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+{"metadata":{"id":"006743631b9403735778cd7072255e0f","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://old.icraf.org/sea/Publications/files/paper/PP0326-13.pdf"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Carbon and Watershed Function as Conditionality for Community Forestry (Case study in Sesaot Lombok)","keywords":["Carbon stock","community forestry","Flow Persistence","income and equity"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Protected forest of Sesaot in West Lombok District, East Nusa Tenggara Province is an important area as providing ecosystem regulation. This forest is located in the upper part of Dodokan and Jangkok watershed which plays an important role in the water supply to Mataram city, as well as Central and East Lombok District. However, forest degradation and conversion to other land use systems such as agriculture and agro-forestry occurred in this area. It will impact to loss of forest function particularly carbon dioxide sequestration and hydrological function, even though potentially on increasing local income."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"Local community in the buffer area of protected forest had practiced agro-forestry systems mostly coffee and cocoa mixed with other trees such as timber, fruit trees, shading trees as well as some annual crops for a couple of decades. However, tree composition growth in the systems is varied depend on the land status. So far, there are three types of land status across the buffer area are private land, permitted managing forest called community forestry and non permitted."},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":"Community forestry (Hutan Kemasyarakatan/HKm) is one of mechanism strategy to improve degraded forest through involving community on managing forest area (Suyanto et al., 2004). Of course, rule of forest management, for example, prescribing of tree and crop proportion in the certain land use should be implemented to maintain forest function. Practicing agro-forestry system through integrating tree species, perennial crop and annual crop will provide both ecological and economical function. Tree species, for example, timber and fruits mainly provide ecosystem services as a micro climate regulation and hydrological function through carbon dioxide sequestration and controlling run-off. Perennial and annual crop are mostly as sources of income for community."},{"index":4,"size":197,"text":"Even though, community forest (HKm) mechanism is being discussed and sometime still in debate, particularly in the conservation or protected forest area due to some government regulation. However, some evidence indicates that involving community on managing degraded forest give better environment condition (Suyanto, et al., 2007). The aim of this study is to know the impact of community forest program to social economic condition and the conditionality to environmental condition. We used carbon stock and watershed functions as an environmental indicator. Carbon stock measurement was conducted through set up 30 plots of 20 m x 100 m which are distributed in secondary forest (3 plots), tree-based agro-forestry system in community forestry program (HKm program 6 plots and proposed HKm program, 12 plots), private land (6 plots) and mahoni plantation (3 plots) following RaCSA method (Hairiah et al., 2011). Diameter at breast height (dbh) of all trees more than 5 cm diameter in the plot were measured and identified base on local species name. Carbon stock in each land use was estimated with allometric equation developed by Ketterings et al., 2001). Litter, understorey and soil were collected in 0.5 m x 0.5 m, 3 replications in each plot."}]},{"head":"METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study Area","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Discharge data time series of Jangkok river from 2000 -2008 was collected from public work department as data input for running Flow Persistence model. Data of Jangkok river was selected in this analysis because the water come from the forest as well as flows through the forest. The FlowPer.xls model provides a parsimonious null-model, that is based on temporal autocorrelation or an empirical ‗flow persistence' in the river flow data (Van Noordwijk et al., 2011). Assessment for landscape condition using PaLA (Participatory Landscape Assessment), the method developed from Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) or Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) method."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"Household survey was conducted to get socioeconomic data, particularly for quantitative data. Amount of 120 respondents consist of 40 respondents in HKm permit area, 40 in HKm non permit area and 40 in Non HKm (private land) was randomly selected from the larger sample to be interviewed. Both husband and wife were interviewed to collect information on family characteristics, such as the number of family members; age and education; history of land use; plot size for all crops; costs and revenue of land-use types, such as mixed gardens (agroforestry), rice field and other. Poverty level of respondents was generated from household income."}]},{"head":"RESULT AND DISCUSSION","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Plant Species Composition in Agro-forestry System of Sesaot","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Community forest management raise based on forestry minister's regulation and it is potential mechanism to improve forest function in degraded area through agro-forestry systems. Local government sees the potential benefits of handing over forest area to local community (Murdiyarso and Skutch, 2006). The local communities are allowed to manage degraded forest with an agreement. Under community forest management scheme, local communities get the formal and legal rights to use and get profit from forest products (Murdiyarso and Skutch, 2006). The legal right on managing degraded forest will encourage local communities to grow perennial tree species such as slow growing timber, fruits trees and perennial crop, instead of annual crop due to land security reason."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Identification of trees group grown by local community in agro-forestry system of Sesaot was done during the survey as Multipurpose tree species (MPTs) consist of shading trees for such as Erythrina sp., Gliricidia sepium as well as fruit trees such as candlenut, durian, avocado, petai etc; perennial crop (coffee and cocoa), annual crop (banana) and timber species."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"The survey result indicates that in the area with HKm permit, more MTPs and timber trees grown by local community compared to non HKm permit (Figure 2). In opposite, more perennial crop grow in non HKm permit. Issue of eviction as the main reason why they are not interesting to grow timber species, instead of there is no regulation and agreement in non HKm area. However, there is indication that high percentage of perennial crop in non HKm area occurred due to dependence of land resource for generate income from crop. Extremely, different with in private land that is dominated by MPTs and timber species (more than 80%), because of more secure than HKm."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"Figure 2: Percentage of plant species in various land status of agro-forestry system in protected forest of Sesaot"}]},{"head":"Carbon Stock in Agro-forestry of Sesaot","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Multipurpose trees species in agro-forestry systems of community forestry area highly potential as carbon sequester, since the biomass will stay for longer time. Only fruits are extracted from MPTs. Even, coffee and cocoa just contributed about 20 -30 ton carbon stock per hectare, but MPTs which are integrated in this land will increase the total of carbon stock per unit area."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"The average of total aboveground carbon stock in agro-forestry system of Sesaot is about 46 ton/ha in HKm non permit and 33 ton/ha in HKm permit (Figure 3). There is different land history among them. HKm non permit had been developed since about 1970 from logged-over area and mahoni plantation initiated by government. HKm permit just established since 1999 from Imperata grassland after abandoned from logged-over forest. Compared with secondary forest (119 ton/ha) and private land (72 ton/ha), total aboveground carbon stock in agro-forestry system of Sesaot both in HKm non permit and HKm permit is lower. Tree species composition and age of managed land is the main factor on carbon stock contribution. Zahabu (2006), stated that in full community forest management, have resulted in significant reductions in degradation together with significant increases in sequestration of carbon. "}]},{"head":"Watershed Condition","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"The Flow Persistence (FlowPer) model provides a parsimonious null-model, that is based on temporal autocorrelation or an empirical ‗flow persistence' in the river flow data (Van Noordwijk et al., 2011). The basic form is a recursive relationship between river flows Q at subsequent days: Q t+1 = fp Qt + Q add where: Qt and Qt+1 represent the river flow on subsequent days, fp is the flow persistence factor ([0< fp <1]) and Qadd is a random variate that reflects inputs from recent rainfall."},{"index":2,"size":289,"text":"Q add and fp are related, as  Q add i = (1 -fp) Q. Thus, if fp = 1, Q add = 0 and river flow is constant, regardless of rainfall (the ideally buffered system). If fp = 0 there is no relation between river flow on subsequent days and the river is extremely ‗flashy', alternating between high and low flows without temporal predictability within the frequency distribution of Q add . Water discharge data used for this model comes from the station Jangkok Dam year period from 2000 to 2008. Previously carried out analysis of the quality of the data, after which discharge data were then tested with the Flow Persistence model. FlowPer average value of 0.86 (Table 1) this means that discharge still relatively good condition, or discharge during wet months and dry months is still persistent.  Otherwise, land cover condition has improved due to increasing community awareness. They plant perennial crop such as coffee and cacao with shagging trees than ultimately affects to the river flow stability. Participatory landscape assessment which was conducted in 2010 indicates that biophysical problems, such as encroachment, logging, landslide and spring exploitation in Sesaot area haven't give impact to water quality, but it will be a potential threat if there is no controlling. Most of the soils type in the study area is regosol with high content of sand that prone to erosion and landslide. However, the effort of communities to plant fast growing tree such as ‗sengon' (Paraserianthes falcataria) and keeping old stand such as ‗durian pecing' and mahogany around spring seemly can maintain watershed function in the area. In addition, local community also takes the initiative on protecting forest through doing the patrol and coordination with forestry officer."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"In the other hand, bio-physical problem in this area occurred due to lack of knowledge, coordination, communication, law enforcement and limited sources of funding for farmer group on managing forest."}]},{"head":"Livelihood","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Land holdings","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Compared to non HKm area (0.42 ha) and HKm permit (0.39 ha), land holding per household in HKm non permit is the largest (0.64 ha) (Figure 5). Different land holding occurred due to different rule on getting land. In HKm non permit they opened land by themselves from secondary forest, but in HKm permit they got from local government through farmer group. Survey results indicate that actually, dependence of local community to land in protected forest is very high. It reached 95% in HKm permit area and 89% in HKm non permit. In term of management system, all respondents (100%) in HKm non permit area and 98% in HKm permit area applied agro-forestry systems. All of local community (100%) applied agro-forest system in private land. "}]},{"head":"Quantitative analysis for Poverty","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"Household income which is calculated based on the consumed commodities used as a quantitative indicator for poverty. However, most of income came from cash crops. Daily income per capita in HKm permit is similar with HKm non permit, IDR 12 654 (USD 1.4) 1 and IDR 11 679 (USD 1.2), but higher income occurred in Non HKm IDR 14 748 (USD 1.6) (Figure 6). It is indicates that farmers in HKm permit as well as HKm non permit are less prosperous than the farmers non HKm. Even the daily income per capita of HKm non permit is slightly lower than in HKm permit, but they have perception that HKm permit will improve their livelihoods and they hope that their incomes will further increase if they continue to manage the forest."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Figure 6: Income per capita per day Even the average of total income per year per household in Non HKm are slightly higher than in HKm permit areas and HKm non permit, but the composition of income source are different. Agriculture (agro-forestry) is the major source of income in the HKm permit, HKm non permit and Non HKm areas, but the status of land was different."},{"index":3,"size":181,"text":"Income from the agricultural sector of mixed gardens (agro-forestry) on state land area was contributed to poverty reduction. It is seen from the large proportion of the income of farmers in HKm permit and HKm non permit from state land area. The proportion of income in HKm permit from the state land area was reached 33% of total revenue. In HKm non permit, the proportion of income derived from state land area is about 59%. While the farmers non HKm, the largest proportion of revenue that comes from a mixed gardens (agro-forestry) in the private land is 38% (Figure 7). The higher proportion income from the state land proved that communities who live in the forest land of Sesaot need the land as their main source of livelihood, in particular for farmers in HKm non permit.  In the HKm permit areas, the main source of income was came from agroforestry in state land (33%) and business activities (33%), followed by professional (19%), wage (8%%), other agriculture (3%), agroforestry in private land, remittances and others were very low (2%), (1%) and (1%)."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"In the HKm non permit areas, highest source of income came from agroforestry in state land (59%) followed by wage (10%), agroforestry in private land, professional, other agriculture, business activities were the same (6%), remittances (5%) and rice field were very low (3%). In the Non HKm areas, highest source of income came from agroforestry in private land (38%), following by rice field (18%), others (13%), wage (11%), business activities (9%), professional (6%), other agriculture (4%) and remittances (2%)."}]},{"head":"Equity analysis","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"In order to analyze the equity of income, a decomposition analysis was applied using the Gini coefficient that ranges from 0 (equal distribution of income) to 1 (total concentration of income). Gini decomposition is commonly applied in economic analysis (Alderman and Garcia, 1993) using the Gini decomposition formula that was developed by Fei, Ranis, and Kuo (1978) and Pyatt, Chen, and Fei (1980)."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"The computation results of the decomposed Gini ratios of income for farmers in HKm permit and HKm non permit area relatively small (0.26-0.38). This indicated that income at both sites was equally distributed. The assessment of income inequity is using the concentration coefficient. A source of income is influential in improving income equity if it has a concentration coefficient of less than 1. On the contrary, if the concentration coefficient is higher than 1, the source of income is influential in causing income inequity."},{"index":3,"size":127,"text":"Income from agriculture (agroforestry) on state land reduced the overall inequity of income distribution at the Sesaot area, because the concentration coefficients were less than unity (Figure 8). This suggests that the income from agriculture (agroforestry) grown on state land is relatively equally distributed, making this income important to reducing poverty and increasing income equity. On the other hand, Income from agriculture (agroforestry) on private land leads to unequal income distribution in the Sesaot area. Wealthy farmers often extend their private land through of inheritance or purchasing, which seems to have concentrated income from private land in the hands of fewer people. In contrast, it state land area income from agriculture (agroforestry) on state land reduced inequity of income, since state areas (protection areas) were more available."},{"index":4,"size":161,"text":"The HKm area has made land more accessible, particularly for poor farmers who do not own land. Through HKm area, poor farmers can have access to land without having to pay. On the other hand, private land ownership has caused land to be distributed unevenly as only the rice will have access to land. From three components study (carbon stock, water and livelihood), indicates that three of them have close relationship. Through community forestry mechanism (HKm), local community in protected forest of Sesaot willing to growth tree species instead of annual crop among coffee or cacao tree due to land security. Increasing number of tree species in their agroforestry systems increasing carbon stock in each unit area as well as increasing canopy covers. Tree root systems, canopy covers and soil covers has an important role in water regulation. In addition, land security in protected forest of Sesaot triggered of local community on management improvement and will potentially impact to household income."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSION","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":" Community forest management stimulate community to manage forest area and will provide environmental services particularly for carbon sequester. Carbon stock in community forest management is about 54% of private land.  FlowPer model shows the condition of watersheds which persistence (0.86), it means that landscape still perform its function in the system of hydrology.  Bio-physical problems as potential trigger to the environmental damage in the future, particularly for water quality.  Income from agroforestry systems in the buffer area managed by the local community ranged 33-59% of total income and plays an important role in poverty alleviation.  Income from state land (under community forestry program) in the agroforestry narrowing the income inequity.  Legal permission for managing land is an incentive for the local community and will improve land management. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Location of study This research was conducted in protected forest of Sesaot, West Lombok about 5950.18 ha under two farmer groups namely Wana Lestari and Wana Dharma (Figure 1). Both of those farmers group currently is in process to promote community forestry permit (HKm pertmit). Part of Wana Dharma area there is about 21 ha managed by KMPH (Kelompok Masyarakat Pengelola Hutan Bunut Ngengkang) had been stated as HKm permit area since 2008 from West Lombok local government. Carbon stock measurement was conducted through set up 30 plots of 20 m x 100 m which are distributed in secondary forest (3 plots), tree-based agro-forestry system in community forestry program (HKm program 6 plots and proposed HKm program, 12 plots), private land (6 "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Total aboveground carbon stock in various land status of agro-forestry system in protected forest of Sesaot "},{"text":"Figure 4 Figure 4 shows that trend of FlowPer value tends to rise. This is in harmony with the history that forest of Sesaot is getting better due to initiation program of community forest management. FlowPer smallest value was occurred in 2001 due to land degradation, encroachment and logging triggered by the publication of West Lombok Regent Decree No. 522.21/457/prov/2000 on utilization of wood waste. Encroachment and logging increased runoff and reduce water absorption into the soil, because during the rainfall, water flows directly into the river and only very small part of water go into the soil and resulting large water discharge in the river. While in the dry season discharge of water per day decreased. Higher fluctuations pattern of discharge per day resulted smaller value of fp.Otherwise, land cover condition has improved due to increasing community awareness. They plant perennial crop such as coffee and cacao with shagging trees than ultimately affects to the river flow stability. "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Trendline of FlowPer of Jangkok river "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: Average Land Holding per household "},{"text":"Figure 7 : Figure 7: Household income by activity type (%) "},{"text":"Figure 8 : Figure 8: Coefficient concentration in Sesaot Lombok "},{"text":"Table 1 . Flow Persistance value per year of Jangkok river Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Average Year200020012002200320042005200620072008Average FlowPer value 0.79 0.69 0.85 0.87 0.90 0.88 0.90 0.86 0.92 0.86 FlowPer value0.790.690.850.870.900.880.900.860.920.86  "}],"sieverID":"0a592b02-a861-46ea-8b0a-0a9d78ffa33e","abstract":"Forests provide a number of ecosystems services to human life-support. The most important are as climate regulation which is close relationship with carbon sequestration and watershed function. However, forest conversion and degradation occurred in the large area in Indonesia due to economic reason. Involving community on managing degraded forest through agro-forestry systems is an alternative option to enhance carbon stock, biodiversity, maintaining watershed function and generate income for community. Assessment of carbon stock, watershed and livelihood condition was conducted in buffer area of Sesaot protected forest, West Lombok, Nusa Tenggara Barat. Rapid carbon stock appraisal (RaCSA) and participatory landscape appraisal (PaLA) developed by ICRAF was applied to assess carbon stock and watershed condition. Amount of 30 plots were set up in for land use systems namely secondary forest and agroforest which differentiate based on land status (private land, management permitted, non permitted). Household survey was conducted for 120 respondents across three land status. Carbon stock in agroforestry system is affected by type of planted trees as well as land status. Higher carbon stock was found in agroforestry of private land (72 ton/ha) compared to forest land (42 ton/ha). More timber trees were grown in private land rather than in forest land, both in management permitted or non-permitted. Water quality and quantity in this area is relatively good. There is no high fluctuation of discharge between wet and dry season. Dependence of local community to forest land in is quite high, because 33-59% of total income come from agroforestry systems in the buffer area of protected forest and play an important role in poverty alleviation through narrowing inequity income."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0118f37f2847e6cb48d323c555fa5cde","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6fb273ab-f055-414e-a1dc-b78372e105a5/retrieve"},"pageCount":17,"title":"This publication was prepared as an output for DeRISK SE Asia and is aligned with the new CGIAR initiative on Asia Mega-Deltas. It has not been peer-reviewed. Any opinions stated herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the policies or opinions of DeRISK SE Asia, donor agencies, or partners","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Agriculture is an important component of the Myanmar economy, where 67% of the population is rural. Agriculture accounts for 32% of the gross domestic product (GDP), 56% national employment, and 21% of its total exports (CSO, 2012). As an agriculturebased country with a large percentage of smallholder farmers, Myanmar's food security, nutrition, and livelihoods are highly vulnerable to climate change risks. (Bernardo, 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"Myanmar lies in a tropical climate region, which is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change (Aung et al., 2017). Climate change in Myanmar is manifested by uncertainties in monsoon patterns, longer periods of drought, increasing temperature, highly variable rainfall volume and patterns, stronger cyclones that cause destructive floods, and causing heavy losses to agricultural production (MOAI, 2015). The Ayeyarwady delta and Central Dry Zone are regarded as major agricultural production zones of Myanmar but are also the most vulnerable areas to climate change (David A, Larry, & Jindra, 2015). Lowland area is dominated by rice cultivation, with access to irrigation in most areas, while the upland area is mainly of oil seed crops and pulses cultivations (Mather et al., 2018). In    "}]},{"head":"TRANSLATE","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Farmers make many farm decisions, many of which are climate sensitive."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"For example, deciding on what variety of crop to plant requires information on whether the length of the monsoon will be normal or not; decisions for sowing time, irrigation, and applying fertilizers all depend on whether there will be a rainy week or not. In addition to other players in the value chain also make decisions that rely on climate conditions-deciding when to dry, store and transport farm products, for instance, will be made effective with climate information and forecasts."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"This also includes other businesses such as insurance providers, finance  2)."}]},{"head":"Table 2. Decision-making in rice cultivation under different climate condition","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Local Technical Agroclimatic Committees (LTAC)","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"The project team also promoted the Local Technical Agroclimatic Committees (LTAC) as an approach and a venue to conduct a more participatory and consultative manner for generating agroclimatic advisories. The LTAC is a dialogue process among a diversity of local actors, including scientists, technicians, representatives from the public and private sectors, and farmers, which seeks to understand the climate's possible behavior in a locality and to generate recommendations to reduce risks associated with expected climate variability. (Loboguerrero, 2018) This dialogue is then used to create an agroclimatic bulletin containing the region's climate forecast, its possible impact on crops for specific conditions in time and space, and recommendations for each production sector. The CDTs are useful tools in generating these recommendations for decisionmaking. Figure 3 shows the general components of the LTAC."},{"index":2,"size":214,"text":"The LTAC, as the name suggests, is local. In the case of Myanmar, this. can mean township level or a group of townships in a district. The agroecology and the similarities of crops cultivated determine the basis for the level of the LTAC. LTAC is a participatory approach to address climate risk issues by forming a local committee consisting of crop experts, meteorologists, NGOs, CSOs, and the private sector working for the agricultural sector and farmer groups. The committee is to run in a dynamic action through a series of discussions throughout the cropping season. The committee first identifies the major cropping systems in the region, including the cropping calendar and risks which are likely to occur through the reviews of past climate events, observation data, and forecasts. Then the committee members collaborate to develop and disseminate the local agroclimatic bulletin using forecasts and crop decision trees. CDTs are developed as a static document for crop management recommendations prepared for different climate scenarios, such as normal, wetter, and drier conditions. Based on the forecasts, they are used as decision support tools in local agroclimatic bulletins.   In Myanmar, support can be given for studying, piloting, and assessing how financial services (credit and insurance) can be bundled with climate information services provided by Myanmar's private sector."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" This paper is developed to inform about the importance of climate information services in enhancing the resilience of the agriculture sector to the impacts of climate change in Myanmar. The following sections are presented: i) overview of climate risks and their impact on Myanmar agriculture based on the findings the context of Myanmar with key methods and tools; and iii) areas of further investment and support for scaling out of the activities in future. "},{"text":" Recently, Myanmar has experienced some of the most destructive cyclones. Cyclone Nargis impacted the country most significantly, which occurred on 2nd May 2008, destroying about 783,000 ha of farmland in the Ayeyarwady delta due to flooding (Tripartite Core Group, 2008). In July 2015, Cyclone Komen caused major floods in Myanmar's river basins, is highly vulnerable to climate risks, especially to frequent dry spells and erratic rainfall patterns, and water shortage is a major problem of rainfed agriculture in the region (its first year designing the approach and collecting data for national CS demand assessment. The project team planned to conduct the demand assessment by organizing a climate risk workshop (CRW) with relevant stakeholders, including the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Irrigation (MoALI) officials. CRW is an approach to map the demand for climate services by identifying major livelihood activities, cropping systems and the associated climate risks affecting them, viable coping strategies, and demand for climate information and advisory services to carry out adaption and mitigation measures. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the project team had to change the plan to conduct the CRW assessment through individual interviews with structured questionnaires instead of physical workshops. The CRW assessment conducted focused on the Central Dry Zone (CDZ), one of Myanmar's climate hazard-prone areas. CDZ lies in the central part of Myanmar, consisting of three regions, 16 districts, and 58 townships. There are two major cropping systems in the CDZ: lowland and upland cultivation. "},{"text":" Magway and Sagaing regions, cropping systems are dominated by rice cultivation, while sesame is the most important crop in Mandalay. Drought and flood are the major climate risks across the CDZ, affecting the major cropping systems throughout the monsoon season (May to October). The appearance of climate risks in three regions of the CDZ can be seen in Figures 1, 2 and 3. To enhance the resilience of farmers in the CDZ, the recommended responses are focused on drought and flood, such as using drought and floodresistant varieties, using water-saving technologies, preparing water drainage systems, adjusting planting dates, etc. The demand for climate information products is linked with the advisories mentioned above. Since the crop production in the CDZ largely relies on monsoon rain and the major climate risks normally occur during the monsoon period, the required climate information products become rain and temperature forecasts, flood and storm warnings, heat wave warnings, and forecasts for the time of onset and withdrawal of monsoon. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Appearance of climate risks in Magway Region of CDZ "},{"text":"Figure Figure 4 (next page) presents the four important interrelated components of climate information services in a country. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Climate service value chain (Adapted from WMO) "},{"text":" experts can now develop decision-support tools that match climate information with decision-making from the farm to other sectors in the value chain. This process of interpreting climate information and developing advisories to guide decision-making is the focus of this component-translation. An important decision support tool that the DeRisk SE Asia project implemented in Myanmar is the crop decision tree (CDT) for the primary crops of the central dry zone. agriculture. Here is an example of a CDT for rice (Table "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Components of Local Technical Agro-climatic Committees (LTAC) "},{"text":"Figure 6 Figure 6 presents the main features of the SESAME mobile application. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Main features of the SESAME mobile application "}],"sieverID":"ffe4ea5b-e860-4c2b-9af1-976f476dfa77","abstract":"Safety and Consumer Protection (BMUV), the project aims to develop climate risk management systems, best practices, and insurance products that will shield smallholder farmers and businesses across the agricultural value chain in key Southeast Asia countries from physical and financial disaster associated with climate change. It assists governments in developing national and regional adaptation and risk management strategies. To know more about our project, please visit: https://deriskseasia.org/."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0174efb0297aebfcc3d0d55cd3802bbb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3a1236b0-db36-41e8-8ddf-19a2e0d3c01a/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Contact details","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Senegal Dairy Genetics","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Improved food and nutritional security from better utilisation of dairy cattle breed-types types in Senegal","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"The objectives of this project are to:"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• Determine the most appropriate dairy breed/crossbreed types for peri-urban dairy production systems in Senegal, and disseminate this information;"},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"• Characterise the dairy germplasm production chain, and related policies, and use this information to develop a strategy for strengthened dairy germplasm production and delivery systems;"},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"• Enhance local human, institutional and organizational capacity on accessing and promoting different breeds/ cross-breeds of livestock. •"}]},{"head":"Project rationale","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"In certain dairy production systems within Senegal, such as in peri-urban Dakar, the indigenous West African Zebu breeds of cattle (such as the Gobra, Maure and Azaouak) are being crossed with recently introduced dairy breeds from Europe (such as the Holstein-Friesian or Montbeliard), resulting in farmers keeping a range of breed types. There is, however, little known about the relative performance of the different breed-types from a socio-economic viewpoint. Whilst animals with a higher proportion of exotic blood have the genetic potential to produce more milk, they are less adapted to the local environmental conditions and require greater inputs (such as feed and health-care) in comparison to the indigenous animals."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"Previously, it has been difficult to quantitatively access the socio-economic performance of the different dairy breedtypes within in-situ (peri-urban or village) settings, as the breed-mix of individual animals cannot be determined from phenotypic observation and pedigree records are lacking. New genomic approaches, however, provide a solution to this problem as they enable the breed composition of individual animals to be determined from DNA information. By combining genomic-based breed information with economic and performance information from on-farm monitoring of the same animals (obtained from both baseline and longitudinal surveys), the most appropriate breed/ cross-breed type for a particular production environment can be identified. Utilisation of the most appropriate breed type is critical to sustainably increase the productivity of the dairy sector. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" peri-urban dairy systems in Senegal, led by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), in partnership with the Interstate School of Veterinary Science and Medicine of Dakar, the University of Helsinki, and Agrifood Research Finland, and funded via the Finnish Government's FoodAfrica Programme, started in early 2012. "},{"text":" ilri.org Better lives through livestock ILRI is a member of the CGIAR Consortium Box 30709, Nairobi 00100, Kenya Phone: + 254 20 422 3000 Fax: +254 20 422 3001 Email: [email protected] Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone: +251 11 617 2000 Fax: +251 11 617 2001 Email: [email protected] "}],"sieverID":"b16662ca-9e47-4052-ade6-393fef8fdb5a","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0189c4022cb726a81be0d2de367e7d5b.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0189c4022cb726a81be0d2de367e7d5b","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://www.scielo.org.co/pdf/rcen/v32n2/v32n2a06.pdf"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Revista Colombiana de Entomología","keywords":["Parámetros demográficos","Longevidad","Fecundidad","Mosca blanca Demographic parameters","Longevity","Fecundity","Whitefly"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introducción","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"La yuca (Manihot esculenta Crantz) es una de las principales fuentes de energía en las regiones tropicales del mundo (Ceballos 2002). En continentes como América, África y Asia el cultivo de yuca es de gran importancia por su gran contribución a la seguridad alimentaria de pequeños agricultores de zonas marginadas. Si bien el principal produc-to económico son sus raíces, las hojas de la yuca también tienen un excelente potencial y son extensivamente utilizadas en África y Asia, ya sea para alimentación humana o animal (FAO/FIDA 2000)."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"Este cultivo es originario del neotrópico, por esta razón según Bellotti et al. (1994), una gran diversidad de artrópodos atacan la yuca en las Américas, ocasionando daño en las hojas, tallos, material de siembra y raíces, lo que disminuye su rendimiento. Observaciones indican que las plagas que atacan la planta durante un período prolongado reducen el rendimiento en mayor grado que aquellas que hacen el daño en un periodo corto (Bellotti et al. 2002). Las \"moscas blancas\" Trialeurodes variabilis Quaintance, Bemisia tuberculata Bondar y Aleurotrachelus socialis Bondar, consiguen afectar la producción del material de siembra, el rendimiento del cultivo y la calidad de las raíces cosechadas, cuando inician los ataques en edad temprana del cultivo y duran hasta etapas muy avanzadas del periodo vegetativo (Bellotti y Arias 2001)."},{"index":3,"size":148,"text":"De once especies de moscas blancas presentes en el cultivo de yuca, la especie más importante en Colombia es A. socialis, por las altas poblaciones y los daños que ocasiona al cultivo llegando a reducir el rendimiento hasta el 79% (CIAT 1986). El daño de esta plaga lo realizan tanto los adultos como los estados inmaduros al alimentarse del floema de la planta. Los adultos se ubican en las hojas apicales, produciendo una clorosis y \"encartuchamiento\" del cogollo (Bellotti et al. 2002). Las ninfas se ubican en las hojas intermedias e inferiores, producen abundante miel que cubre la superficie de la hoja, permitiendo el desarrollo de hongos como la fumagina. En infestaciones altas causan debilitamiento de la planta, caída de las hojas y reducción en el crecimiento (Castillo 1996), lo cual da como resultado una disminución en la producción de raíces si se prolonga la alimentación (Bellotti 2000)."},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"En los últimos años, la población de A. socialis ha incrementado y se ha vuelto endémica en los departamentos de Cauca y Valle del Cauca (Bellotti et al. 2002), lo que conllevó a que muchos agricultores dejaran de cultivar yuca en estas zonas. Actualmente, la plaga ha colonizado áreas en las que anteriormente era secundaria y desconocida para los cultivadores de yuca."},{"index":5,"size":79,"text":"La reacción inicial de los agricultores para manejar el problema ha sido la aplicación indiscriminada de insecticidas. Este hecho unido a la capacidad de dispersión de las moscas blancas (Byrne et al. 1990), han favorecido su emigración a nuevas áreas de siembra. Es el caso de la zona cafetera de Colombia (Norte del Valle del Cauca y el Quindío) donde en el último año, la mosca blanca está ocasionando grandes pérdidas en los cultivos de yuca de estos departamentos."}]},{"head":"Materiales y Métodos","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Esta investigación se realizó durante el primer semestre de 2005 en el invernadero de Entomología de yuca del Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), localizado en el municipio de Palmira, Departamento del Valle del Cauca a 1.000 msnm."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"El material vegetal utilizado correspondió a plantas de yuca de 30-40 días de siembra de la variedad CMC 40, chirosa (Mcol 2066) e Ica Armenia (HMC1), sembradas en recipientes plásticos con suelo estéril de 1.0 kg, los cuales se mantuvieron en casa de malla a una temperatura de 30 ± 2°C y una humedad relativa de 50-60%. Los adultos de A. socialis fueron tomados de la colonia establecida en CIAT desde 1992 sobre plantas de yuca de la variedad CMC 40 mantenidas en invernadero a una temperatura de 27 ± 2°C y una humedad relativa de 60-70%."},{"index":3,"size":208,"text":"Longevidad y fecundidad. Se individualizaron cuarenta hembras de A. socialis, recién emergidas y previamente sexadas de acuerdo con la técnica descrita por Eichelkraut y Cardona (1989), en jaulas pinza (diámetro = 2,5cm; profundidad = 2cm) y se ubicaron en el envés de las hojas de Chirosa (MCOL 2066), Ica Armenia (HMC1) y CMC-40. Cada 48 horas se removieron los adultos a una nueva área de la hoja hasta la muerte natural de las hembras. Para estimar la fecundidad se contó el número de huevos colocados por hembra cada 48 horas y la longevidad se estimó como el máximo tiempo (días) que una hembra vive. Tiempo de desarrollo, tasa de supervivencia y proporción de sexos. De la colonia de A. socialis previamente establecida en CIAT, se tomaron con la ayu-da de un aspirador bucal cincuenta adultos (machos y hembras) de dos días de emergidos. Posteriormente se ubicaron en jaulas pinza (diámetro = 2,5 cm; profundidad = 2 cm) sobre el envés de las hojas de CMC-40, Ica Armenia (HMC1) y Chirosa (MCOL 2066). Se retiraron los adultos después de seis horas y se seleccionaron 200 huevos al azar. Se registró el tiempo de desarrollo de huevo-adulto, la tasa de supervivencia de los estados inmaduros y la proporción de sexos."},{"index":4,"size":98,"text":"Parámetros demográficos. Se combinaron los datos del tiempo de desarrollo y la reproducción 'l x -m x ' para generar tablas de vida, las cuales se utilizaron en el cálculo de los parámetros demográficos definidos por Price (1975) tales como: 1) Tasa de reproducción neta (R o ) o número promedio de descendientes que una hembra deja en una generación; 2) Tiempo generacional (T), equivalente al periodo comprendido entre el nacimiento de los padres y el de la progenie y 3) Tasa intrínseca de crecimiento de la población (r m ), estimada mediante la ecuación de Carey (1993):"},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"X, Edad de la hembra; l x , Edad de supervivencia específica m x , La proporción de hembras de la progenie de una hembra con edad x."},{"index":6,"size":35,"text":"Para estimar los días necesarios para duplicar en número la población (Carey 1993), se utilizó la edad corregida X+0.5 y la ecuación ln 2/ r m, en los cálculos de los valores de r m."},{"index":7,"size":53,"text":"Análisis estadístico. Para los análisis estadísticos se utilizó el paquete estadístico SAS (SAS Institute 1999). Los valores promedios de longevidad, fecundidad, tasa de oviposición y tiempo de desarrollo, se analizaron utilizando ANOVA. Se realizaron comparaciones múltiples utilizando el método de Tukey. Los valores de las tasas de supervivencia se compararon mediante Ji cuadrado."}]},{"head":"Resultados","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Longevidad y fecundidad. El rango de longevidad más amplio de A. socialis se presentó en el genotipo CMC-40. La longevidad media de las hembras de A. socialis fue significativamente más alta cuando se desarrollaron sobre CMC-40 (P< 0.0001, seguido por Tukey P< 0.05) (Tabla 1), excediendo en 2,6 días en pro-medio a MCol-2066 y HMC1. Estas diferencias se pueden observar en las curvas de supervivencia (Fig. 1), donde, al sexto día la proporción de hembras vivas se redujo 50,25 y 22,5% sobre CMC-40, MCol-2066 y HMC1, respectivamente."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"El rango de huevos por hembra fue amplio en CMC-40 y MCol 2066, siendo mayor para el segundo (1-154 huevos). Los promedios de fecundidad fueron diferentes (P< 0.0001, seguido por Tukey P< 0.05), siendo 1,6 y 1,7 veces mayor sobre CMC-40 comparado con MCol-2066 y HMC1, respectivamente (Tabla 1). La tasa de oviposición más alta se obtuvo sobre CMC-40 (P< 0.0001, seguido por Tukey P< 0.05)."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Todas las hembras de A. socialis iniciaron la oviposición en las primeras 48 horas (Fig. 2). Durante este periodo se obtuvo el 36,26 y 18% de la descendencia total sobre HMC1, MCol 2066 y CMC-40, respectivamente. Así mismo, no se presentó variabilidad en el día máximo de oviposición entre los genotipos HMC1 y Mcol 2066 (cuarto día), comparado con CMC-40 (octavo día) (Fig. 2)."},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"Las tasas de oviposición presentan patrones diferentes en los tres genotipos variando con la edad de las hembras. Las curvas de la tasa de oviposición en HMC1 y MCol 2066 muestran una culminación temprana de la oviposición comparada con la de A. socialis en CMC 40, la cual exhibe un patrón normal con un mayor número de posturas en el día ocho."},{"index":5,"size":169,"text":"Los valores de fecundidad obtenidos en CMC-40 (33,8 huevos/hembra) fueron similares a los obtenidos por Bellotti y Arias (2001) sobre el mismo genotipo (35,5 huevos/ hembra). Estos resultados unidos a un mayor valor de longevidad, sugieren, que cuando las poblaciones de A. socialis se desarrollan sobre el genotipo CMC-40 exhiben una mayor capacidad reproductiva que cuando se establecen sobre HMC1 y MCol 2066. Tiempo de desarrollo, supervivencia de los estados inmaduros y proporción de hembras. El tiempo de desarrollo de A. socialis fue dos días menor sobre HMC1 comparado con el genotipo Mcol 2066. Estos valores fueron diferentes al obtenido sobre CMC-40 (P< 0.0001, seguido por Tukey P< 0.05) (Tabla 2). Al comparar los resultados del tiempo de desarrollo sobre los tres genotipos es posible plantear que A. socialis presenta una mayor adaptación biológica cuando sus poblaciones se desarrollan en HMC1. Los resultados del tiempo de desarrollo de A. socialis en CMC-40 encontrados en este estudio difieren en siete días aproximadamente con los registrados por Bellotti y Arias (2001)."},{"index":6,"size":140,"text":"Por otro lado, las más altas tasas de supervivencia de los estados inmaduros fueron encontradas sobre los genotipos HMC1 y MCol 2066, siendo diferentes (χ 2 =3.56, 2 df, P= 0.0593) al compararse con CMC-40 (Tabla 2). No obstante las diferencias encontradas en los tres hospederos, A. socialis presentó bajas tasas de mortalidad de los estados inmaduros sobre los tres genotipos. Los resultados de este parámetro son un buen indicador de la capacidad de A. socialis para el desarrollo e incremento de sus poblaciones sobre los genotipos comerciales HMC1  y Mcol 2066 y, evidencian el riesgo que representan al ser hospederos convenientes. Los resultados de mortalidad sobre CMC-40 fueron 14% menos comparados con los resultados obtenidos por Bellotti y Arias (2001). La proporción de sexos (relación 1:1) de A. socialis no fue afectada durante su desarrollo en los tres hospederos."},{"index":7,"size":198,"text":"Parámetros demográficos. Los resultados de la tasa de reproducción neta (Ro) permitieron estimar que en promedio, al cabo de una generación, las poblaciones de A. socialis podrían multiplicarse 33,7 veces en 44 días sobre CMC-40; siendo 14 y dos veces mayor comparado con HMC1 y MCol 2066, respectivamente (Tabla 2). Es decir, el incremento de A. socialis en CMC-40 con respecto a HMC1 fue dos veces mayor en un tiempo más amplio (dos veces aproximadamente). Las diferencias pueden explicarse por la mayor tasa de fecundidad obtenida sobre CMC-40. Así mismo, los resultados del tiempo generacional (T) indican que las poblaciones de A. socialis necesitan aproximadamente 23,7 días para completar una generación sobre HMC1, mientras que en MCol 2066 y CMC-40 necesitan 36,7 y 44,2 días, respectivamente (Tabla 2). Lo cual permite predecir que las poblaciones de A. socialis pueden desarrollar hasta 15 generaciones por ciclo de cultivo sobre HMC1, cinco y siete generaciones más que en MCol 2066 y CMC-40. Estos resultados son consistentes con las observaciones realizadas en el campo, a la vez que sugieren una explicación de la irrupción y continuo traslape de las poblaciones de A. socialis sobre los genotipos comerciales HMC1 y Mcol 2066."},{"index":8,"size":137,"text":"Así mismo, los resultados muestran una tendencia similar al comparar las tasas intrínsecas de crecimiento (r m ). El análi-que tienen los factores reguladores (especialmente enemigos naturales) para aprovecharlos al máximo en programas de manejo integrado de plagas (Geraud-Pouey et al. 1997). Dicha visualización se logra comparando el potencial para desarrollar poblaciones (simulaciones de desarrollo poblacional sin limitaciones) con las observadas en el campo, sobre las cuales influyen otros factores como enemigos naturales (Chirinos et al. 2003) Los resultados de esta investigación, plantean la necesidad de implementar estrategias para reducir las poblaciones de A. socialis en un corto y mediano plazo. Estas medidas deben hacer parte de un programa de manejo integrado, basado en el control biológico y resistencia de variedades. Otro tipo de control como el químico resulta antieconómico en este cultivo (Holguín y Bellotti 2004)."}]},{"head":"Literatura citada","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"sis revela un mayor crecimiento de la población de A. socialis sobre el genotipo HMC1, el cual fue mayor en un 52 y 70% sobre CMC-40 y Mcol 2066, respectivamente. El menor crecimiento de la población sobre Mcol 2066, estuvo influenciado por el menor valor de fecundidad de A. socialis. Los valores más altos de la fecundidad de las hembras de la mosca blanca en CMC-40 y HMC1 estuvieron inversamente relacionados con los valores más altos de (r m ) (0,076 día -1 y 0,167 día -1 ) respectivamente, mientras decrecieron directamente en MCol 2066. En términos poblacionales esto sugiere que el crecimiento de las poblaciones (r m ) de A. socialis sobre el genotipo HMC1 no fue sensible a los cambios en la fecundidad y al parecer el parámetro que más afecta su crecimiento es el tiempo de desarrollo. Como resultado de estos parámetros. A. socialis necesita solamente 4.1 días para duplicar en número su población sobre HMC1, mientras en CMC-40 y Mcol 2066 requiere 4 y 10 días más, respectivamente (Tabla 2)."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"La tasa intrínseca de crecimiento (r m ) de A. socialis, permitió definir que esta especie presenta un alto potencial para desarrollar poblaciones sobre diferentes genotipos de yuca. Los materiales chirosa (Mcol 2066) e Ica Armenia (HMC1) ampliamente sembrados en el departamento del Quindío son hospederos convenientes para que la mosca blanca continúe incrementando sus poblaciones."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Los parámetros demográficos de un insecto plaga, además de servir como herramientas básicas para determinar la capacidad reproductiva de una especie, permiten entender los efectos de los manejos y racionalizarlos (Geraud-Pouey et al.1996), así como visualizar el efecto Tabla 2. Tiempo de desarrollo, tasa de supervivencia, proporción de hembras y parámetros demográficos de A. socialis sobre genotipos de M. esculenta (CMC-40; MCol 2066 y HMC1). "}]},{"head":"Parámetro","index":5,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Tabla 1 .Figura 2 . Figura 2. Curva de oviposición de A. socialis sobre genotipos de M. esculenta (CMC-40; MCol 2066 y HMC1). "},{"text":"Figura 1 . Figura 1. Curvas de supervivencia de A. socialis sobre genotipos de M. esculenta (CMC-40; MCol 2066 y HMC1). "},{"text":" Tiempo desarrollo, diferentes letras entre columnas indican diferencias significativas. ANOVA Tukey método p < 0.05. Tasa supervivencia de estados inmaduros (χ 2 =3.56, gl=1, p= 0.0593).  CMC-40 Mcol 2066 HMC1 CMC-40Mcol 2066HMC1 Tiempo de desarrollo (d) 39.7 b 34.7 a 32.72 Tiempo de desarrollo (d)39.7 b34.7 a32.72 No. de Insectos 160 174 178 No. de Insectos160174178 Tasa de supervivencia (%) 80 87 89 Tasa de supervivencia (%)808789 No. de Insectos 200 200 200 No. de Insectos200200200 Proporción hembras (%) 50 50 50 Proporción hembras (%)505050 No. de insectos 160 174 178 No. de insectos160174178 Tasa reproducción neta (Ro) 33.74 6.2 14.51 Tasa reproducción neta (Ro)33.746.214.51 Tiempo generacional (T,) 44.23 36.71 23.72 Tiempo generacional (T,)44.2336.7123.72 Tasa intrínseca crecimiento (r m ) 0.0796 0.0495 0.1678 Tasa intrínseca crecimiento (r m )0.07960.04950.1678 DDP ln2/r m 8.7 14 4.1 DDP ln2/r m8.7144.1  "}],"sieverID":"6894d751-ba37-491f-907c-50b195233083","abstract":"Resumen. La mosca blanca Aleurotrachelus socialis Bondar (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) es una de las plagas más importantes en el cultivo de yuca (Manihot esculenta Crantz) en el Neotrópico. En Colombia, es el principal limitante del cultivo en los departamentos del Cauca, Valle del Cauca y Tolima ocasionando pérdidas en rendimiento en campos experimentales hasta del 79%. En 1995 esta especie ha colonizado e incrementado sus poblaciones en nuevas variedades y áreas donde anteriormente era una plaga secundaria. Con el objetivo de conocer el potencial de A. socialis para desarrollar poblaciones en nuevos materiales de yuca, se estimaron los parámetros biológicos y los principales estadísticos vitales de este insecto plaga, realizando bioensayos bajo condiciones controladas (25± 2º C, 70±5% HR, 12L:12D) sobre las variedades Chirosa (MCOL 2066), Ica Armenia (HMC1) y CMC 40. Los resultados mostraron que las hembras de A. socialis vivieron más tiempo (6,4 días) sobre el genotipo CMC-40 y presentaron un alto potencial reproductivo (33,8 huevos por hembra). Por el contrario el menor tiempo de desarrollo (32,72 días) se obtuvo en el genotipo HMC1. Los tres genotipos presentaron altas tasas de supervivencia, siendo mayor en HMC1 (89%). El mayor incremento de las poblaciones (r m ) se presentó en los genotipos HMC1 (0,167 día -1) y CMC40 (0,079 día -1). Los parámetros biológicos y poblacionales obtenidos constituyen una herramienta básica para elaborar estrategias de control de A. socialis."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"019cc9edea94b8380b725fc41f37488d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/57f4820f-9dd8-4d30-9bfc-5ea84a66e07e/retrieve"},"pageCount":32,"title":"Independent Auditors' Report To the Board of Trustees of","keywords":["Non-Current Assets Property and equipment","net 5 14","644 14","991 Total non-current assets 14","644 14","991 TOTAL ASSETS 50","082 44","912 2007 2006 Research 29","117 23","450 Research support 5","502 3","946 Information services"],"chapters":[{"head":"Management Statement of Responsibility for Financial Reporting","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"On the financial statements for the year ended 31 December 2007 The Institute's management is required to prepare financial statements for each financial year, which give a true and fair view of the state of affairs of the institute as at the end of the financial year and of the results of its activities for that year. Management is also required to ensure the institute keeps proper accounting records which disclose, with reasonable accuracy, the financial position of the institute and are also responsible for safeguarding the assets of the institute."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Management accept responsibility for the annual financial statements, which have been prepared using appropriate accounting policies supported by reasonable and prudent judgments and estimates, in conformity with the requirements of the CGIAR Financial Guideline Series No. 2 -Accounting Policies & Reporting Practices Manual (Revised November 2003)."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"Management is of the opinion that the financial statements give a hue and fair view of the state of the financial affairs of the institute and of its results of activities. Management further accept responsibility for the maintenance of accounting records which may be relied upon in the preparation of financial statements, as well as adequate systems of internal financial control."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"Nothing has come to the attention of the management to indicate that the institute will not remain a going concern for at least the next twelve months from the date of this statement."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"Signed on behalf of Management by: Dr. Masa Iwanaga Director General p a r t i n van Weerdenburg (CA)"},{"index":6,"size":105,"text":"Director of Corporate Services   Use of estimates -The preparation of the combined financial statements in conformity allowance for doubtful accounts in the year in which they are identified. with the Manual requires Management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts OS assets and liabilities and the disclosure OS contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the combined financial statements and the reported amounts of revenues and expenses during the reporting period. Although Management believes the estimates and assumptions used in the preparation of these combined financial statements were appropriate in the circumstances, actual results could differ from those estimates and assumptions."}]},{"head":"Strategic fixed Revaluation","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"The combined financial statements of the Organization have been prepared on the accrual basis of accounting."}]},{"head":"Significant accounting policies","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"A summary of the significant policies adopted in the preparation of the accompanying combined financial statements followed are as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":191,"text":"a. Revemie recognition -Grants, whether restricted or unrestricted, are recognized as revenues only when the grant conditions, if any, have been substantially met or the donor has explicitly waived such conditions. b. Donor accoirirts receivable -Donor accounts receivable represent amounts recoverable from donors for unrestricted and restricted grants promised or pledged for which any conditions have already been met. Donor accounts receivable are stated at their gross principal amounts, less any allowance for doubtful accounts. The allowance for doubtful accounts is based on the estimated collectible balances developed through Management's periodic review and analysis OS the receivable balances, as well as assessment of the prevailing and anticipated economic conditions. Uncollected outstanding grants receivable are written off through the c. Work ia Process -Work in progress represents unbilled expenditures arising from restricted project activities that have been undertaken prior to year end but which cannot yet be invoiced. While it is expected that these amounts will be recovered from donors in due course, there is a higher level OS uncertainty regarding their ultimate recoverability; therefore, Management has set aside a provision for an amount of approximately 50% of outstanding work in progress."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"d. Cash and cash equivalents -Cash and cash equivalents comprise cash on hand, current bank accounts, fixed-term interestbearing bank deposits, and publicly listed securities. The Organization considers all highly-liquid debt instruments purchased with an original maturity of three months or less to be cash equivalents."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"e. Property and cqiriprizeiit -Land and buildings are initially recorded at acquisition cost and may be periodically revalued based on independent appraisals. Buildings are depreciated using the straight-line method based on the remaining useful life as determined by the appraiser."},{"index":5,"size":104,"text":"Equipment is recorded at acquisition cost. \"Cost\" includes the purchase price and all other incidental costs incurred in bringing the asset to its present location and condition for its intended use. Depreciation of equipment is calculated on a straight-line basis so as to cover the cost of assets over their estimated useful lives, in accordance with the Manual guidelines, as determined by Management. Property and equipment acquired through the use of grants restricted for a certain project is recorded as an asset. Such assets are fully depreciated in the year OS acquisition and the depreciation expense is charged directly to the appropriate restricted project."}]},{"head":"Estimated useful life for property and equipment is as follows:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"termination. -These represent amounts to be paid in the future for goods or services received, whether billed by the supplier or not."}]},{"head":"payable upon involuntary or voluntary","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"i. Labor obligations -In accordance with Mexican Labor Law, the Organization provides seniority premium benefits to its employees under certain circumstances. These benefits consist of a one-time payment equivalent to 12 days wages for each year o f service (at the employee's most recent salary, but not to exceed twice the legal minimum wage), payable to all employees with 15 or more years of service, as well as to certain employees terminated involuntarily prior to the vesting of their seniority premium benefit."