovations."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"Television could be considered as another channel of communication to reach farmers, especially those who live around cities and have access to electricity."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"Organization of a joint training workshop for journalists, extension experts and scientists for cross learning and development of content for broadcasting is instrumental. "}]},{"head":"Challenges","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Planned activities to improve forage diversity and economic benefits","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"• Explore Gene Bank forage material for screening in highland and dryland ecologies for intensification and diversification."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"• Work together with local research centers to multiply breeder and pre-basic seeds of selected forage species. This effort is expected to improve access and use to quality forage seeds for the farming communities in the highland dryland areas."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"• Initiate commercialization of forage biomass and seed in collaboration with local partners in different geographies to complement the public extension system and enhance economic gain."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"• Develop a digital feed supply and demand decision support tool that contributes to a more resilient livestock feeding system."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"• Produce suitability maps for more validated livestock forage innovations in the Ethiopian highlands."}]},{"head":"Takeaway messages","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"• Livestock feed has received much attention in the ten years' agricultural development plan and 'Yelemat Turufat' initiative. These are good opportunities to align efforts of various livestock-related projects and bring the desired changes/impacts."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"• Working jointly with farmers' organizations is found to be a very good approach to reaching a big number of farmers/ beneficiaries with improved livestock feed and forage innovations."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"• Scaling of climate-smart feed and forage innovations requires a balanced focus on technical requirements and associated complementary interventions."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"• Exploring more resources and allocating a reasonable investment on feed and forage innovation to facilitate wider scaling would speed up impact on the livelihood of smallholder livestock farmers and other end users."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"• There are a lot of lessons on scaling efforts of climate-smart feed and forage innovations across the African continent. Hence, it will be important to organize crosslearning events to document lessons and scale them for wider use."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"What are AICCRA's results in CSA forage and feeds?"}]},{"head":"REACH CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT PARTNERSHIPS SATISFACTION 10,000","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"As of January 2023, CSA practices were made accessible to ca 10,000 smallholder farmers and forage seed producers in the Oromia, SNNP, and Amhara Regional States 3000 1,700 agricultural extension agents in the at the woreda a zonal level of the Oromia, SNNP and Amhara Regional States"}]},{"head":"47000+","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Partners in the project were increasingly accessing enhanced bundled genderresponsive CSA technologies and practices for forage and feed value chains."}]},{"head":"80%","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Satisfaction with the quality and usefulness of AICCRA's products, tools, and services exceeded and surpassed the 75% target ▪ Making bundled CSA technologies for forage and feeds through Ethiopia's Regional State Government Bureau of Agriculture Platforms"},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Thank you"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Background▪ Africa RISING (USAID funded) project of the Ethiopian highlands validated different livestock feed and forage innovations. ▪ Cultivated forages ▪ Fodder trees ▪ Postharvest feed and forage utilization innovations ▪ The AICCRA-Ethiopia project co-invested in Africa RISING validated innovations to facilitate scaling and benefit more farmers. ▪ The AICCRA-supported livestock feed and forage research and scaling work is implemented in Amhara (north Shewa zone), Oromia (Bale zone) and SNNP (Hadiya zone) regions. ▪ Livestock is one of the driving components of SI in the mixed crop-livestock systems. "},{"text":"• Livestock pop in Ethiopia -cattle, shoats and equines =187.14 million, cattle=70.3 million (CSA, 2020/2021) • Pillars for livestock production in Ethiopia (core-feed, health and breed-related and complementarymarket, policy, finance). • Feed gap-Imbalance between feed demand and supply F e e d b a l a n c e s f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e m s S o u r c e : E t h i o p i a L i v e s t o c k M a s t e r P l a n -E L M P ( 2 0 1 5 ) "},{"text":" Gebreyes M, Mekonnen K, Thorne P, Derseh M, Adie A, Mulema A, et al. (2021) Overcoming constraints of scaling: Critical and empirical perspectives on agricultural innovation scaling. PLoS ONE 16(5): e0251958. https://doi. org/10.1371/journal.pone.0251958 Producing suitability maps for forage production • Example: Tree lucerne (leguminous fodder and soil fertilizer tree) • Based on the preliminary result, tree lucerne (TL) can be grown on 125K ha of land, which can produce a dry matter of 1.0 -1.25 million t y -1 . "},{"text":"• Lack "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"• Projected total feed requirements in 2028 = 166.3 million t/year [55.9 -LG, 33.7-MRD and 76.7-MRS million t/year]. Agro-ecological systems Total livestock population Feed demand (t yr -1 ) Feed supply- good year (t yr -1 ) Feed supply- average year (t yr -1 ) Feed supply- bad year (t yr -1 )  Lowland grazing (60%) 52265228 47,666,865 68,290,410 51,326,540 34,183,279 Lowland grazing (60%)5226522847,666,865 68,290,410 51,326,540 34,183,279 Mixed systems -RF deficient (15%) 25424149 28,975,954 28,076,555 19,209,548 15,173,235 Mixed systems -RF deficient (15%)2542414928,975,954 28,076,555 19,209,548 15,173,235 Mixed systems-   Mixed systems- RF Sufficient   RF Sufficient (25%)   (25%)  "},{"text":"432 Livestock feed and forage research and development: Processes Cross-cutting: CapDev, IPs, Partnership Diagnosis (Tools and methods) Identification of interventions (databases) Testing and validation of interventions Synthesizing evidences of interventions Identification of potential scaling DPs Wider scaling (DPs, media) Adoption and impact studies Diffusion studies of innovations  Discovery Proof of concept Piloting Suitability mapping Scaling DiscoveryProof of conceptPilotingSuitability mappingScaling  "}],"sieverID":"9c539322-a7e8-4b8f-8e07-ac1be40be5a0","abstract":"Key opportunities for driving sustainable intensification of crop-livestock systems * Background * Sustainable Intensification (SI) * Livestock Feed and Forage-Current and Future Situation * Livestock feed and forage R&D: Processes * Validated livestock feed and forage innovations * Livestock feed and forage scaling Outline * Challenges * Planned activities to improve forage diversity and economic benefits * Takeaway messages and partnerships A woman farmer taking care of tree lucerne in Lemo Africa RISING and AICCRA project site."}

data/part_4/0978f7b3b904c7ea30fef7f304247aa5.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0978f7b3b904c7ea30fef7f304247aa5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dd8508f1-0cc3-423e-9922-77c209628c74/retrieve"},"pageCount":50,"title":"Chapter 20 lnsects and Other Bean Pests in Latin America","keywords":["Boring lnsects Epinotia","-----","---","-","-","-"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"Pests take their toU of bean production as in any crop, both before and after harvest. Attempts to reduce these losses through pesticides ha ve been relied u pon less in bean prod uction than in other crops. Bean production in Latín America occurs principally on small holdings where growers often have limited economic resources, conditions not conducive to programmed pesticide use. Moreover, beans often are grown in association with other crops, which may help to stabilize insect populations. While such factors favor an integrated approach to insect control, the short growing seasons and rapid crop turnover in beans may not suit a stable ecosystem, which is desirable for effective pest management practices. This chapter reviews pertinent literature available on bean pests in Latín America, with emphasis on bean pest ecology and non-chemical control methods. Since the Latín American literature contains no information for , sorne pests, references are cited from other regions on crops besides beans."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"Ruppel and Id robo ( 1 00) listed a total of 208 insect species which attack beans, whíle Manda and Cortez ( 65) list more than 400 insect species which are found on bean plants. Bonnefil (6) considers 15 insect species to be economically important in Central America. Most bean pests are omnivorous, attacking severa! cultívated legumes orother crops. The most important bean pests reported in the literature and according to the authors' observations are Iisted in Table l. The given division cannot be maintained strictly, since the Mexícan bean beetle and chrysomelids also may attack young pods while Epinotia and Heliothis spp. may also attack leaves and buds, Not all pests listed are insects, such as slugs and mites. "}]},{"head":"Distribution of lmportant lnsect Pests","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"The bean pest complex varies greatly throughout Latin Americ.1 and is not well documented. However, Gutierrez et al. (43) reported that the leafhopper is the most widely distributed insect in Latin America, with chrysomelids (mainly Diabrotica balteata), cutworms, crickets, pod damaging insects ( especially Apion godmam) and storage insects listed in decreasing levels of importance (Table 2). The authors gave no estima tes of the economic importance of these pests. The leafhopper is the most important bean insect in Central America (6), followed in importance by the chrysomelids (Table 3)."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"A simplified distribution of the principal bean pests is shown in Figure l . For example, the Mexican bean beetle occurs in Mexico, the Guatema\\an highlands and . Nicaragua. The bean-pod weevil (Apion spp.) still is a problemas far south as northern Nicaragua. Snails, not shown, are asevere problem to bean culture in El Salvador and Honduras."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"Stored grain insects, Acanthosce/ides obtectus and Zabrotes subfasciatus, are found in all areas of Latín America. A. obtecrus occurs primarily in higher altitudes in both fields and warehouses in Chile, Argentina, Peru and Colombian mountains, while Z. subfasciatus is found primarily in beans stored at lower elevations."}]},{"head":"Economic Losses","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"Potential loss from insect damage varíes greatly between and among regions, due to differences in planting dates, cultivars and cultural practices. Miranda (81) reported insect losses of 33-83% when non-treated plots were compared to treated plots. Losses from Apion in El Salvador were 94% (67), although average losses are lower. In 16 insecticidal trials in Central America, controls yielded an average of 47% less than the highest yielding insecticidal treatment, with greatest losses inflicted by leafhoppers (Table 4). These figures probably over-estimate the importance of insects in bean culture, since such insecticidal trials normally are planted to coincide with the highest levels of insect attack. This was apparent in studies with Diacol-Calima, which is susceptible to leafhopper attack and which sustained losses of 14-23%(average 22%) during the rain y season, while dry season losses were 73-95%. The average loss was 76% (Fig. 2). Studies by  that Empoasca kraemeri ca u sedan average 1 0.8% crop loss on 12,000 ha of beans grown in 1974, resulting in a loss of $749,000 in U.S. currency for that growing season."}]},{"head":"Economic Threshold P opulations","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"A n im portant aspect of pest management is the leve! of damage tha t can be tolerated economically. Greene and Minnick ( 39) obtained a 37% yield reduction dueto 25%defoliation one week before flowering, while 25-33% defoliation during flowering did not reduce yield. Results ha ve shown that defoliations between 30 and 45 days after planting (beginning offlowering to end of flowering) were most damaging to yield ( 15). Yield los ses greater than 35% occurred only when more than 60% of the foliage was removed."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Leafhopper studies at CIAT ( 15) indicated a 6.4% yield loss occurred for each additional nymph present per leaf (Fig. 3). These data indica te that beans can withstand certain levels of defoliation before yield losses occur. "}]},{"head":"Seedling-Attacking Insects","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Seed Coro Maggot","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Hylemya cilicrura (Rondani) ( Díptera: Anthomyiidae). Common names frequently used for the seed coro maggot in Latin America include mosca de la semilla, mosca de la raiz and gusano de la semilla."},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"Oviposition takes place near seeds or plants in the soil. Larvae feed on bean seeds (Fig. 4) or seedlings (Fig. 5) and pupa te in the soil (79). Harris et al. ( 46) reported an incubation period of two days, a larval stage of nine days and a pupa! stage of eight to 12 days at 21 ° -23°C. Crops susceptible to larval attack include beans, maize, potatoes, beets, pepper, tobacco and other vegetables (79). The scientists also found evidence that above 24°C, pupae enter estivation. The average female produced 268 eggs. . Adult females (the adult fly resembles the housefly) were abundant on dandelioñ and aphid honeydew and were less active at temperatures higher than 32°C. Adults are attracted to newly disturbed soil and organic matter in which their Jarvae can develop, for ex.ample, in decaying spinach. Size of the adult population is not necessarily related to severity of seed damage."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"Hertveldt and Vulsteke (50) report 20-30% germination loss when one or two Jarvae were present per bean seed, while two or three Jarvae reduced germination 50%. Damage includes poor germination and production of deformed seedlings (baldheads) and occurs when larvae feed between the cotyledons, thereby injuring the embryo. Larvae also can penetrate the stem of germinating seeds and damage young plants."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"Late planting in Chile causes rapid seed germination and reduces exposure time to Hylemya spp. In three spring plantings at one month intervals the percentage of plants which germinated and were damaged by Hylemya spp. was reduced from 27 to 9 to 2o/o, respectively (C. Quiroz, personal communication). Humid soils with high organic matter were more likely to attract ovipositing females, especially if the field was recently plowed."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"Biological control is reported to operate only at Iow Ievels and does not provide effective control (79)."},{"index":6,"size":113,"text":"Plant resistance to seed corn maggots is reported by Vea and Eckenrode (120). To insure the high larval population needed for screening, they planted during periods of high fly population and increased natural infestation by band-applying meat and bone meal. The bean lines C-2114-12 and P.I. 165426 showed O and 4% stand loss, respectively, while the susceptible cultivar Sprite had an 88% loss. The percentage of emerged seedling damage also was lowest for P.l. 165426 and C-2114-12. Whiteseeded cultivars were susceptible. Rapid emergence and hard seed coats contributed to resistance. Guevara ( 40) al so reported differences in leve) of attack by Hylemya spp., and black-seeded cultivars were less damaged than yellow-seeded cultivars."},{"index":7,"size":84,"text":"For many years, a combined Dieldrin + fungicide seed dressing was the standard treatment for control of Hylemya spp. (36). Repeated exposure of the maggot to chlorinated hydrocarbons has led to development of insect resistance to the chemical. Insecticides such as Diazinon, Carbofuran and Chlorpyrifos applied as granules in the furrow or as a seed slurry can control the larvae effectively (24). C. Quiroz (personal communication) obtained better control with Carbofuran than with Aldrin when applied as a granule at planting time in Chile."}]},{"head":"Cutworms, Whitegrubs, Crickets","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Many species of cutworms damage beans by causing stand Iosses as larvae sever the stems of young seedlings (Fig. 6). Older plants can be damaged by stem girdling (Fig. 7), which predisposes plants to wind breakage. Common cutworm genera include Agrotis, Fe/tia and Spodoptera. General biology and control of cutworms are discussed by Metcalf and Flint (78).  Common na mes frequently used for cutworms in Latín America include trozadores, cortadores, nocheros, rosquillas, lagarta militar and lagarta rosca. Common names frequently used for whitegrubs include gallinaciegas, chizas and mojojoys. Common names frequently used for crickets include grillos and grillotopos."}]},{"head":"lnsects and Other Bean Pests","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Cutworm attaclc in beans occurs erratically and is difficult to predict. Therefore, it is better to control cutworms with baits applied in the late aftemoon near the plants than to use the common preventive chemical control with Aldrin. A formulation of 25 lcg sawdust (or maize flour), 3 liters molasses and 1 kg Trichlorfon per hectare also is effective in controlling crickets and millipedes. Whitegrubs (Fig. 8), mainly a problem in crops following pasture, can be controlled by proper land preparation. Chemical control is possible with Carbofuran or Disulfoton band-applied (0.9 kg a.i. / ha) and with Aldrin incorporated into the soil."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"•1"},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Crickets and molecrickets al so are listed as pests of beans (Fig. 9) in sorne countries (90), but they seldom cause significant economic losses."}]},{"head":"Lesser Coro Stalk Borer","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Elasmopalpus lignosellus (Zeller) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"E. ügnosellus is a serious bean pest in parts ofPeru (F. Avalos, personal communication), Brazil ( 18) and other countries in Latin America. It attacks a variety of weeds and cultivated plants including maize, sugar cane, cereals, legumes and nutgrass."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"Common names frequently used for the lesser corn stalk borer in Latin Ame rica include coralillo, barrenador del tallo, elasmo and lagarta elasmo. Larvae (Fig. 10) enter the stem just below the soil surface and tunnel upwards (Fig. 11), causing plant mortality and subsequent stand loss. The adult oviposits eggs singly on the leaves or stems, or in the soil. The six larval instars are passed in 13-24 days, after which they pupate in the soil (59). Dupree (23) found little evidence of stem boring activity prior to the third instar."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"Control is achieved with clean fallowing for prolonged periods or with heavy irrigation ( 11,124). Leuck and Dupree (60) observed egg and larval parasitism by species of Tachinidae, Braconidae and Ichneumonidae on larvae collected from cowpeas. Chemical control should be started at planting time and granular insecticides should be directed near the seeds to kili larvae present in the soil."}]},{"head":"Leaf-Feeding Insects Chrysomelids","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Many species of Chrysomelids attack beans in Latin America, the most prevalent genera (Fig. 12) being Diabrotica, Neobrotica, Cerotoma and Andrector ( 6). D. balteata LeConte probably is the most abundant species. Ruppel and Idrobo (lOO) list 36 species of Chrysomelids, including the additional genera Epitrix, Chalepus, Colaspis, Maecolaspis, Systena and others. This review will concentrate mostly on D. balteata (Fig. 13), the banded cucumber beetle."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Common names frequently used for chrysomelids in Latin America include crisomelidos, cucarroncitos de las hojas, diabroticas, doradillas, tortuguillas, vaguitas and vaguinhas. • .."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":". .   M ost damage by Chrysomelids occurs during the seedling stage (Fig. 14) when the insect consumes a relatively high percentage of foliage. Boonekamp (7) concluded that feeding by adult Chrysomelids has little effect on bean yield except when attack occurs during the first two weeks after planting or, toa lesser extent, during the flowering stage ofthe plants. Larvae also may damage bean roots and root nodules containing Rhízobíum (nitrogen-fixing bacteria). Sometimes adults feed on young pods. Chrysomelids also are known to transmit bean rugose mosaic virus (29)."},{"index":4,"size":197,"text":"Females (one to two weeks old) oviposit eggs singly or in clusters ofup to 12 eggs in soil cracks or beneath plant debris. An adult may lay more than 800 eggs during a lifespan of 17-44 days (average 26 days). Oviposition usually occurs at intervals of a few days. Eggs batch in eight days at 21 oc and six days at 27°C. The three larval stages are passed in 11 days on soybean roots at 27°C. Pupae form in a pupa! cell in the ground, and this stage lasts seven days at 27°C (88). Y oung and Candia ( 130) reported an incubation period of five to nine days, a larval period of 17 days, and a prepupal-pupal stage of nine to 17 days. The maximum egg production by adults that fed on bean lea ves was 144 per female. Pulido and López (91) found an average of 326 eggs produced when adults were fed only soybean leaves and 975 eggs when adults were fed soybean leaves, flowers and young pods. When fed soybean leaves, adults lived for 69-112 days. Harris ( 48) observed adult color variation within D. balteata and especially within Cero toma facíalis (Erichson)."},{"index":5,"size":222,"text":"While adults feed on many plants including maize (silk and pollen) and beans (leaves), the larvae may develop on roots of maize, beans (Fig. 15) and other crops. Pulido and López (91) list 32 host plants. Of these, maize and beans with five other plant species are listed as hosts for adults and Jarvae. Harris (48) reported that common bean-field weeds in the Cauca Valley serve as larval hosts and include Amaranthus dubius, l..eprochloa .. lnsects and Other Bean Pests filiformis, Echinoch/oa colonum and Rottboellia exaltara. He found D. balteata and C. facialis adults preferred beans rather than soybeans, peanuts, cotton or maize. Larvae of D. balteata can be reared on maize but not on bean roots, while those of C. fa cialis can be reared on beans but not on maize roots (7). Young ( 129) reported that in Mexico D. balteata aduJts have a feeding preference for young bean plants and an oviposition preference for young maize plants. When bean and maize were grown in association, C. facialis larvae had a high preference for bean roots and D. balteata larvae for maize roots (7). Predation of adult chrysomelids by Reduviids (Fig. 16) often is observed in the field. Young and Candia (1 30) reported a Tachinid occurred asan adult parasite. Chemical control often is recommended with Carbaryl, Malathion or Dimethoate."}]},{"head":"Lepidopterous Leaf F eeders","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Severa! species of Lepidoptera develop on beans. Although larvae commonly are found on beans, populations usually are too low to cause economic damage."}]},{"head":"Bean Leafroller","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Urbanus ( = Eudamus) proteus (L.) (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae) ."}]},{"head":"• •.","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"The bean leafroller is distributed widely on beans from the U nited S tates to Brazil. Greene (37) calculated that yield reduction occurred when more than 725 cm 2 leaf area per plant was destroyed."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Common names frequently used for the bean leafroller in Latín America are gusano fósforo and gusano cabezón ."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"Although the first three larval stages of the leafroller do not cause appreciable damage, the fourth can reduce yield when more than 26larvae  occur per plant. The fifth instar consumes about 162 cm 2 of leaf area, and economic losses occur when an average of four larva e eat 33% of the total leaf area. Assuming 50% mortality per instar, 141 eggs per plant (a population leve! seldom observed) would be required to cause significant damage."},{"index":4,"size":156,"text":"The butterfly lays one to six eggs per lower leaf surface. Y oung larvae then fold and tiea small section ofthe leafmargins together(Fig. 17) within which they live and pupate. However, often they may feed elsewhere. Larvae are easily recognized by their three dorsal longitudinal lines and larger red-brown head capsule {Fig. 18) (92). Greene (38) reported that in the field only4%oftheeggs reached the ftfth instar. At 29.5°C eggs hatched in three days, the larval stage was passed in 15 days and the pupa! stage passed in nine days. He observed large numbers of adults on lAntano camara flowers and in flowering bean fields. Van Dam and Wilde (119) studied its life cycle in Colombia and found that the egg stage !asted an average of four days while the larval and pupa! stages required 23 and 11 days, respectively, to develop. Larvae have been found frequently on beggar weed (Desmodium tortuosum) and other Desmodium species (92)."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"Chemical control seldom isjustified and natural control by parasites and predators is commonly observed. In Colombia, for example, larval parasitism ranged from 21 to 40% during a one-year study (119).  "}]},{"head":".. lnsects and Other Bean Pests","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Saltmarsh Caterpillar","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Estigmene acrea ( Drury) (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae)."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"The saltmarsh caterpillar, although commonly found on beans, usually is recognized as a pest of cotton, lettuce and sugarbeets ( 11 0). Y oung and Sifuentes ( 131) report preferred natural hosts include Amaranthus pa/meri and Physalis angu/ata. The pest also occurs on maize, horticultural crops, soybean, sesame, tobacco, cotton and several weed hosts."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"The common name frequently used for the saltmarsh caterpillar in Latin America is gusano peludo."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"The adult moth places egg masses of up to 1000 eggs on A. palmeri, and Larvae develop in 17-19 days. The young larvae aggregate (Fig. 19) and can sl<eletonize isolated bean plants. Older larvae are solitary, their bodies are covered with setae (Fig. 20), and they pupa te on the soil in plant debris. The adult is a white moth with black dots on its wings ( 131)."},{"index":5,"size":165,"text":"Individual plants on which the gregarious stages are passed may be damaged severely, although beans seldom suffer economic damage. In the Cauca Valley in Colombia, 12 Dipterous species ca u sed an average 31% parasitism on larvae (96). Y oung and Sifuentes ( 131) reported that coccinellids and malachiids are egg predators, and reduviids are larval predators. Severa} hymenopterous parasites of larvae also have been reported. Chemical control is seldom justified.  H. indicara is a pest of beans, soybeans and other legumes in South America (32,100). The common name frequently used for Hedylepta indicata in Latin Ameríca ís Hedylepta. Adult moths oviposit on the lower surface of leaves, where a female lays an average of 330 eggs. The eggs hatch in four days, the green larvae (Figs. 21 and 22) develop in 11 days, pupate(Fig. 23), and fivedays la ter the adult emerges (52). Larvae feed on the parenchyma of leaves which they weave together (Fig. 24). Therefore, they are protected from exposure to insecticides."}]},{"head":"Hedylepta","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The level of biological control is high. Garcia (32) f ound more than 85% larval paras1tlsm by Toxophroides apicalis (Hymenoptera: lchneumonidae). A carabid predator of H. indicata larvae passes its entire life cycle between the leaves woven together by Hedy/epta (57). Chemical control is most effective with Methamidophos and Dicrotophos (30), but their use is seldom justified.  "}]},{"head":".. lnsects and Other Bean Pests","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mexican Bean Beetle","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Epilachna varivesris Mulsant (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"The Mexican bean beetle is mainly a soybean pest ( 118), but beans have been damaged in the United States, Mexico, Guatemala andEl Salvador (in the latter during the wet season). It differs in behavior from most coccinellids in that larvae and adults feed on foliage, stems and young pods, whereas the family is more commonly predaceous. Synonyms include Fpilachna corrupta M ulsant and E. maculiventris Bland."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"The common name frequently used for the Mexican bean beetle in Latín America is conchuela."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"In El Salvador, Phaseolus vu/garis, P. lunatus, P. atropurpureus, Vigna sinensis and Glycine max are hosts (65) while beggarweed also is reported to be a host. Turner ( 116) reared the beetle on P. vulgaris, P. coccineus, P. !unatus, V. sinensis and Do/ichos lablab; high larval mortality occurred on the latter. He classified P. aureus and Viciafabae as immune. P. aureus, P. mungo and P. radiatus are less preferred hosts than P. vulgaris (4,127). This preference is attributed mainly to the sucrose concentration which serves as an arrestant combined with differences in olfactory action of the foliage (4). LaPidus et al. (54) confirmed these results in studies of seeds from resistant and susceptible plants."},{"index":5,"size":223,"text":"Young larvae feed on the lower leaf surface and usually lea ve the upper epidermis undamaged, while older larvae (Fig. 25) and adults (Fig. 26) often feed over the en tire leaf. Third and fourth instar larvae consume more than adults. Stems and pods often are eaten if high population densities exist. The larvae do not chew the leaf tissue, but scrap the tissue, compress it and then swallow only thejuices. De la Pazet al. (21) concluded that most  The adult female beetle begins oviposition seven to 15 days after copulation and lays yellow to orange-colored eggs on the lower leaf surface in groups of four to 76 (average 52) ( 100). Manda and Roman (66) obtained an average of 10 egg batches with 36-54 eggs per batch (average 43). Eggs hatch in six days, the four larval instars are passed in 15-16 days, the prepupal stage in two days and the pupa! stage in six or seven days. The yellow larvae are covered with branched spines. Pupation occurs with larvae attached to the lower leaf surface. Adults are copper colo red with 16 black spots and live four to six weeks. In El Salvador, the beetle passes four generations on beans from May to November. In the United S tates, adults hibernate in woodlands and bean debris and are often gregarious (25)."},{"index":6,"size":54,"text":"Predators of eggs and the first larval instar include Coleomegilla maculara De Geer and Hippodamia convergens Guenée. Adults are attacked by the mite, Coccipolipus macfarlaneí Husband (66), and C. epilachnae Smiley also is observed in El Salvador ( 1 08). Pediobius faveolatus (Crawford) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) reduced Mexican bean beetle populations on soybeans ( 109)."},{"index":7,"size":55,"text":"Removal of plant debris and deep plowing are recommended to control the insect. Reduced plant density decreases beetle injury, as egg mass numbers per plant decreased from 1.07 to 0.15 when plant spacing was increased from 5 to 12 cm. Yield reduction was decreased from 23 to 11%, and pod damage also declined ( 117)."},{"index":8,"size":154,"text":"Plant resistance to the Mexican bean beetle has been studied in sorne countries. In free-choice cage studies on 60 bean and lima bean cultivars, Idaho Refugee and Wade were resistant, losing only 25% foliage, while Bountiful had 62% of the foliage destroyed. The number of eggs and egg masses and adult weights were reduced more than 50% when beetles were reared on resistant versus susceptible lines {10). Wolfenbarger and Sleesman {127) did not observe resistance in P. vulgaris material they investigated. They tested Idaho Refugee and Wade and rated them susceptible (8.5 on a 1-9 scale, with 9 most susceptible). Based on leaf feeding damage, the highest level of resistance was found in Phaseolus aureus. Nayar and Fraenkel (82) hypothesized that phaseolunatin (a cyanogenic glycoside) attracts beetles when present in low concentrations but may be responsible for resistance in germplasm containing high concentrations of this compound. The entries Puebla 84 (P. coccineus), : ."}]},{"head":".. lnsects and Other Bean Pests","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Guanajuato 18 and Zacatecas 48 (P. vulgaris) were resistant (31). Fewer eggs were laid on Gto. 18 and Oax. 61-A. They concluded that antibiosis and non-preference were responsib1e. More recent1y, Raina et al. (93) found that the cultivars Regal (snapbean), Baby Fordhook (lima) and Baby White (lima) had less than 40% 1eaf damage and suffered significant1y less from attacks than other cu1tivars tested. Raina et al. (93), Thomas (113), W olfenbarger and Sleesman (127), and Campbell and Brett (10) concluded that lima beans as a group were less preferred than snapbeans."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"Cadena and Sifuentes (9) obtained effective chemical control with Carbaryl. Malathion and Methyl Parathion were much less effective. They suggested the first application be made when 25 adults/ ha were present, the second application be combined with Apion spp. control and a third application be made only if needed. Recommendations in the U nited S tates are that fanners spray when one beetle or egg mass is f ound per 6 foot ( 1.8 m) row. The beetles are counted on the ground after shaking the plant. Hagen (44) obtained an effective 10-week control with a planting application of insecticides such as Disulfoton, Carbofuran, Phorate, Aldicarb and Fensulfothion."}]},{"head":"Piercing Insects Leafboppers","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Empoasca kraemer i Ross and Moore (Homoptera: Cicadellidae)."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"E. kraemeri is the most important insect pest of beans. lt occurs from Florida and Mexico south to Ecuador and Peru. E. fabae and E. solanae occur in the United States and Canada but not in South America (97). Other ~poasca species in South America include E. prona, E a ratos and E. phaseoli (6)."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"Common names frequently used for leafhoppers in Latín America include Empoasca, chicharritas, lorito verde, cigarra, saltahojas and cigarrinha verde.  Eggs of E kraemeri batch in eight or nine days, and the five nymphal instars are passed in eight to 11 days ( 123). Females and males (Fig. 27) live for 65 and 58 days, respectively. Oviposition ranged from 13~168 eggs (average of 107) per female. The eggs are commonly laid singly on leaf blades, petioles, leaf tissue or stems of bean plants; 5~2% of the eggs laid per plant may be located in the petioles (34). Leafboppers breed on many cultivated and non-cultivated plants. Empoasca spp. nymphs (Fig. 28) have been collected from more than 80 plant species in Colombia."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"Plant damage may be caused by pbysical feeding injury in phloem tissue, although a toxin also may be involved. Plant damage appears as leaf curling and chlorosis, stunted growth (Fig. 29), greatly reduced yield (Fig."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"Typicalleaf curling and yellowing damage caused by leafhópper feeding. \"\"'-.."},{"index":6,"size":84,"text":"---------  Leafhopper adult and nympha1 populations were decreased 43 and 70%, respectively, in bean plots with nearly 100% weed cover (16). This reduction in Empoasca kraemeri populations was not ascribed to increased parasite or predator populations. Bean yields were comparable in weedfree and weedy plots, the decrease in leafhopper populations being counterbalanced by the increased weed competition ( 17). Leafhopper populations also were significantly reduced in bean plots surrounded by borders ( 1 m wide) of grassy weeds such as Eleusine indica and Leptochloafiliformis."},{"index":7,"size":56,"text":"Mulching and shading also reduced initial Empoasca kraemeri populations. Only 18 insects were collected from mulched plots at 20 days after planting, whereas non-mulched plots yielded 103 adults. By 45 days after planting, the beans in the mulched plots were more vigorous than those in the non-mulched plots wherein the leafhopper popu1ations were then highest (16)."},{"index":8,"size":63,"text":"Varietal resistance to leafhoppers in beans was reported in the United States for Wells Red Kidney (5) and other materials (71). ldaho Refugee and U .S. Refugee N o. 5 are resistant to leafhopper damage by E.fabae and E. kraemeri ( 15,33). Tissot (114) observed equa1 leafhopper population levels on resistant and susceptible cultivars, which is consistent with results obtained at CIA T."},{"index":9,"size":159,"text":"In the United States, Wolfenbarger and Sleesman (125, 126) eva1uated 1619 lines for resistance toE. fabae and found that P. l. 151014 had 0.3 nymphs per leaf (1owest count), while Dutch Brown had 19.7 nymphs per leaf (highest count). They found no correlation between number of epidermal hairs and nympha1 popu1ation per cultivar but reported a 90-96% correlation between nympha1 counts and damage estima tes ( 125). A relationship did exist between 1eafhopper resistance and plant characteristics such as tallness, resistance to BCMV, pink or mottledcolored seed and intermedia te maturity ( 125). The lowest nymphal counts were obtained on Phaseolus lunatus, Phaseolus aureus and V. mungo. There are barriers to crossing these species with P. vulgaris. However, results from interspecific crosses between P. vulgaris and P. coccineus suggest that resistance may be recessively inherited ( 128). Chalfant ( 12) reported a 50% yield reductbn when protected and unprotected plots were compared, regardless of the degree of varietal susceptibi1ity."},{"index":10,"size":143,"text":"A major screeningprogram furvarietal resistance to Empoasca kraemeri has been inititated at CIAT (Fig. 31) where more than 8000 P. vulgaris accessions have been tested to date. The selection scheme is based on elimination of highly susceptible materials. Ten test cultivars are planted between rows of ICA-Tui (standard to1erant cultivar). Diacol-Calima or lnsects and Other Bean Pests ICA-Bunsi are planted around the plot as a susceptible border. ICA-Tui always is rated as grade 2 in a 0-5 damage scale. 