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"The Organization also provides stahitorily mandated severance benefits to its employees terminated under certain circumstances. Such benefits consist of a one-time payment of three months wages plus 20 days wages for each year of service Costs associated with these benefits are provided for based on actuarial computations using the projected unit credit method."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"j. Provisions -Provisions are recognized for current obligations that (i) result from a past event, (ii) are probable to result in the use of economic resources, and (iii) can be reasonably estimated."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"k. Supplies aizd Services -In 2007 the Organization moved to full cost recovery for all projects, whereby indirect costs were pooled and then charged at a standard rate to all projects undertaken by the Organization. Due to a higher than budgeted level of restricted project funding during 2007, the Organization was able to generate a surplus of $504 which is disclosed as a credit within the unrestricted portion of the \"Supplies and Services\" 11 a tu ral expense classification line."}]},{"head":"Cash and cash equivalents 2007 2006","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Cash on hand and in banks 1 1,787 Cash in the amount of $2,165 and $7,085 as of December 31., 2007 and 2006, respectively, has been set aside as it pertains to the GCP (see Note 7). "}]},{"head":"Donors accounts receivable","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Property and equipment","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"For 2007 and 2006 the Organization depreciated $815 and $91, respectively, for equipment purchased from restricted projects in compliance with the Manual."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Depreciation expense amounted to $1,766 and $989 for 2007 and 2006, respectively."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"Refer to Exhibit 3 for a detailed analysis of property and equipment. The Organization maintains a defined benefit plan for all employees, which pays benefits to employees who reach 60 and 45 years of age and 10 and 20 years of continuous services, respectively. The normal benefit consists in a percentage of the statutory indemnity compensation, taking into consideration years of service."}]},{"head":"Donors accounts payable","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Net assets","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Net assets represent the residual balances of total assets minus total liabilities. The net assets are further classified as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Unrestricted, designated net assets -Represent net assets whose use is not restricted by donors but restricted by the Organization's management for specific purposes. In addition to the standard reserve covering the written down value of fixed assets and the asset revaluation reserve, the Organization has set aside an additional reserve of $347 as at December 31,2007 to provide for strategic capital investments that are planned for 2008."}]},{"head":"Unrestricted, uitdesigtrated net assets -","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Represent the Organization's accumulated surplus. These funds are intended to be used to meet the Organization's ongoing cash requirements."}]},{"head":"Revenues","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"a."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"b. Our audits were conducted for the purpose of forming an opinion on the basic combined financial statements taken as a wholc. The following supplemental unaudited schedules, which are the responsibility of the Organization's mauagement, are only presented for the purposes of additional analysis and are not a required pan of the basic combined financial statements:"}]},{"head":"Grants","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Exhibit 1 -Schedule of Grant Revenue."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Exhibit 2 -Resmcted Pledges and Expenses."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"Exhibit 5 -ScheduIe of Generation Challengc Program."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"Exhibit 6 -Schedule of Generation Challenge Program."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"Such schedules have not been subjected to the auditing procedures applied in our audits of the basic financial statements and, accordingly we express no opinion on them."},{"index":6,"size":50,"text":"The remiiing wppleiaental schedules presented in Exhibit 3. Combined Schedcle of Fixd .4sse!s, a d Exhibit 4, Schedule of indirect Costs, are presented for the purpose of additional analysis and are not a required part of the basic combined financial statements. These schedules are the responsibility of the Organhation's management."},{"index":7,"size":26,"text":"statements and, in our opinion, are fairly stated in all material respects whcn considered in relation to the basic cornbhd financial statements taken as a whole.        "}]},{"head":"Schedule of Grant Revenue","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Schedule of Generation Challenge Program","index":15,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, Int. and Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, A.C. "},{"text":" During the years ended December 31, 2007 and 2006, the Organization wrote off uncollected donor and other receivables totaling $516 and $765, respectively. The 2007 write-off has been charged directly to the allowance account. "},{"text":"Such schedules have been subjected to the auditing procedures applied in OUT audits of h e basic combined financial This report is intended solely for the information and w e of management and the Board of Trustees of the Organization and should not be wed by anyone other than these specified parties. Galaz, Yamazaki, Ruiz Urquiza, S. C. Member of Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Member of Deloltte Touche Tohmatsu Centro lnternacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, International and Centro lnternacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, A. C. "},{"text":"For  "},{"text":" .......... Undkig _ naled _ ........................... \" Combined Statements of Activities     Combined Statements of Activities For the years ended December 31,2007 and 2006     For the years ended December 31,2007 and 2006 (In thousands of US Dollars)        (In thousands of US Dollars)        2007  2006 20072006  Note I r-Gstricted i  1 \" 1 Restricted Challenge Program Total i Total NoteI r-Gstricted i1 \" 1 RestrictedChallenge ProgramTotal i Total Revenues and gains        Revenues and gains   _-    __ _ _  _-__ _ _ Grants I revenue 11   11,759  26.202 3,107 41,068 34,165 Grants I revenue1111,75926.2023,10741,06834,165 Other revenues and gains 11   2,639    2,639 1,789 Other revenues and gains112,6392,6391,789 Total revenues and gains    14,398  26,202 3,107 43,707 35,954 Total revenues and gains14,39826,2023,10743,70735,954 Expenses and losses        Expenses and losses -_. Program-related expenses Management . -_ 'and general expenses ........ 12 .  5,590 6,717 _ I 26,202 -. . . . 3,107 --. 34,899 6,717 28,502 --__I 6,019 -_. Program-related expenses Management . -_ 'and general expenses ........12.5,590 6,717_ I26,202 -. . . .3,107 --.34,899 6,71728,502 --__I 6,019 Other losses and expenses 12   28  ...  28 1,039 Other losses and expenses1228...281,039 Total expenses and losses    12,335  26i202 3,107 41,644 35,560 Total expenses and losses12,33526i2023,10741,64435,560 NET SURPLUS    2,063    2,063 394 NET SURPLUS2,0632,063394 Expenses by Natural Classification        Expenses by Natural Classification Personnel costs    10,916  8,183 569 . --19,668 16,596 Personnel costs10,9168,183569 . --19,66816,596 Supplies and services  . ... (504) ........... 9,734 ._ 1,222 10,452 - 10,352 --. Supplies and services. ...(504)........... 9,734._ 1,22210,452 -10,352 --. Collaborators I partnership costs Generation Challenge Program Operational travel    6 550 7 651  14,282 5,948 2,165 1,343 1,088 178 .-7,586 9,377 7,085 2,172 5,588 2,035 Collaborators I partnership costs Generation Challenge Program Operational travel6 550 7 65114,282 5,948 2,165 1,3431,088 178.-7,586 9,377 7,085 2,1725,588 2,035 Other Depreciation     722  1,182 994 50 2,018 1,766 Other Depreciation7221,182 994502,0181,766 Accruals and provisions    8  1,592  1,152 Accruals and provisions81,5921,152  Total current liabilities      19,940 21,022 Total current liabilities19,94021,022 Nan-Current Liabilities        Nan-Current Liabilities Labor obligation    9  5,379  877 Labor obligation95,379877 7 Contingencies    13  137  450 7 Contingencies13137450  Total non-current liabilities    5,516  1,327 Total non-current liabilities5,5161,327  Total liabilities      25,456 22,349 Total liabilities25,45622,349 Unrestricted:     -/   Unrestricted:-/ Desianated    10  14.991 14.991 Desianated1014.99114.991 ...... 9,635 ....................... . . ................. 7,572 ........ ...... 9,635 ....................... . ..................7,572 ........  Total unrestricted net assets    24,626 22,563 Total unrestricted net assets24,62622,563 T TOTAL LIABILITIES AND NET ASSETS   50,082 44,912 I ; TTOTAL LIABILITIES AND NET ASSETS50,08244,912I ;  "},{"text":"Notes to Combined Financial Statements December 31,2007 and 2006  Combined Statements of Cash Flows      Combined Statements of Cash Flows For the years ended December 31,2007 and 2006      For the years ended December 31,2007 and 2006 (In thousands of US Dollars)       (In thousands of US Dollars)    I ! 2007  2006 . - I !20072006. - Cash flows used in operating activities Fixed assets of land and  Cash flows used in operating activitiesFixedassetsof land and Change in net assets assets investments buildings 2,063 Subtotal 394 Total Change in net assetsassetsinvestmentsbuildings 2,063Subtotal 394Total Balance, January 1 , 2006 Adjustments to reconcile change in net assets 7,217 2,724    12,228 14,952 22,169 Balance, January 1 , 2006 Adjustments to reconcile change in net assets 7,217 2,72412,22814,95222,169 39 to net cash provided by (used in) operating activities U9) ---_ I . Net change in fixed assets Net sumlus 394 Depreciation Net periodic pension cost ...-: 1,766 4,502 - 39 989 386 394 39 to net cash provided by (used in) operating activities U9) ---_ I . Net change in fixed assets Net sumlus 394 Depreciation Net periodic pension cost...-:1,766 4,502-39 989 386394 Balance, December 31 , 2006 Gain on sale of fixed assets 7,572 2,763   (91 1 12,228 14,991 (77) 22,563 Balance, December 31 , 2006 Gain on sale of fixed assets 7,5722,763(91 112,22814,991 (77)22,563 Net change in fixed assets Net surplus Decrease (increase) in assets 2,063 Donor accounts receivable (347)  347 495  3,393 2,063 Net change in fixed assets Net surplus Decrease (increase) in assets 2,063 Donor accounts receivable(347)3474953,3932,063 Balance, December 31,2007 Other accounts receivable 9,635 2,416  347 539 12,228 14,991 179 24,626 Balance, December 31,2007 Other accounts receivable 9,6352,41634753912,22814,991 17924,626 Inventory and supplies    (217)  (63) Inventory and supplies(217)(63) PreDaid exDenSes    55  145) PreDaid exDenSes55145) Increase (decrease) in liabilities       Increase (decrease) in liabilities Labor obligations    (671 1  156 Labor obligations(671 1156 Donors accounts payable    4,905  3,175 Donors accounts payable4,9053,175 Generation Challenae Proaram    14.9201  1.361 Generation Challenae Proaram14.92011.361 Other accounts payable    (836)  666 Other accounts payable(836)666 Continnencies    13131   Continnencies13131 Accruals and provisions    440  1,030 Accruals and provisions4401,030 Net cash provided by operating activities   7,717  11,544 Net cash provided by operating activities7,71711,544 Cash flows from investing activities       Cash flows from investing activities Awuisition of DroDerhr and eauiDment   f1.4191  fI.0441 Awuisition of DroDerhr and eauiDmentf1.4191fI.0441 Proceeds on sale of property and equipment   91  93 Proceeds on sale of property and equipment9193 Cash set aside due to Challenge Program   4,920  (1,232) Cash set aside due to Challenge Program4,920(1,232) Net cash provided by (used in) investing activities  3,592  (2,183) Net cash provided by (used in) investing activities3,592(2,183) Net increase (decrease) in cash and cash equivalents   11,309  9,361 Net increase (decrease) in cash and cash equivalents11,3099,361 Beginning of the year    16,560  7,199 Beginning of the year16,5607,199 End of the year    27,869  16,560 End of the year27,86916,560 See accompanying notes to Combined Financial Statements.     See accompanying notes to Combined Financial Statements.  "},{"text":"Statement of purpose and basis of presentation  Statement of'piirpose -The Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, International (CIMMYT, Int.), was created through an agreement signed by the United Nations Development dollars, in accordance with the CGIAR Accounting Policies and Reporting Practices Manual, herein after referred to as \"the Manual\", for report presentation and specific accounting principles. Statement of'piirpose -The Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, International (CIMMYT, Int.), was created through an agreement signed by the United Nations Developmentdollars, in accordance with the CGIAR Accounting Policies and Reporting Practices Manual, herein after referred to as \"the Manual\", for report presentation and specific accounting principles. Programme and the International Bank of Accounting principles included in the Programme and the International Bank ofAccounting principles included in the Reconstruction and Development, both Manual generally conform to International Reconstruction and Development, bothManual generally conform to International cosponsors of the Consultative Group Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), with cosponsors of the Consultative GroupFinancial Reporting Standards (IFRS), with on International Agricultural Research the following clarifications and differences: on International Agricultural Researchthe following clarifications and differences: (CGIAR), and is a not-for-profit, scientific  (CGIAR), and is a not-for-profit, scientific and training organization engaged in the  and training organization engaged in the improvement of maize and wheat cropping  improvement of maize and wheat cropping systems in developing countries. Centro  systems in developing countries. Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, A.C. (CIMMYT, A. C.) is a private ice Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, A.C. (CIMMYT, A. C.) is a privateice association chartered under Mexican  association chartered under Mexican law. CIMMYT, A. C., does not carry out b. International Accounting Standard No. law. CIMMYT, A. C., does not carry outb. International Accounting Standard No. any activities and only holds part of the 1 provides that \"entities with not-for- any activities and only holds part of the1 provides that \"entities with not-for- land and buildings where CIMMYT, Int., carries out its activities. These two entities, profit activities in the private sector, public sector or government seeking to land and buildings where CIMMYT, Int., carries out its activities. These two entities,profit activities in the private sector, public sector or government seeking to which are under common ownership and common management, are referred apply this standard may need to amend the descriptions used for certain line which are under common ownership and common management, are referredapply this standard may need to amend the descriptions used for certain line to collectively in this document as \"the items in the financial statements and for to collectively in this document as \"theitems in the financial statements and for Organization.\" the financial statements themselves.\" Organization.\"the financial statements themselves.\" A Headquarters Agreement signed by the Government of Mexico on May 9,1988 In line with this provision, the Manual has, in places, applied descriptions that more closely reflect the nature of the A Headquarters Agreement signed by the Government of Mexico on May 9,1988In line with this provision, the Manual has, in places, applied descriptions that more closely reflect the nature of the and ratified by the Mexican Senate on December 22,1988, recognized CIMMYT, Organization's activities. and ratified by the Mexican Senate on December 22,1988, recognized CIMMYT,Organization's activities. Int., as having the status of an international c. IFRS and the Manual differ with respect Int., as having the status of an internationalc. IFRS and the Manual differ with respect organization. A revised agreement between to the treatment of equipment purchased organization. A revised agreement betweento the treatment of equipment purchased the United Mexican States and CIMMYT, for restricted projects. The main difference the United Mexican States and CIMMYT,for restricted projects. The main difference Int., concerning the establishment of the is that, under the accounting principles of Int., concerning the establishment of theis that, under the accounting principles of headquarters of the Center in Mexico was the Manual, the Organization depreciated headquarters of the Center in Mexico wasthe Manual, the Organization depreciated  100% of the equipment amounting to 100% of the equipment amounting to  $815 and $91 purchased during the years $815 and $91 purchased during the years  ended December 31,2007 and 2006, ended December 31,2007 and 2006,  respectively, whereas under IFRS, such respectively, whereas under IFRS, such  purchases would have been capitalized purchases would have been capitalized  and depreciated over the lives of the and depreciated over the lives of the  related projects. related projects.  "},{"text":"Accoirirts payable to donors -These   Years Years Buildinqs 20 -40 Buildinqs20 -40 Agricultural equipment 10 Agricultural equipment10 Furniture, fixtures and office equipment 10 Furniture, fixtures and office equipment10 Computers 3 Computers3 Laboratory eauiment 3 Laboratory eauiment3 Vehicles 4 Vehicles4 Equipment for restricted projects 1 Equipment for restricted projects1 f. lncorne taxes -The Organization is f. lncorne taxes -The Organization is tax-exempt; accordingly, no provision tax-exempt; accordingly, no provision for income taxes has been made in for income taxes has been made in the accompanying combined financial the accompanying combined financial statements.  statements. represent funds received in advance from represent funds received in advance from donors for unrestricted and restricted donors for unrestricted and restricted grants, for which the grant conditions have grants, for which the grant conditions have not yet been met. It also includes amounts not yet been met. It also includes amounts payable to donors when donors require payable to donors when donors require reimbursement of unexpended grant reimbursement of unexpended grant balances.  balances. h.  h.  "},{"text":"Other accoirnts payable and accruals   "},{"text":"Supplemental SCHEDULES Del oi t t e$$ Independent Auditors' Report on Supplemental Schedules T o the Board of Trustees of Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, International and Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, A. C. Galaz, Yarnaraki, Ruir Urquira, S.C. Paseo de la Reforma 505 Piso 28 We have audited the combined financial statements of Centro Intemacioiial de Mejoramjento de Maiz y Trigo, International and Cenfro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trip, A. C. (collectively the \"Organization\"), bolh of which are .under common ownership and common management, for the years ended December 3 1,2007 and 2006, and our report thereon appears on page 1. incurred in direct support to research activities addressed in the research programs Colonia Cuauhthoc 06500 M4xico. D.F. Corninitnzents -The Organization believes Mexico incurred in direct support to research activities addressed in the research programsColonia Cuauhthoc 06500 M4xico. D.F. Corninitnzents -The Organization believes Mexico listed above.   that it has complied with all aspects of Tel: +52 (55) 5080 6000 listed above.that it has complied with all aspects of Tel: +52 (55) 5080 6000 brforiizatioiz services -Includes the costs of Fax: +52 (55) 5080 6001 contractual agreements, grants, and donor restrictions that could have an effect on the wwcv.deloitte.corn/rnx brforiizatioiz services -Includes the costs ofFax: +52 (55) 5080 6001 contractual agreements, grants, and donor restrictions that could have an effect on the wwcv.deloitte.corn/rnx publication of annual reports and technical combined financial statements. publication of annual reports and technicalcombined financial statements. bulletins, translation and printing of various  bulletins, translation and printing of various public information activities, as well as the -Funds received from donors Coiitiizgeiicies -As explained in Note 1, public information activities, as well as the-Funds received from donors Coiitiizgeiicies -As explained in Note 1, cost of library services.   are used to support the Organization's the Organization has an agreement with cost of library services.are used to support the Organization's the Organization has an agreement with Training -Except for amounts charged  programs. Programs must fall within tlie mandate of the Organization and be The Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Government of Mexico (SRE) that recognizes Training -Except for amounts chargedprograms. Programs must fall within tlie mandate of the Organization and be The Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Government of Mexico (SRE) that recognizes directly to research programs, training  approved by the Board of Trustees. These the Organization as having the status directly to research programs, trainingapproved by the Board of Trustees. These the Organization as having the status includes the costs applicable to trainees from must also be approved by the members of of an International Organization and is includes the costs applicable to trainees frommust also be approved by the members of of an International Organization and is various developing countries. These costs are the CGIAR, who then provide the funding therefore exempt from federal income taxes. various developing countries. These costs arethe CGIAR, who then provide the funding therefore exempt from federal income taxes. incurred in Mexico and in regional offices. (see Exhibit 2). Grants are divided Although the agreement with SRE does incurred in Mexico and in regional offices.(see Exhibit 2). Grants are divided Although the agreement with SRE does Management uiid general expenses -These into unrestricted and restricted grants. Unrestricted grants are used to support not provide exemption to the Organization for Mexican state or municipal taxes, Management uiid general expenses -Theseinto unrestricted and restricted grants. Unrestricted grants are used to support not provide exemption to the Organization for Mexican state or municipal taxes, expenses comprise general administration the Organization's activities. Restricted the Organization can still apply for an expenses comprise general administrationthe Organization's activities. Restricted the Organization can still apply for an expenses, including expenditures applicable grants also support the Organization's exemption in each state. expenses, including expenditures applicablegrants also support the Organization's exemption in each state. to the Board of Trustees, Management,  activities, but they must be used for the to the Board of Trustees, Management,activities, but they must be used for the Finance, Human Resources, Purchasing, The Organization had submitted Finance, Human Resources, Purchasing,The Organization had submitted Supplies, Building Maintenance, Security, applications for exemption with various Supplies, Building Maintenance, Security,applications for exemption with various General Services, and Housing.   state governments. In February 2008, the Other revenue and guilts -For the years State of Mexico denied the application for ended December 33,2007 and 2006, other exemption and claimed payment in the sum revenues and gains are: of $502. This amount has been disclosed in General Services, and Housing.state governments. In February 2008, the Other revenue and guilts -For the years State of Mexico denied the application for ended December 33,2007 and 2006, other exemption and claimed payment in the sum revenues and gains are: of $502. This amount has been disclosed in    2007 full as a current liability as of December 31, 2006 2007 full as a current liability as of December 31, 2006    Recovery of value-added tax 2007 (see Note 8). Management fee -Generation Challenge Program No decision yet has been received from the 748 229 740 488 Interest income 429 remaining states for which the Organization 280 Housing and laundry 369 has submitted applications for exemptions, 330 Restaurant and snack bar 140 298 therefore the Organization's estimate of a Recovery of value-added tax 2007 (see Note 8). Management fee -Generation Challenge Program No decision yet has been received from the 748 229 740 488 Interest income 429 remaining states for which the Organization 280 Housing and laundry 369 has submitted applications for exemptions, 330 Restaurant and snack bar 140 298 therefore the Organization's estimate of a    CorDorate surmort possible liability of $137 is reported. 122 87 CorDorate surmort possible liability of $137 is reported. 12287    Gain on sale of fixed assets 91 77 Gain on sale of fixed assets9177    Total 2,639 1,789 Total2,6391,789 Bad debt expense Exchange loss  765 226 12. Expenses and losses Bad debt expense Exchange loss765 22612. Expenses and losses Interest expense and bankcommissions - 48 Program-related expenses -These comprise Interest expense and bankcommissions -48Program-related expenses -These comprise Total 28 1,039 the following main expenses: Total281,039the following main expenses:  "},{"text":" For the years ended December 31,2007 and 2006 (In thousands of US Dollars)         Exhibit 1 Exhibit 1 Donors   2006 1 available receivable payments grants ~ Grant ~. -. . ---.__.__ Donor ~---2007 . . . . . . . r % & ---A c c o u n t s Advance Donors2006 1 available receivable payments grants ~ Grant ~. -. . ---.__.__ Donor ~---2007 . . . . . . . r % & ---A c c o u n t s Advance Unrestricted        Unrestricted Australia Canada China - . . . . . . --_ _ _ . . . . . _ _ _ _ _ -. . . _ _ . -. -. . _ . - 1,229 1,124 -  120 (663) - 566 1,124 120 568 120 1,044- Australia Canada China-. . . . . . --_ _ _ . . . . . _ _ _ _ _ -. . . _ _ . -. -. . _ . -1,229 1,124 -120(663) -566 1,124 120568 120 1,044- Denmark France -- -  686  109 ~ 109 686 152 4 8 1 Denmark France---686109~109 686152 4 8 1 Germany    442    442 430 Germany442442430 India -_--__. ...  112    112 113 India-_--__....112112113 Korea   I 50    50 50 KoreaI505050 Netherlands        795 Netherlands795 Norway -_ Philippines --Sweden -  ....  334 3 57 1 ..... . -. . . : 6 l E ! ! ) -\" 334 9 377 318 8 324 Norway -_ Philippines --Sweden -....334 3 57 1 ..... . -. . . :6l E ! ! ) -\"334 9 377318 8 324 Switzerland    531    531 489 Switzerland531531489 Thailand    10    10 10 Thailand101010 United Kingdom   1,784 ._.__-:-(446)  1,338 1,672 United Kingdom1,784 ._.__-:-(446)1,3381,672 United States   2,476  825  3,301 4,048 United States2,4768253,3014,048 World Bank Subtotal -Unrestricted \" ___ 2,650 .^ .. 12,002 . 1,060 (1,303) 2,650 11,759 3 2 O L 14,871 World Bank Subtotal -Unrestricted\" ___2,650 .^ .. 12,002. 1,060(1,303)2,650 11,7593 2 O L 14,871 Restricted        Restricted Asian Development Bank (ADB)   307   (2) 305 209 Asian Development Bank (ADB)307(2)305209 Australia        Australia  "},{"text":"1,370 1 , 6 r          ~ ~      2007  2007      Accounts Advance AccountsAdvance Donors        Donors ltalv --ENEA . . . . . .  13 . . . . . . -. .   13 -. . - ltalv --ENEA. . . . . .13. . . . . . -. .13-. . - Sacieta Produttori S.D.A. Japan --Economic Cooperation Bureau, Ministry of,foreignAff?j? ____-..-.----.  42 826  14 --.-.-(EL.-680 56 1,321 Sacieta Produttori S.D.A. Japan --Economic Cooperation Bureau, Ministry of,foreignAff?j? ____-..-.----.42 82614 --.-.-(EL.-680 561,321 Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences Niepon Foundation  343 328   (223) 0  283 120 Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences Niepon Foundation343 328(223) 0283 120 Rural Development Administration Kazakhstan, Republic of --~. \" l l l l I_.---._-I-Korea, Republic of . . . . . -I . . . . . . . 2 2 2 -30 \" . . _ I _ -11 (81) --- 41 141 -__--- Rural Development Administration Kazakhstan, Republic of --~. \" l l l l I_.---._-I-Korea, Republic of. . . . . -I . .. . . . .2 2 2 -30 \" . . _ I _ -11(81)---41 141-__--- Mexico CONABIO (Comision Nacional para el Conocimiento y Us0 de la Biodiversidad) 36 . ...____.____- -. . . -. . . ( 3 ) . . . . -. . -21 Mexico CONABIO (Comision Nacional para el Conocimiento y Us0 de la Biodiversidad) 36 . ...____.____--.. . -. . . ( 3 ). . . . -. . -21 CONACYl (CBejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia) SAGARPA (Secretaria de Agricultura, Ganaderia, Desarrollo Rural y Pesca) 79 119 . . . . . 18 Fundacion Guanajuato Produce, A.C. ____  79 -5   198 23 2 1 157 CONACYl (CBejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia) SAGARPA (Secretaria de Agricultura, Ganaderia, Desarrollo Rural y Pesca) 79 119 . . . . . 18 Fundacion Guanajuato Produce, A.C. ____79 -5198 232 1 157 Fundacion Sonora   112  9   121 Fundacion Sonora1129121 ICAMEX   21  18   39 ICAMEX211839 lnstituto Nacional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        lnstituto Nacional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CGlAR        CGlAR Centro lnternacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT)  10  ^\"   10 18 Centro lnternacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT)10^\"1018 International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) . 26   (33) (7) 40 International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) . 26(33)(7)40 World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF) International Livestock Research Institute (e)  305  8 (159) 8 146 41 World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF) International Livestock Research Institute (e)3058(159)8 14641 Bioversity International (formerly IPGRI)     --_ .   5 Bioversity International (formerly IPGRI)--_ .5 International Water Management Institute ( M M J       7 International Water Management Institute ( M M J7 International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) International Food Policv Research Institute 1IFPRI) --Challenge Programs  125 55   (125) 112) 43 International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) International Food Policv Research Institute 1IFPRI) --Challenge Programs125 55(125) 112)43 HarvestPlus   627  446   1,073 1,026 HarvestPlus6274461,0731,026 Water and Food Generation   288 2,305  194 --1523) 482 _I____-1,782 409 1,442_ Water and Food Generation288 2,305194 --1523)482 _I____-1,782409 1,442_ Colombia        Colombia FENALCE Federacion de cultivadores de cereales v leaurninasas) 180  75   255 208 FENALCE Federacion de cultivadores de cereales v leaurninasas)18075255208 Denmark        247 Denmark247 -European Commission   79  3,758  3,837 190 -European Commission793,7583,837190 Food -and Agriculture Organization (FAO)  .._- 65  . _l _l . -_l _   65 41 - Food -and Agriculture Organization (FAO).._-65. _l _l . -_l _6541 - BASF   58    (24 30 42 BASF58(243042  "},{"text":"Colombia FENALCE (Federacion de cultivadores de cereales y leguminosas)           Exhibit 2 Exhibit 2 For the period from January 1,2007 to December 31,2007 I Donor and program/ project Donor and program1 project Grant period Grant period  Grant Grant I I I -Prior --Current Expenditures Expenditures --Pnor Current For the period from January 1,2007 to December 31,2007 I Donor and program/ project Donor and program1 projectGrant period Grant periodGrant GrantI II -Prior --Current Expenditures Expenditures --Pnor Current (In thousands of US Dollars) L .----.--.. - . . . . .. (MMIDDPIY) (MMIDDRY) ~. . -- pledged pledged _. years years .. .. . year year ._____. Total . _. __I_ . -Total . -_. (In thousands of US Dollars) L .----.--..-. ... ..(MMIDDPIY) (MMIDDRY) ~. . --pledged pledged _. years years .. .. .year year ._____.Total . _. __I_ . -Total . -_. i' I -Prior years . __ year Expenditures ._ -Curr~nt 323 25 2,890 3,601 . . .... .. Total] 62 1 32 219 2,557 1,556 4,113 33 47 284 41 4 418 626 797 47 90 14 14 419 4,149 1,370 5,519 132 511 2,993 1,1a2 4,775 8 -3 3 -f a -Grant pledged _. -750 3,662 339 01/01/05 -07/31/09 5,094 Grant period -(MMIDDMY) 03/01/05 -02128108 03/01/05 -12/31/08 01/13/03 -03/31/08 -. with Improved Vitamin A, Essential Minerals and Quality Protein 01/01/05 -12/31/09 Donor and program/ project I I ---. . ._ Asian Development Bank (ADB) Improving Farmers' Income through Enhanced Maize Productivities in Drought-Prone Environments in East and Southeast Asia Enhancing farmers' Income and Livelihoods through Integrated Crop and Resource Management in the Rice-Wheat System in South Asia Canada Canadian International Development Agency Quality protein maize development for the Horn and East Africa Combating Hidden Hunger in Latin America: Biofortified Crops Generation GCP Commissioned and Competitive Projects Functional genomics of cross-species resistance to fungal diseases in rice and wheat -funded through CIRAD 01/01/05 -12/31/07 105 An em-physiological -statistical framework for the analysis of GxE and QTLxE as occurring in abiotic stress trials, with Combating Hidden Hunger in Latin America: Deployment of Global Rust Initiative 04/01 106 -0313 1/07 418 Global Rust Initiative 01/01/07 -12/31/07 421 Quality Protein and Beta Carotene Maize 01/01/05 -04130108 888 applications to the CIMMYT drought stress programs in tropical maize and bread wheat, funded through Wagenigen University 90 07/01/05 -12/31/07 Gene Traits -funded through IRRl 01/01/05 -10131107 14 Total 5,728 Develop innovative biotechnology approaches to improve the drought tolerance of tropical maize -funded through RF 560 04/01/05 -06130108 CGIAR Total 5,863 80 T o t a l 303-653-Centro lntemacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) Water and Food Mejoramiento genetic0 y transferencia de tecnologia para Increased food security and income in the Limpopo Basin through Australia Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research productores de maiz en las macro regiones del tropico Hlimedo y el Chaco integrated crop, water and soil fertility options and 10/01/04 -06130107 25 15 25 public-private partnership 01/01/05 -12/31/09 396 67 213 Wheat and maize productivity improvement in Afghanistan Ensuring productivity and food security through sustainable Zero-tillage rice establishment and crop weed dynamics in rice (Phase II) 07/01/04 -09130107 799 555 776 control of yellow rust of wheat in Asia 01101105 -12131109 816 291 480 and wheat cropping systems in India and Australia 07/01/06 -03131111 108 Conservation agriculture for the dry-land areas of the Yellow River International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) Basin: Increasing productivity, sustainability, equity and water use Increased Productivity and profitability of Wheat-based Cropping Systems to Reduce Reliance on Opium Poppy in Northern Afghanistan 01/01/05 -06130108 107 80 (7) . efficiency of dry-land agriculture, while protecting down-stream water users 03/01/05 -02/28/09 1,518 415 940 73 Total 1,914 402 1,153 19 World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF) Addressing constraints to pulses in cereals-based cropping Consultancy ITAU staff 10/15/07 -02/28/08 50 8 systems, with particular reference to poverty alleviation in North-Western Bangladesh 10101106 -09130110 349 2 136 ExDanding the area for rabi-season cropping in . . -Southern Bangladesh 01101107 -06130110 369 84 Total 3,817 848 1,544 Sustainable wheat and maize production in Afqhanistan 10101107 -09130111 1,376 49 Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics Abiotic stress resistance in wheat and barley 02101106 -12/31/07 25 10 Seleccion de hibridos y variedades de maices mejoradas para International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) las condiciones agroecologicas de la Zona Cafetera Colombiana 09/16/03 -11/29/09 664 161 470 Improving Market Opportunities for Small-scale Livestock Producers through Effective Storage of Animal Feeds so as to Minimize Mycotoxins 05/15/07 -02/29/08 11 2 Obtencion de hibridos y variedades mejoradas de maiz para las condiciones tropicales de Colombia 216 67 155 03129105 -11/29/09 Obtencibn de hibridos y variedades mejoradas de maiz para Supporting strategic investment choices in agricultural technology development and adoption 05/28/07 -06130108 48 llanos orientales de Colombia 10101105 -04120107 86 27 86 41 Allele mining for increased nutrition in maize and incorporation Total 966 255 111 20 Molecular Plant Breeding CRC Molecular Plant Breeding CRC 07101103 -06130110 3,010 2,601 2,685 of markers identified in new alleles into the CIMMYT breedinggram 11/05/07 -09/19/08 50 Total 109 43 Coordination of actitivities within the ECAMAW Network i' I -Prior years . __ year Expenditures ._ -Curr~nt 323 25 2,890 3,601 . . .... .. Total] 62 1 32 219 2,557 1,556 4,113 33 47 284 41 4 418 626 797 47 90 14 14 419 4,149 1,370 5,519 132 511 2,993 1,1a2 4,775 8 -3 3 -f a -Grant pledged _. -750 3,662 339 01/01/05 -07/31/09 5,094 Grant period -(MMIDDMY) 03/01/05 -02128108 03/01/05 -12/31/08 01/13/03 -03/31/08 -. with Improved Vitamin A, Essential Minerals and Quality Protein 01/01/05 -12/31/09 Donor and program/ project I I ---. . ._ Asian Development Bank (ADB) Improving Farmers' Income through Enhanced Maize Productivities in Drought-Prone Environments in East and Southeast Asia Enhancing farmers' Income and Livelihoods through Integrated Crop and Resource Management in the Rice-Wheat System in South Asia Canada Canadian International Development Agency Quality protein maize development for the Horn and East Africa Combating Hidden Hunger in Latin America: Biofortified Crops Generation GCP Commissioned and Competitive Projects Functional genomics of cross-species resistance to fungal diseases in rice and wheat -funded through CIRAD 01/01/05 -12/31/07 105 An em-physiological -statistical framework for the analysis of GxE and QTLxE as occurring in abiotic stress trials, with Combating Hidden Hunger in Latin America: Deployment of Global Rust Initiative 04/01 106 -0313 1/07 418 Global Rust Initiative 01/01/07 -12/31/07 421 Quality Protein and Beta Carotene Maize 01/01/05 -04130108 888 applications to the CIMMYT drought stress programs in tropical maize and bread wheat, funded through Wagenigen University 90 07/01/05 -12/31/07 Gene Traits -funded through IRRl 01/01/05 -10131107 14 Total 5,728 Develop innovative biotechnology approaches to improve the drought tolerance of tropical maize -funded through RF 560 04/01/05 -06130108 CGIAR Total 5,863 80 T o t a l 303-653-Centro lntemacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) Water and Food Mejoramiento genetic0 y transferencia de tecnologia para Increased food security and income in the Limpopo Basin through Australia Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research productores de maiz en las macro regiones del tropico Hlimedo y el Chaco integrated crop, water and soil fertility options and 10/01/04 -06130107 25 15 25 public-private partnership 01/01/05 -12/31/09 396 67 213 Wheat and maize productivity improvement in Afghanistan Ensuring productivity and food security through sustainable Zero-tillage rice establishment and crop weed dynamics in rice (Phase II) 07/01/04 -09130107 799 555 776 control of yellow rust of wheat in Asia 01101105 -12131109 816 291 480 and wheat cropping systems in India and Australia 07/01/06 -03131111 108 Conservation agriculture for the dry-land areas of the Yellow River International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) Basin: Increasing productivity, sustainability, equity and water use Increased Productivity and profitability of Wheat-based Cropping Systems to Reduce Reliance on Opium Poppy in Northern Afghanistan 01/01/05 -06130108 107 80 (7) . efficiency of dry-land agriculture, while protecting down-stream water users 03/01/05 -02/28/09 1,518 415 940 73 Total 1,914 402 1,153 19 World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF) Addressing constraints to pulses in cereals-based cropping Consultancy ITAU staff 10/15/07 -02/28/08 50 8 systems, with particular reference to poverty alleviation in North-Western Bangladesh 10101106 -09130110 349 2 136 ExDanding the area for rabi-season cropping in . . -Southern Bangladesh 01101107 -06130110 369 84 Total 3,817 848 1,544 Sustainable wheat and maize production in Afqhanistan 10101107 -09130111 1,376 49 Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics Abiotic stress resistance in wheat and barley 02101106 -12/31/07 25 10 Seleccion de hibridos y variedades de maices mejoradas para International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) las condiciones agroecologicas de la Zona Cafetera Colombiana 09/16/03 -11/29/09 664 161 470 Improving Market Opportunities for Small-scale Livestock Producers through Effective Storage of Animal Feeds so as to Minimize Mycotoxins 05/15/07 -02/29/08 11 2 Obtencion de hibridos y variedades mejoradas de maiz para las condiciones tropicales de Colombia 216 67 155 03129105 -11/29/09 Obtencibn de hibridos y variedades mejoradas de maiz para Supporting strategic investment choices in agricultural technology development and adoption 05/28/07 -06130108 48 llanos orientales de Colombia 10101105 -04120107 86 27 86 41 Allele mining for increased nutrition in maize and incorporation Total 966 255 111 20 Molecular Plant Breeding CRC Molecular Plant Breeding CRC 07101103 -06130110 3,010 2,601 2,685 of markers identified in new alleles into the CIMMYT breedinggram 11/05/07 -09/19/08 50 Total 109 43 Coordination of actitivities within the ECAMAW Network . _____-_I ..\"___... -l , l 6 --Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation Switzerland --Syngenta Foundation For Sustainable Agriculture 246 The Global Crop Diversity Trust Turkey, Republic of 44 1 Grains Research and Development Corporation International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) Australian cereal rust control program-adult plant resistance and introgression of new and novel genes GRDC-CIMMYT Strategic alliance 07101102 -06130107 120 140 07101103 -06130108 Conservation agriculture, livestock and livelihoods strategies in the Indo-Gangetic plains of South Asia: Synergies and trade-offs 07/01/05 -03/31/09 Transregional analysis of maize residue use and markets: Genetic variation for improved frost tolerance in wheat -funded through the University of Adelaide Improved frost tolerance -funded through CSIRO Brisbane 06101104 -05130107 02101105 -02101107 ImDlications for the DarticiDation of small scale Door croD-livestock . . -producers and maize improvement programs ' 03/01/07 -02/28/08 Total United Kingdom Deoartment for International Develooment 120 ..... . -. -_ . . . . . -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . USA Bill 8 Melinda Gates Foundation 15,063 -Howard G. Buffett Foundation 1,586 Pioneer Hi-Bred International 287 United States Agency for International Development 2,137 Cornell University 54 31 United States Department of Agriculture 339 . . . . . . . Washington State University 29 23 World Bank 595 Zimbabwe Miscellaneous Research Grants 404 Improving the stress tolerance of wheat genotypes of relevance to the Australian production environment Root diseases Enhancement of stress tolerance in wheat through the 07101103 -06130108 07101103 -12131107 International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Integrating sustainable soil fertility management innovations in staple cereal systems and other value chains to enhance livelihoods and environmental systems in Southern Africa 07/01/07 -06130108 expanded development and use of synthetic wheat and other alien introgressions 07/01/06 -06130107 Challenge Programs Enhanced evaluation of CIMMYT germplasm in Australia-CIMMYT component Australian cereal rust control program-adult plant resistance to wheat rusts Total EMBRAPA-training Brazil 01/01/06 -06130108 01107107 -06130110 HarvestPlus Biofortified maize for improved human nutrition 09/01/03 -12/31/07 Ex ante impact assessment of HarvestPlus: Maize systems in sub-Saharan Africa 04/01/04 -12/31/06 01101104 -12131107 Optimizing crossing and selection strategies for improving micronutrient concentrations in HarvestPlus cram 11/01106 -01/31/08 Biofortified wheat for improved human nutrition 09/01/03 -12/31/07 1,841 ---.----(EL-1,279 117 1,023 45 351 48 34 16 30 11 80 431 48 . ----. _ I --(7,937) (1,532) (239) -(394) (82) (227) 1,230 223 753 237 500 344 334 32 1 181 928 4,492 1,680 1,180 143 126 2,614 40 9 38 1,265 Total 3,702 2,571 -1,256 386 244 120 7,126 54 85 48 1,743 339 52 513 (14) 177 1,073 92 144 1,279 66 34 14 50 194 1,885 1,145 223 344 263 62 3,430 -1,651 143 11 37 l L 8 X 3,644 . _____-_I ..\"___... -l , l 6 --Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation Switzerland --Syngenta Foundation For Sustainable Agriculture 246 The Global Crop Diversity Trust Turkey, Republic of 44 1 Grains Research and Development Corporation International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) Australian cereal rust control program-adult plant resistance and introgression of new and novel genes GRDC-CIMMYT Strategic alliance 07101102 -06130107 120 140 07101103 -06130108 Conservation agriculture, livestock and livelihoods strategies in the Indo-Gangetic plains of South Asia: Synergies and trade-offs 07/01/05 -03/31/09 Transregional analysis of maize residue use and markets: Genetic variation for improved frost tolerance in wheat -funded through the University of Adelaide Improved frost tolerance -funded through CSIRO Brisbane 06101104 -05130107 02101105 -02101107 ImDlications for the DarticiDation of small scale Door croD-livestock . . -producers and maize improvement programs ' 03/01/07 -02/28/08 Total United Kingdom Deoartment for International Develooment 120 ..... . -. -_ . . . . . -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . USA Bill 8 Melinda Gates Foundation 15,063 -Howard G. Buffett Foundation 1,586 Pioneer Hi-Bred International 287 United States Agency for International Development 2,137 Cornell University 54 31 United States Department of Agriculture 339 . . . . . . . Washington State University 29 23 World Bank 595 Zimbabwe Miscellaneous Research Grants 404 Improving the stress tolerance of wheat genotypes of relevance to the Australian production environment Root diseases Enhancement of stress tolerance in wheat through the 07101103 -06130108 07101103 -12131107 International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Integrating sustainable soil fertility management innovations in staple cereal systems and other value chains to enhance livelihoods and environmental systems in Southern Africa 07/01/07 -06130108 expanded development and use of synthetic wheat and other alien introgressions 07/01/06 -06130107 Challenge Programs Enhanced evaluation of CIMMYT germplasm in Australia-CIMMYT component Australian cereal rust control program-adult plant resistance to wheat rusts Total EMBRAPA-training Brazil 01/01/06 -06130108 01107107 -06130110 HarvestPlus Biofortified maize for improved human nutrition 09/01/03 -12/31/07 Ex ante impact assessment of HarvestPlus: Maize systems in sub-Saharan Africa 04/01/04 -12/31/06 01101104 -12131107 Optimizing crossing and selection strategies for improving micronutrient concentrations in HarvestPlus cram 11/01106 -01/31/08 Biofortified wheat for improved human nutrition 09/01/03 -12/31/07 1,841 ---.----(EL-1,279 117 1,023 45 351 48 34 16 30 11 80 431 48 . ----. _ I --(7,937) (1,532) (239) -(394) (82) (227) 1,230 223 753 237 500 344 334 32 1 181 928 4,492 1,680 1,180 143 126 2,614 40 9 38 1,265 Total 3,702 2,571-1,256 386 244 120 7,126 54 85 48 1,743 339 52 513 (14) 177 1,07392 144 1,279 66 34 14 50 194 1,885 1,145 223 344 263 62 3,430 -1,651 143 11 37 l L 8 X 3,644 Subtotal     36,415 5,873 (1 2,979) 29,309 19,294 Subtotal36,4155,873(1 2,979)29,30919,294 Unbilled work in progress      (3,944)  Unbilled work in progress(3,944)  "},{"text":"04/01/05 -02/29/08 528 26 1 192 453  ECllFAD CGIAR Programme-Conservation of maize and ECllFAD CGIAR Programme-Conservation of maize and wheat related diversity wheat related diversity  "},{"text":"01/01/07 -12/31/07 1,306 1,324 1,324   "},{"text":"/01/07 -12/31/07 783 720 720 ECllFAD CGIAR Programme-Knowledge: In situ genetic resources 01/01/07 -12/31/07 1,556 1,601 1,601  European Commission European Commission Exploiting the wheat genome to optimise water use in Mediterranean ecosystems,TRIMED -funded through FBG-UB Exploiting the wheat genome to optimise water use in Mediterranean ecosystems,TRIMED -funded through FBG-UB  "},{"text":"09/13/07 -09/12/11 16  I       I I -. -Expenditures Expenditures II I-. -Expenditures Expenditures Donor and program/ project --. . . ... -. - . .- (MMRDRY) Grant period Grant period (MMIDDRY) __._____ ____ pledged years Grant Prior Grant Prior ~ pledged years year Current Current year .. 1 Total Total _.-I Donor and program/ project --. . . ... -. -. .-(MMRDRY) Grant period Grant period (MMIDDRY) __._____ ____ pledged years Grant Prior Grant Prior ~ pledged yearsyear Current Current year ..1 Total Total _.-I Mapping the way foward with conservation agriculture in Mozambique -taking stock and making an action plan Korea, Republic of Rural Development Administration Developing and disseminating stress tolerant maize for sustainable Novel resistance to control wheat blast caused bv MaonaDorthe food security in Eastern and Central Africa grisea, a new disease threatening global wheai prod;dion Total Research cooperation and the secondment of RDA scientist to CIMMYT Pratical application of double haploid breeding in wheat based on maize pollination RDA-CIMMYT research fund (high quality Korean wheat) 11/01/06 -10/31/07 03/01/07 -02/28/10 12/01/07 -11/30/09 01/01/01 -12/31/07 01/01/01 -12/31/07 01/01/06 -12/31/08 48 1,299 88 3,527 350 60 90 27 1,502 285 2 30 65 58 18 48 350 2,258 350 60 48 Mapping the way foward with conservation agriculture in Mozambique -taking stock and making an action plan Korea, Republic of Rural Development Administration Developing and disseminating stress tolerant maize for sustainable Novel resistance to control wheat blast caused bv MaonaDorthe food security in Eastern and Central Africa grisea, a new disease threatening global wheai prod;dion Total Research cooperation and the secondment of RDA scientist to CIMMYT Pratical application of double haploid breeding in wheat based on maize pollination RDA-CIMMYT research fund (high quality Korean wheat)11/01/06 -10/31/07 03/01/07 -02/28/10 12/01/07 -11/30/09 01/01/01 -12/31/07 01/01/01 -12/31/07 01/01/06 -12/31/0848 1,299 88 3,527350 60 9027 1,502285 2 3065 58 1848 350 2,258350 60 48 India Total     500   31 7 141 458 IndiaTotal50031 7141458 Indian Council of Agricultural Research Rice wheat consortium Mexico Quality protein maize CONABIO (Comision Nacional para el Conocimiento y Us0 de la Biodiversidad) 01/01/06 -12/31/07 01/01/06 -12/31/07 Global rust initiative 01/01/06 -12/31/07 Evaluacion de la resistencia a sequia en razas criollas mexicanas Total de trigo y determinacion de relaciones entre la respuesta de sequia y el lugar de colecta mediante las herramientas de GIS 11/01/05 -10130107 200 200 400 800 25 144 102 48 294 1 20 200 184 331 715 21 Indian Council of Agricultural Research Rice wheat consortium Mexico Quality protein maize CONABIO (Comision Nacional para el Conocimiento y Us0 de la Biodiversidad) 01/01/06 -12/31/07 01/01/06 -12/31/07 Global rust initiative 01/01/06 -12/31/07 Evaluacion de la resistencia a sequia en razas criollas mexicanas Total de trigo y determinacion de relaciones entre la respuesta de sequia y el lugar de colecta mediante las herramientas de GIS 11/01/05 -10130107200 200 400 80025144 102 48 294120200 184 331 71521 Monitoreo y recoleccion de la diversidad de razas de maiz criollo International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) en la region de la Huasteca en Mexico para complementar las Developing and Disseminating Stress-Tolerant Maize for Sustainable Multi-stakeholder programme to accelerate technology adoption Food Security in East, West and Central Africa -Phase II colecciones de 10s bancos de qermoplasma de INIFAP v CIMMYT 09/28/07 -09/27/08 05/10/05 -06130108 to improve rural livelihoods in rainfed Gangetic plains Total 09/01/03 -06130107 CONACYT (Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia) Prwramme for facilitatina the adODtion of conservation aariculture by resource-poor smalholder faimers in Southern Africi 0711 1/07 -0913011 0 Desarrollo de germoplasma avanzado de trigo para la seleccion Total de variedades, con alta produccion, resistencia a enfermedades, Iran , Islamic Republic of Italy High-yielding varieties resistant to cereal diseases 01/01/06 -12/31/07 con calidad industrial, con alta eficiencia en el us0 de insumos bajo sistemas de labranza minima, riego optimo y riego reducido 05/01/05 -04130107 Tecnologias integrales para reducir las perdidas en post-cosecha de maiz en el Estado de Mexico 11/01/05 -11/01/08 Mejoramiento de la tolerancia a sequia del maiz por medio de fisiologia molecular, bioquimica y genetica 01/01/06 -12/31/08 ENEA Drought stress resistance in durum wheat varieties and other cereals 01/01/05 -12/31/07 Fondo institucional Dara el fomento de la ciencia. el fomento de Societa Produttori S.p.A. la tecnologia y el fomento, desarrollo y consolibacion de cientificos y tecnologos 01/01/06 -12/31/07 Identification of geneslQTLs for yield potential and stability and for micronutrient content in durum wheat Total 09/01/05 -08/31/07 SAGARPA (Secretaria de Agricultura, Ganaderia, Desarrollo Rural y Pesca) 1,300 500 1,500 3,300 319 25 120 36 61 303 166 200 18 687 838 49 1 1,329 45 12 42 1 249 22 57 8 336 1 21 42 43 103 10 198 1,259 500 265 2,024 102 25 98 1 22 291 65 160 18 534 Monitoreo y recoleccion de la diversidad de razas de maiz criollo International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) en la region de la Huasteca en Mexico para complementar las Developing and Disseminating Stress-Tolerant Maize for Sustainable Multi-stakeholder programme to accelerate technology adoption Food Security in East, West and Central Africa -Phase II colecciones de 10s bancos de qermoplasma de INIFAP v CIMMYT 09/28/07 -09/27/08 05/10/05 -06130108 to improve rural livelihoods in rainfed Gangetic plains Total 09/01/03 -06130107 CONACYT (Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia) Prwramme for facilitatina the adODtion of conservation aariculture by resource-poor smalholder faimers in Southern Africi 0711 1/07 -0913011 0 Desarrollo de germoplasma avanzado de trigo para la seleccion Total de variedades, con alta produccion, resistencia a enfermedades, Iran , Islamic Republic of Italy High-yielding varieties resistant to cereal diseases 01/01/06 -12/31/07 con calidad industrial, con alta eficiencia en el us0 de insumos bajo sistemas de labranza minima, riego optimo y riego reducido 05/01/05 -04130107 Tecnologias integrales para reducir las perdidas en post-cosecha de maiz en el Estado de Mexico 11/01/05 -11/01/08 Mejoramiento de la tolerancia a sequia del maiz por medio de fisiologia molecular, bioquimica y genetica 01/01/06 -12/31/08 ENEA Drought stress resistance in durum wheat varieties and other cereals 01/01/05 -12/31/07 Fondo institucional Dara el fomento de la ciencia. el fomento de Societa Produttori S.p.A. la tecnologia y el fomento, desarrollo y consolibacion de cientificos y tecnologos 01/01/06 -12/31/07 Identification of geneslQTLs for yield potential and stability and for micronutrient content in durum wheat Total 09/01/05 -08/31/07 SAGARPA (Secretaria de Agricultura, Ganaderia, Desarrollo Rural y Pesca)1,300 500 1,500 3,300 319 25 12036 61 303 166 200 18 687838 49 1 1,329 45 12 421 249 22 57 8 3361 21 42 43 103 10 1981,259 500 265 2,024 102 25 981 22 291 65 160 18 534 Japan Generacion de un sistema de analisis de calidad de trigo en las       JapanGeneracion de un sistema de analisis de calidad de trigo en las Economic Cooperation Bureau, Ministry of Foreign Affairs Increasing wheat productivity and sustainability principales zonas productoras y de informacion de la calidad de la cosecha mexicana   01/01/06 -11130107  196   103 75 178 Economic Cooperation Bureau, Ministry of Foreign Affairs Increasing wheat productivity and sustainability principales zonas productoras y de informacion de la calidad de la cosecha mexicana01/01/06 -1113010719610375178 Total crop genetic resources Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Using markets to promote the sustainable utilization of Assess existing crop rotations in communal farming systems and ascertain the use of crop rotations in current CF projects Total in stressed environments Maize Genetic Resources: Germplasm Bank Fundacion Guanajuato Produce, A.C. Maize Genetic Resources: Germplasm Bank Enhancement Evaluacion y promocion de triticale forrajero con alta productividad 01/01/06 -12/31/07 11 101 105 -06130107 04/01 107 -0713 1/07 01/01/06 -12/31/07 01/01/06 -12/31/07 y calidad nutricional para Areas con est& hidrico del Breeding and genetic studies on wheat development with fusarium head blight resistance 06/01/04 -05/31/09 Estado de Guanajuato 07/01/04 -06130107 Research Support-Masahiro Kishii 11/01/04 -12/31/07 Desarrollo de lineas de trigo de alta calidad industrial y alto Total potencial de rendimiento para condiciones de estres hidrico del Estado de Guanajuato 07/01/04 -06130107 Generacion y promocion de cebada forrajera con alta Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences Transformation of wheat and evaluation of transformed wheat for environmental stress tolerance 05120107 -02/29/08 productividad y tolerante a condiciones de estrb hidrico del Estado de Guanajuato 07/01/04 -06130107 Japan-CGIAR fellowship pmgram-Yohie Terasawa 12/08/07 -02/08/08 Total Germ any Total BASF Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development Strigaway: Seed production and wider on-farm testing 11/23/04 -12/31/08 Improving the value of maize as livestock feed to enhance the livelihoods of maize-livestock farmers in East Africa 03/01/05 -02/28/09 Desarollo de variedades de triticale con aka produccion, Nippon Foundation Impact assessment project of SG2000 innovations in Ethiopia and Uganda 03/01/06 -02/28/08 resistancia a enfermedades, buena calidad nutricional para la alimentacibn animal y con adaptacion al Estado de Sonora 06/01/05 -05/01/07 Kazakhstan, Republic of Kazakhstan consultant 04120105 -1 213 1/08 Tecnologia en el us0 del sensor GreenSeeker en el cultivo de trigo en el Valle de Yaqui 06101106 -05/31/08 4 , m 90 16 106 200 250 200 2,789 40 90 3,529 40 331 40 3 120 334 140 567 1,488 598 167 96 83 130 184 138 1,686 45 2,183 1,215 37 37 33 107 a3 270 91 33 14 3,837 49 16 65 5 9 9 23 30 102 273 24 41 52 4,oga 90 16 106 200 250 200 42 2,149 64 2,863 46 42 120 130 120 113 335 1,488 115 553 74 66 Total crop genetic resources Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Using markets to promote the sustainable utilization of Assess existing crop rotations in communal farming systems and ascertain the use of crop rotations in current CF projects Total in stressed environments Maize Genetic Resources: Germplasm Bank Fundacion Guanajuato Produce, A.C. Maize Genetic Resources: Germplasm Bank Enhancement Evaluacion y promocion de triticale forrajero con alta productividad 01/01/06 -12/31/07 11 101 105 -06130107 04/01 107 -0713 1/07 01/01/06 -12/31/07 01/01/06 -12/31/07 y calidad nutricional para Areas con est& hidrico del Breeding and genetic studies on wheat development with fusarium head blight resistance 06/01/04 -05/31/09 Estado de Guanajuato 07/01/04 -06130107 Research Support-Masahiro Kishii 11/01/04 -12/31/07 Desarrollo de lineas de trigo de alta calidad industrial y alto Total potencial de rendimiento para condiciones de estres hidrico del Estado de Guanajuato 07/01/04 -06130107 Generacion y promocion de cebada forrajera con alta Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences Transformation of wheat and evaluation of transformed wheat for environmental stress tolerance 05120107 -02/29/08 productividad y tolerante a condiciones de estrb hidrico del Estado de Guanajuato 07/01/04 -06130107 Japan-CGIAR fellowship pmgram-Yohie Terasawa 12/08/07 -02/08/08 Total Germ any Total BASF Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development Strigaway: Seed production and wider on-farm testing 11/23/04 -12/31/08 Improving the value of maize as livestock feed to enhance the livelihoods of maize-livestock farmers in East Africa 03/01/05 -02/28/09 Desarollo de variedades de triticale con aka produccion, Nippon Foundation Impact assessment project of SG2000 innovations in Ethiopia and Uganda 03/01/06 -02/28/08 resistancia a enfermedades, buena calidad nutricional para la alimentacibn animal y con adaptacion al Estado de Sonora 06/01/05 -05/01/07 Kazakhstan, Republic of Kazakhstan consultant 04120105 -1 213 1/08 Tecnologia en el us0 del sensor GreenSeeker en el cultivo de trigo en el Valle de Yaqui 06101106 -05/31/084 , m 90 16 106 200 250 200 2,789 40 90 3,529 40 331 40 3 120 334 140 567 1,488 598 167 96 83130 184 138 1,686 45 2,183 1,215 37 37 33 107 a3 270 91 33 143,837 49 16 65 5 9 9 23 30 102 273 24 41 524,oga 90 16 106 200 250 200 42 2,149 64 2,863 46 42 120 130 120 113 335 1,488 115 553 74 66  "},{"text":"31/08 38 27 27  Fertilizacion de trigo con Selenio 07/01/06 -06130108 15 15 15 Fertilizacion de trigo con Selenio07/01/06 -06130108151515  "},{"text":"01/07 -06130108 46 3 3  I  I  -_ Expenditures - ., II-_ Expenditures -., Donor and program1 project I L ---- Grant period (MMIDDPPI) _. Grant pledged __ - Prior years Current year -- Total I Donor and program1 project I L ----Grant period (MMIDDPPI) _.Grant pledged __ -Prior yearsCurrent year --Total I Fundacion Produce de San Luis Potosi      Fundacion Produce de San Luis Potosi Desarollo e identificacion de variedades de cebada adaptadas      Desarollo e identificacion de variedades de cebada adaptadas a las condiciones agro-climatolbgicas diversas del Estado de San Luis Potosi 07/01/07 -06130108 12    4 a las condiciones agro-climatolbgicas diversas del Estado de San Luis Potosi07/01/07 -06130108124 ICAMEX      ICAMEX Desarrollo, identificacion y promocion de lineas de triticale, trigo      Desarrollo, identificacion y promocion de lineas de triticale, trigo harinero y cebada, con calidad aceptable y con adaptabilidad      harinero y cebada, con calidad aceptable y con adaptabilidad sobresaliente a las diversas condiciones agro-ecologicas y de produccion del Estado de Mexico Optimizacion del manejo de N en agricultura de conservacion 07/01/04 -07/31/08 03/01/05 -07/31/08 141 37  80 23  103 35 sobresaliente a las diversas condiciones agro-ecologicas y de produccion del Estado de Mexico Optimizacion del manejo de N en agricultura de conservacion07/01/04 -07/31/08 03/01/05 -07/31/08141 3780 23103 35 Generacion y evaluacion de nuevas variedades de haba y      Generacion y evaluacion de nuevas variedades de haba y condiciones agroecolbgicas del Estado de Mexico garbanzo resistentes a enfermedades adaptadas a las 07130105 -07/31/07 28  26  28 condiciones agroecolbgicas del Estado de Mexico garbanzo resistentes a enfermedades adaptadas a las07130105 -07/31/07282628 Validacibn de un sistema de labranza de conservacibn para la      Validacibn de un sistema de labranza de conservacibn para la A r o d u c c i o n de maiz y cereales de qrano p&quei i o 06130107 -0713 1/08 32    2 A r o d u c c i o n de maiz y cereales de qrano p&quei i o06130107 -0713 1/08322 Total  238  129  168 Total238129168 lnstituto Nacional de lnvestigaciones Forestales, Agricolas y Pecuarias     lnstituto Nacional de lnvestigaciones Forestales, Agricolas y Pecuarias Generacion de variedades de trigo tolerantes a enfermedades,      Generacion de variedades de trigo tolerantes a enfermedades, eficientes en el us0 del agua, con alta calidad y      eficientes en el us0 del agua, con alta calidad y alto rendimiento en Mexico 01/01/06 -12/31/08 136  37  88 alto rendimiento en Mexico01/01/06 -12/31/081363788 OPEC Fund for International Development Stress tolerant quality protein maize for Central and South America. 07/01/07 -06130108 100    50 OPEC Fund for International Development Stress tolerant quality protein maize for Central and South America. 07/01/07 -0613010810050 Other (Private-Sector Consortium)      Other (Private-Sector Consortium) Apomixis Consortium (Phase I) -Apomixis Consortium (Phase II) 04/01/99 -12/31/09 01/01/05 -12/31/09 3,000 830 2,914 336 133 3,000 469 Apomixis Consortium (Phase I) -Apomixis Consortium (Phase II)04/01/99 -12/31/09 01/01/05 -12/31/093,000 8302,914 3361333,000 469 Total  3,830 3,250  3,469 Total3,8303,2503,469 PeN Maize improvement 01/01/99 -12/31/07 300  295  300 PeN Maize improvement01/01/99 -12/31/07300295300 Rockefeller Foundation      Rockefeller Foundation Collaboration with the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute on      Collaboration with the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute on New Seed Initiative for Maize in Southern Africa      New Seed Initiative for Maize in Southern Africa Total  349  105 121 226 Total349105121226  "},{"text":"01/01/05-12/31/07 1,183 785 1,183  Soil fertility consortium for Southern Africa, which promotes Soil fertility consortium for Southern Africa, which promotes collaborative research and development on integrated soil fertility collaborative research and development on integrated soil fertility management for small-scale farmers in Southern Africa management for small-scale farmers in Southern Africa  "},{"text":"08/01/05 -07/31/08 899 419 802  development of insect-resistant maize for Africa     development of insect-resistant maize for Africa Developing and disseminating herbicide-resistant maize     Developing and disseminating herbicide-resistant maize seed coated with specific herbicides that inhibit the growth of the parasitic weed Striga 01/01/06 -12131107 645 31 8  645 seed coated with specific herbicides that inhibit the growth of the parasitic weed Striga01/01/06 -1213110764531 8645 Enhance the nutritional quality of African Maize by improving its lysine content through genetic improvements 01/01/06 -12/31/06 403 86  264 Enhance the nutritional quality of African Maize by improving its lysine content through genetic improvements01/01/06 -12/31/0640386264 Total  3,350 1,762 1,352 3,114 Total3,3501,7621,3523,114 Maize Improvement by CIMMYT in India Sabbatical -Wilkes 01/01/05 -12/31/08 07/01 107 -1 213 1/07 250 10 50  135 3 Maize Improvement by CIMMYT in India Sabbatical -Wilkes01/01/05 -12/31/08 07/01 107 -1 213 1/07250 1050135 3 Total  260 50  138 Total26050138  "},{"text":"01/01/05 -12/31/07 220 154 66 220  Sehgal Foundation     Sehgal Foundation Spain     Spain Agrovegetal, S.A.     Agrovegetal, S.A. Durum and wheat bread investigation 09/22/98 -09/21/08 999 859 925 Durum and wheat bread investigation09/22/98 -09/21/08999859925 Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentacion Saraguro project 01/01/05 -12/31/08 114 42 92 Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentacion Saraguro project01/01/05 -12/31/081144292  "},{"text":"31/08 1,086 530 899   "},{"text":"31/07 210 15 152 United States Department of Agriculture 1.. . .. . ^. .. . Expenditures ....... .. ..............___I^ .... .. Centro lnternacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, A. C.       Exhibit 3 Exhibit 3 I I    ! . . Expenditures II!. .Expenditures Donor and program/ project Donor and Program1 Project -__ -;  Grant period Grant Period (MMIDDRY) ~---Grant Prior Grant Prior pledged years -(MMIDDMY) Pledged Years __ ___._. _-. .\" Current Current year __ Year Total, Total --__-_, Donor and program/ project Donor and Program1 Project -__ -;Grant period Grant Period (MMIDDRY) ~---Grant Prior Grant Prior pledged years -(MMIDDMY) Pledged Years __ ___._. _-. .\"Current Current year __ Year Total, Total --__-_,  Sweden     Sweden  The Swedish Research Council Switzerland Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation Tan Spot Resistance ICARDAlClMMYT FHB Barley Enhancement Kamal bunt cooperative research Increasing productivity and sustainability of maize-based cropping systems in the hills of Nepal-Phase II New seed initiative for maize in Southern Africa (NSIMA) Crop canopy sensors for efficient nitrogen management in the Indo-Gangetic Plains Novel sources of FHB resistance in bread and durum wheat Evaluation of US wheat germplasm for stem rust in Eastern Africa 05/27/05 -05/27/10 07101107 -06130109 04/22/05 -04/21/08 0711 8/03 -0713 1108 01101103 -12131107 01101105 -12/31/07 11 101 104 -04130107 04/22/05 -04/21/07 Borlaug Ethiopia fellowslwheat stem rust 09/22/05 -12/31/08 Increasing maize product i vi t y-y in the State of Mexico 07/16/07 -07/15/08 68 364 2,736 31 1,461 49 80 350 1 39 250 35 230 1,907 902 49 59 205 674 559 68 310 2,581 1,461 49 80 325 13 72 The Swedish Research Council Switzerland Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation Tan Spot Resistance ICARDAlClMMYT FHB Barley Enhancement Kamal bunt cooperative research Increasing productivity and sustainability of maize-based cropping systems in the hills of Nepal-Phase II New seed initiative for maize in Southern Africa (NSIMA) Crop canopy sensors for efficient nitrogen management in the Indo-Gangetic Plains Novel sources of FHB resistance in bread and durum wheat Evaluation of US wheat germplasm for stem rust in Eastern Africa 05/27/05 -05/27/10 07101107 -06130109 04/22/05 -04/21/08 0711 8/03 -0713 1108 01101103 -12131107 01101105 -12/31/07 11 101 104 -04130107 04/22/05 -04/21/07 Borlaug Ethiopia fellowslwheat stem rust 09/22/05 -12/31/08 Increasing maize product i vi t y-y in the State of Mexico 07/16/07 -07/15/0868 364 2,736 31 1,461 49 80 350 1 39 25035 230 1,907 902 49 59 205674 55968 310 2,581 1,461 49 80 325 13 72 Comprehensive analysis and initial exploitation of resistance to wheat stem rust race Ug99 -funded through ZlL Total Total Washington State University Syngenta Foundation For Sustainable Agriculture International Cooperation for Agricultural Research in Central Asia and the Caucasus Insect resistant maize for Africa: Delivering products to farmers (IRMA II) World Bank CGIAR restricted contribution Collective action for the rehabilitation of global public goods in Turkey, Republic of the GGlAR genetic resources system: Phase 2 (GPG 2) -funded through Bioversity Rice Wheat Consortium 2006 United Kingdom Total Department for International Development Stress tolerant maize and best-bet soil fertility technologies University of Zimbabwe Lack of resilience in African smallholder farming: Exploring United States of America Bill 8 Melinda Gates Foundation Drought tolerant maize for Africa-Phase I Consultancy of D. Hodson measures to enhance the adaptive capacity of local communities to pressures of climate change Drought tolerant maize for Africa-Phase II Miscellaneous research grants 1,300 4,335 138 842 2,645 580 01/01/07 -12/31/09 1,010 01101107 -12131109 07/01/03 -09/14/09 01101104 -12131108 01101106 -12131107 01/01/06 -12/31/07 477 1,487 621 08101104 -07131107 12101106 -11130107 5,932 03/27/07 -03/27/10 131 10108107 -02128108 17 12101107 -11130111 33,012 395 ~~ 578 2,809 702 1,928 165 222 222 501 191 177 23 1,256 386 244 51 120 5,456 1,670 917 4,065 23 754 2,314 409 258 477 735 621 28 5,647 354 1,670 Comprehensive analysis and initial exploitation of resistance to wheat stem rust race Ug99 -funded through ZlL Total Total Washington State University Syngenta Foundation For Sustainable Agriculture International Cooperation for Agricultural Research in Central Asia and the Caucasus Insect resistant maize for Africa: Delivering products to farmers (IRMA II) World Bank CGIAR restricted contribution Collective action for the rehabilitation of global public goods in Turkey, Republic of the GGlAR genetic resources system: Phase 2 (GPG 2) -funded through Bioversity Rice Wheat Consortium 2006 United Kingdom Total Department for International Development Stress tolerant maize and best-bet soil fertility technologies University of Zimbabwe Lack of resilience in African smallholder farming: Exploring United States of America Bill 8 Melinda Gates Foundation Drought tolerant maize for Africa-Phase I Consultancy of D. Hodson measures to enhance the adaptive capacity of local communities to pressures of climate change Drought tolerant maize for Africa-Phase II Miscellaneous research grants1,300 4,335 138 842 2,645 580 01/01/07 -12/31/09 1,010 01101107 -12131109 07/01/03 -09/14/09 01101104 -12131108 01101106 -12131107 01/01/06 -12/31/07 477 1,487 621 08101104 -07131107 12101106 -11130107 5,932 03/27/07 -03/27/10 131 10108107 -02128108 17 12101107 -11130111 33,012 395 ~~578 2,809 702 1,928 165 222 222 501 191 17723 1,256 386 244 51 120 5,456 1,670917 4,065 23 754 2,314 409 258 477 735 621 28 5,647 354 1,670 Total Grand total   38,961 125,323 46,553 191 7,126 29,309 7,317 75,862 Total Grand total38,961 125,32346,5531917,126 29,3097,317 75,862  Cornell University     Cornell University  Rice-wheat Droiect-NeDal  01101103 -09130108 270  262 85 347 Rice-wheat Droiect-NeDal01101103 -0913010827026285347  Howard G. Buffett Foundation Drought tolerant maize for Africa -Phase II  12/01/07 -11130111 1,583  54 54 Howard G. Buffett Foundation Drought tolerant maize for Africa -Phase II12/01/07 -111301111,5835454  Pioneer Hi-Bred International     Pioneer Hi-Bred International  Nitrogen use efficiency, drought tolerance, Striga tolerance and QPM, biofortification of white maize  01101104 -12131108 250  63 48 111 Nitrogen use efficiency, drought tolerance, Striga tolerance and QPM, biofortification of white maize01101104 -121311082506348111  Pioneer breeding collaboration Pioneer breeding collaboration United States Agency for International Development  10101107 -09130107 10101 106 -09130107 100 100  11 89 11 100 11 Pioneer breeding collaboration Pioneer breeding collaboration United States Agency for International Development10101107 -09130107 10101 106 -09130107100 1001189 11100 11  Improving the drought tolerance of maize and sorghum through comparative genomics, germplasm analysis and marker-assisted breeding 03101104 -09130106 USAID linkage fundsleconomic impact updates 01/01/04 -12/31/07 Economic impact studies 01101103 -12131107 306 1,251 200  288 669 139 18 196 6 306 865 145 Improving the drought tolerance of maize and sorghum through comparative genomics, germplasm analysis and marker-assisted breeding 03101104 -09130106 USAID linkage fundsleconomic impact updates 01/01/04 -12/31/07 Economic impact studies 01101103 -12131107306 1,251 200288 669 13918 196 6306 865 145  Food security in Bangladesh: Improving wheat, maize and papaya production, and impacts of arsenic contamination 07101102 -06130107 5,195 5,035 160 5,195 Food security in Bangladesh: Improving wheat, maize and papaya production, and impacts of arsenic contamination07101102 -061301075,1955,0351605,195  Rice-wheat consortium: Accelerating the tillage revolution in the     Rice-wheat consortium: Accelerating the tillage revolution in the  IndusGanges basin: Fostering adoption of resource conserving    IndusGanges basin: Fostering adoption of resource conserving  technologies to promote economic growth, resource     technologies to promote economic growth, resource  conservation and food security  10101104 -03131108 1,500 1,103 278 1,381 conservation and food security10101104 -031311081,5001,1032781,381  Rice-wheat consortium: Accelerating the tillage revolution in the     Rice-wheat consortium: Accelerating the tillage revolution in the  IndusGanges basin: Fostering adoption of resource conserving    IndusGanges basin: Fostering adoption of resource conserving  Total Total technologies to promote economic gmwth, resource conservation and food security Global rust initiative Global rust initiative The conservation and regeneration of maize in Mexico Abiotic stress tolerant varieties of rice and wheat  10101107 -09130108 10101106 -09130107 10101107 -09130107 0911 5107 -09130108 10101107 -09130108 1,410 10,652 150 1,064 600 36 150 587 7,509 264 1,743 800 180 5 9,252 1,143 1,064 180 5 Total Total technologies to promote economic gmwth, resource conservation and food security Global rust initiative Global rust initiative The conservation and regeneration of maize in Mexico Abiotic stress tolerant varieties of rice and wheat10101107 -09130108 10101106 -09130107 10101107 -09130107 0911 5107 -09130108 10101107 -091301081,410 10,652 150 1,064 600 36 150587 7,509 2641,743 800 180 59,252 1,143 1,064 180 5  "},{"text":"Combined Schedule of Fixed Assets For the year ended December 31,2007 Centro lnternacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, International and Centro lnternacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, A. C. (In thousands of US Dollars)     (In thousands of US Dollars) ' L---January1 I , Additions I b Disposals I December 31 Balance __ II__ , 2007 Transfers -_ 'L---January1 I , AdditionsI b Disposals I December 31 Balance __ II__ , 2007 Transfers -_ I. Cost and revaluation     I. Cost and revaluation Land and buildings     Land and buildings Revaluation of land 10,345   10,345 Revaluation of land10,34510,345 Land at cost 26   26 Land at cost2626 Revaluation of buildings 2,573   2,573 Revaluation of buildings2,5732,573 Buildings at cost 1,768   1,768 Buildings at cost1,7681,768 Subtotal 14,712   14,712 Subtotal14,71214,712 Furnishings and equipment     Furnishings and equipment Farming 1,341 249 (40) 1,550 Farming1,341249(40)1,550 Laboratory and scientific equipment 1,173 268 51 1,492 Laboratory and scientific equipment1,173268511,492 Office 487 17  504 Office48717504 Auxiliary units 42 7  49 Auxiliary units42749 Computers 1,059 165 6 1,230 Computers1,05916561,230 Vehicles 4,532 713 (57) 5,188 Vehicles4,532713(57)5,188 Maintenance equipment 6   6 Maintenance equipment66 Software 380   380 Software380380 Fixed assets in transit I in process 51  (51 1  Fixed assets in transit I in process51(51 1 Subtotal 9,071 1,419 191) 10,399 Subtotal9,0711,419191)10,399 Total cost 23,783 1,419 (91 1 25,111 Total cost23,7831,419(91 125,111 II. Accumulated depreciation     II. Accumulated depreciation A. Buildings at cost and revaluation 1,694 110  1,804 A. Buildings at cost and revaluation1,6941101,804 B. Furnishings and equipment     B. Furnishings and equipment Farming 803 313 (40) 1,076 Farming803313(40)1,076 Laboratory and scientific equipment 908 367  1,275 Laboratory and scientific equipment9083671,275 Office 394 36  430 Office39436430 Auxiliary units 9 6  15 Auxiliary units9615 Computers 622 288 6 916 Computers6222886916 Vehicles 4,187 591 (57) 4,721 Vehicles4,187591(57)4,721 Maintenance equipment 5   5 Maintenance equipment55 Software 170 55  225 Software17055225 Total accumulated depreciation 8,792 1,766 (91 1 10,467 Total accumulated depreciation8,7921,766(91 110,467 111. Net book value     111. Net book value A. Land and buildings 13,018   12,908 A. Land and buildings13,01812,908 B. Furnishings and equipment     B. Furnishings and equipment Fanning 538   474 Fanning538474 Laboratory and scientific equipment 265  51 217 Laboratory and scientific equipment26551217 Office 93   74 Office9374 Auxiliary units 33   34 Auxiliary units3334 Computers 437   314 Computers437314 Vehicles 345   467 Vehicles345467 Maintenance equipment 1   1 Maintenance equipment11 Software Fixed assets in transit I in process 51 210 (55)  155 Software Fixed assets in transit I in process51 210(55)155 Total net book value 14,991 (347)  14,644 Total net book value14,991(347)14,644  "}],"sieverID":"6b2aad44-74db-4d7e-9f2d-5db02dae5c6b","abstract":"We have audited the accompanying combined statements of financial position of Centro lntemaciod de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, International and Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo, k C.(collectively the \"Organization\"), both of which are under common ownership and common management, as of December 3 I, 2007 and 2006, and the related combined statements of activitics, changes in net assets and cash flows for the years then ended. These financial statements are the responsibility of the Organization's management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these financial statemcots bascd on our audits.W e conducted our audits in accordance with International Standards on Auditing. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the fiancial statements are h e of material misstatement. An audit includes examining, on a test basis, evidence supporting the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. An audit also includes assessing the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall financial statement presentation. We believe that our audits provide a reasonable basis for our opinion.As described in Note 1 to the combined financial statements, these financial statements were prepared on the basis of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (\"CGIAK\") Accounting Policies and Reporting Practices 'Manual. 'h our opinnioa. sgch combined fimcie! sratements present feirly, ic al! materials respects, he financial position of the Organization as of December 3 1,2007 and 2006, and the results of its activities and its cash flows for the years then ended in accordance with the CGIAR Accounting Policies and Reporting Practices Manual as described in Note 1.This report is intended solely for the information and usc of managcment and the Board of Trustees of the Organization and should not be used by anyone other than these specified parties."}

data/part_4/01cb7b8a5a94e070557ffd9b5505e09c.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"01cb7b8a5a94e070557ffd9b5505e09c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/37246adb-930d-4b22-86d8-60e587a74591/retrieve"},"pageCount":27,"title":"Participatory Approaches to Crop Improvement at the Community Level in Vietnam","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":241,"text":"Crop improvement has been one ofthe strong, continuous programs in the Mekong Delta for major crops, especially rice and beans. However, most breedíng programs have been set and designed by breeders neglectíng the role of users: farmers and farming cornmunities. Breeders have set their own breeding objectives and conducted crop-improvement programs based on their own analysis ofproblems and on-station research findings (COWI 1999). At the end oftheír breeding programs, promising breeding materials are released to fanners as so-called \"technology transfer.\" Fanners are passive users, receiving finished breeding línes/varieties for their production. In many cases, fanners, especially the poor, refuse to try new varieties because they do not want to take the risk. Resource-rich fanners are the Iirst to try such varieties. Participatíon is Iimited to providing a piece ofland to the breeders for on-fann trials. The dissemination process of\"technology transfer\" has been very slow and costly for both breeders and farmers. As a result, the adoption of recornmended varieties, in many cases, has been very slow, doubtful, or has even failed. Local adoption of new technologies is dependent not only on technical suitability and economic viability but abo on social Participatory ApprQaches lo Crop lmprovemenl al Ihe Community Leve! in Vietnam acceptance. The use of participatory approaches in crop improvement assures farmers' involvemenl in the whole process or, al least, in the evaluation process. This has resulted in better understanding and greater acceptability of new crop varieties generated through breeding programs."},{"index":2,"size":238,"text":"Can Tho University, as the leading research institution for adapting participatory approaches in rice improvement, started on-farm breeding programs as early as 1975, afier the war, by sending out their staff and students to work closely with farmers on erop improvement programs (Xuan et al. 1993). In 1994, with the inception ofthe Cornmunity Biodiversity Development and Conservation (CBDC) project, participatory plant breeding (PPB) and participatory varietal selection (PVS) were introduced as methods to develop and identifY crop varieties specific to niche environments and farmers' preferences (CBDC 1996(CBDC , 1997)). Witcombe and Joshi (1996) defined PPB as involving farmers in selecting genotypes frem genetically variable, segregating materials and PVS as involving the selection by farmers ofnonsegregating materials, characterized as products from plant-breeding programs. However, they also agreed lhat PPB is a logical extension ofPVS. In our view, PVS is only a lower leve! ofPPB. PPB, therefore, should be understood in its broader meaning and implications as the involvement offarmers in the whole process of plant breeding, no! only the selection of segregating and nonsegregating materials. Farmers can be involved at the very beginning, when strategies and objectives are se! forplant breeding, in identifYing parents, making crosses (of course with training from the formal sector), and selecting both segregating and nonsegregating materials. The experiences from the CBDC project in Southeast Asia have proven lhat peint, especially in the Mekong Delta in Vietoam and in Bohol, Philippines, for rice (CBDG 1998)."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"These participatory approaches are also being used at one of the study sites, Tra Cu, of the global in situ conservation project implemented in Vietnam in collaboration with the Intemational Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRl)."}]},{"head":"Methods used in participatory crop improvement","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"The participatory cropcímprovement program uses pvs andlor PPB approaches, depending on fanners' varietal needs and their breeding knowledge and technical skílls. The pvs approach has been used to improve locallandraces and to evaluate the finished breeding materials, obtained frem research institutions, on farmers' field. When varietal options avaílable to farmers through PVS are limited or exhausted, PPB is initiated (CBDC 1998). Farmers with knowledge ofand interest in breeding are involved in PPB activities, i.e., activities frem crossing desired parent lines to selecting and evaluating the segregating genetic materials (De and Tin 1998). A flow diagram showing the methods used in participatory erop improvement is presented in figure 1. The methods used in implementing PPB and PVS are discussed below."}]},{"head":"Methods used lor PPB","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Particípatory plant breeding involves the following steps and activities."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Need assessment and seledion of cooperating farmers, Cornmunity meetings are organized to identifY farmers' problems and needs and to come up with suitable crop-improvement strategies and plans. A group offarmers (Group 1 farmers), with knowledge ofand interest in breeding, are selected as cooperating farmers in consultation wíth the community. Breeding acti vities are then formulated and decided upon with these cooperating farmers. with good knowledge and .kiU in seed seleclion."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"with good knowledge and ,km in seed production. Setting breeding objectives and identifying donor parents. Breeders work c10sely with farmers to agree on breeding objectives. Farmers have been found to use both quantitative and qualitative criteria to detennine these breeding objectives. Sorne of the examples of such eriteria are high yield, short duration, resistance to major pests and diseases, stickiness of cooked rice, and so on."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"Based on the breeding objectives, breeders then assist farmers in searching for suitable donor parents for crossing. These donors may be found among the avaílable genetie materials at the local level or from research institutions and are made available to the cooperating farmers."},{"index":5,"size":149,"text":"Making crosses and selecting segregating materials. The Group 1 farmers are given additional training on crossing techniques and assisted in making the desired crosses. In other cases, breeders provide seeds of segregating lines at very early generations (F2, F¡, and F 4) to the farmers ror selection of desired lines based on their own eriteria. Farmers have been found to handle segregating materials from generations as early as F 2 • In the process, farmers apply their own crop-management practices. Based on breeding objectives, farmers observe, evaluate, and harvest the selected plants individuaIly. This process is repeated until stable Hnes are obtained. For management reasons, the Monitoring. The Group I cooperating farmers take close field observations with technical assistance from breeders and agricultural extensionists. These farmers also keep records on field conditions and crop performance for later analysis in determining the suitabilíty of the new erop varieties under selection."}]},{"head":"Methods usedfor PVS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Participatory varietal selection involves the following steps and activities."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Need assessment and selection oC cooperating farmers. As in PPB, eonununity meetings are organized to identifY farmers' problems and needs in relation to their current erop varieties. F armers may want to improve their current varieties or ehange for promising new varieties. A separate group of farmers (Group 2 farmers), with good knowledge of and skills in seed seleetion and management, are also selected as eooperating farmers in consultation with the conununity. PVS activities are then fonnulated and decided upon with the cooperating farmers from both Group I and Group 2."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Provision of genetic materials and participatory selection. Three sources of genetic material s are used to obtain seeds for participatory selection of desired erop varieties:"},{"index":4,"size":106,"text":"• PVS with improved locallandraces. The improvement oflocallandraces is done through mass as well as pure-line seleetion. Since the mass-seleetion method does not require very specialized skills, Group 2 farmers, afier a simple orientation, have been able to undertake tbis selection. On the other hand, pure-Iine seleetion for erop improvementrequires speeialized skills and care on the par! of the farmers. For this reason, only Group 1 farmers have been used to do pure-liÍle selection, afier adequate training and with inlensive monitoring. The improved locallandraces are then given to a large number of farmers within the eonununity, as PVS material s, for their own testing and seleetion."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"• PVS witb reintroduced locallandraces. PVS also reintroduces landraces from genebanks back to the conununity when local materials have been destroyed by disaster. Usually the eollected local varieties from different locations within and outside of the eonununity are evaluated in the conununity to give farmers more choiees."},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"• PVS with modern crop varieties. Modem erop varieties from research institutions and finished products from PPB are also given lo the eooperating farmers for testing their suitability under farmers' own management conditions and household requirements."},{"index":7,"size":87,"text":"Yield trials oC successful PVS varieties. The erop varieties preferred by farmers under the PVS program are then put into varietal yield trials in the conununity for farmers to observe directly and make selections of their choices. Conunon varieties in the conununity are used as local cheeks in these trials. Farmer field days are organized just before harvesting to bring farmers in the conunu-nity to tbe trial plots for ajoint evaluatíon ofthe tested varieties. Desírable varieties (usually two to three varieties) are then selected for seed multiplicatíon."},{"index":8,"size":56,"text":"Seed multiplication. Varieties selected by farmers from yield trials are rustributed to a group of farmers (Group 3 farmers), with consíderable knowledge of and interest in seed production, to multiply large quantities of seeds for use by olher farmers in Ihe community. Seed multiplication fields are closely monítored and used as final checks for large-scale productiori."},{"index":9,"size":58,"text":"Monitoring. Field visits and farmer field days are tbe most appropriate tools for participatory monitoring and evaluation ofPVS activities. Breeders, field staff, extension workers, and farmers participate in such activities. Data collection depends on farmers' objectives and ineludes common traits such as growth duration, plan! height, tillering capacity, grain yield and quality, and tolerance to insects and díseases."}]},{"head":"Field experiences with rice","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Participatory varietal selecnon (PVS)","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Rice is tbe major food crop in tbe Mekong Delta. PVS actívities on rice have been undertaken in different forms in tbe Mekong Delta starting as early as the 19708. The most common of tbese actívíties was varietal yield trials. The main objectives ofthe varietal yield tríals were to generate farmer-preferred crop varieties and faster disseminatíon of tbese varietíes. Can Tho University has been a leading research instítution in ínítiating and implementing on-farm research activitíes. In the beginning, breeders and researcherS cooperated witb advanced farrners individually throughout tbe Mekong Delta (De 1997)."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"During the period 1975-1995, hundreds ofpromising rice varietíes were tested in farmers' fields, and a number of varieties were identified and released. Sorne of tbese rice varieties are IR36 (later named NN3A), HT6 (NN6A), MTL30 (NN7 A), HT19 (NN2B), IR42 (NN4B), MTL58 IR 13240-108-2-2-3), and MTL87 (IR50404-57-2-2-3). Besides four cornmuníties the initíal1y selecled, the PPB and PVS prograrns were also expanded to include other advanced, individual farmers in Ihe Mekong Delta. One of these was Mr. Hai Triem from An Giang province, who was well-known as \"farmer of the era\" and was awarded the Third Labour Medal by the central government for his contribution to rice improvement."}]},{"head":"Problems and lessons","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Problems"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"ofthe farmers means they require more training and the adoption ofPPB is slow."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"• Few farmers are interested in working with breeding and selectíng segregating materials."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"F armers are more willing to multiply promising varieties than to select from segregating materials or make crosses."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"• The number of farmers collaborating in PPB is limited, especially in pedigree selection and selection of segregating material because these are time-consuming activities."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"• Agricultura! policy is more favorable to cornmercial production than tp conserving diversity."},{"index":7,"size":41,"text":"• Due to the fasl turnover of rice varieties by farmers (every three to four seasons), il is difficult to keep their Ínterest and get their cooperation for the entire process of selecting segregating lines, which takes time 10 get results."}]},{"head":"Lessons","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"• Support from local authorities and organizations in term of organization, management, additional funds, and facilitation is very important."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Cooperation with groups and eornmunities on PPB and PVS gives better results than working only with individual farmers."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"• Farmers' field schools and farmers' field days for PPB and PVS are good ways to motivate the farmers' participation at the eornmunity leve!."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"• Farmers conserve and maintain the diversity of plant genetie resources to meet their own needs for home consumption, marketing, and adaptation to local environments and farm resources."},{"index":5,"size":42,"text":"• Biodiversity development should be considered on a temporal and spatial basis at the level of speeies, erop, and agroeeosystem. PPB and PVS inerease plant genetic resources at the level of the gene pool and not at the level of speeific varieties."},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"• In situ and ex situ conservation and development are eomplementary."},{"index":7,"size":26,"text":"• Biodiversity in the Mekong Delta is eurrently under pressure but integrated farming systems and diversifieation of plant genetic resources could help to eorrect the situation."},{"index":8,"size":57,"text":"Participatory approaehes are very important for erop improvement at the eornmunity level in Vietnam and are efficient ways of aehieving crop improvement at this leve!. PPB and PVS are the key tools for this. Sueeessful results tTom fármers' selections have proven that these are the right approaehes, providing a very useful lesson for national erop improvement programs."},{"index":9,"size":13,"text":"Using Farmer Knowledge for Participatory Sweet-Potato Variety Selection in Garut, West Java, Indonesia"},{"index":10,"size":5,"text":"Caecilia Aji-a Widyastuti and MinantyorÍni"}]},{"head":"Abstract","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Thís paper describes trials usíng sweet-potato gennplasm from lrian Jaya, where sweet potatoes are a sta-pIe foed in the highlands. During the coIlection of sweel-potato gennplasm, fannecs' knowledge ofthose sweet potatoes has a1so been coIlecled. Fanners' knowledge about sweet potatoes in Irian Jaya will be used as a hasis for trus prcjecl and includes information on yields, the use of sweet polatoes as human foed or reed for !ivestock, and the condition of Ihe environmenl."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Varieties are selected on the basis offarmers' criteria, including market orientation and table consumption: skin color, l1esh color, unifonnity, and other criteria. The project is also collecting information on farmers' cultivation practices, such as using high ridges in the rainy season and reducing the leaves during Ihe growing period, as well as how lo choose healthy cuttings."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"The objective of tbis research is not only to get a bigh-yielding sweet potato fuat is adaptable in Garut, but also to get new variety/ies wifu fue agrononllc characteristics required by different user groups (Le., fanners, traders, consumers)."},{"index":2,"size":153,"text":"The study was set up in fue village ofDesakolot, Cilawu District, Garut Regency ofWest Java Provinee in a rainfed field that had been used for brick makíng six years before and had remained fallow fOT five years. The year befare fue trials took place, fue field was planted wifu yambean. One week prior to planting, ISO sacks ofmanure were applied in order to improve fue soíL Thís ís always done in this area, especially for land has been used for brick makíng. Thls field is Iypical of places where sweet potatoes are grown. The nearest field to this site is planted wifu com, sweet potatoes, and ginger. Thls neighboring field was also used for brick making, and fue vigor offue plants grown on it is good. Prior to establishing lhe field trials, planting material s were multiplied in Cibadak, Pacel, about 3.5 hours away trom Garut, since ít was very dry in Garut."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"A total of 64 cultivars, including five eheeks (BISI83, SQ27, CIP-I, Jahe, and Keleneng) were tested (fue last two offue checks are well-knowu local eultivars in fue area). There were 36 hills per plol. The date of planting was 26 F ebruary 1998."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"The experimental design ls a randomized complete bloek wifu three replíeations. The size of individualplotsís 1.6 mx 3.0m. Spacingis 80 cm betweenrowsand 15 cm to 18 cm betweenbills. Harvesting ls done aceording lo fue fanners' sehedules."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"During fue harvest, we invíted fanners, traders, and extensionists to select sweet potatoes based on their eriteria. By using participatory lools sueh as flags, they walked around lhe tria! field and chose what fuey Iíked. After fuat they ranked the selected varieties based on produetion, skin and flesh color, uniformity, skin smoothness, and general acceptance ( "}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The experimental field was harvested on 22 August 1998, according to the farmers' schedule. No check varieties were select by farmers-not even Racik, the most popular local cultivar. Five new cultivars, i.e., W0139 (Toweko), W033l (Kinta), WOlll (Umakmbi), W01l3 (Lemekuara), and WOlO9B (Pipombi), were selected by the farmers, traders, and consurners (table 2). Toweko appears to be the most preferred cultivar in this area."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"F armers in Desakolot plant sweet potatoes for cornrnercial purposes. They have several requirements, such as high yield, smoothness of skin, skin and flesh color, uniforrnity in shape and size, and root shape."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"High yield is one important requirement for cornrnercial purposes. The idea of \"high yield\" includes early maturation. Farmers prefer to plant sweet potatoes that with a high yield but they also require other criteria such as smooth skin, good skin and flesh color, etc. Table 2 shows that Kinta, which had the híghest yield was gíven low acceptance overall because it did not have acceptable skin color, unifonnity, or skin smoothness."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"Smooth skin color refers to skin that has not been damaged by weevils or nematodes and thal exhíbíts no cracking. Skin should be thick enough to withsland peelíng during transportatíon and to be resistant to weevils or nematodes. The smoothness of the skin has a considerable effect on the príce of sweet potaloes."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"Farmers always refer lo good-tasting sweet potatoes as ubi ketan (stícky sweet potatoes) ifthey see a sweet potato with purple flesh. According to them, these sweet potatoes get a good price."},{"index":6,"size":122,"text":"Toweko (W0139) was given eight flags because it meets the criteria ofbigh yield, good skin color, unifonnity in shape and size, good flesh color (dark yellow), and is suitable for fresh consumption and for snack food (keremes). According to fanners, the mínimum príce for Toweko should not be less !han Rp 500. After tastíng the raw Toweko, the fanners predicted that tbis cultivar would be well received in the market. The particípatíng farmer wanted to plant Toweko 30% in the first season and increase it to 50% for the next season. They said they would plant 100% ifthe market could absorb that mucho Two participating farmers, Haji Sumama and Amin, will be responsible for multiplyíng this sweet potato as asource ofplanting material."},{"index":7,"size":91,"text":"Umakmbi (WOlll) was chosen with four flags because the skin is very smooth and thick, meaning it could resist weevil attacks. The flesh color is dark pUIple, meaning it will taste good (ubi ketan-sticky sweet potato), and the roots are very uniform in shape and size. With these critería, the farmers predicted that this sweet potato would command a good price in the market. According to the farmers, they can increase the production oftbis variety. Farmer Unang will be responsible for multíplying this sweet potato as a source of planting material."},{"index":8,"size":51,"text":"Kinta (W033 1 ) was given six flags because of its high yield and purple flesh, meaning it will laste good (ubi ketan-sticky sweet potato). The skin is very smooth, with no evidence ofnematode attack. Farmer Agus will be responsible for muItiplying this sweet potato as a source of plantíng material."},{"index":9,"size":53,"text":"Lemekuwara (WOI13) was chosen with two flags because of ¡ts rounded shape and smooth, red skin, whích mean it will be easier to seU in the market. Farmers chose this from replication III, whích indicated high productíon. Farmer Eman will be responsible for multíplying this sweet potato as a source of planting material."},{"index":10,"size":41,"text":"Pipombi (WO 1 098) was chosen with eight flags because the size is uniform, il has smooth skin color, and it can be sold fresh. Farmer Eneek will be responsible for multiplying Ihis sweet pOlato as a souree of planting material."}]},{"head":"ConcIusions","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Based on our experienees with this trial, we have formed the following conc1usions:"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"• Using farmers' knowledge about sweet potatoes from Irían Jaya will help researchers lo do preliminary se1ections for the trial."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"• The partícípation offarmers in the arca where the trial was set up will help in seleeting sweet potatoes based on farmers' enteria, such as marketability and table consumption."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• Farmers selected sweet potaloes based on their marketabílíty and farmers' own eritena.  "}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"The importance of agroecological dornams can be found in earlier work on defining and delineating . recornrnendation dornains (RDs), whích is c10sely associated with the farrning systerns research of the late 1970s (Wotowiec, Poats, and Hildebrand 1986). Initial work on RDs concentrated on a few relatively easily identifiable factors (bíological variables), such as land and soil types, agro ecological zones, and erop types and rnanagernent (Harrington and Tripp 1985). The exercise on RD was híghly complex sinee the process was to identify farrning households, based on the sirnilarity in their practiees, rather than farrns. But the delineation of agroecological domains was rnueh less eumbersorne with rice because rice is very sensitive to changes in agroecological conditions and its adaptation is Iirnited, as compared lo sorne other crops such as maíze. Moreover, rice is the rnost important cereal crop in the regíon, so farrners have an in-depth knowledge ofrice-growing environrnents and varieties suitable to different agroecological dornains."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"The current endeavor on refining the definition of agroecological dornaíns for rice in parts ofNepal is the case of\"sharpening the focus\" fur better targeting of participatory plant breeding (PPB) work, including diversity deployrnent, eonservation of landraees in different dornains, and planning strategic erop rnanagement research. The methodology adopted is quite simple and can be replícated in other areas for wider use by the researchers and deve10pment workers. "}]},{"head":"Farmers define and characterize agroecological domains","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Field exercises for delineating agroecological domains have largely been influenced by the methodologies on RDs advocated by Collinson (1980), Franzel (1985), and Vaidya and Floyd (1997)."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Ihey emphasized the use of secondary sources of information, followed by preliminary surveys supplemented later by a formal survey lo refine the domains. However, later views on the subject hold lha! the refining process should take place only after researchers have a clear understanding of the variabílity inherent in the local farming systems (Cornick and Alberti 1985). The current study embodies the thoughts from both the methodologies for delineating domains and associated rice landraces/varieties."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"In the process of delineating agroecological domains, two group meetings were organized in the Kachorwa and Begnas eco-sítes. The first meeting was held with field-based staff; the second, with farmers from the project area. Ihis was followed by a transect walk by researchers and farmer representatives lo jointly validate farmers' statements. Ihe exercise took about two days, including field visits in each site."}]},{"head":"Interactions with field-based staff","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Sínce field-based staff are stationed in villages, it was expected !hat they would have a fairly good understanding of the agroecological domains and the farming systems of their respective eco-siles."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Hence, the first level of group discussions was organized in field offices, with the field officer, technical assistants, and motivators part.icipating."},{"index":3,"size":148,"text":"Afier discussions, the participants were able to come up with four major agroecological domains, mainly defined on the basís of water regímes. They also broadly classified the soíl type and fertility status of soils from each domaín, based on scientific knowledge of soil classification and characterization. Participanls were also asked to estímate the size of each domain and place different landraces/varieties in their right domains. Estimating tbe relative size of each domain was straíghtforward because tbe pok:harilman occupied only a limited area within the eco-site. But placing each landrace/variety in its right domain proved more difficult. The team could place tbe majority of landraces/varieties in their domains, but the number of landraces/varielies per eco-síte was too large for them to rernember aH the names and tbeir right enviromnents. The process was also complicated by the fact lhal sorne of the landraces/varieties are grown in more than one domain."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"The whole process was reviewed by the participants, and once they were satisfied with the sleps and outputs, the field officer was asked lo facilitate tbe same process for tbe farmers' group discussion."}]},{"head":"Group discussion with farmers","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"A group discussion was held with farmers witb the specific objective of delineating agroecological domains. Fíeld officers/sile coordinators facilitated the discussion and tbe whole exercise was repeated witb farmers' groups. Both female and male farmers participated in the discussion and put forward tbeir opinions."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Farmers identified four agroecological domains within the eco-site (ucha, samta/, nichaJkhalar, and pokharllman), based on the major criteria of moisture regime and fertility status/gradient (tables 1 and 2). They could easily identifY the relative size of each domain, but there were disagreements among about soil c1assification. Perhaps this reflected the variability of the soíl types and soil fertility slatus in each domain. Placing landraces/variety in the domains initiated a lively  "}]},{"head":"Mula khallBhale I","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"debate among the members. However, they were able lO agree upon the major domains for each landrace/variety. They also reported that sorne oflhe landraceslvarieties were grown in more than one domain but Ihe cases were limited."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"In Kachorwa, of Ihe four domains identified by the farmers, two--ucha and pokharí/man-were extreme cases (dry land and rainfed; wet-Iand conditions, respectively). No modem varieties were grown in Ihese areas. Only landraces were found growing under such conditions, and the number of landraces (cultivars) was relatively small compared to other domains. Samtal and nícha represented better growing environments, wilh a grea!er number of landraces and modem varieties growing Ihere. Samtal represented Ihe major domain in terms of area. There was considerable area under uccha bu! no! much area was under nicha and pokahri. Severallandraces and modem varieties (MVs) were common lo both samtal and nicha. These two domains were more productive in terms of crop production as well."},{"index":3,"size":133,"text":"Similar results were found when Ihe exercise was repeated in Ihe Begnas eco-site under mid-hill conditions. However, Ihe domain delineation was less c1ear-cut Ihan ít was in Kachorwa because several of Ihe landraces and MV s were found in more than one dornain. Here again, landraceslvarieties were no! repeated in more than two dornains, and lha! in adjacent domains only. Jumping of domains by certain landraces/varieties was not observed in eilher of Ihe exercises. Allhough several ofthe landraces and MV s were found in two domains, Iheir performance was judged as best only in one domain. Based on Ihe information generated from Ihe discussion wilh farmers, it could be deduced that a landrace/variety fits best only in one domain. It exists in olher domains because Ihere ls no competitive variety to replace it."}]},{"head":"Transect walk with jarmers jor field verification","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Having achieved a high degree of agreement between farmers and researchers in Ihe defmition of agroecological domains, it was decided to field-verif)' the definitions through a transect walk and to look for consistency in Ihe field implementation. A representative group offarmers made a transect walk of Ihe eco-site along wilh researchers. They identified domains and located landraces/varieties on different farms. The exercise helped in relating different agroecological domains and Iheir characteristics with Ihé landraceslvarieties being grown Ihere. Thus, Ihis exercise needs to be conducted when the rice crop ls mature or when Ihe crop is standing in Ihe field."}]},{"head":"Development of conceptual model of agroecological domains for rice","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Based on the analysis oflhe characteristics of different agroecological domains and Ihe distribution oflandraces/varieties within domains, an attempt lo develop a conceptual model of agroecological domains for rice was made (figure 1). In Ihe following subsections, Ihe characteristíc features of the domains have been explained. Nevertheless, Ihe model needs verification in a larger context and further refinement for wider applicability."}]},{"head":"Size and characterisncs oj domains","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Local farmers can provide very reliable inforrnation on Ihe agroecological domains for rice. Similarly, farmers can provide detailed features of each domain in terms of soíl type, drainage, fertility status, production potential, cropping patterns, and so on."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"The size of agroecological domains varies, with more extreme environments (domains) being relatively smaller as compared to more favorable ones. This follows normal distribution curve. How- Doma!n 4 ever, depending upon fue geographic location (high-potential production systems or marginal growing envíronrnents), the size of each domain will vary. For instance, in marginal environrnents for rice, fue extreme domain will be relatively larger as compared to ofuer domains; whereas, in favorable environrnents, the míddle domains will be relatively larger."}]},{"head":"Landraceslvarieties distribution across domains","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"Until fue distribution oflandráces/varieties across domains, the features of domains, and fue traits of cultivars are analyzed, one cannot appreciate fue complexity of farroers' strategies to manage plant genetic resourees to meet fueir multiple needs. From the analysis, it is apparent that one landrace/variety is best suited or most competitive in only one domain, though farroers might grow the same cultivar in more fuan one domain. This implies that fue cultivar competes wifu ofuer cultivars trom within the domain, and that there is less competition between cultivars across domains, except when fuere is an overlap of cultivars. Overlap signifies the presence of transitional zones between dornains, which explains fue presence of landraceslvarieties in two different but adjacent dornains. Within dornajns, fue area and number of households growing different landraceslvarieties is explained by rnarket forces, farrocrs' socioeconomic status, cultural factors, preferences for specific traits, and ofuer abiotic and biotjc factors."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Alfuough landrsces/varieties rnay overlap in adjacent dornains, no case was registered where a landrsce/variety was found in more fuan two dornajns. This suggests fuat landraces/varietíes have very specific adaptatíons. In ofuer words, it reinforces fue idea that a cultivar is most cornpetítive in only one dornaín."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"Landraceslvanetíes falling wíthin the sarue domaín are more likely to be similar in their genetic cornposition as cornpared to landraces/varietíes frorn dissimilar dornains. The logic behind is that they have been put under similar managernent condítions have been selected over time fo! adaptation. However, this hypolhesis needs lo be proved from laboratory analysis of sorne of the saruples frorn each domaín. If it proves tme, then there ís a strong case, from a conservation point ofview, for disaggregating genetic materials across agroecologícal domains. Nevertheless, this process still holds true where diversity deployrnent is the prime objective of the project."}]},{"head":"Implications of agroecological domains for PPB","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"The distribution oflandraces/vaneties in different domains is the result of farmers' experimentation with those landraces/vaneties over years. In other words, they are the \"best fit\" under farmers' rnanagement conditions. Therefore, researchers definítely need to know the characteristics of each dornain, as well as the specific traits of the landraces/vaneties in each domain and their distribution across dornains in order to make any intervention in the present system. The anaIysis of agroecological domains is worth the money and time invested in collecting and analyzing the information."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"Planning conservation strategies for landraces ldentifYing landraees that are grown in small areas by a limited number of farrners and devising ways and rneans of conserving them might seem to be a straightforward task for conserving endangered landraces. Sornetirnes, weighted diversity, as well, might be computed for facilitating Ihe decision-makíng process in choosing which landraces to focus on for conservation when there are numerous landraces falling in the endangered category. However, all these processes and steps consider the diversity oflandraces at the aggregatedllandscape (cornmuníty) level and thus ignore the influence of agroecological domains in deterrniníng the position oflandraees in different dornains."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"The need for micro-Ievel analysis emerges from the faet that landraces are conditioned over years by their continued growth and selection over time in specific dornains. As a result, Ihey have developed adaptive traits, wruch are uníque 10 landraces falling in that domain. Therefore, analysis of landrace diversity at the aggregated level fails 10 appreciate the position oflandraces in specifie dornains, which in faet might be harboring genes of irnportanl traits. Selecting landraces frorn an aggregated list rnight exclude, certaÍn strategically important landraces from conservation."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"PPB has been used as one rneans 10 conserve useful genes in landraces through crossing with modem vaneties. However, there could be number of landraces withín a domain that might require sorne forrn of conservation (through breeding and nonbreeding means). Understanding Ihe features of domains and the distribution oflandraces in them will facilitate decision rnakíng about selecting landraces for conservation. Failing to do this could result in selecting landraces with similar genetic traits for conservation (vía PPB) from jusI one or two domaÍns. This would lead lo the neglect of sorne and overrepresentation of olhers."}]},{"head":"Strategies for diversity deployment","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Diversity deployrnenl in simple terrn means \"províding farmers wilh options of genetie materials 10 choose frorn.\" The introduction ofnew genetic material results in temporal disequilibrium because of competition between existing and new genetic material. The competition is for space in farmers' fields, for farm labor, for capital inputs, and so on. As time elapses, Ihe new entrant finds its rightful ss. Rana el aL place in Ihe given environment. This is Ihe outcome of farmers constantly tryíng to rnaintain an equilibrium (meeting farmers' objectives) in terms ofstabilizing yield and production over time."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"The strategy for diversity deployment must begin by analyzing the distribution oflandraces/varieties across agroecological dornains. Once this is done, researchers would have a clear picture of each domain, aIong with the dístríbutíon of landraces/varíeties, and the dominance of certain cultivars against others would becorne evident Researchers would also come to know the reasons for this dominance. Only then could Ihey develop their strategy for diversíty deployrnent. In the absence of this ínformation, new genetic materials míght fit into domains where there is not much cornpetitíon."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"It could also happen that new genetic rnateríals compete with each other landraceslvarieties in similar domains, resulting in limited impact of diversity deployrnent."}]},{"head":"Justifying PPB","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"The conflict between breeding varíeties for wide adaptability or for ruche environments will perhaps go on. (Wide adaptability rneans Ihe dornain for which the suítability ofthe landrace/variety is large. Niche environment means the domain for the given landrace/varíety is limited.) In Ihe truest sense, wide adaptabilíty should encompass Ihe ability of a cultivar to be grown in several different domains and vice versa for the ruche environment. However, such is not the case."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"Whatever Ihe case, the proponents of PPB rnust bear in mind that the approach has to prove its worth in terms of chuming out farmer-acceptable varieties efficiently on such a scale that Ihe economic return on investrnent is positive. But this is possible only when researchers have a clear knowledge of the size and characteristics•ofthe dornains the new varíety will fit into. In addition, Ihey also need to know Ihe likely existing cultivar to be replaced Without this inforrnation, it would be rather difficult to estirnate the potential adoption ceiling ofPPB varietíes, which irnplíes that the estimation of economic returns at the household leve! ig difficult. This will becorne an increasingly important issue in the future, when enough time has elapsed between Ihe developrnent and adoptionldissemination of PPB varíeties and Ihe evaluation of their irnpact."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"Another important issue that can be addressed by analyzing agroecological domains is oríenting PPB programs towards \"poverty aIleviation\" and food securíty at the household leve!. Since resource-poor farmers rnainly own marginalland, Ihere is limited varietal choice. By conducting PPB programs using landraces from marginal environments, the chances of providing greater options in such environments is' increased, which would contríbute to food security, particularly in resource-poor households. Targeting PPB for equity ofbenefits for the resource-poor can also be justified aIong similar lines."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"Agroecological delineation using key informants/farmers from fue given cornmunity can be reliably done. The identified dornains and the associated varieties in each domain have 10 be verífied through a transect walk with the key informants. This exercise helps príorítize landraceslvaríeties in each domain based on Ihe number ofhouseholds growing them and Ihe area covered. Using lhis information, a selection oflandraces/varieties for PPB work could be made. Diversity deployment and conservatíon of certain landraces/varieties could also be planned using this information. The argurnents presented here clearly índicate the need to focus PPB irutíatives on marginal environments for which Ihere are no MVs, and where, al the same time, the majoríty oflhe resource-poor dwell. This exercise has to be conducted prior to initiating PPB work in a given area. Information required to delineate agroecological domains and associated landraces/varieties can easily be gathered using key informants at the vilIage leve!. It has been suggested that this exercise be incorporated as a component of PPB work."}]},{"head":"Listening to Farmers' Perceptions through Participatory Rice Varietal Selection: A Case Study in ViIlages in Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India Introduction","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":203,"text":"Decisions about the adoption oftechnology are conditional to farmers' perceptions ofthe performance of a new technology relative to that of the technology currently being practiced. Farmers may assess a new technology, such as an improved variety, in terms of a range of attributes, such as grain quality, straw yield, and inpu! requirements, in addition to grain yield (Traxler and Byerlee 1993). In Orissa, eastern India, farmers indicated preference not only for the visual appearance of rice grain, but also for attributes such as cooking quality, taste, keeping quality, and straw quality (Kshirsagar, Pandey, and Bellon 1997). If fimners perceive an improved variety to be inferior to traditional varieties in terms of one or more attributes, they are unlikely to adopt such a variety (Adesina andZinnah 1993, as cited by Kshirsagar, Pandey, andBellon 1997). Crop improvement could potentially benefit from farmers' assessments of the relative performance of different varieties under farmer management. Information on the traits desired by farmers and their knowledge of the production system could be invaluable in setting the goals of a breeding program, delineating the target environment, identifying the parents for breeding and defining the management treatment for breeding work (Sperling ･ ｾ ＠ al. 1996; Eyzaguirre and Iwanaga 1996)."