1 n wet season plantings, the most resistant bean materials identified yield equally with or without insecticida! protection, while susceptible cultivars suffer losses of up to 40%. Such resistance levels have given adequate protection against Empoasca in Peru. However, in the dry season at CIAT, even these materials require insecticida) protection. A breeding program is underway to increase resistance levels within commercially acceptable cultivars."},{"index":11,"size":152,"text":"Correlations have not been obtained at CIAT between nymphal counts and damage seo res as reported by W olfenbarger and Sleesman ( 125) and Chalfant ( 12). Populations of the insect are much higher at CIA T than in the United States and susceptible cultivars receive so much damage that leafhoppers avoid them for oviposition ( 15). The resistance mechanism is not clearly understood, but tolerance is probably responsible. ICA-Tui has a low degree of non-preference which is lost during no-<:hoice tests. Antibiosis has not been found to be present (122). Hooked trichomes can capture nymphs and may be another resistance mechanism (86). Nymphal mortality of E. kraemeri was low on hooked trichomes in studies at CIA T and may be due to decreased trichome density on expanded lea ves. By the time leafhopper eggs hatched, the leaves in which they were laid were fully expanded and the trichomes were less dense."},{"index":12,"size":58,"text":"Two egg parasites (Anagrus sp. and Gonatocerus sp.) and a diyinid nymphal parasite have been reported as natural enemies of E. kraemeri, but they do not seem to be very effective. Thus, Gómez and Schoonhoven (34) concluded that in spite of high levels of parasitism (60-80%), Anagrus sp. was unable to keep the pest populations below acceptable levels."},{"index":13,"size":66,"text":"Chemical control of leafhoppers is obtained by a variety of products. Foliar sprays of Carbaryl (1 kg a.i. / ha) and Monocrotophos (0.5 kg a.i./ ha) are effective. Granular soil-applied Carbofuran (placed under but not in contact with the seed) atO. 7-1.0 kg a.i. / ha protected plants for 30-40 days, while 0.6-O. 7 kg a.i. / ha ofCarbofuran seedcoated also gave excellent control ( 14,16)."}]},{"head":"Whiteflies","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Five species of Aleyrodids live on beans in the Americas. They are Bemisia tabaci, B. tuberculata, Tetra/eurodes acaciae. Trialeurodes abutilonae and T. vaporiarorum. These species al so ha ve other leguminous and non-leguminous hosts."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Common names frequently used for whiteflies in Latín America are mosca blanca and mosca branca."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"B. tabaci (Gennadius) is a vector of bean virus diseases such as bean golden mosaic (BG MV) and bean chlorotic mottle. The insect species has a wide range of synonyms. Sorne race identifications are based upon their virus transmission characteristics. Whitefly feeding does not damage bean plant development directly but does so indirectly when a virus is transmitted."},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"Eggs are laid singly or in groups on the lower leaf surface where the egg pedicel is inserted into the epidermis. The egg to adult stage requires about three weeks. Oviposition ranges from 25-32 eggs per female. The three immature stages and pupa! stage occur on the lower leaf surface (Figs. 32  and 33). Identification is made on the immature stage (101)."},{"index":5,"size":80,"text":"1 n Guatemala, large differences exist according to geographical zone and planting date (3) for intensity of attack by whiteflies. Chemical control is  most effective (measured as reduction of percent BGMV infested plants) with Metasystox or Oxydemeton-methyl and Monocrotophos (foliar application 15 and 30 days after planting) , or Thimet or Phorate and Carbofuran granular application during planting (3). In El Salvador, Manda et al. (68) report good control was obtained with the systemic granular insecticides Aldicarb, Carbofuran and Phorate."}]},{"head":"Aphids","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Severa! aphid species atta e k bean plants. Their direct damage is assumed to be oflittle importance, but their ability to transmit bean common mosaic virus makes them important pests economically. Further details are related by Zaumeyer and Thomas ( 133) and elsewhere in this book."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Common names frequently used for aphids in Latín America include afidios, pulgones, afidios and pulgao do feijoeiro ."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Zaumeyer and Thomas reported the following aphids capable of transmitting bean common mosaic virus: Aphis gossypii, A. medicaginis, A. rumicis, A. spiraecola. Brevicoryne brassicae, Hyalopterus atripilicis, Rhopalosiphum pseudobrassicae, Macrosiphum ambrosiae, M. solanifolii, M. pisi and Myzus persicae. Costa and Rossetto ( 18) report aphids occur on bean foliage and roots in Brazil. 1 n CIAT, control ofbean common mosaic is sought by incorporation of genes which are resistant to the virus."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"H igh aphid mortality occurs when insects are captured by hooked hairs on bean lea ves. Capture percentage and number of hooked hairs increased when plants were grown under dry conditions, compared to when they were grown under ample moisture (28). A similar relationship was reported by McKinney (75) for Myzus persicae and thrips."}]},{"head":"Thrips","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Thrips have been found as pests of beans in severa) Latín American countries, but their attacks may not have much economic irnportance. Frankliniella sp., Sericothrips sp. and Caliothrips braziliensis (Morgan) have been reported in Brazil (98) and Colombia (90), where C. braziliensis is the most abundant species. Common names frequently used for thrips in Latín America are trips and bicho candela."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"Larvae and adults feed on the undersurface ofthe cotyledonary lea ves of seedlings. In older plants they also can be found feeding on leaves, flowers and petioles. W hen populations are high, thrips cause reduction in the size and development of young plants(Fig. 34). In general, they seldom become an economic pest. Most attacks are localized towards the borders of the field and usually occur in hot, dry weather."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"Females insert their eggs in the leaves, petioles and stems. In laboratory studies at CIAT, the eggs of C. braziliensis hatched in five to six days. The first larval instar !asted one or two days and the second instar four or five days. Pupation occurs in the soil and debris. The pupal stage too k from two to three days to develop. Longevity and fecundity of the adults of this species have not been studied. Chemical control is seldom justified. Adults and nymphs of Orius tristicolor are common predators of Sericothrips sp. and C. braziliensis."}]},{"head":"Pod-Attacking Insects Bean Pod Weevil","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Apion godmani Wagner (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"A. godmani is a serious bean pest in Central America where Manda et al. (67) report up to 94% bean loss in El Salvador, especially during the rainy season. The bean pod weevil is considered the most serious bean pest in certain regions of El Salvador. The weevil also is of importance in Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua and has been reported on beans in Colombia (1) .."}]},{"head":"Common names frequently used for the bean pod weevil in Latín","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"America are picudo de la vaina and picudo del ejote."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"The weevil is prevalent especially in the highland, central and southem regions of Mexico during the rainy season (74), where up to 90% ofthe crop may be destroyed (26). In Mexico, A. aurichalceum is second in importance toA. godmani. The oviposition behavior of the former species Severa! other less important Apion species also attack beans and include A. auricha/ceum, A. perpilosum, A . ca/caratipes, A. germanum, A. griseum and Chalrodenus aenerus. A. godmani also has been called Trichapion godmani (62,74). Other host plants include Da/ea, Desmodium, Rhynchosia and Tephrosia spp. (73)."},{"index":3,"size":172,"text":"The adu1t weevil is black and about 3 mm long. During the wet season, two generations may be formed, with possibly a third occurring during the dry season. Overwintering si tes could not be located in Mexico (74). U nder laboratory conditions of 20.8°C and an average 75% re1ative humidity, Manda (62) stated that the egg stage of the weevillasts five days. The three larval instars are passed in six days, while the prepupa1 and pupal stage last two and nine days, respectively. The adult insect can remain three or four days in the pupal chamber but usually emerges immediate1y after pupation. Adult longevity may extend from 10 days to nearly ayear (62), and adults may mate severa! times. Manda ( 62) reported a maximum of 392 eggs were laid by each female, with four to six eggs laid per da y. The preoviposition period !asted 10 days with a 12-day incubation period, 22-34 day larval stage, two-day prepupa1 stage, six to 1 0-day pupal stage anda two to threemonth adult stage."},{"index":4,"size":221,"text":"Adults appear when bean plants are still small and occasionally cause light feeding damage to leaves, pods and flowers. Oviposition damage occurs in the newly formed pods. During the daytime the female adult chews a small hole in the mesocarp of 1-4 cm long pods, usually above the developing seed, and deposits an egg. These spots are visible as white hyperplastic deformations (Fig. 35), and la ter the adult exit-holes from the pod wall also can be found (73,74). Young pods which are attacked may abort (26).  Larvae in the second instar stage bore into the mesocarp of the pod wall (Fig. 36) and begin feeding on the developing seed, leaving the hylum intact. One larva per seed is normal. H owever, three to five larvae per seed have been found during heavy infestations, with a maximum of 22larvae present in a pod (62). McKelvey et al. (73) normally found one larva per seed and a maximum of seven per seed and 28 per pod. Larvae live in a feeding chamber and cannot feed on mature seed (73). Manda (62) found two Braconid parasites of Apion larvae, one ofwhich belongs to the genus Triaspis. McKelvey et al. (73) found no influence of planting date on leve! of infestation, although there was a tendency for lower infestations in early and late plantings."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"Guevara (41)  Highly resistant entries had 1-5% seed damage, while the most susceptible entry had 43-94% seed damage."}]},{"head":"• lnsects and Other Bean Pests","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"After four years of testing, McKelvey et al. (74) report the cultivars Puebla 152, Hidalgo 6, Puebla 2, and Hidalgo 24 consistently had lower infestations than others tested. Other resistant cultivars included Puebla 32-A-2 and 20-B-2; Hidalgo 33-A-1 , 28-A-2, 38-A-1 and 14-A-3; and Gto. 3-A-2 and 10-A-5. Guevara (40)  However, in a recent study, Yoshii (132) did not find a significant difference in Apion attack between P. vulgaris and P. coccineus."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"Although future use of resistant cultivars holds great promise, chemical control still remains important. Severa! products have been tested and Monocrotophos, Methomyl, Methyl Parathion and Carbaryl giveeffective control. Granular Carbofuran applied at planting (2.5 kg a. i./ ha) gave the best control (63). Methyl Parathion gave adequate and economic control when applied as a spray six days after flower inititation and again seven days later. A single spray was effective if applied 13 days after flower initiation (69)."}]},{"head":"CornEar Worm","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Damage by the Heliothis complex, H. zea (Boddie) and H. virescens (F.) (Fig. 37), is sporadic but can be severe. Common names frequently used for the corn ear worm in Latín America include Heliothis, helotero, bellotero and yojota . The adult oviposits on young lea ves, and larvae (Fig. 38) feed on seeds by perfor:lting the podwall above the seed. Severa! seeds per pod may be destroyed, and secondary rotting can destroy the remaining seeds. It is not clear which of the two species is most common in beans. H owever, during a severe attack at CIA T only H. virescens was found ."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Chemical control of older larvae is difficult, but high levels ofparasitism usually occur. Posada and Garcia (89) list 26 different parasite or predator species of Heliothis spp. in Colombia. In a CIAT study, 89% of field collected larvae were parasitized by a Tachinid fly. Recent findings also indicate that pyrethrins at low dosages effectively control Heliothis • virescens larvae."}]},{"head":"Other Pod-Boring Insects Epinotia","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Epinotia opposita Heinrich (Lepidoptera: Olethreutidae)."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"E. opposita is an important insect pest in Peru and Chile ( 124). Common names frequently used for Epinotia opposita in Latin America include polilla del fríjol and barrenador de la vaina."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"Its larvae feed on or in the termmal buds, and / or perfora te the stems and pods. Larvae weave their excrement together and push it out ofthe feeding canals. The insect also may cause flower damage and abortion. Bud and stem deformations occur after larval attack (Fig. 39), and pod damagecan result in rotting by secondary organisms (2). In alfalfa, young larvae web leaves together and live therein. Other host plants include soybeans, peanuts, peas, cowpeas, lentils and clover (124). "}]},{"head":"lnsects and Other Bean Pests","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"About four days after copulation, females oviposit an average of 110 eggs in four to eight egg masses during a period of one or two weeks. Eggs are laid on young plant tissue. The egg stage lasts four and seven days during summer and winter, respectively, and during these corresponding seasons the five larval stages are passed in 14 a nd 23 days. Pupation occurs in a cocoon on the lea ves or the ground ( 124). Adults live 15-22 days and are active at night. Wille (124) observed a Tachinid larval parasite (Eucelatoria australis) which pupates in the host pupal skin. A val os (personal communication) tested nearly 200 cultivars for Epinotia opposita resistance and found large differences in percentage of terminal buds and pods attacked. Adequate chemical control was obtained with Aminocarb, Toxaphene + Methyl Parathion or Omethoate ( 115). Early spring plantings reduced percentage of pod damage by Epinotia to 4%, as compared with 72% damage in late spring plantings (C. Quiroz, personal communication)."}]},{"head":"Laspeyresia leguminis","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Laspey resia leguminis Heinrich. (Lepidoptera: Olethreutidae)."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"L. leguminis attacks beans, soybeans, broad beans and lima beans (1, 124). The common name frequently used for l.Aspeyresia leguminis in Latín America is Laspeyresia."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"1 ts damage often is confused with that caused by Epinotia opposita. However, unlike Epinotia opposita, it may web pods together (Avalos, personal communication). Adults oviposit on pods where young larvae bore into them and destroy the seeds. The larva pupates in the pod (124). Control is similar to that of Epinotia opposita."}]},{"head":"Maruca","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Maru ca testulalis (Geyer) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"M. testulalis is reported to occur in Brazil (100), Colombia (90), Cuba, Puerto Rico (58) and Africa (112). Like most of the other podborers, M. testulalis oviposits near or on flower buds, flowers, young lea ves and pods. The common na me frequently used for Maruca testulalis in Latín America is gusano perforador de la vaina."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"Damage to leaves and flowers occurs prior to podboring-type feeding ( 106). The insect may attack severa! species of legumes (58). According to Broadley (8) larvae pass through five instars in eight to 13 days at 25° -29°C. Pupation occurs in the soil. M. testulalis is distinguished from Etiella zinckenella (the lima bean podborer) by larval and adult coloring. Maruca testulalis larvae have four black or dark gray spots on each segment and adults rest with wings outspread. Larvae of M. testula/is expulse frass from the pods, while those of E. zinckenella leave it in the pod (111)."}]},{"head":"Storage Insects Bruchids","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"The principal pests of stored beans are Acanthosce/ides obtectus (S ay) and Zabrotes subfasciatus (Boheman). Synonyms of A . obtectus include Mylabris obtectus and Bruchus obtectus, while synonyms of z. subfasciatus are z. pectoralis, Z. dorsopictus and Spermatophagus subfasciatus. 8oth pests are widely distributed from Chile to the United States. Common names frequently used for bruchids in Latín America include gorgojo, gorgojo pintado, gorgojo común del frijol, caruncho and gorgulho de feijao . At least 28 other insects are reported to occur on stored beans but are of minor importance or migrate from nearby stored produce onto beans."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"The Iife history of the two most important bean storage pests, A. obtectus and Z. subfasciatus, is basically similar and was studied in detail by Howe and Currie (51). The main difference is in oviposition behavior. A . obtectus females scatter eggs among stored seeds or infest beans in the field where they !ay eggs in cracks or cuts of growing pods. The newlyhatched larvae of A . obtectus later penetrate the seed. In contrast, z."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"subfasciatus eggs are firmly attached to the seed and after hatching, the young larvae bore through their eggshell and the seedcoat in one process (51)."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"Larvae of both species molt four times before pupating. During the last larval instar, the feeding and pupation cell becomes externally visible as a circular window in the seed where larvae feed on the lower testa surface. After pupation the adult may remain in the cell for severa! days before pushing out thewindow. It also has the ability to emerge by eatingaway the exit. Adults normally do not eat but may consume water or nectar. Oviposition starts rapidly after ~mergence as adults are short-lived (51)."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"The optimum conditions for rapid development of A. obtectus eggs are 70% RH and 30°C, when the insects spend 22-23 days inside the beans. Mortality during development occurs mainly when larvae penetrate the seed or when the exit hole is not large enough for adult emergence. Adults live 12 days at 30°C and 70% relative humidity. A female may !ay an average of 63 eggs (51)."}]},{"head":"lnsects and Other Bean Pests","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"The optimum development period for z. subfasciatus, including the egg stage, is about 25 days at 70% RH and 32.5°C. In this species, 7% of adults were unable to escape from the pupa! cell (Fig. 40) and died. Zabrotes subfasciatus adults exbibit strong sexual dimorphism. The female usually weighs 1.5 times as much as the male. Adults live eight days at 30°C and 70% RH . A female may !ay and average of 36 eggs (51)."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"Acanthoscelides obtectus (Fig. 41) is distributed throughout higher latitudes and altitudes, while Zabrotes subfasciatus (Fig. 42) is found predominantly in warmer areas ( 103). In studies by Giles in Nicaragua (Giles, personal communication), beans were infested inititally with A . obtectus (99. 7%) and Z. subfasciatus (0.3%) at different elevations above sea level. After 16 weeks the ratio became 0: 100%at 56 m; 5: 95% at450 m; and 27: 73% at 680 m. Average temperatures at these three elevations were 28.2°C , 25.2°C and 24.3°C, respectively. These data suggest that A . obtectus is a stronger competitor at lower temperatures."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"No precise information was found in the litera tu re concerning economic losses caused by insects in stored beans (Fig. 43). McGuire and Crandall (72) estímate that storage losses may reach 35% in Mexico, Central  America and Panama, but they do not specify if losses are caused by insects or other factors. A marketing survey in the Recife area of Brazil revealed that the average storage and handling losses incurred during the marketing process amounted to 13% ( 1 07). A survey of farms in bean-growing areas and 30 warehouses in Colombia revealed that the average storage period is short and that only an estimated 7% loss occurred (103)."},{"index":4,"size":180,"text":"Farmers control weevils by applying ashes from fireplaces to beans stored for future planting. This method appeared to be effective (15) as a physical barrier to weevils. Storing beans in undamaged pods is a safe control measure against Zabrotes subfasciatus attack. Eggs deposited on the podwalls batch and larvae penetrate the podwalls but die inside the pods without penetrating the seed. However, this method cannot be used to control Acanthoscelides obtectus, since this insect is able to attack beans in the pods. Labeyrie (53) showed that storing beans unshelled or delaying the harvest greatly enhanced Acanthoscelides obtectus attack. Another nonchemical method for controlling weevils is the use of black pepper. One gram of ground pepper per 385 g of beans reduced infestations of A. obtectus by 78% after four months storage when compared to untreated lots (55). lnert dusts, such as crystalline silica, bentonite and magnesium carbonate effectively kili A. obtectus. Apparently the fraction of fine particles determines the efficiency of control. Adult death rates of 50% in 12 hours by bentonite has been ascribed to water loss ( 13)."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"Vegetable oils, applied at the rate of 1 mi oil/ kg seed, reduced progeny production on bean seed treated with cotton seed oil to five Bruchids, compared to 265 on non-treated samples. The treated seed retained its germination ability ( 17). Total control was obtained with 5 mi oil / kg seed."},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"No adults emerged from material infested 75 days after treatment ( 104)."},{"index":7,"size":89,"text":"Chemical control of weevils is readily obtained with a variety of products. Pyrethrins are highly effective (70,102). Pyrethrins with bases of marc gave long-lasting control and provided more acceptable seed appearance than Pyrethrins with tale as carrier ( 15). Synthetic Pyrethrins also gave excellent control. Most warehouses in Colombia used few products to control storage insects. In 33% ofthe warehouses, owners u sed aluminium phosphide, 40% used methyl bromide, 27% used carbon bisulfide and 13% used Pyrethrin. One warehouse owner confessed he u sed Aldrin to control bruchids (103)."},{"index":8,"size":78,"text":"M uch of the Phaseolus vu/garis germplasm collection of CIA T has been tested for resistance to Z. subfasciatus. Severa! entries were rated inititally resistant but were susceptible wben retested. Seed should show resistance during at least two seed generations before it can be considered resistant lnsects and Other Sean Pests and useful for further studies. V arieta! resistance to the bruchids also has been reported by Lefebre (56), Pabón et al. (84) and Ramalho et al. (94)."}]},{"head":"Other Pests","index":34,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mites Spider Mites","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Tetranychus desertorum Banks (Acarina: T etranychidae)."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"Spider mites usually attack beans (Fig. 44) near physiological maturity and rarely affect yield. Common species are T. desertorum and T. telarius. T. desertorum has a wide host range as Nickel (83) observed 13 hosts in Paraguay. Common names frequently used for the red spider mite in Latin America include acaros, arañita roja and ácaro rajado. The biology of T. desertorum was studied by Nickel (83) who concluded that low temperatures limit geographical distribution of the pest. In laboratory studies on beans in Colombia, the incubation period !asted five days, the immature stages six days, and the female oviposited an average of four eggs per da y during 15 days (85). This is a slightly slower development rate and also a lower oviposition rate than cited by Nickel."},{"index":3,"size":122,"text":"The cultivars Oregón 58 R (J.G. RodrÍguez, personal communication) and CRIA -.1-1, are resistant in Peru. U nder CIA T greenhouse conditions, both were more resistant than ICA-Pijao and Diacol-Calima, but in the field Oregón 58 R was as susceptible as Diacol-Calima and ICA-Pijao. CRIA-1-1 exhibited an intermediate leve! of resistance. Biological control by severa! predator mites has been effective in detailed studies. However, chemical control is used mostly. Mites can become resistant to pesticides, thereby requiring the application of different combinations of chemicals. Gonzalez (35) recommends the use of uniform restricted planting dates and chemical control with Omethoate mixed with Oxydemetonmethyl or Tetradifon with Monocrotophos. Wilcox and Howland ( 121) recommend Phorate and Disulfoton as granular soil-applied insecticides for lima beans."}]},{"head":"Tropical Mites","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Polyphagotarsonl'mus latus (Banks) (Acarina: Tarsonemidae)."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"P. latus, sometimes caBed the tropical mite, can attack beans and cause post-flowering damage especiaJly during humid and warm weather. The mite genus is synonymous with Tarsonemus. Neotarsonemus and Hemitarsonemus. It is a sma11 paJe green mite, difficult to see without magnification and little known on beans. Common names frequently used for the tropical spider mite in Latín America include acaro blanco, acaro branco and acaro tropical."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"The mi te is a bean pest in Brazil ( 18) and in the Cauca Valley of Colombia. lt also has been observed in Peru and Central America. Many other hosts beside beans are known and include potato (22), tomato, Centrosema spp., Do/ichos spp. (20), green pepper, dahlia and cotton (45). The mite also attacks severa) common weeds in bean fields. Measurements on individual plants ha ve revealed 56% yield loss in beans grown at CIA T (15)."},{"index":4,"size":143,"text":"The tropical mite has a short life-cycle which is composed of the egg, larva, pseudopupa (developmental stages) and adult stage. The developmental stages last one to three, two, and two days respectively at 27°C (27). Under laboratory conditions of 22° -28°C at CIAT ( 105), the duration of these periods was two, one, and one day, respectively. Males Iived for 12 days, while females lived 15 days and la id an average of 48 eggs. Symptoms of mite damage become evident as leaf edges roll upwards and ha ve a shiny appearance (Fig. 45). Depending on the cultivar, the lower leaf surface may turn purple. Y oung lea ves do not develop norma11y and remain stunted, often tuming yellow to gold (Fig. 46). The pods can be attacked and become covered with a brown wound tissue (Fig. 47  with pod and leaf-feeding damage."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"recommends Carbophenothion, Chlorobenzilate, Chlorfensulphide and Endosulfan for control on cotton. Mite populations apparently are stimulated by Dimethoate (47)."}]},{"head":"Slugs","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Slugs (Fig. 48), like mi tes, do not belong to the class of insects, however, occasionally are serious bean pests in El Salvador and Honduras. The reported species belong to the family Limacidae, and include Vaginulus •."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"p/ebeius Fisher, Limax maximus L. and Deroceras agreste L. ( 49,64). Common names frequently used for slugs in Latin America are babosas and lesmas."},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":"Although hermaphroditic, after copulation females la y up to 800 eggs in egg masses under plant debris or in soil cracks. At 27°C they hatch in 24 days and reach sexual maturity three or four months later. Slugs are nocturnal but may be active during wet, cloudy days. Y oung slug damage is apparent when whole lea ves, with the exception ofthe veins, are consumed (Fig. 49). Older slugs consume entire leaves. Entire seedlings also may be consumed, and pod damage may occur. Most damage occurs along borders of fields and progresses inwards, especially if vegetation and debris provide ample protection for the slugs during the day."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"Control is best achieved by cleaning fields and borders of weeds and plant debris. Curative control is obtained with baits, such as Methaldehyde or Carbaryl applied in bands along borders or within affected areas in the late aftemoon. Sorne formulations are (per ha): Methaldehyde 99%(65 g) mixed with wheatbran (25 kg) and molasses (20 l).Carbaryl80%(0.5 kg) or Thrichlorfon (0.5 kg) may be used to replace Methaldehyde (64)."}]},{"head":"Future of Insect Control in Latin America","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Cultivars are available which possess genetic resistance to insect pests such as Empoasca kraemeri, Apion godmani, Epilachna varivestis, and Epinotia opposita. The main objective in bean entomology research should be to incorporate resistance to key insect pests into commercially acceptable cultivars which already posses resistance to plant diseases such as bean common mosaic virus and rust."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"Development of varietal resistance will take time, during which most national programs are improving current chemical control recommendations. Recent studies with systemic granular insecticides such as Carbofuran or Phorate have reduced bean golden mosaic virus incidence greatly and may preServe natural biological control. Several bean programs still recommend application of chlorinated hydrocarbons to control insect pests."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"Future emphasis must be placed on development of a pest management system within which biological, cultural and othercontrol strategiesarean integral part. However, the short growing season of beans and fallow periods may reduce the effectiveness of biological control in these systems. The increasing use of resistant cultivars should reduce the óeed for pesticides and assure the survival of agents contributing to biological control. lt may be desirable to locate and release more efficient natural enemies. However, national programs may be restricted by lack of funds and trained personnel. Biological control by other agents, such as parasitic fungi or bacteria, also must be investigated further."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"Cultural practices should play an important role in a pest management system. S hifting of planting dates may be a powerful tool in controlling • insects. However, it has limited application where rainfall distribution primarily govems planting dates. Empoasca kraemeri control is favored by planting at the beginning of the rainy season when leafhopper populations are low. Hylemya spp. control is favored by a late planting date, and a preplant plowing may also be useful. However, the biology and ecology of most insect pests has not been studied sufficiently to allow valid recommendations."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"•."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"As discussed before, the distribution of principal bean insects varies greatly within Latin America. Proper quarantine measures also should continue to be enforced to limit pest distribution."},{"index":7,"size":199,"text":"The most important aspect of crop pest management will be elimination of unnecessary pesticidal applications in a practical and economical manner. Accurate knowledge must be obtained between the relationship of insect pest populations and yield reductions. Most entomologists involved with bean research expect that a certain amount of feeding damage can be sustained by the plant before economically significant yield reduction occurs. Leafhopper research indica tes that the first insect present on a plant causes more damage than those which follow (16). This indicates that the decision to spray is not only based upon expected yield loss, but also upon the cost of insecticidal spray and the consequences of this spray tola ter pest development, such as lepidopterous insects and their biological enemies. The curve of population level versus Empoasca kraemeri damage is different from that of foliage feeders where part of the foliage can be removed without adversely affecting yield. Associated cropping is a system in which an estimated 80% of the beans in Latin A me rica are grown. This system demands more attention. It is possible that abandoning this system may reduce the stability of the ecosystem and increase specific insect pest populations and their importance."},{"index":8,"size":73,"text":"Finally, excellent work has been accomplished by Latin American entomologists. H owever, lack of funds often prohibits publication of this work, so others cannot profit from their knowledge and experience. The vacuum thus created has hindered more rapid progress in bean entomological research to reduce bean yield losses due to insects in Latin America. . Relativc omportancc mcasured on a ().4 sea le: O = insccts abscnt: 4 = insects very numcrous ."},{"index":9,"size":1,"text":"'- "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 - Fig.1-Geographical distribution of principal bean pests in Latín America. "},{"text":"Fig. 2 - Fig. 2-Average yield of Diacoi-Calima of best insecticida) treatment compared with nonprotected plots in wet and dry season (Ave. 3 trials in each season). "},{"text":" et al. (87) in the Cauca Valley in Colombia estimated "},{"text":"Fig. 3 - Fig. 3-Yields of dry beans at increasing populations of E. kraemeri nymphs. "},{"text":"Fig. 4 -Fig. 5 - Fig. 4-(above) Larvae of seed corn maggot, Hylem ya cilicrura feeding on a bean seedling. "},{"text":"Fig. 6 - Fig. 6-Bean plant severed by a cutworm larva. "},{"text":"Fig. 7 - Fig. 7-Cutwo nn damage on an older bean plant. "},{"text":"Fig. 11 - Fig. 11-(right) Damage caused by lesser corn stalk borer. "},{"text":"Fig. 12 - Fig. 12-(below) Color variation in adults of Chrysomelids. "},{"text":"Fig. 13 - Fig. 13-(lower right) Adult Diabrotica balteata . "},{"text":"Fig. 14 - Fig. 14-Severe damage caused by adult Chrysomelids. "},{"text":"F ig. 16-Adult Reduviid preying on an adult Chrysomelid. "},{"text":"Fig. 17 Fig. 17-Bean leaf folded by young larva of the bean leafroller. "},{"text":" Fig. 17-Bean leaf folded by young larva of the bean leafroller. "},{"text":"Fig. 18 - Fig. 18-Mature larva of bean leafroller, Eudamus proteus. "},{"text":"Fig. 20 - Fig. 20-(above) Mature larva of Estigmene acrea. "},{"text":"Fig. 19 • Fig. 19• (left) Y oung larvae of tbe saltmarsh caterpillar aggregated on a bean leaf. Older larvae are solitary. "},{"text":"Chapter 20 Fig. 22 - Fig. 22-(above) Mature larva of Hedylepta indica/a. "},{"text":"Fig. 23 - Fig. 23-Pupa of Hedy./epta indica/a among leaves woven together by tbe larva. "},{"text":"Fig. 24 - Fig. 24-Typical damage caused by Hedy lepta indica/a. "},{"text":"Fig. 26 - Fig. 26-Adull Mexican bean beetle on lower surface of a bean leaf. "},{"text":" Chapter 20 damage occurred when young plants were infested. Infestation of 41-day old plants with 25 larvae each, reduced yield 93% more than delaying infestation to 71 days after planting. "},{"text":" E. kraemeri does not transmit virus diseases, the only Empoasca species known to have this attribute being E.papayae, which transmits bunchy top virus of papaya. The only leafhopper known to transmita bean virus (bean curly top) is the beet leafhopper, Circulifer tenel/us.The brown leafhopper, Scaphytopius fuliginous Osborn, transmits a mycop1asma-like organism to beans and soybeans in Colombia (Refer toChapter 11). "},{"text":"Fig. 27 - Fig. 27-(left) Adults of Empoasca kraemeri. "},{"text":" lnsects and Other Bean Pests . (in S)= 20025-1958 x no. nymphs/ leaf _ (r 1 = 0.81) "},{"text":"Fig. 31 - Fig. 31-Susceptible (left) and resistan! (right) entries after exp os ure t o • Em po as ca kraemeri. "},{"text":"Fig. 32 - Fig. 32-(left) Eggs of whitenies. "},{"text":"Fig. 33 - Fig. 33-(below) Pupa of Tn aleurodes species. "},{"text":"Fig. 34 - Fig. 34-Damage caused by thrips on young bean plant. "},{"text":" Bean Pests is different since the female lays about 35 eggs in the distal portian of a pod, allowing the other seeds of the pod to escape attack(74). "},{"text":"Fig. 35 - Fig. 35-Hyperplastic deformations caused by oviposuing females of Ap ion . "},{"text":"Chapter 20 Fig. 36 - Fig. 36-Damage caused by larva of Apion in bean pod . "},{"text":"Fig. 37 - Fig. 37-Severe damage caused by Heliothis species. "},{"text":"Fig. 38 - 392 Fig. 39 - Fig. 38-Larva of Heliothis species feedi ng on bean pod. "},{"text":"Fig. 40 - Fig. 40-Pupal cells of Zabro1es subfasciatus; note the eggs firmly attached to the seed. "},{"text":"Fig. 43 - Fig. 43-Beans destroyed by a serinus attack of Zabrotes subfasciatus. "},{"text":"Fig. 44 - Fig. 44-Leaf damage and webs produced by spider mi tes. "},{"text":" ) which may resemble sunscald damage. Sorne cultivars show a downward curling of teaf edges and a darkening of the leafblade. Symptoms are commonly confused with those induced by virus or mineral deficiencies.Endosulfan, Monocrotophos, Carbaryl, Dicofol, Triazophos and Omethoate provide good chemical control at CIA T ( 1 05). Costa(19)  "},{"text":"Fig. 47 - Fig. 47-Discoloration ofbean pods dueto tropical Fig. 48-Adult slug on bean plant mite.with pod and leaf-feeding damage. "},{"text":"Fig. 49 - Fig.49-Leaf damage due to slug feeding. "},{"text":" The seed corn maggot is a bean pest in Chile, Mexico and areas of the U nited S tates and Ca nada. The genus has been named Delia, Phorbia and Hylemya. Other species reported on beans include H. p/atura and H.  "},{"text":" tested six cultivars for resistance and found that 4% of Pinto 168 bean seed was infested, while 67% ofNegro Mecentral bean seed was infested. Puebla 152 (17% infestation) and Mexico 228-7 (12% infestation) were intermediate in resistance. Pinto 168 yielded equally well with or without chemical protection, Puebla 152 and Mexico 228-7 required two sprays, and the susceptible test cultivar Negro Mecentral required three or four applications to control the weevil. Ramírez et al. (95) tested 14cultivars and found Negro 151 was the most resistant with 84 Apion godmani larvae per 60 pods. Resistant Bayo 164 and Pinto 168 had 90 and 108larvae per 60 pods, respectively. Canocel was the most susceptible cultivar with 806 larvae per 60 pods and the highest adult count per pod. Ranked in descending order, Negro 151 , Chapingo 55-111-7, Pinto 168 and Amarillo 154 had fewer adults. Mancía (61) tested 2004 P. vulgaris entries for resistance to Apion spp. and obtained nine highly resistant cultivars and two less resistant but did not identify them.  "},{"text":" evaluated Apion spp. resistance in Mexico and resistant sources (based upon percent seed infested in 100 pods) included Pinto 162 and 168; Amarillo 153, 154 and 155; EAP 88B and Negro 151. Later, Hidalgo ISA and 24; Puebla 2 and 57-B-3; Tlax. 2-1-C; Amarillo 156 and 164; and Negro 157 were added (42). Resistance to Apion spp. was incorporated in crosses involving Hidalgo 6 and Puebla 32. Although no details are given on the resistance mechanism or mode of inheritance, highly resistant lines were obtained in crosses between Puebla 2 x Hidalgo 12-A-t, Hidalgo 12-A-t x Puebla 32 and Zacatecas 4A-2 x Hidalgo 6-t. Medina and Guerra (77) tested 14 cultivars and found Negro 66, Jamapa, Canario 101 and 107 were resistant to Apion spp., Empoasca spp. and the Mexican bean beetle. Ojo de Cabra and Negro Criollo were resistant to Apion spp. and Empoasca spp. Bayomex, Delicia 71 and Querétaro 183-t were resistant only to Apion spp. M ancla ( 6 t) states that immunity to Apion spp. exists in Phaseolus coccineus ( = P. multiflorus).  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Major insecl pests of beans in Latin America. S EEDUNG-A TI ACKING INSECTS  S EEDUNG-A TI ACKING INSECTS Seed Corn Maggot Hylemya spp. Seed Corn MaggotHylemya spp. Cutworm Spodoprera frugiperda CutwormSpodoprera frugiperda Whitegrub  Whitegrub Cricket  Cricket Lesscr Corn Stalk Borer Elasmopalpus lignosellus Lesscr Corn Stalk BorerElasmopalpus lignosellus LEAF•FEEDING INSECTS  LEAF•FEEDING INSECTS Chrysomelids Diabrotica balteata ChrysomelidsDiabrotica balteata  Cerotoma spp. Cerotoma spp. Lepidoptcra-Saltmarsh Caterpillar Estigmene acrea Lepidoptcra-Saltmarsh CaterpillarEstigmene acrea -Bean Lcafrollcr Urbanus proteus -Bean LcafrollcrUrbanus proteus  Hedylepta indicara Hedylepta indicara Mexican Bean Beetle Epilachna varivestis Mexican Bean BeetleEpilachna varivestis SUCKING JNSECTS  SUCKING JNSECTS Lcafhopper Empoasca kraemeri LcafhopperEmpoasca kraemeri White Fly Bemisia tabaci White FlyBemisia tabaci Aphids Aphis spp. AphidsAphis spp. Thrips Caliothrips braziliensis ThripsCaliothrips braziliensis POD-ATTACKING INSECTS  POD-ATTACKING INSECTS Bean Pod Weevil Apion godmani Bean Pod WeevilApion godmani Pod Borers Epinotia opposita Pod BorersEpinotia opposita  Laspeyresia leguminis Laspeyresia leguminis  Maruca testulalis Maruca testulalis  Heliothis spp. Heliothis spp. STORAGE JNSECTS  STORAGE JNSECTS Bruchids Zabrotes subfasciatus BruchidsZabrotes subfasciatus  Acanrhoscelides obtecrus Acanrhoscelides obtecrus OTHER PESTS  OTHER PESTS Miles -Spider Mites Tetranychus spp. Miles -Spider MitesTetranychus spp. -Tropical Miles Polyphagotarsonemus latus -Tropical MilesPolyphagotarsonemus latus Slugs Vaginulus plebeiu.s SlugsVaginulus plebeiu.s 402  402  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Most importan! insect pests in 12 Latín American countries (43)•. Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala. Haití, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Pcru and Dominican Rcpublic.   Number of countries Number of countries  Principal in which insect Principalin which insect Pest damage group species is importan! Pest damage groupspeciesis importan! Piercing 1 nsects Empoasca spp. 12 Piercing 1 nsectsEmpoasca spp.12 Leaf-feeding 1 nsects Diabrotica spp. 10 Leaf-feeding 1 nsectsDiabrotica spp.10 (not Lepidoptera) Cutworms, Crickets Epilachna spp. - 10 8 (not Lepidoptera) Cutworms, CricketsEpilachna spp. -10 8 Pod-attacking l nsects Apion godmani 5 Pod-attacking l nsectsApion godmani5 Stored Grain lnsects - 5 Stored Grain lnsects-5 '-   '- /'  \"'\\ /'\"'\\  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Relative importance• of bean insects in Centra l Amerita(6).    Bean pod  Mexican bean Bean podMexican bean Country Leafhoppers Chrysomelids weevil W hitefly beetle - CountryLeafhoppers ChrysomelidsweevilW hiteflybeetle- Costa Rica 4 4 l 2 1 Costa Rica44l21 Nicaragua 3 3 1 3 3 Nicaragua33133 El Salvador 4 3 3 2 1 El Salvador43321 Honduras 4 3 4 3 1 Honduras43431 Guatemala 4 2 3 2 4 Guatemala42324  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Average percent yield loss (highest yielding insecticida! treatment compared with untreated plots) from 16 insecticida! trials reported in bean literature. • . Area Number of experiments Principal insect involved Average % yield loss • .AreaNumber of experimentsPrincipal insect involvedAverage % yield loss  Mexico, El Salvador 5 Apion godmani 54.2 Mexico, El Salvador5Apion godmani54.2  Mexico 3 Empoasca kraemeri 64.0 Mexico3Empoasca kraemeri64.0  Mexico 2 Epilachna varivestis 55.0 Mexico2Epilachna varivestis55.0  El Salvador, Mexico,    El Salvador, Mexico,  Puerto Rico 6 U nspecified 30.5 Puerto Rico6U nspecified30.5  Total 16 Weighted average 47.25 Total16Weighted average47.25  "}],"sieverID":"39a147ab-558c-463a-a2c9-b6fb90b3657a","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09ff35a05c4863d2a2b68be618d0fbd0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/edc1d905-3d65-4fdf-a65e-86d259de0c70/retrieve"},"pageCount":28,"title":"This Perspectives Paper was prepared by","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"PERSPECTIVES PAPER","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Abstract","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"This paper outlines a new and integrated water storage agenda for resilient development in a world increasingly characterised by water stress and climate uncertainty and variability."},{"index":2,"size":146,"text":"Storing water has long been a cornerstone of socio-economic development, particularly for societies exposed to large climatic variability. Nature has always supplied the bulk of water storage on earth, but built storage has increased significantly, particularly over the twentieth century. Today, numerous countries suffer from water storage gaps and increasingly variable precipitation, threatening sustainable development and even societal stability. There is a growing need to develop more storage types and manage existing storage better. At the same time, the policy, engineering, and scientific communities may not fully recognise the extent of these storage gaps and how best to manage them. There are large and uncertain costs and benefits of different types of storage, and developing storage can be risky and controversial. Although there is consensus that built and natural storage are fundamentally complementary, there is still no pragmatic agenda to guide future integrated water storage development."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"This paper argues that water storage should be recognised as a service rather than only a facility. More than volumes of water stored behind a dam or in a watershed, what ultimately matters is the ability to provide different services at a particular time and place with a given level of assurance. Integrated storage systems should be developed and managed to deliver a targeted service standard. This will reduce the costs of new storage development and make the benefits more sustainable."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"As this paper demonstrates, there are numerous data gaps pertaining to water storage, as well as a need for greater clarity on some key concepts. This paper does not introduce new data or research but rather provides a review of some of the current knowledge and issues around water storage, and outlines a new, integrated and constructive water storage agenda for the decades to come."}]},{"head":"Highlights","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"n There is a need for a new agenda on storage to support resilient development."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"n Growing storage gaps will limit socio-economic development."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"n Storage of all types are available and need to be better integrated, taking a service perspective."}]},{"head":"Foreword","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines resilience as \"the ability of a system and its component parts to anticipate, absorb, accommodate, or recover from the effects of a hazardous event in a timely and efficient manner\" (IPCC, 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Throughout history, water resources management and water storage have provided critical tools for building resilience and laying the foundations for sustainable development. Stored water can be used for many purposes such as a wide range of productive services as well as for managing floods, droughts, storm surges, and other catastrophic events. Integrating various storage uses increases a society's ability to manage water under climate change risks and assists people and social systems to adapt to such events. Investments in water storage have proven vital to building socio-economic growth and social stability."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"Today, two decades after the World Commission on Dams Report, our understanding of storage tools has expanded. While dams remain important, they include new varieties of human-made structures along with new methods of integrating natural storage. Given the global attention to building resilience, the importance of storage to resilience, the expanded understanding of different storage types, and the enhanced understanding of how to integrate water storage uses through integrated water resource management (IWRM), GWP and IWMI decided to collaborate on identifying a new agenda on water storage."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"The GWP strategy (Mobilising for a Water Secure World) and the IWMI strategy (Innovative Water Solutions for Sustainable Development) both recognise the importance of water in adapting and building resilience to climate change. Urgent action on integrated storage will be essential to achieving these aims. This Perspectives Paper examines options and challenges for the water resources and climate change communities to re-look at the opportunities water storage offers."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Water storage is essential to societies, economies, and ecosystems. Throughout the world, precipitation is naturally variable; periods with too much water are followed by periods with too little. The inability to manage short-term, seasonal, and interannual variability is a major impediment to livelihoods and a key constraint to socio-economic development in many places. Water storage provides a buffer for managing uncertainty and variability and adds adaptive capacity, thereby enabling modern cities to access water on demand, farmers to grow crops in dry seasons, animals to survive between rains, rivers to flow all year round, hydroelectricity to be generated, and many other important benefits and services."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Water is stored in natural and built systems above and below the ground. Most water on earth (97 percent) is stored in the oceans, but vast amounts of water are also stored in natural systems: glaciers, aquifers, wetlands, lakes, rivers, and in soils (Fig. 1)."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Water stored in human-built systems, such as dams, retention ponds, and tanks, remains, by comparison, relatively small but is nevertheless vital for many people's livelihoods and economic growth. Natural and built systems interact in both planned and unplanned ways."},{"index":4,"size":133,"text":"Water storage is under growing pressure in many places around the world. Human demand for water continues to grow in many places as populations increase, diets change, and economies grow. Unless water resources and demand are evenly distributed across the year, this often translates into increased need for storage. This need is also made more urgent by climate change which is increasing the variability of rainfall, evaporation, and groundwater recharge, and modifying river flows in many places around the world. At the same time, both natural and human water stores are declining as glaciers melt, wetlands and other ecosystems degrade, and reservoirs fill with sediment. As this paper explores, while data are poor, there is likely a growing storage gap that countries will need to fill for both development and climate adaptation reasons."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"Water storage is an important tool for resilience."},{"index":6,"size":143,"text":"The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines resilience as \"the ability of a system and its component parts to anticipate, absorb, accommodate, or recover from the effects of a hazardous event in a timely and efficient manner\" (IPCC, 2012). Thus, water storage helps water managers deal with change, maintain services, or quickly recover after shocks (e.g. floods). This resilience is especially critical in the context of increased future variability and uncertainty in water availability. Combined with changing societal priorities and patterns of water demand, this adds up to considerable increased uncertainty and extensive debate about the best ways to manage future water resources. This paper argues that using a range of different water storage options in an integrated system enhances resilience. This type of system only fails when there are concurrent shortfalls in more than one storage type (McCartney et al., 2013a)."},{"index":7,"size":22,"text":"Planning for and managing storage as an integrated 'system' rather than as disparate single facilities is a key step towards building resilience."},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"We need to shift our thinking around water storage."},{"index":9,"size":96,"text":"There have been numerous calls for better integration of natural and built infrastructure, (for example, Vörösmarty et al, 2018) conjunctive management of surface and groundwater, and consideration of a broader range of water storage options. However, there is far less thinking about what an integrated water storage approach for delivering services would look like in practice. Each type of storage has its own characteristics in terms of technical feasibility, socio-economic sustainability, impact on health of the environment, and institutional and stakeholder requirements. Each needs to be considered carefully within its biophysical, cultural, human, and political context. "}]},{"head":"Roles and types of water storage","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Water storage shifts resource availability across time."},{"index":2,"size":195,"text":"Storing water to balance inter-temporal problems is fundamental to meeting the variable and uncertain demands and needs of a society. Storage is essential to cope with temporal variability of water resources (Gaupp et al., 2015) and periodic shocks (e.g. floods and droughts). Any service that relies on a certain quantity and quality of water that is not always available in the right place at the right time must make use of storage. For example, storage makes it possible to provide many services (to different assurance levels), from the delivery of 24/7 drinking water to the application of irrigation water during critical growing stages of various crops, and meeting a variety of also time-dependent societal needs (e.g. navigation, recreation). Natural storage also regulates critical environmental processes and services (e.g. fish migration, sediment, water quality). Storage can serve as a rechargeable battery for an energy system (i.e. pump storage), allowing operators to more effectively manage different sources of electricity generation against different energy demands in time. Storage can also act as insurance against a future time of scarcity or as a buffer for times of excess. In summary, storage is an essential contributor to water security. 1"},{"index":3,"size":138,"text":"There are many types of storage with different characteristics. Societies relied on different forms of natural storage long before they knew how to construct alternatives. Human settlements were typically located near rivers, lakes, wetlands, and reliable natural springs fed by aquifers to provide people with a year-round water supply. As populations grew, the need to modify the landscape to create additional storage also grew. Human-made water storage varies in size from the smallest household water tanks to huge artificial lakes (reservoirs) created behind dams. Each form of storage has different characteristics in terms of volume, feasibility, adaptability, controllability, reliability, vulnerability, sphere of control, cost, and sustainability (Fig. 2 and Table 1). Moreover, there is a continuum between fully green (i.e. natural) and grey (i.e. built) storage as well as important interdependencies (Muller et al., 2015;Palmer et al., 2015). "}]},{"head":"Definition","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"The quantity of water stored Practicality of implementing the proposed storage"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"The ability to adjust or modify storage to new conditions, uses, or purposes"},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"The degree to which the volume of water stored may be operated for a specific intended purpose"},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"The frequency of failure of the storage to deliver water to satisfy all demands (including the environment)"},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"The extent of failure of the storage to deliver water to satisfy all demands (usually determined in terms of magnitude of the failure and the time over which the failure lasts)"},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"The spatial and temporal extent of impacts from the services provided from storage that can be directly controlled through storage Defined in full economic terms to include not only capital and operation and maintenance costs, but also opportunity costs and economic, social, and environmental externalities"},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"The ability to maintain an ecological balance and ensure ecosystem processes and functions in the future Source: McCartney and Smakhtin (2010)."},{"index":8,"size":222,"text":"The storage opportunities provided by aquifers have long been recognised. (see e.g. gripp.iwmi.org). Aquifer storage and recovery, which is the intentional recharging of an aquifer with an intent to use the water later, has been done for centuries (Dillon et al., 2018). This may also have positive impacts on water quality. Stefan and Ansems (2018) developed a global inventory of managed aquifer recharge experiences consisting of about 1,200 case studies across 62 countries. Sprenger et al. (2017) demonstrated that, for more than a century, managed aquifer recharge has been used to develop water supplies across Europe. Similarly, much has been written about the conjunctive management of surface and groundwater (e.g. Alam et al., 2020). In the Middle East and North Africa region, aquifer storage in combination with desalination and greater reuse of reclaimed water is seen as a solution to water scarcity challenges (Ghaffour et al., 2012). As described in Amarasinghe et al. (2016), the Ganges Water Machine, a concept proposed 40 years ago in India, aims to reduce flood risks by generating subsurface storage through accelerating the use of groundwater before the onset of the monsoon season, and subsequent recharging of this storage with monsoon flood waters. Thus, greater active recharge at suitable locations will help both the long-term sustainability of the resource and the conjunctive management of the storage available."},{"index":9,"size":130,"text":"Water can be stored in soils in the landscape. Soils play an important role in the rainfall-runoff response of a catchment. Globally, the total volumes of water stored within soils are small compared with other natural terrestrial stores. Estimates are about 16,500 BCM (Shiklomanov, 1993). The capacity of soils to regulate the terrestrial freshwater supply, including water quality, is a fundamental ecosystem service. Land use changes, for example, deforestation, urbanisation, and soil and water conservation measures such as bunds and erosion prevention, can alter the water stored in soils. In particular, because of its significant share of total land use, agricultural management practices (e.g. tillage practices, deep ploughing, irrigation and drainage, buffer strips, and buffering zones) can alter hydrological properties and lead to changes in soil water storage (OECD, 2016)."},{"index":10,"size":104,"text":"peat harvesting, infilling or burning (e.g. peatlands), and from disrupted hydrological regimes (e.g. from upstream dams). These natural features, in some circumstances, can also play an important role in flood protection systems. For example, the Yolo Bypass (operated by the US Army Corps of Engineers and the California Department of Water Resources), a 240 km 2 wetland area along a natural depression near the city of Sacramento, California, is an important feature of California's flood management system (capable of conveying 80 percent of the Sacramento River during high-water events). Use of this wetland also generates environmental, fishery, and agriculture co-benefits (Sommer et al., 2011)."},{"index":11,"size":94,"text":"Groundwater represents a major store of water. The global groundwater resource is estimated at around 23,400,000 billion cubic metres (BCM) (Oki and Kanae, 2006). Earlier studies suggest that about 54 percent is saline and about 46 percent fresh (Gleick, 1996). Thus, excluding the ice caps and glaciers, total fresh groundwater reserves are about 100 times larger than fresh surface water stores. Though much of this water may not be accessible for society's purposes (either economically or technically), it represents an immense water store that is generally less susceptible to anthropogenic pollution than surface water."},{"index":12,"size":264,"text":"Traditionally, the accessibility of groundwater through dug wells, at springheads, and in seepage areas controlled the extent of human settlements beyond major river valleys. Deep drilling and pumping machinery introduced in the 1970s have enabled the expansion of areas using groundwater. Today, over large areas of rural land, it is only the presence of successful boreholes that allows human populations to survive. Globally, more than 2 billion people depend on groundwater for domestic supplies (Ajami, 2020). The extent to which groundwater represents a sustainable store of water differs greatly by place. The large area estimates from NASA's Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) mission suggest that groundwater is being extracted at unsustainable rates in parts of South Asia, the Middle East, and North America (Famiglietti et al., 2011;Rodell et al., 2009;Voss et al., 2013). On the other hand, a large groundwater resource in Africa remains relatively untapped (MacDonald and Calow, 2009;Altchenko and Villholth, 2015).   (Frederikke et al., 2020). Dams have been constructed to increase the reliability of bulk water supply to urban areas, irrigation schemes, and industry, to generate hydropower, manage floodwaters, and to enable navigation of rivers -all often in combination. They have also sometimes provided recreational facilities and opportunities to support fisheries. The world saw a major boom in large multipurpose dam building during the 1960s and 1970s (Fig. 3), but new construction has slowed considerably since that time, likely reflecting a combination of reduced opportunities (the best sites were occupied early) and a changing understanding of their costs and benefits. Societies have become sensitised to the large social and environmental costs"},{"index":13,"size":13,"text":"Apart from groundwater, snowpacks and glaciers are the largest natural water storage element."},{"index":14,"size":96,"text":"Seasonal meltwater from snow and ice contribute significantly to river flows that sustain the livelihoods of billions of people (Mark et al., 2015;Viviroli et al., 2020). More than one-sixth of the Earth's population relies on glaciers and seasonal snowpacks for their water supply (Barnett et al., 2005). For some of the world's largest basins (e.g. Ayeyarwady, Mekong, Ganges, Brahmaputra), the contribution of glacial melt to total river flow is small. However, this may nonetheless act as an important hydrologic buffer, particularly during the dry season and in dry years for many smaller rivers (e.g. headwater tributaries)."},{"index":15,"size":91,"text":"Climate change impacts on snowpacks and glaciers are reducing this natural storage (Immerzeel et al., 2010). It is well documented that glaciers are retreating (Thompson et al., 2003;WCRP, 2018). Consequently, this may severely impact future water availability and its timing for communities worldwide. For example, Stewart et al. (2004) report an observed earlier shift in the timing of springtime snowmelt (10-30 days) for many western North American rivers (responsible for 50-80 percent of the total flow). New profiles of variability will emerge as this natural storage decreases (Mark et al., 2015)."},{"index":16,"size":40,"text":"of dams and their sometimes uncertain financial returns, as well as their vulnerability to sedimentation. Many large dams have also reached or exceeded critical ages (Perera et al., 2021). These concerns over large dams have pushed planners to consider alternatives."},{"index":17,"size":34,"text":"Numerous small storage facilities have also been constructed. The interest in developing small dams (Venot and Krishnan, 2011) reflects in part the challenges of minimising environmental and social impacts and financing large water infrastructure."},{"index":18,"size":164,"text":"While the data on smaller dams are less comprehensive, large numbers of these structures exist (possibly of the order of millions; Table 2), collectively storing large amounts of water. Lehner et al. (2011) estimate that small reservoirs (those with a surface area between 0.01 ha and 0.1 ha) have a cumulative storage capacity of 1,873 BCM. Most often small dams are built to support irrigation, but they may also contribute to local water supply, livestock watering, and other community economic activities such as fisheries. There is also a wide range of different 'small' dams. Across different regions and countries, these may have different names including, inter alia, small reservoirs, farm and fish ponds, silt retention dams, micro-dams, valley dams, tanks and anicuts (South Asia), petits barrages and check dams (West Africa), açudes (Brazil), charco dams (East Africa), microdams (Ethiopia), sand dams (Limpopo), hillside dams (Kenya), berkads (Somalia), and hafirs (Sudan). There are likely to be other terms used as well (especially in local languages)."},{"index":19,"size":351,"text":"Urban environments are increasingly being designed with water storage in mind. Bioretention basins in urban environments are used to reduce and treat inflows into the stormwater system (Trowsdale and Simcock, 2011). For example, Bonneau et al. (2020) show that in Melbourne, Australia, the use of bioretention basins helped to reduce the delivery of polluted water to nearby streams by 55-65 percent while reducing peak flows. Other examples include the 'sponge city' concept in China in which wetlands and green spaces are used to retain and store water (Chan et al., 2018). At the same time, greening urban areas has several other co-benefits, such as, enhanced groundwater recharge, erosion control, All storage types are potentially vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. By modifying both water availability and water demand, climate change will affect the performance, cost, and impacts of different types of water storage. Some storage options will become impracticable while the viability of others may be enhanced over time. For example, climate change may have significant direct impacts on the water stored in soils. In arid regions, the proportional change in soil moisture can be much greater than the proportional change in rainfall (Chiew et al., 1995;de Wit and Stankiewicz, 2006). Groundwater storage in coastal aquifers may be at risk from saltwater intrusion due to sea-level rise. Changes in river flows may also mean that reservoir yields, and hence the reliability of water supplies, decline. Furthermore, both natural and built storage may be at increased risk of both eutrophication and flood damage under climate change. Wetlands also face a range of climate change-related threats arising from changes in hydrological fluxes and temperatures, as well as increased anthropogenic pressures (McCartney et al., 2013b). Finally, climate change is likely to affect the externalities associated with different storage types. For example, malaria transmission in the vicinity of some ponds, tanks, and reservoirs may increase as the result of modified rainfall patterns and higher temperatures (Boelee et al., 2013;Kibret et al., 2012). Table 3 summarises some of the potential consequences of climate change for different water storage types and indicates some possible socioeconomic implications."},{"index":20,"size":328,"text":"In summary, all types of storage should be considered as part of an integrated co-dependent storage system. The traditional way of thinking about storage is to treat natural storage as part of the 'baseline' and to focus on what additional built infrastructure is needed. This approach is inadequate for several reasons. First, natural storage is being depleted. Second, built infrastructure can have many externalities. Third, there is significant interaction and co-dependency between natural and built storage (Hurford et al., 2020) that needs to be considered in planning and in operations. There may even be important co-benefits (e.g. emissions reductions) to consider for example, degrading watersheds may also degrade dams via increased sedimentation, or storing water in dams may reduce downstream aquifer recharge. The challenge, therefore, is not only to think more broadly about the different types of storage available, but also to consider storage facilities as part of a larger integrated system for improved resilience in water management and service delivery. Many have called for better integration of green and grey approaches (Browder et al., 2019;UN, 2018), although it is difficult to identify the best blend of solutions depending on local boundary conditions. Nonetheless, within any basin or landscape, considering the different characteristics that each type of storage provides (i.e. volume, feasibility, adaptability, controllability, reliability, sphere of control, cost, vulnerability, and sustainability) means that and managers have more possible approaches available to deal with the multidimensional water challenge. A growing water storage gap A 'water storage gap' is defined as the difference between the amount of water storage needed and the amount of storage that exists for a given time and place. While the size of the 'gap' will differ according to the assumptions made to measure it, the basic concept is a useful way to discuss the amount of additional water storage -and the types of storagethat need to be developed (or re-operated) to support the delivery of services and enable more resilient societies, economies, and environments."},{"index":21,"size":114,"text":"Many infrastructure gap analyses do not explicitly look at storage requirements. In recent years, there have been several reports identifying current infrastructure gaps (e.g. Oxford Economics and Global Infrastructure Hub, 2017; Rozenberg and Fay, 2019). These typically focus on traditional infrastructure sectors, such as roads, water supply, irrigation, wastewater treatment, flood protection, and power plants. These gaps are typically calculated with respect to country-level policy objectives (e.g. achieving the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) targets on water supply and sanitation, and acceptable flood risks) and public sector efficiency. Though storage needs may be indirectly accounted for (e.g. by multipurpose dams), storage itself (of all types) and the multiple services provided are often not explicitly considered."},{"index":22,"size":153,"text":"Several key mega-trends suggest that the water storage gap in many places is growing, at least in relative terms. Though good comparable data are scarce, some big trends are relatively clear (Fig. 4): a) demand for water services is growing in many places due to population and demographic changes, and economic growth; b) growing uncertainty and variability in climate, particularly precipitation, means a growing need for storage; c) available storage is under pressure from sedimentation locally (for dams) and environmental degradation and climate change more broadly (for natural storage); and d) the socioeconomic costs of floods and droughts -for which storage is a key mitigation measure -are growing. Thus, the demand for storage is increasing while the supply of storage is decreasing. The picture at the country or local levels will differ greatly; some countries may experience little pressure while others already have significant water storage gaps which will likely worsen over time."}]},{"head":"Figure 4. A growing storage gap","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"The economic costs of this increasing storage gap are potentially significant. The economic benefits of providing water services are clear; for example, from the positive impacts of water supply and sanitation services on health and human productivity (WHO, 2012) to the contribution of irrigation services to reducing poverty and promoting rural growth (Hussain and Hanjra, 2004;IPTRID, 1999). Without storage, these services cannot be provided reliably (i.e. meeting these demands in space and time). At the same time, insufficient storage makes countries vulnerable to extreme events (e.g. floods and droughts). The economic losses from these events are well documented in the literature (Brown et al., 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"Global gross domestic product (GDP) losses from river floods total roughly US$96 billion per year, with the world's poorest countries the most vulnerable (Luo et al., 2015). More generally, the relationship between climate variability and economic performance has been demonstrated in several countries such as Tanzania and Ethiopia -Fig. 5 (modified from van Aalst et al., 2007). For example, in sub-Saharan Africa, economic growth varies across countries (measured in terms of GDP per capita), each faced with different degrees of intraannual variability, and with different existing levels of storage, both built and natural (Fig. 6). Thus, for some countries, a lack of storage may result in greater economic burdens and be a drag on development."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"Figure 5. Relationship between rainfall variability and growth in gross domestic product (GDP) Figure 6. Total surface water storage in billion cubic metres (BCM) versus intra-annual rainfall variability for sub-Saharan Africa countries Note: Total storage is defined as the sum of water stored in reservoirs and water stored in lakes in billion cubic metres (in log-scale); the size of the circle is the country's gross domestic product (GDP) per capita (US$). Source: World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal, World Development Indicators and Messager et al. (2016)."}]},{"head":"PERSPECTIVES PAPER","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Storage demand","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":208,"text":"Is there a minimum amount of storage needed? How much storage is needed is dependent on a country's goals across various water-related subsectors (e.g. domestic food production, hydropower targets, environmental protection), the extent of variability in precipitation (both temporal and spatial at various scales), and a country's vulnerability to floods and droughts, as well as a country's natural storage endowment (Fig. 7). Brown and Lall (2006) calculate the storage that is needed for every country to transfer water from wet months to dry months to meet food needs on an annual basis. The authors note that the GDP of those countries lacking adequate storage is notably low. Similarly, countries may have hydropower generation targets that imply a quantity of needed. Storage needs are also dynamic, minimum requirements may increase in the future with demographic and consumption shifts and because of increasing variability and uncertainty (due to, for instance, climate change or food system transformations). In thinking about how much storage is needed, 'storage volume per capita' benchmarks are often used to compare across countries. Though perhaps useful for regional comparisons, such a metric may be problematic for cross-country comparisons as different countries may have different needs that are independent of the population size (e.g. flood risks, hydro-climate variability)."}]},{"head":"Storage supply","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":357,"text":"Systematic data on built storage is limited; however, there are innovative remote sensing approaches to fill some of the data gaps. ICOLD maintains the largest of the global large dams datasets. This member-contributed registry includes 59,071 large dams. However, this dataset is not georeferenced, does not include data on live storage, and does not provide information on the allocation of storage to different purposes or countries, where they are shared. Many researchers have used remote sensing techniques to catalogue and monitor built storage (e.g. Annor et al., 2009;Eilander et al., 2014;Ghansah et al., 2018;Lehner and Döll, 2004;Liebe et al., 2005;Mialhe et al., 2008;Sawunyama et al., 2006). Two larger databases are the Global Reservoir and Dam database (GRanD) by Lehner et al. (2011) and the Global Geo-referenced of Dams (GOODD) by Mulligan et al. (2020). Lehner et al. (2011) demonstrate with GRanD that 7,320 dams store 6,881 BCM. From this, they estimate that over 16 million reservoirs of sizes with a combined storage of over 10,000 BCM may exist globally. This is consistent with other studies (e.g. Chao et al., 2008;Frederikse et al., 2020). Artificial intelligence approaches have also been developed to identify small dam infrastructure (Weil, 2018). It is important to recognise that with these remote sensing approaches, identifying the water surface area works Figure 7. Drivers of water storage development needs reasonably well (Pekel et al., 2016). However, translating this to estimates of actual storage volume is more difficult. Moreover, this research points to the greater challenge of identifying the locations of smaller distributed storage facilities. Many countries report limited knowledge on the locations and status of small storage units (of all types). Pisaniello et al. (2012) find in Vietnam, for example, which has thousands of small dams, that there is no national record of these dams nor the storage conditions associated with them (i.e. no systematic data on type, size, hazard ratings, technical conditions). This is problematic as the cumulative impacts, particularly from a dam safety perspective, may be far greater than for a single large dam. Finally, there are also other built stores beyond dams that are typically not inventoried (e.g. rainwater harvesting tanks)."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"An inventory of natural storage is needed. The distinction between natural and built surface water bodies (particularly from space) is not always easy to discern. Lehner and Döll (2004)   (Hall et al., 2006) and an inventory of over 130,000 glaciers. Mapping of underground storage (soil water and groundwater) remains particularly challenging, as remote sensing techniques only work for the upper centimetres of the soil or allow only for spatially coarse resolution estimates of groundwater storage changes (e.g. Sun, 2013). Measuring or estimating the volume of natural storage and the services that depend on it is a key step towards being able to protect or develop this storage further. Though not all this natural storage is 'controllable' by the water manager, it still has important functions (e.g. hydrologic buffering) as part of an overall integrated storage system."