},{"index":2,"size":479,"text":"Varietal preferences may differ, not only between socioeconomic groups bu! also by gender.In a farmer-participª1ory breeding (FPB) project on pearl millet in the Jodhpur district, Rajasthan, India, grain yield, early availability of grain, and the case ofharvesting by hand (lower paniele number and lower plant height) were the main considerations for making selections by women. For the men, yield and quality appeared 10 be a stronger eoneern (W' eltzien, Whitaker, and Anders 1996). WhiJe women have traditionally been seed selectors and managers of germplasm in low-input farrning systems, scientists have no! given enough attention to their local knowledge, eriteria for selection, and perceptions regarding new seeds untiJ recently, F or instance, the criteria for selecting seeds, practices of animal care and food processing, and the consequent preferences for different kinds of blending various food materials are useful starting points for building on women'g perspectives in particípatory research (Gupta et al. 1996). Another example is when high labor demands for manual tbreshing may create incentives for women to adopt vaneties that are easier to thresh (Adcsina and Forson 1995). Including women in the early evaluation of varieties ensures that new seeds can be adopted rapidly, Thus, men's and women's entena and preferences for rice vaneties should be well understood and considered in plant-breeding strategies, In March 1997, a farmer-participatory planl-breeding program for raínfed nce was developed at the Intemational Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in collaboration with the Indían Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), This project inc\\udes síx research siles representing different nce ecosystems in eastem India, The project is under the umbrella ofthe CGIAR's Systemwíde Initiative on Participatory Research and Gender Analysis. The goal of this iniliative is to develop, test, and refine methodologies of participatory research and gender analysis as they apply to Ihe development ofnew technologies in germplasm and natural resource management. This FPB projecl aims lo test the hypothesis that farmer particípation in rainfed nce breeding can help develop suilable vaneties more efficiently, It is also designed to identifY the stages in a breeding program where farmer ínterfacing is optimaL The project has two components: the first is a plant-breeding component, whích aíms to develop and evaluate a methodology for participatory improvement of rice for heterogeneous environments, and to produce and improve adoption of matenal suíting farmers' needs. The second is a socÍal-science component (including gender analysis) that aims (1) to characterize cropping systems, diversíty ofvanetíes grown, and the crop-management practices ofrice farmers, (2) to analyze male and female farmers' selection criteria and their reactions to a range of cultivars and breeding lines, and (3). to enhance the capacities of national agricultural research systems (NARS) in participatory research and gender analysis in plant breeding andrice vanetal selection (Courtoís et al. 2000), Thís paper focuses on farmers' selectíon cnteria and their reactions to a range of cultivars and breeding lines UIlder particÍpatory vanetal selection conducted on farmers' fields,"}]},{"head":"Characteristics of the villages","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":319,"text":"The results of the socioeconomic and gender analysÍs in the FPB project includes only two villages (table 1): Mungeshpur in the Faizabad district and Basalatpur in the Siddathnagar district, eastem Vttar Pradesh. These sites are among the research sites UIlder the FPB project. A similar study was conducted in the other FPB research sites in Onssa and Madhya Pradesh, Basalatpur represents favorable (but submergence prone) lowland, rainfed arcas, Mungeshpur represents shallow, submergence-prone areas that are favorably rainfed during years of low rainfalL Basalatpur and Mungeshpur have a rugher proportion of lowland fields (70% and 60%, respectively) with heavier soil and good water-holding capacity, The flow of natural resources like rainwater (field hydrological conditions) tbroughout the season has also had a major impact on vanetal selection in these villages, F armers in Mungeshpur have more access to supplementary irrigation, wruch enables them to diversífY into other crops, partÍCularly vegetables and fodder crops, Only one diesel pump exists ín Basalatpur and trus limits crop diversífication. The importance of livestock between the two villages also differs, Livestock in Mungeshpur is more importan! than in Basalatpur, In Mungeshpur, bullocks continue to be used for Jand preparation, and tbreshing is done manually, In contrast, land preparation and threshing in Basalatpur is mechanized with the use of tractors, The degree of market onentatíon is higher in Basalatpur (nearer the cíty) where more rice is sold, The majority ofthe farming households are owner-cultivators, and share cropping is oflimited importance. F emale labor participation in rice production is four times hígher than that of males in Basalatpur and three-fourths in Mungesphur. There is wide disparity in terms of access 10 education between men and women. In general, females have lower literacy rates than meno The differences in resource endowments, socioeconomic status, importance aflivestock, degree ofmarket orientation, gender roles and responsibilities in rice production, and family size may determine the choice of rice varieties/cultivars and agronomic management practices."}]},{"head":"Cropping systems","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Rice followed by wheat + mustard is the predominant cropping pattem in al! villages. In BasaIatpur, wheat and oilseed are grown mainly for domestic use, but rice is grown for consumption as welI as marketing. On the other hand, in Mungeshpur, rice 18 mainIy grown for consumption because oflow yields and low marketabIe surplus. Rice is followed by wheat + mustard, which are grown for both domestic consumption and sale. Land preparation for rice is started in June after the arrival afthe monsoon.  "}]},{"head":"The gender division of labor in rice production","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The majority of the respondents belong to the lower social class, with small-sized landholdings."},{"index":2,"size":273,"text":"Females are younger and have lower literacy rates, compared to males, and have over 20 years of farming experience. The extent of female participation in rice production is high in both villages. Sorne tasks in rice production and postharvest operations are gender specific. Land preparation and the application of chemicals are men's responsibilities in both villages (10% of fertilizer application is done by women in Basalatpur). In Mungeshpur, women from the lower social status dominate in the work of pulling seedlings (100%), transplanting (70%), weeding (80%), applying farrnyard manure (60%), harvesting (82%), and threshing (82%). In Basalatpur, more men than women participate in pulling seedlings and harvesting. Women do the transplanting of seedlings (100%) and most ofthe weeding (75%), with men doing most ofthe spraying (90%). Women are also mainly responsible for postharvest activities such as cleaning and selecting the seeds for the next season, storage, and processing rice into other food products for home consumption and for sale. They are the primary end-users of rice byproducts and biomass for livestock and other farm use. A village study in eastem India revealed that women from the lower castes provided 60% to 80% ofthe total labor input in rice production (Paris et al. 1996). Aside from their significant contributions in rice production, women also provide labor in non-rice crops, collect green animal fodder, and feed and tend Iivestock. Thus, men's and women'g preferences for specifíc traits in rice varieties may differ, based on gender-specific roles and responsibilities. With inereasing male migration lo cities, women are laking on more responsibilities as farm managers, aside from theír normal household and childcare responsibilities (Paris el aL 1996)."}]},{"head":"Rice varieties","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Varieties grown by ¡armers"},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"The rice varieties eurrently grown by farrners are shown in table 3. Traditional varieties are more cornrnon in Basalatpur than in Mungeshpur. Although modern varieties (MVs) show higher adoption rates in Mungeshpur, these varieties ofien suffer from submergenee, drought, and stress al reproduetive and ripening phases when the erop is planted late. Most farrners felt that traditional varieties are more tolerant to drought, submergenee, pests, and diseases, while MV s performed well under irrigated conditions. The majority of the farrners indieated that they felt that MVs needed better management lhan traditionaI varieties. Modero varieties need more labor, higher levels of fertilízer, and more irrigation, but more farmers prefer to grow MV s because of their higher yields.  "}]},{"head":"Topographical adaptations","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":200,"text":"Farrners generally match varieties wíth their environment. For rainfed rice, this means an adaptation to the hydrological conditions of their fields, Each field position in the topo-sequence corresponds to a risk of drought or submergence. The drought risk inercases frorn the bottom to the top of the topo-sequence, while submergence risk decreases along the same path, assocíated with progressively lower water depths and earlier recession of the water. This translates into different ideotypes for the different situations. Table 4 shows varietal diversity according to land type/topography. In Basalatpur, varieties such as Bengalia, Sarya, Oriswa, Kuwari Mashuri, Malwa, and Ghanbhanan are the major traditional rice cultivars grown in the uplands, and Kalamanak, Malasia, Motibaddam, and Malwa are the major varieties grown in the lowlands. Improved varieties, such as NDR-97, PNR-38 1 , and Sarju 52 are grown in the uplands by a few farrners, but the improved variety, Mashuri, occupied more area in the lowlands. In Mungeshpur, the cornrnon local varieties grown on upland fields are Ari, Bagri, 90 days, Sonia, Lalmati, Punjab, Lalbagra, Ashwani, lndrasan, and Bilaspuri. The improved varieties are Saket-4, NDR-80, and NDR-118 in upland and medium fields and Sarju 52, Mashuri, and dwarfMashuri mostly in lowland fields,"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"! FarmenJ In the eommunity I • Planting material$ & saed production -Olssemination I Farmet'$ In oth$l' communltfes I Note: Group ｉ ｾ ａ ､ ｶ ｡ ｮ ｣ ･ ､ ＠ fanners with good knowledge and skili in breeding. Group Ｒ ｾ ｆ ｡ ｮ ｮ ･ ｲ ｳ ＠ "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1.Community-based netwarklng diagram lar PPB and PVS "},{"text":" R.B. Rana, A. Subedi, D.K. Rijal, and P. Chaudhary .te with Local lnítlatives fot Bíodlversity Re.eatch and DeveJopment (LI-BlRO). B.R. 8thapit is with the Intemalional Plan' Genetíc Re.ources Institule, posted in Nepal. "},{"text":" plants selected each season is limited, depending on farmers' capacity for seed handling and the land assigned as a breeding plot. Therefore, the genetic variation in farmers' selections is usually narrow. Only Group 1 farmers are involved in the selection process, while field operations are done with the help of other farmers in the community.Observation test. Pure lines selected from the segregating material s are planted in observation test plots to check for adaptation and yield, with common local varieties used as local checks. Farmers compare the performance of new varieties/lines with the local check and select promising ones for further evaluation in yield trials by Group 2 farmers.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Number ofRice Varieties Tested and Selected from PVS Activities at Four Communities in the Mekong Delta Common Varieties Selected from PVS Activities at Four Communities in the Mekong Delta These varieties have made great contributions to tbe These varieties have made great contributions to tbe  "},{"text":"Number ofSegregating Populations Distributed and Selected by Four Communities from PPB Acthities in the Mekong Delta, by Year     Number of populations selected by generation   Number of populations selected by generation Community Nhul Ninh  F, 13 : F, 13 (F\" F\" F., F,) F 4 F, ... - i Farmers' selection Community Nhul NinhF, 13:F, 13(F\" F\" F., F,)F 4F,... -i Farmers' selection MyThanh  20  8  3 1  L246-10-1-B MyThanh20831L246-10-1-B Ke Sach  10  4  2 1  L246-7-3-B (SiC-1) L247-1•5-B (SiC-2) Ke Sach10421L246-7-3-B (SiC-1) L247-1•5-B (SiC-2) Long Thanh : 20  11  i   Long Thanh:2011i Total  63  36  5 2  Total633652 were interested in seleeting individual plants from segregating populations based on theír own were interested in seleeting individual plants from segregating populations based on theír own eriteria and under their own management conditions. Sorne of the farmer-selected varieties are now eriteria and under their own management conditions. Sorne of the farmer-selected varieties are now stable lines and are being tested in yield trials.    stable lines and are being tested in yield trials. L246-7-3-B, and L247-1-5-B, the two promising farmer se1ections and noted by farmers as SiC-l L246-7-3-B, and L247-1-5-B, the two promising farmer se1ections and noted by farmers as SiC-l (Soc Trang Selection, no. 1) and SiC-2 (Soc Trang Selection, no. 2) respectively, were purified by (Soc Trang Selection, no. 1) and SiC-2 (Soc Trang Selection, no. 2) respectively, were purified by  "},{"text":"table 1  ). Figure l shows participants ). Figure l shows participants  "},{"text":"Knowledge for Participatory Sweet-Potato Variety Selection in Garut, West Java, IndonesiaTable 1 . Selection Criteria and Rank of Sweet-Potato Varieties Rank 01 seleclion Criteria of selection Resulls (in arder) Rank 01 seleclionCriteria of selectionResulls (in arder)  Production Kinta, Toweko, Lemekuara, Umakmbi, Pipombi ProductionKinta, Toweko, Lemekuara, Umakmbi, Pipombi 11 Ski n color Toweko, Pipombi, Lemekuara, Umakmbi, Kinta 11Ski n colorToweko, Pipombi, Lemekuara, Umakmbi, Kinta 111 Root shape Umakmbi,Toweko, Kinta, Pipombi, Lemekuara 111Root shapeUmakmbi,Toweko, Kinta, Pipombi, Lemekuara IV Flesh color Toweko, Umakmbi, Lemekuara, Kinta, Pipombi IVFlesh colorToweko, Umakmbi, Lemekuara, Kinta, Pipombi V Unilonmily (shape and size) Umakmbi, Toweko, Pipombi, Lemekuara, Kinta VUnilonmily (shape and size)Umakmbi, Toweko, Pipombi, Lemekuara, Kinta VI Skin smoothness Toweko, Pipombi, Lemekuara, Kinta, Umakmbi VISkin smoothnessToweko, Pipombi, Lemekuara, Kinta, Umakmbi VII General acceptance Toweko, Umakmbi, Lemekuara, Pipombi, Kinta VIIGeneral acceptanceToweko, Umakmbi, Lemekuara, Pipombi, Kinta  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Farmers' Selections from the Irian Jaya Sweet-Potato Trial Ranking is inmeated on a scale from 1 lo 5, where ••••• indic.tes highly accept.ble and • inmeates I()w acceptabílity . Uniformity Skin UniformitySkin  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Yield of Varieties Tested and Fumers' Ranking for Marketabílity  Yield (Ton/Ha)  Yield (Ton/Ha) Marketable Not marketable MarketableNot marketable  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Yield ofVarieties Tested and Farmers' Ranking for ｍ ｡ ｾ ｫ ･ ｴ ｡ ｢ ｩ ｬ ｩ ｴ ｹ ＠ (Continued) Yield (Ton/Ha)  Yield (Ton/Ha) Marke!able No! marketable Marke!ableNo! marketable  "},{"text":"Table l . Agroecological Domains at Kachorwa Eco-Site   Production  Production Domaln 5011 type potentlal Cultlvated landraceslvarletles Domaln5011 typepotentlalCultlvated landraceslvarletles Ucha (bhadalya rice culli-vated on availability 01 water, good wlnter crops) Balaute \" sandy (ujar \" whitlsh) low (111) Mutmur, Sotwa, Sokan, Sara,., No modem varleties grawn, Ucha (bhadalya rice culli-vated on availability 01 water, good wlnter crops)Balaute \" sandy (ujar \" whitlsh)low (111)Mutmur, Sotwa, Sokan, Sara,., No modem varleties grawn, Samlal (Good erop 01 Domat\" Loam HIgh (1) Lalka larm, Nakhi sara, Sathl, Bhadaiya Samlal (Good erop 01Domat\" LoamHIgh (1)Lalka larm, Nakhi sara, Sathl, Bhadaiya bhadaiya rice and winter erops, aaghanl rice can be grown) Balaute domat \" sandy lcam (whltish and brown)  Basmatl, Khera, Aanga, Ujala laram, Sotwa, SOkan, Dudhi sara, Kamod, Madhumala, Basmati, Karma ... (China 4, Philips, Jiri, 1V, Chandina, bhadaiya rice and winter erops, aaghanl rice can be grown)Balaute domat \" sandy lcam (whltish and brown)Basmatl, Khera, Aanga, Ujala laram, Sotwa, SOkan, Dudhi sara, Kamod, Madhumala, Basmati, Karma ... (China 4, Philips, Jiri, 1V, Chandina,    Sabetri, .. ) -Modern varieties Sabetri, .. ) -Modern varieties Nicha/Khalar (Good erap Matiyar \" Clay1 Hlgh (11) Ba5matl, Lajhl, Mansara, Karma, Balsar, Nicha/Khalar (Good erapMatiyar \" Clay1Hlgh (11)Ba5matl, Lajhl, Mansara, Karma, Balsar, of aaghani rice and medlum winter crops) (Piyar\" Yellowi5h)  Rat ranl, Faram, Kamod, Madhumala (Mansula, Sabetri, Pankaj, Nat masula, of aaghani rice and medlum winter crops)(Piyar\" Yellowi5h)Rat ranl, Faram, Kamod, Madhumala (Mansula, Sabetri, Pankaj, Nat masula,    Jaya, K, Mansuli ... )-Modern varieties Jaya, K, Mansuli ... )-Modern varieties PokharllMan (can only graw aaghanl rice) Matiyar \" Clay? (kalolkariya = black) Low (IV) Bhati, Megraj, SilahouL No modern varieties grown. PokharllMan (can only graw aaghanl rice)Matiyar \" Clay? (kalolkariya = black)Low (IV)Bhati, Megraj, SilahouL No modern varieties grown. Source: Chaudhary (2000).    Source: Chaudhary (2000).  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Agroecological Domaln! at Begnas Eco-Site  Slzeof  Slzeof Domains doma!n Productivity Cuitivated landraceslvarletles Domainsdoma!nProductivity Cuitivated landraceslvarletles  "},{"text":"Thelma R. Paris andJoyce Luis are with the Social Sciences Division and Surapong Sarkarung is in P!ant Breeding. Genetics & Bto- chem ;stry at lhe [ntem.tional Rice Research Institute (IRRIJ. Los Bailos. Phi[ippines. Abha Singh. Han Nalh Singh, Qrnk.r Nalh Singh. aod Sanjay Singh are with Narendr. Dev. Vniversity and Agricultural Technology (NOVA T). Kumarganj, Faiz.had. eastem Vtta, Pradesh, Indía. Ram Kathin Singh i, at IRRI's New Delhi Office.  "},{"text":"Table 1 . VilIage Characteristics, Basalatpur (Siddathnagar District) and Mungeshpur (Faizabad District),India, 1997     Agroecology Basalatpur. Siddathnagar Mungeshpur, Faizabad AgroecologyBasalatpur. SiddathnagarMungeshpur, Faizabad   Shallow, submergence-prone, favorable Shallow, submergence-prone, favorable  Favorable lowland rainled during years of low rainlall Favorable lowlandrainled during years of low rainlall Total no. of households 140 133 Total no. of households140133 Sample size for surveys 50 50 Sample size for surveys5050 No. of male farmers 30 30 No. of male farmers3030 No. 01 lemale farmers 20 20 No. 01 lemale farmers2020 Land types (%)   Land types (%) Lowland 70% 60% Lowland70%60% Mediumland O 20% MediumlandO20% Upland 30% 20% Upland30%20% Irrígation source (private pump) 1% 10% Irrígation source (private pump)1%10% Importance 01 livestock Low High Importance 01 livestockLowHigh Degree 01 markel orientallon High  Degree 01 markel orientallonHigh  "},{"text":" Transplanting and broadcasting are done in luIy; weeding, in August; and harvesting and threshing, in Oclober to December. During the rabi (dry) season from November to April, crops such as wheat + mustard, peas, grams, lentils, berseem as green fodder, and vegetables are grown. A few farmers, who have their own irrigalion sources, grow crops like mung, maize, vegetables, and green fodder during the zaid season (late April to lune) in Mungeshpur. Growing crops during the rabi and zaid seasons i5 not common in Basalatpur because of the lack of irrigation facilities.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Socioeconomic Characteristics of Sample Households, 1997 Characteristics Basalatpur, Siddathnagar Mungeshpur, Faizabad CharacteristicsBasalatpur, SiddathnagarMungeshpur, Faizabad Caste composition ('lo 01 households)   Caste composition ('lo 01 households) Upper caste 6% 9% Upper caste6%9% Backward caste 18% 49% Backward caste18%49% Scheduled caste 21% 42% Scheduled caste21%42% Minorily 55% O Minorily55%O Area by tenure ('lo 01 households))   Area by tenure ('lo 01 households)) Share-in 3% O Share-in3%O Share-out O 1% Share-outO1% Owner-cultivated 97% 99% Owner-cultivated97%99% Labor inputs in rice (dayslha)   Labor inputs in rice (dayslha) Male farmers 25 dayslha (19) 45 dayslha (25) Male farmers25 dayslha (19)45 dayslha (25) Female famners 105 dayslha (81) 130 dayslha (75) Female famners105 dayslha (81)130 dayslha (75) Categories ollarmers (%)   Categories ollarmers (%) Marginal «1 ha) 68% 80% Marginal «1 ha)68%80% Small (1-2 ha) 24% 16% Small (1-2 ha)24%16% Large ( >2 ha) 8% 4% Large ( >2 ha)8%4% Ave. operational size 1.00 ha 0.70 ha Ave. operational size1.00 ha0.70 ha Literacy rates (%)   Literacy rates (%) Male head 72% 51% Male head72%51% Female head 40% 14% Female head40%14% Average family size 7 7 Average family size77 Note: Figures   Note: Figures  "},{"text":"in parentheses are percentages oftotal mate and femate labor inputs in rice production.   "},{"text":"Table 3 . Popular Rice Varieties Grown by Farmers According to Land Type Landtype Variety Basalatpur Mungeshpur LandtypeVarietyBasalatpurMungeshpur Uplandlmidland Traditional Bengalía. Sarya, Kuwan Ari. Bagrí, Balbagra, Chaini UplandlmidlandTraditionalBengalía. Sarya, KuwanAri. Bagrí, Balbagra, Chaini   Mashurí, Oríswa, Malwa  Mashurí, Oríswa, Malwa  "}],"sieverID":"29d0f9bd-7ce0-416f-959f-32d574b7a66c","abstract":"Crop improvement has been one of lhe strong, continuous programs in the Mekong Delta for major crops, especially rice. However, most breedíng programs have been set and desígned by breedors, neglecting the role of users: farmers and farming communities. Farmers have been Ibe passive users, receiving finishcd breeding lines/varieties for their production. The dissemination process of\"technology tr.nsfer\" has becn very slow and costly for both beeeders and farmers.The USe ofparticipatory approaehes in crop improvement have ensured the involvement offarmers in the whole process or, at least, in the evaluation process. This has resulted in • better understanding and acceptability of new erop varieties generated through the breeding programo C,n Tho University, as the leading researeh institution for adapting participatory approaches to rice improvemenl, started on-farm breeding programs as early as 1975, afterthe war, by sending out their staff and students lO work elosely with farmers on erop-improvemen! programs. In !994, with Ibe inception of Ibe Cornmunity-Based Biodiversity Developmenl and Conservation (CBDC) project, participalory plant-breeding (PPB) and panicipatory varietal-selection (PVS) approaches were introduced as melhods lO develop .nd identiry erop vari.ties specific lo ruche enyironmen!s and farmers' preferences. These partieipatory approaches are also being used in one oflhe study ,ites, Tra Cu, of the global in situ conservation project implemented in Vietoam in collaboration with Ihe lntern.tional Planl Genetíe Resourees Institute (IPGRI). The resul! has becn very positive, wíth many promising erop varieties selecled from these programs and used in larger-scale production. Farmers have becn successfui in segregating material seleclion and many farmers have beeome well known lhrough Ibese activitios.Participatory approaches are very important for erop improvement at the cornmunity level in Vietnam. PPB and PVS approaches are the key tool for erop improvement. Suceessful results from farmer selections have strongly proven thal Ibese approaches are right. This experienee has been very useful for nationa! crop-improvemenl programs."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"021ae7595c56088431304b153f7ec322","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e7caa9e8-4311-49f1-8d1e-489da9ed0a9c/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Seventy three of these students are currently enrolled for BSc/MSc studies at Addis Ababa, Haramaya, Hawassa, Jimma and Mekelle Universities. These students are drawn from the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Alage ATVET, and the Bureaus and Offices of Agriculture and Rural Development in the Regions and Woredas IPMS operates. Female candidates make up about 44 % of the student pool. IPMS also provided support to 13 students (3 female) to undertake their MSc thesis research on the priority commodities and issues important to our Pilot Learning Woredas. Moreover, 17 BSc/DVM students (5 female) from various universities were also supported to undertake short-term summer attachment programs."},{"index":2,"size":285,"text":"Thirty six of the students are registered in MSc programs where thesis work is part of a requirement. Past experiences indicate limited linkage between the thesis research of postgraduate students in addressing real problems and needs of farming communities and the agricultural sector. As a result, most thesis studies have been geared toward fulfilling academic interests of the 2 IPMS on the move... The IPMS project has embraced the innovation systems perspective in implementing its activities with a focus on action research involving value chain approaches to commodities and processes. The IPMS project also implements its research activities through partnerships with a number of regional, national and international agricultural research institutions and universities with the objective of enhancing the contributions of research to development efforts. The project considers innovative human capacity development at all levels as the key to sustainable development.  As a practical model of the mainstreaming process, gender and HIV/AIDS action plans were developed by partners around priority agricultural commodities. For example in Mieso, participants identified the gender dimensions in production, processing, post-harvest handling and marketing phases of commodities such as small ruminants, sesame, dairy, haricot bean, and cattle fattening. The access and control of commodities; decisions on marketing, financial resources, transfer of improved technologies and inputs at the household level were analyzed in light of associated gender and HIV issues. This process enabled partner organizations and IPMS to collaboratively identify potential areas of cooperation to mainstream gender to equitably benefit men and women farmers from development gains. In addition, participants analyzed HIV/AIDS related vulnerability contexts for men and women farmers -particularly in their endeavor to adopt agricultural innovations. Similar workshops will be organized for Fogera and Ada'a PLWs in the next quarter."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"The provision of enhanced institutional support services, in particular the supply of improved inputs, is key to the process of transformation of subsistence agriculture into a market-oriented economic sector. IPMS therefore conducted a study on the Ethiopian agricultural input supply service, which focused on the historical development, the current status and a critical evaluation of the service. Results were presented at a symposium titled Seed-fertilizer Technology, Cereal Productivity and Pro-Poor Growth in Africa: Time for New Thinking at the 26 th Triennial Conference of the International Association of Agricultural Economics (IAAE) in Gold Coast, Australia, from August 12 th to 18t h , 2006."},{"index":4,"size":97,"text":"The paper focused specially on the post liberalization era (1991 to date), evaluating how and if liberalization policies have resulted in improved institutional service, and whether the involvement of the private sector has increased as a result of the reforms. Results were based on analysis of information collected through Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) technique in the eight IPMS Pilot Learning Woredas (PLW) in Oromia, Amhara, Tigray and SNNPR. Particular attention is given to innovations in the institutional support services in line with the government's strategy for increased involvement of the private sector in delivering these support services."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"We find that considerable variations exist in the input supply and rural finance services among the PLWs and Regions. The role of the OoARD in Market orientation in action..."}]},{"head":"Input Supply and Rural Finance","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"producing, supplying and distributing inputs varied considerably. Cooperatives and unions have become involved in the distribution of seed and fertilizers in some of the PLWs, however the distribution of most livestock and natural resource management related inputs are still in the hands of the OoARD. Involvement of the private sector in supplying inputs is very limited. At present, we find that in general the input supply system is characterized by the demand for inputs being higher than the supply. The gap between demand and supply is especially acute for improved seeds/ breeds and planting materials. Timely arrival of the available improved seeds was another major concern of farmers."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"The OoARD is still a major player in financing agricultural inputs on credit to small farmers, however cooperatives and Unions as well as Micro Finance Institutions (MFI) are starting to play more important roles. In all Regions, MFIs are involved in financing agricultural inputs which are not linked to the OoARD (these inputs are referred to as \"nonextension inputs\" as compared to \"extension inputs\"). In Tigray and Amhara Regions, MFIs are also involved in the financing of \"extension\" inputs. The rural financial services system is generally characterized by demand outstripping supply."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"We also find that liberalization reforms of input markets have not gone far enough in improving the competitiveness of the input supply market and meeting input supply demands. The involvement of the private sector in the input supply market remains limited. This points to a need for institutional strategies to provide incentives for the involvement of the private sector and the development of an improved, competitive, and fair environment that encourages such participation."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"Several interesting innovations in agricultural input supply are emerging. These include primary cooperatives and unions taking responsibility of crop input supply away from OoARD; fertilizer importation and distribution by farmer cooperatives and their unions; farmer-to-farmer supply of seeds, seedlings and planting materials; sub-contracting the manufacture of farm equipment to small-scale private manufacturers; and the emergence of private service providers. (Continued on the next page)"},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"IPMS is placing considerable emphasis on developing private sector involvement in input supply and marketing in Pilot Learning Woredas of the Project. Such development includes capacity building, provision of credit, and technical assistance."},{"index":6,"size":42,"text":"One of the focus areas of the project is genetic improvement. In areas where artificial insemination services are not readilyavailable, interested individuals can enhance the genetic merit of their cattle by utilizing alternative methods such as securing the services of bull stations."},{"index":7,"size":117,"text":"To achieve the goal, IPMS purchased 100% Holstein Friesian improved breed bulls from Holetta Cattle Improvement Station and identified two farmers willing to participate in a bull station service to the local community. The cost of an 11-month old bulls is about Birr 1,800 per animal. Each farmer paid a down payment of Birr 400. The current bull service at Godino is Birr 20 per mating and about 50 mating per bull are expected in a given year. This will result in a gross annual income of about Birr 1,000 per bull. When the The effect of sub-contracting private manufacturers to produce farm equipment has been quite effective in alleviating the shortage of supply of such inputs."},{"index":8,"size":52,"text":"We recommend that these innovations and their evolution be studied in more detail to capture the lessons and generate knowledge to scale the innovations up and out. Detailed assessment is also required to measure the impact of the innovations. We also believe that the involvement of the public Market orientation in action..."},{"index":9,"size":51,"text":"Privately-owned bull station service started in Ada'a Woreda... bulls get older, they will be castrated and fattened for the slaughter market and will fetch about Birr 5,000 per animal. The estimated payback period (or return of the investment) is less than 18 months depending on the management of the bull owner."},{"index":10,"size":38,"text":"The services offered by IPMS, Addis Ababa University veterinary faculty and the Woreda extension department are training, facilitating linkages among farmers who want the bull station service and the service providers, technical supervision, and supply of current information."},{"index":11,"size":47,"text":"Commitment from the bull owners is provision for mating, breeding bull management and controlled breeding to avoid excessive genetic dilution of indigenous breed while the clients who seek the bull station service are responsible for detecting and reporting proper heat period and proper maintenance of serviced cows."}]},{"head":"(Contributed by Hailu Gudeta and Nigatu Alemayehu)","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"sector in the input supply system and possible negative consequences on the emergence and development of the private sector deserves serious attention."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"(Contributed by Dr. Berhanu Gebremedhin, Dirk Hoekstra and Dr. Azage Tegegne)."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Someone's sitting in the shade today because someone planted a tree a long time ago"}]},{"head":"Warren Buffett","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The livestock sector accounts for about 40% of Ethiopia's agricultural gross domestic product (GPD)."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"Livestock production in the country is, however, subsistence-oriented and based on traditional technologies. The economic contribution of the livestock sector can be improved substantially if the sector is better integrated into the market economy and improved technologies and practices are adopted. The formulation of strategies and policies aimed at facilitating such transformation of the subsistence nature of livestock production into market orientation requires a good understanding of livestock market in Ethiopia. Hence, the IPMS project in collaboration with regional research and development partners initiated live animals sheep and goats) marketing research across its eight Pilot Learning Woredas (PLWs). The rapid market appraisal (RMA) phase of the marketing research has been completed."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"The study followed the market chain approach and attempted to evaluate the activities of actors along the chain. It assessed business development support services in input supply, extension service, credit supply, transport, and market information. Data was collected through discussions with key informants (producers and traders), key observants (researchers and experts), and review of secondary sources. Extensive discussions were held with experts at the Woreda Offices of Agriculture and Rural Development (OoARD), Woreda Offices of Smallscale and Micro-enterprises, Trade and Industry (OoSMETI), researchers at the Regional Agricultural Research Institutes (RARIs), and experts at the regional agricultural marketing promotion agencies or departments. Discussions were also held with several managers of food processing plants and export abattoirs."},{"index":4,"size":92,"text":"We find that producers sell animals to generate cash income to cover various incidental households expenses. In many of the PLWS, producers sell livestock to fill seasonal household food deficits. Other reasons for selling animals include cash needs to cover expenses for clothing, school fees, health services and medicine, and to cover funds needed for customary social events (e.g. wedding, baptism etc.). There is little prior marketing arrangement between sellers and buyers. Producers offer their livestock for sale during market days and sell to the Live Animals Marketing in Four Regional States..."},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"Markets & institutional support..."},{"index":6,"size":118,"text":"highest \"bidder\". In several instances, livestock are trekked back if the prices are not attractive enough to sellers. Price negotiations are personal (between seller and buyer) and price discovery is often not easy. The medium of exchange is almost exclusively cash on the spot. In some key livestock markets (e.g. Mieso, and Ada'a) brokers replace producers in price negotiation with buyers. Farmers' views about the role of brokers vary from place to place. While producers are positive about the role and involvement of brokers in the livestock market in some market places (e.g. Mieso), broker involvement is seriously resented in others (e.g. Ada'a). For producers, the most frequently used market places are the Woreda town or Kebele markets."},{"index":7,"size":106,"text":"Several market channels are used in the exchange process. Producer-consumer, producer-assemblerwholesaler-retailer-consumer, producer-assemblerretailer-consumer, producer-wholesaler-processor, producer-processor are examples of the livestock marketing channels. The direct producer-consumer channel accounts for a substantial proportion of the transaction. Although livestock production is basically subsistence-oriented, there is an emerging market-orientation across all the PLWs. The OoARD in each of the PLWs has fattening extension programs. The willingness of farmers to be involved in fattening extension appears to be on the rise. However, the fattening extension programs are faced with a number of problems, most notably inadequate credit funds, and lack of fattening stock supply in the market. (Continued on the next page.)"},{"index":8,"size":51,"text":"In order to improve the livelihood of dairy farmers in some of the IPMS Woredas, small scale dairy processing has started, usually with the help of the Woreda Cooperative Offices. A rapid assessment of this intervention was made recently in Alamata Woreda to see if such processing is in fact economical."},{"index":9,"size":210,"text":"About one year ago farmers in Alamata town got together with the help of the Cooperative Office to start a shop/ milk processing facility for dairy farmers. The equipment provided (partly as a gift and partly as a loan) included a manual cream separator, an electric butter churner and a freezer to keep some of the products. After a year about 90 farmers have joined the cooperative, with an average daily volume of milk of around 100 liters in total. The cooperative buys the milk at Birr 3 per liter from its members. All the milk passes through the cream separator and about 90 liters of skimmed milk is left and sold daily to local hotels and restaurants which are frequented by truckers and bus drivers to and from Mekelle, the regional capital. The quality IPMS on the move... Markets & institutional support... So what do you think? Is it economical to process this milk? Would the cooperative be able to pay for the investment required? Is there a dividend payment from the participating farmers? These are the types of questions that should be asked and addressed by the cooperative and anyone else engaging in such endeavors. After all that is what we mean by market-oriented agriculture and entrepreneurship development."},{"index":10,"size":10,"text":"(Contributed by Dr. Gebreyohannes Berhane, Abraham Gebrehiwot and Dirk Hoekstra)"},{"index":11,"size":5,"text":"Dairy processing -Does it pay?"},{"index":12,"size":98,"text":"Other important constraints are feed supply and animal diseases. In general we find that constraints to increase market participation of livestock producers are related more with production than marketing. Interventions to increase the supply are urgently needed to raise market participation of livestock producers. Next, improving access to market information to increase the producers individual and collective bargaining power should receive atten-tion. Possibilities for contract fattening should also be explored. In the export-oriented markets, a mismatch between the quality of animals offered for sale and requirements of the export market is another major problem that deserves closer attention."},{"index":13,"size":8,"text":"(Contributed by Dr. Berhanu Gebremedhin and Dirk Hoekstra)"},{"index":14,"size":10,"text":"Market orientation in action... Lake Tana Fish Marketing System Study..."},{"index":15,"size":37,"text":"An IPMS initiated study on fish marketing systems took place in June 2006 by a team from the Fisheries Research Unit on Lake Tana, Fogera Woreda Office of Agricultural and Rural Development (WoARD) and the WorldFish Center."},{"index":16,"size":50,"text":"This study came about as a result of a participatory rural appraisal done in Fogera Woreda which identified fishery as a potential marketable commodity. Hence, IPMS asked researchers from the above entities to study the marketing of frozen fish sourced from Lake Tana -focusing particularly on the Fogera Woreda ."},{"index":17,"size":16,"text":"The team's findings indicate that the Ethiopian market for frozen fish is small but growing rapidly."},{"index":18,"size":37,"text":"The market is heavily concentrated in Addis Ababa and urban areas near the production zones. Day-today and seasonal variations are extremely marked, reflecting uneven supply patterns and high demand on Christian fasting days and during fasting months."},{"index":19,"size":29,"text":"The main products are frozen fillets of tilapia, Nile perch, catfish and barbus. Lake Tana's importance in this trade is growing but a number of constraints were noted, including:"},{"index":20,"size":76,"text":" Lake Tana fish is relatively expensive compared to other sources of fish  Limited lakeside access and utilities restrict the points at which fish can be landed, contributing to relatively high costs for landed fish  The distance to Addis Ababa makes this a more expensive source of fish than some other lakes and adds risk of spoilage, and  Fish from Lake Tana is said to have an off-smell that impacts its reputation negatively."},{"index":21,"size":33,"text":"Current instability in trading relationships and fishing activity, combined with heightened competition, suggests that margins are relatively low. Improved organisation among fishermen and traders, including the use of contracts, would enhance market development."},{"index":22,"size":44,"text":"The number of market participants also indicate capital constraints in making investments such as large cold storage facilities and refrigerated transport. However, apparently low margins in the current trading system suggest that very careful analysis of the returns to such investments would be needed."},{"index":23,"size":240,"text":"In Fogera Woreda, the frozen fish marketing system does not support many livelihoods. The team's recommendations, however, focus on improvements that would have wider livelihood benefits elsewhere on Lake Tana and in other fishing areas such as: In addition, the study team briefly reviewed the production and marketing potential for dried catfish produced in natural seasonal ponds (flooded by lake waters). This trade is growing rapidly. The activity is a very important seasonal source of livelihood for thousands of people, including women. The product is less perishable and thus is particularly well adapted to relatively remote places. The team recommends that a similar study focused on an improved understanding of the marketing system be carried out for dried catfish, with a view to identifying opportunities to improve / expand livelihoods. Milk is collected from the station by the Cooperative twice a day with a low cost transport vehicle. For this service the Cooperative charges Birr 0.10 per liter of milk, this is deducted from the purchase price. On average 3,000 liters of milk is collected per month resulting in a transport income of Birr 300 per month for the Cooperative. The Cooperative does not think this is sufficient to cover their transport cost and want larger quantities of milk to be collected. The OoARD with the help of the project is trying to address this request, amongst others by increasing the number of cross-bred animals (see the bull station article)."}]},{"head":"(Contributed by Nigatu Alemayehu and Dirk Hoekstra)","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Farmers in Ude PA in Ada'a Woreda have been engaged in dairy production for some time. The IPMS project has been engaged in promoting onion production and marketing in the Fogera PLW."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"In 2005 it started addressing two key problems identified during the initial PRA i.e. constraints in the supply of good quality seeds and problems in marketing of onions."},{"index":3,"size":250,"text":"The experiences in the past couple of years indicate that the production of onion in Fogera is skewed towards improved varieties -namely Adama Red and Red Bombay varieties. These varieties are grown using seeds which can cost up to Birr 200 per kg, which is expensive for most farmers. The seeds were/are supplied through the governmental input supply channels. Problems with timely availability, poor viability, difficulties in purchasing smaller quantities for small farmers are all challenges associated with onion seeds supply. In 2005, experience sharing visits were organized to Adet research center and to private seed farmers in Zeway for farmers and extension staff to learn about the production of onion seeds. Seven volunteer farmers were then selected to carry out action research on onion seed production. Three of the farmers decided to go for bulb-to-seed while four farmers decided to do seed-bulb-seed production. This year the bulb-seed producers have harvested 200 kg of seeds per quarter of a hectare. The seeds were in high demand and have already been sold successfully to local farmers in the area. Meanwhile attempts are being made to secure minimum certification in collaboration with the Amhara Regional Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development (BoARD) Inputs Department and Amhara Region Agricultural Research Institute, who visited the farmers during the flowering stage. The locally produced, certified seeds will have a lower cost and will have easier accessibility, thus providing a positive push for promoting onion production in the area. The project will continue monitoring the developments."},{"index":4,"size":148,"text":"Market forums were organized in 2005 with wholesalers, women entrepreneurs, unions and farmers irrigation cooperatives. As a direct output of this effort, marketing agreements were signed between a wholesaler and a farmers' cooperative. The results of this particular arrangement were less than satisfactory but valuable lessons were learned by everyone involved regarding the value of proper contract management and enforcement issues. In 2006, IPMS focused on providing market information by facilitating a rapid market survey by the Woreda marketing expert. About 40 vegetable traders outside Fogera (75% from Mekelle, Adigrat and Shire) were linked to rural assemblers, cooperatives, and traders in Fogera. A feedback meeting was organized in Fogera by IPMS, including the outside traders. The discussions revealed that traders put excess supply/poor quality and the promotion of personal gains (commissions) at the expense of cooperatives by some cooperative leaders, at the top of their list of challenges."},{"index":5,"size":83,"text":"However, even with such challenges, both farmers and traders applauded the market linkage arrangements in 2006. To tackle the marketing excess supply and quality problems, the project distributed brochures on post harvesting handling of onions and facilitated training to four primary cooperatives on onion production. Particular emphasis was paid to creating increased understanding of scheduled planting to control the supply pattern; efforts to improve post-harvest handling and the use of ground water to stagger planting. The project will continue to monitor these developments."},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"(Contributed by Yirgalem Assegid, Dr. Azage Tegegne, Dirk Hoekstra, & Teshome Derso)"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Innovat ive Milk Marketing Arr angements in Ude Peas ant As sociat ion 9  Lessons & experie nces in onion input /output marketing 10  The Gender Dimensio n of Info rmation Networking 11  Upcoming Events and New Ad ditions to the IPMS Team 12 IN THIS ISSUE The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) in collaboration with IPMS organized a training on Agricultural Water Management for improving productivity of smallholder farming. The training was held in Bahir Dar from 21 st -31 st August and was focused on improving the capacity of agricultural staff from the project's Pilot Learning Woreda. Participants in the training also included staff from Regional and Federal bureaus of agriculture and selected Agricultural Technical & Vocational Education Training Centres (ATVET) colleges. The training focused on five specific areas. These were (1) Watershed management, (2) Water harvesting, (3) Soil-crops-water relationships, (4) Surface and Human resources capacity building is a key component of market-oriented agricultural development. In 2005 and 2006, IPMS has sponsored 103 students for BSc and MSc studies. "},{"text":"( Contributed by Dr. Azage Tegegne) IWMI Provided Short-Term Training on Agricultural Water Management drip irrigation methods, and (5) Pumps for small scale irrigation. Dr. Seleshi Bekele and Philippe Lempérière of IWMI Addis Ababa and Dr Taffa Tulu developed the modules and delivered the training to twenty participants in total. Although most of the courses were given under the form of conventional classroom sessions, practical exercises and case study analysis put participants in a position where they had to apply what they learned to carry out a job instead of being passive recipients of information. Questions and comments posed by participants will enable IWMI to improve the training modules before the final publication version which will be made available to educational institutions and our Pilot Learning Woreda staff. (Contributed by Dr. Sileshi Bekele)Mainstreaming HIV/AIDS issues in IPMS...Addressing HIV/AIDS issues in IPMS PLWsIPMS Ethiopia actively works to mainstream Gender and HIV/AIDS into its project activities. In line with this mainstreaming process the project has:Carried out detailed baseline surveys on gender and HIV/AIDS in all PLWs, and  Held a national workshop to discuss these issues with our partners. "},{"text":" control at the time of purchase by the cooperative results in better quality (skimmed) milk, for which these customers pay the cooperative Birr 3.30 per liter. From the separated cream the cooperative produces about 4.5 kg of butter per day which is sold at Birr 35 per kg. Customers are registered on a waiting list since demand outstrips supply! For the purchase, payment, processing and sale of the dairy products, the cooperative rents a shop which costs them Birr 70 per month. They also pay about Birr 50 per month for electricity and water. They employ 3 young ladies to handle all the activities and each one of them is paid Birr 110/month. "},{"text":" Improving the quality of frozen fish  Strengthening fisher groups and their role in credit and inputs, marketing, information and resource management  Market information  Expanding the product range  Exploring the potential for sustainable fishing of river barbus, and  Strengthening capacity in Government for participatory approaches and an improved understanding of markets. "},{"text":"( Contributed by Dr. Ann Gordon of WorldFish) Market orientation in action... Innovative Milk Marketing Arrangements in Ude Peasant Association producers. After several meetings, the Ude farmers agreed to bring their milk to a milk collection point near the main road. This was done in September 2005. The graph below shows the supply of and the number of suppliers since then. "},{"text":" Fig. Total milk supplied and average number of milk suppliers, Ude Milk Collection Station 2005/06 "},{"text":" Volume 1, Issue 4 -Sept. 2006 Innovative human capacity development... IPMS project sponsors over 100 BSc/MSc students… IPMS project sponsors over 100 BSc/MSc students… universities and the students. The IPMS project universities and the students. The IPMS project attempts to fill up this gap by following an attempts to fill up this gap by following an innovative capacity development approach which innovative capacity development approach which links the thesis work of our sponsored fellowship links the thesis work of our sponsored fellowship students with actual, current researchable issues in students with actual, current researchable issues in the PLWs. Students are required to undertake their the PLWs. Students are required to undertake their thesis research on the priority commodities and thesis research on the priority commodities and problems associated with them in their respective problems associated with them in their respective Pilot Learning Woredas. The researchable problems Pilot Learning Woredas. The researchable problems were identified earlier in a participatory manner by were identified earlier in a participatory manner by involving Woreda experts, research institutions, involving Woreda experts, research institutions, TVET leaders, farming communities, traders, TVET leaders, farming communities, traders, exporters, and other private sector actors in exporters, and other private sector actors in agricultural development. agricultural development.  "},{"text":"law enforcement bodies. The workshops focus on developing action plans for mainstreaming gender and HIV/AIDS issues in all IPMS activities including:  Enhancing understanding of partners on the dynamics of gender and HIV/AIDS specific to each PLW,   rural development actors particularly development rural development actors particularly development  agents, Women's Affairs Offices and HIV/AIDS agents, Women's Affairs Offices and HIV/AIDS  Prevention & Control Secretariat offices, community Prevention & Control Secretariat offices, community  conversation facilitators, youth and women conversation facilitators, youth and women  association leaders and anti-HIV clubs need skills association leaders and anti-HIV clubs need skills  training and strong networking to help the rural training and strong networking to help the rural  communities cope with impacts and effects of HIV/ communities cope with impacts and effects of HIV/  AIDS and gender based marginalization. AIDS and gender based marginalization. To further facilitate the mainstreaming process at To further facilitate the mainstreaming process at grass root level, Gender and HIV/AIDS Action grass root level, Gender and HIV/AIDS Action Planning Workshops are being conducted in all Planning Workshops are being conducted in all PLWs. Between November 2005 and August 2006, PLWs. Between November 2005 and August 2006, such workshops were organized in Atsbi, Alamata, such workshops were organized in Atsbi, Alamata, Alaba, Dale, Mieso and Metema PLWs. Partners Alaba, Dale, Mieso and Metema PLWs. Partners involved in these workshops include Offices of involved in these workshops include Offices of Agriculture and Rural Development at PLW and Agriculture and Rural Development at PLW and Regional-levels, Women Affairs Offices, HIV/AIDS Regional-levels, Women Affairs Offices, HIV/AIDS Controlling and Prevention Secretariat Offices, Controlling and Prevention Secretariat Offices, community conversation group representatives, anti community conversation group representatives, anti -AIDS clubs, youth and women association -AIDS clubs, youth and women association representatives, Woreda administration and cabinet representatives, Woreda administration and cabinet members, religious leaders, PA representatives, members, religious leaders, PA representatives, PLW Representatives and  Exploring ways for better mainstreaming based PLW Representatives and  Exploring ways for better mainstreaming based  on experiences gained, on experiences gained,  Introducing necessary actions into IPMS' work Introducing necessary actions into IPMS' work  plan to reduce HIV/AIDS vulnerability and plan to reduce HIV/AIDS vulnerability and  ensure gender equality during and beyond IPMS ensure gender equality during and beyond IPMS  interventions, interventions,  Sensitizing and capacitating Woreda Advisory Sensitizing and capacitating Woreda Advisory  and Learning Committee members to and Learning Committee members to  mainstreaming gender and HIV/AIDS in all mainstreaming gender and HIV/AIDS in all  sectors, and sectors, and  Strengthening networking among actors Strengthening networking among actors  working on Gender and HIV/AIDS. working on Gender and HIV/AIDS. Participants accentuate the need to strengthen Participants accentuate the need to strengthen capacity on gender and HIV/AIDS issues and the capacity on gender and HIV/AIDS issues and the need to assist sector offices to institutionalize need to assist sector offices to institutionalize gender equality and HIV/AIDS impact mitigation and gender equality and HIV/AIDS impact mitigation and prevention methods. In the three PLWs, frontline prevention methods. In the three PLWs, frontline  "}],"sieverID":"bc397665-31e6-4512-a6c2-2b9294d16350","abstract":"The latest IPMS initiative in market-oriented development is an innovative credit fund that will be provided to encourage the development and/or application of new financial products, adoption of new technologies, innovative input/output marketing arrangements as well as new terms and conditions for existing loan products -which may result in new synergetic working relationships among credit institutions and the agriculture and rural development offices. The Canadian International Development Agency (sponsor of the IPMS project) officially approved the IPMS proposal for such credit funds. Discussions have started with credit institutions in the 4 Regions and proposals for the use of the funds are under preparation in each Pilot Learning Woreda."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0315fca71739f18673086c833dbef29e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/761d8ec7-8486-47a6-a276-76ccb7e4386f/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Giving power to Africa-RISING farmers through small mechanization","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"• However, farm power has increased very slowly in Ethiopia."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"• Land preparation is one of the most critical operation, and one of the most power intensive."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"• Zero-tillage (i.e., direct seeding without prior land preparation) allows for quick crop establishment and makes the use of low powered, affordable, and easy to maintain two-wheel tractors."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"• Two-wheel tractors are multipurpose sources of power and can be used for operations such as transport, threshing and water pumping."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"Biomass shortages, diseases and droughts are challenging the use of oxen in many parts of Ethiopia. Agriculture in the country is dominated by labor-intensive operations."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"Our approach to appropriate mechanization summarized in one picture: a direct seeder powered by a locally available two-wheel tractor (2WT) operated by a rural service provider receiving continuous training."},{"index":7,"size":24,"text":"Multipurpose use of two-wheel tractors: reaping, threshing, transporting and water pumping. We thank farmers and local partners in Africa RISING sites for their support"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Comparison of the performance of wheat established conventionally (maresha ploughing, manual seeding and broadcasting of fertilizer) and established through direct seeding with a two-wheel tractor (2WT). The time necessary to establish a wheat crop is more than 10 times lower and yield is increased by more than 2 tonnes.Africa RISING in the Ethiopian HighlandsCore partnersThis poster is copyrighted by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). It is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. November 2016 "}],"sieverID":"ffc21b66-280a-4968-bd06-ec845c13b798","abstract":"• Most Ethiopian farmers are capital constrained and unable to purchase twowheel tractors individually: they could nevertheless access mechanization through services provided by rural entrepreneurs.• In addition, it is not profitable for farmers to own machines unless they provide services.• The profitability of service provision increases with multipurpose use of the tractors (e.g., seeding, transport, threshing), which increases tractor use rates."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0319d0a4a0a494ab2bb05251ca25173c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/65e1638b-a562-4146-a25b-aa0be30e5c6e/retrieve"},"pageCount":45,"title":"Does relative deprivation induce migration? Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa 1","keywords":["O15","J61","D31 sub-Saharan Africa, LSMS-ISA, migration, relative deprivation, consumption, wealth"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"Why do people migrate? Numerous pathways exist to explain people's inherent motive for migration and multiple factors may be at play simultaneously. While researchers are in agreement that migration may be driven by both 'push factors' in the origin such as economic inequality and poverty, and 'pull factors' in the destination such as better economic opportunities and social safeties, the migration literature overlooks the role of economic inequality (relative deprivation) on migration. In this article, we revisit the decades old relative deprivation hypothesis of migration developed and tested in the context of Mexico-US migration by Stark (1984), Stark and Taylor (1989), Stark and Taylor (1991) and test empirically in the context of sub-Saharan Africa -Tanzania, Ethiopia, Malawi, Nigeria, and Uganda."},{"index":2,"size":192,"text":"Traditional migration models predict that the main driver of migration is income or wage differentials between the point of origin and destination; that is, those with low income always have a higher propensity to migrate (Harris and Todaro 1970;Massey et al. 1993) as they seek to improve their wellbeing. However, there is no conclusive evidence to support this is the sole, or even primary, motivation for migration because migration does not necessarily lead to relatively higher wage returns (Flippen 2013). 2 Another strand of literature argues that the propensity of migration is not necessarily the highest among the poorest community, it is in fact the highest in the community with the highest social inequality (Stark and Yitzhaki 1988;Stark 1984;Stark and Taylor 1991). As the longstanding debate on the drivers of migration is still unsettled, policies to regulate or reduce internal or cross-country movement of people have been less effective. In this paper, we initiate a new angle of discussion on migration research by considering simultaneously the relationship between migration and both relative deprivation and absolute wellbeing. We examine the relationship in both consumption and wealth spaces in the context of sub-Saharan Africa."},{"index":3,"size":509,"text":"While the welfare function approach depends on one's own utility (or income) maximization, relative deprivation is \"an increasing function of not having something one wants, sees someone else having, or sees as feasible to have\" (Runciman 1966). Hence a household's relative deprivation depends on wellbeing status of other households around it as well as the feeling of the household members about their position in the local well-being distribution. It is in this sense that people from more relatively deprived households have higher incentive to migrate because migration occurs not only to maximize the expected income or wage 3 but also to minimize the feeling of deprivation relative to the community they reside in -a reference group (Stark and Yitzhaki 1988;Stark 1984;Stark and Taylor 1991). Stark (1984) argues that as migration is a choice and people's choices are affected by their level of deprivation relative to the community they belong to, migration decisions are motivated by minimization of relative deprivation, not by absolute income maximization. However, we hypothesize that the migration decision is influenced by both income maximization and relative deprivation minimization at the same time. It is important to consider both absolute and relative deprivation at the same time to better understand causes of migration because households make migration decision considering both their relative deprivation as well as absolute levels of wellbeing (Czaika and Haas 2011;Quinn 2006). Evidence also points to different roles of relative deprivation on internal and international migration; while relative deprivation predicts the internal migration better, the income or wage differential approach explains the international migration better (Quinn, 2006). 3 That people move from one place to another to minimize their deprivation relative to others has been overlooked by traditional migration models which relate migration to income or wage differentials between origin and destination (Stark 1984;Stark and Yitzhaki 1988). Stark (1984) is the first to theorize Runciman's relative deprivation concept in migration studies. This theory was quickly tested empirically by (Stark and Yitzhaki 1988) and (Stark and Taylor 1989;Stark and Taylor 1991) in the context of Mexico-US migration. After Stark, Taylor, and Yitzhaki's seminal work on relative deprivation and migration, this approach has been largely overlooked in the migration literature. After early 1990's, to the best of our knowledge, only a handful of studies have used the relative deprivation approach to study migration and all of them find positive association between the two. Specifically, (Bhandari 2004) finds positive relationship between relative deprivation of land holding size and migration in Nepal, Quinn(2006) also finds positive effects of relative deprivation of income, wealth, and land area on internal migration in Mexico, and Flippen (2013) confirms the same relationship for internal migration in the United States in all directions but South to North migration. Similarly, Czaika and de Hass ( 2012) use global bilateral migration data matrix from 262 countries and find a positive association between both international and internal relative deprivations and global migration. In addition, (Mehlum 2002) uses an overlapping generations model and demonstrates how relative deprivation increases rural to urban migration, both within and across generations."},{"index":4,"size":164,"text":"There is still lack of rigorous evidence on whether the relative deprivation-migration relationship persist over time and across countries. In recent years, sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has been in the center of significant policy dialogue about migration and a plentiful of anecdotal evidence point to a rapid increase in internal and international migration from SSA. However, the 'relative deprivation -migration' relationship has not been explored in the context of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and it is both timely and critical to study the relationship and understand better the causes of migration within and from the region. Examination of the relative deprivation -migration relationship is of more importance in SSA because the region is characterized by persistent extreme poverty, high proportion of working age adults, high rate of unemployment or under employment, and high degree of social inequality -factors that are believed to fuel migration flows. In addition, rapid urbanization is also considered as a contributor to migration flows in SSA (Gollin, Jedwab and Vollrath 2016;Potts 2016)."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"That both social inequality and absolute poverty may incentivize people to migrate is an interesting and equally important policy question and deserves further scrutiny. Does relative deprivation of consumption (income) induce migration? How do migration patterns change with absolute levels of consumption? Does the relationship hold in wealth space? Does the 'relative deprivation -migration' relationship persist with changes in local context and across countries?"},{"index":6,"size":162,"text":"We answer these questions as follows. First, we estimate the relationship between relative deprivation of consumption and migration. While our main focus is on relative deprivation, we also estimate the relationship between absolute consumption level and migration because migration decision is based on both one's own well-being level as well as well-being status relative to others in the same community. Second, we use an aggregate wealth index as a wellbeing variable to validate the findings from consumption space. Examining the 'relative deprivation -migration' relationship in both consumption and wealth spaces is critical because, in agrarian settings that characterize much of SSA, the majority of households lack monetary income and wellbeing status is often assessed using level of consumption, access to goods and services, and asset ownership. Lack of access to these services exacerbates household's relative position and the feeling of deprivation in the community, and household members may migrate hoping to minimize the relative deprivation and maximize the expected income and wealth."},{"index":7,"size":134,"text":"Finally, we provide a critical mass of evidence on the 'relative deprivation -migration' relationship across five SSA countries. This study makes a set of contributions to the migration literature. First, to our knowledge this is the first empirical study to examine the relationship between relative deprivation and migration in the context of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Second, we provide a critical mass of evidence on the relative deprivation-migration relationship by examining the relationship across five different countries. Third, we provide evidence that the relative deprivation-migration relationship consistently holds across both wealth and consumption spaces. We argue that if the link between relative deprivation and migration is sustained, it may enable policymakers to design appropriate policy instruments to promote rural transformation and reduce the alarming rate of both internal and international migration, especially in developing countries."},{"index":8,"size":56,"text":"The rest of the analysis proceeds as follows. In Section 2, we describe the research methodology including the computation of the measure of relative deprivation, description of the empirical model, and potential endogeneity concerns. Section 3 describes the data, and we present both descriptive and empirical results from the model in Section 4. Section 5 concludes."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Measure of relative deprivation","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Social inequality can be explained in two ways; welfare function or utility approach and deprivation approach. Welfare or utility is an increasing function of having something but deprivation is an increasing function of not having something one wants, sees someone else having it, or sees as feasible to have (Runciman 1966;Stark and Yitzhaki 1988). Given a household's wellbeing status, its deprivation is a function of the wellbeing of other households around it -a reference group. For example, the deprivation for a household with income less than y is an increasing function of number of households in the reference group with income y or higher and the relativity is associated with the reference group the household resides in."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Hence, the relative deprivation, which captures the feeling of not having y or more, is an increasing function of the number of households in the reference group that have at least y."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"As we examine the 'relative deprivation -migration' relationship in both consumption and wealth spaces, we construct two relative deprivation variables, one based on consumption expenditure and another based on a multidimensional wealth index based on household assets."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"Because the relativity of this approach comes from reference groups, the construction of reference groups is critical. We create reference groups based on survey enumeration area and other geographical information. We set the minimum number of households per reference groups to be 10 but, the average size of a reference groups varies by country -24 in Ethiopia to 49 in Malawi. By construction, a reference group is bigger than the survey enumeration area and smaller than a sub-district or its equivalent administrative unit."},{"index":5,"size":60,"text":"We closely follow Stark's (1984) andYitzhaki's (1989) definition of relative deprivation but use consumption expenditure or wealth index in lieu of income. Let F(y) be a cumulative distribution of consumption y, then 1-F(y) is the percentage of households with consumption higher than y. Therefore, measure of relative deprivation for a household i in a reference group r is defined as"},{"index":6,"size":66,"text":"where \uD835\uDC45\uD835\uDC37 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5F is the measure of relative deprivation for household i in reference group r, \uD835\uDC66 \uD835\uDC5F \uD835\uDC56 is the value of consumption for household i, \uD835\uDC66 \uD835\uDC5F ℎ is the highest value of consumption in the reference group r, and \uD835\uDC39(\uD835\uDC65) is the cumulative distribution of consumption in the reference group. For practical purposes, equation (1) can be simplified to the following expression: 4"},{"index":7,"size":112,"text":"where \uD835\uDF07 \uD835\uDC5F is the average consumption of the reference group r, \uD835\uDF19(\uD835\uDC4C \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5F ) is the proportion of total consumption of households in the reference area with level of consumption higher than \uD835\uDC4C \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5F to the total consumption of all households in the reference area, and \uD835\uDC39(\uD835\uDC4C \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5F ) is the cumulative 4 See Appendix A for details on mathematical derivation distribution of consumption in the reference group. Subsequently, any decrease in the consumption of households less deprived than household i will decrease the relative deprivation of household i. Analogously, any increase in the consumption of households more deprived than the household i will increase the relative deprivation of household i."},{"index":8,"size":139,"text":"A similar method is used to create relative deprivation of wealth. Our focus is on the relationship between migration and consumption-based relative deprivation but relative deprivation of wealth will be used as a robustness check. Wealth is measured through a weighted index of household asset holdings and housing characteristics. Asset variables include durable consumer goods, house characteristics, access to improved sanitation, access to drinking water, land holding size, and livestock ownership. We exclude agricultural tools and equipment because agricultural tools are endogenous and may not reflect household's wellbeing. 5 Table 1 presents the details of asset variables used in each of the five countries considered. Asset variables are carefully chosen so that the wealth index is comparable across countries. However, due to lack of the data, the set of asset variables used is not exactly the same across countries."},{"index":9,"size":103,"text":"We use principal component analysis (PCA) to construct the wealth index. Following the literature, we keep only the first principal component because the first component captures the maximum variance in the data and serves as a valid measure of wealth (Filmer and Pritchett 2001;Filmer and Scott 2008;McKenzie 2005;Sahn and Stifel 2003;Vyas and Kumaranayake 2006). In our case, the first principal component accounts for at least 13.4% variation in assets data in case of Uganda, 18.6% in Nigeria, 19% in Ethiopia, 21% in Tanzania, and 23% in the case of Malawi. To make the wealth index comparable across waves, we use a 'pooled approach';"},{"index":10,"size":67,"text":"we pooled the data across waves and use pooled mean and standard deviation to calculate appropriate weight for each asset variable. The pooled weight is then used to create the wave-specific wealth index. 6 Since the 'pooled' approach in wealth space is equivalent to the use of real (deflated) consumption expenditures in consumption space, inferences based on wealth index are comparable with those based on consumption expenditure."}]},{"head":"Migration definition","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":251,"text":"A key issue in migration research is the definition of migration itself. The migration literature is dominated by domestic and international labor migration, but there is no universal definition for it; the definition of migration seems to vary with country, context, and the research question on hand. Stark and Yitzhaki (1988) define migration as a movement from one reference group to another. We define migration as \"movement of individuals to any destination outside of the household location for more than one continuous month in the last 12 months for reasons ranging from economic, education, forced displacement, family reunification, to other purposes irrespective of the drivers of the movement\". One could contest our definition of migration because not all movement out of the household location are considered migration. However, our primary interest is to examine the relationship between all forms of movements -permanent or temporary migration, seasonal migration, labor or non-labor migration, voluntary or involuntary migration, distress migration, family reunification etc. -and relative wellbeing of households in their respective communities. All newly born children and people who died in the last 12 months of survey are excluded, but we consider movement for family reunification as well as marriage and divorce as migration. Our view is that one should exclude marriage and divorce as migration phenomenon, but in our case, not all countries we considered have data on reasons for migration and therefore we are unable to distinguish and exclude movements due to marriage and divorce to consider it in a comparative analysis."}]},{"head":"Empirical model","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":226,"text":"We A number of studies find that migration increases with income but at a decreasing rate (Du, Park and Wang 2005;Mckenzie and Rapoport 2007). We use a simple graphical approach to determine whether migration is non-linear on consumption or wealth. We run equation (3) in both consumption and wealth space and get the estimated coefficients on each variable. We calculate the predicted number of migrants keeping all variables constant but letting the consumption (wealth) variable to vary in a range from 0 to 100. A random number generator is used to pick a random value of consumption for each household from the range. The predicted number of migrants is plotted against the randomly generated consumption (wealth) variable using local polynomial fit. We examine the shape of the curve (Figure 1) to determine the correct functional form for consumption (wealth). A careful examination of the local polynomial plots indicates that migration is non-linear in consumption but linear on wealth. Except for the case of Uganda where the number of migrants sharply decreases at first before it jumps up, 'migrationconsumption' relationship is consistent with quadratic functional form in all other cases. We estimate both linear and quadratic models, but our preferred model is the panel fixed effects with quadratic term in the consumption space (Equation 4) and the linear panel fixed effects in the wealth space (Equation 3)."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"In equation ( 4), a positive \uD835\uDEFD 1 and negative \uD835\uDEFD 2 accompanied by a joint significance of \uD835\uDEFD 1 and \uD835\uDEFD 2"},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"indicates that migration increases with consumption but at a decreasing rate. We calculate the marginal effects of consumption using the expression \uD835\uDEFD 1 ̂+ 2\uD835\uDEFD 2 ̂\uD835\uDC36\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 . Although relative deprivation is a function of consumption, the marginal effects of consumption (\uD835\uDC36 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 ) is independent of \uD835\uDEFC 1 because relative deprivation depends on consumption of the reference group only (\uD835\uDC36 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5F\uD835\uDC61 )."}]},{"head":"Endogeneity","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"Migration is an endogenous phenomenon, more so when we examine the relationship between consumption and migration. We identify two potential sources of endogeneity. First, migration and consumption decisions can occur at the same time or factors that affect current household consumption or income likely influence the household's migration decisionsimultaneity. Unlike in the consumption space, simultaneity is less of a concern in the wealth space because wealth is accumulated over time and the factors that contribute to wealth accumulation over time are assumed to have less influence on current migration. Second, migration and relative deprivation may cause each other -for example previous period's migration increases current inequality (relative deprivation) which may further increase migration. The potential reverse causality between migration and relative deprivation can lead to biased estimates if not corrected for. In this analysis, we run two alternative model specifications to assess whether endogeneity influences our results. First, we run a 'lagged regression model';"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"effectively regressing endline migration on baseline variables (Equation 5)."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"As lagged consumption (level of consumption in the last wave, two years ago) is expected to be exogenous for current migration, this approach addresses the potential endogeneity due to simultaneity. Results from Equation ( 5) are presented in Table A4 in the Appendix. The results are consistent with our main findings (Table 5)."},{"index":4,"size":139,"text":"Alternatively, we use the Hausman Taylor Instrumental Variable (HTIV) 7 estimator to correct for the potential endogeneity coming from both consumption and relative deprivation variables. The HTIV is a panel estimator and allows to estimate the effects of time-invariant variable. The estimator finds instruments from within the model but requires four different types of variables to meet that requirement -time-variant endogenous, time-variant exogenous, timeinvariant endogenous, and time-invariant exogenous. In this analysis, time-varying endogenous variables include relative deprivation, consumption expenditure and its squared term, and aggregated wealth index. Time-varying exogenous variables include household size, dependency ratio, indicator for rural residence, indicator for agricultural household, and age, gender, and marital status of the household head. Household head's level of education is considered as a time-invariant endogenous variable and the size of the reference group is considered as a timeinvariant exogenous variable."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"We provide the results from the alternative specifications as robustness check. Similarity between our main results and the results from the lagged regression indicate that simultaneity is less of a concern. If any, HTIV estimator corrects for the endogeneity that stems from both simultaneity and reverse causality. We find that our main results are consistent with both HTIV results and the results from the lagged regression."}]},{"head":"Data","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":252,"text":"The data for this analysis come from five LSMS-ISA countries in sub-Saharan Africa. All surveys are nationally representative surveys implemented by the respective National Bureau of Statistics with technical support from the World Bank. 8 Multiple rounds of data are available for each country. However, since more than two rounds of data are not available for all five countries, this analysis uses only the data from the first two waves. The sample size and the period of coverage do vary by country but the survey design and instruments are similar, which allows us to do cross country comparisons. All datasets have integrated household, agriculture, and community components and are standardized to the extent possible. These datasets serve well for migration study because, although not all datasets contain a specific migration module, each dataset contains a question about the number of months each household member is away from the household in the last 12 months. Even though migration information is at the individual level, other relevant information are available only at the household level. Therefore, this study assesses, the 'migration-relative deprivation' relationship at the household level. Table 2 presents the details of cross-sectional sample size, attrition rates, and panel sample sizes for all five countries. All datasets maintain a fairly low attrition rate at or below 5% with a slightly higher attrition rate in case of Uganda. A quick examination of attrition pattern shows that attrition occurs at random because no significant difference exists on migration rate of attrited and the remained sample."}]},{"head":"Results","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Descriptive results","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Summary statistics are presented in Table 3. We present summary of demographic characteristics, wellbeing variables, relative deprivation, and migration information for each of the five countries considered in this analysis. We perform t-test to test the difference of mean estimates between two waves. The average household size is between five and six in each of the five countries considered and has increased over time by less than one individual, but statistically significantly. Both the number of children (ages 0-14) and the number of economically active adults (ages15-64) in each country are between two and three and both numbers increase over time, although it is statistically significant only in the in cases of Malawi, Nigeria, and Uganda."},{"index":2,"size":169,"text":"These statistics indicate that a large proportion of the population in these sub-Saharan African countries consists of children and senior adults; an observation consistent with the existing body of literature on demographic pattern of Africa (de Brauw, Mueller and Lee 2014). Dependency ratio for each county is more than 1.5 and does increase over time, although the increase is not statistically significant. On average, household heads are aged about mid-forties in all five countries considered. Although household head's age increases over time by about two years, their other characteristics are not expected to vary much. As the household headship changes over time due to death, migration, or other intra-household dynamics such as marriage, household split etc., gender and marital status of household head do change over time too, albeit not significantly. Household head's education level is mostly time-invariant. In a few cases, where the head's level of education does change over time, the maximum education level across the two waves is taken so that the variable is time invariant."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"The last section of Table 3  Brauw and colleagues also report that several countries even had negative net migration in rural areas indicating an increase in re-ruralization of sub-Saharan Africa. Despite a slow rate of migration, with the exception of Ethiopia, the proportion of migrant households increases over time in all countries. As a consequence, in all those countries the number of migrants per household also increased significantly. Since we consider all kinds of movements away from the household as migration, migration variables in endline are independent of migration variables in baseline period; therefore a migrant household (individual) at baseline may not necessarily be a migrant by endline."}]},{"head":"Migration and relative deprivation of consumption","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Table 4 presents  Other control variables also have the expected effects. A larger household size increases the incidence of migration but the dependency ratio has an adverse effect. Even though migration increases with household size, any increase in the number of dependents (children and seniors) reduces migration, except in the Nigerian case where the dependency ratio holds a significantly positive relationship with the number of migrants. Female headed households seem to have fewer migrants but the relationship is not consistent across countries; negative in Tanzania, Ethiopia, and Malawi but positive in Nigeria and Uganda. Households with married heads also appear to have fewer migrants but the relationship is exactly opposite in case of Tanzania."},{"index":2,"size":172,"text":"Among other variables, age of household head has a consistent positive effect on migration, meaning increases in the age of the head increases the number of migrants from a household. When everything else is controlled for, residing in a rural area as well as being an agricultural household has no effects on migration except in the case of Tanzania where rural households have fewer migrants compared to urban households. Even though the effects of household head's characteristics and other demographics are more or less consistent across countries and of comparable magnitudes, these results should be taken with caution as the variables barely change over time and, therefore, a large portion of their effects may be captured by the fixed effects. In addition, lack of consistency of the effects of demographic variables on migration across countries highlights the complication of cross country analysis. Similarly, the size of the effect of relative deprivation is not directly comparable across countries because both consumption and relative deprivation of consumption are in local currency of respective country."},{"index":3,"size":208,"text":"Table 5 presents the results estimated using equation (4), a panel fixed effects model with quadratic specification for the relationship between consumption and migration. This is our preferred model because local polynomial smooth between consumption and predicted number of migrants in each case shows a non-linear relationship and the non-linearity is consistent with quadratic functional form in all cases but Uganda. The Ugandan case is unique in that, at first, the number of migrants decreases with consumption but then it increases at an increasing rate for most of the relevant income range -migration is non-linear in consumption but the relationship is not quadratic. Hence our preferred model is linear for Uganda and quadratic for the case of the other four countries. Results confirm that an increase in relative deprivation of consumption increases migration in sub-Saharan Africa. One unit increase in relative deprivation of consumption increases number of migrants by at least 0.27 units (Malawi) and up to 0.56 units (Ethiopia). Similarly, one percent increase in consumption per adult equivalent increases the number of migrants by at least 0.97 units (Nigeria) up to 1.88 units (Tanzania). However, negative coefficient on quadratic term indicates that the rate of increase in the number of migrants decreases with the level of consumption."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"Since the effects of level of consumption and consumption squared go in opposite directions and the effects are jointly significant, the net effect of consumption on migration can be better understood with marginal effects. We compute the marginal effects of consumption by differentiating equation ( 4) with respect to log transformed consumption and use the estimated coefficients on consumption and consumption squared to estimate the marginal effects at different points of the consumption distribution (Table 5). As expected, the effect of consumption on migration is the largest among the poorest group in all countries except"},{"index":5,"size":138,"text":"Uganda. In all four cases, the positive effect gets smaller with consumption and even becomes negative at the 95 th percentile in the case of Nigeria and Ethiopia. This finding is consistent with existing literature. A number of studies find an inverted-u-shaped relationship between migration and absolute income indicating that migration increases with income but at a decreasing rate (Du, Park, and Wang 2005;Mckenzie and Rapoport 2007). In the case of Uganda, however, the effect of consumption on migration increases at an increasing rate. non-agricultural households in Uganda. However, as the sub-groups \"rural household\" and \"agricultural household\" are not mutually exclusive, inference should be made with caution. For example, the identical pattern of results on rural vs. urban and agricultural vs. non-agricultural households indicate that a part of the 'agricultural effect' may be captured by the 'rural effect'."}]},{"head":"Migration and relative deprivation of wealth","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"Table 7 presents the effects of relative deprivation of wealth on migration. Results are consistent with those of relative deprivation of consumption in that an increase in relative deprivation increases the number of migrants. One unit increase in relative deprivation of wealth increases number of migrants in the range of 0.05 units in Ethiopia to 0.23 units in case of Malawi. Similarly, the effects of wealth index on migration is also consistent with the effects of consumption on migration. An increase of one point in the aggregated wealth index increases the number of migrants in the range of 0.01 units in Ethiopia to as much as 0.21 units in Uganda."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"These increases are relatively small in magnitude. Since the variable of interest is some function of a weighted index, we don't attempt to interpret the magnitude of effects but rather focus on the direction of the effects and its level of statistical significance. Other than the wealth index and relative deprivation of wealth, all control variables included in this model are exactly the same as those included in the analysis in the consumption space. On average, migration increases with household size and age of head, but decreases with the dependency ratio, households with a married head, and female headed households. These results are consistent across countries and confirm our findings in the consumption space. Next, we breakdown the sample to various groups and assess the effects of wealth and associated relative deprivation."},{"index":3,"size":94,"text":"Table 8 presents the effects of relative deprivation of wealth on migration across demographic groups and sectors of household activities. Results in this table are comparable to the consumption space results in Table 6. As in the consumption space, relative deprivation of wealth has larger positive effect on migration among rural households, male headed households, households with more youth, and agricultural households. Despite a few discrepancies, the results hold consistent across countries; relative deprivation of wealth has no effects whatsoever on migration and has greater positive effects among urban and agricultural households in Tanzania."}]},{"head":"Robustness check","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Our finding that relative deprivation of consumption induces migration is robust across five countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The finding is also robust to the use of a wealth index as a wellbeing variable in lieu of consumption; relative deprivation of wealth also has consistent positive effects on migration in all five countries considered. We employ four different approaches to assess the robustness of our findings."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"First, we pooled the data from all five countries together and estimate the relative deprivation -migration relationship with the metadata. Pooling the data across countries may create cross-variable inconsistencies and incomparability 9 , but our results add to the literature 9 The main concern was the inconsistencies in local currencies across countries. We use the market exchange rate as of November 21, 2017 and convert all local currencies to US Dollars. Another concern was use of sample weights. However, our regression analysis does not use sample weight neither in intracountry analysis nor in pooled analysis. Other demographic variables were more or less similar."},{"index":3,"size":133,"text":"that the migration -relative deprivation relationship holds in both individual countries and sub-Saharan Africa region irrespective of the country. Results from the 'pooled' analysis are presented in Table 9. Model 1 is a linear fixed effects on consumption space, model 2 is a quadratic fixed effects on the consumption space, and model 3 is a linear fixed effects on wealth space. Results indicate that, irrespective of the country, relative deprivation plays an important role in household's migration decision. Specifically, one unit increase in the relative deprivation of consumption increases the number of migrants by 0.16 and the same increase in the relative deprivation of wealth increases the number of migrants by 0.9. Consistent with the intra-country results, migration increases with consumption but at a decreasing rate, albeit the later is not statistically significant."},{"index":4,"size":158,"text":"Second, we estimate the 'relative deprivation -migration' relationship using a quasimaximum likelihood estimator (QMLE). Given that our dependent variable is a count variable and the data is over-dispersed, we use a pooled negative binomial model. To make the estimates as close to the fixed-effects as possible, we adopt the Chamberlin-Mundlak approach -we estimate our preferred model (quadratic in consumption space, linear in wealth space) with negative binomial estimator including time constant pooled means for all explanatory variables in the model. Results in consumption space are presented in Table A1 and the results are coherent with our main finding that migration increases with consumption at a decreasing rate and the relative deprivation of consumption adds to the positive effects of consumption. Table A2 presents equivalent results in the wealth space. With the exception of Tanzania, results in the wealth space are also consistent with the main finding -migration increases with wealth but it increases more among relatively deprived households."},{"index":5,"size":154,"text":"Third, we use the lagged regression approach -essentially regression migration outcome in the follow up wave on the explanatory variables in the baseline. Results are presented in Table A3 in the Appendix. The results are consistent with our main findings for all countries but Ethiopia suggesting that analysis in the Ethiopian case may have suffered from endogeneity which is apparent when we examine the results from Hausman Taylor Instrumental Variable (HTIV) estimator. Finally, results from the HTIV estimator are presented in Table A4 and Table A5. In Table A4, HTIV results in consumption space are presented. HTIV results in wealth space are presented in Table A5. The results are consistent with (in most cases better than) our main results in Table 4 and Table 5. As the HTIV results are similar to our main results, we present the results from the fixed effects estimator as our main results and HTIV results as robustness check."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"In this article, we test the relative deprivation theory of migration in the sub-Saharan"},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"African context under various scenarios. In contrast to the traditional migration theory that focuses on wage differentials or expected income maximization as the primary drivers of migration, we test empirically if households also make migration decision to minimize their relative deprivation resulting from social inequality in the community they reside. We use both consumption and an aggregated asset index as wellbeing measures and examine whether, and the extent to which, relative deprivation induces migration. Migration is defined as a movement of individuals out of the household for more than one continuous month in the last twelve months irrespective of the reason, excluding death and new births."},{"index":3,"size":157,"text":"Using longitudinal data from integrated household and agriculture surveys from five countries in sub-Saharan Africa, we estimate the effects of both relative deprivation and absolute consumption or wealth on the number of migrants per household. We find that relative deprivation induces migration; the more relatively deprived a household is, the more likely it is to have more migrants. Migration increases with the level of consumption but at a decreasing rate indicating that the average number of migrants is higher in poor communities than in richer communities. Except in case of Uganda, the marginal effect of consumption on number of migrants decreases with income percentiles and even becomes negative at the 95 th percentile. For example, in Ethiopian case, 1% increase in consumption for households at or below the first quintile of consumption distribution increases number of migrants by 0.28, but a 1% increase in consumption of households in the fifth quintile decreases number of migrants by 0.043."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"Taking together the decreasing marginal effects of consumption and positive effects of relative deprivation on migration, it can be inferred that the net effects of consumption on migration is positive for poor and relatively deprived households. For households at the upper level of wellbeing distribution, increase in income may have zero to negative effects on migration. The relative deprivation -migration relationship holds in the wealth space too, consistently. Relative deprivation of wealth is positively associated with migration and migration increases with the absolute level of wealth as well. When demographic sub-groups are considered, the effect of relative deprivation on migration amplifies among male headed households, rural households, households with more youth, and agricultural households."},{"index":5,"size":40,"text":"Although the intensity of the estimated effects of relative deprivation on migration is not the same in the consumption space and asset space, the direction and the level of significance of the estimated effects are the same across both spaces."},{"index":6,"size":264,"text":"Our findings have multiple policy implications. First, there is a need for renewed discussion on effects of social inequality on migration. Second, pro-poor policies that are simply informed by aggregate poverty incidence and pay little attention to spatial differences and distributional aspects may fail to understand the dynamics of migration flows. If policies are aimed at influencing migration flows, focusing on smoothing the local income and wealth distribution and reduce social inequality stands a better chance to succeed than polices at the national level. If the objective is to slow the rural-urban migration, then policies that increase aggregate income without distributional improvements, may not yield the desired result because such policies raise relative deprivation which ultimately incentivizes migration. Our findings that the positive effects of relative deprivation on migration is amplified among rural households, households with more youth, and agricultural households implies that policies that aim to check rural-urban migration flow may need to pay attention to the demographic structure of the population for better results. Policies that account for the demographic and occupational heterogeneity and create opportunities for youth, rural residents, and farmers in their locality may fare better than those that target general population. Finally, based on our examination of the data on migration from each of the five countries, we suggest that future rounds of these surveys or other similar surveys should consider adding a questions to enquire about the reasons for movements out of the households. Among the five countries we consider in this analysis, adequate information on reasons for migrating are available only in case of Uganda and Nigeria."},{"index":7,"size":477,"text":"While we discovered that income inequality fuels emigration, emigration, there is evidence that migration further increases inequality in the sending community (Barham and Boucher 1998;Czaika and Haas 2011;Mckenzie and Rapoport 2007). Barham and Boucher (1998) consider non-migrant households as counterfactuals and find positive impact of migration and remittance on income inequality in Nicaragua. Mckenzie and Rapoport (2007) examine the case of Mexico-US migration and discover that migration increases inequality when migrant network at destination is weak. However, once enough people migrate and the migration network becomes stronger, migration decreases income inequality because a strong network reduces the cost of migration and poor people also can afford it. Czaika and de Hass (2012) suggest that even though a rapid economic growth may halt migration initially, increased inequality due to 'take-off' economic growth increases migration subsequently. Even though migration leads to income growth in the originating communities (Nguyen, Raabe and Grote 2015), the migration-led growth may not be distributed proportionately and therefore increases inequality. If appropriate policy interventions are not identified in time, the 'migration -relative deprivation -migration' chain may increase rural-urban migration rapidly because we find that inequality induces s migration and existing evidence points that migration increases inequality further.  For each country, the column with stars indicates the test of significance of mean differences between two waves. Significance level: * p < .10, ** p < .05, *** p < .01. Consumption expenditure is monthly per-adult equivalent. For US dollar conversion, exchange rate as of Aug 23 2017 is 1 Tanzanian Shilling = 0.00045 USD; 1 Ethiopian Birr = 0.043 USD; and 1 Malawian Kwacha = 0.0014 USD †Consumption relative deprivation (RD) is constructed using the log transformed values of consumption expenditures. For each country, the column with stars indicates the test of significance of mean differences between two waves. Significance level: * p < .10, ** p < .05, *** p < .01. Consumption expenditure is monthly per-adult equivalent. For US dollar conversion, exchange rate as of Aug 23 2017 is 1 Nigerian Naira = 0.0028 USD; and 1 Ugandan Shilling = 0.00028 USD †Consumption relative deprivation (RD) is constructed using the log transformed values of consumption expenditures.   Results are based on the first two waves of LSMS-ISA data from Tanzania, Ethiopia, Malawi, Nigeria, and Uganda. Data is pooled together to form a country-household panel Consumption relative deprivation (RD) is constructed using the log transformed values of consumption expenditures in US dollars. Models 1 and 2 relate to the consumption space, but model 3 is on wealth space. Models 1 and 3 are estimated using linear fixed effects, but Model 2 is estimated with quadratic fixed effects.   Relative deprivation of wealth is calculated using the aggregated asset index as a wealth variable. Asset groups are similar across countries but the specific asset variables differ. Table A1 in Appendix provides list of asset variables for each country."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" the effects of relative deprivation of consumption on migration. The results are based on equation (3); a panel fixed effects model linear on log of consumption expenditure. Results from all five countries show that migration increases with income (proxied by consumption in this analysis), although not statistically significant in the case of Ethiopia and Malawi. A positive and significant coefficient on relative deprivation variable indicates that even though migration increases with consumption level, it increases more among the relatively more consumption deprived households. In all five countries considered, an increase in relative deprivation -the feeling of deprivation of a household compared to other households in its neighborhood -increases the number of migrant members. This finding is consistent with the relative deprivation theory of migration; individuals migrate not only to maximize their expected income but also to minimize the feeling of relative deprivation in the place of origin. Positive coefficients on both relative deprivation and consumption indicates that as relative deprivation of consumption induces migration, level of consumption amplifies the effects of relative deprivation. "},{"text":"FiguresFigure 1 . Figures "},{"text":" Figure 1. Relationship between consumption expenditure and number of migrants "},{"text":" take advantage of the longitudinal data available and use panel fixed effects to \uD835\uDC45\uD835\uDC37 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5F\uD835\uDC61 is relative deprivation of household i in the reference group r in time t, and \uD835\uDC36 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 is logarithm of consumption expenditure per adult equivalent. Similarly, \uD835\uDC4B is a vector of control covariates, \uD835\uDF07 \uD835\uDC56 is household level fixed effects, and \uD835\uDC62 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 is an idiosyncratic error term. For consistency and comparability, we use the same set of estimate the effects of relative deprivation on migration. Controlling for household and  estimate the effects of relative deprivation on migration. Controlling for household and demographic characteristics, we estimate whether households make migration decisions to  demographic characteristics, we estimate whether households make migration decisions to overcome their feeling of relative deprivation with respect to other households in the reference overcome their feeling of relative deprivation with respect to other households in the reference group. Equation (3) is our main estimating equation.  group. Equation (3) is our main estimating equation. \uD835\uDC40 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 = \uD835\uDEFC 0 + \uD835\uDEFC 1 \uD835\uDC45\uD835\uDC37 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5F\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDEFD 1 \uD835\uDC36 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 + θ\uD835\uDC4B + \uD835\uDF07 \uD835\uDC56 + \uD835\uDC62 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 (3) \uD835\uDC40 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 = \uD835\uDEFC 0 + \uD835\uDEFC 1 \uD835\uDC45\uD835\uDC37 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5F\uD835\uDC61 + \uD835\uDEFD 1 \uD835\uDC36 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 + θ\uD835\uDC4B + \uD835\uDF07 \uD835\uDC56 + \uD835\uDC62 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61(3) where i indicates a household, r indicates a reference group, t is current survey period, \uD835\uDC40 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 is  where i indicates a household, r indicates a reference group, t is current survey period, \uD835\uDC40 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61 is number of migrants from household i in time t, control variables across countries. The control covariates are household size, dependency ratio, number of migrants from household i in time t, control variables across countries. The control covariates are household size, dependency ratio, age, sex and marital status of the household head, indicator for rural residence, and an indicator age, sex and marital status of the household head, indicator for rural residence, and an indicator for agricultural household. A positive and significant value of \uD835\uDEFC 1 indicates that, controlling for for agricultural household. A positive and significant value of \uD835\uDEFC 1 indicates that, controlling for income and other factors, relative deprivation induces migration. A positive and significant value income and other factors, relative deprivation induces migration. A positive and significant value of \uD835\uDEFD 1 indicates that migration increases with consumption.  of \uD835\uDEFD 1 indicates that migration increases with consumption.  "},{"text":" presents the variables of interest. Consumption expenditures are expressed in real terms monthly per-adult equivalent in local currency, and in US dollars equivalent. The baseline consumption is at about the same level in all countries (about $20-$25 per-adult equivalent/month), but growth in consumption differs. In the cases of Ethiopia, Malawi, and Uganda real consumption decreases over time, but Tanzania and Nigeria experience a significant increase. However, relative deprivation of consumption increases in all countries but Saharan Africa is evident in the literature too. As(de Brauw et al. 2014) noted, historically, sub-Saharan Africa has had a slow rate of rural-urban migration. On average, the net migration was only about 1.7% per annum during 1990 to 2000. In fact, de one point of relative deprivation of consumption does not equal to one point of relative one point of relative deprivation of consumption does not equal to one point of relative deprivation of wealth. But, as one would expect, these two variables are highly correlated with a deprivation of wealth. But, as one would expect, these two variables are highly correlated with a correlation coefficient of 0.6. correlation coefficient of 0.6.  "},{"text":"Table 6 presents the effects of consumption-based relative deprivation and level of consumption on migration under various scenarios -rural vs. urban, agricultural vs. nonagricultural, male headed vs. female headed households, and finally households with the number of youth more than local average vs. households with less youth. The results are based on our preferred estimated model; panel fixed-effects (linear) for Uganda and panel fixed-effects with quadratic term for other four countries. Results show that, in general, relative deprivation of consumption has larger positive effects on migration among rural households, male headed households, households with more youth (number of youth ages 15-24 is greater than median number of youth), and agricultural households. This finding is more or less consistent across countries with one exception; relative deprivation has greater positive effects among urban and  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Sample size and attrition Notes. † In case of Uganda and Nigeria, the panel sample size is smaller than the wave 2 sample size because we lose several observations to measurement error.‡ All but Ethiopian sample is nationally representative. In case of Ethiopia, the baseline sample covers rural and small town areas only therefore the Ethiopian panel is representative of rural and small town areas only.  Wave 1 Wave 2 Attrition Panel Wave 1Wave 2AttritionPanel Country Year Sample Size Year Sample Size (%) Sample Size CountryYearSample SizeYearSample Size(%)Sample Size Tanzania 2008/09 3265 2010/11 3168 2.9 3168 Tanzania 2008/0932652010/1131682.93168 Ethiopia  ‡ 2011/12 3969 2013/14 3776 4.9 3776 Ethiopia  ‡ 2011/1239692013/1437764.93776 Malawi 2010/11 3246 2013 3104 4.4 3104 Malawi2010/113246201331044.43104 Nigeria  † 2010/11 4916 2012/13 4716 4.1 4437 Nigeria  †2010/1149162012/1347164.14437 Uganda  † 2009/10 2975 2010/11 2716 8.7 2646 Uganda  †2009/1029752010/1127168.72646  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Summary statistics of model variables Point estimates are the population weighted means. Standard errors are in parentheses.  Tanzania Ethiopia Malawi TanzaniaEthiopiaMalawi  Wave 1 Wave 2 Wave 1 Wave 2 Wave 1 Wave 2 Wave 1 Wave 2Wave 1Wave 2 Wave 1 Wave 2 Household characteristics       Household characteristics Household size 5.09 5.25 ** 5.13 5.78 *** 4.79 5.24 *** Household size5.095.25 **5.135.78 ***4.795.24 ***  (0.050) (0.051) (0.037) (0.039) (0.040) (0.041) (0.050)(0.051)(0.037)(0.039)(0.040) (0.041) Number of children, 0-14 2.34 2.34 2.43 2.41 2.29 2.45 *** Number of children, 0-142.342.342.432.412.292.45 ***  (0.034) (0.034) (0.028) (0.028) (0.029) (0.030) (0.034)(0.034)(0.028)(0.028)(0.029) (0.030) Number of adults, 15-64 2.64 2.70 2.50 2.51 2.33 2.57 *** Number of adults, 15-642.642.702.502.512.332.57 ***  (0.029) (0.029 (0.021) (0.021) (0.022) (0.024) (0.029)(0.029(0.021)(0.021)(0.022) (0.024) Dependency Ratio 1.65 1.70 1.56 1.97 *** 1.79 1.68 Dependency Ratio1.651.701.561.97 ***1.791.68  (0.051) (0.053) (0.039) (0.044) (0.054) (0.048) (0.051)(0.053)(0.039)(0.044)(0.054) (0.048) Rural residence (1=Yes, 0=No) 0.74 0.71 *** 0.94 0.94 0.85 0.84 Rural residence (1=Yes, 0=No)0.740.71 ***0.940.940.850.84  (0.008) (0.008) (0.004) (0.004) (0.006) (0.007) (0.008)(0.008)(0.004)(0.004)(0.006) (0.007) Household head's       Household head's characteristics       characteristics Age 46.0 47.5 *** 44.5 46.0 *** 42.6 45.2 *** Age46.047.5 ***44.546.0 ***42.645.2 ***  (0.28) (0.27) (0.25) (0.25) (0.29) (0.28) (0.28)(0.27)(0.25)(0.25)(0.29)(0.28) Sex (1=Female, 0= Male) 0.25 0.26 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.24 Sex (1=Female, 0= Male)0.250.260.200.220.240.24  (0.008) (0.008) (0.006) (0.007) (0.008) (0.008) (0.008)(0.008)(0.006)(0.007)(0.008) (0.008) Marital status (1= Married, 0.73 0.72 0.81 0.78 *** 0.76 0.76 Marital status (1= Married,0.730.720.810.78 ***0.760.76 0=else)       0=else)  (0.008) (0.008) (0.006) (0.007) (0.008) (0.008) (0.008)(0.008)(0.006)(0.007)(0.008) (0.008) Education level 2.2 2.2 2.4 2.4 5.6 5.6 Education level2.22.22.42.45.65.6  (0.02) (0.02) (0.06) (0.06) (0.08) (0.08) (0.02)(0.02)(0.06)(0.06)(0.08)(0.08) Key variables of interest       Key variables of interest Consumption (local currency) 56825.7 64622.7 *** 538.9 451.2 *** 14894.8 14621.8 Consumption (local currency)56825.7 64622.7 ***538.9451.2 *** 14894.8 14621.8  (930.8) (1042.8) (10.3) (5.27) (295.7) (259.6) (930.8) (1042.8)(10.3)(5.27)(295.7) (259.6) Consumption (US Dollars) [25.38] [28.86] [23.05] [19.3] [20.54] [20.16] Consumption (US Dollars)[25.38][28.86][23.05][19.3][20.54] [20.16] Consumption RD 0.30 0.31 0.34 0.30 *** 0.30 0.31 Consumption RD0.300.310.340.30 ***0.300.31  (0.005) (0.005) (0.005) (0.005) (0.005) (0.005) (0.005)(0.005)(0.005)(0.005)(0.005) (0.005) Wealth index -0.85 -0.81 -1.21 -1.03 *** -0.55 -0.45 * Wealth index-0.85-0.81-1.21-1.03 ***-0.55-0.45 *  (0.049) (0.051) (0.030) (0.023) (0.037) (0.041) (0.049)(0.051)(0.030)(0.023)(0.037) (0.041) Wealth RD 0.73 0.79 *** 0.65 0.61 ** 0.70 0.79 *** Wealth RD0.730.79 ***0.650.61 **0.700.79 ***  (0.013) (0.014) (0.01) (0.01) (0.012) (0.013) (0.013)(0.014)(0.01)(0.01)(0.012) (0.013) Household has migrants (1=Yes, 0.28 0.40 *** 0.18 0.17 0.12 0.24 *** Household has migrants (1=Yes,0.280.40 ***0.180.170.120.24 *** 0=No) (0.008) (0.009) (0.006) (0.006) (0.006) (0.008) 0=No)(0.008)(0.009)(0.006)(0.006)(0.006) (0.008) Number of migrants 0.45 0.63 *** 0.28 0.28 0.18 0.38 *** Number of migrants0.450.63 ***0.280.280.180.38 ***  (0.016) (0.018) (0.012) (0.013) (0.01) (0.016) (0.016)(0.018)(0.012)(0.013)(0.01) (0.016) Observations 3164 3164 3776 3776 3104 3104 Observations316431643776377631043104 Notes:       Notes:  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Contd…. Summary statistics Point estimates are the population weighted means. Standard errors are in parentheses. Nigeria Uganda NigeriaUganda Wave 1 Wave 2 Wave 1 Wave 2 Wave 1Wave 2Wave 1Wave 2  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Effects of Relative Deprivation of consumption on migration Clustered standard errors are in parentheses. Level of significance * p < .10, ** p < .05, *** p <.01 Consumption relative deprivation (RD) is constructed using the log transformed values of consumption expenditures in local currency  Dependent Variable: Number of migrants  Dependent Variable: Number of migrants  Model: Panel fixed effects   Model: Panel fixed effects  Tanzania Ethiopia Malawi Nigeria Uganda Tanzania Ethiopia MalawiNigeriaUganda Consumption relative deprivation 0.26 * 0.24 *** 0.11 0.26 *** 0.31 * Consumption relative deprivation0.26 *0.24 ***0.110.26 ***0.31 *  (0.14) (0.09) (0.10) (0.093) (0.16) (0.14)(0.09)(0.10)(0.093)(0.16) Log(Consumption) 0.35 *** 0.030 0.068 0.056 * 0.44 *** Log(Consumption)0.35 ***0.0300.0680.056 *0.44 ***  (0.072) (0.043) (0.052) (0.031) (0.086) (0.072)(0.043)(0.052)(0.031)(0.086) Household size 0.16 *** 0.054 *** 0.11 *** 0.16 *** 0.74 *** Household size0.16 ***0.054 ***0.11 ***0.16 ***0.74 ***  (0.020) (0.018) (0.014) (0.028) (0.034) (0.020)(0.018)(0.014)(0.028)(0.034) Dependency Ratio -0.012 -0.013 ** -0.015 ** 0.024 *** -0.023 *** Dependency Ratio-0.012-0.013 **-0.015 **0.024 ***-0.023 ***  (0.009) (0.005) (0.006) (0.007) (0.013) (0.009)(0.005)(0.006)(0.007)(0.013) Age of head 0.009 ** 0.003 0.007 ** 0.005 * 0.031 *** Age of head0.009 **0.0030.007 **0.005 *0.031 ***  (0.005) (0.002) (0.003) (0.003) (0.012) (0.005)(0.002)(0.003)(0.003)(0.012) Female head (1=Yes, 0=No) -0.20 -0.001 -0.13 0.72 *** 0.25 Female head (1=Yes, 0=No)-0.20-0.001-0.130.72 ***0.25  (0.13) (0.085) (0.080) (0.21) (0.21) (0.13)(0.085)(0.080)(0.21)(0.21) Married (1=Yes, 0=No) -0.081 -0.013 -0.17 ** -0.42 *** -0.60 *** Married (1=Yes, 0=No)-0.081-0.013-0.17 **-0.42 ***-0.60 ***  (0.088) (0.052) (0.069) (0.089) (0.22) (0.088)(0.052)(0.069)(0.089)(0.22) Rural residence (1=Yes, 0=No) -0.13 ** - 0.005 -0.093 -0.056 Rural residence (1=Yes, 0=No)-0.13 **-0.005-0.093-0.056  (0.060)  (0.13) (0.29) (0.14) (0.060)(0.13)(0.29)(0.14) Ag household (1=Yes,0= No) 0.066 -0.003 0.029 0.027 -0.091 Ag household (1=Yes,0= No)0.066-0.0030.0290.027-0.091  (0.086) (0.039) (0.059) (0.069) (0.071) (0.086)(0.039)(0.059)(0.069)(0.071) Constant -4.53 *** -0.33 -1.68 * -1.14 *** -9.17 *** Constant-4.53 ***-0.33-1.68 *-1.14 ***-9.17 ***  (0.88) (0.32) (0.56) (0.33) (1.27) (0.88)(0.32)(0.56)(0.33)(1.27) Observations 6322 7288 6206 8788 5139 Observations63227288620687885139 Notes:      Notes:  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Effects of Relative Deprivation of consumption on migration (Quadratic) Clustered standard errors are in parentheses. Level of significance * p <.10, ** p <.05, *** p <.01. Results is presented for key variables only. Other variables included in the model are household size, dependency ratio, age, gender, and marital status of the household head, and indicators for rural residence and agricultural household. Estimated coefficients on these variables are similar to the ones presented in Table4. Consumption relative deprivation (RD) is constructed using the log transformed values of consumption expenditures in local currency Variables Dependent Variable: Number of migrants,  VariablesDependent Variable: Number of migrants,  Model: Panel fixed effects   Model: Panel fixed effects  Tanzania Ethiopia Malawi Nigeria Uganda Tanzania Ethiopia MalawiNigeriaUganda Consumption relative deprivation 0.46 ** 0.56 *** 0.27 ** 0.39 *** -0.21 Consumption relative deprivation0.46 **0.56 ***0.27 **0.39 ***-0.21  (0.19) (0.11) (0.13) (0.099) (0.20) (0.19)(0.11)(0.13)(0.099)(0.20) Log (Consumption) 1.81 * 1.49 *** 1.35 *** 1.29 *** -3.50 *** Log (Consumption)1.81 *1.49 ***1.35 ***1.29 ***-3.50 ***  (1.07) (0.43) (0.51) (0.28) (0.82) (1.07)(0.43)(0.51)(0.28)(0.82) Log (Consumption) squared -0.063 -0.11 *** -0.064 ** -0.068 *** 0.17 *** Log (Consumption) squared-0.063-0.11 *** -0.064 **-0.068 ***0.17 ***  (0.047) (0.032) (0.025) (0.015) (0.036) (0.047)(0.032)(0.025)(0.015)(0.036) Constant -12.8 ** -5.29 *** -7.40 *** -6.67 *** 13.5 ** Constant-12.8 **-5.29 ***-7.40 ***-6.67 ***13.5 **  (6.03) (1.46) (2.55) (1.26) (4.84) (6.03)(1.46)(2.55)(1.26)(4.84) Other statistics      Other statistics R-squared 0.08 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.39 R-squared0.080.010.020.050.39 Test: Log(Cons.) + Log(Cons) 2      Test: Log(Cons.) + Log(Cons) 2 =0      =0 P-values 0.09 0.0005 0.008 0.003 0.0002 P-values0.090.00050.0080.0030.0002 Marginal effects      Marginal effects 25 th percentile 0.495 0.286 0.187 0.136 0.017 25 th percentile0.4950.2860.1870.1360.017 50 th percentile 0.443 0.199 0.132 0.088 0.187 50 th percentile0.4430.1990.1320.0880.187 Mean 0.434 0.194 0.125 0.087 0.207 Mean0.4340.1940.1250.0870.207 75 th percentile 0.381 0.107 0.072 0.038 0.368 75 th percentile0.3810.1070.0720.0380.368 95 th percentile 0.273 -0.043 -0.039 -0.035 0.698 95 th percentile0.273-0.043-0.039-0.0350.698 Observations 6323 7288 6206 8788 5139 Observations63237288620687885139 Notes:      Notes:  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Effects of Relative Deprivation of wealth on migration Clustered standard errors are in parentheses. Level of significance * p < .10, ** p < .05, *** p < .01 Relative deprivation of wealth is calculated using the aggregated asset index as a wealth variable. Asset groups are similar across countries but the specific asset variables differ. TableA1in Appendix provides list of asset variables for each country.   