},{"index":3,"size":165,"text":"Available storage is dynamic. Every year, land temporarily stores then releases approximately 6,000 BCM of water through seasonal cycling (Reager et al., 2016). Natural and human perturbations to this cycling superimpose trends in storage over annual and decadal timescales. Other than the melting of ice, human modification of storage includes: a) the filling of reservoirs behind human-made dams, which is partly offset by sedimentation; b) groundwater depletion; c) drainage of endorheic lakes; d) drainage of wetlands, which is partly offset by the construction of humanmade wetlands, such as paddy fields; e) deforestation; and f) changes in soil moisture, permafrost, and snow (Wada et al., 2017). Some of these modifications add to water stored, while others reduce water stored. Generally, the vast spatial scale of these changes in land and water storage are too difficult to observe with accuracy. Thus, despite recent advances in coupled (terrestrial-ocean-climate) modelling and satellite measurements (e.g. NASA's GRACE), there remains considerable uncertainty in the changes to many of these water stores."},{"index":4,"size":187,"text":"Available storage is likely to be decreasing. Wisser et al. (2013) estimate that built net storage (installed capacity minus sedimentation losses) peaked in 2007. This reflects a slowdown in the construction of dams since the 1970s as well as an estimated loss of storage due to sedimentation (c.5 percent loss or 270 BCM over the study time period). Moreover, per capita storage has been steadily declining in many river basins since the 1980s. Maintaining this existing stock of built storage requires substantial maintenance efforts. Palmieri et al. (2003) estimate that just to replace the storage that is lost annually as a result of sedimentation would cost over US$13 billion per year. At the same time, as discussed earlier, some natural storage is also declining (e.g. snowpack and glaciers, forests, wetlands). For example, Zemp et al. (2006) demonstrate that the total glacier volume in the European Alps is now close to a third of the volume measured in 1850 (200 BCM) and is expected to continue to decline under warming conditions. A more recent global study estimates that mountain glaciers have lost 8,666 BCM between 1961and 2016(WCRP, 2018)."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"Changes to sea-level rise can be used a partial proxy for changes in storage. Long-term average sealevel change is primarily influenced by changes to sea temperature and the amount of water stored in ice or over land. Disaggregating these influences is the subject of a growing literature (Table 4). From these studies, an estimate of the change in total water stored from different components of the landscape could be determined over the 50-year period 1970-2019."},{"index":6,"size":169,"text":"Excluding the storage from the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets, the estimated net loss from all other stores (including mountain glaciers) is approximately 15,700 BCM. This points to an increasing storage gap at the global level. While the net storage loss appears small compared with the total storage (<1 percent) at the global level, the relative change in storage at country and local levels could still be significant and should not be overlooked. Moreover, large parts of groundwater storage (approx. 98 percent of the considered current terrestrial storage) are inaccessible (i.e. resources are too deep, too hard to extract or too far from the user) and may not interact with the broader hydrologic cycle at timescales (months to decades) relevant to water management. Finally, it is important to note that these changes in storage can be either human-induced or driven by climate change. * Assuming 46 percent of groundwater is freshwater as per Gleick (1996). ** Assuming 56% of lake water is freshwater as per Messager et al. (2016). "}]},{"head":"Minding the storage gap","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"Better understanding about the storage gap at the country, river basin, and local levels is needed to identify solutions. For people and communities, what is most relevant are not global changes but the changes in storage that affect local water resources and the river basins in which they live or where their agricultural products (food, feed, fibre, and fuel) are produced. In highly populated basins where reserves in both natural stores (e.g. glaciers, soil moisture, and wetlands) and human-made stores (e.g. reservoirs) are declining simultaneously, water resource management is increasingly difficult. At the same time, with increases in population pushing for greater storage availability (e.g. more flood storage, hydropower, assured supplies for drinking and irrigation), for many countries the widening storage gap has serious implications for system resilience, water-related risks, and long-term sustainability. Therefore, countries need to move towards integrated solutions that consider a wider array of storage types, and develop ways to operationalise such systems to more reliably and sustainably deliver services to society."}]},{"head":"Understanding storage as a provider of services","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"In an integrated approach, storage is conceptualised as a provider of services rather than a collection of individual storage facilities. An approach based on service delivery clarifies the relationship among storage, biophysical processes, socio-economic interests, and human well-being. Here, services are defined broadly to include drinking and irrigation services, ecosystem functions, and flood and drought protection, among others. Taking a services approach allows a 'like for like' comparison of different types and combinations of storage. It also becomes possible to articulate storage service performance parameters (e.g. volume delivered, reliability) that can then be used to define and evaluate which system or portfolio of storage solutions might best meet various needs."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"Investing in storage solutions also requires a clearer picture of the advantages and disadvantages of different storage types and how they interact. As the data in Table 4 make clear, dams contribute only a small proportion of total global water storage. However, they often become the focus during policy responses and debates on increasing storage. Nature-based solutions are quantitatively far more significant, but it is less clear how to invest in or 'manage' the water stored in nature. Similarly, while groundwater is collectively a vast resource, its local performance parameters are unclear, particularly in data-scarce environments, leading to sustainability challenges. To put storage solutions into practice, the best complement of storage types should be identified and integrated to deliver different services."},{"index":3,"size":110,"text":"The idea of optimising water storage development through diversifying its options goes back to Keller et al. (2000). Van der Zaag and Gupta (2008) further examined options for developing dispersed storage throughout a basin. Integrating these storage types not only gives the planner more options to consider, but also pushes the planner to better understand the relationships between them. Water accounting tools can also be used to better understand how different stores of water interact, are co-dependent, and can be used in concert to achieve certain service objectives. This will be critical in understanding how to integrate different storage types and in determining the overall system effectiveness for delivering services."}]},{"head":"Putting integrated storage solutions into practice","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Storage is more than dams. Despite the recognised need for increased water storage, there is a continued debate about the most appropriate types of intervention (McCully and Pottinger, 2009). Though it has been 20 years since the World Commission on Dams Report (WCD, 2000), the debates on dams will continue into the far future. Part of this relates to a plurality of voices and often irreconcilable differences in values (whether from an economic, environmental, social, historical, political, or even cultural perspective). Moreover, given the public budget constraints that many governments face and competing demands from other sectors, it is increasingly difficult to prioritise dams. At the same time, there may be no alternatives for the different services that storage, more broadly speaking, provides."},{"index":2,"size":217,"text":"In the end, dams are controversial because they are so consequential -unintentional or otherwise, negative or positive. The question is whether small distributed infrastructure, nature-based approaches, landscape restoration, or a blend of grey and green solutions will be more effective (technically, economically, environmentally, socially) and publicly accepted in delivering society's needs.  , 2019). However, many important questions remain regarding the technical and cost effectiveness of many proposed NBS (Seddon et al., 2020). For example, while it is widely recognised that natural ecosystems (e.g. forests, wetlands, and grasslands) influence how water is cycled and stored in a basin, there is little quantitative information on the magnitude of these impacts (Bruijnzeel, 1996;Bullock and Acreman, 2003) and, more importantly, how this could be predicted in 'new' areas to aid planning and design. There is also the risk that what might make sense from a land reclamation point of view may in fact exacerbate water shortages (Zhang et al., 2015). The picture is further complicated by the fact that natural systems are dynamic -changing over time as plants grow, senesce, and die, and as natural processes alter landscapes -and so effectiveness also changes over time (i.e. between seasons and between years) (McCartney et al., 2013b). This understanding is needed to more effectively integrate natural and built storage facilities for operational purposes."},{"index":3,"size":201,"text":"Operationalising resilience for integrated storage systems is a challenge. Engineers have long used resilience and reliability criteria for built water resource systems (Hashimoto et al., 1982). However, in the context of combined grey and green approaches and larger cross-discipline systems (e.g. food and energy systems), operationalisation of these concepts can be unwieldy. For example, by integrating natural and built storage types, each with different performance and service characteristics and uncertainties, determining and designing the overall system capacity for improved resilience becomes more difficult. Adaptive management will be critical to operationalising resilience: shifting to supporting decision-making under uncertainty and emphasising risk management and preparedness over a range of possible futures. Because of the presence of unavoidable (or 'deep') uncertainty, the goal is to identify 'robust decisions' that have satisfactory performance across a wide range of plausible futures, rather than performing optimally over a historical period or a few scenarios (Grove and Lempert, 2007;Lempert et al., 2003). One of the key design principles for such robust decisions is to make operating plans that are flexible and can be adapted over time in response to how the future unfolds (Haasnoot and Middelkoop, 2012;Walker et al., 2013). Integrated storage systems can provide this greater flexibility."},{"index":4,"size":175,"text":"Storage is part of a larger system of water resource management tools for managing resilience. Storage systems are one tool that water managers have for providing numerous services to societies (present and future) as well as for managing the resource (e.g. in relation to floods, droughts, and water quality) to protect communities. Other tools include economic and policy instruments, demand-side measures, regulatory instruments, and stakeholder and participatory approaches. While demand-side measures will often be cheaper and more rapidly scalable (e.g. see Cape Town's day zero response), there are limits to how much can be achieved. On the supply side, water transfers, desalination, and reuse are all viable alternatives to storage, but are in turn limited by cost, feasibility, scale, and so on. In managing extremes, whether droughts or floods, there may also be limits to what can be achieved using soft approaches such as improved forecasting, early warning, and better preparedness. Generally, for most countries, some combination of tools and approaches will be needed to reduce risks and to make societies and economies more resilient."},{"index":5,"size":269,"text":"Strong governance arrangements on integrated storage management are needed. There is broad agreement on the importance of governance in water management (OECD, 2015). Given the role that storage of all types plays in generating multiple benefits (not only in strict economic terms), how these benefits are shared requires clear and transparent arrangements. This is already a challenge with traditional single-facility storage units that often provide multiple services (e.g. irrigation, flood control, hydropower, fisheries) and draw on the responsibilities of multiple parts of government (both horizontally across traditional sector boundaries and vertically from national to local levels) and a wide range of stakeholders. Thus, integrating different types of storage may complicate existing governance arrangements and require even more coordination and collaboration across multiple governance systems. For example, in integrating the use of nature-based solutions a wider set of actors may be involved in design, planning, management, and decision-making than before (e.g. departments of land management, environment, forestry). Moreover, built storage will often have a clear 'owner', while this may be less apparent with natural storage. One also cannot underestimate the varying needs of local communities, which will adapt storage solutions to provide additional services not previously considered (van Koppen et al., 2006) or which may adopt land-use behaviours that have storage implications. Because of the widening functionality possible with a more integrated approach to storage, designing the institutional arrangements for its proper management (e.g. rules for allocation of storage use, benefit-sharing arrangements) is not a trivial task. Simultaneously, the process of building these arrangements in a participatory manner is as critical as the mechanisms themselves (i.e. converting stakeholders into 'shareholders')."},{"index":6,"size":137,"text":"Integrated storage approaches require more inclusive stakeholder engagement. The importance of participatory approaches to the identification, selection, and design of storage solutions is well documented. By bringing all stakeholders to the table, the necessary (though not sufficient) condition for minimising conflicts and competing interests is met. This becomes even more critical in the context of more integrated approaches that will draw on a wider array of interests. For example, with natural storage, land ownership interests may be more varied compared with built storage on government land. Thus, getting public acceptance will require a higher degree of coordination, collaboration, and recognition of more complex human-nature interactions. Decision-making processes and mechanisms to design and operate across built and natural environments will also need to be inclusive and empower the most marginalised in the watershed (e.g. the poorest, women, children)."},{"index":7,"size":241,"text":"More innovative financing is needed. Rozenberg and Fay (2019) estimate that with the right policies in place, low-and middle-income countries will need to spend 4.5 percent of GDP per year to meet the infrastructurerelated SDGs. Achieving the water-related SDGs will require investment of US$6.7 trillion in the water sector by 2030 (Oxford Economics and Global Infrastructure Hub, 2017). Thus, the financing challenges across all of society's development aspirations are enormous. At the same time, globally, NBS currently account for less than 5 percent of total investment in water-related infrastructure (UN, 2018). Prioritising limited public budgets across these needs will be driven by political, social, economic, and financial criteria. More integrated storage solutions will likely be funded from a mix of public and private sources. For some storage services (e.g. water supply and sanitation, irrigation, hydropower), a wider range of financing modalities is possible, including from commercial and private sources. For other storage services, particularly those with NBS components, the benefits may be more public in nature (e.g. flood control, biodiversity, water quality) and thus largely funded by government. However, environmental and socio-economic co-benefits (e.g. biodiversity, carbon sequestration, fisheries, recreation, and even job creation and livelihoods) may be eligible for 'green' financing approaches (e.g. green bonds). In the end, given that integrated storage will provide multiple services, there is an opportunity to package funding and financing proposals in such a way that takes advantage of the different kinds of benefits being generated."}]},{"head":"A new agenda for integrated storage","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"Storage is a foundational element of water resources management and critical to supporting resilient development. The importance of storage systems as a tool to deliver services and protect society (from floods and droughts, and poor water quality) will only grow in the context of demographic, societal, and climate changes. With many competing demands for water and more variable supplies, wellintegrated storage systems (with a proper balance between green and grey approaches) will provide water managers with greater options, flexibility, and adaptability to help put countries on more resilient development pathways. There are many well-known practical barriers to effective water resources management (e.g. institutional dimensions, political economies, difficulties with valuing water) that will remain. Nonetheless, the opportunities that a wider perspective on storage brings are clear. Moving forward, to support this agenda several critical steps are needed:"}]},{"head":"GWP and the","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"n Developing a framework for rethinking water storage as an integrated service: While 'integrated water resource management' has long been accepted, it is not clear how to pragmatically develop and manage different (albeit often co-dependent) storage components, each with its own performance and service characteristics, as an integrated system. Such a framework will be helpful for policy-makers, financiers, and planners to guide future investment as well as manage and protect existing storage systems in a practical and cost-effective way."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"n Improving the inventory of water storage and its attributes: There have been many positive developments in establishing the scale, nature, and locations of various storage types. However, there remains more to be done in better understanding how much storage exists of different kinds, how it is changing over time, and its various attributes (e.g. live storage available for different purposes) across the globe at the country level. Complete characterisation of entire storage systems (both built and natural assets) within a basin framework remains limited. Perhaps more importantly, how this storage is currently being used or the implicit functions it serves are not well understood. A better understanding will require more local-scale analyses at country, basin, and sub-basin levels."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"n Unpacking the effectiveness of nature-based solutions: Though the engineering profession has tested approaches to determining the effectiveness of built infrastructure, more analysis is needed with respect to the effectiveness (whether from technical or economic perspectives) of various nature-based storage options. Effectiveness must be evaluated from both the longer-term perspective and at a broader spatial scale. This also requires a better understanding of the interactions and co-dependency between natural and built environments."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"n Assessing the socio-economic costs and benefits of integrated storage systems: The use of traditional cost-benefit analysis for water infrastructure is well established, as are the critiques of such methods for capturing full economic values."},{"index":5,"size":83,"text":"Approaches have been developed to estimate the broader macro-economic impacts of single-facility storage (including distributional and equity issues), particularly for large dams (e.g. Bhatia et al., 2007;Robinson et al., 2008). At the same time, the economic costs and benefits of natural storage and green infrastructure are still being developed. These are challenging exercises given the methodological difficulties with assigning values to some of the, mostly positive, environmental and social co-benefits. Comprehensive economic valuations of integrated natural and built systems are less well developed."},{"index":6,"size":85,"text":"n Developing innovative approaches to water storage operation: With advances in sensor and space technologies and artificial intelligence and machine learning, there are opportunities to better manage and operate existing storage systems, both natural and built (i.e. to reduce risks and maximise reliability). This includes using satellite imagery to better monitor and predict catchment sediment yields and dam safety risk. Moreover, advances in materials science may introduce greater flexibility in approaches (e.g. removable rubber dams) and in cost (e.g. new concrete technology, modular construction technologies)."},{"index":7,"size":120,"text":"n Optimising integrated storage planning and operations: With different types of storage available, each with different characteristics (e.g. volume, feasibility, adaptability, controllability, reliability, vulnerability, sphere of control, cost, and sustainability), analytical tools are needed to examine from a systems perspective (e.g. basin) how different combinations of storage types can achieve various service objectives. A key feature of these tools will be the interactions between natural and built storage. Developing such a portfolio approach can help to better articulate risks across different performance metrics and users. Such tools will also be important in examining costs and benefits, to support the planning and optimisation of future storage needs. These kinds of tools are needed by countries, cities, companies, communities, and other stakeholders."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Distribution of water stores "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure3. Global large dam construction  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Estimated terrestrial freshwater storage and change over the period1970-2019   et al. (2019). Rate of change: WCRP (2018) Total storage:Gleeson et al. (2016). Rate of change:de Graaf et al. (2017)    Total storage:Messager et al. (2016). Rate of change: WCRP (2018) Total storage:Shiklomanov (1993). Rate of change based onDeng et al. (2020) Total storage:Frederikse et al. (2020). Rate of change: WCRP (2018); total small dam reservoir is estimated at 1,873 BCM with an estimated increase of 1,336 BCM(Lehner et al., 2011) Total storage based on forest area andWada et al. (2017). Rate of change based on forest loss fromFAO (1990), FAO and UNEP (2020), andWada et al. (2017) Total storage based on wetland area andWada et al. (2017). Rate of change:Darrah et al. (2019) Total storage and rate of change based on paddy area fromDavidson et al. (2018) and this study = billion cubic metres. Antarctic and Greenland ice sheet contributions have not been included. "},{"text":" Source: modified from McCartney et al. (forthcoming). "},{"text":"A better understanding of the effectiveness of natural storage is needed as well as important co-dependencies. In principle, natural storage (or more broadly nature-based solutions -NBS) has the potential to tackle many water resource management challenges, simultaneously contributing to both climate mitigation and climate adaptation and delivering multiple co-benefits for people and nature (UN, 2018). For example, soil and water conservation measures in upper catchments are often promoted to reduce soil erosion and increase groundwater storage, reduce sedimentation of downstream reservoirs, and help protect downstream communities from flooding. At the same time, such interventions may also increase carbon sequestration and protect biodiversity (TNC, 2015). Because of their potential climate co-benefits, NBS have been broadly endorsed by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES, 2019), the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2019), and the Global Commission on Adaptation (GCA "},{"text":" International Water Management Institute (IWMI) have made calls to action on adaptation to climate change. Both the 2020-2025 GWP strategy (Mobilising for a Water Secure World) and the 2019-2023 IWMI strategy (Innovative Water Solutions for Sustainable Development) recognise the importance of water in adapting and building resilience to climate change. Urgent action on integrated water storage will be essential to supporting these aims. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"bodies of water provide storage. Both  Figure 2. Water storage continuum  Figure 2. Water storage continuum Table 1. Characteristics of storage  Table 1. Characteristics of storage Attribute  Attribute Volume  Volume Feasibility  Feasibility Adaptability  Adaptability Controllability  Controllability Reliability  Reliability  lakes lakes Vulnerability and wetlands are important natural stores of water Vulnerabilityand wetlands are important natural stores of water  that are widely utilised for domestic water supply and that are widely utilised for domestic water supply and  agriculture around the world. Natural seasonal and agriculture around the world. Natural seasonal and Sphere of control interannual variability results in significant changes in these stores. In addition, human interventions can Sphere of controlinterannual variability results in significant changes in these stores. In addition, human interventions can  change their availability. Withdrawals, primarily for change their availability. Withdrawals, primarily for Cost irrigation, have led to significantly reduced volumes Costirrigation, have led to significantly reduced volumes  in some lakes (e.g. the Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea). in some lakes (e.g. the Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea).  Wetlands have also been degraded by direct drainage, Wetlands have also been degraded by direct drainage, Sustainability  Sustainability (environmental)  (environmental)  "},{"text":"Human-made storage has been developed to play a key role in water management. As human needs have extended beyond that which nature has been able to provide, humans have constructed a broad variety of water retention structures at a variety of scales. Since 1950, humans have constructed more than 57,000 large dams globally (ICOLD, see https:// www.icold-cigb.org/). Human-made reservoirs now cover approximately 0.26 Mkm 2 (i.e. 0.2 percent of the global land area;Messager et al., 2016) and cumulatively store 9,400 BCM ± 3,100 BCM of water  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Estimated numbers of small dams for selected countries Country Number (source) CountryNumber (source) Sub-Saharan Africa  Sub-Saharan Africa Burkina Faso > 1,700 (Andreini et al., 2009) Burkina Faso> 1,700 (Andreini et al., 2009) Ethiopia > 110 Ethiopia> 110 Ghana > 1,000 Ghana> 1,000 Côte D'Ivoire > 600 Côte D'Ivoire> 600 Mali ~ 800 (FAO, 2008a) Mali~ 800 (FAO, 2008a) Mauritania ~ 350 Mauritania~ 350 Mozambique > 600 (World Bank, 2008) Mozambique> 600 (World Bank, 2008) Niger ~ 100 (FAO, 2008b) Niger~ 100 (FAO, 2008b) Uganda > 425 (Bashar et al., 2003) Uganda> 425 (Bashar et al., 2003) Zambia 2,000-3,000 (NCG, 2010) Zambia2,000-3,000 (NCG, 2010) Zimbabwe ~ 10,000 (Sugunan, 1997) Zimbabwe~ 10,000 (Sugunan, 1997) North Africa and  North Africa and Middle East  Middle East Algeria > 1,000 (Morsli et al., 2007) Algeria> 1,000 (Morsli et al., 2007) Morocco > 120 (Laamrani et al., 2006) Morocco> 120 (Laamrani et al., 2006) Tunisia > 610 (Boufaroua et al., 2003) Tunisia> 610 (Boufaroua et al., 2003) Syria > 50 (Albergel et al., 2007) Syria> 50 (Albergel et al., 2007) Rest of the world  Rest of the world Brazil (Nordeste) > 70,000 (Molle and Cadier, Brazil (Nordeste)> 70,000 (Molle and Cadier,  1992) 1992) India > 208,000 (Palanisami, 2008) India> 208,000 (Palanisami, 2008) Mexico ~ 12,000 (Sugunan, 1997) Mexico~ 12,000 (Sugunan, 1997) Thailand ~ several thousands Thailand~ several thousands  (Sanguan, 2000) (Sanguan, 2000) Sri Lanka > 15,000 (Sakthivadivel et al., 1997) Sri Lanka> 15,000 (Sakthivadivel et al., 1997)  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Climate change risks for different storage types and possible socio-economic implications Storage type Risks associated with climate change Socio-economic implications Storage typeRisks associated with climate changeSocio-economic implications Reservoirs n Reduced inflow, resulting in longer periods n Increased failure to meet design Reservoirsn Reduced inflow, resulting in longer periodsn Increased failure to meet design  between filling specifications (irrigation and between fillingspecifications (irrigation and  n Higher evaporation, increasing the rate of hydropower generation, etc.) n Higher evaporation, increasing the rate ofhydropower generation, etc.)  reservoir depletion n Increased costs due to the need to reservoir depletionn Increased costs due to the need to  n Infrastructure damage due to higher flood peaks redesign infrastructure (e.g. spillways) n Infrastructure damage due to higher flood peaksredesign infrastructure (e.g. spillways)  n Improved habitat for disease vectors n Increased risk of waterborne diseases n Improved habitat for disease vectorsn Increased risk of waterborne diseases  (e.g. mosquitoes) (e.g. malaria) (e.g. mosquitoes)(e.g. malaria)  n Increased risk of eutrophication and salinisation  n Increased risk of eutrophication and salinisation  n Increased siltation  n Increased siltation Ponds/tanks n Reduced inflow, resulting in longer periods n Increased failure to meet water Ponds/tanksn Reduced inflow, resulting in longer periodsn Increased failure to meet water  between filling requirements of the community and between fillingrequirements of the community and  n Higher evaporation, increasing rates of depletion households n Higher evaporation, increasing rates of depletionhouseholds  n Infrastructure damage due to higher flood peaks n Increased labour requirements and n Infrastructure damage due to higher flood peaksn Increased labour requirements and  n Improved habitat for disease vectors costs to repair structures n Improved habitat for disease vectorscosts to repair structures  (e.g. mosquitoes) n Increased risk of waterborne diseases (e.g. mosquitoes)n Increased risk of waterborne diseases  n Increased risk of eutrophication and salinisation (e.g. malaria) n Increased risk of eutrophication and salinisation(e.g. malaria)  n Increased siltation  n Increased siltation Aquifers n Reduced recharge, resulting from modified n Falling water levels, which make it Aquifersn Reduced recharge, resulting from modifiedn Falling water levels, which make it  rainfall intensities increasingly costly to access rainfall intensitiesincreasingly costly to access  n Reduced recharge, resulting from land-cover groundwater n Reduced recharge, resulting from land-covergroundwater  modification and increased soil moisture deficits n Reduced water quality, which makes modification and increased soil moisture deficitsn Reduced water quality, which makes  n Saline intrusion in aquifers near the coast groundwater unsuitable for use n Saline intrusion in aquifers near the coastgroundwater unsuitable for use Soil moisture n Reduced infiltration, resulting from modified n Decreased productivity -more Soil moisturen Reduced infiltration, resulting from modifiedn Decreased productivity -more  rainfall intensities frequent crop failures and reduction rainfall intensitiesfrequent crop failures and reduction  n Waterlogging, resulting from modified rainfall in yields n Waterlogging, resulting from modified rainfallin yields  intensities and duration  intensities and duration  n Longer dry periods, resulting from altered  n Longer dry periods, resulting from altered  temporal distribution of rainfall  temporal distribution of rainfall  n Depleted soil moisture, arising from higher  n Depleted soil moisture, arising from higher  evaporative demand  evaporative demand  n Soil erosion, resulting from modified rainfall  n Soil erosion, resulting from modified rainfall  intensities and duration  intensities and duration  n Reduced soil quality (including water-holding  n Reduced soil quality (including water-holding  capacity and nutrient status), resulting from  capacity and nutrient status), resulting from  modified rainfall and temperature  modified rainfall and temperature Natural wetlands n Reduced rainfall and runoff inputs, resulting in n Increased failure to provide water Natural wetlandsn Reduced rainfall and runoff inputs, resulting inn Increased failure to provide water  wetland desiccation requirements of the community and wetland desiccationrequirements of the community and  n Higher flood peaks, resulting in wetland households n Higher flood peaks, resulting in wetlandhouseholds  expansion and flooding of fields and homes n Loss of water-dependent ecosystem expansion and flooding of fields and homesn Loss of water-dependent ecosystem  n Improved habitat for disease vectors services (including flow regulation n Improved habitat for disease vectorsservices (including flow regulation  (e.g. mosquitoes) and groundwater recharge) (e.g. mosquitoes)and groundwater recharge)   n Increased risk of waterborne disease n Increased risk of waterborne disease   (e.g. malaria) (e.g. malaria)  "}],"sieverID":"b25b778d-521b-4e3d-a116-61cb0fbb3bea","abstract":"The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) is an international, research-for-development organization that works with governments, civil society and the private sector to solve water problems in developing countries and scale up solutions. Through partnership, IWMI combines research on the sustainable use of water and land resources, knowledge services and products with capacity strengthening, dialogue and policy analysis to support implementation of water management solutions for agriculture, ecosystems, climate change and inclusive economic growth. Headquartered in Colombo, Sri Lanka, IWMI is a CGIAR Research Center and leads the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE). GWP Perspectives Papers are available at the GWP ToolBox: www.gwptoolbox.org Towards Integrated Urban Water Management (2011) Increasing Water Security -A Development Imperative (2012) Water in the Green Economy (2012) Groundwater Resources and Irrigated Agriculture -Making a Beneficial Relation More Sustainable (2012) Urban Groundwater -Policies and Institutions for Integrated Management (2013) The links between land use and groundwater -Governance provisions and management strategies to secure a 'sustainable harvest' (2014) Coordinating land and water governance -An essential part of achieving food security (2014) Beyond increasing block tariffs -Decoupling water charges from the provision of financial assistance to poor households (2016) Linking ecosystem services and water security -SDGs offer a new opportunity for integration (2016) Collaborative modelling -Engaging stakeholders in solving complex problems of water management (2017) Climate insurance and water-related disaster risk management -Unlikely partners in promoting development? (2018) Sharing Water -The role of robust water-sharing arrangements in integrated water resources management (2019) © Global Water Partnership, February 2021 Cover photos: IWMIPortions of the text of this publication may be reproduced for educational or non-commercial use without prior permission from the Global Water Partnership (GWP), provided that the source is acknowledged, with mention of the complete name of the report, and that the portions are not used in a misleading context. No use of this publication may be made for resale or other commercial purposes without prior written permission of GWP. Opinions expressed in this publication do not imply endorsement by GWP."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a9bb100c5d5744e9b7ffd0e7fd93689","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/52c80fdc-e614-4758-b568-1e7cc094dbfa/retrieve"},"pageCount":48,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"It is becoming increasingly evident that a strong focus on digitalisation as a means to drive agricultural transformation is bearing dividends in the forms of increased production, better livelihoods, more efficient value chains and ultimately greater food and nutrition security. Our current strategy has three intervention areas. One is promoting youth entrepreneurship and creating employment for young people, particularly through the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs). The second, digitalisation, cuts across all intervention areas and focuses on the application of digital technologies to transform business models and provide new revenue throughout agricultural value chains. The third focuses on building farmers' resilience to climate change through the promotion of climate-smart agricultural practices."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"It is becoming increasingly evident that a strong focus on digitalisation as a means to drive agricultural transformation is bearing dividends in the forms of increased production, better livelihoods, more efficient value chains and ultimately greater food and nutrition security. Digitalisation is also key to attracting youth back to agriculture."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"The use of a wide range of technologies -from mobile phones to drones -is helping smallholders gain access to the information and data they need to transform their businesses. One of the goals in CTA's 2016-2020 Strategic Plan was to reach 1 million farmers, and a focus on digitalisation is helping us to achieve that."},{"index":4,"size":110,"text":"In many of our activities, there is a strong focus on supporting youth and promoting women empowerment. To give just one example, CTA's Pitch Agri-Hack competition, which took place in Rwanda during the African Green Revolution Forum in September 2018, had as its theme 'Women Entrepreneurs Innovate for Agricultural Transformation'. At the award ceremony, which was attended by four heads of state and some 20 government ministers, I was able to tell a large audience that the 26 entrepreneurs who had reached the finals -14 young women and 12 young men -will help transform agriculture for future generations and encourage young people to see the potential in farming and agribusiness."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"There are many reasons to be optimistic, and I believe the stories in this report illustrate that CTA together with our partners is well positioned for a future beyond the end of the Cotonou Agreement, under which CTA operates, to continue to make a difference."},{"index":6,"size":92,"text":"The future prosperity of agriculture depends on engaging young people in the sector. A wide range of CTA projects are encouraging them to use information and communication technologies (ICTs) to help improve agricultural productivity. So far, over 1 million farmers have benefited from the services of youth start-ups involved in CTA's annual Pitch AgriHack competitions. In 2018, the competition, held in Rwanda, focused on young women. Meanwhile, projects in West Africa and Kenya are successfully tackling high levels of rural unemployment and low productivity by engaging young entrepreneurs in agricultural value chains."}]},{"head":"PROMOTING YOUTH ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND EMPLOYMENT","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"The future prosperity of agriculture depends on engaging young people in the sector. A wide range of CTA projects are encouraging them to use information and communication technologies (ICTs) to help improve agricultural productivity. So far, over 1 million farmers have benefited from the services of youth start-ups involved in CTA's annual Pitch AgriHack competitions. In 2018, the competition, held in Rwanda, focused on young women. Meanwhile, projects in West Africa and Kenya are successfully tackling high levels of rural unemployment and low productivity by engaging young entrepreneurs in agricultural value chains."}]},{"head":"PROMOTING YOUTH ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND EMPLOYMENT 1","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Since the launch of CTA's Pitch AgriHack Talent Initiative in 2013, over 1 million farmers and agricultural stakeholders have benefited from services provided by start-up companies involved in its annual competitions. Their ICT-based innovations have helped to raise more than €2 million from investors and development specialists."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"he 2018 Pitch AgriHack competition -the third of its kind -was held in September 2018 in Kigali, Rwanda, during the African Green Revolution Forum (AGRF). Its theme was 'Women entrepreneurs innovate for agricultural transformation.' \"We wanted to focus on young women, as few of them are currently leading agricultural technology start-ups,\" says Ken Lohento, CTA Senior ICT4Ag Programme Coordinator. \"As a matter of fact, just 10% of tech start-ups internationally are led by women. This was an opportunity to show that women are every bit as capable as men when it comes to developing new technologies and managing ICT businesses.\""},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"The announcement for this year's Pitch AgriHack competition in April attracted 335 applications from ACP countries. Of these, 164 start-ups were led by women. The most promising 26 were invited to take part in the finals in Kigali, where 14 of the finalists were represented by women. The eight winners included four companies run by young women and four by young men. The awards, which included cash prizes as well as support for business incubation and the opportunity to participate in other ICT-related events, were presented in the presence of two T"}]},{"head":"YOUNG WOMEN TAKE THE LEAD IN PITCH AGRIHACK","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"heads of state, two heads of government and some 20 government ministers."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"\"These are entrepreneurs who have been inspired to make a difference -to help transform agriculture for future generations and to encourage young people to see the potential in farming and agribusiness,\" said CTA Director, Michael Hailu, at the awards ceremony."},{"index":3,"size":155,"text":"Before the judges chose the winners, the 26 finalists and 14 other guest start-ups benefited from a two-day training workshop on investment readiness. Here they learned how to better manage their financial accounts and how to secure deals with investors. \"Pitch AgriHack has been fantastic,\" said Varun Baker, CEO of Farm Credibly, one of the winners in the early stage category. \"The investment readiness workshop has been extremely useful for us. We'll definitely make better use of funding, having gone through this training.\" Farm Credibly is using blockchain technology to help Jamaican farmers without bank accounts to gain access to finance. Most farmers find it difficult to get loans or investment to expand their businesses, as they lack the financial records lenders require. Farm Credibly is using blockchain to record farmers' transactions with input companies, processors and supermarkets. The farmers' digital profiles illustrate their capacity to use loans effectively and their ability to repay them."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"Among the women-led start-ups to win in Kigali was Fenou Foods from Benin, a company that develops local agro-processed products. With 'Fenou Packaging,' Sonita Tossou and her team had the innovative idea of providing 100% biodegradable packaging. The company are targeting local, youth-led agri-food processorsand the climate-conscious packaging is helping them to compete with imported products. Following Pitch AgriHack, Tossou was also selected as one of six winners receiving CTA funding to attend the Agristartup Summit held in France, where Fenou Packaging won third prize. CTA also provided support for some of the Kigali winners to attend the UN Social Good Summit, where they had the opportunity to make a pitch to potential investors."},{"index":5,"size":90,"text":"During 2018, many of the winners of the 2017 Pitch AgriHack, held in Côte d'Ivoire, made good progress. To give just one example, Bayseddo, a Senegalese start-up that uses crowdsourced finance to invest in agricultural production, raised about €150,000 to support several projects. These have yielded a 10% return for investors and the company is currently developing a new mobile application for its platform, using financial support from CTA. Collaboration with the government agency Délegation de l'Entrepreneuriat Rapide (DER), which focuses on supporting young entrepreneurs, is currently being finalised.  "}]},{"head":"PROMOTING YOUTH EMPLOYMENT IN THE RICE VALUE CHAIN","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"In many West African countries, the lack of employment opportunities in rural areas has led to an exodus of young people, both to major cities in the region and to Europe. This is a serious loss, as the young offer a potentially dynamic labour force at a time when the agricultural sector is desperately short of workers."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"two-year project launched by CTA in early 2018, 'Promoting Youth Entrepreneurship and Job Creation in West Africa's Rice Value Chain' (PEJERIZ), is tackling the problem by encouraging young people in Mali and Senegal to stay in the countryside and help to increase the rice sector's productivity. The project involves a collaboration with AfricaRice and the Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"There are good reasons for focusing on rice. In West Africa, rice consumption has been steadily increasing as a result of changes in eating habits and rapid population growth. However, production lags far behind demand, and every year about 40% of the rice consumed comes from Asia. Many urban consumers favour imported rice, as it tends to be cleaner and better packed than local rice, most of which is manually processed. It is hoped that raising the production and quality of rice through PEJERIZ will reduce imports and boost the rural economy."}]},{"head":"A","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"PROMOTING YOUTH EMPLOYMENT IN THE RICE VALUE CHAIN","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"There are two main components to the project. One focuses on training young people in technical subjects related to the rice value chain. This is managed by AfricaRice. The other component, managed by the Syngenta Foundation, involves setting up centres of mechanisation and promoting a mobile app which provides farmers with advice. It is anticipated that over 660 new jobs will be created by the project, which will lead to significant increases in revenue for 10,000 smallholder farmers."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Over 300 young Senegalese and Malians, approximately one-third of whom were women, attended two mobilisation workshops organised by AfricaRice in July and October 2018. They learned about the income-generating opportunities presented by the rice value chain and the importance of mechanising the industry."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"Following the workshop, AfricaRice selected 205 young people from the original 300 who attended the mobilisation workshop to attend further training sessions on a range of topics, such as entrepreneurship, marketing and the provision of services. The first sessions were held in October 2018 and the final session is scheduled for early 2019. AfricaRice will then select 80 young trainees with the most promising business ideas, and they will be provided with financial support and further training."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"\"Some of the young participants are already running their own businesses and wish to upscale the innovative ideas they developed in the rice sector,\" says Dr Mandiaye Diagne, Regional Coordinator of PEJERIZ. \"Providing them with technical training and coaching will help them to become successful agripreneurs.\""},{"index":5,"size":55,"text":"Meanwhile, the Syngenta Foundation established 10 Centres for Mechanised Services (CEMAs), five in Mali and five in Senegal. \"Once these are fully running, each of the centres will have between five and 10 full-time employees and 30 part-time employees, most of whom will be young people,\" says Vincent Fautrel, CTA Senior Programme Coordinator, Value Chains."},{"index":6,"size":140,"text":"By the end of 2018, the CEMAs had recruited and trained 45 service agents, who are responsible for promoting the RiceAdvice app to farmers. Developed in Nigeria and Mali by AfricaRice, the app is a decision-support tool, which farmers can download free on an android smartphone. It generates recommendations which help farmers to apply mineral fertilisers more efficiently and decide exactly when to sow, plant and harvest. Nigerian rice farmers using the app reported significant yield increases and income gains of up to US$200 per ha. By late 2018, the PEJERIZ project had introduced over 470 rice farmers in Mali and Senegal to the app and they were planning to use it the following season.  Some of the young participants are already running their own businesses and wish to upscale the innovative ideas they developed in the rice sector."}]},{"head":"DR MANDIAYE DIAGNE, REGIONAL COORDINATOR OF PEJERIZ","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"EMPOWERING THE YOUNG THROUGH AGRIBUSINESS","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Agriculture is the mainstay of Kenya's economy, employing more than 70% of people in rural areas and contributing 26% of the GDP. However, youth unemployment in the countryside, as well as in the cities, is growing. ome 30% of Kenyans between the age of 20 and 24 are currently out of work. Increasing youth employment in agriculture could do much to address this problem, and it is one of the main aims of CTA's 'Youth Economic Empowerment through Agribusiness in Kenya' (VijaBiz) project."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"The project was devised by CTA and a Kenyan organisation, USTADI Foundation, in response to a call for proposals from the International Fund for Agricultural Development. It is implemented and co-funded by CTA and USTADI. \"We believe there is huge potential to get more young people into profitable agriculture in countries like Kenya, and it is crucial to support the growth of their businesses,\" says CTA's Ken Lohento, manager of the project. \"Many young people have innovative ideas and they're willing to take risks, but they often lack the skills, knowledge and assets they need to establish viable agribusinesses.\""},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"Following an invitation to join the project -shared via radio, newspapers and on the internet in September 2018 -380 youth groups from Kilifi and Nakuru counties responded. It was stipulated that the groups should have a minimum of 10 members, with at least 30% being women. Ninety percent of those who responded were under the age the 35, including the group leaders. After a comprehensive selection process, and with the support of the two county governments, CTA and USTADI chose 165 youth groups, which between them represent about 2,400 young farmers and 1000 small agribusinesses. "}]},{"head":"EMPOWERING THE YOUNG THROUGH AGRIBUSINESS","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"The two-year project will develop the entrepreneurial skills of 2,250 young people and the enterprises."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"The national launch of the VijaBiz project was held in August 2018 in Nairobi, in the presence of officials from the two county governments and from the National Ministry of Youth. Under the project, the selected groups are receiving support to help develop their businesses. Training sessions are already helping young people identify market opportunities in three value chains -cereals, dairy and fisheries -providing them with the skills required to add value to agricultural products. The youth groups will also benefit from training in leadership and a range of other skills required to strengthen businesses along the food chain, such as the use of ICTs for agribusiness. Mentoring and business operations reviews, as well as access to finance and various growth opportunities, will be offered throughout the project's timeframe."},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"Examples of the selected groups include the Blessing Hand Self Help Group from Nakuru. This is composed of 12 members, nine of whom are women. They are involved in cereal value addition, grinding, packaging and selling. Another group is the Greenbelt Youth Group, composed of 12 members and engaged in dairy value addition, which involves the sale of fresh milk and locally produced yoghurt. Another is Kibao Kiche Fish Farmers Group, based in Kilifi and composed of 25 members, nine of whom are women. The group is raising fish in ponds to sell to the public."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"VijaBiz will be providing the youth groups with grants worth between US$1,000 and US$20,000. These will enable them to buy hardware, such as machinery and cold storage facilitiesfor vegetables and fish, for example -and to hire the services of business consultants. The two-year project will develop the entrepreneurial skills of 2,250 young people and the enterprises, which benefit from VijaBiz support, will indirectly support at least 10,000 young people."},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"According to the United Nations, Kenya's population is expected to rise from 50 million today to around 85 million by 2050. Projects that focus on transforming the agricultural sector through youth and women empowerment provide a template for tackling the twin problems of low productivity and high unemployment. "}]},{"head":"INCREASING PRODUCTIVITY AND PROFITABILITY","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"For over 20 years, CTA has been promoting digitalisation -the application of digital technologies to change a business model and provide new revenue -as a way of increasing smallholder productivity. In Uganda, digital profiling and a unique service bundle, which provides agronomic tips, insurance and weather information, has dramatically increased crop yields and profits."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"In West Africa, market information provided by SMS is having a similar effect. A new consortium of African drone users, initiated at a CTA workshop, is helping the technology take off across the continent. In addition, a mobile app developed by one of CTA's partners in Samoa is linking smallholder farmers to buyers and consumers, significantly improving their income and the efficiency of the value chain."}]},{"head":" INCREASING PRODUCTIVITY AND PROFITABILITY 2","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"One of CTA's most innovative digitalisation projects, the Market-Led User-Owned ICT4Ag-Enabled Information Service (MUIIS), made good progress in 2018, helping smallholder farmers in Uganda significantly improve their crop yields and profits. Launched in late 2015 with support from the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs, MUIIS set itself the goal of increasing the yields of 200,000 Ugandans farmers by at least 25% and their profits by 20%."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"n March 2017, MUIIS launched a unique service bundle, delivered by text to mobile phones, which provides farmers with agronomic tips, weather alerts and index-based insurance. It was originally hoped that 100,000 farmers would sign up for the service, which cost US$2 per cropping season, by the end of the second year. However, progress was disappointing, with just 379 farmers subscribing during the second season. Most farmers in Uganda were used to receiving advisory services for free and were unwilling to pay for the product. Nevertheless, those who did receive the service bundle reported significant increases in yields and profits."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"\"From our research, we could see that lack of access to finance was a serious barrier to adopting a whole range of innovations which could improve productivity,\" says Benjamin Kwasi Addom, CTA Team Leader, ICT4Ag. In late 2017, he and his colleagues began discussions with the Rabobank SMART SOLUTIONS, TARGETED LOANS, HIGHER YIELDS I ©CTA"}]},{"head":"","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"We had been hoping that farmers would increase their soybean yields by 25%, but they did much better than that."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Foundation about the possibility of introducing a loans scheme to smallholder farmers. \"We pointed out that by digitally profiling farmers, we had already gathered the sort of information banks and financial institutions need when assessing creditworthiness,\" says Addom. By the end of 2017, MUIIS had digitally profiled 130,000 farmers, a figure that would double during the course of 2018. The profiles provide detailed information on everything from geographical location to crops grown, size of family to assets owned -just the sort of information banks need when assessing loan applications."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Rabobank Foundation approved a loan of USh1 billion (€230,000)."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"The MUIIS project agreed to manage the loan, with the money being channelled through the financial arm of the Ugandan Cooperative Alliance. Farmers who applied for the loans, which they could use to buy inputs like seeds and fertilisers, received USh80,000 (€17) per ha, up to a maximum of 2 ha each. As a condition of the loans, the farmers took out a subscription to the MUIIS service bundle."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"The first tranche of loans was distributed to 1,890 farmers, covering 2,000 acres of cropland. Lydia Kiwuka was a typical beneficiary: \"Last season I used cow dung and urine to fertilise my maize because I couldn't afford to buy fertiliser,\" she said. \"With this loan I have paid for fertiliser needed for the whole season. I've even bought some preventative pesticide in case the armyworm [a major pest of maize] comes back to my farm.\""},{"index":6,"size":67,"text":"To provide empirical evidence about the impact of both the service bundle and the loans, CTA commissioned a study which was carried out by the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa and the National Agricultural Research Organisation of Uganda. The study, which focused on soybean, maize, beans and sesame, provided compelling evidence that the service bundle and loans led to a significant increase in crop yields."},{"index":7,"size":135,"text":"\"We had been hoping that farmers would increase their soybean yields by 25%,\" says Addom. \"But they did much better than that.\" Soybean yields increased by 60% and bean yields by 90%. At the time of going to press, there had been a good rate of loan repayment. Addom believes that hard evidence of increasing yields will encourage organisations like the Rabobank Foundation to make further loans in future.  One of the main pillars of their work since 2017 has involved the digital profiling of over 85,000 farmers who are members of eight farmers' organisations across Africa. Farmer profiling can yield a wide range of benefits: it can help to improve access to inputs and extension services, can provide the information banks require before they provide credit, and can help farmers find new markets."},{"index":8,"size":150,"text":"One example of how data has transformed lives can be seen in Uganda, where the digital profiling of coffee farmers by the National Union of Coffee Agribusinesses and Farm Enterprises (NUCAFE) has given farmers access to global certification. Just 6 months after this CTA-B In sub-Saharan Africa, the yield gap -the difference between a crop's potential and the real yield -is often high, with many farmers harvesting 25% of the amount of maize, millet or other staple crop they could be getting, using the right information, technologies and inputs. This helps to explain why only 20% of the food produced in many African countries is sold, as smallholder farmers need to keep the rest just to feed themselves. Hence low incomes and widespread rural poverty. ©AgroCenta In 2018, over 3,000 farmers saw their incomes increase by over 25% thanks to the traceability of their coffee and access to certified markets."}]},{"head":"CHRIS ADDISON, CTA SENIOR PROGRAMME COORDINATOR, DATA4AG","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":" funded project was launched, international buyers from Italy were offering profiled farmers €3.51 per kg of coffee, compared to €2.16 paid for untraceable coffee of a similar quality. For a typical Arabica coffee farm of 0.4ha producing an average 600 kg per year, this translated into additional income of €850 a year. \"In 2018, over 3,000 farmers saw their incomes increase by over 25% thanks to the traceability of their coffee and access to certified markets,\" says Addison. He estimates that 10 times as many members of NUCAFE could benefit in 2019."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"CTA is also responsible for managing the capacity development element of the Global Open Data for Agriculture and Nutrition (GODAN) project, known as GODAN Action. This initiative promotes the sharing and use of data to make information about agriculture and nutrition accessible and usable for all."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"Through face-to-face training sessions, webinars and online training courses, open data users acquire the skills and knowledge they need to tackle food security and nutritional challenges. Following its launch in 2017, GODAN Action significantly increased its outreach and influence during 2018."},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"Four editions of the e-learning coursedesigned in 2017 at a workshop hosted by CTA and organised by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization -attracted over 3,000 participants, including 'infomediaries' such as journalists and ICT workers, as well as policymakers, project managers, researchers and scientists. Those who took part now have a good understanding of the principles and benefits of using open data."},{"index":5,"size":77,"text":"By September 2018, around 1,500 people had also taken part in CTA webinars on open data. These give participants the opportunity to ask questions and receive feedback on a wide range of topics. CTA has found that these are a good way of reaching relatively large audiences and encouraging different communities to share their experiences. Over 4,000 people now read CTA's GODAN material online each month and there is a vibrant community of practice for GODAN trainers."},{"index":6,"size":93,"text":"According to André Laperrière, GODAN Executive Director, CTA has played a significant part in promoting GODAN and its activities. \"They've been helpful in many different ways,\" he says. \"They provided funding -but that's just a minor part of it. They have been particularly influential in terms of capacity building and training, and they have helped to influence policymakers and others, especially in Africa. The demand for services is booming, and in January 2018 the African Union took a policy decision to encourage member states to make use of drones to increase agricultural productivity."}]},{"head":"GIACOMO RAMBALDI, CTA SENIOR PROGRAMME COORDINATOR, , ICT4AG","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"drone services. CTA encouraged the creation of the consortium and has supported its development."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"The operators at the Ghana workshop had all attended at least one of the two CTA-supported training events in 2017 at the Paris headquarters of AIRINOV, a private-sector pioneer in dronebased farming applications, with whom CTA is working closely. Here they learned how to use drones and multispectral sensors, and how to process remote-sensed data. Participants were also provided, on a co-funding basis, with drone equipment, including sensors."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"\"Drone technology is really beginning to take off in Africa,\" says Giacomo Rambaldi, CTA Senior Programme Coordinator, ICT4Ag. \"The demand for services is booming, and in January 2018 the African Union took a policy decision to encourage member states to make use of drones to increase agricultural productivity.\" CTA played a key role in the formulation of the new policy."},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"However, there are many challenges when it comes to mainstreaming the use of drones, and CTA is helping its partners not only to develop their skills and business management, but also to learn how to operate in a world where the regulatory environment is frequently unclear. This is being done under its 'Transforming African Agriculture: Eyes in the Sky, SmartTechs on the Ground' project, which runs from 2017 to 2019."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"Major clients for CTA's Africa drone partners include agribusinesses, government agencies, international donors, NGOs, research agencies and universities, large-scale farmers and farmers' organisations. Some are involved in a wide range of different sectors and activities. Global Partners, for example, currently focuses its activities on agriculture, land use planning and biodiversity conservation, but it has also become an important training centre for drone operators in West Africa."},{"index":6,"size":49,"text":"Africa Goes Digital is benefiting from advice provided by Ernst & Young Enterprise Growth Services. It will facilitate cooperation and networking between members and represent their interests. Just as importantly, the consortium has begun linking members to agribusinesses, development agencies, NGOs, government departments and others looking for drone-based services."},{"index":7,"size":153,"text":"Dr Lawani and his colleagues at EKU run faceto-face teaching courses on drone certification and the use of drone-based services. He, EKU and the consortium are now adapting the curriculum to provide online training courses for drone operators in Africa. These will be tailored to meet the different regulatory needs of countries in Africa. This is a work in progress, but members of the consortium have already held discussions with government departments in Benin and elsewhere. \"For many years, public market information systems in West Africa were designed to inform agricultural policies without necessarily responding to the direct needs of farmers,\" says Vincent Fautrel, CTA Senior Programme Coordinator, Value Chain Development. \"The idea of this initiative was to build on the success of the N'kalo service developed by RONGEAD and help the regional grain association, WAGN, develop information services for its members with a clear focus on qualitative data, including some prospective analysis.\""},{"index":8,"size":87,"text":"Established in 2009, the N'kalo market information system was initially designed to gather, analyse and disseminate information for cashew T For the vast majority of people living in West Africa, cereals are an important part of their diet. They are also the staple crop for hundreds of thousands of small-scale farmers, and boosting productivity and sales could do much to improve regional food security and tackle hunger. However, a lack of reliable information about market conditions and profitability are hindering the efficient operation of cereal value chains."},{"index":9,"size":2,"text":"©James Courtright"}]},{"head":"","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"BOOSTING PRICES AND EFFICIENCY IN THE WEST AFRICAN GRAIN MARKET","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Our current project builds on the concept of N'kalo and it is already having a significant impact for both traders and producers."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"producers in Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire and Mali. RONGEAD soon realised that information on prices alone would not be enough. Farmers also needed advice about when to sell."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Later, the project expanded to cover other crops besides cashew, such as sesame, maize, onion and yam, and was made available in eight other countries in West Africa. With support from CTA, the project provided training for over 7,600 producers, and information which reached over 47,000 producers, bringing about significant increases in income to small-scale farmers."},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"\"Our current project builds on the concept of N'kalo,\" says Fautrel, \"and it is already having a significant impact for both traders and producers.\" The project focuses on the four key West African cereal crops -rice, maize, millet and sorghum -grown in in Senegal, Guinea, Mali, Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin and Niger."},{"index":5,"size":77,"text":"Like N'kalo, the service provides a detailed analysis of market trends, informing users about what is likely to happen in the near future and providing advice on when to sell their crops. CTA has funded the training of market analysts in each of the countries covered by the project, and their data and projections are transmitted to users via SMS, as well as a regular newsletter. Twenty-two newsletters were sent during the second year of the project."},{"index":6,"size":76,"text":"Over 25,500 operators who used the service via the WAGN network saw their turnover increase by around €280,000 in the first year of the project. By the end of 2018, the project's Economic Bulletin on Cereal Markets in West Africa, which provides comprehensive analysis of the cereal market, had 2,652 subscribers, most of whom were grain traders. Furthermore, the bulletin is now used as a reference source by many organisations, including FAO and World Food Programme."},{"index":7,"size":76,"text":"The N'kalo service was initially provided free of charge, but it proved so successful that information was eventually provided to subscribers only. It is estimated that as a result of the service, producers are earning €25 to €100 more each year. It is anticipated that the current service provided by WAGN will be equally successful, although there is still some uncertainty about whether it will generate sufficient revenues to be self-sustaining in the long run. "}]},{"head":"VINCENT FAUTREL, CTA SENIOR PROGRAMME COORDINATOR, VALUE CHAIN DEVELOPMENT","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"INCREASING PRODUCTIVITY AND PROFITABILITY 2","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"For many years now, most small-scale farmers in the Pacific Islands have struggled to make a decent living. The shift from the traditional diet of fish, fruit, indigenous tubers and fresh vegetables to one based on cheap, imported, calorie-dense foods not only reduced demand for local produce but led to major health problems, with the Pacific now suffering from some of the highest rates of diet-related diseases in the world. At the same time, the remoteness of the Pacific Islands has made it difficult for farmers to take advantage of markets abroad."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"owever, this is beginning to change -most notably in Samoa, where CTA supports Women in Business Development (WIBDI), an organisation which is linking local farmers with hotels, restaurants and households, as well as major retailers with a global reach, such as the Body Shop and All Good Organics."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"\"Small island economies are never going to be major food producers, capable of competing with neighbouring countries like Australia,\" says Isolina Boto, who manages CTA's Brussels office. \"But they can focus on producing high-quality food and other products, such as coconut oil, for niche markets.\" WIBDI is using a range of innovative ICT4Ag tools to address the challenges facing local food producers. Its Farm to Table app, developed with support from CTA, now ensures that more than 1,300 small-scale farmers are linked to the people who want to buy nutritious, locally"}]},{"head":"ICTs BOOST SAMOAN AGRICULTURE","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"H ©CTA","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"ICTs BOOST SAMOAN AGRICULTURE","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"produced and mostly organic food. The app allows for better production planning and marketing and ensures that supply matches demand. Hotels, restaurants and individuals can place orders using the app, which is also proving a useful resource for anybody searching for a good meal cooked with locally grown organic ingredients. WIBDI's reputation internationally largely stems from its success in supplying organic virgin coconut oil to the Body Shop, which, in 2018, began discussions to double its order. Cosmetics made with the island's coconut oil are now being sold in more than 3,000 shops across 66 countries. The trade is proving immensely important, both for Samoa's economy and for the welfare of hundreds of farming families."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"WIBDI has benefited from a number of digitalisation initiatives besides the Farm to Table app. It now has a digital database, developed with support from CTA, which includes information on approximately 800 organic farms, providing details of their location and production systems. WIBDI has also used drones to map coconut groves and count coconut trees from the air. All of this is helping to make operations more transparent and efficient."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"Looking to the future, WIBDI anticipates that its Organic Warriors Academy -established in 2016 as part of the youth employment project funded by the United Nations Development Programme with systems support from CTA -will continue to provide training for young people, especially women, as well as access to services and markets. WIBDI is currently investigating new high-value products for export and there are plans to increase support for value addition activities at community level, and to organise agri-tourism business fairs."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"CTA's relationship with WIBDI is set to continue, with a major new project in 2019. Among other things, this will help to support the design and development of a broader agri-tourism programme in the Pacific, which will include technical training, consumer education, rural business development and initiatives to increase employment in the sector.  WIBDI's reputation internationally largely stems from its success in supplying organic virgin coconut oil to the Body Shop, which, in 2018, began discussions to double its order."}]},{"head":"BUILDING RESILIENCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Climate change is one of the greatest challenges smallholder farmers face. It is leading to an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events and undermining food security."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"To counter these threats, CTA projects in eastern and southern Africa are helping smallholder farmers become more resilient to climate change. They illustrate how climate-smart strategies -including access to accurate weather information, index-based insurance and the planting of drought-tolerant crop varieties -can not only help farmers cope with erratic weather patterns, but raise their productivity and income. CTA is also supporting similar projects across West Africa and the Caribbean."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"raditionally, when there are serious droughts, governments and aid agencies move in with lots of resources,\" says Thomas Were, who manages CTA's Climate, Livestock and Markets (CLI-MARK) project in northern Kenyan and southern Ethiopia. \"This approach is unsustainable. What we are trying to do is enhance the resilience of pastoralist communities.\""},{"index":4,"size":154,"text":"Launched in 2017, the 2-year CLI-MARK project has three main components. One of these, implemented by the International Institute for Rural Reconstruction (IIRR), is designed to link pastoralists to the individuals and organisations that buy livestock, and encourage the establishment of new enterprises. \"CLI-MARK's marketing component aims to reduce the influence of brokers and middlemen so that pastoralists get a better price,\" says Sabdiyo Dido Bashuna, CTA's Senior Technical Adviser for Value Chains and Agribusiness. The other components involve scaling up livestock insurance and providing pastoralists with realtime weather information. It is estimated that the project will help 100,000 pastoralists become more resilient to climate change. T An increase in the frequency and severity of droughts, coupled with unpredictable weather patterns, is threatening the survival of some 20 million livestock keepers in Eastern Africa. Recent droughts have eroded pastoralists' adaptive capacity to such an extent that almost every one results in a humanitarian crisis."},{"index":5,"size":78,"text":"If pastoralist communities are to flourish, they need to establish businesses which can continue to trade during difficult times. To this end, CLI-MARK has been improving the skills, knowledge and organisational capacity of 80 livestock-related enterprises associated with five markets in Kenya and five in Ethiopia. Most are managed by women and young people. The organisations which run the markets have also benefited from training, as well as learning visits to other markets, abattoirs and major livestock companies."},{"index":6,"size":175,"text":"In Ethiopia, CLI-MARK has forged close working relationships with local government departments, which helped the project identify livestock-related enterprises, most of which were poorly organised and operating on a very small scale. Two training sessions were attended by local government staff and five individuals from each of the 40 enterprises. \"CLI-MARK really helped us,\" says Garbole Jaldesa, secretary of a livestock buying enterprise which operates in Elwaye District. \"In the past, I didn't really know how to assess the price of an animal, but I do now. CLI-MARK also linked me to some lead companies. I know what their specifications are now and we are negotiating an agreement.\" \"We've noticed that there is much better cooperation between different local government departments than there was before,\" says Zerihun Lemma, IIRR country director in Ethiopia. There is now a Livestock Market Steering Committee for the five districts where the project operates, and the project also established a Livestock Marketing Forum, whose quarterly meetings are attended by government officials, CLI-MARK project staff, local enterprises and major livestock buyers."