Dep. Variable: Number of migrants  Dep. Variable: Number of migrants   Model: Panel fixed effects  Model: Panel fixed effects  Tanzania Ethiopia Malawi Nigeria Uganda Tanzania EthiopiaMalawiNigeriaUganda Wealth relative deprivation 0.20 ** 0.052 0.23 *** 0.072 * 0.18 *** Wealth relative deprivation0.20 **0.0520.23 ***0.072 *0.18 ***  (0.082) (0.034) (0.045) (0.037) (0.048) (0.082)(0.034)(0.045)(0.037)(0.048) Wealth index 0.11 ** 0.014 * 0.080 *** 0.0005 0.22 *** Wealth index0.11 **0.014 *0.080 ***0.00050.22 ***  (0.043) (0.008) (0.018) (0.013) (0.021) (0.043)(0.008)(0.018)(0.013)(0.021) Household size 0.15 *** 0.058 *** 0.097 *** 0.17 *** 0.38 *** Household size0.15 ***0.058 ***0.097 ***0.17 ***0.38 ***  (0.020) (0.017) (0.014) (0.026) (0.015) (0.020)(0.017)(0.014)(0.026)(0.015) Dependency Ratio -0.013 -0.016 *** -0.015 *** 0.024 *** -0.041 *** Dependency Ratio-0.013-0.016 ***-0.015 ***0.024 ***-0.041 ***  (0.009) (0.005) (0.006) (0.0075) (0.0080) (0.009)(0.005)(0.006)(0.0075)(0.0080) Age of head 0.013 *** 0.002 0.0055 * 0.0061 ** 0.011 *** Age of head0.013 ***0.0020.0055 *0.0061 **0.011 ***  (0.005) (0.002) (0.0029) (0.0028) (0.0021) (0.005)(0.002)(0.0029)(0.0028)(0.0021) Female head (1=Yes, 0=No) -0.21 * -0.025 -0.13 * 0.74 *** 0.35 *** Female head (1=Yes, 0=No)-0.21 *-0.025-0.13 *0.74 ***0.35 ***  (0.13) (0.081) (0.080) (0.22) (0.074) (0.13)(0.081)(0.080)(0.22)(0.074) Married (1=Yes, 0=No) -0.12 -0.015 -0.17 ** -0.43 *** -0.50 *** Married (1=Yes, 0=No)-0.12-0.015-0.17 **-0.43 ***-0.50 ***  (0.088) (0.049) (0.068) (0.089) (0.088) (0.088)(0.049)(0.068)(0.089)(0.088) Rural area (1=Yes, 0=No) -0.10 * - -0.012 -0.10 0.037 Rural area (1=Yes, 0=No)-0.10 *--0.012-0.100.037  (0.060)  (0.13) (0.29) (0.080) (0.060)(0.13)(0.29)(0.080) Ag household (1=Yes,0= 0.059 -0.0001 0.039 0.021 -0.083 Ag household (1=Yes,0=0.059-0.00010.0390.021-0.083 No)      No)  (0.088) (0.038) (0.059) (0.069) (0.051) (0.088)(0.038)(0.059)(0.069)(0.051) Constant -0.81 *** -0.077 -0.46 *** -0.76 *** -1.26 *** Constant-0.81 ***-0.077-0.46 ***-0.76 ***-1.26 ***  (0.28) (0.14) (0.17) (0.27) (0.15) (0.28)(0.14)(0.17)(0.27)(0.15) Observations 6325 7497 6208 8772 5094 Observations63257497620887725094 Notes:      Notes:  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Effects of relative deprivation (RD) of consumption on migration across demographic groups Notes: Standard errors are in parentheses. Level of significance * p < .10, ** p < .05, *** p < .01. In all countries, panel fixed effects model is used as estimating model and dependent variable is the number of migrants in the household. The estimating model includes the following control covariates: household size, dependency ratio, age of head, indicator of female headship, indicator of married head, indicator of rural vs. urban residence, indicator for agricultural vs. non-agricultural households Variables Rural Urban Female Male Fewer More Agricultural Non- VariablesRural Urban FemaleMaleFewerMoreAgricultural Non-    headed headed youth youth  agricultural headedheadedyouthyouthagricultural Tanzania:         Tanzania: Consumption RD 0.50 * 0.31 0.31 0.72 ** 0.042 0.78 ** 0.68 *** 0.031 Consumption RD0.50 *0.310.310.72 **0.0420.78 **0.68 ***0.031  (0.29) (0.36) (0.25) (0.34) (0.23) (0.33) (0.25) (0.37) (0.29) (0.36)(0.25)(0.34)(0.23)(0.33)(0.25)(0.37) Log (Consumption) 1.98 2.81 0.96 4.42 ** 0.13 3.72 ** 2.50 1.83 Log (Consumption)1.982.810.964.42 **0.133.72 **2.501.83  (1.88) (1.80) (1.32) (1.89) (1.18) (1.68) (1.69) (1.69) (1.88) (1.80)(1.32)(1.89)(1.18)(1.68)(1.69)(1.69) Ethiopia:         Ethiopia: Consumption RD 0.59 *** 0.82 0.35 0.68 *** -0.21 0.93 *** 0.59 *** -0.088 Consumption RD0.59 *** 0.820.350.68 ***-0.210.93 ***0.59 ***-0.088  (0.12) (0.87) (0.23) (0.13) (0.25) (0.16) (0.14) (0.36) (0.12) (0.87)(0.23)(0.13)(0.25)(0.16)(0.14)(0.36) Log (Consumption) 1.68 *** 1.44 1.10 1.61 *** 0.17 2.15 *** 1.48 *** -0.10 Log (Consumption)1.68 *** 1.441.101.61 ***0.172.15 ***1.48 ***-0.10  (0.46) (2.51) (0.69) (0.52) (0.77) (0.64) (0.51) (1.18) (0.46) (2.51)(0.69)(0.52)(0.77)(0.64)(0.51)(1.18) Malawi:         Malawi: Consumption RD 0.50 *** -0.32 0.39 0.22 0.17 0.10 0.27 * 0.13 Consumption RD0.50 *** -0.320.390.220.170.100.27 *0.13  (0.14) (0.31) (0.26) (0.15) (0.18) (0.19) (0.15) (0.35) (0.14) (0.31)(0.26)(0.15)(0.18)(0.19)(0.15)(0.35) Log (Consumption) 2.41 *** -1.51 3.49 *** 0.76 0.34 0.91 0.98 0.096 Log (Consumption)2.41 *** -1.513.49 ***0.760.340.910.980.096  (0.70) (1.08) (1.15) (0.59) (0.70) (0.88) (0.66) (1.16) (0.70) (1.08)(1.15)(0.59)(0.70)(0.88)(0.66)(1.16) Nigeria:         Nigeria: Consumption RD 0.33 *** 0.55 *** 1.13 *** 0.23 ** -0.022 0.37 ** 0.49 *** 0.073 Consumption RD0.33 *** 0.55 ***1.13 ***0.23 **-0.0220.37 **0.49 ***0.073  (0.12) (0.21) (0.25) (0.11) (0.18) (0.15) (0.12) (0.24) (0.12) (0.21)(0.25)(0.11)(0.18)(0.15)(0.12)(0.24) Log (Consumption) 0.85 ** 1.89 *** 3.49 *** 0.57 0.98 ** 0.62 1.32 *** 0.98 Log (Consumption)0.85 ** 1.89 ***3.49 ***0.570.98 **0.621.32 ***0.98  (0.40) (0.73) (0.85) (0.37) (0.49) (0.50) (0.43) (0.60) (0.40) (0.73)(0.85)(0.37)(0.49)(0.50)(0.43)(0.60) Uganda:         Uganda: Consumption RD 0.094 1.18 *** 0.074 0.48 ** 0.27 0.46 0.21 0.62 *** Consumption RD0.094 1.18 ***0.0740.48 **0.270.460.210.62 ***  (0.20) (0.45) (0.34) (0.21) (0.25) (0.28) (0.36) (0.23) (0.20) (0.45)(0.34)(0.21)(0.25)(0.28)(0.36)(0.23) Log (Consumption) 0.27 ** 1.15 *** 0.36 ** 0.51 *** 0.27 ** 0.53 *** 0.36 * 0.57 *** Log (Consumption)0.27 ** 1.15 ***0.36 **0.51 ***0.27 **0.53 ***0.36 *0.57 ***  (0.11) (0.22) (0.18) (0.12) (0.13) (0.15) (0.20) (0.13) (0.11) (0.22)(0.18)(0.12)(0.13)(0.15)(0.20)(0.13)  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Effects of relative deprivation (RD) of wealth on migration across demographic groups and sector of activity Notes: Standard errors are in parentheses. Level of significance * p < .10, ** p < .05, *** p < .01. In all countries, panel fixed effects model is used as estimating model and dependent variable is the number of migrants in the household. The estimating model includes the following control covariates: household size, dependency ratio, age of head, indicator of female headship, indicator of married head, indicator of rural vs. urban residence, indicator for agricultural vs. non-agricultural households Variables Rural Urban Female Male Fewer More Agricultural Non- VariablesRuralUrban FemaleMaleFewerMoreAgricultural Non-    headed headed youth youth  agricultural headedheadedyouthyouthagricultural Tanzania:         Tanzania: Wealth RD 0.11 0.27 * 0.020 0.24 ** 0.040 0.36 *** 0.11 0.27 * Wealth RD0.110.27 *0.0200.24 **0.0400.36 ***0.110.27 *  (0.12) (0.15) (0.13) (0.099) (0.088) (0.13) (0.092) (0.16) (0.12)(0.15)(0.13)(0.099) (0.088) (0.13)(0.092)(0.16) Wealth Index 0.058 0.18 ** 0.046 0.14 *** 0.059 0.14 ** 0.065 0.13 Wealth Index0.0580.18 **0.0460.14 ***0.0590.14 **0.0650.13  (0.043) (0.089) (0.056) (0.054) (0.045) (0.066) (0.042) (0.087) (0.043) (0.089) (0.056) (0.054) (0.045) (0.066)(0.042)(0.087) Ethiopia:         Ethiopia: Wealth RD 0.084 ** -0.45 ** -0.002 0.072 * -0.037 0.061 0.092 ** -0.12 Wealth RD0.084 ** -0.45 ** -0.0020.072 *-0.0370.0610.092 **-0.12  (0.033) (0.20) (0.055) (0.041) (0.048) (0.048) (0.038) (0.12) (0.033) (0.20) (0.055) (0.041) (0.048) (0.048)(0.038)(0.12) Wealth Index 0.018 ** -0.075 0.018 0.016 0.004 0.012 0.017 * 0.002 Wealth Index0.018 ** -0.0750.0180.0160.0040.0120.017 *0.002  (0.008) (0.048) (0.013) (0.011) (0.011) (0.017) (0.009) (0.023) (0.008) (0.048) (0.013) (0.011) (0.011) (0.017)(0.009)(0.023) Malawi:         Malawi: Wealth RD 0.30 *** 0.15 *** 0.31 *** 0.20 *** 0.15 ** 0.21 *** 0.24 *** 0.22 *** Wealth RD0.30 *** 0.15 *** 0.31 ***0.20 ***0.15 ** 0.21 ***0.24 ***0.22 ***  (0.074) (0.057) (0.100) (0.053) (0.065) (0.077) (0.067) (0.078) (0.074) (0.057) (0.100) (0.053) (0.065) (0.077)(0.067)(0.078) Wealth Index 0.085 *** 0.038 0.15 *** 0.058 *** 0.13 *** 0.047 ** 0.082 *** 0.059 * Wealth Index0.085 *** 0.0380.15 *** 0.058 *** 0.13 *** 0.047 **0.082 ***0.059 *  (0.029) (0.026) (0.033) (0.020) (0.040) (0.024) (0.026) (0.033) (0.029) (0.026) (0.033) (0.020) (0.040) (0.024)(0.026)(0.033) Nigeria:         Nigeria: Wealth RD 0.12 *** 0.028 -0.006 0.11 *** -0.022 0.19 *** 0.13 *** -0.02 Wealth RD0.12 ***0.028-0.0060.11 *** -0.022 0.19 ***0.13 ***-0.02  (0.042) (0.07) (0.10) (0.038) (0.045) (0.054) (0.045) (0.066) (0.042) (0.07)(0.10)(0.038) (0.045) (0.054)(0.045)(0.066) Wealth Index 0.005 -0.005 -0.050 0.008 -0.022 0.02 0.024 -0.037 Wealth Index0.005-0.005 -0.0500.008-0.0220.020.024-0.037  (0.013) (0.032) (0.054) (0.012) (0.027) (0.015) (0.017) (0.028) (0.013) (0.032) (0.054) (0.012) (0.027) (0.015)(0.017)(0.028) Uganda:         Uganda: Wealth RD 0.12 0.35 0.15 0.072 0.011 -0.15 0.046 0.20 Wealth RD0.120.350.150.0720.011-0.150.0460.20  (0.19) (0.28) (0.29) (0.19) (0.20) (0.22) (0.33) (0.19) (0.19)(0.28)(0.29)(0.19)(0.20)(0.22)(0.33)(0.19) Wealth Index 0.16 * 0.095 0.043 0.082 -0.064 0.068 0.073 0.071 Wealth Index0.16 *0.0950.0430.082-0.0640.0680.0730.071  (0.090) (0.10) (0.13) (0.077) (0.094) (0.087) (0.17) (0.081) (0.090) (0.10)(0.13)(0.077) (0.094) (0.087)(0.17)(0.081)  "},{"text":"Table 9 : Effects of Relative Deprivation on migration in sub-Saharan Africa Clustered standard errors are in parentheses. Standard errors are clustered in the countryhousehold level. Level of significance * p < .10, ** p < .05, *** p < .01 Dep. Variable: Number of migrants Dep. Variable: Number of migrants (1) (2) (3) (1)(2)(3)  "},{"text":"Table A1 : Effects of Relative Deprivation (RD) of consumption on migration (Negative binomial model) Clustered standard errors are in parentheses. Level of significance * p < .10, ** p < .05, *** p  Dependent Variable: Number of migrants  Dependent Variable: Number of migrants  Model: Negative binomial   Model: Negative binomial  Tanzania Ethiopia Malawi Nigeria Uganda Tanzania EthiopiaMalawiNigeriaUganda Consumption relative deprivation 1.08 *** 0.25 0.39 ** 0.78 *** 0.10 Consumption relative deprivation1.08 ***0.250.39 **0.78 ***0.10  (0.36) (0.22) (0.18) (0.12) (0.10) (0.36)(0.22)(0.18)(0.12)(0.10) Log(Consumption) 4.32 ** 0.17 1.89 *** 1.97 *** 0.78 Log(Consumption)4.32 **0.171.89 ***1.97 ***0.78  (1.73) (0.75) (0.72) (0.59) (0.56) (1.73)(0.75)(0.72)(0.59)(0.56) Log(Consumption) squared -0.16 ** -0.011 -0.080 ** -0.10 *** -0.016 Log(Consumption) squared-0.16 **-0.011-0.080 **-0.10 ***-0.016  (0.075) (0.056) (0.035) (0.032) (0.025) (0.075)(0.056)(0.035)(0.032)(0.025) Household size 0.20 *** 0.17 *** 0.38 *** 0.25 *** 0.40 *** Household size0.20 ***0.17 ***0.38 ***0.25 ***0.40 ***  (0.027) (0.050) (0.045) (0.046) (0.035) (0.027)(0.050)(0.045)(0.046)(0.035) Dependency Ratio -0.070 ** -0.079 *** -0.14 *** 0.017 -0.049 * Dependency Ratio-0.070 **-0.079 ***-0.14 ***0.017-0.049 *  (0.032) (0.029) (0.045) (0.021) (0.026) (0.032)(0.029)(0.045)(0.021)(0.026) Age of head 0.016 0.011 0.019 * 0.011 * 0.006 Age of head0.0160.0110.019 *0.011 *0.006  (0.009) (0.009) (0.010) (0.006) (0.009) (0.009)(0.009)(0.010)(0.006)(0.009) Female head (1=Yes, 0=No) -0.51 ** -0.045 -0.47 * 1.10 *** 0.40 * Female head (1=Yes, 0=No)-0.51 **-0.045-0.47 *1.10 ***0.40 *  (0.26) (0.29) (0.25) (0.35) (0.21) (0.26)(0.29)(0.25)(0.35)(0.21) Married (1=Yes, 0=No) -0.15 -0.026 -0.48 ** -0.63 *** -0.24 Married (1=Yes, 0=No)-0.15-0.026-0.48 **-0.63 ***-0.24  (0.17) (0.19) (0.22) (0.17) (0.21) (0.17)(0.19)(0.22)(0.17)(0.21) Rural residence (1=Yes, 0=No) -0.31 ** -0.20 ** 0.078 -0.35 -0.16 Rural residence (1=Yes, 0=No)-0.31 **-0.20 **0.078-0.35-0.16  (0.13) (0.097) (0.33) (0.67) (0.18) (0.13)(0.097)(0.33)(0.67)(0.18) Ag household (1=Yes,0= No) 0.032 0.083 0.044 0.089 -0.077 Ag household (1=Yes,0= No)0.0320.0830.0440.089-0.077  (0.15) (0.15) (0.16) (0.16) (0.085) (0.15)(0.15)(0.16)(0.16)(0.085) Constant 4.55 -2.36 -12.7 *** -11.9 *** -8.00 ** Constant4.55-2.36-12.7 ***-11.9 ***-8.00 **  (4.83) (2.56) (3.74) (2.74) (3.15) (4.83)(2.56)(3.74)(2.74)(3.15) Other statistics      Other statistics R-squared 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.39 R-squared0.050.020.020.050.39 Observations 6326 7288 6208 8780 5139 Observations63267288620887805139 Notes: < .01      Notes: < .01 Relative deprivation (RD) of consumption is constructed using the log transformed values of Relative deprivation (RD) of consumption is constructed using the log transformed values of consumption expenditures in local currency     consumption expenditures in local currency  "},{"text":"Table A2 : Effects of Relative Deprivation (RD) of wealth on migration (Negative binomial model) Clustered standard errors are in parentheses. Level of significance * p < .10, ** p < .05, *** p < .01  Dependent Variable: Number of migrants  Dependent Variable: Number of migrants  Model: Negative binomial   Model: Negative binomial  Tanzania Ethiopia Malawi Nigeria Uganda Tanzania EthiopiaMalawiNigeriaUganda Wealth relative deprivation -0.007 -0.016 0.043 0.096 *** 0.14 *** Wealth relative deprivation-0.007-0.0160.0430.096 ***0.14 ***  (0.084) (0.051) (0.037) (0.037) (0.038) (0.084)(0.051)(0.037)(0.037)(0.038) Wealth index -1.47 *** 0.074 *** 0.072 *** 0.050 *** 0.15 *** Wealth index-1.47 ***0.074 ***0.072 ***0.050 ***0.15 ***  (0.24) (0.017) (0.011) (0.014) (0.016) (0.24)(0.017)(0.011)(0.014)(0.016) Household size 0.16 *** 0.15 *** 0.35 *** 0.28 *** 0.34 *** Household size0.16 ***0.15 ***0.35 ***0.28 ***0.34 ***  (0.027) (0.049) (0.045) (0.045) (0.033) (0.027)(0.049)(0.045)(0.045)(0.033) Dependency Ratio -0.085 ** -0.079 *** -0.13 *** 0.018 -0.041 Dependency Ratio-0.085 **-0.079 ***-0.13 ***0.018-0.041  (0.034) (0.028) (0.043) (0.021) (0.025) (0.034)(0.028)(0.043)(0.021)(0.025) Age of head 0.014 0.0072 0.018 * 0.015 ** 0.0035 Age of head0.0140.00720.018 *0.015 **0.0035  (0.0096) (0.0085) (0.010) (0.0063) (0.0094) (0.0096) (0.0085)(0.010)(0.0063)(0.0094) Female head (1=Yes, 0=No) -0.53 ** -0.12 -0.44 * 1.25 *** 0.45 ** Female head (1=Yes, 0=No)-0.53 **-0.12-0.44 *1.25 ***0.45 **  (0.26) (0.28) (0.26) (0.33) (0.21) (0.26)(0.28)(0.26)(0.33)(0.21) Married (1=Yes, 0=No) -0.14 -0.01 -0.49 ** -0.67 *** -0.21 Married (1=Yes, 0=No)-0.14-0.01-0.49 **-0.67 ***-0.21  (0.18) (0.19) (0.22) (0.17) (0.21) (0.18)(0.19)(0.22)(0.17)(0.21) Rural residence (1=Yes, 0=No) -0.19 -0.019 0.091 -0.37 -0.081 Rural residence (1=Yes, 0=No)-0.19-0.0190.091-0.37-0.081  (0.12) (0.11) (0.33) (0.71) (0.18) (0.12)(0.11)(0.33)(0.71)(0.18) Ag household (1=Yes,0= No) 0.073 0.085 0.047 0.078 -0.047 Ag household (1=Yes,0= No)0.0730.0850.0470.078-0.047  (0.15) (0.15) (0.16) (0.16) (0.084) (0.15)(0.15)(0.16)(0.16)(0.084) Constant -0.82 *** -1.84 *** -1.75 *** -2.50 *** -1.44 *** Constant-0.82 ***-1.84 ***-1.75 ***-2.50 ***-1.44 ***  (0.19) (0.16) (0.19) (0.14) (0.11) (0.19)(0.16)(0.19)(0.14)(0.11) Other statistics      Other statistics R-squared 0.08 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.39 R-squared0.080.020.020.050.39 Observations 6325 7497 6208 8774 5094 Observations63257497620887745094 Notes:      Notes:  "},{"text":"Table A3 : Effects of Relative Deprivation of consumption on migration (Lagged regression results) Clustered standard errors are in parentheses. Level of significance * p < .10, ** p < .05, *** p <.01 Consumption relative deprivation (RD) is constructed using the log transformed values of consumption expenditures in local currency  Dependent Variable: Number of migrants  Dependent Variable: Number of migrants  Model: OLS     Model: OLS  Tanzania Ethiopia Malawi Nigeria Uganda Tanzania Ethiopia MalawiNigeriaUganda Consumption relative deprivation 0.26 ** -0.50 *** 0.018 0.55 *** 0.53 *** Consumption relative deprivation0.26 **-0.50 ***0.0180.55 ***0.53 ***  (0.12) (0.100) (0.095) (0.085) (0.19) (0.12)(0.100)(0.095)(0.085)(0.19) Log(Consumption) -0.087 -1.42 *** -0.36 1.41 *** -0.19 Log(Consumption)-0.087-1.42 ***-0.361.41 ***-0.19  (0.70) (0.38) (0.39) (0.36) (1.15) (0.70)(0.38)(0.39)(0.36)(1.15) Log(Consumption) 2 0.012 0.099 *** 0.025 -0.070 *** 0.042 Log(Consumption) 20.0120.099 ***0.025-0.070 ***0.042  (0.032) (0.029) (0.020) (0.020) (0.051) (0.032)(0.029)(0.020)(0.020)(0.051) Household size 0.079 *** 0.018 *** 0.045 *** 0.10 *** 0.38 *** Household size0.079 ***0.018 ***0.045 ***0.10 ***0.38 ***  (0.009) (0.006) (0.008) (0.010) (0.020) (0.009)(0.006)(0.008)(0.010)(0.020) Dependency Ratio -0.0071 -0.012 *** -0.003 -0.052 *** -0.066 *** Dependency Ratio-0.0071-0.012 ***-0.003-0.052 ***-0.066 ***  (0.006) (0.004) (0.005) (0.005) (0.014) (0.006)(0.004)(0.005)(0.005)(0.014) Age of head -0.004 *** 0.003 *** -0.0005 0.015 *** 0.016 *** Age of head-0.004 ***0.003 ***-0.00050.015 ***0.016 ***  (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.0028) (0.001)(0.001)(0.001)(0.001)(0.0028) Female head (1=Yes, 0=No) -0.014 -0.007 0.18 *** -0.038 0.47 *** Female head (1=Yes, 0=No)-0.014-0.0070.18 ***-0.0380.47 ***  (0.062) (0.033) (0.061) (0.057) (0.11) (0.062)(0.033)(0.061)(0.057)(0.11) Married (1=Yes, 0=No) -0.064 0.004 0.13 ** -0.24 *** -0.49 *** Married (1=Yes, 0=No)-0.0640.0040.13 **-0.24 ***-0.49 ***  (0.068) (0.036) (0.059) (0.053) (0.12) (0.068)(0.036)(0.059)(0.053)(0.12) Rural residence (1=Yes, 0=No) -0.036 -0.057 -0.15 *** -0.021 -0.047 Rural residence (1=Yes, 0=No)-0.036-0.057-0.15 ***-0.021-0.047  (0.060) (0.049) (0.058) (0.048) (0.11) (0.060)(0.049)(0.058)(0.048)(0.11) Ag household (1=Yes,0= No) 0.18 *** -0.023 -0.15 *** -0.13 ** -0.11 Ag household (1=Yes,0= No)0.18 ***-0.023-0.15 ***-0.13 **-0.11  (0.063) (0.028) (0.052) (0.052) (0.081) (0.063)(0.028)(0.052)(0.052)(0.081) Constant -0.24 5.23 *** 1.40 -7.63 *** -4.56 Constant-0.245.23 ***1.40-7.63 ***-4.56  (3.95) (1.24) (1.96) (1.59) (6.46) (3.95)(1.24)(1.96)(1.59)(6.46) Observations 3161 3665 3104 4422 2520 Observations31613665310444222520 Notes:      Notes:  "},{"text":"Table A4 : Effects of Relative Deprivation of consumption on migration (HTIV results) Clustered standard errors are in parentheses. Level of significance * p < .10, ** p < .05, *** p < .01 Consumption relative deprivation (RD) is constructed using the log transformed values of consumption expenditures in local currency Variables Dependent Variable: Number of migrants,  VariablesDependent Variable: Number of migrants,  Model: Hausman Taylor IV (HTIV)   Model: Hausman Taylor IV (HTIV)  Tanzania Ethiopia Malawi Nigeria Uganda Tanzania EthiopiaMalawiNigeriaUganda Consumption relative deprivation 0.60 *** 0.54 *** 0.27 ** 0.45 *** -0.52 *** Consumption relative deprivation0.60 ***0.54 ***0.27 **0.45 ***-0.52 ***  (0.17) (0.12) (0.12) (0.075) (0.17) (0.17)(0.12)(0.12)(0.075)(0.17) Log (Consumption) 2.29 ** 1.44 *** 1.45 *** 1.36 *** -4.95 *** Log (Consumption)2.29 **1.44 ***1.45 ***1.36 ***-4.95 ***  (0.90) (0.37) (0.50) (0.29) (0.76) (0.90)(0.37)(0.50)(0.29)(0.76) Log (Consumption) squared -0.082 ** -0.10 *** -0.070 *** -0.070 *** 0.23 *** Log (Consumption) squared-0.082 **-0.10 ***-0.070 ***-0.070 ***0.23 ***  (0.040) (0.028) (0.025) (0.016) (0.033) (0.040)(0.028)(0.025)(0.016)(0.033) Constant -14.8 *** -4.98 *** -7.76 *** -7.54 *** 25.01 *** Constant-14.8 ***-4.98 ***-7.76 ***-7.54 ***25.01 ***  (5.12) (1.31) (2.55) (1.32) (4.39) (5.12)(1.31)(2.55)(1.32)(4.39) Other statistics      Other statistics Test: Log(Cons.) + Log(Cons) 2 =0      Test: Log(Cons.) + Log(Cons) 2 =0 P-values 0.01 0.001 0.004 0.000 0.000 P-values0.010.0010.0040.0000.000 Marginal effects      Marginal effects 25 th percentile 0.595 0.273 0.205 0.193 -0.219 25 th percentile0.5950.2730.2050.193-0.219 50 th percentile 0.526 0.188 0.144 0.121 0.009 50 th percentile0.5260.1880.1440.1210.009 Mean 0.515 0.183 0.136 0.121 0.035 Mean0.5150.1830.1360.1210.035 75 th percentile 0.444 0.099 0.078 0.049 0.251 75 th percentile0.4440.0990.0780.0490.251 95 th percentile 0.303 -0.047 -0.044 -0.059 0.697 95 th percentile0.303-0.047-0.044-0.0590.697 Observations 6322 7288 6206 8778 5049 Observations63227288620687785049 Notes:      Notes:  "},{"text":"Table A5 : Effects of Relative Deprivation of wealth on migration (HTIV results) Clustered standard errors are in parentheses. Level of significance * p < .10, ** p < .05, *** p < .01   Dep. Variable: Number of migrants  Dep. Variable: Number of migrants   Model: Hausman Taylor IV (HTIV)  Model: Hausman Taylor IV (HTIV)  Tanzania Ethiopia Malawi Nigeria Uganda Tanzania EthiopiaMalawiNigeria Uganda Wealth relative deprivation 0.14 *** 0.051 0.23 *** 0.073 * 0.21 *** Wealth relative deprivation0.14 ***0.0510.23 ***0.073 *0.21 ***  (0.046) (0.035) (0.039) (0.038) (0.051) (0.046)(0.035)(0.039)(0.038)(0.051) Wealth index 0.073 *** 0.014 * 0.073 *** 0.002 0.21 *** Wealth index0.073 ***0.014 *0.073 ***0.0020.21 ***  (0.022) (0.011) (0.015) (0.012) (0.022) (0.022)(0.011)(0.015)(0.012)(0.022) Household size 0.089 *** 0.039 *** 0.050 *** 0.085 *** 0.42 *** Household size0.089 ***0.039 ***0.050 ***0.085 ***0.42 ***  (0.0053) (0.004) (0.005) (0.004) (0.011) (0.0053)(0.004)(0.005)(0.004)(0.011) Dependency Ratio -0.024 *** -0.015 *** -0.009 ** -0.002 -0.04 *** Dependency Ratio-0.024 ***-0.015 ***-0.009 **-0.002-0.04 ***  (0.0067) (0.0036) (0.005) (0.005) (0.014) (0.0067)(0.0036)(0.005)(0.005)(0.014) Head's level of education -0.28 ** 0.013 -0.019 0.063 *** -0.019 Head's level of education-0.28 **0.013-0.0190.063 ***-0.019  (0.14) (0.018) (0.018) (0.015) (0.042) (0.14)(0.018)(0.018)(0.015)(0.042) Age of head -0.0026 0.0029 * -0.001 0.015 *** 0.009 *** Age of head-0.00260.0029 *-0.0010.015 ***0.009 ***  (0.0016) (0.0016) (0.0015) (0.002) (0.0028) (0.0016)(0.0016) (0.0015) (0.002) (0.0028) Female head (1=Yes, 0=No) -0.12 0.0079 0.0030 0.081 0.34 *** Female head (1=Yes, 0=No)-0.120.00790.00300.0810.34 ***  (0.075) (0.044) (0.047) (0.064) (0.098) (0.075)(0.044)(0.047)(0.064)(0.098) Married head (1=Yes, 0=No) -0.061 -0.025 0.026 -0.35 *** -0.52 *** Married head (1=Yes, 0=No)-0.061-0.0250.026-0.35 ***-0.52 ***  (0.049) (0.031) (0.040) (0.047) (0.091) (0.049)(0.031)(0.040)(0.047)(0.091) Rural residence (1=Yes, 0=No) -0.081 -0.051 0.076 0.014 -0.13 Rural residence (1=Yes, 0=No)-0.081-0.0510.0760.014-0.13  (0.054) (0.074) (0.069) (0.049) (0.12) (0.054)(0.074)(0.069)(0.049)(0.12) Ag household (1=Yes,0= No) 0.090 0.0005 -0.020 0.050 -0.095 * Ag household (1=Yes,0= No)0.0900.0005-0.0200.050-0.095 *  (0.063) (0.037) (0.032) (0.048) (0.052) (0.063)(0.037)(0.032)(0.048)(0.052) Constant 0.75 * 0.044 0.023 -1.16 *** -1.30 *** Constant0.75 *0.0440.023-1.16 ***-1.30 ***  (0.41) (0.21) (0.22) (0.23) (0.48) (0.41)(0.21)(0.22)(0.23)(0.48) Observations 6321 7497 6206 8772 5005 Observations63217497620687725005 Notes:      Notes:  "}],"sieverID":"38fac18a-cf53-4645-af88-b60e9ed0cb93","abstract":"This paper revisits the decades-old relative deprivation theory of migration in the context of sub-Saharan Africa. In contrast to the traditional view that migration is driven by absolute income maximization, we test whether relative deprivation induces migration in the context of sub-Saharan Africa. Taking advantage of the internationally comparable longitudinal data from integrated household and agriculture surveys from Tanzania, Ethiopia, Malawi, Nigeria, and Uganda, we use panel fixed effects to estimate the effects of relative deprivation on migration.Using per-capita consumption and multidimensional wealth index as wellbeing measures, we find that a household's migration decision is based not only on its absolute wellbeing status but also on the relative position of the household in the wellbeing distribution of the community it resides in. We also discover that the effect of relative deprivation on migration is amplified in rural, agricultural, and male-headed households. Results are robust to alternative specifications including use of Hausman Taylor Instrumental Variable (HTIV) estimator and pooled data across the five countries. Results confirm that the 'migration-relative deprivation' relationship holds in the context of sub-Saharan Africa also. We argue that policies designed to check ruralurban migration through rural transformation and poverty reduction programs should use care because such programs can increase economic inequality which further increases migration flow."}

data/part_4/034f95f3503894285944110b87e23460.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"034f95f3503894285944110b87e23460","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f341cd2b-bb86-4313-a882-bfbde4657c38/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"Technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Chestnut (Castanea sativa L.) is a large, deciduous tree, reaching a height of 40 m and a diameter of 150 cm, although exceptionally old or isolated individuals may attain a girth of 9 m. When grown for fruit, tree height does not normally exceed 18 m. Chestnut has an excellent ability to re-sprout from the stump and consequently produce coppice."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"In the Mediterranean region, chestnut is found at a variety of altitudes, from sea level to over 1000 m (1500 m in Spain and in Sicily). It prefers a mean annual rainfall of over 600 mm with no dry season, or a very short dry season of up to three months. Good fruit production requires a mean monthly temperature above 10°C for at least six months of the year."},{"index":3,"size":103,"text":"The buds burst relatively late, from April to June. Flowering occurs later in chestnut than in most other broadleaves: May-June in Mediterranean areas and June-July further North. The male catkins develop first, followed by the androgenous catkins at the upper end of the shoots. Male sterility of varying degrees is frequent in domesticated varieties and in some wild populations. Chestnut can be wind or insect pollinated, depending on the humidity. The small size of the chestnut pollen (14-18 microns) enables significant amounts to be transported up to 100 km. The spiky husks containing the edible brown nuts ripen at the end of October."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"Chestnut roots are very prone to \"ink\" disease, caused by several species of Phytophthora sp., mainly P. cinnamomii and P. cambivora. The first incidence in Europe was reported in 1726 in Spain, and the disease can cause significant damage in mild, humid climates. Chryphonectria parasitica, the chestnut canker introduced in Europe"}]},{"head":"Castanea sativa","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"These Technical Guidelines are intended to assist those who cherish the valuable chestnut genepool and its inheritance, through conserving valuable seed sources or use in practical forestry. The focus is on conserving the genetic diversity of the species at the European scale. The recommendations provided in this module should be regarded as a commonly agreed basis to be complemented and further developed in local, national or regional conditions. The Guidelines are based on the available knowledge of the species and on widely accepted methods for the conservation of forest genetic resources. "}]},{"head":"Distribution","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Genetic knowledge astanea sativa C hestnutCastanea sativaChestnutCastanea sativaChestnutCastanea sativaChestnutCastanea have a greater heat requirement for bud burst, have higher growth, and stop growing later than those found in dry conditions. The genetic differences between domesticated and wild populations is longstanding. The lengthy domestication of chestnut, mainly for nut production, is thought to have caused genetic differentiation between the cultivated varieties and the wild populations."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"Chestnut is an economically important species, covering large areas in France, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. Tall forests for producing high quality timber are currently very scarce but are increasing in area. Chestnut timber is straight grained, and closely resembles oak in colour and texture. It is highly valued, and large trees, free of defects are especially prized. Chestnut wood is used extensively in rural areas, and the early formation of heartwood keeps it well preserved. Small pieces of wood were traditionally harvested from coppices and used in vineyards and mines."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"In the Mediterranean region, chestnut is an important multipurpose tree used for both nut and wood production. The use of the species increased as the surface area and distribution range expanded, and grafted orchards and coppices are now found in vast, continuous areas. Many varieties have been grafted, mostly for nut and wood production. The chestnut fruit is extensively consumed by humans, and is an ingredient in many traditional recipes. Although nut prices are currently high, many orchards are being abandoned due to rural depopulation, particularly in the Mediterranean region."},{"index":4,"size":145,"text":"The adaptability of wild populations, in some areas, is under threat due to the reduced genetic base resulting from the incorporation of seedlings from a few grafted genotypes. The domestication of wild populations, by grafting wild trees with scions of varieties, is a significant threat to the genetic variability of some wild populations. Coppicing rotation of high density populations prevents regeneration and thus stops the natural selection processes -and is also considered a threat. Domestication of chestnut is thought to have significantly influenced the genetic variability of the wild populations. Socioeconomic developments in the Mediterranean have led to many chestnut orchards being abandoned, which are now slowly reverting back to the wild. Local grafted varieties represent an important genetic resource, and the loss of these orchards through neglect during the 20th century has resulted in the loss of genetic diversity of domesticated chestnut throughout Europe."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"The introgression of the Asiatic chestnut species in the European wild chestnut"}]},{"head":"Threats to genetic diversity","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Importance and use astanea sativa C a sativaChestnutCastanea sativaChestnutCastanea sativaChestnutCastanea sativaChestnut populations has frequently occurred in areas where both pure species and hybrids were planted, due to the overlapping flowering period. Hybridization affects both the adaptive potential and the phenotype of trees, and this must be considered when analysing the benefits and risks of hybrid plantations. In some cases, nuts from domesticated varieties are being used for forest plantations instead of that from wild populations, because of the lower prices."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"The first step to ensure the conservation and sustainable use of chestnut genetic resources in Europe is to assess, for each country, the present and past geographical distribution of the species, the conservation status, to identify threats and the prevailing or potential uses. Inventories should be undertaken in countries where the distribution of the species in the wild is unknown. Historical data may be required to distinguish the natural distribution range from the naturalized populations. Ecological gradients could be used to define ecogeographic zones or regions of provenance where the species is seed propagated."},{"index":3,"size":127,"text":"For in situ conservation of populations, several managed stands should be designated from those selected for seed production (seed stands), with at least 100 trees that fruit regularly in each. These populations should then be sampled for provenance testing. If the populations are small (less than 20 trees), then seeds from several different populations within an ecogeographic zone should be collected and mixed, and the seedlings produced should be planted in the in situ gene conservation population to enhance their genetic diversity. If this is not possible, the number of trees in the population should be increased by planting material according to data from provenance trials where available, or by introducing individuals from similar ecological conditions. Different conservation populations should be established for nut and wood production."},{"index":4,"size":122,"text":"A Multiple Population Breeding System (MPBS) is recommended to conserve the genetic diversity in wild populations (Ideally in MPBS, a breeding population is subdivided into subpopulations which are then grown over a wide range of site conditions. Each subpopulation may have the same or different breeding goal. In less intensive version of MPBS, subpopulations are selected from existing forests instead of establishing ex situ stands of the subpopulations). To create a European network of gene conservation stands, at least 30 ('undomesticated') stands should be selected throughout the distribution area, with greater numbers representing astanea sativa C tCastanea sativaChestnutCastanea sativaChestnutCastanea sativaChestnutCastanea sativa Guidelines for genetic conservation and use marginal populations. Sub-populations should be managed to promote nut production in trees with desirable phenotypes."},{"index":5,"size":92,"text":"Cultivated varieties should be conserved in clonal archives. Clonal archives of plus trees and local fruit varieties can be considered as sub-populations within a Multiple Population Breeding System, with the main objectives of breeding and preserving the present composition of the chestnut forest stands and orchards. The aim is to prevent disappearance due to disease or dysgenic selection. Since two hybridizing species confer disease tolerance to C. sativa, it is recommended to include material from plus trees of C. crenata and C. molissima in clonal archives, located in areas without pronounced drought."},{"index":6,"size":82,"text":"For ex situ conservation, provenance tests should be established in contrasting, disease free environments. Aiming firstly at studying the variability of the adaptive traits and then to conserve the material, progeny tests of selected plus trees from several populations should be set up on sites where a breeding programme will be implemented. One of the populations will serve as a control, to be tested in different environments, and the others will be included depending on the needs and priorities of every country. "}]},{"head":"Castanea sativa","index":5,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"ChestnutCastanea sativaChestnutCastanea sativaChestnutCastanea sativaChestnut Distribution range of chestnut www.euforgen.org More information Fernández-López, J., R. Díaz-Vazquez, M.A. Cogolludo-Agustín, S.Pereira- Lorenzo. 2000. Conservation of noble hardwoods in Spain [in Spanish]. Inv. Agr., Sistemas y Recursos Forestales, fuera de serie, 2: 71-94. Fineschi, S., D. Taurchini, F. Villani, G.G. Vendramini. 2000. Chloroplast DNA polymorphism reveals little geographical structure in Castanea sativa Mill. (Fagaceae) throughout southern European countries. Molecular Ecology 9, 1495-1503. Lauteri, M., A. Scartaza, M.C. Guido, E. Brugnoli. 1997. Genetic variation in photosinthetic capacity, carbon isotope discrimination and mesophyll conductance in provenances of Castanea sativa adapted to different environments. Functional Ecology, 11: 675-683. Pereira-Lorenzo, S., J. Fernández-López, J. Moreno-González. 1996. Variability and grouping of Nothwestern Spanish Chestnut Cultivars.I.Morphological traits.II. Isoenzyme traits. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 121(2): 183-197. Villani, F., M. Pigliucci, M. Cherubini. 1994. Evolution of Castanea sativa Mill. In Turkey and Europe. Genetic Research, 63:109-116. The distribution map, including both natural and naturalized occurrence, was compiled by members of the EUFORGEN Noble Hardwoods Network based on an earlier map published by (i) Maurer, W.D.; Fernández-López, J. in 2001 (Establishing an international sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) provenance test: preliminary steps -Forest Snow and Landscape Research. 76, 3: 482-486) and by (ii) Bounous G. in 2002 (Il Castagno: coltura, ambiente ed utilizzazione in Italia e nel mondo. Ed. Agricole -Bologna. Italy) Castanea sativa tCastanea sativaChestnutCastanea sativaChestnutCastanea sativaChestnutCastanea sativa Castanea sativa tCastanea sativaChestnutCastanea sativaChestnutCastanea sativaChestnutCastanea sativa EUFORGEN  EUFORGEN These Technical Guidelines were Selected bibliography These Technical Guidelines wereSelected bibliography produced by members of the  produced by members of the EUFORGEN Noble Hardwoods  EUFORGEN Noble Hardwoods Network. The objective of the Net-  Network. The objective of the Net- work is to identify minimum genet-  work is to identify minimum genet- ic conservation requirements in  ic conservation requirements in the long term in Europe, in order  the long term in Europe, in order to reduce the overall conserva-  to reduce the overall conserva- tion cost and to improve the qual-  tion cost and to improve the qual- ity of standards in each country.  ity of standards in each country. Fernández-López J. and R. Alía.  Fernández-López J. and R. Alía. 2003. EUFORGEN Technical  2003. EUFORGEN Technical Guidelines for genetic conserva-  Guidelines for genetic conserva- tion and use for chestnut (Cas-  tion and use for chestnut (Cas- tanea sativa). International Plant  tanea sativa). International Plant Genetic Resources Institute,  Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy. 6 pages.  Rome, Italy. 6 pages. Drawings: Castanea sativa,  Drawings: Castanea sativa, Giovanna Bernetti. © IPGRI,  Giovanna Bernetti. © IPGRI, 2003.  2003. ISBN 92-9043-606-9  ISBN 92-9043-606-9 EUFORGEN Secretariat c/o IPGRI  EUFORGEN Secretariat c/o IPGRI Via dei Tre Denari, 472/a  Via dei Tre Denari, 472/a 00057 Maccarese (Fiumicino)  00057 Maccarese (Fiumicino) Rome, Italy  Rome, Italy Tel. (+39)066118251  Tel. (+39)066118251 Fax: (+39)0661979661  Fax: (+39)0661979661 [email protected]  [email protected]  "}],"sieverID":"86e85e22-f1d2-4d2c-9421-f5e0b165532b","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0362d6825ea3a1c17b9f8f0767112499.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0362d6825ea3a1c17b9f8f0767112499","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/89b9c0fe-2355-4cba-a944-ea992bfd68d6/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"About this Newsletter","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"The Botanic Garden of Padua, Italy, the world's oldest botanic garden, has been recognised as being of outstanding value to humankind and was included in the UNESCO World Heritage list in 1997. Established by decree of the Venetian Republic in 1545, the Garden was originally devoted to the cultivation of native and exotic medicinal plants. In association with the University of Padua, it has played an important role in the study of plants and witnessed the evolution of botany from its initial application to medicine, to its numerous branches of today. Facilities at the Botanic Garden now include a library (ancient section), herbarium and a number of laboratories. In recent years, the modern section of the library and the other laboratories have moved to a new building in the Department of Biology. The Botanic Garden undertakes research and teaching, and is involved in the conservation of rare and endangered species."},{"index":2,"size":205,"text":"In 1998, the site of the Garden, originally surrounded by private gardens and orchards, came under threat by urban development and more specifically, by the construction of an underground garage. As a consequence of extensive digging around the boundaries of the Garden, the level of the water table was significantly lowered. This resulted in the living collections maintained in the Garden becoming particularly vulnerable, due to the precarious soil-water balance and changes occurring in the surrounding area. This vulnerability was recognised and consequently, the Garden was included in the World Monument Watch's \"List of 100 Most Endangered Sites 1998-1999\". A number of trees in the Garden with superficial root systems, including the first sample of Cedrus deodara (D. Don) G. Don fil. introduced into Italy in 1839, are showing symptoms due to water stress. The Garden also hosts many other important trees such as Ginkgo biloba L. and a Magnolia grandiflora L. dating back to the mid 18 th century, which are considered some of the oldest specimens in Europe. A giant specimen of palm (Chamaerops humilis L. var. arborescens (Pers.) Steud.), commonly known as Göethe palm was planted in 1585. At more than 400 years old, this is the oldest plant in the Garden."},{"index":3,"size":188,"text":"A paper describing the current situation and the urgent need for action to preserve this unique Garden was presented in September 1998 at the 5th International Botanic Gardens Conservation Congress in Cape Town, South Africa. This presentation and a number of other public awareness activities undertaken locally and internationally by staff and friends of the Garden, drew attention to the situation and highlighted the importance of the material being maintained. Efforts included an appeal to over 300 people and organizations, led by Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI). This targeted representatives of the Italian Government and opposing political parties, regional and local authorities, scientific institutions, national and international press. Other appeals were also made by key botanists, and a number of scientific academies worldwide The process to achieve a 'European Prunus collection' was discussed, and the general feeling was that a decentralized collection scheme could easily be achieved on a European scale, as an evolution of existing approaches for conservation at the national level. A document summarizing the aims of such a collection and the responsibilities of the participants will be drafted for the next meeting of the Group."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"Relevant updates on national collections were presented, and these are included in the meeting's report along with the final list of specific evaluation descriptors, available from the ECP/GR Secretariat. The final coordination meeting of Project GEN RES 61 is to be held later in 1999 in Belgium, possibly jointly with the first meeting of the ECP/GR Fruit Network Coordinating Group."}]},{"head":"Photo: ISF, Italy. \"Stark saturn\"","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"The number of European Central Crop Databases accessible from the European Information Platform (http://www.cgiar.org/ecpgr/platform) is continuing to expand. European databases that can be either searched on-line or downloaded, include forages crops (Agrostis, Bromus, Dactylis, Festuca, Lathyrus, Lolium, perennial Medicago, Phalaris, Phleum, Poa, Trifolium pratense and T. repens), legumes (Cicer, Glycine and Phaseolus), vegetables (Brassica, Rocket and potato), fruits (Malus, Minor fruit trees and Vitis), and cereals (Avena, Barley, Secale and wheat)."}]},{"head":"Forages...","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"An effort to centralize existing data on European minor forage collections is currently under way within the ECP/GR Forages Network. The Institute for Agrobotany, Tápiószele, Hungary, has kindly offered to expand the scope of the database currently entitled \"Other perennial forage legumes\", which is limited to Anthyllis, Lotus, Melilotus and Onobrychis. The intention is to include data, for all forage legumes that do not have a separate database, within a renamed \"European Minor Forage Legumes Database\". Similarly, a \"European Minor Forage Grasses Database\" will be maintained at the Nordic Gene Bank (NGB) as an input in kind to ECP/GR. This database will include other minor forage grasses currently not included in any existing central databases. A more precise list of the genera included in the two databases is currently under discussion within the Network."}]},{"head":"...and Pyrus","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"As recommended by the ECP/GR Malus/Pyrus Working Group, a European Pyrus Database is now being established thanks to the commitment of the Centre de Recherches Agronomiques, Gembloux, Belgium. This is the result of the joint efforts of the new Department of Biological Control and Plant Genetic Resources, and the Unit of Biometry, Data Management and Agrometeorology. As a first step, pear curators in Europe are now being requested to send lists of their Pyrus accessions. The Pyrus Database will be developed in close collaboration with managers of the existing fruit tree crop databases. An important objective of this database will be to increase the accessibility of the genetic resources and to optimize their utilization by bona fide users."}]},{"head":"ECP/GR now starting Phase VI","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"With the advent of 1999, ECP/ GR is starting its sixth phase of operation. The Programme was founded in 1980 based on the recommendations of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the European Association for Research on Plant Breeding (EUCARPIA) Genebank Committee. During its 18 years of activity, ECP/GR has played a significant role in developing a system to promote direct contact between National Programmes and institutions involved in crop genetic resources activities."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"A continuing willingness at the European level for increased international collaboration combined with the increased interdependence of countries with regard to PGR are at the basis of the decision to continue the programme into a new five year Phase (1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"As of 28 April 1999, twelve countries (Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Finland, Germany, Macedonia (FYR), Malta, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Spain and Switzerland have signed Letters of Agreement with IPGRI to join the new phase of the Programme and to renew their commitment to host central crop databases or European collections on behalf of all the ECP/GR countries."},{"index":4,"size":66,"text":"According to the workplan agreed by the Steering Committee, the following ECP/ GR meetings are planned for 1999: These meetings are in principle closed meetings. Interested readers are encouraged to contact their country member to ensure that their needs and interests are well represented at the meetings. Contact details can be found at http:// www.cgiar.org/ecpgr or can be requested from the IPGRI Regional Office for Europe."}]},{"head":"Update on European databases","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"x to facilitate the long-term in situ and ex situ conservation of PGR in Europe;"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"x to facilitate the increased utilization of PGR in Europe;"},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"x to strengthen links between all PGR Programmes in Europe and promote the integration of countries which are not members of ECP/GR;"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"x to encourage cooperation between all stakeholders, including NGOs and private breeders;"},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"x to increase the planning of joint activities including the development of joint project proposals to be submitted to funding agencies;"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"x to encourage the sharing of conservation responsibilities for PGR in Europe;"},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"x to increase awareness, at all levels, of the importance of PGR activities including conservation and sustainable use;"},{"index":8,"size":140,"text":"x to seek collaboration with other relevant regional and global initiatives. One of the first activities undertaken in early 1998 was to address priority setting at a workshop hosted in Aleppo. A major outcome of this workshop, achieved via a participatory process involving all national programmes of the region, was a priority action plan for the sustainable conservation and use of NUS. The meeting highlighted priority species such as Pistacia and priority areas of intervention, such as documentation of PGR diversity and use, deployment of NUS for land rehabilitation, food security and income generation in rural areas. In view of the winding down of donor support for the UMS project, these priorities were taken up by the CWANA office and their partners in the region, and specific activities are being initiated and/or strengthened under the cooperative framework established by IPGRI."}]},{"head":"Revised objectives for","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"In the case of pistachio, the Pistacia Genetic Resources Network, launched by the UMS project in 1994, met in December 1998 in Irbid, Jordan, to address the issue of documenting the distribution and use of genetic diversity of wild and cultivated species of Pistacia. Cooperation established by the UMS project continues to yield fruit in other networks too: the Italian partners of the Hulled Wheat Network are organizing a meeting in early 1999 to review ongoing activities and to strengthen links among scientists working on these species in Italy."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"In reviewing international developments on NUS, it is clear that awareness of their importance has grown remarkably over the past few years and recent events indicate a greater commitment of stakeholders, including policy makers, in their support:"},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"x On 2 July 1998, at the European Symposium on Plant Genetic Resources, Braunschweig, Germany, the need to strengthen the work on NUS was reiterated and it was recommended that existing European networking platforms such as ECP/GR be used to promote activities in this domain;"},{"index":4,"size":90,"text":"x On 23 September 1998, the  As a crossroad between Europe and Asia, Macedonia (FYR) has become the home for diverse species and varieties of plants in past centuries. A number of international/bilateral projects were undertaken in the 1960s and 1970s, most of them with partners from the US to collect cereals, fruits and vegetables. A large number of accessions was collected as a result of these projects. In absence of appropriate storage and facilities in the time of former Yugoslavia, the accessions were being sent to the foreign counterparts."}]},{"head":"Update on Vavilov-Frankel Fellowships","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Macedonia (FYR) joins ECP/GR and reconstitutes lost collection","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"Since 1991 there have been several attempts to reorganize the conservation activities. In the meantime, existing accessions are being maintained in fields trials only, which is contributing significantly to the loss of diversity. In the last two years, fundamental infrastructure and equipment have been provided at the Institute of Agriculture in Skopje, which has created a base upon which to establish a central genebank. From the start of 1999, intensive efforts have focused on organizing the national programme for crop genetic resources and establishing a central genebank. This programme is planned to be financed by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Economy. According to the plans so far, priority activities are to undertake an inventory and to document existing collections. The programme will be implemented by the four collaborating research institutes, each in charge of a specific group of crops. The seeds and planting material will be stored at the central genebank in the Institute of Agriculture in Skopje."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"In Four years after its establishment in November 1994, the number of countries participating in this Programme is currently 28, with a high probability of increasing further in the near future. The countries, institutes and individuals actively involved in the technical activities of the five Networks have increased steadily. In order to harmonize action and to effectively address themes of common interest, such as the role of tree breeding in gene conservation, global climate change and conservation of ecosystems, the Steering Committee recommended that closer links be facilitated between the Networks. To facilitate this, an 'Inter-Network Group' consisting of the chairs and vice-chairs of all Networks was established."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"This modification in the Programme's structure was included as part of the proposal to extend EUFORGEN into a second phase. This proposal was discussed and endorsed by the Steering Committee, and phase two will start 1 January 2000 for a period of five years. In this second phase, EUFORGEN will be further developed to support the implementation of objectives outlined in Strasbourg Ministerial Resolution S2 (see Table ). Activities undertaken through five species oriented Networks will continue as the main operational level of the Programme. However, it was agreed to broaden their species scope further, as suggested and initiated by the individual Networks. The Networks operating during Phase II will be:"},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"x Conifers (previously Picea abies Network) x Mediterranean oaks (previously Quercus suber Network) x Populus nigra (and P. alba)"},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"x Noble Hardwoods x Social Broadleaves"},{"index":6,"size":84,"text":"The budget for the new phase, which is based on annual financial contributions of countries and maintained at a similar level as the first phase, was approved. In addition to the contribution of each country to cover coordination costs (including meetings and publications), participating countries will also provide contributions in kind to Networks of their concern and interest. The commitment of many countries in providing staff time and facilities to the Networks during the past four years was mentioned with appreciation at the meeting."},{"index":7,"size":122,"text":"As a coordinated European effort, EUFORGEN promotes the establishment and implementation of national programmes on forest genetic resources. A survey conducted prior to the Steering Committee meeting documents the progress made in this area since the first meeting of the Committee (held in November 1995 in Sopron, Hungary). Results of the survey, to which 37 countries responded, reveal that major challenges for national programmes are the involvement of all relevant stakeholders and the achievement of efficient coordination of their activities. In addition to national coordination, the survey also covered international collaboration and the conservation of genetic resources in forestry practice were covered by the survey. An overview of the results will be published along with the Report of the meeting during 1999."}]},{"head":"EUFORGEN","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Exchanges of reproductive materials","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Monitoring of progress","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"x overviews of information x state-of-the-art reports by countries (presented at SC meetings) In this project, the genetic diversity of P. nigra populations along the borders of six river systems (the Danube, Drome, Ebro, Rhine, Ticino, and Usk) will be studied. Diversity will be studied at different levelsmorphological characteristics will be compared with isozyme patterns; choroplast DNA polymorphism; Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLPs), and microsatellites. This approach will enable a comparison and evaluation of results using traditional and modern techniques. The whole drainage of the Drome will be analysed for the spatial distribution of the diversity."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Additionally, the study of key parameters of stand dynamics will provide data for in situ management and reintroduction strategies. To verify the current states of ex situ conservation in each country, genebank collections of P. nigra will be studied using the same techniques. This standardization of techniques used is essential for a relevant comparison of data obtained by the participating laboratories and to enable general conclusions to be reached on the genetic diversity. The EUFORGEN Populus nigra Network core and reference collections will play a key role in EUROPOP."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"During the second meeting (held in Wageningen, in January 1999) it was concluded that the project is on schedule. All populations along the six river systems have been selected and samples and cuttings taken. Standardization of isozyme analyses has been completed using the EUFORGEN reference collection and the determination of cytotypes present in the core collection is almost complete. AFLP standardization has not been possible and an alternative programme for AFLP analysis has been chosen. Microsatellite primers have been isolated and will become available in the near future."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"To ensure the implementation of the results in conservation strategies and the management of riparian ecosystems, an International Symposium will be held in the Netherlands in 2001. A handbook for riparian ecosystem managers will then be published."},{"index":5,"size":123,"text":"More information on EUROPOP can be obtained on the Internet (www.ibn.dlo.nl/ europop), and this will soon be supplemented with the first annual report including the results of the first year of this EU project. Considering it essential that regional collaboration for genetic resources conservation and use is extended beyond the borders of the European Union, it remains an objective for ECP/GR to continue promoting the participation of non-EU countries in the above EU-funded projects. Non-EU participants have already made a valuable contribution to the overall result of EC 1467/94 projects on Allium, Maize, Potato, Prunus and Vitis. A special ECP/GR fund, devoted to the cooperation with EU-funded projects, is now open to donations from ECP/GR participating countries and other donors and interested parties."}]},{"head":"EUROPOP: European cooperation in research on Black Poplar","index":13,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" VI of ECP/GR, Macedonia (Former Yugoslav Republic -FYR) is one of 33 countries participating in the Programme. This involvement in international collaboration comes at an important time for PGR activities in the Republic. The initial activities on crop genetic resources commenced in 1995 with the \"genebank project\" financed by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Economy. Four institutes collaborate in the project, sharing the responsibility of collecting and maintaining different crops. The Institute of Agriculture in Skopje maintains about 250 accessions of cereals (mostly domestic), 100 fruit trees and 40 foreign grape varieties; the Institute of Agriculture in Strumica conserves more than 110 accessions (national and foreign origin) of vegetables and industrial crops (cotton, melon, pepper, peanuts, sesame and tomato); the Institute for Tobacco in Prilep maintains 25 Macedonian tobacco cultivars, and the Institute for Rice in Kochani has the responsibility for maintaining 200 rice accessions, out of which 37 are of local origin. Plans of this project include the building of a central genebank in Skopje and the establishment of a biodiversity coordination body to direct the activities of all the relevant institutions, ministries and organizations. "},{"text":" Photo: INRA, France Riparian ecosystem with black poplar in France "},{"text":"ECP/GR Working Group and EU project (GEN RES 61) meeting ECP/GR  Extensive progress was shown \"S\" alleles of several cherry and  Extensive progress was shown\"S\" alleles of several cherry and in the development of the almond cultivars was determined  in the development of thealmond cultivars was determined European Prunus Database and susceptibility to several  European Prunus Databaseand susceptibility to several (EPDB) at an extraordinary diseases was evaluated,  (EPDB) at an extraordinarydiseases was evaluated, meeting of the ECP/GR Prunus including Taphrina and  meeting of the ECP/GR Prunusincluding Taphrina and Working Group held 3-5 Phytophthora on peach,  Working Group held 3-5Phytophthora on peach, December 1998 in Rheinfelden, Monilinia on apricot blossoms, Although science formulates December 1998 in Rheinfelden,Monilinia on apricot blossoms,Although science formulates Switzerland. The database now Monilinia, Cytospora, many new and interesting ideas Switzerland. The database nowMonilinia, Cytospora,many new and interesting ideas includes all passport data and Pseudomonas, Cherry Rosette relevant to genetic resources, it includes all passport data andPseudomonas, Cherry Rosetterelevant to genetic resources, it minimum characterization data virus and Cherry Raspberry is not often possible, or easy to minimum characterization datavirus and Cherry Raspberryis not often possible, or easy to sent by curators of European Prunus collections to the managing Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), Bordeaux, France. Final modifications on the list of virus on cherry, Monilinia and Plum Pox virus on plum and prune, etc. Participants reported on their recent research activities using molecular markers for Prunus, apply them in practical forest management. This issue brought scientists and representatives of the forestry practice together for a discussion on 30 March 1999 at the Hungarian Academy of Sciences in Budapest. sent by curators of European Prunus collections to the managing Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), Bordeaux, France. Final modifications on the list ofvirus on cherry, Monilinia and Plum Pox virus on plum and prune, etc. Participants reported on their recent research activities using molecular markers for Prunus,apply them in practical forest management. This issue brought scientists and representatives of the forestry practice together for a discussion on 30 March 1999 at the Hungarian Academy of Sciences in Budapest. evaluation descriptors to be which are considered useful Scientists from several evaluation descriptors to bewhich are considered usefulScientists from several included in the database were tools for cultivar fingerprinting, institutions and over 40 forest included in the database weretools for cultivar fingerprinting,institutions and over 40 forest also agreed upon. An entry page diversity studies, breeding managers from around the also agreed upon. An entry pagediversity studies, breedingmanagers from around the for web access was established programmes and taxonomic country attended the session for web access was establishedprogrammes and taxonomiccountry attended the session on the Internet (http:// www.cgiar.org/ecpgr/platform) and a link to the database, which may be searched online, is soon to be activated. studies. Interesting results were obtained at Horticultural Research International (HRI), East Malling, UK by the 1997 Vavilov-Frankel Fellow (see organized as part of the regular meeting of the Academy's Forestry Commission. The main principles of the conservation and sustainable use of forest genetic resources were explained in the on the Internet (http:// www.cgiar.org/ecpgr/platform) and a link to the database, which may be searched online, is soon to be activated.studies. Interesting results were obtained at Horticultural Research International (HRI), East Malling, UK by the 1997 Vavilov-Frankel Fellow (seeorganized as part of the regular meeting of the Academy's Forestry Commission. The main principles of the conservation and sustainable use of forest genetic resources were explained in the  page 4) K. Gašic, from the introductory part of the session. page 4) K. Gašic, from theintroductory part of the session.  University of Novi Sad, Fed. Presentations on forest gene University of Novi Sad, Fed.Presentations on forest gene  Rep. Yugoslavia, who identified conservation activities within the Rep. Yugoslavia, who identifiedconservation activities within the  new isoenzyme and Random National Council on PGR were new isoenzyme and RandomNational Council on PGR were  Fragment Length Polymorphic presented, followed by reports on Fragment Length Polymorphicpresented, followed by reports on  DNA (RFLP) markers to be used in characterizing the genetic diversity of vineyard peach collection in the Fed. Rep. Yugoslavia. forest tree species of greatest interest including black poplar, oaks and noble hardwoods, especially Pyrus. The involvement of Hungary in international collaborative DNA (RFLP) markers to be used in characterizing the genetic diversity of vineyard peach collection in the Fed. Rep. Yugoslavia.forest tree species of greatest interest including black poplar, oaks and noble hardwoods, especially Pyrus. The involvement of Hungary in international collaborative  Future work of the Group activities was also discussed. Future work of the Groupactivities was also discussed.  will focus on obtaining Forest managers raised will focus on obtainingForest managers raised  additional agronomic data for questions concerning the additional agronomic data forquestions concerning the  the EPDB and on the analysis applicability of research results the EPDB and on the analysisapplicability of research results  of a few indicators of genetic and were particularly interested of a few indicators of geneticand were particularly interested The extraordinary meeting diversity in the European collections, such as the polymorphism of incompatibility alleles in cherry and almond, diversity of to know about the impact of global climate change on forest genetic diversity. Several examples of incorporating genetic concerns into the management of forests were mentioned, such as the The extraordinary meetingdiversity in the European collections, such as the polymorphism of incompatibility alleles in cherry and almond, diversity ofto know about the impact of global climate change on forest genetic diversity. Several examples of incorporating genetic concerns into the management of forests were mentioned, such as the was held jointly with the Third flowering time in almond or the successful conservation of poplar was held jointly with the Thirdflowering time in almond or thesuccessful conservation of poplar Coordination Meeting of the EU variation in disease resistance resources by a forest company in Coordination Meeting of the EUvariation in disease resistanceresources by a forest company in Project GEN RES 61 hosted by of peaches. A catalogue listing Szigetköz, despite their poor Project GEN RES 61 hosted byof peaches. A catalogue listingSzigetköz, despite their poor the Swiss Federal Research cultivars of European origin phenotypic performance. the Swiss Federal Researchcultivars of European originphenotypic performance. Station for Fruit Growing, which are freely available will The outcomes of the session Station for Fruit Growing,which are freely available willThe outcomes of the session Viticulture and Horticulture, Wädenswil (FAW) and attended by 20 participants from 13 countries. The participation of non-EU countries, including be prepared for the benefit of researchers without Internet facilities, nurserymen, farmers, colleges and the general public. provide an important step in developing a comprehensive national strategy on forest genetic resources which will be accepted by the forestry practice in the near future. Viticulture and Horticulture, Wädenswil (FAW) and attended by 20 participants from 13 countries. The participation of non-EU countries, includingbe prepared for the benefit of researchers without Internet facilities, nurserymen, farmers, colleges and the general public.provide an important step in developing a comprehensive national strategy on forest genetic resources which will be accepted by the forestry practice in the near future. Hungary, Poland, Romania,   Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland   Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland and Turkey was supported by   and Turkey was supported by ECP/GR.   ECP/GR. From the large amount of   From the large amount of evaluation data recently   evaluation data recently collected, the incompatibility of   collected, the incompatibility of  "},{"text":"Phase VI An update on UMS and NUS activities Following the relocation of the Following the relocation of the Underutilized Mediterranean Underutilized Mediterranean Species (UMS) project Species (UMS) project coordinator from Rome to coordinator from Rome to IPGRI's Regional Office for IPGRI's Regional Office for Central and West Asia and Central and West Asia and North Africa (CWANA) in North Africa (CWANA) in Aleppo, Syria in late 1997, there Aleppo, Syria in late 1997, there have been a number of have been a number of developments in the activities developments in the activities promoted by IPGRI on promoted by IPGRI on Neglected and Underutilized Neglected and Underutilized Species (NUS). Both the new Species (NUS). Both the new location and experience gained location and experience gained previously through the UMS previously through the UMS project have contributed to project have contributed to strengthening these activities by strengthening these activities by enabling closer partnerships enabling closer partnerships between IPGRI and national between IPGRI and national programmess in the CWANA programmess in the CWANA region. region.  "},{"text":" mentioned in previous issues of the Newsletter, the Vavilov-Frankel Fellowship Programme was established by the IPGRI Board of Trustees to commemorate the unique contributions to plant science by Academician Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov and Sir Otto Frankel. The first two Fellowships were awarded in 1993 to scientists from the Netherlands and Russia to examine and record the work of scientists in the PGR community, including those after whom the Fund is named. In subsequent years the Fellowships Dr S. Padulosi collaboration among breeders Dr S. Padulosicollaboration among breeders Integrated Conservation specifically on NUS; Integrated Conservationspecifically on NUS; Methodologies and Uses IPGRI Regional Office for CWANA Aleppo, Syria x On 1 October 1998, an international meeting of experts entitled \"Interdependence and Food Methodologies and Uses IPGRI Regional Office for CWANA Aleppo, Syriax On 1 October 1998, an international meeting of experts entitled \"Interdependence and Food  Security: which list of PGRFA Security: which list of PGRFA  for the future Multilateral for the future Multilateral  System?\" was called by the System?\" was called by the  Overseas Agronomic Institute Overseas Agronomic Institute  of Italy (IAO) to address of Italy (IAO) to address  issues related to the FAO issues related to the FAO  International Undertaking. International Undertaking.  At this meeting the possible At this meeting the possible  inclusion of a list of NUS inclusion of a list of NUS  within the International within the International  Undertaking Agreement Undertaking Agreement  currently under revision currently under revision  was also discussed. was also discussed.  Genetic Resources Genetic Resources  Committee of the CGIAR Committee of the CGIAR  organized an international organized an international  workshop on \"Enlarging the workshop on \"Enlarging the  basis of Food Security: Role basis of Food Security: Role  of Underutilized Species\", of Underutilized Species\",  Chennai, India, where it Chennai, India, where it  was recommended that the was recommended that the  CGIAR Technical Advisory CGIAR Technical Advisory  Committee (TAC) look at Committee (TAC) look at  the possibility of the possibility of  strengthening CGIAR's strengthening CGIAR's  efforts on this domain. efforts on this domain.  Parallel to these events, IPGRI Parallel to these events, IPGRI  has been working on the has been working on the  production of a NUS web page production of a NUS web page  to serve as an information tool to serve as an information tool  on \"who-is-doing-what-and- on \"who-is-doing-what-and-  where\" on NUS. These pages, where\" on NUS. These pages,  soon to be published on the soon to be published on the  Internet, will offer the possibility Internet, will offer the possibility  of downloading publications of downloading publications  produced through the UMS and produced through the UMS and  the project on neglected species the project on neglected species have been awarded to outstanding young scientists from developing supported by Germany. have been awarded to outstanding young scientists from developingsupported by Germany. countries to travel outside their own country to carry out innovative research relevant to PGR resources for a period of three months to one year. The Vavilov-Frankel Fellowships for 1999 have been awarded to: Collaboration within and across the regions has never been more important in the promotion of NUS and IPGRI will continue countries to travel outside their own country to carry out innovative research relevant to PGR resources for a period of three months to one year. The Vavilov-Frankel Fellowships for 1999 have been awarded to:Collaboration within and across the regions has never been more important in the promotion of NUS and IPGRI will continue  to foster cooperation worldwide to foster cooperation worldwide  using existing platforms and using existing platforms and  networks while underlining the networks while underlining the  importance of new fora such as importance of new fora such as  the newly launched EUCARPIA the newly launched EUCARPIA XV EUCARPIA Congress, Viterbo, Italy, established a new forum on underutilized Working Group on Underutilized Species. LET'S JOIN HANDS FOR NUS! XV EUCARPIA Congress, Viterbo, Italy, established a new forum on underutilizedWorking Group on Underutilized Species. LET'S JOIN HANDS FOR NUS! species (within the existing  species (within the existing EUCARPIA Gene Bank  EUCARPIA Gene Bank Committee) for fostering  Committee) for fostering  "},{"text":"Implementation of the objectives of Strasbourg Resolution S2 through EUFORGEN   The initiation of European its natural habitat by drainage of The initiation of Europeanits natural habitat by drainage of  cooperation in research by a rivers and management of cooperation in research by arivers and management of  EUFORGEN Network is riverbanks. It is not yet known EUFORGEN Network isriverbanks. It is not yet known  illustrated by the new EU whether the genetic diversity of illustrated by the new EUwhether the genetic diversity of  funded project \"Genetic the species has been reduced funded project \"Geneticthe species has been reduced  Diversity in River Populations significantly as a Diversity in River Populationssignificantly as a  of European Black Poplar for consequence. of European Black Poplar forconsequence.  evaluation of biodiversity, The main objective of evaluation of biodiversity,The main objective of  conservation strategies, nature EUROPOP is to advise conservation strategies, natureEUROPOP is to advise  development and genetic managers of riparian development and geneticmanagers of riparian  improvement\". With the ecosystems how to restore and improvement\". With theecosystems how to restore and  acronym \"EUROPOP\", this maintain wild populations of acronym \"EUROPOP\", thismaintain wild populations of  project aims to give a new black poplar. To accomplish project aims to give a newblack poplar. To accomplish  rhythm to the traditional this, the following detailed rhythm to the traditionalthis, the following detailed  melody of conservation objectives must be fulfilled: melody of conservationobjectives must be fulfilled:  biology. During the 2nd meeting of the EUFORGEN Populus nigra Network in 1995, common research needs were formulated and the idea for a joint research programme was born. Initiated from within the Network, a group of motivated Populus nigra experts and specialists in the field of molecular genetics prepared a proposal for a shared cost project submitted to the Commission for the European Communities, Agriculture and Fisheries specific programme (FAIR). In 1997 the proposal was rated as excellent and in March 1998 the project kicked off with a meeting in Wageningen, the Netherlands. This was hosted by the Institute for Forestry and x To develop strategies for the conservation of P. nigra and restoring it in riparian ecosystems based on the measurement of genetic diversity in wild populations; x to describe the genetic diversity within ex situ collections in order to evaluate the current state of conservation in Europe; x to study key parameters of stand dynamics for in situ management and re-introduction strategies; and x to maintain populations with a broad genetic diversity to ensure adaptation to changing environmental conditions and to provide breeding programmes with new genotypes. biology. During the 2nd meeting of the EUFORGEN Populus nigra Network in 1995, common research needs were formulated and the idea for a joint research programme was born. Initiated from within the Network, a group of motivated Populus nigra experts and specialists in the field of molecular genetics prepared a proposal for a shared cost project submitted to the Commission for the European Communities, Agriculture and Fisheries specific programme (FAIR). In 1997 the proposal was rated as excellent and in March 1998 the project kicked off with a meeting in Wageningen, the Netherlands. This was hosted by the Institute for Forestry andx To develop strategies for the conservation of P. nigra and restoring it in riparian ecosystems based on the measurement of genetic diversity in wild populations; x to describe the genetic diversity within ex situ collections in order to evaluate the current state of conservation in Europe; x to study key parameters of stand dynamics for in situ management and re-introduction strategies; and x to maintain populations with a broad genetic diversity to ensure adaptation to changing environmental conditions and to provide breeding programmes with new genotypes. Objectives of Phase I Phase II Nature Research (IBN-DLO) EUFORGEN Implementation Objectives ofPhase I Phase II Nature Research (IBN-DLO) EUFORGEN Implementation Resolution S2 which also coordinates the Resolution S2which also coordinates the In situ & ex situ x exchange of information project, including partners from XXX XXX In situ & ex situx exchange of information project, including partners from XXX XXX conservation of genetic diversity x long-term regional gene Austria, Belgium, France, XXX conservation strategies: development x long-term regional gene conservation XXX XX Germany, Italy, the -Netherlands, Spain and the strategies: coordination & promotion x technical guidelines XXX XX United Kingdom. conservation of genetic diversity x long-term regional gene Austria, Belgium, France, XXX conservation strategies: development x long-term regional gene conservation XXX XX Germany, Italy, the -Netherlands, Spain and the strategies: coordination & promotion x technical guidelines XXX XX United Kingdom.  x descriptors & databases Riparian ecosystems, XXX XX x descriptors & databases Riparian ecosystems, XXXXX  X XX X which contribute to the natural XX XXX x raising public awareness XXX x identification of common research XX XX control of flooding and water needs quality, are characterized by a x exchange of genetic materials for high level of diversity of its research & gene conservation fauna and flora. European black x monitoring policy & legal developments impacting the poplar (P. nigra L.) is an X XX X which contribute to the natural XX XXX x raising public awareness XXX x identification of common research XX XX control of flooding and water needs quality, are characterized by a x exchange of genetic materials for high level of diversity of its research & gene conservation fauna and flora. European black x monitoring policy & legal developments impacting the poplar (P. nigra L.) is an  exchange of reproductive materials indispensable and unique exchange of reproductive materials indispensable and unique  X P. nigra was also recognized -among European countries species of the riparian x promote & facilitate development of ecosystem. mechanisms for efficient exchange of reproductive materials X P. nigra was also recognized -among European countries species of the riparian x promote & facilitate development of ecosystem. mechanisms for efficient exchange of reproductive materials  XXX XX as an important species by XX X countries signing the Strasbourg XXX XX as an important species by XX X countries signing the Strasbourg  Resolution 2 on the Protection of Resolution 2 on the Protection of XXX = high attention received & many outputs; XX = attention received & outputs Forests in Europe in 1990. Its XXX = high attention received & many outputs; XX = attention received & outputs Forests in Europe in 1990. Its provided; X = low attention received & few outputs provided current rarity is due to the loss of provided; X = low attention received & few outputs provided current rarity is due to the loss of  "}],"sieverID":"d909df40-6a6a-4c31-aedb-18f950f92aad","abstract":"The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is one of the 16 Centres of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). IPGRI's goals are to further the study, collection, preservation, documentation, evaluation and utilization of the genetic diversity of useful plants for the benefit of people throughout the world. From its Headquarters in Rome, Italy and its Regional Offices in Benin, China, Colombia, India, Kenya, Malaysia and Syria, IPGRI promotes and coordinates the action needed for the conservation of genetic resources of these plants. IPGRI publishes five Regional Newsletters covering the different regions of the world. They are intended to serve as an informal forum for the exchange of news and views, and to create closer ties between national programme scientists, researchers and other genetic resources workers. We invite you to send your ideas and contributions for this newsletter to IPGRI's Regional Office for Europe. Please send all contributions for Issue 16 by 15"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0363260f4b91ba4d9eda93b9f07d4839","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://waterdata.iwmi.org/applications/sanitaion/reports/Report%20Policy-%20second%20draft.pdf"},"pageCount":42,"title":"Governance analysis for urban-wholesale-to-household's food waste prevention and reduction in Sri Lanka","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction and background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"This report explores and analyzes the governance framework (i.e. policies, laws, and regulations) relevant to urban food waste (FW) prevention and reduction in the wholesale, retail, hospitality (restaurants, hotels), food services (schools, hospitals), and households in Sri Lanka. The Project Innovative approaches to reduce, recycle and reuse food waste in urban Sri Lanka (see Figure 1) was implemented from June 2019 to January 2021 under the oversight of the Ministry of Urban Development and Housing and in collaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI). The main objective of the project was to facilitate, through a collaborative effort, the drafting of an Urban Roadmap and Action Plan on food waste Prevention, Reduction, Management in Sri Lanka that identifies concrete steps to implement towards achieving Sustainable Development Goal 12.3 (SDG 12.3)."},{"index":2,"size":318,"text":"In 2015, the 2030 Agenda launched Sustainable Development Goal 12 on ensuring \"sustainable consumption and production patterns\" that includes target 12.3 \"by 2030, halve per capita global food waste (FW) at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses.\" The 2020 FAO Conference highlighted that \"improving data collection on food losses and FW is a priority for monitoring progress towards achieving the SDGs.\" 1 Achieving SDG 12.3 may reduce the food systems' environmental impacts by up to one-sixth. (World Bank, 2020) 2   Global Food Loss and Waste (FLW) was estimated to cause between 8 and 10% of the emissions of the gases responsible for global warming in the period 2010-2016 (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2020). SDG 12.3 and the Paris Agreement can develop mutually reinforcing targets and reporting systems at national level. Specifically, there are opportunities for countries to leverage SDG 12.3 as contributor to SDG 6 (sustainable water management), SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities), SDG 13 (climate change), SDG 14 (marine resources); SDG 15 (terrestrial ecosystems, forestry, biodiversity). (SOFA, 2019)  The FW Index (i.e. sub-indicator 12.3.1.b) is tracking progress on FW reduction from retail to households (i.e. demand-driven) and it is technically supported by the FAO and led by the UN Environment. It measures tons of wasted food per capita, considering a mixed stream of products from processing to consumption. The operational definition of FW is food and associated inedible parts removed from the human food supply chain at the following stages of the food chain: manufacturing of food products; food retail and wholesale; out-of-home consumption and in-home consumption. (UN Environment, 2019) Definitions are at the basis of measurement that allows tracking progress towards SDG 12.3 that has two components: food loss and FW. Each component is measured by a separate indicator 4 . The overall conceptual framework for FLW is presented in Figure 2."},{"index":3,"size":274,"text":"Figure 2 The conceptual framework for food loss and waste (SOFA, 2019) Sri Lanka produces around 710,000 metric tons of vegetables and 540,000 metric tons of fruits annually (EDB, 2013), but large quantities of perishables are wasted during peak production periods. According to the past research findings, total food loss taking place in rice is in the range of 13-23% (Prasanna, et al, 4 Food loss is defined as 'the percentage of food quantities removed from the supply chain'. The Food Loss Index sub-indicator 12.3.1.a, that is tracking food losses (i.e. supply-driven), estimated that 13.8 percent of all food produced in 2016 was lost -estimates in physical quantities for different commodities and aggregated by an economic weight -from the farm up to, but excluding, the segment from retail to households. Asia and the Pacific regional estimates range from 5-6 percent in Australia and New Zealand to 20-21 percent in Central and Southern Asia. (SOFA, 2019) 2004); losses occurred in beans is around 30% (Sarananada, 2000); losses in brinjal is 48.7% (Jayathunge, et al., 2011), quantity loss in fish is 39% (Arachch et al, 2000), losses due to banana damages is 18% (Wasala et al, 2014) and losses in papaya due to damages is 46% of the total production (Sarananda et al, 2014). The estimated annual post-harvest losses of fruits in Sri Lanka is 30-40% of the production (Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2010). The post-harvest losses of some local varieties such as local mangoes are approximately 40-60% (Gunawardane, 2019). The amount of losses generated has a direct linkage with the quantities of perishable foods supplied to the wholesale market and at the later stages."},{"index":4,"size":107,"text":"The total amount of solid waste generated by Sri Lanka is around 7 000 tonnes per day. It typically consists of a very high percentage of perishable organic material which is about 65 -66% by weight (Arachchige et al., 2019;FAO, 2018;Bandara, 2011). It is assumed that nearly half of the biodegradable part of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is FW (SLILG, 2008). Thus, the proportion of FW generated in a Local Authority (LA) ranges from 50-69% of the total waste with an average of 56.5%. According to this average value, the total FW generated in the country can be estimated as 3 955 tons per day. (FAO/IWMI, 2021)."},{"index":5,"size":146,"text":"The estimated amount of FW generated in Colombo Municipal Council (CMC) was 353 t/day in 2017, which is half of the total waste generated in this geographical area. Waste analysis estimate done for the segregated waste collected by the CMC shows that it is primarily consisted of household food waste, followed by 110 t/day from food services, 25 t/day from markets, and 9 t/day from slaughterhouses and meat shops (FAO, IWMI, and RUAF, 2018). According to Sandaruwani & Gnanapala, (2016), 79% of the solid waste generated by the hotels in Colombo is food waste. A study conducted in the Eravur Pradeshiya Sabha5 area in the Batticoloa district shows that every household generates an average of 2.06 kg of FW per day contributing 79% of the total waste generated in the area out of an estimated 20 metric tons of solid waste generated (Thirumarpan et al., 2015)."},{"index":6,"size":135,"text":"At the same meantime, about 22% of the total population in Sri Lanka do not have sufficient food to sustain a healthy life and 33% of the people cannot afford a nutritious diet (WFP, 2020). According to the National Nutrition and Micronutrient Survey of 2012, the prevalence of high levels of acute malnutrition between 14-35 percent across the districts with a 19.6% of wasting. High levels of acute malnutritionranging between 14 and 35 percent were found across all 25 districts surveyed (Jayatissa et al, 2012). Sri Lanka is ranked in 66 th position in the Global hunger index with a score of 17.1 indicating moderate hunger 6 . Therefore, reduction and reuse of food waste have a definite role in achieving SDG targets of reducing poverty (SDG 1) and food and nutrition security (SDG 2)."},{"index":7,"size":134,"text":"The governance framework set up for food control and (bio-)waste management is under the umbrella of the Central The National Nutrition Policy provides a platform for inter-sectoral coordination to accelerate efforts to achieve optimum nutrition for the people. The policy also provides overall guidance for the development of national strategic plans of action for nutrition activities. The major policy and regulatory instruments adopted by the government of Sri Lanka to guide the production and service delivery mechanism of the major agricultural products are described in Annex 1. However, some of the acts are not in practice due to lack of regulatory enforcements while some of the existing policies should be updated (Ministry of Agriculture, 2019).  2018-2027 (2018). All these policies are mainly focusing on production and no direct link is provided with FW reduction."},{"index":8,"size":135,"text":"The overarching Agricultural policy (2019) has the vision of creating a \"globally competitive agriculture sector for national prosperity\" and the objective \"to enhance the competitiveness of agriculture and agribusinesses through innovative and sustainable technologies, and constructive partnerships, in a conducive institutional and regulatory environment, to enhance contribution to economic growth and rising living standards of people engaged in agriculture, while ensuring sustainable use of natural resources and contributing to national food security\". One of the thematic areas mentioned in the overarching policy statement is that \"Adaptation to climate change; minimize loss and damage via increased climate resilience; climate-smart agriculture\". However, the major policy thrusts discussed in this theme are limited to mainstreaming climate change through enhancing farmer's resilience through building capacities and adopting suitable coping strategies. There are no direct measures proposed to minimize FW."},{"index":9,"size":28,"text":"Another relevant area mentioned in the policy is the enhancement of availability, affordability, accessibility, and stability of food. This section of the policy highlights linkages with FW reduction:"},{"index":10,"size":7,"text":"• Post-harvest losses, especially in perishable products."}]},{"head":"•","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Food safety with appropriate responses through the full value chain."}]},{"head":"•","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Storage, processing, and other options for value-addition to cater to demand shaped by changing lifestyles and timing of production and demand."}]},{"head":"•","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Introduce and implement appropriate technologies to improve the quality and safety of food. National policy on sustainable consumption and production policy (SCP)"},{"index":2,"size":130,"text":"The Ministry of Agriculture has recently adopted National Agricultural Policy of 2021 that has identified food safety and quality management as one of the thematic areas. The policy has listed several action points to achieve the policy goal that included development and adoption of regulations to ensure food safety in both locally produced and imported food products in consultation and collaboration with the Ministry of Health, establishment of state of the art laboratories to monitor food standards, development of food safety standards, adoption of standard process control measures for food product quality and adoption of a stringent labeling system for food products 7 . Unfortunately, the action plan has failed to prioritize or identify the importance of addressing the issue of FW to reduce the climate-induced threat on food security."}]},{"head":"(Bio-)waste management","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"There are several acts, ordinances, policies, adaptation plans, and by-laws available to address the issue of overall waste reduction and management. Policies and regulations are not directly addressing FW reduction and FW is not identified as a separate waste stream in (bio-)waste characterization and quantifications. The major acts, ordinances, and policies that have a direct and indirect link with waste generation and management are described in Table 1. In 2007, the National Policy for Solid Waste Management (NPSWM) was formulated to replace the National Strategy for Solid Waste Management (2000) and it targets minimization, reuse, recycling, and appropriate final disposal. The policy was prepared based on the \"polluter pays\" principle to ensure integrated, economically feasible, and environmentally sound and socially responsible practices for the country at the national, provincial, and LA level."},{"index":2,"size":221,"text":"The policy has a decentralized responsibility of waste management, and it places the RRR businesses within the provisions made by the NPSWM. The policy directly suggests finding possible RRR business opportunities to minimize the amount of waste for disposal, ensure the health and well-being of the people, and preserve the ecosystems. Therefore, the NPSWM promotes RRR businesses through opportunities from solid waste management and organic fertilizer sales that will be exempt from income tax. The policy clearly states that \"sustainable waste collection systems should be established to make recycling economically viable.\" Sorting waste at source was recognized as a strategy to make recycling economically viable.  2007) covering all three types of waste: solid, liquid, and gaseous. The mission of the policy is the \"development of an eco-friendly nation by promoting resource circulation\". One of the stated guiding principles of the policy is that \"waste management systems should be zero waste-oriented linking to life cycle management of products and processes as much as possible with appropriate technology\" that has a direct relationship on the reduction of food waste. The policy states that \"strategies shall be developed by the Local Authorities to promote the prevention of generation and reduction at source followed by source separation and further segregation as appropriate to facilitate regaining the utility value of household refuse as much as possible\"."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"The policy seeks the LAs to ensure the active engagement of all the households, institutions, and other commercial entities for proper collection of municipal waste effectively and efficiently with a feedback mechanism. It has been recommended to identify appropriate tools and strategies able to apply the polluter pays principle and extended producer responsibility principle to maximize resource recovery and prevent scattering and haphazard disposal of waste. One of the actions proposed is the development of systematic mechanisms with tracking systems to know where what and how much waste is generated as premises for confirmation of the cause of waste generation aiming at establishing a sound and selfresponsible society with life cycle thinking in resource utilization."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"Regarding food, agriculture, and livestock waste, the policy advised the development of a comprehensive strategy and action plan by the Ministries of Agriculture, Trade, Tourism, Local Government, Health and Education to minimize the quantity of waste to be finally disposed of, in collaboration with the relevant stakeholders. According to the policy, FW generators (food handling establishments and kitchen waste) shall be responsible to develop their management plans and implement in consultation with relevant authorities to prevent health and environmental problems and guidelines shall be developed for food and agriculture waste prioritizing waste minimization targeting all sectors with appropriate standards to prevent contamination of water bodies and lands that would cause health and environmental problems."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"The policy promotes the application of cleaner production techniques to minimize hazardous contents and improve resource efficiencies at all levels."},{"index":6,"size":235,"text":"According to the policy, the importation of post-consumer waste shall be prohibited. It has been proposed to carry out a comprehensive revision of the relevance, sufficiency, efficiency, and effectiveness of the existing laws and regulations by the Ministry of Environment to support the implementation of the national policy to achieve required transformation deviating from \"linear waste management approaches\" (make, use, dispose of) and moving forward to \"circular systems\" (keep resources in use for as long as possible, extract the maximum value from them whilst in use, then recover and regenerate products and materials at the end of its service life). It has been recommended to develop short, medium, and long-term strategies and action plans by leading institutions and agencies to minimize the waste to be finally disposed of by using an appropriate waste management hierarchy throughout the life cycle. b) Every LAs shall from time to time provide places convenient for the proper disposal of all street refuse, house refuse, night soil, and similar matter removed per the provisions of the law, and for keeping all vehicles, animals, implements, and other things required for that purpose and shall take all such measures and precautions as may be necessary to ensure that no such refuse, night soil, or similar matter removed following the provisions of the law is disposed of in such a way as to cause a nuisance (National Strategy for solid waste management, 2000)."},{"index":7,"size":151,"text":"However, the provisions specified in the Act do not stipulate the requirement of environmentally friendly and most appropriate methods of waste disposal and it is a punishable offense in Sri Lanka. According to these provisions made in the local council's Acts, it is an obligatory requirement of the LA in the area of concern for ownership and resource allocation on waste to ensure the cleanliness and neatness within the respective council areas. To enable the entrusted function of managing the municipal solid waste of the LAs, the respective council has to obtain site clearance from CEA to construct Municipal Solid Waste facilities including landfills. A facility that receives over 100 tons/day needs an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) approval from CEA, while the sites which receive less than 100 tons/day required to obtain Environmental Clearance or Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) or EIA approval as per the Act to operate a landfill site."},{"index":8,"size":118,"text":"According to the technical guidelines issued on SWM in Sri Lanka, LAs make all the decisions related to the various aspects of waste collection and transportation including the waste collection areas, transportation routes, the number and type of the collection vehicles to be used, purchase of vehicles and other equipment, frequency of waste collection and the schedule for collection and transport and recruitment of necessary workforce that would ensure the smooth operation of waste collection and transportation. Also, as per the regulations of the police and Road Development Authority (RDA), certain roads are prohibited for heavy vehicles at certain times of the day. Such rules and regulations should be taken into consideration when deciding the waste collection routes."},{"index":9,"size":157,"text":"Composting is the major resource recovery approach largely adopted in Sri Lanka as approximately twothirds of the waste consists of organic materials. However, there is an issue with the quality of the compost made from waste. Food act No 26 of 1980 and the subsequent amendments in 1991, 2011 has several provisions to control and regulate food manufacturing, food preservation, food safety and hygiene, food transport methods, imports, sale/expose to sale, storage, and distribution. There are also provisions to regulate the labeling, packing, and advertising standards, to prevent the creation of the wrong impression on character, quality, value, composition, or safety of the given food. According to the Food Act, the sale of food unfit for human consumption or sale for the use as animal food is not allowed except with the permission of and in accordance with direction issued by the chief food authority or such other person authorized by him in writing in that behalf."},{"index":10,"size":92,"text":"Food Act No. 26 of 1980 also has issued Gazette No. 1694/5 focusing on expiry dates of food items that give an idea about the shelf-life period as well as indicate the suitable time for the next cycle of food production. Effective use of packaging can increase the shelf-life of food products. The regulations on the shelf-life of imported food items stipulate that all items of food imported to the country except fruits, vegetables, and potato possess a minimum period of sixty percent of unexpired shelf life at the moment of entry."},{"index":11,"size":84,"text":"The Gazette No. 560/13 issued under the Food Act No. 26 of 1980 is addressing the regulations related to premises of food preparation, storage or sale, and cleanliness of articles and equipment. Good quality food products tend to produce less waste where food preparation, storage, and sales premises should follow accepted building requirements and ventilation and adopt the regulation concern on the cleanliness and hygiene practices of the premises used to prepare food. These procedures make sure minimal contamination of foods during food preparation/processing."},{"index":12,"size":81,"text":"Under the Food Act, a new regulation was Gazetted in 2019 (No.2128/4) as \"Food (Registration of Premises) Regulations of 2019\" and came into operation from 01.01.2020. According to the regulations, every person who manufactures, prepares, preserves, packages, stores, any food for sale or offers for sale in a premise should register such premises with relevant food authority and the approval will be given after the inspection of the premises as per the guideline and the medical reports of the food handlers."},{"index":13,"size":47,"text":"The regulation empowers the authorized persons to take actions to ensure food safety in case of violation of stipulated conditions. Except for these regulations, no other regulations are addressing the hygiene of food directly or indirectly that has a relationship to food spoilage resulting in FW generation."},{"index":14,"size":130,"text":"In Sri Lanka Standard Institution (SLSI) is responsible for disseminating information on standards, technical regulation and standards related activities to the community at the national level. It promotes the volunteer adoption of SLSI standards intending to assure the safety and quality of foods, provide third party certification to both consumer and producer and to enhance the industry recognition of the food operator. However, SLSI has imposed compulsory standards for several food product categories in Sri Lanka, including brown sugar, canned fish, condensed milk, and fresh fruit cordials. There are 33 stipulated food products that need the approval of Director General of SLSI at importations to ensure the quality and safety in line with the food standards stipulated in Codex and ISO. SLSI is one of the members of the FAC."},{"index":15,"size":32,"text":"FW prevention and reduction is not yet (i.e. in 2020) directly included on the agendas of the organizations handling food production, food processing, sustainable development, combatting climate change effects, and waste management.  "},{"index":16,"size":5,"text":"Reuse of food waste/redist ribution"}]},{"head":"Provincial policies and regulations","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"Under the 13 th amendment made to the constitution of 1987, LAs are under the purview of Provincial Councils (PCs). The rights of LAs relating to waste management were handed over to the PC as per the Provincial Council Act No. 42. Therefore, the respective PCs and LAs need to adopt appropriate institutional arrangements and formulate regulatory systems adopting provincial-level policies, strategies, laws, and by-laws to achieve the devolved tasks. To assist the task of PCs, CEA has established Provincial Offices and district offices providing the services to the people and industrialists who require services. The Provincial CEA Office is headed by a Regional Director and is supported by Assistant Director, Senior Environmental Officers (SEO), and Divisional Environmental Officers (DEO)."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"The PCs are empowered to makes all decisions on capacity building, resource allocation, and adopting a provincial-level policy on solid waste management projects. It is the responsibility of the PCs to help and guide to the LAs in the execution of waste and sanitation-related activities. The PCs are also the main regulatory bodies for supplying equipment and allocating sufficient resources to perform the function of solid waste management in the LAs in the Province. Also, any foreign-funded waste management projects implemented in the province should be coordinated and regulated by the respective PC."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"As per the authority given to the LAs under the Local council acts and ordinances, each council shall focus on by-laws to be made in promoting waste management. The PCs will consider the national policy on solid waste and its strategies with a view of waste reduction, minimization, waste segregation, and resource recovery against waste. For instance, the following strategies are considered in formulating by-laws under the LAs Act in addressing the problem of Solid Waste Management."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"• Promote the composting of bio-degradable waste and releasing it back to the environment in a healthy and environment-friendly manner. • Provide all necessary measures to encourage resource recovery from recyclable waste materials such as paper, plastics, metals, and glass. • Take all possible measures to minimize adverse effects and damage being caused to the environment such as pollution of water, soil, and air. • Utilize methods such as sanitary landfilling for the disposal of waste to reduce any adverse impact on the environment."},{"index":5,"size":164,"text":"The PCs and LAs have made different regulatory and institutional arrangements to handle the delegated function of waste management. For example, under the policy guidelines given in the NPSWM, Western Provincial Council has enforced the Municipality Solid Waste Management Rules No.01 of 2008. The rule promotes the separation of waste at the source adopting a clause, \"Every Municipal Solid waste generator shall maintain a minimum of two containers mainly for biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes set out in Schedule 1. Such containers shall have lids with sufficient space to accommodate the daily collection of waste without spilling any waste outside such containers. The waste generator may have more than one container for non-biodegradable wastes such as papers, plastics, and glass, etc., No generator of waste shall mix their toxic or clinical wastes with the Municipal Solid Waste\". This provision is applicable for MSW generators in the Western province where Colombo, Kaduwela and Kotte municipal councils are strictly adapting in their daily waste-collecting from the generators."},{"index":6,"size":101,"text":"The same rule adopted by the Western PC also specifies that every LA in the western province should collect organic waste twice a week and the time of the collection should be informed to residents in advance. A similar awareness should be given for non-organic waste generators (residents/businesses) as well where it should be collected at least in a fortnight. According to the accepted policy of the National Solid Waste Management of Sri Lanka, 'Polluter should pay the cost'. The Municipality Solid Waste Management rules suggest the ability of LA to collect a fee for waste collection in the western province."},{"index":7,"size":52,"text":"There are local authorities in the eastern province who have introduced such a charging system. Accordingly, LKR. 20 10 (USD 0.10) from Samurdhi families (families under the government poverty alleviation program) and LKR.50 (USD 0.25) from others have been charged to cover up the portion of SWM cost (Eastern Provincial Council, 2012)."},{"index":8,"size":67,"text":"Another statute of the Western Provincial Council, No. 03 of 2012, adopted to enforce the preventing public health nuisances has also recognized putting waste materials into water, throwing garbage to the road or drain or public places, keeping garbage or any such thing threatening public health and allowing wastewater and toilet water to flow as a disturbance for public health is considered as offensive disposal of waste."},{"index":9,"size":153,"text":"The Similarly, North-Western Province has created its own Provincial Environmental Authority. Despite the own arrangements for SWM in some of the PCs, it has been noted that the active engagement and supports provided by the PCs in MSW management are not adequate except for the Western Provincial Council (Karunarathna, n.d.). The North-Western Provincial Council (NWPC) has formulated Provincial Environmental Statute No. 12 of 1990. Under the provisions given in the statute, the Provincial Environmental Act of 1991 was adopted superseding the NEA except for areas under the Department of Wildlife Conservation or Department of Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management. The Act provides power to the NWPC for the establishment of the North-Western Provincial Environmental Authority, to make provision concerning the powers, functions, and duties of the Authority and to make provision for the protection, management, and enhancement of the environment and the regulation maintenance and control of the quality of the environment."},{"index":10,"size":77,"text":"The by-laws adopted by the councils may vary from place to place depending on the context and requirements. The by-laws adopted by the Colombo Municipal Council (CMC) on food safety and food waste are listed in Annex 1. The provincial waste management functions are linked with the central government through the Ministry of Public Services, Local government, and Provincial Councils which is responsible for the implementation of policies, plans, and programs in respect of PCs and LAs."},{"index":11,"size":33,"text":"10 1 USD=LKR 199 in July 2021 11 Seven steps are; Evaluate your waste, store your waste, label the waste, transport and dispose your waste properly, plan for emergencies, train personnel, keep records"}]},{"head":"Non-state measures","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"There are hotels, restaurants, and caterers, private traders, supermarkets, NGOs and charity organizations that have adopted self-regulation and voluntary standards as a measure to reduce FW and invest in reuse and recycling practices due to ethical and moral reasons, economic benefits, environmental concerns and as a part of corporate social responsibility (CSR) (Sandaruwani, and Gnanapala, 2016;Kumara et al., 2018;Prematunge, 2018;Reitemeier, 2019)."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"The large tourist hotels which are keen to obtain international green awards/environmental awards implement waste minimization (reduction, reuse, and recycling); wastewater management, and implementation of environmentally sensitive purchasing (e.g. hotels Heritance Kandalama, Heritance Ahungalla, and Sigiriya)."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"Another method adopted by some supermarkets, restaurants, and caterers to curb food waste are collaborations with local charity organizations to redistribute the food in good conditions to the families in need. We Give Stuff Away (WGSA) and the Robin Hood Army are two such organizations. These kinds of food rescue programs are being implemented by many to support families in need, elders' homes, and orphanages in their contacts."}]},{"head":"Gaps","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The roles and responsibilities of stakeholders and actors in SWM are well articulated in the existing policy frameworks, but these roles are not yet well operationalized (Marasinghe, 2018). Policies dealing with food production and bio-waste management are not directly addressing the question of FW reduction or reuse, despite the fact that FW is one of the major categories of SW generated and it is posing a pollution threat to the open and underground environment."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"The exception is the National policy and strategy on cleaner production for Agriculture sector of 2012, National policy and strategy on cleaner production for Fisheries sector of 2008 and the Sustainable Consumption and Production Policy of 2019 that have provided attention to FW reduction to zero food waste. The draft overarching Agricultural Policy of 2019 that is currently developed and to be adopted by the government and the latest National Agricultural Policy of 2021 have paid attention to the entire food value chain. Existing policies and legislations are mainly on minimizing the waste going to landfill sites."},{"index":3,"size":204,"text":"Food Control Administration Unit (FCAU) of the Ministry of Health is the central food safety and quality controlling body, with no jurisdiction over agricultural production. However, the latest National Agricultural Policy of 2021 has called the consultation and collaboration requirement with the Ministry of Health and SLSL to develop food safety standards and regulations for agricultural products. The existing general guidelines of Food Act are limited to conditions stipulated on food processing given the provisions made in section 32 of the Act (Hygiene and regulations, 1989). The central food control administration system has, therefore, failed to impose mandatory legislations to have a well-structured preventive measure of good practices such as Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), Good Management Practices (GMP), and Hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP) aiming to eliminate food hazards and quality losses. Therefore, the regulation of artificial ripening practices, phyto-sanitary aspects and trade of fresh fruits, and vegetables internationally, etc. are being out of the mandate of FACU. However, Sri Lanka has developed HACCP systems for several food processing industries, though it is not yet compulsory to adopt. Therefore, the application of the HACCP system to great numbers of small and medium to large scale food processing factories is mostly not practiced."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"Another gap in ensuring food safety at LA level due to a lack of capacity, especially of laboratory facilities."},{"index":5,"size":130,"text":"According to section 17 of the 1980 Food Act, the authorized officer for enforcement is the government analyst, but the Minister-in-charge of Local Government has the power to appoint additional analysts for LAs. Currently, food quality control laboratories are available in Colombo and Kandy Municipal Councils, food quality control laboratory in Anuradhapura, provincial food quality control laboratory in Kurunegala, Medical Research Institute, Colombo, and National Institute of Health Sciences, Kalutara with additional analysts. There is a lack of adequate capacity in testing and inspection facilities. Food safety aspects are nationally regulated and monitored by the 1980 Food Act, while local-level governance is decentralized, and it is under the purview of LAs. However, there is a missing link between the two-layer administration system on the effective implementation of food control administration."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and recommendations","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Though policies on waste management are focused on promoting RRR businesses, the enabling environment should be created to motivate private sector organizations enter the industry. Some food services (e.g. hotels) have voluntarily adopted measures to conserve the environment through FW reduction. However, this is not replicable widely unless the tourism sector adopts a (voluntary) standard for FW prevention and reduction."},{"index":2,"size":145,"text":"LAs are the main entities entrusted with the function of waste management at the local level. Segregation of FW at source would provide quantitative evidence for scaling up measures on prevention and reduction. LAs by-laws could provide socio-economic incentives and enforce reduction mechanisms such as measurement and reporting by food business operator type and/or introduce penalties for high FW while also implement programs of capacity development such as sanitary inspections and quality assurance for small-scale food establishments. The requirement of HACCP system is increasingly important for certain food processing industries, such as rice, vegetables, and fruit as their demand and consumption have increased greatly (Munasinghe et al., 2015). Issues in domestic food safety can be addressed to a large extent by adopting effective HACCP systems. Mandating such a progressive system would reduce the cost of regulatory enforcement and ensure the periodic verification of quality standards."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"On the prevention side, voluntary or compulsory legal and operational guidance on FW prevention and reduction for wholesalers, supermarkets, retail outlets, and restaurants on recovery and redistribution of safe and nutritious food for direct human consumption should facilitate adoption and scaling up for this prevention opportunity."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"For reducing FW quantities generated, legal and operational guidelines are also necessary for former foodstuffs to feed (see Annex 5 for a list of examples from other countries)."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"Existing FW research and projects conducted by universities should be consulted by the public sector for potential scaling up solutions and by private sector to explore actions to be implemented along supply chains. The public sector and universities, in collaboration with the private sector, could also launch actions on strengthening food literacy in view of facilitating customers' healthy and sustainable diets in parallel with FW reduction."},{"index":6,"size":60,"text":"Waste of fruits and vegetables impact their availability and affordability for healthy diets. Although some of the fruits produced during the peak seasons are processed into jams and juice, technologies for dried fruits should be further explored for local as well as international markets (Gunawardana and Wanninayake, 2018). Policy and technological support are missing to promote the dry fruit industry."},{"index":7,"size":66,"text":"Capacities of LAs should be strengthened to perform the task of ensuring food safety through technical expertise and laboratory facilities. To ameliorate the acute shortage of properly trained personnel such as food inspectors, analytical chemists, and microbiologists, it is important to have policy support and adequate budget allocations. Public awareness programs about food safety and sanitation are necessary where both commercial stakeholders and consumers are involved."},{"index":8,"size":76,"text":"Social innovations are needed to drive the change from bio-waste management to prevention of FW through education, civil society support, and private sector involvement. The drive could be further strengthened by establishing linkages with ongoing various state and non-state working groups in food, nutrition, waste, health, education, and climate change sectors. Priorities can be based on the evidence that FW impacts are socio-economic and environmental -therefore, prevention and reduction could be a win-win from multiple angles."},{"index":9,"size":86,"text":"Socio-economic innovations can incentivize waste management from the perspective of FW prevention. Kuruppuge and Karunarathe (2014) reported that the level of awareness on the reduce, reuse, and recycle (3R) concept among the policymakers and administrators at LA level is very low, and their attention is mostly on recycling, not on reduction and reuse. At the same time, due to unclarified boundaries and unidentified business and social opportunities for FW prevention, some LAs encourage organic waste generation to make composting facilities commercially viable (Kuruppuge and Karunarathne, 2014)."},{"index":10,"size":21,"text":"Regulations need to focus on socio-economic incentives as well as tools for facilitating behavior change for supply chain actors and consumers."},{"index":11,"size":75,"text":"FW prevention should be supported by sufficient budgetary allocation that includes the public education sector and multi-disciplinary awareness raising campaigns. Local councils could encourage residents through formal or informal educational activities. Activities could be implemented in schools, higher educational institutes, universities, hotel schools, and other vocational institutions. 12   The Urban Roadmap and Action Plan on food waste Prevention, Reduction, Management in Sri Lankaidentifies concrete steps to implement towards achieving Sustainable Development Goal 12.3 (SDG 12.3)."},{"index":12,"size":27,"text":"12 FAO. 2021. Education material package on food waste reduction in primary and secondary schools DO GOOD: SAVE FOOD! For ages 5 to 14+ (Sinhala and Tamil) "}]},{"head":"By laws relating to eating venues","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"• Every licensee shall cause all refuse and dirt to be places in an impervious covered receptacle until removed by the scavenging laborers of the council."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"• No licensee shall permit any waste tea, coffee or milk or remnants of food to be thrown on the ground. • Night soil, dung, or other filth, dust, dirt, ashes, rubbish, or refuse to be deposited only in placed provided."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"• 272(5)-sanitation including-the inspection, regulation, maintenance and cleansing of all drains, privies, earth closets, cesspools, ash pits and sanitary appliances."},{"index":4,"size":122,"text":"• To cause filth, garbage to be promptly removed to receptacle and market to be swept and cleaned and washed. • Every person holding a license for a stall in a public market shall keep on or near such stall a receptacle to be approved by the chairman, in which such person shall deposit all rubbish and refuse matter. The coalition uses a farm-to-plate value chain approach for impacting local, national and international regulations as well as conducting specific projects (e.g. with FAO on schools) aimed at the end-users achieving measurable results and creating momentum in society. ever Food Solutions, WWF) Global alliances II (2016) The Consumer Goods Forum of about 400 retailers, manufacturers, service providers, and other stakeholders across 70 countries"}]},{"head":"Source: Authors' elaboration","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"In June 2016, the first-ever global standard to measure food loss and waste, the FLW Standard 14 was introduced through an international partnership. The standard is a set of global definitions and reporting requirements for companies, countries and others to consistently and credibly measure, report on and manage food loss and waste."}]},{"head":"Global alliances III (2017)","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Global Agri-business Alliance Supporting SDG 12.3 including measuring food loss and waste as part of the Food and Agricultural Loss Resolution (using a common Food Loss and Waste Accounting and Reporting Standard) Global alliances IV (2018) 10 of the world's largest food brands incl. Mars, PepsiCo, Tesco and Unilever Committed to halve their food waste by 2030, to publish the food waste data for their operations, and to take concrete steps to reduce food waste in the supply chain and in customers' homes."