},{"index":7,"size":90,"text":"In partnership with the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), CLI-MARK is actively promoting index-based livestock insurance, which is described in greater detail on page 31. Instead of insurance agents having to visit the field to verify whether animals have died, or are about to perish, the index triggers payments when the amount of forage falls below a certain level. The pastoralists can then use the money to buy fodder -and hopefully keep their animals alive. The number of pastoralists taking advantage of the scheme has risen significantly with CTA support."},{"index":8,"size":157,"text":"The other key component of the project is an ICTbased weather information system. A Kenyan technology company, Amfratech, packages weather information provided by aWhere, a US-based organisation specialising in data management, to be used by both pastoralists and organisations involved in rangeland management. The service was first piloted in Kenya. Following its launch in November 2018, CTA partners IIRR and the Kenyan Livestock Marketing Council began a programme to promote the service. It is hoped that tens of thousands of pastoralists will eventually subscribe to the service. Realtime weather information will enable them to make crucial decisions about where and when to sell their livestock and how to plan their annual migrations.  CLI-MARK really helped us. In the past, I didn't really know how to assess the price of an animal, but I do now. CLI-MARK also linked me to some lead companies. I know what their specifications are now and we are negotiating an agreement."}]},{"head":"GARBOLE JALDESA, SECRETARY OF A LIVESTOCK IN ELWAYE DISTRICT, ETHIOPIA","index":26,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CLIMATE-PROOFING PASTORALISM IN EASTERN AFRICA","index":28,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"COPING WITH CLIMATE CHANGE IN SOUTHERN AFRICA","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":195,"text":"By the time CTA's regional flagship project for Southern Africa comes to an end in 2020, around 140,000 small-scale farmers in Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi will have adopted a range of climate-smart strategies to help them cope with drought and erratic weather patterns. About 75,000 farmers are benefiting from the bundle of climate-smart agricultural solutions at the end of the first year of implementation. After training, some 230 farmers in Grace's camp were registered with the project. Since then, she has kept in close touch with the farmers, holding training sessions at which she urges them to plant drought-resistance varieties, pay close attention T he 'Scaling up Climate Smart Agricultural Solutions for Cereal and Livestock Farmers' project consists of four main components. It is providing farmers with access to weather information and agricultural advice, which they receive on their mobile phones. The project also promotes the use of drought-tolerant seeds as well as encouraging farmers to buy index-based weather insurance. Farmers are also being encouraged to combine crops and livestock to increase the robustness of their farming systems, diversify their livelihood options, enhance the quality of their soils and help them cope with climatic shocks."}]},{"head":"","index":30,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"©CTA","index":31,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"It was tremendously important to involve both government and the private sector. The government sees us as a valuable partner and this has given the project a high political profile.","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"to the SMS messages they receive and consider diversifying their crops and introducing livestock."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"The Zambian Open University (ZAOU), which manages the project in Zambia, organised twelve seed fairs, one in each project district, to foster greater awareness about drought-tolerant seeds."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"The fairs provided a forum for commercial seed companies, agrodealers, extension workers and over 800 farmers. \"We were very happy to be invited,\" says John Muzondiwa, technical sales representative with Pannar Seeds. \"Fairs like this are a great way for us to meet large numbers of farmers and talk to them about products like drought-tolerant varieties of maize.\""},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"Regional projects like this require strong partnerships between organisations which bring their own comparative advantages to the table. In Zambia, ZAOU, MUSIKA Development Initiatives and Professional Insurance -a private-sector organisation -lead project activities. In Zimbabwe, the key players are the Zimbabwe Farmers Union (ZFU) and the telecommunications company, Econet Wireless, while in Malawi the National Smallholder Farmers Association is leading the work in collaboration with the Department of Climate Change and Meteorological Services and NICO General Insurance Company."},{"index":5,"size":42,"text":"During the first year of the project, some 75,000 smallholder farmers were digitally registered. Over 48,000 farmers began receiving weather and advisory services by text. 8,000 farmers received information about drought-tolerant seeds, and over 400 agro-dealers were trained in climate-smart agricultural practices."},{"index":6,"size":66,"text":"The success of the project owes much to the collaboration between the public and private sectors and generators of knowledge on climate-smart agriculture. \"It was tremendously important to involve both government and the private sector,\" reflects Kolawole Udubote, Country Team Leader and Dean of Agricultural Sciences at ZAOU. \"The government sees us as a valuable partner and this has given the project a high political profile.\""},{"index":7,"size":82,"text":"Development projects often falter once donor support ceases. \"We want to change this narrative,\" says Oluyede Ajayi, CTA's Senior Programme Coordinator, Agriculture and Climat Change. \"One of the best ways of doing that is to establish a solid investment case for partners who were there before the project and will be there afterwards.\" As private sector companies involved in the project have a financial interest in its success, there is a good chance that its influence will continue beyond its lifetime. "}]},{"head":"KOLAWOLE UDUBOTE, COUNTRY TEAM LEADER AND DEAN OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES AT ZAOU","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Erratic and unpredictable weather and changes in the climate threaten the livelihoods and survival of tens of millions of smallholder farmers in Africa."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"When crops fail, or livestock die of hunger, the repercussions can be devastating. To give just one example, severe drought in 2017 led to cattle herders in northern Kenya losing over 70% of their livestock. In Ethiopia, over 5 million people required emergency food aid and almost 2 million people were displaced from their homes."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"reventing these catastrophes requires a range of solutions, some of which have been highlighted in the last two stories, such as the introduction of droughttolerant seeds, the creation of more robust value chains and access to expert advice and weather information. Another increasingly important element in terms of improving resilience to climate change is index-based insurance."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"Index-based livestock insurance was first piloted in Eastern Africa in northern Kenya in 2010. Two years later, a similar scheme was launched in Ethiopia. This is, briefly, how it works: ILRI analyses satellite imagery provided by NASA to establish when fodder levels have fallen so low that livestock are likely to die. Instead of insurance agents having to go out and verify whether animals have died, the index triggers immediate payments to policyholders."}]},{"head":"INSURANCE: SAVING LIVES AND LIVELIHOODS","index":34,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"P","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Since it was launched in 2017, the CLI-MARK project has been encouraging pastoralists in Kenya and Ethiopia to take out livestock insurance."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"Since it was launched in 2017, the CLI-MARK project (see page 27) has been encouraging pastoralists in Kenya and Ethiopia to take out livestock insurance. As a result, the number joining the schemes has significantly increased, in the case of Ethiopia from 707 pastoralists in 2016 to 2,942 in 2017. Key players in this story are the village insurance promoters and sales agents, who are benefiting from training sessions funded by CTA. \"CLI-MARK has been extremely important for us,\" says Getaneh Erena, Oromia Insurance Company's Senior Livestock Insurance Officer. \"The project joined us at a critical time when we were out of sponsors and needed support.\""},{"index":3,"size":200,"text":"In Kenya, CLI-MARK has worked closely with Takaful Insurance Company. One of the many people to benefit from insurance is Habiba Jattan, a pastoralist in Isiolo. In 2016, she insured 16 cattle and 20 goats, and received a pay-out of KSh150,000 (€1,500) when fodder levels fell below a predetermined level. Asked what she would do if there were several years of good weather and no pay-outs, she replies: \"I would still take out insurance, because I've had a very good experience with it.\" CTA's Southern Africa flagship climate-smart agriculture project (see page 29) is encouraging farmers to take out crop insurance. In Zimbabwe, the project has benefited from existing services provided to farmers by the ZFU and Econet Wireless. These organisations have created a remarkable product, known as the eco-farmer combo, for which farmers pay US$1 dollar per month. Known as the \"dollar that does miracles\", it is split three ways to cover funeral insurance, a range of ZFU services and weather-index insurance. In mid-2018, support from CTA enabled ZFU to hold 66 training sessions for its agents in 30 wards, focusing on the promotion of insurance. By July, over 10,725 Zimbabwean farmers had signed up for the eco-farmer combo."},{"index":4,"size":213,"text":"Another CTA project which is encouraging farmers to take out insurance is the Market-led User-owned ICT4Ag-enabled Information Service (MUIIS) in Uganda (see page 16). MUIIS's service bundle provides farmers with agronomic tips, weather alerts and index-based insurance, all delivered to their mobile phones. For many subscribers, insurance is a key component of the bundle. \"I know that if I lose some of my maize because of drought, like I did last year, I will now get compensation,\" says Robinah Nasjamma, a farmer in Zirobwe District. For her, as for a growing number of farmers, index-based insurance is becoming an important safety net in the struggle to cope with a changing climate.  In 2018, CTA launched a new project, VALUE4HER, which is designed to strengthen women's agribusiness enterprises in Southern, Eastern and Western Africa, as well as in the Caribbean. think it will make a real difference to the lives of large numbers of women, and help them move towards the business end of value chains where most of the profits are to be found,\" says Sabdiyo Dido Bashuna, CTA Senior Technical Adviser for Value Chains & Agribusiness. The 2-year project aims to help 100 large-scale women-led agribusinesses access high-value markets. These, in turn, will benefit around 10,000 medium-scale agribusinesses and 50,000 women."},{"index":5,"size":80,"text":"The project has three main components. The first two, which will be launched in 2019, are designed to help women-led agribusinesses access high-value agricultural markets. They will do this in two ways: by providing women with access to market intelligence and price information; and by providing women with the training and skills they need to improve their business performance. The third component aims to build women's capacity to manage and expand their businesses by improving their skills, knowledge and networks."},{"index":6,"size":101,"text":"One of the main activities for 2018 involved the design and development of a digital agribusiness intelligence portal for women agripreneurs in Africa. This aims to bridge the information gap that repeatedly disadvantages women in agricultural markets. To this end, a call for registration of women agribusinesses was made in East and Southern Africa. By early 2019, 350 women agripreneurs were registered and the portal was under construction. The agripreneurs will receive customised services ranging from market information and business intelligence to well-targeted training and self-development modules. Additionally, financiers and other business service providers will be able to reach women agripreneurs."},{"index":7,"size":76,"text":"In 2018, CTA and its South African lead partner -African Women Innovation and Entrepreneurship Forum (AWIEF) -hosted a global event that featured best practices in women entrepreneurship in general, and women agripreneurship in particular. They also launched the VALUE4HER Women Agripreneur of the Year Awards, which recognised and celebrated women who had excelled in different parts of the agricultural value chain. The awards ceremony took place in Cape Town, South Africa, at the 4th AWIEF Conference."},{"index":8,"size":108,"text":"The three winners included a wide range of women-led businesses of varying sizes and age groups. A Kenyan company, Exotic EPZ Ltd, works directly with smallholder farmers to maximise their yields and profits from macadamia nuts and three different tree oils. Elgin Free Range Chickens, established 20 years ago, is now one of the largest businesses of its kind in South Africa. Agrisolve in Ghana works with smallholder farmers to improve their access to inputs and technology, as well as guaranteed markets for their produce. These three winners -Exotic EPZ, Elgin Free Range Chickens, and Agrisolve -received trophies and certificates, as well as significant cash prizes, from CTA."},{"index":9,"size":129,"text":"Just as importantly, according to Irene Ochem, Executive Director of AWIEF, they and other entrants provide a tremendous example to others. \"The awards recognised women who had excelled and showed great innovation in their businesses,\" she says. \"We hope that this awards ceremony will motivate those already in the business to do better, inspire more women to get into agribusinesses and help change perceptions about women's ability to establish and develop successful businesses''.  experience capitalisation workshops held in East Africa in 2018 focused on public, private and producer partnerships. These included projects designed to increase awareness of post-harvest best practice for maize in Rwanda, improve market access for fruit and vegetable growers in Zanzibar, boost soybean production in Uganda and set up an agricultural growth corridor in Tanzania."},{"index":10,"size":158,"text":"\"The main aim of the project has been to validate the approach of experience capitalisation,\" says Jorge Chavez-Tafur, CTA Associate Programme Coordinator for Knowledge Management. \"We wanted to demonstrate that experience capitalisation is possible, that it is not expensive, and that you do not necessarily require an external consultant, nor a lot of time.\" D uring 2016 and 2017, CTA and its partners convened experience capitalisation workshops in the ACP regions where CTA works, as well as in Southeast Asia, India and Nepal, and Latin America. Two workshops were held in each region. During the first, those attending chose which experiences to focus on before carrying out a detailed analysis of the lessons learned. The second workshop was devoted to writing and presenting stories and preparing action plans for the future. In 2018, CTA and IFAD produced six experience capitalisation publications. For many workshop participants, this was their first opportunity to showcase their experiences to a wider public."},{"index":11,"size":76,"text":"Experiences, of course, refer to a great spectrum of activities. To give just one example, the  According to many of CTA's partners, the workshops have had a real impact. Take, for example, the experience of the Savannah Young Farmers Network in northern Ghana. Its executive director Moses Nganwani Tia was able to reflect on the network's flagship youth-in-agribusiness development initiative, Innovation Hub (iHub), when he attended CTA's experience capitalisation workshops in West Africa in 2017."},{"index":12,"size":106,"text":"In 2016, 10 farmers expressed an interest in working with iHub to establish a beekeeping industry in Ghana's Upper East region. The Timonde Bee Keepers Association set up 52 beehives with an annual honey production capacity of 450 kg, with support from a climate adaptation fund. According to Moses, the experience capitalisation workshop, and the lessons learned from examining iHub activities, led to significant expansion of the beekeeping industry. Some 377 women have now adopted beekeeping in six villages and UNDP, the World Bank and the Ministry of Environment, are now promoting beekeeping as an activity which can help communities become more resilient to climate change."},{"index":13,"size":51,"text":"One of the most interesting results is that CTA itself has become an enthusiastic adopter of the approach, and during 2018 a series of experience capitalisation workshops brought together CTA staff and partners. The processes have focused on the CTA thematic areas of youth, ICTs and digitalisation, climate-smart agriculture and gender."},{"index":14,"size":113,"text":"In October 2018, the project held a facilitator's meeting at IFAD's headquarters in Rome. This was attended by 28 facilitators, all of whom had completed their own capitalisation process during the past 2 years, and also supported others. Participants were able to reflect on the main issues which need to be considered before and during the capitalisation process. The workshop also discussed and validated a facilitators' guide which will be published in early 2019. \"I think the process of experience capitalisation has really taken off now, and many of those who have benefited from our workshops will continue to use it and promote it after our project ends in 2019,\" says Chavez-Tafur. "},{"index":15,"size":29,"text":"We wanted to demonstrate that experience capitalisation is possible, that it is not expensive, and that you do not necessarily require an external consultant, nor a lot of time. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Michael Hailu, CTA Director ©CTA Michael Hailu, Director his has been an exciting and important year for CTA. With the launch of a host of projects, the development of new partnerships leaves CTA well positioned to affect change for those who need it the most. Our interventions are helping to improve the lives and welfare of hundreds of thousands of smallholder farmers in ACP countries. "},{"text":" etter access to data could dramatically improve both farm productivity and profitability,\" says Chris Addison, CTA Senior Programme Coordinator, Data4Ag. The activities managed by Addison and his colleague Chipo Msengezi are now bringing about real and tangible change. "},{"text":"\" Most of Africa missed out on the Green Revolution that transformed agriculture in South and East Asia, but we're not going to miss the digital revolution,\" says Dr Abdelaziz Lawani, Professor of Agribusiness at Eastern Kentucky University (EKU). Dr Lawani is also the founder of Global Partners, a Benin-based start-up which uses unmanned aerial vehicles -or drones -to provide a range of services to farmers and others.esides providing farmers with real-time data to improve their management of crops, soils and livestock, and to minimise environmental damage and maximise profits, drone services and other innovative digital technologies are helping to attract young people into the agricultural sector. They may even help to prevent the mass movement of young people into the cities.Dr Lawani was one of 11 drone operators to attend an 'experience capitalisation' workshop organised by CTA in Ghana, in June 2018. Participants were able to share their experiences, discuss challenges and learn from each other's successes and failures. \"We also decided to continue working together in a more formal way as a consortium,\" says Dr Lawani. The consortium, Africa Goes Digital, now has some 30 members across 17 African countries, most of whom offer really beginning to take off in Africa. "},{"text":"\" I really believe that through the consortium we can help to change the way agriculture is done in Africa,\" says Dr Lawani.  INCREASING PRODUCTIVITY AND PROFITABILITY 2 BOOSTING PRICES AND EFFICIENCY IN THE WEST AFRICAN GRAIN MARKET o tackle the problem, CTA launched a regional grain market intelligence service in February 2016, in partnership with the French NGO RON-GEAD and the West African Grain Network (WAGN). Development and implementation of the service was entrusted to RONGEAD, working within the framework of a programme on food security funded by the French Development Agency through the Economic Community of West African States. "},{"text":" The project's foot soldiers in Zambia are 331 Camp Extension Officers (CEOs) employed by the Ministry of Agriculture. \"Our biggest challenges are the way the distribution of the rain has changed and animal diseases,\" says Grace Sohati, CEO for Mwachisompola Camp in Chibombo District. \"The CTA project is definitely helping me, and our farmers, learn how to cope better with climate change.\" "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"a8f7fe8d-c282-4aae-add6-a1035ed46685","abstract":"countries' entrepreneurs have received training in drone operation and service delivery as part of the Eyes in the Sky project. cooperatives and their members in Cameroon and DRC have been trained in good governance and leadership as part of the Manioc 21 programme. farmers were registered in East and Southern Africa by the Data4Ag project which aims to improve their access to inputs, crop husbandry advice and markets. high-level participants attended 4 Brussels Briefings events. individual users viewed a total of 2,350,303 CTA web pages with a new blog currently driving 9% of traffic to the CTA website.Small Island Developing States implemented policy measures to enhance agri-tourism thanks to the CTA project, Linking agriculture to tourism markets in Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b234b7a2e445b54e12b60ba472dd82e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2268d7d6-827c-4798-816d-68a121903acd/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Uso del código de barras para identificar posibles biotipos del perforador del fruto Neoleucinodes elegantalis (Guenée) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), una importante plaga de frutas solanáceas Andinas","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":288,"text":"El análisis de NJ de agrupamiento sugirió un patrón respecto al tipo de zona de vida de Holdridge (Holdridge, 1947) para los grupos 2, 3 y 4, sin embargo los niveles de agrupación no revelaron un patrón por el tipo de planta solanácea utilizada (Figura 2). El análisis de correlación de Heterogeneidad y distribución geográfica de las secuencias COI evaluadas (Figura 2), revelo información que sugiere una hipótesis para explicar la diferenciación observada en el grupo 2, compuesto por 26 individuos que se encuentran sin excepción ubicados en el costado occidental de la cordillera central, más específicamente en el área centro-occidental de la región Andina Colombiana. Ubicación que los separa geográficamente del resto de poblaciones de Neoleucinodes (de los grupos 1, 3 y 4), ubicados a lo largo de la cordillera oriental, es probable que el aislamiento geográfico no tenga efecto en la distribución de los individuos, sin embargo circunstancias relacionadas con la distribución de este grupo de individuos y la precensia de cultivo de solanáceas en la región Andina y la aplicación desmedida de diversos agroquímicos (Cifuentes et al. 1987) podrían generar este resultado por presión selectiva .Para la distribución y agrupamiento de los individuos no se encontró ninguna correlación entre los agrupamientos de individuos y el tipo de planta solanácea hospedera, aspecto que sugiere que una limitada especialización de los posibles grupos aquí reportados en relación a un cultivo especifico de solanácea. Es de Anotar que existe una marcada relación entre el tipo de zona de vida y la agregación de individuos con la misma secuencia COI, principalmente en el caso de las poblaciones ubicadas a lo largo de la cordillera central (grupo 2) y en el norte de la cordillera oriental (grupos 3 y 4)."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"•Con este trabajo se logra una primera aproximación al análisis genético de N. elegantalis, especie para la cual no existen secuencias de ADN reportadas en las bases de datos y tampoco estudios que incluyan algún tipo de caracterización molecular."},{"index":3,"size":127,"text":"•EL código de barras de ADN mostró una buena sensibilidad en la detección de posibles biotipos de N. elegantalis, dicho resultado sugiere de manera preliminar la presencia de al menos 4 grupos geográficos diferentes, los cuales podrían estar definidos por el gradiente de humedad especifico para las zonas de vida de clima templado (bh-PM/bmh-PM), por barreras naturales y en una gran medida por la intervención a trópica. El haplotipo 2, correspondiente a individuos encontrados en la zona de vida de bh-PM, podría sugerir un proceso de especiación o al menos de manera preliminar una especie incipiente. Mediante la implementación de esta metodología se logró confirmar a nivel molecular la existencia de una nueva especie de Neoleucinodes (N. silvaniae), reportada por Díaz y Solís (2007), empleando caracteres morfológicos."},{"index":4,"size":151,"text":"La herramienta del código de barras de ADN funciona como un sistema de identificación de especies a partir del análisis de la secuencia del gen Citocromo oxidasa I (COI), representado en un segmento estándar del genoma (~650 pares de bases). Neoleucinodes elegantalis es un insecto de origen neotropical, ampliamente distribuido en centro y sur América. Esta especie es considerada una de las plagas más importantes para la producción de frutas de la familia Solanácea. N. elegantalis posee un amplio rango de adaptación altitudinal (0-2600 msnm), considerable diversidad y especificidad de enemigos naturales, variabilidad en términos de hábitos de ovoposición y pupación, una amplia gama de solanáceas silvestres hospederas y un marcado comportamiento de atracción diferencial a la feromona sexual Neoelegantol. El objetivo del presente trabajo es evaluar la herramienta del código de barras de ADN en el estudio de poblaciones de Neoleucinodes elegantalis, provenientes de solanáceas cultivadas y silvestres de Colombia."},{"index":5,"size":40,"text":"•Extracción de ADN a un total de 94 muestras siguiendo la metodología propuesta por Gilbertson et al. (1991). . •Amplificación mediante PCR de la región mitocondrial del gen COI, regiones flanqueadas con los cebadores COI-F (5 GGTCAACAAATCATAAAGATATTGG-3') / COI-R (5'-TAAACTTCAGGGTGACCAAAAAATCA-3')."},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"•Purificación y secuenciación de los productos de PCR a través de un secuenciador automático ABI Prism 377 (Perkin Elmer/ Applied Biosystem)"},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"•Ensamblaje de secuencias utilizando el software Sequencher 4.6 (Gene Codes Corporation, Ann Arbor, MI."},{"index":8,"size":35,"text":"•Uso de programas Bioinformaticos para el alineamiento y verificación de las secuencias, la composición de nucleótidos de cada espécimen, estimación de la divergencia evolutiva y distancias genéticas el patrón de sustitución entre transversiones y transiciones."},{"index":9,"size":47,"text":"•Análisis gráfico para determinar la composición y heterogeneidad de nucleótidos entre las secuencias consenso, obtenidas para cada uno de los biotipos generados y la determinación distribución geográfica de cada muestra, utilizando el programa ArcGIS -ArcMap (ESRI, 1999(ESRI, -2008, basado , basado en SIG (Sistemas de Información Geográfica)."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCCIÓN","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"¹Proyecto Agrobiodiversidad y Biotecnología, Centro internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Palmira, Valle del Cauca. ²Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuario (CORPOICA), Centro de Investigación La Selva, Rionegro, Antioquía. [email protected]"}]},{"head":"MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"RESULTADOS DISCUSION Composición y divergencias de las secuencias COI","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Las secuencias mostraron una divergencia variable, con una distancia promedio entre los individuos de 0.38%, con un valor mínimo de 0.1% y 1.9% como porcentaje de mayor divergencia (Tabla 2). El numero de sustituciones a nivel de nucleótidos para cada grupo vario entre 1 y 13 nucleótidos en las comparaciones intraespecificas, para el caso de las comparaciones interespecificas las sustituciones entre N. elegantalis y N. silvaniae (n. sp.) oscilaron entre 24 y 37."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONES AGRADECIMIENTOS BIBLIOGRAFIA","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"A el Fondo Regional de Tecnologia Agropecuaria FONTAGRO por su aporte económico para el desarrollo de este trabajo."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Figura 1. Heterogeneidad (He) de las secuencias de Citocromo oxidasa I (COI) de Neoleucinodes elegantalis. "},{"text":"Figura 2 . Figura 2. distribución geográfica de las muestras y correlación de la organización espacial de los cuatro grupos encontrados a partir del análisis de GIS (Sistemas de Información Geográfica). "}],"sieverID":"1cfac937-7573-40f6-9c82-64c437ac451a","abstract":"Tabla 2. Estimación de la divergencia entre grupos.. El número de sustituciones se muestra sobre la diagonal. Los grupos (1, 2, 3 y 4) corresponden a Neoleucinodes elegantalis.Mediante el árbol de NJ se establecieron cuatro agrupamientos básicos, correspondientes a los posibles biotipos propuestos, en el caso de las muestras de N. elegantalis (< 0.5%) a nivel interespecifico, con una clara excepción para el grupo 2, el cual agrupo 26 individuos, representando un 28% del total de muestras evaluadas, esta agrupación mostró divergencias que oscilaron entre 1.9% y 2.6% con respecto de los otros grupos del árbol de NJ. (Figura 3)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b31d1f6b982231dfc342f0ca53df64d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/be7d2f19-eea8-4578-acf5-31db8e9dfc5c/retrieve"},"pageCount":35,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Results","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":285,"text":"Figure 13. 1 shows the effect of annual application of various combinations of N, P and K on the cassava root yield and leaf life (at 3 MAP) of two varieties during the 14 th year of planting at Thai Nguyen University. Without fertilizer application, the yields of both varieties had further decreased to only 1-2 t/ha while with high levels of NPK application yields were 21-24 t/ha. Among the three major plant nutrients, K was the most important in increasing yields, followed by N and then P. There was a significant response only to the first increment of 20 kg P 2 O 5 /ha, and to the 2 nd increment of N corresponding to 80 kg N/ha; it is likely, however that yields and yield responses to N and P were constraint by an inadequate level of 80 kg K 2 O/ha. To maintain high yields, an annual application of at least 160 kg N, 80 kg P 2 O 5 and 160 kg K 2 O/ha are required. These high rates are necessary because all plant parts were removed from the field with each harvest, which is a common practice in Vietnam. While all these plant parts are fully utilized, this practice does result in high levels of nutrient removal, which may lead to nutrient depletion and a deterioration of soil productivity. Figure 13.1 also shows that the improved variety KM 60 produced consistently higher yields than the local variety Vinh Phu, both in the absence and presence of fertilizers. Interestingly, Vinh Phu had a longer leaf life than KM 60; in both varieties leaf life greatly increased with increasing K application, while N or P had only a slight positive effect."},{"index":2,"size":248,"text":"Similarly, in eight FPR fertilizer trials conducted by farmers in Dong Rang village in Hoa Binh province (Table 13.1), highest yields and net income were consistently obtained with the highest rates of N, P and K applied, i.e. either 40 kg N, 40 P 2 O 5 and 80 K 2 O/ha or 60 kg N, 60 P 2 O 5 and 120 K 2 O/ha. In this location all three nutrients are important, but N and K were required at higher rates than P. Similar results were obtained in FPR fertilizer trials conducted by five farmers in Kieu Tung village in Phu Tho province of Vietnam. The application of 60 kg N, 40 P 2 O 5 and 120 K 2 O/ha combined with 10 t/ha of pig manure produced the highest average yields and net income (Table 13.2). These FPR fertilizer trials conducted by farmers on their own fields are an excellent way to show the importance of the right balance of nutrients for each crop; this helps to enhance adoption of improved fertilization practices, which in turn leads to higher yields and income. The combination of high-yielding varieties (such as KM 98-7 in Table 13.1) with adequate and well-balanced fertilization is generally the most important factors to increase cassava yields in Asia. In Vietnam, the rapid expansion of new varieties and the greater use of chemical fertilizers markedly increased cassava yields in the country, from about 8.3 t/ha in 2000 to 14.1 t/ha in 2003."},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"Output 13-3"},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":"2004 Annual Report "}]},{"head":"Green manure experiment in Khaw Hin Sorn, Thailand","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"A similar trial was conducted for the first year in Khaw Hin Sorn Experiment Station in Chachoengsao province of Thailand. The experimental details as well as the 1 st year's results of this experiment have been described in the 2003 Annual Report. Cassava variety KU 50 was planted at a planting distance of 1.0x1.0 m. Six green manure (GM) species were planted between rows at one MAP cassava. All plots received 156 kg/ha of 15-7-18 except treatment 8 which received 469 kg/ha without GM"}]},{"head":"Results","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"Table 13. 3 shows the results for the second year of intercropping cassava with six green manures (GM). Unlike the first year, when highest yields were obtained with the low level of 25 kg/rai (156 kg/ha) of 15-7-18 fertilizer, during the second year this was achieved with the high rate of 75 kg/rai (469 kg/ha). Intercropping cassava with various green manure species (planted at 1 MAP cassava) and pulling and mulching the GM two months later, did not increase cassava yields except in the case of Canavalia ensiformis; all other GM species decreased cassava yields due to excessive competition for light, water and nutrients. The highest net income was obtained with the highest rate of chemical fertilizers, followed by the lower rate of fertilizer combined with intercropped Canavalia ensiformis. In both years, Canavalia or sword bean was the most successful of all the green manure species tested, while Mucuna sp. and Crotalaria juncea were the least successful due to their strong competitive effect on cassava."}]},{"head":"Activity 13.2 Development of efficient and economical soil preparation practices.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"The rationale, specific objectives and materials and methods for these experiments have been described in the 2003 Annual Report. An experiment comparing the effect of ten different methods of soil preparation on the yield and starch content of four cassava varieties was conducted in three sites in Thailand, i.e. at Khaw Hin Sorn Experiment Station in Chachoengsao province, at TTDI Research and Development Center in Nakhon Ratchasima province, and in a farmer's field near Rayong Field Crops Research Center in Rayong province. These experiments were planted at the same sites for three consecutive years, although at TTDI and Khaw Hin Sorn some treatments were changed after the first year. Project IP3: improving cassava for the developing world Output 13-6  "}]},{"head":"Results","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Table 13. 4 shows the results for the third year in Rayong, while Table 13.5 shows a summary of the effect on yield for all three sites over three years. During the 3 rd year in Rayong the use of a subsoiler followed by a 3-disk plow resulted in the highest yield as well as the highest starch content of all four varieties. As indicated in Table 13.4 this resulted in the highest gross and net income. This treatment leaves the soil surface rather rough for planting, but results in better drainage and probably less runoff and erosion. Table 13.5"},{"index":2,"size":282,"text":"shows that this treatment also produced the highest yield during the 2 nd year, while during the first year it produced the 2 nd highest yield, after the traditional practice of 3-disk plow followed by 7-disk harrow and up/down ridging. At TTDI the use of the subsoiler followed by chisel plow and application of Glyphosate to kill weeds before planting produced the highest average yields over the three years. However, during the third year, the no-tillage treatment produced the highest yield. During that year cassava growth and yields were very poor due to a severe drought in the middle of the wet season. In Khaw Hin Sorn the trial was moved to a different site in the 2 nd year. Yields were exceptionally high in the 2 nd year, but decreased substantially in the 3 rd year. The traditional practice of 3-disk plow followed by 7-disk harrow and up-down ridging produced the highest yield. Averaged over all three locations and three years, the traditional practice of 3-disk + 7disk + ridging produced the highest yield, closely followed by subsoiler + chisel plow using Glyphosate, or subsoiler followed by 3-disk and 7-disk plow. The subsoiler in combination with chisel or 3-disk plow, or 3-disk + 7 disk harrow seems to improve drainage resulting in higher yields. However, the no-tillage treatment, using only Glyphosate to control weeds, produced an overall average yield of 91% of the maximum yield. Even though it may result in a higher net income than full land preparation, it is unlikely that this practice will be adopted by farmers, as it does make manual planting and harvesting more difficult; it may be more acceptable once both these operations are mechanized."}]},{"head":"Activity 13.3 Determination of the response to various methods of application of Zn in calcareous soils.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"The rationale and specific objectives of these experiments were presented in the 2003 Annual Report."}]},{"head":"Results","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"The "}]},{"head":"Activity 13.4 Evaluation of cassava varieties and determination of optimum plant spacing for cassava leaf production.","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Rationale","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"Cassava root pellets are widely used in Europe for animal feeding. In Thailand this is not yet widely practiced due to the availability of other cheap raw materials for the production of animal feed, such as broken rice and maize. The low protein content of cassava roots and the inadequate local supply of soybean limits the local use of cassava in animal feed rations. However, cassava leaves are known to contain high levels of crude protein with a good amino acid spectrum. Recent research indicate that the low-medium tannin content of cassava leaves actually improves protein digestibility. Thus, intensive research was initiated to identify the best varieties for leaf production and to determine the most economic way of producing high yields of leaves as well as roots."}]},{"head":"Specific Objective a)","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"To determine the best varieties and cultural practices for obtaining high leaf and root yields and maximize net farm income."}]},{"head":"Results","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Varietal evaluation:","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":264,"text":"Table 13. 7 shows the results of a varietal trial for leaf production conducted at TTDI Research and Development Center in Nakhon Ratchasima province, one of three such trials conducted in Thailand in 2003/04. This year both leaf and root production were markedly reduced due to a prolonged drought during the wet season. The total dry leaf yield, the sum of four cuts, averaged only 5.58 t/ha at TTDI, as compared to 15.3 t/ha last year in Rayong and 11.5 t/ha in Khon Kaen. Among the 25 varieties/lines tested, the highest dry leaf yield of 9.55 t/ha was obtained with the breeding line CMR 41-61-59, while high leaf yields were also obtained with the newly released variety Huay Bong 60 and Rayong 90, as well as the line CMR 41-111-129. Root yields this year were also low, on average 10.89 t/ha. These low yields are partially due to incomplete plant stands due to the lack of good quality planting material of some lines. The highest root yield was obtained with the two recommended varieties, Rayong 90 and Rayong 5, followed by CMR 41-61-59 and Huay Bong 60. These and many new breeding lines are being further evaluated in 2004/05. For farmers, the production of cassava leaves for animal feed is only economically profitable if the selected varieties produce both high yields of dry leaves with high crude protein content, as well as high yields of roots with adequate starch contents.  2) Price: cassava: baht 1.20/kg fresh roots at 30% starch, 0.02 baht reduction for every 1% starch reduction 3) Production costs: see Table 13.4c."}]},{"head":"Variety x plant spacing:","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":452,"text":"Results of a plant spacing trial for leaf production using three varieties/lines at TTDI Center are shown in Tables 8 and 9. Cassava stakes were planted at a spacing of 60x60, 50x50, 40x40 and 30x30 cm. Table 13.8 shows that four cuts of plant tops during the 10-month growth cycle produced a total average dry leaf yield of only 5.5 t/ha. Leaf yields tended to increase with increasing plant density. However, the opposite is true for root production, which generally decreased with increasing plant density. Similarly, gross income tended to increase with increasing density, while production costs and the resulting net income markedly decreased with increasing plant density. At high plant density the higher cost of Project IP3: improving cassava for the developing world Output 13-12 planting material and planting (at 30x30 cm the number of plants per area is 4 times higher as compared to planting at 60x60 cm) is only partially offset by a lower cost for weeding, while the higher cost of harvesting leaves (due to higher leaf yields) is partially offset by the lower costs of harvesting and transport of roots. Total production costs were consistently highest at higher plant densities, resulting in a negative net income at the closest spacing of 30x30 cm. Table 13.9 indicates that, on average, for the three varieties/lines, highest leaf yields were obtained at 30x30 cm, highest root yields at 40x40 cm, and highest net income at 60x60 cm plant spacing. This confirms results of last year's experiments, which also indicated that a high net income is generally obtained at a wider spacing (60x60 cm) because of higher root yields and lower production costs. Other planting arrangements such as 60x30 cm or strips of closely-spaced plants alternated with walk ways of 90 cm to facilitate the frequent harvests, are presently being investigated. Ultimately, the optimum balance of leaf and root yields will depend on the price of leaves and roots, which can vary from year to year. The rationale, specific objectives and materials and methods were outlined in the 2003 Annual Report. Table 13.10 shows that in 2003/04, the last year of the Nippon Foundationfunded cassava project in Thailand, Vietnam and China, a total of 244 FPR trials were conducted in those three countries. During the 5-year period of the second phase of this project, a total of 1,154 FPR trials were conducted by farmers on their own fields in a total of 99 project sites (villages). Farmers were most interested in testing varieties, followed by chemical fertilizers, erosion control practices, intercropping (mainly in Vietnam) and green manures (mainly in Thailand). In Vietnam and China farmers also tested various feed rations with ensiled cassava roots and leaves in FPR pig feeding trials. "}]},{"head":"Results","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"FPR erosion control trials:","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":217,"text":"In 2003/04 a total of 34 FPR erosion control trials were conducted on farmers' fields. Table 13.11 shows one example of a trial conducted by seven farmers with adjacent plots on a 40% slope in Kieu Tung village in north Vietnam. The same trial with only slight modification of treatments had been planted on the same plots for nine consecutive years. The planting of contour hedgerows of vetiver grass was consistently the best practice, reducing erosion from 87 to 37 t/ha and increasing cassava yields from 25 to 30 t/ha, resulting in the highest net income and benefit-cost ratio. However, in other trials, contour hedgerows of Tephrosia candida and Paspalum atratum were also very effective in reducing erosion and increasing cassava yields. These beneficial effects tended to increase over time, as these contour hedgerows contributed to the natural formation of terraces, mostly as a result of land preparation. Figures 2 and 3 clearly show how the planting of contour hedgerows became increasingly more effective over time in decreasing soil losses by erosion while also increasing cassava yields as compared to the check plot without hedgerows. Vetiver grass was usually more effective than Tephrosia candida in reducing erosion, while Leucaena was more effective in increasing yields, probably through the supply of N to cassava in the Leucaena prunings."},{"index":2,"size":229,"text":"When the results of all erosion control experiments, demonstration plots and FPR trials were converted to relative cassava yields and relative soil losses (with the check plot without hedgerows taken as 100%) it was possible to compare the \"average\" effect of each soil conservation practice on erosion and yield. In Vietnam (Table 13.12), contour hedgerows of vetiver grass were on average most effective in reducing erosion, by 52 and 49%, as well as in increasing cassava yields by 13 and 15%, for cassava monoculture and intercropped with peanuts, respectively. Hedgerows of Tephrosia candida and Paspalum atratum also decreased erosion by about 50% while increasing cassava yields between 5 and 12%. Lack of fertilizer application not only decreased yields but also increased erosion by 37 to 102%. Closer spacing was the most effective practice to increase yields, but was not effective in reducing erosion. Similarly, in Thailand (Table 13.13), hedgerows of vetiver grass and Paspalum atratum were most effective in decreasing erosion by 42 and 47%, respectively, but both species also reduced cassava yields by about 10% through crop competition and by occupying some area of the production field. Contour ridging, closer plant spacing and lemon grass hedgerows were intermediately effective in reducing erosion, but were most effective in increasing yields. Lack of fertilizer application slightly decreased yields, but increased erosion by 140%, while up-and-down ridging increased erosion by 24%."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"From all these experiments and FPR trials it can be concluded that fertilizer application and contour hedgerows of vetiver grass, Tephrosia candida, Paspalum atratum and lemon grass are the most effective erosion control practices, while closer plant spacing and contour ridging are intermediately effective in erosion control, but may be more effective in increasing cassava yields."},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"Project IP3: improving cassava for the developing world Output 13-16       13.14 shows an example of one such trial conducted by four farmers in Tran Phu commune of Ha Tay province in North Vietnam. All intercrops slightly reduced cassava yields but generally increased total gross income. Intercropping with two rows of peanut increased net income by 140% as compared to monoculture. This has become a common practice, especially in north Vietnam."}]},{"head":"Varietal evaluation:","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"In 2003/04 varieties were evaluated by 80 farmers in China, Thailand and Vietnam. Table 13.15 shows the average results of three FPR variety trials conducted in Hong Tien commune in Tuyen Quang province. With adequate and well-balanced fertilization, the local variety La Tre (= SC 205) had a respectable yield of 21.4 t/ha, but was still outyielded by all other varieties or lines tested. The most popular improved variety, KM 94 (= KU 50) produced the highest yield of 32.8 t/ha. 2) Prices and costs: as above 3) Out of 45 farmers"}]},{"head":"Activity 13.6 Enhancing adoption of new varieties and improved management practices through farmer participatory research (FPR) and extension (FPE) activities.","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"The rationale, specific objectives and the FPE methodologies used have been described in detail in the 2003 Annual Report."}]},{"head":"Results","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":357,"text":"Tables 16 and 17 show to what extent various types of technologies, such as new varieties, improved fertilization, intercropping and erosion control practices were adopted in seven communes in Son Duong district of Tuyen Quang province and in six communes of Pho Yen district in Thai Nguyen province in 2003/04. New varieties, i.e. KM 94 in Son Duong district and KM 98-7 and KM 95-3 in Pho Yen district, had been most widely adopted, followed by intercropping in Pho Yen (practically none in Son Duong), better fertilization and erosion control practices. Erosion control was not widely adopted in Pho Yen because most of the cassava fields there are either terraced or have only gentle slopes; in contrast, in Son Duong district erosion control is widely practiced on quite steep slopes of 20-40%. In 2003 cassava yields in these communes ranged from 28 to 34 t/ha, as compared to 6-8 t/ha before the project started in 1995 in Pho Yen and in 2000 in Son Duong. Table 13.18 shows how the number of households adopting different types of new technologies increased during the last four years of the project in Vietnam as a result of the rapid expansion of the project to more and more sites. It is clear that most farmers chose to adopt mainly new varieties, followed by intercropping, balanced fertilization and erosion control practices. The adoption of soil conservation practices increased dramatically from 2002 to 2003 mainly because of the widespread adoption of contour hedgerows of Tephrosia candida and Paspalum atratum in Van Yen district of Yen Bai province of north Vietnam. In that district alone farmers planted in one year a total of 500 km of double-row contour hedgerows of Tephrosia candida and Paspalum atratum to control erosion. In contrast, farmers in Thailand planted in that year only about 20 km of contour hedgerows of vetiver grass to reach a total of 150 km of hedgerows in 2003/04. It is clear that hedgerow species that can be multiplied by seed, such as Tephrosia candida and Paspalum atratum can be adopted more easily and more cheaply than species like vetiver grass which requires vegetative propagation."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Project IP3: improving cassava for the developing world Output 13-22 "}]},{"head":"Activity 13.7 Assessing the impact of the project on adoption of new technologies in Thailand and Vietnam","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"The Nippon Foundation Project has tested and disseminated new cassava technologies in Thailand, Vietnam and China for ten years using farmer participatory approaches; at the end of the second phase it was decided to assess the impact of the project, and especially the FPR and FPE methodologies used, on the adoption of new technologies and on the institutionalization of the participatory approach."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"The impact assessment was done by an outside consultant in consultation with CIAT and PRGA staff and in collaboration with national scientists in Thailand and Vietnam. For this assessment, both \"participating\" and \"non-participating\" farmers in four \"project\" and four \"non-project\" sites in each country were asked to fill in census forms for themselves and for 2-3 neighbors; this was followed by focus group discussions. The eight project sites were selected as being representative of all project sites, while the non-project sites were nearby villages (within 10 km of project sites) where the project had not been active. \"Participating farmers\" were defined as those that had either conducted FPR trials and/or had participated in FPR training courses, while \"non-participating farmers\" had not conducted trials or participated in training courses, but might have participated in field days organized by the project."}]},{"head":"Results","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Table 13.19 shows the extent of adoption (% of households) of various types of new technologies by both \"participating\" and \"non-participating\" farmers in Thailand and Vietnam. New varieties were widely adopted by both participating and non-participating Project IP3: improving cassava for the developing world Output 13-24"},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"farmers; this reached close to 100% of farmers in Thailand and 46% in Vietnam. This confirms results of recent surveys which indicate that about 99% of the cassava area in Thailand and about 40-50% in Vietnam are now planted with new high-yielding varieties."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"There was not a significant difference in the adoption of new varieties between participating and non-participating farmers. This may lead to the conclusion that new varieties were disseminated and were adopted independently of the NF project; or that the FPE approach was so effective that also non-participating farmers heard about new varieties and obtained planting material for adoption. The truth probably lies in between as new varieties certainly spread also to areas where the project was not operating, through conventional extension channels; but also, many non-participating farmers had heard about and obtained planting material through participation in field days or from other farmers or district extension staff who had heard of or had participated in the project's various FPR activities."},{"index":4,"size":136,"text":"Table 13.19 shows that improved fertilization was also widely adopted by both participating and non-participating farmers, reaching about 88% in Thailand and 80% in Vietnam. The use of farm-yard manure (FYM) was rather widespread in Vietnam (59%), while planting green manures or applying FYM was less widespread in Thailand (34%). In Thailand there was significantly more adoption of these practices among participating farmers, while in Vietnam project participation was not a significant factor as farmers traditionally apply FYM and/or some chemical fertilizers to cassava. It is likely, however, that participating farmers were applying both more fertilizers and better balanced fertilizers than the non-participating farmers as they had seen the importance of applying high rates of K and N to obtain high yields; however, this could not be ascertained from the information obtained from the census forms."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"Intercropping, especially with peanut, was rather widely adopted in Vietnam (35%), but not in Thailand; there was a significant difference between participating and non participating farmers only with respect to intercropping with peanut and intercropping in general, indicating that adoption of intercropping was at least partially due to project activities."},{"index":6,"size":318,"text":"Soil conservation practices, such as contour ridging and contour hedgerows were significantly more adopted by participating than by non-participating farmers, indicating that the conducting of FPR erosion control trials and participation in FPR training courses made farmers aware of the need for erosion control and significantly enhanced the adoption of soil conservation practices. Adoption of either contour ridging or hedgerows was about 43% in Thailand and 52% in Vietnam; in Thailand this was mainly the planting of vetiver grass hedgerows (61% among participating and only 10% among non-participating farmers), while in Vietnam this was mainly contour ridging or hedgerows of Tephrosia candida. It may be concluded that adoption of soil conservation practices was not as widespread as that of new varieties or improved fertilization, but that the FPR approach used in the project was highly effective in enhancing adoption among project participants.  13.4 shows the average effect of the project on cassava yields of participating and non-participating farmers in Thailand and Vietnam as well as the average yield for the whole country over the 5-year period (1999-2003) corresponding to the 2 nd phase of the project. In both Thailand and Vietnam, cassava yields of participating farmers increased significantly more than of non-participating farmers, while the yield of non-participants increased at a similar rate as that for the country as a whole, even though the latter yields were considerably lower than those indicated by farmers participating in the focus group discussions. These large differences may be due to inaccuracies in the determination of cassava yields on a national scale (published by both the national governments and FAO), or due to a tendency of farmers to overestimate or overstate their own yields. In any case, there is no doubt that in both countries cassava yields increased substantially over the course of the project, both as a direct result of the project and through the interventions of other projects and institutions."},{"index":7,"size":172,"text":"In Table 13.20 the annual increase in gross income due to these higher cassava yields are estimated using cassava area and yield data for 1994 and 2003 as published by FAO for China, Thailand and Vietnam. In China yields increased only 1.04 t/ha over this 10-year period resulting in an annual increase in gross income of 6.7 million US dollars; in Thailand yields increased 3.74 t/ha over an area of slightly more than 1 million hectares, resulting in an increase in gross income of 86.4 million dollars, and in Vietnam yields increased a remarkable 5.63 t/ha resulting in about 52.3 million dollars per year extra income for cassava farmers. Finally, for the whole of Asia, yields increased 3.17 t/ha resulting in an annual additional income of nearly 272 million US dollars for cassava farmers in Asia. This was achieved through the active and effective collaboration between CIAT and scientists and extension workers in many national programs in Asia.  2) In addition, farmers also benefited from higher prices due to higher starch content"}]},{"head":"Activity 13.8 Exploring institutional arrangements for collaboration in the new Nippon Foundation-funded cassava project in Laos and Cambodia, and the ACIARfunded cassava project in Indonesia and East Timor.","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Rationale","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The CIAT Cassava Office in Asia, located in Bangkok, Thailand, works in close collaboration with researchers and extensionists in national institutions where the various projects are being implemented. Thus, with the start of two new projects in 2004 to be implemented in Project IP3: improving cassava for the developing world"},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Output 13-28 four countries, it was necessary to explore the most suitable institutional arrangements for this collaboration."}]},{"head":"Specific Objectives","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"To discuss with administrators of various national research and development institutions the objectives and proposed activities of the new cassava projects and to request their collaboration in the execution of the projects."}]},{"head":"Results","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"For Farming Systems Department of CARDI, while some animal feeding trials and training might be conducted through CelAgrid. Some agronomic trials may also be conducted by the CJ Cambodia Co. at their own plantation and at their own expense; they in turn can provide the project with planting material of a few promising varieties."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"For the new ACIAR-funded project, collaborative arrangements were explored with Brawijaya University (UNIBRAW), with the Research Institute for Legumes and Tuber Crops (RILET) and with the Assessment Institute for Agricultural Technologies (BPTP), all in Malang, East Java; as well as with the Central Research Institute for Food Crops and the Soil Research Institute, both in Bogor, West Java. It was agreed that Dr. Bambang Guritno, Rector of Brawijaya University, would be the project leader in Indonesia, while Dr. Wani Hadi Utomo, soil scientist at UNIBRAW, would be the project coordinator, to coordinate all activities among the various participating institutions in Indonesia."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"In East Timor a meeting was arranged with Mr. Francisco Benevides, Vice Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF), and Mr. Lourenco Fontes, Director of the Research and Extension Center of MAFF, to explain the project and request their permission and collaboration. It was agreed that the project would be implemented in ET under the leadership of Mr. Lourenco Fontes and with collaboration of personnel from the Research and Extension Center. In addition, Mr. Acacio da Costa Guterres, Head of the Dept. of Agronomy of the National Univ. of East Timor, will coordinate some specific cassava projects to be done with students."}]},{"head":"Activity 13.9 Implementing the new Nippon Foundation-funded Cassava Project in Lao PDR and Cambodia","index":26,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Rationale","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":203,"text":"In both Lao PDR and Cambodia cassava is mainly used for human consumption in times of food scarcity, usually during the months before the rice harvest, i.e. in Sept-Dec. Very little is presently used for on-farm animal feeding. In Cambodia, some cassava is also used for starch production, mainly by very small starch processors in Kampong Cham province and by 2-3 bigger factories in Kampong Cham and Kampong Speu provinces. In Lao PDR the few local cassava varieties tend to be eating varieties, very tall but with low root yields. In Cambodia there are 2-3 eating varieties, which are often harvested before six months for sale in the local market, as well as one high-yield and high-starch variety, called KM 94, introduced recently from Vietnam and suitable for starch extraction. Both countries could benefit from the introduction, multiplication and widespread adoption of higher yielding varieties, which could be used for on-farm animal feeding as well as for sale to starch factories, the latter mainly in Cambodia Specific Objectives 1. To introduce and evaluate promising Thai and Vietnamese varieties into Lao PDR and Cambodia 2. To determine the fertilizer requirements of new high-yielding cassava varieties in different soil types in Lao PDR and Cambodia"}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Planting material of eight promising cassava varieties, both for eating and processing, were introduced from Thailand into Lao PDR and Cambodia, while a small amount of stakes of three eating varieties from Vietnam were introduced into Lao PDR. These varieties were evaluated and multiplied both in replicated experiments in experiment stations and in onfarm trials in 18 villages in various districts in Luang Prabang, Oudomxay and Xieng Khouang provinces (Table 13.21). In the latter two provinces the trials were planted by Project IP3: improving cassava for the developing world Output 13-30"},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"CIAT's PRDU project in collaboration with personnel from the local PAFO and DAFO; the trials were managed by a group of farmers from each village. The varieties were planted in main plots with three fertilizer treatments, i.e. without fertilizers or manure, with only manure, and with manure and P. In Luang Prabang province the trials were planted by personnel from NAFRI as well as with local DAFO extension workers in each district. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Effect of the annual application of various levels of N, P and K fertilizers on the fresh root yield and on leaf life at 3 MAP of two cassava cultivars grown at Thai Nguyen University, Thai Nguyen,Vietnam, in 2003 (14th year). "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Trend in relative yield and relative soil loss by erosion when cassava was planted with contour hedgerows of vetiver grass or Tephrosia candida during nine consecutive years of cassava cropping. Data are average values for one FPR erosion control trial in Kieu Tung and two trials in Dong Rang in North Vietnam from 1995 to 2003. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Trend in relative yield and relative soil loss by erosion when cassava was planted with contour hedgerows of vetiver grass, Leucaena leucocephala or Gliricidia sepium in comparison with the check without hedgerows during six consecutive years in Hung Loc Agric. Research Center in South Vietnam fro m 1997 to 2003. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Trend in relative yield and relative soil loss by erosion when cassava was planted with contour hedgerows of vetiver grass or Tephrosia candida during nine consecutive years of cassava cropping. Data are average values for one FPR erosion control trial in Kieu Tung and two trials in Dong Rang in North Vietnam from 1995 to 2003. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Trend in relative yield and relative soil loss by erosion when cassava was planted with contour hedgerows of vetiver grass or Tephrosia candida during nine consecutive years of cassava cropping. Data are average values for one FPR erosion control trial in Kieu Tung and two trials in Dong Rang in North Vietnam from 1995 to 2003. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Trend in relative yield and relative soil loss by erosion when cassava was planted with contour hedgerows of vetiver grass, Leucaena leucocephala or Gliricidia sepium in comparison with the check without hedgerows during six consecutive years in Hung Loc Agric. Research Center in South Vietnam fro m 1997 to 2003. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Trend in relative yield and relative soil loss by erosion when cassava was planted with contour hedgerows of vetiver grass, Leucaena leucocephala or Gliricidia sepium in comparison with the check without hedgerows during six consecutive years in Hung Loc Agric. Research Center in South Vietnam fro m 1997 to 2003. "},{"text":"Table 13 . 1. Results of eight FPR fertilizer trials conducted by farmers in Dong Rang village, Dong Xuan commune, Luong Son district, Hoa Binh, Vietnam in 2003. 1. XanhVinh Phu variety       1. XanhVinh Phu variety        Gross Product. Net GrossProduct.Net Treatments 1) Cassava yield (t/ha)  Income 3) costs income Treatments 1)Cassava yield (t/ha)Income 3)costsincome  A 2) B C  Av.  (mil. VN dong/ha) B/C A 2)BCAv.(mil. VN dong/ha)B/C 1. No NPK 9.75 8.50 10.25 9.50  3.800 3.000 0.800 1.27 1. No NPK9.758.5010.259.503.8003.0000.8001.27 2. P 11.50 10.75 12.00 11.42 4.568 3.347 1.221 1.36 2. P11.5010.7512.0011.424.5683.3471.2211.36 3. K 12.50 12.00 13.75 12.75 5.100 3.453 1.647 1.48 3. K12.5012.0013.7512.755.1003.4531.6471.48 4. N 14.50 12.50 13.75 13.58 5.432 3.341 2.091 1.63 4. N14.5012.5013.7513.585.4323.3412.0911.63 5. PK 14.25 14.25 14.50 14.33 5.732 3.720 2.012 1.54 5. PK14.2514.2514.5014.335.7323.7202.0121.54 6. NK 18.00 17.00 16.50 17.17 6.868 3.714 3.154 1.85 6. NK18.0017.0016.5017.176.8683.7143.1541.85 7. NP 19.50 18.00 18.00 18.50 7.400 3.608 3.792 2.05 7. NP19.5018.0018.0018.507.4003.6083.7922.05 8. NPK 23.00 20.75 21.25 21.67 8.668 3.981 4.687 2.18 8. NPK23.0020.7521.2521.678.6683.9814.6872.18 1) N = 40 kg N/ha; P = 40 kg P2O5/ha; K = 80 kg K2O/ha; Variety: Xanh Vinh Phu 1) N = 40 kg N/ha; P = 40 kg P2O5/ha; K = 80 kg K2O/ha; Variety: Xanh Vinh Phu 2) A = Mr. Mai; B = Mr. Tien; C = Mr. Quy       2) A = Mr. Mai; B = Mr. Tien; C = Mr. Quy 3) Prices (VN dong):         3) Prices (VN dong): Cassava: 400/kg fresh roots.       Cassava: 400/kg fresh roots. Urea: (46% N3,000/kg        Urea: (46% N3,000/kg Fused Mg phosphate (15% P2O5):1,000/kg     Fused Mg phosphate (15% P2O5):1,000/kg KCl (60% K2O): 2,800/kg       KCl (60% K2O): 2,800/kg 2. XanhVinh Phu variety       2. XanhVinh Phu variety Treatments       Gross Product. Net TreatmentsGrossProduct.Net N-P 2 O 5 -K 2 O  Cassava yield (t/ha)  Income 2) costs income N-P 2 O 5 -K 2 OCassava yield (t/ha)Income 2) costsincome (kg/ha) A 1) B  C  Av. (mil. VN dong/ha) B/C (kg/ha)A 1)BCAv.(mil. VN dong/ha)B/C 1. No NPK 6.25 11.25 14.25 10.58 4.232 3.000 1.232 1.41 1. No NPK6.2511.2514.2510.584.2323.0001.2321.41 2. 40-40-80 13.75 16.25 19.00 16.33 6.531 3.981 2.551 1.64 2. 40-40-8013.7516.2519.0016.336.5313.9812.5511.64 3. 40-60-80 13.75 14.25 16.75 14.92 5.968 4.114 1.854 1.45 3. 40-60-8013.7514.2516.7514.925.9684.1141.8541.45 4. 60-40-80 15.00 15.00 18.75 16.25 6.500 4.111 2.389 1.58 4. 60-40-8015.0015.0018.7516.256.5004.1112.3891.58 5. 60-60-120 15.75 17.00 19.75 17.50 7.000 4.431 2.569 1.58 5. 60-60-12015.7517.0019.7517.507.0004.4312.5691.58 1) A = Mrs. Nga; B = Mr. Hieu; C = Mrs. Van      1) A = Mrs. Nga; B = Mr. Hieu; C = Mrs. Van 2) Prices: as above         2) Prices: as above 3. SM 17-17-12 vatiety        3. SM 17-17-12 vatiety      Gross Product. Net GrossProduct.Net Treatments Cassava yield (t/ha)  Income 2) costs income TreatmentsCassava yield (t/ha)Income 2)costsincome  A ) B Av.   (mil. VN dong/ha) B/C A )BAv.(mil. VN dong/ha)B/C 1. No NPK 11.75 12.50 12.13 4.606 3.000 1.606 1.54 1. No NPK11.7512.5012.134.6063.0001.6061.54 2. 40-40-80 18.00 18.75 18.38 6.984 3.981 3.003 1.75 2. 40-40-8018.0018.7518.386.9843.9813.0031.75 3. 40-60-80 17.50 19.30 18.40 6.992 4.114 2.878 1.70 3. 40-60-8017.5019.3018.406.9924.1142.8781.70 4. 60-40-80 19.50 18.00 18.75 7.125 4.111 3.014 1.73 4. 60-40-8019.5018.0018.757.1254.1113.0141.73 5. 60-60-120 20.00 21.25 20.63 7.836 4.431 3.405 1.77 5. 60-60-12020.0021.2520.637.8364.4313.4051.77 1) A = Mrs. Nga; B = Mr. Hieu       1) A = Mrs. Nga; B = Mr. Hieu 2)         2)  "},{"text":"Table 13 . 2. Average results of five FPR fertilizer trial conducted by farmers in Kieu Tung village, Phuong Linh commune, Thanh Ba district, Phu Tho, Vietnam in 2003. Gross Product Net GrossProductNet  "},{"text":"Table 13    Root Starch Gross Product. Net RootStarchGrossProduct.Net Treatments  yield content Income 1) costs 2) income Treatmentsyieldcontent Income 1)costs 2)income   (t/ha) (%) ----------('000 baht/ha)---------- (t/ha)(%)----------('000 baht/ha)---------- 1. Check without GM; 25 kg/rai 15-7-18 26.28 23.6 28.17 13.63 14.54 1. Check without GM; 25 kg/rai 15-7-1826.2823.628.1713.6314.54 2. Crotalaria juncea; 25 kg/rai 15-7-18 20.83 22.7 21.95 11.91 10.04 2. Crotalaria juncea; 25 kg/rai 15-7-1820.8322.721.9511.9110.04 3. Canavalia ensiformis; 25 kg/rai 15-7-18 27.07 23.1 28.75 13.59 15.16 3. Canavalia ensiformis; 25 kg/rai 15-7-1827.0723.128.7513.5915.16 4. Pigeon pea ICPL 304; 25 kg/rai 15-7-18 24.18 23.4 25.82 12.81 13.01 4. Pigeon pea ICPL 304; 25 kg/rai 15-7-1824.1823.425.8212.8113.01 5. Cowpea CP 4-2-3-1; 25 kg/rai 15-7-18 21.66 22.3 22.66 12.25 10.41 5. Cowpea CP 4-2-3-1; 25 kg/rai 15-7-1821.6622.322.6612.2510.41 6. Mucuna; 25 kg/rai 15-7-18  21.17 23.8 22.78 12.00 10.78 6. Mucuna; 25 kg/rai 15-7-1821.1723.822.7812.0010.78 7. Mungbean; 25 kg/rai 15-7-18  25.08 23.6 26.89 12.83 14.06 7. Mungbean; 25 kg/rai 15-7-1825.0823.626.8912.8314.06 8. Check without GM; 75 kg/rai 15-7-18 32.16 23.8 34.60 17.71 16.89 8. Check without GM; 75 kg/rai 15-7-1832.1623.834.6017.7116.89 1) Prices: cassava: bath 1.20 kg fresh roots; 0.02 baht reduction per 1% starch reduction 1) Prices: cassava: bath 1.20 kg fresh roots; 0.02 baht reduction per 1% starch reduction 2) Costs: 15-7-18 fertilizers baht 360/50 kg     2) Costs: 15-7-18 fertilizers baht 360/50 kg land preparation 300/rai     land preparation300/rai Glyphosate (500 ml/rai) 75/rai     Glyphosate (500 ml/rai) 75/rai cassava planting 150/rai     cassava planting150/rai herbicide application 60/rai     herbicide application60/rai fertilizer application 40/rai     fertilizer application40/rai planting/ harvesting GM 120/rai     planting/ harvesting GM 120/rai harvest cassava 120/tonne     harvest cassava120/tonne transport cassava 150/tonne     transport cassava150/tonne  "},{"text":"Table 13  .4. Effect of various methods of land preparation on the average root yield and .4. Effect of various methods of land preparation on the average root yield and starch content aswell as the production costs, and gross and net income starch content aswell as the production costs, and gross and net income obtained with four cassava varieties planted in a farmer's field near Rayong obtained with four cassava varieties planted in a farmer's field near Rayong Field Crops Research Center in Huay Pong subdistrict of Rayong, Thailand, in Field Crops Research Center in Huay Pong subdistrict of Rayong, Thailand, in 2003/04 (3d year).     2003/04 (3d year).  Cassava Starch Gross Production Net CassavaStarchGrossProductionNet Plant spacing treatments 1) yield content Income 1) costs income Plant spacing treatments 1)yieldcontentIncome 1)costsincome  (t/ha) (%) -----('000 B/ha)----- (t/ha)(%)-----('000 B/ha)----- 1. No tillage; Glyphosate 22.39 21.8 23.20 12.79 10.41 1. No tillage; Glyphosate22.3921.823.2012.7910.41 2. Chisel plow; Glyphosate 22.84 22.1 23.80 13.67 10.13 2. Chisel plow; Glyphosate22.8422.123.8013.6710.13 3. Subsoiler; Glyphosate 22.62 22.4 23.71 13.98 9.73 3. Subsoiler; Glyphosate22.6222.423.7113.989.73 4. Subsoiler + chisel; 25.04 23.5 26.79 15.58 11.21 4. Subsoiler + chisel;25.0423.526.7915.5811.21 Glyphosate      Glyphosate 5. Cassava harvester; 23.43 21.6 24.18 14.32 9.86 5. Cassava harvester;23.4321.624.1814.329.86 Glyphosate      Glyphosate 6. 3-disk plow 23.82 22.9 25.20 13.46 11.74 6. 3-disk plow23.8222.925.2013.4611.74 7. Subsoiler + 3-disk plow 27.68 23.5 29.62 15.26 11.36 7. Subsoiler + 3-disk plow27.6823.529.6215.2611.36 8. 3-disk plow + 7-disk harrow 24.02 21.4 24.69 14.27 10.42 8. 3-disk plow + 7-disk harrow24.0221.424.6914.2710.42 9. 3-disk + 7-disk + contour 25.35 23.0 26.87 15.38 11.49 9. 3-disk + 7-disk + contour25.3523.026.8715.3811.49 ridging      ridging 10. 3-disk + 7-disk + up-down 23.41 21.2 23.97 14.72 9.25 10. 3-disk + 7-disk + up-down23.4121.223.9714.729.25 ridging      ridging Average 24.06 22.3 25.20 14.34 10.86 Average24.0622.325.2014.3410.86 1) Price: cassava: baht 1.20/kg fresh roots at 30% starch; 0.02 baht reduction for each 1% starch 1) Price: cassava: baht 1.20/kg fresh roots at 30% starch; 0.02 baht reduction for each 1% starch reduction      reduction  "},{"text":"experiment on different levels and methods of application of Zn to cassava planted in calcareous soils at TTDI's Research and Development Center in Nakhon Ratchasima province of Thailand was repeated in 2003/04 (Table 13.6). The average root yields and  Table 13.5. Summary of results of a soil preparation experiment conducted for three consecutive years in three sites in Table 13.5. Summary of results of a soil preparation experiment conducted for three consecutive years in three sites in Thailand from 2001/02 to 2003/04.           Thailand from 2001/02 to 2003/04.     Rayong   TTDI    Khaw Hin Sorn Average Average RayongTTDIKhaw Hin SornAverage Average      3 2d+3d 32d+3d                year year Treatments  1st  2d 3d Av. 1 st 2d  3d Av. 1st 2d 3d Av. Loc. 2 Loc. Treatments1st2d3dAv.1 st2d3dAv.1st2d3dAv.Loc.2 Loc.   year year year  year year year  year year year yearyearyearyearyearyearyearyearyear 1. No tillage; Glyphosate 11.46 23.94 22.39 19.26 19.91 26.07 15.14 20.37 21.45 32.71 24.90 26.35 21.99 24.70 1. No tillage; Glyphosate11.46 23.94 22.39 19.2619.91 26.07 15.14 20.37 21.45 32.71 24.90 26.35 21.9924.70 2. Chisel plow; 12.03 24.92 22.84 19.93 17.78 25.10 10.93 17.94 20.56 34.18 21.80 25.51 21.13 23.00 2. Chisel plow;12.03 24.92 22.84 19.9317.78 25.10 10.93 17.94 20.56 34.18 21.80 25.51 21.1323.00 Glyphosate               Glyphosate 3. Subsoiler; Glyphosate 13.70 24.21 22.62 20.18 16.31 24.32 10.10 16.91 19.20 33.01 24.48 25.56 20.88 22.98 3. Subsoiler; Glyphosate13.70 24.21 22.62 20.1816.31 24.32 10.10 16.91 19.20 33.01 24.48 25.56 20.8822.98 4. Subsoil+chisel; 14.85 25.99 25.04 21.96 21.87 28.71 14.20 21.59 19.07 37.65 23.12 26.61 23.39 25.92 4. Subsoil+chisel;14.85 25.99 25.04 21.9621.87 28.71 14.20 21.59 19.07 37.65 23.12 26.61 23.3925.92 Glyphosate               Glyphosate                52 26.05 5226.05 6. 3disk plow 13.66 22.76 23.82 20.08 18.00 -  - - 18.81 - - - - - 6. 3disk plow13.66 22.76 23.82 20.0818.00---18.81----- 7. Subsoiler+3disk plow 17.57 28.54 27.68 24.60 16.59 -  - - 24.71 - - - - - 7. Subsoiler+3disk plow17.57 28.54 27.68 24.6016.59---24.71----- 8. 3disk plow+7disk 11.93 23.00 24.02 19.65 18.15 23.31 8.92 16.79 21.27 41.99 27.67 30.31 22.25 25.47 8. 3disk plow+7disk11.93 23.00 24.02 19.6518.15 23.31 8.92 16.79 21.27 41.99 27.67 30.31 22.2525.47 harrow               harrow 9. 3disk+7disk+contour 17.47 24.60 5.35 22.47 18.32 26.57 8.53 17.81 24.88 46.35 25.40 32.21 24.16 26.71 9. 3disk+7disk+contour17.47 24.60 5.35 22.4718.32 26.57 8.53 17.81 24.88 46.35 25.40 32.21 24.1626.71 ridging               ridging 10.  19.50 25.86 23.41 22.92 17.52 -  - - 23.25 - - - - - 10.19.50 25.86 23.41 22.9217.52---23.25----- 3disk+7disk+up/down              3disk+7disk+up/down ridging               ridging 11. Subsoiler+7disk; -  - - - - 25.35 11.91 - -36.24 26.42 - - 24.98 11. Subsoiler+7disk;-----25.35 11.91--36.24 26.42--24.98 Glyphosate               Glyphosate 12. Subsoiler+7disk -  - - - - 24.90 10.04 - -28.65 28.39 - - 23.00 12. Subsoiler+7disk-----24.90 10.04--28.65 28.39--23.00 harrow               harrow 13.  -  - - - - 26.40 10.88 - -38.95 29.16 - - 26.35 13.-----26.40 10.88--38.95 29.16--26.35 Subsoiler+3disk+7disk              Subsoiler+3disk+7disk Average  16.68 24.96 24.06 21.23 18.05 25.63 11.32 - 21.18 36.92 25.80 - - 26.35 Average16.68 24.96 24.06 21.23 18.05 25.63 11.32-21.18 36.92 25.80--26.35              starch  starch contents obtained in 2003/04 were similar to those in the 2002/03 experiment (Table 13.4,  contents obtained in 2003/04 were similar to those in the 2002/03 experiment (Table 13.4, CIAT Annual Report of IP-3 for 2003). In the 2 nd year, the average yield of Rayong 72 and  CIAT Annual Report of IP-3 for 2003). In the 2 nd year, the average yield of Rayong 72 and KU-50 was 15.8 t/ha without Zn application and 20.7 t/ha with the combined use of stake  KU-50 was 15.8 t/ha without Zn application and 20.7 t/ha with the combined use of stake treatment with 2% ZnSO 4 .7H 2 O, 5 kg Zn/ha applied to the soil and three foliar applications  treatment with 2% ZnSO 4 .7H 2 O, 5 kg Zn/ha applied to the soil and three foliar applications with 1% ZnSO 4 .7H 2 O. Soil application of 10 kg Zn/ha also produced a high yield, followed  with 1% ZnSO 4 .7H 2 O. Soil application of 10 kg Zn/ha also produced a high yield, followed by stake treatment with 2% ZnSO 4 .7H 2 O. However, the high cost of soil applications and  by stake treatment with 2% ZnSO 4 .7H 2 O. However, the high cost of soil applications and foliar treatments generally did not justify the slight increase in yield, resulting in a negative  foliar treatments generally did not justify the slight increase in yield, resulting in a negative net income. The highest net income was obtained by the check plot, without Zn application,  net income. The highest net income was obtained by the check plot, without Zn application, due to the lower production costs. While many plants suffered initially from severe Zn  due to the lower production costs. While many plants suffered initially from severe Zn deficiency, most plants recuperated even without any Zn treatment once their root system  deficiency, most plants recuperated even without any Zn treatment once their root system became well established and these roots became infected with natural soil mycorrhizae,  became well established and these roots became infected with natural soil mycorrhizae, which contribute to the more efficient uptake of Zn from the soil.  whichcontributetothemoreefficientuptakeofZnfromthesoil.  "},{"text":"Table 13 . 6. Effect of methods and levels of application of Zn on the root yield and starch content of two cassava varieties, as well as the gross and net income when grown at TTDI Research and Development Center at Huay Bong, Daan Khun Thot, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand in 2003/04.  Treatment Root yield (t/ha)  Starch content (%)  Gross Product income 2) costs 3) income Net TreatmentRoot yield (t/ha) Starch content (%) Gross Product income 2) costs 3) income Net   R 72 KU50 Av. R 72 KU50 Av. --------('000 B/ha)-------- R 72KU50Av.R 72KU50Av.--------('000 B/ha)-------- 1. Check, 16.66 14.94 15.80 20.0 23.3 21.6 16.31 11.55 4.76 1. Check,16.66 14.94 15.8020.023.321.616.31 11.554.76  no Zn       no Zn 2. Stake dip, 22.71 15.09 18.90 19.6 22.6 21.1 19.32 14.74 4.58 2. Stake dip,22.71 15.09 18.9019.622.621.119.32 14.744.58  2% ZnSO 4       2% ZnSO 4 3. Stake dip, 19.02 14.04 16.53 19.8 23.3 21.6 17.06 14.91 2.15 3. Stake dip,19.02 14.04 16.5319.823.321.617.06 14.912.15  4% ZnSO 4       4% ZnSO 4 4. Stake dip, 16.34 13.15 14.74 19.9 23.5 21.7 15.24 15.22 0.02 4. Stake dip,16.34 13.15 14.7419.923.521.715.24 15.220.02  6% ZnSO 4       6% ZnSO 4 5. Stake dip, 19.15 13.74 16.44 19.8 22.9 21.4 16.90 16.48 0.42 5. Stake dip,19.15 13.74 16.4419.822.921.416.90 16.480.42  8% ZnSO 4       8% ZnSO 4 6. Soil application, 19.68 17.67 18.68 19.6 23.7 21.6 19.28 18.22 1.06 6. Soil application,19.68 17.67 18.6819.623.721.619.28 18.221.06  5kg Zn/ha       5kg Zn/ha 7. Soil application, 22.22 16.81 19.52 20.3 24.3 22.3 20.42 22.79 -2.37 7. Soil application,22.22 16.81 19.5220.324.322.320.42 22.79-2.37  10kg Zn/ha       10kg Zn/ha 8. Soil application, 21.79 16.03 18.91 20.0 24.1 22.0 19.67 31.31 -11.64 8. Soil application,21.79 16.03 18.9120.024.122.019.67 31.31 -11.64  20kg Zn/ha       20kg Zn/ha 9. Soil application, 21.56 16.11 18.84 19.2 22.4 20.8 19.14 39.97 -20.83 9. Soil application,21.56 16.11 18.8419.222.420.819.14 39.97 -20.83  30kg Zn/ha       30kg Zn/ha 10 Foliar application 14.40 1) 13.66 14.03 17.9 1) 22.5 20.2 14.09 16.96 -2.87 10Foliar application14.40 1) 13.66 14.0317.9 1) 22.520.214.09 16.96-2.87 . 1% ZnSO 4       .1% ZnSO 4 11 Foliar application 18.81 12.23 15.52 19.4 23.3 21.4 15.95 18.56 -2.61 11Foliar application18.81 12.23 15.5219.423.321.415.95 18.56-2.61 . 2% ZnSO 4       .2% ZnSO 4 12 Foliar application 18.20 12.73 1) 15.46 18.7 21.1 1) 19.9 15.43 19.74 -4.31 12Foliar application18.20 12.73 1) 15.4618.721.1 1)19.915.43 19.74-4.31 . 3% ZnSO 4       .3% ZnSO 4 13 Foliar application 19.98 17.30 18.64 19.7 23.5 21.6 19.24 21.80 -2.56 13Foliar application19.98 17.30 18.6419.723.521.619.24 21.80-2.56 . % ZnSO 4       .% ZnSO 4 14 Stake 2%+5kg Zn 23.27 18.04 20.66 19.5 23.6 21.6 21.32 27.01 -5.69 14Stake 2%+5kg Zn23.27 18.04 20.6619.523.621.621.32 27.01-5.69 . +1% foliar       .+1% foliar 15 Stake 2%+5kg Zn 21.75 13.77 17.76 20.6 23.3 22.0 18.47 27.42 -8.95 15Stake 2%+5kg Zn21.75 13.77 17.7620.623.322.018.47 27.42-8.95 . +2% foliar       .+2% foliar 16 Stake 2%+5kg Zn 19.76 18.88 19.32 20.8 23.7 22.2 20.17 30.25 -10.08 16Stake 2%+5kg Zn19.76 18.88 19.3220.823.722.220.17 30.25 -10.08 . +4% foliar       .+4% foliar  Average 19.71 15.26 17.48 19.7 23.2 21.4 17.97 21.68 -3.71 Average19.71 15.26 17.4819.723.221.417.97 21.68-3.71  "},{"text":"Table 13 Table 13.8. Dry cassava leaf yields from four cuts, root yield, starch content, as well as production costs and the gross net income obtained when three varieties were grown at four plant spacings at TTDI Research and Development Center in Huay Bong, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand in 2003/04. Dry leaf yield (t/ha) Root yield Dry leaf yield (t/ha)Root yield  "},{"text":"Table 13 . 9. Effect of plant spacing on the total dry leaf yield, fresh root yield and net in come obtained with three cassava varieties planted at TTDI Research and Development Center at Huay Bong,Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand in 2003/04. Spacing Total dry leaf yield (t/ha)  Fresh root yield (t/ha)  Net income ('000 B/ha)  SpacingTotal dry leaf yield (t/ha) Fresh root yield (t/ha) Net income ('000 B/ha)   Rayong CMR Rayong  Rayong CMR Rayong  Rayong CMR Rayong Rayong CMR RayongRayong CMR RayongRayong CMR Rayong (cm) 72 41-60-24 5 Av. 72 14-60-24 5 Av. 72 41-60-24 5 Av. (cm)72 41-60-24 5Av.7214-60-24 5Av.7241-60-24 5Av. 60x60 5.52 4.73 3.58 4.61 23.40 18.10 14.28 18.59 8.47 3.31 -5.44 2.11 60x60 5.524.733.58 4.61 23.4018.10 14.28 18.598.473.31 -5.44 2.11 50x50 5.76 4.62 3.72 4.70 17.22 18.61 14.78 16.87 3.77 0.92 -6.27 -0.53 50x50 5.764.623.72 4.70 17.2218.61 14.78 16.873.770.92 -6.27 -0.53 40x40 5.67 6.22 4.60 5.50 20.04 21.29 18.55 19.96 1.18 6.13 -3.87 1.15 40x40 5.676.224.60 5.50 20.0421.29 18.55 19.961.186.13 -3.87 1.15 30x30 7.55 7.38 6.82 7.25 15.87 12.28 14.57 14.24 -2.88 -5.04 -6.68 -4.87 30x30 7.557.386.82 7.25 15.8712.28 14.57 14.24-2.88-5.04 -6.68 -4.87 Average 6.12 5.74 4.68 5.51 19.13 17.57 15.54 17.41 2.64 1.33 -5.56 -0.53 Average 6.125.744.68 5.51 19.1317.57 15.54 17.412.641.33 -5.56 -0.53  "},{"text":"5 Conducting FPR trials on varieties, fertilization, weed control, green manures, intercropping, erosion control and pig feeding in Thailand, Vietnam and China.   "},{"text":"Table 13 . 10. Number of FPR trials conducted in the 2d phase of the Nippon Foundation Project in China, Thailand and Vietnam. Country Type of FPR trial 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Total CountryType of FPR trial19992000200120022003Total China Varieties 9 9 20 69 20 127 ChinaVarieties99206920127  Erosion control 3 5 8 17 - 33 Erosion control35817-33  Fertilization - - - 4 - 4 Fertilization---4-4  Intercropping - - - 9 - 9 Intercropping---9-9  Pig feeding - - - 59 - 59 Pig feeding---59-59   12 14 28 158 20 232 12142815820232 Thailand Varieties 11 16 16 19 25 87 ThailandVarieties111616192587  Erosion control 14 10 6 - 11 41 Erosion control14106-1141  Chemical fertilizers 16 6 23 17 17 79 Chemical fertilizers16623171779  Chem.+org fertilizers - - 10 11 11 32 Chem.+org fertilizers--10111132  Green manures - - 13 11 15 39 Green manures--13111539  Weed control - - 17 5 10 32 Weed control--1751032  Plant spacing - - 3 - 2 5 Plant spacing--3-25  Intercropping - - 16 7 - 23 Intercropping--167-23   41 32 104 70 91 338 41321047091338 Vietnam Varieties 12 31 36 47 35 161 VietnamVarieties1231364735161  Erosion control 16 28 29 30 23 126 Erosion control1628293023126  Fertilization 1 23 36 24 24 108 Fertilization123362424108  Intercropping - 14 32 31 26 103 Intercropping-14323126103  Weed control - 3 - - 3 6 Weed control-3--36  Plant spacing - 1 7 19 8 35 Plant spacing-1719835  Leaf production - - 2 2 1 5 Leaf production--2215  Pig feeding - - 11 16 13 40 Pig feeding--11161340   29 100 153 169 133 584 29100153169133584 Total  82 146 285 397 244 1,154 Total821462853972441,154  "},{"text":"Table 13 . 11. Results of an FPR erosion control trial conducted by seven farmers on about 40% slope in Kieu Tung village, Phuong Linh commune, Thanh Ba district, Phu Tho, Vietnam in 2003.  Dry Yield: (t/ha) Gross Product. Net DryYield: (t/ha)Gross Product.Net Treatments soil loss cassava peanut income 2) costs 2) income Treatmentssoil loss cassava peanut income 2) costs 2)income  (t/ha)   (mil.VN dong/ha) B/C (t/ha)(mil.VN dong/ha)B/C 1. C; with fertilizers; no 87.5 25.2  12.600 6.403 6.197 1.97 1. C; with fertilizers; no87.525.212.600 6.4036.1971.97 hedgerows (TP)      hedgerows (TP) 2. C+P; no fertilizers; no 66.5 21.5 0.48 13.630 7.290 6.340 1.87 2. C+P; no fertilizers; no66.521.50.48 13.630 7.2906.3401.87 hedgerows      hedgerows 3. C+P; with fertilizers; no 74.4 28.5 0.40 16.650 8.693 7.957 1.92 3. C+P; with fertilizers; no74.428.50.40 16.650 8.6937.9571.92 hedgerows      hedgerows 4. C; with fertilizers; Tephrosia 44.6 22.4  11.200 6.453 4.747 1.74 4. C; with fertilizers; Tephrosia44.622.411.200 6.4534.7471.74 hedgerows      hedgerows 5. C+P; with fertilizers; 41.1 19.5 0.38 12.030 8.743 3.287 1.38 5. C+P; with fertilizers;41.119.50.38 12.030 8.7433.2871.38 pineapple hedgerows      pineapple hedgerows 6. C; with fertilizers; vetiver 36.8 30.2  15.100 6.453 8.647 2.34 6. C; with fertilizers; vetiver36.830.215.100 6.4538.6472.34 hedgerows      hedgerows 7. C; with fertilizers; Tephrosia 46.4 27.2  13.600 6.453 7.147 2.11 7. C; with fertilizers; Tephrosia46.427.213.600 6.4537.1472.11 hedgerows      hedgerows  "},{"text":"Table 13 . 13. Effect of various soil conservation practices on the average1) relative cassava yield and dry soil loss due to erosion as determined from soil erosion control experiments, FPR demonstration plots and FPR trials conducted in Thailand from 1994 to 2003.Table 13.14. Average results of four FPR intercropping trials conducted by farmers in Tran Phu Commune, Chuong My district, Ha Tay, Vietnam in 2003. Relative Relative RelativeRelative cassava yield dry soil loss cassava yielddry soil loss  "},{"text":"Table 13 . 16. Dissemination of erosion control practices and new cassava variety in seven communities in Son Duong district, Tuyen Quang, Vietnam in 2003. Table 13.17. Dissemination of various new cassava technologies in six communes in Pho Yen district, Thai Nguyen, Vietnam in 2003. Table 13.18. Trend of adoption of new cassava technologies in the Nippon Foundation project sites in Vietnam from 2000 to 2003.     Son     Son  Am Hong Cap Duong Tu Phuc Tuan  AmHong Cap DuongTuPhucTuan  Thang Tien Tien town Thinh Ung Lo Total Thang Tien Tien town Thinh UngLoTotal 1. Erosion control         1. Erosion control -No. of households 22 24 11 - - - - 57 -No. of households222411----57 -Area (ha) 8.4 17.0 4.6 - - - - 30.0 -Area (ha)8.417.04.6----30.0 -Cassava yield (t/ha) 28.4 32.0 31.0 - - - - 30.8 -Cassava yield (t/ha)28.432.0 31.0----30.8 2. Variety KM 94         2. Variety KM 94 -No. of households 30 70 80 26 48 75 9 338 -No. of households3070802648759338 -Area (ha) 12.1 19.8 7.6 2.8 5.0 4.2 5.0 56.5 -Area (ha)12.119.87.62.85.04.25.056.5 -Cassava yield (t/ha) 31.3 31.8 36.1 34.3 35.0 49.2 35.2 34.3 -Cassava yield (t/ha)31.331.8 36.1 34.335.049.2 35.234.3  Tien Dac  Minh Van Hong Nam  TienDacMinhVanHongNam  Phong Son  Duc Phai Tien Tien Total PhongSonDucPhaiTienTienTotal 1. Erosion control         1. Erosion control -No. of households 5 3  - - 4 - 12 -No. of households53--4-12 -Area (ha) 0.6 0.4  - - 0.7 - 1.7 -Area (ha)0.60.4--0.7-1.7 -Cassava yield (t/ha) 27.0 26.0  - - 29.0 - 27.6 -Cassava yield (t/ha)27.026.0--29.0-27.6 2. Varieties         2. Varieties -KM 95-3 -No. of hh. 75 28  36 38 57 16 250 -KM 95-3 -No. of hh.752836385716250 -Area (ha) 5.0 3.2  1.5 1.8 3.5 1.5 16.5 -Area (ha)5.03.21.51.83.51.516.5 -Yield (t/ha) 34.0 30.4  32.5 29.0 29.8 31.0 31.4 -Yield (t/ha)34.030.432.529.029.831.031.4 -KM 98-7 -No. of hh. 150 24  45 30 60 22 331 -KM 98-7 -No. of hh.1502445306022331 -Area (ha) 12.0 5.8  3.0 4.0 8.0 2.0 34.8 -Area (ha)12.05.83.04.08.02.034.8 -Yield (t/ha) 38.0 32.0  35.0 31.0 32.5 33.2 34.4 -Yield (t/ha)38.032.035.031.032.533.234.4 3. Fertilization         3. Fertilization -No of households 54 17  10 - - - 81 -No of households541710---81 -Area (ha) 3.4 2.0  1.5 - - - 6.9 -Area (ha)3.42.01.5---6.9 -Cassava yield (t/ha) 33.6 32.0  31.5 - - - 32.7 -Cassava yield (t/ha)33.632.031.5---32.7 4. Intercropping         4. Intercropping -No. of households 120 12  30 - - - 162 -No. of households1201230---162 -Area (ha) 11.0 1.2  4.0 - - - 16.2 -Area (ha)11.01.24.0---16.2 -Cassava yield (t/ha) 36.0 30.8  29.0 - - - 33.9 -Cassava yield (t/ha)36.030.829.0---33.9  "},{"text":"Table 13 . 19 Extent of adoption (percent of households) of new technologies by participating and non-participating farmers in the Nippon Foundation project in Thailand and Vietnam in 2003. Technologies adopted Participants Thailand Non-Participants Vietnam Overall Thailand Vietnam Overall Thailand Total Vietnam Overall Technologies adoptedParticipants ThailandNon-Participants Vietnam Overall Thailand Vietnam Overall Thailand TotalVietnam Overall Varieties          Varieties ->75% improved varieties 100 48.3 71.2 86.6 44.7 68.5 90.2 46.1 69.4 ->75% improved varieties10048.371.286.644.768.590.246.169.4 -about 50% improved varieties 0 34.0 18.9 0.3 20.7 9.2 0.2 25.7 12.3 -about 50% improved varieties034.018.90.320.79.20.225.712.3 -mainly traditional varieties 0 16.3 9.1 0 34.6 15.0 0 27.7 13.1 -mainly traditional varieties016.39.1034.615.0027.713.1 -no cassava 0 1.4 0.8 13.0 0 7.4 9.6 0.5 5.3 -no cassava01.40.813.007.49.60.55.3 Soil conservation practices          Soil conservation practices -contour ridging 53.0 31.3 40.9 22.0 28.9 25.0 30.3** 29.8 30** -contour ridging53.031.340.922.028.925.030.3**29.830** -hedgerows -vetiver grass 61.5 11.6 33.7 9.6 3.7 7.0 23.5** 6.6** 15.5** -hedgerows -vetiver grass61.511.633.79.63.77.023.5**6.6**15.5** -Tephrosia candida 0 32.7 18.2 0 6.9 3.0 0 16.5** 7.8 -Tephrosia candida032.718.206.93.0016.5**7.8 -Paspalum atratum 0.9 11.6 6.8 0 2.0 0.9 0.2 5.6** 2.8** -Paspalum atratum0.911.66.802.00.90.25.6**2.8** -pineapple 0 2.7 1.5 0 0.8 0.4 0 1.5 0.7 -pineapple02.71.500.80.401.50.7 -sugarcane 1.7 0 0.8 0.6 0 0.4 0.9 0 0.5** -sugarcane1.700.80.600.40.900.5** -other hedgerows 3.4 7.5 5.7 0.3 1.6 0.9 1.1* 3.8** 2.4** -other hedgerows3.47.55.70.31.60.91.1*3.8**2.4** -no soil conservation 20.5 29.3 25.4 70.8 59.3 65.8 57.4** 48.1** 53.0** -no soil conservation20.529.325.470.859.365.857.4**48.1**53.0** Intercropping          Intercropping -with peanut 0.9 40.8 23.1 0.6 30.9 13.7 0.7 34.6* 16.7** -with peanut0.940.823.10.630.913.70.734.6*16.7** -with beans 0 23.8 13.3 0 27.2 11.8 0 26.0 12.3** -with beans023.813.3027.211.8026.012.3** -with maize 10.3 2.7 6.1 2.8 3.7 3.2 4.8** 3.3 4.1 -with maize10.32.76.12.83.73.24.8**3.34.1 -with green manures 20.5 0 9.1 4.0 0 2.3 8.4** 0 4.4** -with green manures20.509.14.002.38.4**04.4** -other species 2.6 43.5 25.4 1.6 21.5 10.2 1.8 29.8** 15.0** -other species2.643.525.41.621.510.21.829.8**15.0** -no intercropping 71.8 20.4 43.2 90.4 47.6 71.8 85.4** 37.4** 62.7** -no intercropping71.820.443.290.447.671.885.4**37.4**62.7** Fertilization          Fertilization -chemical fertilizers 98.3 79.6 87.9 84.5 80.1 82.6 88.2** 79.9 84.3** -chemical fertilizers98.379.687.984.580.182.688.2**79.984.3** -farm yard or green manure 56.4 65.3 61.4 25.5 55.3 38.4 33.7** 59.0 45.7** -farm yard or green manure56.465.361.425.555.338.433.7**59.045.7** -no fertilizer 0 16.3 9.1 12.4 14.2 13.2 9.1** 15.0 11.9** -no fertilizer016.39.112.414.213.29.1**15.011.9** Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Total100100100100100100100100100 Percentages may total more than 100 percent as households can adopt more than one type of technology simultaneously  Percentages may total more than 100 percent as households can adopt more than one type of technology simultaneously Percentages may total more than 100 percent as households can adopt more than one type of technology simultaneously  Percentages may total more than 100 percent as households can adopt more than one type of technology simultaneously  "},{"text":"Table 13 . 20. Estimated increase in gross income of cassava farmers in China, Thailand, Vietnam and in a total of 12 countries of Asia as a result of increased cassava yields in 2003 as compared to 1994.       Increased gross Increased gross  Total Cassava yield Yield Cassava income due to TotalCassava yieldYieldCassavaincome due to  cassava (t/ha) 1)  Increase price higher yields cassava(t/ha) 1)Increasepricehigher yields  area      area  (ha) 1) 1994 2003 (t/ha) ($/tonne) (mil. US$) (ha) 1)19942003(t/ha)($/tonne)(mil. US$) China 240,108 15.21 16.25 1.04 27 6.7 China240,10815.2116.251.04276.7 Thailand 1,050,000 13.81 17.55 3.74 22 86.4 2) Thailand1,050,00013.8117.553.742286.4 2) Vietnam 371,700 8.44 14.07 5.63 25 52.3 Vietnam371,7008.4414.075.632552.3 Asia total 3,430,688 12.95 16.12 3.17 25 271.9 Asia total 3,430,68812.9516.123.1725271.9 1) Data from FAOSTAT for 2003      1) Data from FAOSTAT for 2003  "},{"text":" the new Nippon Foundation-funded cassava project, collaborative arrangements were explored with national institutions in Lao PDR and Cambodia. In Lao PDR meetings were arranged with Dr. Ty Phommasack, Vice Minister of Agric. and Foresty, and with Dr. Bounthong Bouahom, Acting Director General of NAFRI, to explain the project and to request permission and collaboration for implementing the project. The project will be implemented mainly through NAFRI at the national level, and with assistance from the Provincial and District Agric. and Forestry Offices (PAFO and DAFO) of those Provinces and Districts where the project will be actively involved.In Cambodia meetings were arranged with Dr. Men Sarom, Director of the Cambodia Agric.Research and Development Institute (CARDI) and his staff; with Dr. Kieu Borin, Director of the Center for Livestock and Agric. Development (CelAgrid), and with Mr. Eun Jun Choi, Managing Director of CJ Cambodia Co., Ltd., a Korean company with a 2000 ha cassava plantation with starch factory in Kampong Speu. It was agreed that most agronomic research and on-farm testing would be done in collaboration with the Agronomy and  "},{"text":"Table 13 . 21. On-farm cassava trials on Laos in 2004/05. Howeler, R.H. 2004. Working with farmers in Asia: Spreading new varieties, improved practices and… new hope. Paper presented at VI Cassava Biotechnology Network (CBN) International Scientific Meeting, held in Cali, Colombia, March 8-14, 2004. Presentation on CD 2. Howeler, R. H. 2004 A participatory and inter-institutional project to enhance the sustainability of cassava production in Thailand, Vietnam, and China: Its impact on soil erosion and farmers' income. Paper presented at the International Conference on Interdisciplinary Curriculum and Research Management in Sustainable Land Use and Natural Resource Management, held in Bangkok, Thailand. Aug 17-19, 2004. 3. Howeler, R. H., W. Watananonta, W. Vongkasem and K. Klakhaeng. 2004 Working with farmers: The challenge of achieving adoption of more sustainable cassava production practices on sloping land in Asia. Paper presented at the Sustainable Soil and Water Management (SSWM) International Conference, held in Chiangmai, Thailand. Sept 5-9, 2004.    Coordinates    Coordinates Village    Elevation Ethnic Date No. VillageElevation EthnicDateNo.  District Prov. 2) N E (masl) group 1) planted Var. DistrictProv. 2)NE(masl)group 1)plantedVar. 1. Kone Lang Pak Baeng O 20 o 04'19\" 101 o 10'33\" 770 Khamu 06-06-04 8 1. Kone Lang Pak BaengO20 o 04'19\" 101 o 10'33\"770Khamu 06-06-048 2. Mok Loi Pak Baeng O 20 o 05'07\" 101 o 11'13\" 788 Khamu 08-06-04 8 2. Mok LoiPak BaengO20 o 05'07\" 101 o 11'13\"788Khamu 08-06-048 3. Phou Lath Houn O 20 o 17'10\" 101 o 20'36\" 640 Khamu 08-06-04 8 3. Phou Lath HounO20 o 17'10\" 101 o 20'36\"640Khamu 08-06-048 4. Kone Thoey Houn O 20 o 16'27\" 101 o 21'00\" 1046 Khamu 09-06-04 8 4. Kone Thoey HounO20 o 16'27\" 101 o 21'00\"1046Khamu 09-06-048 5. Song Hak Phou Kout XK 19 o 37'32\" 103 o 05'50\" 1057 Phouan 16-06-04 8 5. Song HakPhou KoutXK19 o 37'32\" 103 o 05'50\"1057Phouan 16-06-048 6. Khoeng Phou Kout XK    Phouan 17-06-04 6 6. KhoengPhou KoutXKPhouan 17-06-046 7. Sombone Phou Kout XK    Phouan 17-06-04 8 7. SombonePhou KoutXKPhouan 17-06-048 8. Pong Phou Kout XK 19 o 40'08\" 103 o 08'43\" 1127 Phouan 15-06-04 8 8. PongPhou KoutXK19 o 40'08\" 103 o 08'43\"1127Phouan 15-06-048 9. Man Phou Kout XK 19 o 30'32\" 103 o 08'08\" 1119 Phouan 15-06-04 8 9. ManPhou KoutXK19 o 30'32\" 103 o 08'08\"1119Phouan 15-06-048 10. Vieng Phou Kout XK    Phouan 16-06-04 8 10. ViengPhou KoutXKPhouan 16-06-048 11. Xieng Nuea Phaxay XK 19 o 17'44\" 103 o 04'35\" 1134 Phouan 21-06-04 6 11. Xieng Nuea PhaxayXK19 o 17'44\" 103 o 04'35\"1134Phouan 21-06-046 12. Xoua Phaxay XK    Phouan 21-06-04 5 12. XouaPhaxayXKPhouan 21-06-045 13. Namka Phaxay XK    Hmong  13. NamkaPhaxayXKHmong 14. Pak Wed X. Nguen LP 19 o 46'49\" 102 o 10'39\" 331 Lao Loum 24-05-04 8 14. Pak WedX. NguenLP19 o 46'49\" 102 o 10'39\"331Lao Loum 24-05-048        07-06-04 3 07-06-043 15. Pik Noi L. Prabang LP    Lao Loum  2-3 15. Pik NoiL. PrabangLPLao Loum2-3 16. Haat Xua Pak Ou LP    Leu  2 16. Haat XuaPak OuLPLeu2 17. Haat Pang Pak Ou LP    Leu  4 17. Haat Pang Pak OuLPLeu4 18. Som Sanuk Pak Ou LP 20 o 04'54\" 102 o 15'06\" 318 Leu  3-4 18. Som Sanuk Pak OuLP20 o 04'54\" 102 o 15'06\"318Leu3-4 1) Khamu are classified within the Lao Thoung (mid-altitude Lao)   1) Khamu are classified within the Lao Thoung (mid-altitude Lao) Phouan and Leu are ethnic groups within the Lao Loum (lowland Lao)   Phouan and Leu are ethnic groups within the Lao Loum (lowland Lao) 3) O= Oudomxay; XK= Xieng Khouang; LP= Luang Prabang    3) O= Oudomxay; XK= Xieng Khouang; LP= Luang Prabang  "}],"sieverID":"cf0cf94f-1f48-4480-9faa-2445d8a0aadc","abstract":"Output 13-1 2004 Annual Report OUTPUT 13 Integrated cassava-based cropping systems in Asia: Widespread adoption of farming practices that enhance sustainabilityThe overall objective of this output is to increase the income and agricultural sustainability in less favored upland areas by developing, together with farmers, efficient and effective integrated cassava-based cropping and livestock production systems that optimize total farm productivity, improve livelihoods and contribute to the long-term sustainability of cassavabased cropping systems in Asia."}

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data/part_4/0c4a973bd1ae6383ea6327b045fe2f3f.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c4a973bd1ae6383ea6327b045fe2f3f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c895e3db-5f79-4eff-80e0-458dfba9c4cf/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Virk, D.S., AJ. Packwood, and J.R. Wílcomhe. 1997. Yarietal testíng and popul.risatíon and research Iinkages. In Researchfor rainfedfarming. proceedings afthe ICAR-ODAjoint workshop, September 11-14,1995, CRIDA,   Hyderabad, edited by J.C. Katyal and 1. Farrington. Hyderabad, India: Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Witcombe, J.R, 1999. Do farrner-partíeípalory melhods apply more lo high pOlenli.1 areas Ihan lo marginal ones? Outlook on Agriculture 28:43-49."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Rice is the most important monsoon-season crop grown in lhe Punjab. The area under rice has increased progressively over lhe last 20 years, reaching 2.5 million hectares in 1998-99. The average yield of 3.5 t ha• l in 1997-98 (Ihe highest for any state in lhe country) decreased to 3.2 t ha-l in 1998-99 due lo lhe attack of tungro virus rusease. Allhough there has been an increase in the area and total production in lhe state, there has not been any appreciable increase in productivity over the past decade."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"The increasing area planted lo rice is the result of a decrease in lhe area planted to cotton and other less profitable crops. The increasing area under rice presents a number of problems:"},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"• increased water use "},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"Two features of the large-scale cultivation of rice are relevant lo Ihe present study:"},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"l. the widespread transplanting ofrice early in the season, contrary lo extension recommendatíons 2. trends in varietal adoption, such as the widespread cultivation of a single variety We discuss these issues here and presenl evidence in support of an altematÍve approaeh to that of conventional extension: participatory varietal seleetion for new varieties."}]},{"head":"Issues related to rice cultivation in the Punjab","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Early transplanting","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Time of transplanting is a major factor Ihat substantially ínfluences rice yíe!d. A transplanting schedule has becn recornmended by lhe Punjab Agricultura! University (PAU) to get the highest yie!d and prepare lhe fields in time for the following wheat crop. It is recommended that varieties Jaya, IR8, and aH Punjab rice (PR series) varieties should be transplanted ITom ! 0-20 June, with the exception oflhe early-maturing variety PRI03, which should be transplanted ITom 20-30 June. PAU has issued a general guideline stating lhat where lhe rice area is large, lhe transplanting period should extend equally around 20 June (pAU 1996)."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"Surveys conducted in the Punjab (Singh 1998(Singh , 1999) ) over four years (1996)(1997)(1998)(1999) revealed lhat transplanting in the Punjab starts ITom 1 May (figure 1). By lhe end ofMay, about 22% of the rice erop is transplanted, and by lhe middle of June, about 65% of the crop is already in lhe field. This early planting is more conspicuous in the Patiala district, where about 50% of lhe rice is transplanted by lhe end ofMay and 89% by mid-June. Why farmers praclice early transplanting contrary lo extension recornrnendations is an interesting question, Participatory rural appraisals (PRAs) done with farmers reveal sorne ofthe reasons farmers transplant late:"},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"• the availability of tube-well irrigation and a cheap, fia! rate for electricity"},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"• the continued employrnent oflabor afier the wheat harvest"},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"• the limited choice of early-rnaturing varieties, since high-yielding cultivars tend to have longer maturation periods and need earlier transplanting"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"Early transplanting ofrice has led to multiple problems such as the foIlowing:"},{"index":7,"size":38,"text":"• a loweríng of the water table from greater exploitation of ground-water resources (During May and June, the water requirements for crops are at their peak. The early transplanted crop requíres 20% to 30% more water [PAU 1996].)"},{"index":8,"size":23,"text":"• the loss of nutríents frem evaporation in the extremely hot months, resulting in increased use of chemicals aríd degradation of the environment"},{"index":9,"size":8,"text":"• an inerease in diseases and inseet pests"},{"index":10,"size":6,"text":"• less opportunity for green manuring"}]},{"head":"Specific varietal adoption patterns","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"Old varietíes are cultívated on a large area. P A U has reeornmended a number of varieties of rice; however, farmers still prefer to grow old varieties, The varietal surveys conducted by P AU's sernor extension specialist (farm management) showed that 36% orthe area in the stale duríng 1999 was occupied by varieties released 15 years ago, e,g\" PR 106, IR8, Jaya, PR In Patiala, the adoption of nonrecornmended varieties was higher than in the Punjab as a whole (average of 53% over rour years), Among nonrecornmended varieties, Pusa 44 has the highest adoption, Itoecupiednearly 50% ofthe areain the Patiala distriet in 1996 to 1999, Pusa 44 is highly susceptible to bacterialleafblight (BLB), and the large-scale cultivation ofPusa 44 has helped to build up the BLB pathogen, which causes losses in other varieties. However, farmers prefer Fusa 44 for its high yield and resistance lo lodging, "}]},{"head":"Methods and materials","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Participatory approaches","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Three participatory approaches were used in thís study: "}]},{"head":"Selection ollarmers and villages","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Eleven villages (Kalifewala, Chalaila, Kalwa, Barsat, Bhedpura, Gajjumajra, Kaidopur, Dhengera, Partapgarh, Kartarpur, and Jauramajra) were selected to represent agroclímatic situations in the Patiala district. Three villages(Gajjumajra, Bhedpura, and Barsat) represented salt-affected arcas with soils having a pH hetween 9.0 and 9.5. Ofthese II villages, F AMP AR trials were conducted in six and IRD. in the rest. AH viHages have either metaled or good earthen approach roads. AH of the agriculturalland is irrigated !Tom canals or tube wells."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Farmers were selected lo represent small, medíum, and large landholdings. Willingness to experiment with new varieties was tbe key factor in selecting farmers. A total of 497 farmers were involved in participatory research in the kharif(monsoon season) of 1999."}]},{"head":"Farmer-managed trials","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Twelve varieties were tested in participatory trials: IR36, IR64, HKR 120, HKR 126, Pant Dhan 4, Pant Dhan 10, Gurjari, Kalinga TIl, Govind, Pusa 834, PR 111, and PR 114. Of these, varieties, PR 111 and PR 114 are recornmended for the Punjab. All other varieties are out-of-state released varieties. Small bags (2-5 kg) of seed (varying according lO the demand of farmers) were given to farmers with the understanding tbat they would grow the new variety alongside their local variety under the same management and that they would participate in the evaluation."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Yirk, D.S., D. Harris, K.D. Joshi, and J.R. Witcombe. 1997. Should participatory crop improvement be adopted for high polenlial produclíon syslems? DFID Plant Seieoce Research Program Annual Program Report 1997. Section I Research Highlighls. UK: Department oflntemational Development. "},{"text":"284 ( Figure L Rice area transplanted from 1 May to 15 July in Punjab and the project area ofthe Patiala district "},{"text":" -managed particípatory-research (F AMP AR) varietal trials, in which farmers grow new varieties alongside their local variety under farmcr management, with evaluation of many cultivar traits by hoth scienlists and furmers 2. informal research and development (IRD), in which furmers evaluate new varietíes with little intervention from scientists; evalualÍon is mainly !Tom the examination of adoption trends 3. single-replicate design (mother trials), with aH varieties grown togelher as demonstration plots to assess the relative performance of varieties (researcher-designed but farmer-managed trials) "},{"text":" Nonrecommended varieties occupY large areas. Despití! many reeornmendations by PAU, there is sigrúfieant adoption of nonrecornmended varieties in the state. In faet, the area under non-PAU varieties increased in 1998 and 1999 (table 1),  "},{"text":"Table l . Area ofNonrecommended Varieties in the Punjab and Patiala District from 1996 lo 1999 See figure I for infonnation on sample size5.  Area 01 nonrecommended varieties Area of Pus. 44 Area 01 nonrecommended varietiesArea of Pus. 44 ('lo 01 total rice area) Punjab Patiala -'-\"\"'-_____ ｾ ］ ］ ＠ Year ____ ___' == ______ ｟ ｟ ｟ Ｇ ｐ ｟ Ｇ ｵ Ｚ Ｚ Ｚ ｮ Ｂ ｪ ｡ ］ ｢ ｾ ＠ ('lo of total rice area) Patiala 1996 31 43 ('lo 01 total rice area) Punjab Patiala -'-\"\"'-_____ ｾ ］ ］ ＠ Year ____ ___' == ______ ｟ ｟ ｟ Ｇ ｐ ｟ Ｇ ｵ Ｚ Ｚ Ｚ ｮ Ｂ ｪ ｡ ］ ｢ ｾ ＠ ('lo of total rice area) Patiala 1996 31 43 1997 33 47 19973347 1998 35 60 19983560 1999 38 60 19993860 Mean 34 53 Mean3453 Note.'   Note.'  "}],"sieverID":"b6e64a18-288b-4327-a763-ce43df6694cd","abstract":"Figure 6. Opinions of23 participating farmers in seed-priming trials ofwheat in rabí 1997-1998 in Kothamba and Dalvai Savli villages in Lunawada"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d02b1049f178e468e2cd461487224f5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/308b638d-570c-4390-bffd-a41dad7ed8f8/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"WE DON'T KNOW WHAT WE DON'T MEASURE: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF POST-HARVEST FISH PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY IMPACT ON SOCIAL JUSTICE","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Informal","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Women's predominance across a range of activities including salting, sun-drying, and frying. Despite women's presence-disguised as an extension of household work."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Older women with management skills: having authority and influence in the family and society."}]},{"head":"Formal","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Technological advancements increased pace, production targets, and surveillance."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Disappearance of women's jobs-cutting, cleaning, gutting, etc."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"Reinforcement of gendered roles."}]},{"head":"Comparing Informal and Formal","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"A high proportion of women workers-canning, smoking, etc. (low paid, culturally regarded as women's work)."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"The informal sector is more diverse with equitable share evident."}]},{"head":"FINDING: OUTCOMES REPORTED Health","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Smoking fish and airway obstruction leads to a range of health problems including eye and lung disease."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"New types of ovens are there to reduce exposure to smoke and burns, but a few women are able to invest in them."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Women are more exposed to musculoskeletal pain and respiratory symptoms."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"No reporting on mental health outcomes."}]},{"head":"Livelihoods","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Differential work opportunities due to social norms, gendered labour, and wage gaps between male and female workers in formal systems."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Women have greater knowledge, skills, and decision-making agency in informal processing."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Women workers in factory settings are concentrated in low-end jobs, and prone to occupational health hazards, yet for many women, job retention is more important."}]},{"head":"Equality and Equity","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Informal fish processing provides women with better control over management and income, and the flexibility of combining work with child-care."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Formal fish processing activities reported the provision of social protection and security."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"The prospects of paid work after 8 th grade disincentivized further education among youth."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"The tradeoff of financial freedom among women."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"INTRODUCTION 4 Fisheries & Aquaculture • Livelihoods of the global poor and a source of food and nutrition. • There is scant understanding of or attention to associated equity and equality outcomes. Post Harvest Processing • Encompass all aspects of handling, storage, packaging, distribution, and sale. • Over half of workers are women and are deeply affected by these technologies. Why this Research? • Post-harvest processing outputs are expected to increase by 14% (202 MT) per year by 2030. • Challenges and opportunities for different social groups, particularly marginalised groups such as women, migrants, and youth. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES Assess the impact of formal (i.e., mechanised) versus informal (i.e., traditional) post-harvest processing in the fish value chain. Examine three sets of outcomes -health, livelihoods, and equity & equality -for women and other marginalised groups. Analyse social justice concerns and note where future research and policy development needs improvement. 11 Retrieved 2792 > 310 full texts -uploaded on Rayyan for inclusion by at least 2 reviewers METHODOLOGY Geographical Distribution Timeline of Publication METHODOLOGY Geographical DistributionTimeline of Publication 12 maximum points. average of 7.21 out of • Assessed the impact of at least one type of aquatic food post-harvesting processing on social justice • Cochrane Methodology used and PRISMA Criteria applied Mostly published after 2000, with 1 outlier in 1987 • Overall Risk of Bias: medium with an Under-representation like Australasia Review Systematic 55 locations Increased after 2015 (SDG) 12 maximum points. average of 7.21 out of • Assessed the impact of at least one type of aquatic food post-harvesting processing on social justice • Cochrane Methodology used and PRISMA Criteria applied Mostly published after 2000, with 1 outlier in 1987 • Overall Risk of Bias: medium with an Under-representation like Australasia Review Systematic 55 locations Increased after 2015 (SDG)   • Of the 42 included �� Of the 42 included Included Studies studies, the risk of bias was low in 14 (33%), Included Studiesstudies, the risk of bias was low in 14 (33%), Literature  medium in 24 (57%), Literaturemedium in 24 (57%), Referred  and high in four (10%) Referredand high in four (10%) Focus of Studies  studies. Focus of Studiesstudies. Data Analysis Formal to informal technologies and comparisons • 42 studies included for review (8 compared formal and informal, 17 studies considered formal processing, and another 17 studies considered informal processing alone) • Risk of Bias assessment • Data extraction and analysis • We focus on results (post-2010) Outcomes Reported from studies judged as Limited coverage of technologies' impact on social 43% of studies reported economic outcomes low and medium risk (90% of the total) justice 36% of studies reported health outcomes Data Analysis Formal to informal technologies and comparisons • 42 studies included for review (8 compared formal and informal, 17 studies considered formal processing, and another 17 studies considered informal processing alone) • Risk of Bias assessment • Data extraction and analysis • We focus on results (post-2010) Outcomes Reported from studies judged as Limited coverage of technologies' impact on social 43% of studies reported economic outcomes low and medium risk (90% of the total) justice 36% of studies reported health outcomes 60% of studies compared men/women, 21% focused 29% of studies reported social outcomes 60% of studies compared men/women, 21% focused29% of studies reported social outcomes women  women 11-10-2023 11-10-2023  7 11-10-2023 11-10-20237  "}],"sieverID":"9c3fa621-d9b7-40b3-8416-e3195b78433d","abstract":""}