}]},{"head":"Global alliances V (2019)","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sustainable Rice Platform","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Represents some of the largest rice producers in the world, the platform is committed to implementing the Target-Measure-Act approach and to halving on-farm and near-farm rice losses by 2030 Global alliances VI (2019) \"10x20x30\" Food Loss and Waste Initiative by AEON, Ahold Delhaize, Carrefour, IKEA Food, Kroger, METRO AG, Pick n Pay, The Savola Group, Sodexo, Tesco, and Walmart An initiative to engage the supply chains in the fight against food loss and waste. The initiative brings together 10 of the world's biggest food retailers and providers to each engage with 20 of their priority suppliers to aim to halve rates of food loss and waste by 2030."}]},{"head":"Company examples","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Company commitments (I)","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sysco","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Committed to divert 90 percent of food waste from landfill by 2025 from the current level of 65 percent. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 Figure 1 Innovative approaches to reduce, recycle, and reuse food waste in urban Sri Lanka (2019-2021) project structure "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Government, Provincial Council (PC), and Local Authority (LA). The major central government agencies that are directly related to laws and administrations waste management are the Ministry of Public Services, Provincial Councils and Local Government, the Ministry of Environment, and the Ministry of Urban Development and Housing while the Ministry of Health (MoH), the Ministry of Technology and Research and the Ministry of Trade have a role in managing the food waste. Several agencies perform tasks related to (bio-)waste management (see Figure3). A coherent governance framework (e.g. policies, laws, by-laws) could support FW prevention and reduction from wholesale to households while recognizing the contributions to minimize natural resources and climate change impacts derived from FW. Food and nutrition Sri Lanka's food security policy is covered under the National Agriculture Policy (NAP) of 2021 and the National Nutrition Policy of Sri Lanka of 2010. NAP introduced by the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) is aiming to achieve national food and nutrition security, increase employment opportunities and income, and the standard living of the farmers through adopting technically feasible, socially acceptable, economically viable, and environmentally sustainable agricultural production technologies and marketing.  Ministry of Public Ministry of Ministry of Ministry Ministry of Ministry of Ministry of PublicMinistry ofMinistry ofMinistryMinistry ofMinistry of  Services,  Environment Urban of Health Technology Trade Services,EnvironmentUrbanof HealthTechnologyTrade  Provincial   Development  and Research ProvincialDevelopmentand Research  Councils and  and Housing  Councilsandand Housing  Local     Local  Governments     Governments    CEA UDA FAC SLSI CAA CEAUDAFACSLSICAA    Regional Office  PDHS Note: NSSWM = National solid Regional OfficePDHSNote: NSSWM = National solid       waste management support waste management support       center; center;    Environmental Officer District MOH CEA= Central Environmental Authority, UDA= Urban Development Environmental OfficerDistrict MOHCEA= Central Environmental Authority, UDA= Urban Development       Authority; Authority; NSWMSC Provincial Councils    FAC= Food Advisory Committee; SLSI= Sri Lanka Standard NSWMSCProvincial CouncilsFAC= Food Advisory Committee; SLSI= Sri Lanka Standard       Institute; Institute;       CAA= Consumer Affairs CAA= Consumer Affairs       Authority; Authority;  Provincial Waste Commissioner of   PDHS= Provincial Director of Provincial WasteCommissioner ofPDHS= Provincial Director of  Management/ local government  PHI Health Services; MOH= Medical Management/local governmentPHIHealth Services; MOH= Medical  Environmental Authority  office   Officer of Health; Environmental AuthorityofficeOfficer of Health;       PHI= Public Health Inspector PHI= Public Health Inspector    Local Authorities  Local Authorities  "},{"text":"Table 1 Major governance tools linked with food waste prevention, reduction, and management Sections 118, 119 and 120 of the Act addresses waste management responsibilities of Urban Councils. Waste generated in the area is property of the council and should allocate resources for the management. The huge resources requirement encourages the LAs to take action to reduce waste generation to efficiently utilize the councils' scarce financial and human resources. Source segregation is promoted for reduce, recycle and reuse (RRR) business and reduce the waste going to landfills. Segregation of waste at the household level could provide a volumetric impression of different kinds of waste generated including food waste. Ministry Policy & Regulation Description MinistryPolicy & RegulationDescription   Acts and ordinances Acts and ordinances Ministry of Public Services, Urban Council Ministry of Public Services,UrbanCouncil Provincial Councils and Ordinance No 61 of Provincial Councils andOrdinance No 61 of Local Government 1939  Local Government1939  Municipal Council Sections 129,130 and 131 of the Act addresses MunicipalCouncilSections 129,130 and 131 of the Act addresses  Ordinance No 16 of waste management responsibilities of Municipal Ordinance No 16 ofwaste management responsibilities of Municipal  1947  Councils. The responsibilities and incentives to 1947Councils. The responsibilities and incentives to    reduce the waste are similar to Urban Council Act. reduce the waste are similar to Urban Council Act.  Nuisance Ordinance Section 2(3) and 2(12) of the ordinance empowered Nuisance OrdinanceSection 2(3) and 2(12) of the ordinance empowered  No 62 of 1939 and No LAs to prevent and prohibit acts of public nuisance No 62 of 1939 and NoLAs to prevent and prohibit acts of public nuisance  57 of 1946  and punish violators for such actions. The act 57 of 1946and punish violators for such actions. The act    discourages all types of waste generation indirectly discourages all types of waste generation indirectly    restricting the dumping of waste. restricting the dumping of waste.  Pradeshiya Sabha Act Section 93 and 94 of the Act Specify waste Pradeshiya Sabha ActSection 93 and 94 of the Act Specify waste  No 15 of 1987 management responsibilities of Pradeshiya Sabhas. No 15 of 1987management responsibilities of Pradeshiya Sabhas.    The responsibilities and incentives to reduce the The responsibilities and incentives to reduce the    waste are similar to Urban Council and Municipal waste are similar to Urban Council and Municipal    Council Acts. Council Acts.  Provincial Councils Provide provisions for the LAs for waste ProvincialCouncilsProvide provisions for the LAs for waste  Act No. 42 of 1987 management. The Act provides provisions to Act No. 42 of 1987management. The Act provides provisions to  and amended Act No. allocate resources and provide capacity building and and amended Act No.allocate resources and provide capacity building and  56 of 1988  other needed supports to LAs to perform their 56 of 1988other needed supports to LAs to perform their    waste management functions. waste management functions. Ministry of Defense Police Ordinance No. Ministry of DefensePolice Ordinance No.  16 of 1865  16 of 1865  "},{"text":"Policies, strategies, plans, and programs   Management organic waste that consisted major portion is food Managementorganic waste that consisted major portion is food  Program of 2008 waste. Program of 2008waste.  Environmental Regulatory tool under the Gazette Notification No. EnvironmentalRegulatory tool under the Gazette Notification No.  Protection License 1533/16 dated 25.01.2008 that control the ProtectionLicense1533/16 dated 25.01.2008 that control the  Scheme  establishment of RRR business Schemeestablishment of RRR business    Guidelines Guidelines Ministry of Health Healthcare Waste Provide recommendation to manage hospital Ministry of HealthHealthcareWasteProvide recommendation to manage hospital  Management generated clinical waste with minimum harm to the Managementgenerated clinical waste with minimum harm to the  Guideline of 2001 environment. Guideline of 2001environment. Ministry of Public Services, Solid  Waste Guide LAs on the SWM practices Ministry of Public Services,SolidWasteGuide LAs on the SWM practices Provincial Councils and Management Provincial Councils andManagement Local Government Guideline for Local Local GovernmentGuideline for Local  Authorities of 2003 Authorities of 2003 Ministry of Environment Technical Guidelines Support the SWM and sitting of engineered landfills Ministry of EnvironmentTechnical GuidelinesSupport the SWM and sitting of engineered landfills  on Municipal Solid on Municipal Solid  Waste Management Waste Management  in Sri Lanka of 2005 in Sri Lanka of 2005  Technical Guidelines Support the constructions of engineered landfill Technical GuidelinesSupport the constructions of engineered landfill  on Solid Waste onSolidWaste  Management in Sri Management in Sri  Lanka of 2007 Lanka of 2007  Guidelines for the Management of scheduled waste. Guidelines for theManagement of scheduled waste.  Management of Managementof  Scheduled Waste in Scheduled Waste in  Sri Lanka of 2009 Sri Lanka of 2009 Ministry of Environment National Policy of Waste management addresses at; Ministry of EnvironmentNational Policy ofWaste management addresses at;  Solid  Waste Provide integrated socially responsible solution for SolidWasteProvide integrated socially responsible solution for  Management Solid Waste Management providing more attention ManagementSolid Waste Management providing more attention     to resource recovery from waste to resource recovery from waste  National Solid Waste Promotes waste minimization, maximum resource National Solid WastePromotes waste minimization, maximum resource  Management recovery, and sanitary landfills. This provides more Managementrecovery, and sanitary landfills. This provides more  Strategy in Sri Lanka attention to resource recovery from waste. Strategy in Sri Lankaattention to resource recovery from waste.  National Policy on Promote zero waste in food systems is one of the National Policy onPromote zero waste in food systems is one of the  Sustainable  objectives. This is supported by a policy goal of Sustainableobjectives. This is supported by a policy goal of  Consumption & achieving 10% food waste reduction by 2020 and Consumption&achieving 10% food waste reduction by 2020 and  Production for Sri another 20% by 2030 Production for Srianother 20% by 2030  Lanka   Lanka  \"Pilisaru\" National National level solid waste management program \"Pilisaru\"NationalNational level solid waste management program  Solid  Waste introducing waste treatment facilities at local SolidWasteintroducing waste treatment facilities at local     authority levels. The policy promotes recycling of authority levels. The policy promotes recycling of  "},{"text":" Additionally, obtaining the Environmental Protection License (EPL) to undergo an RRR business become mandatory under the National Environmental Act (NEA)No: 47 of 1980 amended by Acts No. 56 of 1988  and No. 53 of 2000.  Section 23 A of the NEA states that \"no person shall carry out any prescribed activity except under the authority of an EPL and following such standards and other criteria as may be prescribed under the Act\". EPLS is playing a key role in establishing environment friendly and legally structured RRR business culture in Sri Lanka. Industries and activities which required an EPL are listed in Gazette Notification No. 1533/16 of 2008. According to the standard criteria of EPLs, there is hardly any possible way to undergo the RRR business of medium to large scale without getting EPL.At the same time, the Central Environmental Authority (CEA) 8 has prepared several technical guidelines to support waste treatment at national level. These guidelines on solid waste management are also designed for investors, local authorities (LAs), and other entities that plan to initiate or operate any SWM activity. There are three general guidelines available:1.Technical Guidelines on Solid Waste Management in Sri Lanka of 2005 to support the SWM and sitting of engineered landfills. 2. Technical Guidelines on Solid Waste Management in Sri Lanka of 2007 to support the constructions of engineered landfill 3. Guidelines for the Management of Scheduled Waste in Sri Lanka of 2009 targeting the management of scheduled waste to facilitate the implementation of Regulations on hazardous waste management of 1999 The National Waste Management Policy (2019) prepared by the Ministry of Environment in consultation with all relevant stakeholders is a revision of and an extension to the National Strategy for Solid Waste Management (2000) and the National Policy on Solid Waste Management (  "},{"text":" Nuisances Ordinance No. 15 of 1862: The Ordinance was subsequently amendedNo.61 of 1939; No. 3 of  1946; No. 57 of 1946  was the first piece of legislation introduced in Sri Lanka during the colonial administration about waste management. It has identified improper waste disposal, wastewater, and drain usage at houses as a violation of the law, which can be fined a stated amount. The Ordinance has given authority for city government and government sanitary inspectors to inspect, regulate, and control public nuisance, particularly inappropriate garbage disposal. The power vested by the ordinance is presently enforced by public health inspectors (PHI). Police Ordinance No. 16 of 1865 provides authority to police to take actions against improper disposal of waste. According to section 63(g) of the Police Ordinance, \"Any person who throws or lays down any dirt, filth, rubbish, or any stones or building materials can be taken into custody without a warrant if the person in view of the officers has committed any such offense. Such offenses are liable to a fine or imprisonment not exceeding three months.\"Local Councils' ordinances and Acts: Urban Council Ordinance No 61 of 1939, Municipal Council Ordinance No 16 of 1947, Pradeshiya Sabha Act No 15 of 1987 are the major legislations governing the LAs in the country. According to the Municipal Council Ordinance No.20 of 1947 (Sections 129, 130 and 131), Urban Council Ordinance(Sections 118, 119, and 120)  and Pradeshiya Sabha Act (Sections 93 and 94) all Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSW) generated within the boundary of a Local Authorities (LAs) is their property, and they are mandated to remove and dispose or sell of such waste materials without causing any nuisance to the public. These Acts and Ordinances provides power to the LAs to make the decisions on waste disposal sites and management of the site. The legal enactments of LAs on solid waste management have following provisions: a) All street refuse, house refuse, night soil or other similar matter collected by LAs under the provisions of this part shall be the property of the council, and the council shall have full powers to sell or dispose of all such matter.  "},{"text":" Therefore, Sri Lanka Standard (SLS) 1246: 2003 (UDC 628.477.4) provides a general specification for the compost made from both MSW and agricultural waste. The specification was amended and improved by SLSI based on the collaborative work conducted with IWMI in 2019 developing separate SLS specifications for MSW compost(SLS 1634: 2019, UDC 628.477.4), and agricultural waste compost(SLS 1635:2019, UDC 628.477.3).FWhas not yet been considered directly in LAs legislation related to SW collection and transport.Urban Development act No 41 of 1978 regulates the urban planning in Sri Lanka. The Urban Development Authority of Sri Lanka (UDA) was formulated under the purview of this Act in 1978. The UDA is a multidisciplinary organization engaged in urban planning and sustainable urban development in Sri Lanka. Powers and functions of UDA described in part II of the Act of the said Urban Development Act delegates power to the UDA to develop environmental standards and develop schemes for environmental improvements within the respective urban areas. UDA oversees finding innovative solutions to SWM issues to assist LAs for various waste management projects.Prevention of Mosquitoes Breeding Act No.11 of 2007: The Act also prohibits the disposal of waste that would create a condition favorable for mosquito breeding. Regulations published under the Gazette No. 1627/19 National Environmental (Municipal Solid Waste) Regulations, No. 1 of 2009, specifies that no person shall dump municipal solid waste along sides of any national highway and should be dumped in the places designated for such purpose by the relevant LA or any person or body of persons authorized by them in that behalf. The regulations provide power to take legal action or impose punishment under section 31 of the Act, for those are violating these provisions.National Thoroughfares Act No. 40 of 2008: dumping of solid waste or sending wastewater or liquid waste to the road is prohibited and actions could be taken against the violators.Imports and export control Act of 1969. Food quality control in the country works at three levels: import control, domestic control, and export certification. Imports and export control Act of 1969 provides powers to inspect the imported food items at the port of arrival and post arrival at the markets. Domestic control is done under the Food Act of 1980 through authorized officers. All exporters need to be registered under the Imports and Exports Control Act that provides export certificates.Food Act, No.26 of 1980. FW associated with spoilage occurs due to various types of microorganisms making food unacceptable to the consumer and change of smell, taste, appearance, and texture. Assuring the supply of safe food through a well-established regulatory system able to reduce the untimely food spoilage and subsequent FW. The Food Act, No.26 of 1980 is the main legislation governing Food Control activities in Sri Lanka. General Objectives of the Food Act is to ensure the availability of safe, wholesome, and genuinely presented food in the market for human consumption. The Food Act also applies to control, manufacture, importation, sale, distribution, transportation, advertisement and labeling of food. The main purpose of the Act is to ensure availability for sale and prohibition of any misleading conduct. Legislations related to FW management Legislations related to FW management  "},{"text":" this context, Sri Lanka has taken steps to review the Food Act no. 26 of 1980 and its subsequent amendment made in 1991. Under the provisions made in the Act, the Ministry of Health has published several regulations, and in the process of drafting new regulations based on current needs related to food safety. The National Food control system in Sri Lanka is further strengthened by the implementation of the Consumer Protection Authority Act of 2001 and the Drugs and Cosmetic Act of 1980(Munasinghe et al., 2014).Consumer Affairs Authority Act No 09 of 2003 has legal provisions empowering the Consumer Affairs Authority (CAA) to take necessary actions to safeguard the interests of consumers while maintaining effective competition among suppliers of consumer products. CAA can handle consumer complaints and has a role to play on consumer education and empowerment. CAA is a member of the National Food Advisory Committee (FAC).  "},{"text":"Table 2 describes how major legislations and policies dealing with food and biowaste management cut across the different stages of waste management without directly addressing FW reduction except through composting 9 and separation of recyclable to minimize volumes going to landfill sites. One of the gaps identified, in the existing regulatory environment, is that, despite the availability of large number of acts and policies, the system has failed to introduce necessary law enforcement mechanisms for effective implementation. Pilots on segregation of biodegradable waste at the household level have been in practice in several LAs in the Western Province and many other areas. Nonetheless, source segregation of FW and resource recovery from FW (e.g. compost) is not widely practiced or promoted at national level. LAs have not yet developed comprehensive by-laws that promote FW prevention, reduction, reuse and recycle (RRR) and source segregation. 20 20  "},{"text":"Table 2 Governance analysis matrix for food waste prevention and reduction Local Authori ties Acts 1 Provi ncial Coun cils Act No. 42 of 1987 NEA No. 47, 1980, Act No 56 of 1988 and Act No. 53 of 2000 Food Act No. 26 of 1980 Nuisance Ordinanc e No. 62 of 1939 and No 57 of 1946 Solid Waste Manage ment policy, 2007 Waste Managem ent policy 2018 (Draft) National policy on sustainable consumpti on and production policy of 2019 (SCP) Nation al Nutriti on Policy of Sri Lanka -2010 National Climate Change Policy of 2012 National policy and strategy on cleaner production for Fisheries sector-2008 National policy and strategy on cleaner production for Agriculture sector-2012 Local Authori ties Acts 1Provi ncial Coun cils Act No. 42 of 1987NEA No. 47, 1980, Act No 56 of 1988 and Act No. 53 of 2000Food Act No. 26 of 1980Nuisance Ordinanc e No. 62 of 1939 and No 57 of 1946Solid Waste Manage ment policy, 2007Waste Managem ent policy 2018 (Draft)National policy on sustainable consumpti on and production policy of 2019 (SCP)Nation al Nutriti on Policy of Sri Lanka -2010National Climate Change Policy of 2012National policy and strategy on cleaner production for Fisheries sector-2008National policy and strategy on cleaner production for Agriculture sector-2012 Waste            Waste  "},{"text":" Western Province has established a separate organization called Western Province Waste Management Authority in 2004 to act upon their entrusted task on waste management under statute No. 09 of 1999. The statute on waste management was amended as No. 01 of 2007 to further strengthen the legal status of waste management. Western Provincial Council introduced Solid Waste Management Rules No 01 of 2008 via the Extraordinary Gazette No 1560/6 on 30th July 2008 to get the legal support to implement the seven management steps in MSW management 11 .  "},{"text":" Annex 2 By-laws on food security and related aspects of Colombo Municipal Council It shall be lawful for a municipal inspector or superintendent of a slaughter house, upon the seizure by him as unwholesome or unfit for human food of any meat, poultry, fish, game, flesh, vegetable or other article, he shall order the same to be destroyed or to be disposed.• No person shall mix, color, stain, or powder, or order or permit any other person to mix, color, stain any article of food with any ingredient so as to render the article injurious to health. • No person shall expose for sale any cooked food, pastry, sweetmeat, confectionery, or preserved or dried fruit intended for human consumption, unless he has taken all reasonable precautions to protect it from dust, flies and bad odor. • It shall not be lawful for any person to sell, hawk about or expose for sale any cow's milk or buffalo's milk which has Been adultererd. • No person shall in any market or shop shall sell, or expose or permit to be exposed for sale, or admit into , or permit to remain in any such market or shop any noxious or unwholesome meat , offal , or fish or decomposed vegetable matter.  • The cleanliness of Under the Ordinance 8 of 1901 • The cleanliness ofUnder the Ordinance 8 of 1901 Municipal council ordinance (No. 29 of 1947) 272(19)-The regulation, supervision, inspection and control of the sale, or the storage or manufacture for the purpose of sale, of articles of food or drink including the sale, or the storage or manufacture for the purpose of sale, of such articles at hotels, shops and places other than markets. 272(20)-• Itinerant vendors, including -the supervision or control of itinerant vendors • The issue of licenses for the purpose of such supervision or control, and premises in which milk is kept, and of milk shops, and of vessels used for containing milk for sale. • 272(2)-the structure and stability of walls, foundations, roofs and chimneys of new buildings, the prevention of fires and purpose of health • Nutritio CMC by laws Food safety By laws related to eating venues by laws, 1962 • The premises must be equipped with the kitchen which has 1. A minimum superficial floor area of 120 square feet and are least one window capable of being opened on to an external open space. 2. Expect where cooking is done by gas or electricity, an efficient smoke vent. 3. The eaves of the building must be not less than 6 feet from ground. 4. The premises must be provided with adequate surface drainage, and a sanitary dustbin. 5. No licensee in charge of mobile eating houses shall permit any person who is suffering from or who has recently suffered from any contagious, cutaneous, infectious, or loathsome disease, to enter the eating house or to take part in preparation or sale of any food or drink therein, until the periods of infection and incubation have elapsed. • 272(23) The • No licensee shall keep or sell any cow's milk which the conditions to be 6. Every licensee shall keep the licensed premises n standardization of contains less than 12 per centum of milk solids, or Municipal council ordinance (No. 29 of 1947) 272(19)-The regulation, supervision, inspection and control of the sale, or the storage or manufacture for the purpose of sale, of articles of food or drink including the sale, or the storage or manufacture for the purpose of sale, of such articles at hotels, shops and places other than markets. 272(20)-• Itinerant vendors, including -the supervision or control of itinerant vendors • The issue of licenses for the purpose of such supervision or control, and premises in which milk is kept, and of milk shops, and of vessels used for containing milk for sale. • 272(2)-the structure and stability of walls, foundations, roofs and chimneys of new buildings, the prevention of fires and purpose of health • Nutritio CMC by laws Food safety By laws related to eating venues by laws, 1962 • The premises must be equipped with the kitchen which has 1. A minimum superficial floor area of 120 square feet and are least one window capable of being opened on to an external open space. 2. Expect where cooking is done by gas or electricity, an efficient smoke vent. 3. The eaves of the building must be not less than 6 feet from ground. 4. The premises must be provided with adequate surface drainage, and a sanitary dustbin. 5. No licensee in charge of mobile eating houses shall permit any person who is suffering from or who has recently suffered from any contagious, cutaneous, infectious, or loathsome disease, to enter the eating house or to take part in preparation or sale of any food or drink therein, until the periods of infection and incubation have elapsed. • 272(23) The • No licensee shall keep or sell any cow's milk which the conditions to be 6. Every licensee shall keep the licensed premises n standardization of contains less than 12 per centum of milk solids, or  attached to such milk and prevention free from rats or other vermin and shall cause all less than 3.5 per centum of milk fat, or any attached to such milk and preventionfree from rats or other vermin and shall cause all less than 3.5 per centum of milk fat, or any  licenses. of the sale of milk rat holes to be filled with broken glass and buffalo's milk which contains less than 16 percent licenses. of the sale of milkrat holes to be filled with broken glass and buffalo's milk which contains less than 16 percent  below • The regulation or prescribed prohibition of the sale standard. plastered with cement. of milk solids or less than 7 per centum of milk fat. Seizure of articles unfit for intake • No person shall sell or offer for sale any milk from below • The regulation or prescribed prohibition of the sale standard.plastered with cement. of milk solids or less than 7 per centum of milk fat. Seizure of articles unfit for intake • No person shall sell or offer for sale any milk from  of any specified article • The determination of 1. Prohibition of the mixing of injurious ingredients which the cream has been removed, unless he of any specified article • The determination of1. Prohibition of the mixing of injurious ingredients which the cream has been removed, unless he  or the sale of articles in the deficiency in any and of selling the same previously informs the person to whom he sells or or the sale of articles in the deficiency in anyand of selling the same previously informs the person to whom he sells or  any specified of the normal 2. No person shall expose for sale any cooked food, offers it that the cream has been removed. any specified of thenormal2. No person shall expose for sale any cooked food, offers it that the cream has been removed.  Place or area. constituents of pastry, sweetmeats, confectionery, or preserved • Prohibition of the mixing of injurious ingredients Place or area. constituentsofpastry, sweetmeats, confectionery, or preserved • Prohibition of the mixing of injurious ingredients  genuine milk, cream, or dried fruit intended for human consumption, and of selling the same. genuine milk, cream,or dried fruit intended for human consumption, and of selling the same.  • Facilitating inquiry in butter or cheese unless he has taken all reasonable precautions to • Facilitating inquiry in butter or cheeseunless he has taken all reasonable precautions to Food connection with the • The seizure, forfeiture protect it from dust, flies and bad odors. Foodconnection with the • The seizure, forfeitureprotect it from dust, flies and bad odors. waste spread of infectious or and removal and • Except as otherwise provided in these by laws, no wastespread of infectious or and removal and• Except as otherwise provided in these by laws, no and contagious diseases destruction of carcass of any animal not slaughtered at a andcontagious diseases destruction ofcarcass of any animal not slaughtered at a losses through dairies. unwholesome flesh, municipal slaughterhouse shall be brought into a lossesthrough dairies. unwholesome flesh,municipal slaughterhouse shall be brought into a  • The inspection of fish, or other public or private market. • The inspection of fish, or otherpublic or private market.  diaries and dairy cattle provisions • No owner, occupier, or lessee of or vendor shall diaries and dairy cattle provisions• No owner, occupier, or lessee of or vendor shall  and • The the seizure medical and sell or expose or permit to be exposed for sale or and • Thethe seizure medical andsell or expose or permit to be exposed for sale or  examination of those removal of articles permit to remain in, any such market or shop any examination of those removal of articlespermit to remain in, any such market or shop any  engaged in Dairies or exposed for sale on noxious or unwholesome meat, offal, or fish etc. engaged in Dairies or exposed for sale onnoxious or unwholesome meat, offal, or fish etc.  the distribution of milk contravention of any the distribution of milk contravention of any  for sale. by law. for sale. by law.  "},{"text":" Measure and Act on their food waste, with 121 already reporting on progress. These 121 companies have a combined turnover of half of the overall turnover for UK food manufacture, retail, and hospitality food service.With support by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) this group of businesses and organizations made a public commitment to reduce food loss and waste in their own operations in the United States by 50 percent by the year 2030.13    Annex 3 A selection of international non-state food waste prevention and reduction initiatives Annex 3 A selection of international non-state food waste prevention and reduction initiatives Initiative examples Company examples Description Initiative examples Company examplesDescription National alliances   National alliances National Food The UK Food Waste To help food and consumer goods companies National FoodThe UK Food WasteTo help food and consumer goods companies Waste Reduction Reduction Roadmap, reduce their food waste, the companies are Waste ReductionReduction Roadmap,reduce their food waste, the companies are Pacts (I) (UK; 2018) committed to Target, National Food with more than 150 companies, incl. all main grocery retailers in the UK Kraft Heinz (Canada), The group of 8 companies are committed to Pacts (I) (UK; 2018) committed to Target, National Food with more than 150 companies, incl. all main grocery retailers in the UK Kraft Heinz (Canada), The group of 8 companies are committed to Waste Reduction Loblaw Companies Ltd., reduce food waste in their Canadian operations by Waste ReductionLoblaw Companies Ltd.,reduce food waste in their Canadian operations by Pacts (I) (Canada; Maple Leaf Foods, 50 percent by 2025. Pacts (I) (Canada;Maple Leaf Foods,50 percent by 2025. 2019) Metro Inc., Save-on-  2019)Metro Inc., Save-on-  Foods, Sobeys Inc.,  Foods, Sobeys Inc.,  Unilever (Canada),  Unilever (Canada),  Walmart (Canada)  Walmart (Canada) National Food U.S. Food Loss and  National FoodU.S. Food Loss and Waste Reduction Waste 2030 Champions  Waste ReductionWaste 2030 Champions Pacts (II) (USA;   Pacts (II) (USA; 2016)   2016) Multi-national alliances  Multi-national alliances Global alliances I The EU based  Global alliances IThe EU based (2015) International Food  (2015)International Food  Waste Coalition  Waste Coalition  (Founding members:  (Founding members:  Ardo, McCain, PepsiCo,  Ardo, McCain, PepsiCo,  SCA, Sodexo, Unil  SCA, Sodexo, Unil  "},{"text":" To help meet this goal, Sysco is working on repurposing and donating excess food and redirecting food waste through agricultural feed. Tesco UK achieved a 63% increase in the amount of surplus food redistributed to charities, community groups, colleagues, and animal feed. This resulted in a 51% decrease in the amount of food safe for human consumption going to waste (energy recovery) and a 17% reduction in total food waste in tonnage. Between 2016 and 20-19 Tesco Central Europe reduced its total food waste by 47% through reducing surplus and increasing the amount of surplus food redistributed to charity partners. Prohibitions of cattle materials in animal feed Goal is to prevent transmission of BSE. This is an update from589.2000 (3)  This version of the cattle material ban only concerned feeding cattle to ruminants. Morrisons, Co-Op Tesco Nestlé (2) Europe biomaterial/processing) across its global manufacturing plants (Kellogg). Since 2016, a 13% reduction in its food waste (Morrisons). Since 2015, a 29% reduction in food waste (Co-Op). Company commitments (IV) Between 2017 and 2018, Nestlé reduced milk (1) EU No 68/2013 -Catalog of Feed Materials (2) EC No 183/2005 -Requirements for Feed Hygiene (2005) (3) EC No 999/2001 -Processed animal protein feed ban for all farm animals (2001) (4) Processed animal protein (1994) COMMISSION NOTICE Guidelines for the feed use of food no longer intended for human consumption (1) Most recent update of catalog defining all potential feed materials. (2) Concerns feed hygiene, feed traceability, and feed facility registration across the supply chain including imports and exports. (3) Processed animal protein feed ban for all farm animals (4) Processed animal protein feed ban for cattle, Between 2017-19, Company feed ban for cattle, sheep, and goats sheep, and goats Morrisons, Co-Op Tesco Nestlé (2) Europe biomaterial/processing) across its global manufacturing plants (Kellogg). Since 2016, a 13% reduction in its food waste (Morrisons). Since 2015, a 29% reduction in food waste (Co-Op). Company commitments (IV) Between 2017 and 2018, Nestlé reduced milk (1) EU No 68/2013 -Catalog of Feed Materials (2) EC No 183/2005 -Requirements for Feed Hygiene (2005) (3) EC No 999/2001 -Processed animal protein feed ban for all farm animals (2001) (4) Processed animal protein (1994) COMMISSION NOTICE Guidelines for the feed use of food no longer intended for human consumption (1) Most recent update of catalog defining all potential feed materials. (2) Concerns feed hygiene, feed traceability, and feed facility registration across the supply chain including imports and exports. (3) Processed animal protein feed ban for all farm animals (4) Processed animal protein feed ban for cattle, Between 2017-19, Company feed ban for cattle, sheep, and goats sheep, and goats commitments (V) (2018/C 133/02) losses during transportation from the farms to commitments (V) (2018/C 133/02)losses during transportation from the farms to   factory by nearly 40 percent. factory by nearly 40 percent. Company Sodexo In June 2019, Sodexo, which serves more than 100 CompanySodexoIn June 2019, Sodexo, which serves more than 100 commitments (VI)  million meals a day, announced new food waste commitments (VI)million meals a day, announced new food waste   reduction activities with a data-driven waste reduction activities with a data-driven waste   management program called \"WasteWatch management program called \"WasteWatch   powered by LeanPath\", to be deployed across powered by LeanPath\", to be deployed across   3,000 sites worldwide. 3,000 sites worldwide. Company Kroger Kroger, the second largest food retailer in the CompanyKrogerKroger, the second largest food retailer in the commitments (VII)  United States, estimated that in 2017, 27% of retail commitments (VII)United States, estimated that in 2017, 27% of retail   store food waste was diverted from landfill, and in store food waste was diverted from landfill, and in   2018, 40%, supported by better store engagement 2018, 40%, supported by better store engagement   and execution. and execution. Source: Authors' elaboration; based on WRI 2019  Source: Authors' elaboration; based on WRI 2019 Company Google Since 2014, over 2,700 tons of food waste avoided CompanyGoogleSince 2014, over 2,700 tons of food waste avoided commitments (II)  by implementing LeanPath technology across 189 commitments (II)by implementing LeanPath technology across 189   cafes and using the information to alter menus and cafes and using the information to alter menus and   purchasing, repurposing trims of food that would purchasing, repurposing trims of food that would   otherwise be wasted into other products, and otherwise be wasted into other products, and   donating any surplus food to those in need donating any surplus food to those in need Company Kellogg, Since 2016, a 12% reduction in organic waste (food CompanyKellogg,Since 2016, a 12% reduction in organic waste (food commitments (III)  waste plus animal feed and commitments (III)waste plus animal feed and  "}],"sieverID":"7c30d3f1-162f-47d0-b3cc-d599ab55887a","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03856489a83553038fc4491811951239","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bd6b5b16-7ff7-4513-aba7-db139ebb5d84/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Mini-tillers for cropping systems productivity in Nepal","keywords":["No milestones associated Sub-IDOs: Contributing Centers/PPA partners: Evidence link:","https://tinyurl.com/y5ul5xeu Deliverables associated: <Not Defined> Contributing CRPs/Platforms:","Maize -Maize","Wheat -Wheat"],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"9f4fce02-27d7-45fa-9edd-afa1626d9ad2","abstract":""}

data/part_4/03b0d5e94ad0175014a9b64c6c36a98a.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03b0d5e94ad0175014a9b64c6c36a98a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3ee5859e-8614-4a8c-a258-45fac8403b09/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Annex A. Roles and Responsibilities Agreed between LI-BIRD, Pragatisheel Yuba Club, and Srijansbeel Motbers' Group on Various Tasks in PPB Process (for High-Altitude Rice)  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" in Diverse Production Environments and Institutional Settings Annex B. Roles and Responsibilities ofFarmers and Researchers on Various Tasks in PPB Processes (In Sito Crop Conservation Project)! el al. (2000), Note: **s::Subordinate role; u* = Lead reSponSíbility, "}],"sieverID":"defec0ea-11b3-4a14-9a1f-1fec8070f6dc","abstract":""}

data/part_4/03e885ced6d564a40a45c85e2c1f5798.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03e885ced6d564a40a45c85e2c1f5798","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/84c928c6-7b5b-4885-9841-f1179be345b2/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"GCP projects are funded by the NWO-WOTRO Science for Global Development funding instrument Food & Business Research (FBR) Factsheet midterm findings GCP-4 Factsheet midterm findings Global Challenges Programme Call 4 CSA/SuPER -Upscaling CSA with small-scale food producers organised via VSLAs: Financing for adoption, behavioural change and resilience in rural Iringa Region, Tanzania","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Interim research findings","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Preliminary findings from the research so far are as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":173,"text":"• Climate change impacts are felt along the entire agricultural value chain in Iringa; input acquisition, on-farm activities, post-harvest handling, and marketing. Of these, on-farm production is the most vulnerable to climate variability. • Adoption rates of CSA practices among small-scale rural farmers are low, particularly among women farmers, mainly due to 3 factors: (i) lack of financial resources, (ii) lack of (information about) markets, and (iii) poor access to reliable information about the cost and benefits of the practices. • Significant opportunity exists for greater collaboration among institutions and formation of synergies across projects. This has potential to reduce duplicative efforts and increase impact. • Farmers do not adopt the CSA practices that involve the adoption of new cash crops (e.g., soybean) unless they are confident that there are markets to sell their new produce. • There is limited involvement of both Tanzanian governmental and non-governmental organizations along the entire value chain, particularly in regards to provision of inputs, training on use of agricultural inputs, access to credit, value addition, and marketing."}]},{"head":"Intermediate outcomes achieved","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"In 2018 CSA-SUPER research revealed only few farmers from FFBSs in Iringa adopted soybean."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Farmers considered soybean as a cash crop and believed that there were no markets to sell soybean in Tanzania. CARE took action and had implemented a market study to identify potential"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"49aeb53d-37ed-4fd4-aaa8-e3cfa02e6e3f","abstract":"come together to investigate a new model for upscaling the adoption of climate-smart agriculture practices (CSA) practices by small-scale farmers in developing countries. CSA practices increase agricultural productivity, enhance the resilience of farmers to climate change, and, where possible, mitigate greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. It is, however, challenging to upscale the adoption of CSA practices by small-scale farmers in developing countries. Farmers often lack agricultural and agri-business knowledge and finance to invest in CSA practices. Many of them are socially disadvantaged, extremely poor, women, and young. They are usually excluded from efforts to improve access to finance and knowledge about CSA practices. We, therefore, need new rural development models that will enhance agricultural and agri-business knowledge, provide access to finance and empower socially disadvantaged groups at the same time to upscale the adoption of CSA practices. The new model implemented by CARE in Iringa, Tanzania, and tested by the CSA-SuPER project bundles villages savings and loan associations (VSLAs), which provide agricultural finance with farmer field business schools (FFBSs), which deliver agricultural knowledge to groups of small-scale women farmers. The model also follows sustainable, productive, profitable, equitable and resilient, so-called SuPER, farming principles. These principles guarantee that women are not excluded and receive equal opportunities to adopt those practices."}

data/part_4/042258b8c17e319707132b778730d151.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"042258b8c17e319707132b778730d151","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4f7984a2-820a-45ba-861f-10ee890eb4c1/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":213,"text":"I am pleased to forward the ISPC's commentary following its review of the most recent version of the proposal for a Global Rice Science Partnership, GRiSP. We recommend that GRiSP be fully funded as a CGIAR Research Program. The proposal makes a compelling case for the CGIAR's contribution to improving the productivity of rice and rice systems as they underpin the goals of the CGIAR. The ISPC is impressed by the science quality inherent in the biophysical approaches espoused, the substantial efforts the proponents have made in ex ante priority setting (which is continuing) and the efforts to respond in a thoughtful manner to earlier comments. The proposal is significantly improved over the version reviewed in July. The CGIAR partnership which has made this possible, so that it addresses three major global regions and drawing in high quality collaborators, is to be commended. Our commentary points out areas that the developing program will continue to have to address. These include the regional balance of research priorities, and identifying sufficient funding for capacity building to meet the expected outcomes. There is a need to ensure that progress towards poverty alleviation through a focus on rice productivity gains, continues to be tested by integrated and analytical approaches as understanding of systems effects and contexts change."},{"index":2,"size":258,"text":"Our review of this, the first CRP proposal, has raised issues of a general nature which we bring to the attention of the Fund Council. The GRiSP is proposed as one part of a bigger MegaProgram encompassing work on other cereals. It is a strong program when judged in a stand alone manner, but gives little indication of how it will work with the other programmatic elements of the CGIAR. In the absence of an adequate strategic description of the overarching CGIAR portfolio and the rationale for placing activities under different programs, the ISPC has noted missed opportunities for cereals and systems research and potentially the delivery of outputs to regions (through systems work yet to be defined in other potential MPs). We urge the Consortium Board to work actively with the GRiSP and proponents of other related programs to advance consideration of the major cereals programs simultaneously. There is a need to establish the necessary boundaries as well as the research synergies and linkages to collaborative regional systems work. These aspects of the GRiSP program cannot be considered as completed. We suggest therefore that more CGIAR energy should be placed on establishing the final SRF to guide the remaining portfolio development, rather than on program development at this stage. Secondly, we note that currently the Centre genebank costs are excluded from the total budget and this too needs to regularised at the system level as part of a strategic underpinning not only of the rice proposal but of the systems work on cereals and other genetic resources."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"Thirdly, we expect that the areas to which attention has been drawn in the ISPC commentary will be addressed and direct future action as the program matures from a collection of current grant-supported activities to Fund-supported activity within an overall strategy for the CGIAR. We anticipate that it will be appropriate to review this CRP again when the final SRF is in place to confirm the proper \"bench-marking\" of this and other programs."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"Finally, we encourage the Consortium Board to take the lead in reviewing appropriate governance mechanisms for future CRPs and before proposals are presented. The new programs will need to respond flexibly to the requirements of the new CGIAR. The ISPC believes that more than one governance model may be appropriate, and that the lead centre model may at times be a hindrance to programmatic flexibility and development with time."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"We are pleased to provide support to the Fund Council deliberations in this manner."},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"Sincerely, Rudy Rabbinge, Chair, ISPC"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"5d8371c4-f3a7-42ec-a3e5-8ed98215e91f","abstract":""}

data/part_4/04974b1b44ebdfbb17e82dbc859b0637.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04974b1b44ebdfbb17e82dbc859b0637","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/746be32b-d3d5-4212-88b7-2524796e668e/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"Rapport de la formation des formateurs sur les bonnes pratiques d'élevage, la production de la fumure organique, les techniques de conservation du fourrage et de production des blocs multi-nutritionnels","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Rapport de la formation des formateurs sur les bonnes pratiques d'élevage, la production de la fumure organique, les techniques de conservation du fourrage et de production des blocs multi-nutritionnel Alain Villard Bimenyimana 1 , Lionel Nyabongo 1 , Déo Nzisabira 2 , Adrien Kwizera 2 et Francine Ahimpera 3 Unless otherwise noted, you are free to share (copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format), adapt (remix, transform, and build upon the material) for any purpose, even commercially, under the following conditions:"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"ATTRIBUTION. The work must be attributed, but not in any way that suggests endorsement by ILRI or the author(s)."}]},{"head":"NOTICE:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"For any reuse or distribution, the licence terms of this work must be made clear to others. Any of the above conditions can be waived if permission is obtained from the copyright holder. Nothing in this licence impairs or restricts the author's moral rights. Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Editing, design and layout-ILRI Editorial and Publishing Services, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"Cover photo-Participants à la formation des formateurs sur les bonnes pratiques d'élevage, la production de la fumure organique, les techniques de conservation du fourrage et de production des blocs multi-nutritionnel autour du foin de cultures légumineuses et graminées fabriqué lors de la formation."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"Crédit : Mechac/MINEAGRIE communication team  Citation: Bimenyimana, A.V., Nyabongo, L., Nzisabira,D., Kwizera, A. et Ahimpera, F. 2023. Rapport de la formation des formateurs sur les bonnes pratiques d'élevage, la production de la fumure organique, les techniques de conservation du fourrage et de production des blocs multi-nutritionnels. Nairobi, Kenya: ILRI.    "}]},{"head":"Habitat","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"L'utilité de l'étable pour le bien-être, la santé, l'hygiène et le suivi de la reproduction n'est plus à démontrer. Avec l'entrée en vigueur de la loi sur la stabulation permanente, l'aménagement d'une étable appropriée tout près de son habitation, sur un sol drainé et bien aéré, protégeant l'animal contre le soleil accablant, les pluies, les vents et les accidents devient une necessité pour chaque éleveur. Cet aménagement devra tenir compte de l'espace vital optimal pour chaque catégorie d'animaux en stabulation et aussi comporter les accessoires nécessaires (mangeoires, abreuvoirs, couloir de contention, salle de traite, fosses à fumier, fosse à purin)."}]},{"head":"Reproduction","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Le principal défi de la reproduction animale pour l'éleveur est de trouver le bon géniteur au bon moment. Le problème de géniteur trouve une partie de sa solution dans l'adoption de l'insémination artificielle dans plusieurs localités du pays. Mais pour que ce service soit efficace, l'éleveur est tenu de faire le suivi des chaleurs et les différentes étapes du cycle estral de sa vache en reproduction et assurer la gestion des reproducteurs. Un registre de la reproduction correctement rempli est ainsi indispensable."}]},{"head":"Santé du bétail","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"En complément aux bonnes pratiques d'alimentation, d'hygiène et de la reproduction, la prévention et le contrôle des maladies animales contribuent dans l'amélioration des productions en élevage. L'aspersion aux acaricides, l'utilisation des vermifuges, la mise en place des mesures de biosécurité externe et interne ainsi que la vaccination sont les piliers d'une bonne santé dans l'étable. Le soutien des services vétérinaires dans le diagnostic des maladies, la prescription et l'administration des médicaments est également important. Néanmoins, le rôle de l'éleveur pour assurer le suivi en tout temps de la santé de ses animaux doit être rappelé. La thermométrie devra être réalisée le matin et le soir pour détecter précocement pathologies s'accompagnant de la fièvre."}]},{"head":"Techniques de conservation et de traitement des fourrages","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"La disponibilité du fourrage fluctue selon les saisons et l'utilisation des techniques de conservation du fourrage est un impératif pour pouvoir nourrir adéquatement son bétail durant la saison sèche. "}]},{"head":"Le foin","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"L'ensilage","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"Cette technique permet de conserver le fourrage à l'état frais et avec un minimum de perte de valeur nutritive. La technique est réalisée en conditions d'anaérobiose, sans eau et sans contamination avec les bactéries telluriques du sol. L'ensilage peut être réalisé en sacs ou dans des fosses selon les possibilités. Le matériel à ensiler est coupé, séché un peu, haché et tassé dans la fosse dont les parois latérales sont couvertes préalablement par une toile plastique puis recouvert par une toile qui garantit l'étanchéité du silo. Le silo est enfin recouvert par une couche épaisse de terre qui contribue au tassement supplémentaire du silo. Des additifs peuvent être utilisés comme le sel et la mélasse."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Démonstration aux participants à la formation des formateurs sur la technique de conservation du fourrage par la fenaison. (Crédit: ILRI/Bimenyimana Alain Villard)."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"Participants au cours de la séance pratique de conservation du fourrage par ensilage (Crédit: ILRI/Bimenyimana Alain Villard)."}]},{"head":"Traitement des rafles de maïs et de la paille de riz","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"Il existe plusieurs types de traitements qui sont utilisés pour améliorer la disponibilité, l'accessibilité et l'utilisation des nutriments contenus dans les résidus des récoltes agricoles. Le traitement des rafles de maïs et de la paille de riz à l'urée est un de ces technologies qui permettent de valoriser des résidus jadis destinés à être jetés, à la production de la fumure ou comme bois de chauffe. Le traitement à l'urée permet à la fois de libérer et rendre disponible les nutriments rendus indisponibles par la lignification sur les végétaux asséchés après maturité et aussi renforcer le contenu en matière azotée qui est convertie en protéines après son utilisation par la flore ruminale. Le principe technique du traitement est d'asperger 500kg de rafles (ou 100 kg de paille de riz) avec une solution de 5kg d'urée dans 50 l d'eau puis laisser imprégner dans des fosses ou sachets pendant 15 jours (pour les rafles) ou 7 jours (pour la paille de riz). "}]},{"head":"Fabrication des blocs à lécher multi-nutritionnels","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Production de la fumure organique","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"La fumure organique constitue le lien physique d'intégration entre l'agriculture et de l'élevage pour l'éleveur et elle est parmi les intrants incontournables pour arriver à sécuriser les moyens de subsistance pour les petits producteurs agricoles. Ainsi, sa production en quantité, en qualité et dans les délais réduits repose sur la gestion adéquate de l'humidité, de l'aération, de la température et l'apport dans des proportions adéquates des sources de carbone et d'azote dans le tas en décomposition. Des additifs peuvent être utilisés pour améliorer la qualité ou la vitesse d'humification. Alternativement, des techniques de production et d'utilisation du lisier et de la fumure verte peuvent être utilisées."}]},{"head":"Constats et engagement des participants","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Au cours de la formation, les participants ont exprimés les constats et recommandations suivants : "}]},{"head":"Planification des formations des éleveurs","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Les participants à la formation en collaboration avec les consortia de mise à l'échelle du projet AID-I ont pu planifier les formations des éleveurs à mettre en oeuvre juste après la formation des formateurs comme suit :"},{"index":2,"size":160,"text":"Planification des formations des éleveurs dans la zone d'action du consortium dirigé par CAPAD Les thèmes sur les bonnes pratiques d'alimentation, de suivi sanitaire, de suivi de la reproduction, de l'habitat, de l'hygiène et de la qualité du lait produit à la ferme, des techniques de conservation et de traitement des fourrages, la technique de production de la fumure organique ont été traités dans des séances tant théoriques que pratiques. Les participants et la Direction Générale de l'Élevage ont positivement apprécié la tenue de cette formation des formateurs sur ces technologies qui permettront de mettre à l'échelle ces techniques qui sont à la base de la production laitière. Il a été recommandé aux participants de mettre immédiatement à l'échelle les enseignements reçus sur la conservation par fenaison, la production des blocs multi-nutritionnels en plus de sensibiliser sur les bonnes pratiques d'alimentation du bétail, de suivi de la reproduction et de la santé ainsi que l'hygiène du lait et l'habitat animal."},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"6 Annexes "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" 1. International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) 2. Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Burundi (ISABU) 3. Laboratoire National Vétérinaire de Bujumbura (LNV) Septembre 2023 ©2023 International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) ILRI thanks all donors and organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund This publication is copyrighted by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). It is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. To view this licence, visit https://creativecommons. org/licenses/by/4.0. "},{"text":"2 Objectif de la formation L'objectif global de la formation était d'améliorer la productivité du secteur laitier en renforçant les capacités des services de vulgarisation de l'élevage sur les bonnes pratiques d'élevage laitier et les techniques de production de la fumure organique. Plus spécifiquement, les objectifs de cette activité étaient les suivants : • Passez en revue et rassembler les manuels et matériels de formation sur les bonnes pratiques d'élevage de bovins laitier ainsi que sur la technique de production de la fumure organique ; • Conduire la formation théorique et pratique sur ces thèmes pour 17 formateurs ; • Proposer une méthodologie de vulgarisation des techniques d'alimentation du bétail laitier et de suivi de l'adoption par les agriculteurs ; • Planifier la mise a l'echelle des ces technologies aux éleveurs pilotes et agents de vulgarisation. 3 Déroulement et méthodologie Comme il avait été convenu lors des réunions de planification conjointe avec les partenaires de mise en oeuvre du projet (notamment les consortiums CAPAD et World Vision), les activités de mise à l'échelle des technologies ciblées par l'AID-I GLR sont soutenues par les institutions gouvernementales pour arriver à avoir l'impact escompté. Ainsi, les invitations à cette formation ont été lancées par la Direction Générale de l'Élevage. La formation a été tenue au chef-lieu de la Province Cibitoke pour les séances théoriques et dans la station de recherche zootechnique de Mparambo pour les séances pratiques. La formation a duré 3 jours, du 26 au 28 juin 2023. L'ouverture officielle de cette formation a été rehaussée par la présence du Directeur Général de l'Élevage et du Coordonnateur National des activités de l'ILRI qui ont tour à tour expliqué le contexte et l'importance de cette activité et ont encouragé les participants à s'atteler assidument à assimiler le contenu de la formation et planifier la mise à l'échelle de ces connaissances/technologies aux éleveurs. Participants à la formation des formateurs sur les bonnes pratiques d'élevage, les techniques de conservation du fourrage et la production de la fumure organique autour du Directeur Général de l'Élevage et du Coordonnateur National de l'ILRI au Burundi (Crédit : MINEAGRIE communication team/Rebecca). "},{"text":" Cette technique comporte plusieurs avantages notamment économiques (un bloc à lécher moins coûteux, une opportunité d'affaire pour les coopératives d'éleveurs) et nutritionnels (un bloc à lécher comportant des sources protéiniques et énergétiques, en plus de sels minéraux et vitamines). La technologie consiste à mélanger les ingrédients locaux dans le respect de l'ordre et les proportions recommandées avec de l'eau pour avoir un mélange homogène, le couler dans une moule dont la taille et la forme dépend des préférences et enfin sécher adéquatement les blocs produits. Participants à la formation des formateurs en train de pratiquer le mélange des ingrédients pour la fabrication des blocs à lécher (à gauche) et le produit final de leur pratique (à droite) (Crédit: ILRI/Bimenyimana Alain Villard). "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Deux formateurs et 2 assistants ont animé les différentes sessions de la formation dont l'agenda est detaillee dans le tableau ci-dessous : Au total, 17 formateurs ont été formés. Les participants provenaient tous du Burundi et 3 étaient des femmes tandis que 14 étaient des hommes. Parmi eux se trouvaient 11 responsables provinciaux d'élevage dans la zone d'action du projet, 4 cadres et conseillers de la Direction Générale de l'Élevage et de la Direction de la Promotion des Filières Animales ainsi que 2 cadres des consortium World Vision et CAPAD qui sont chargés d'organiser la mise à l'échelle des ces innovations introduites. être adaptée aux besoins non comblés par le fourrage disponible et l'augmentation des productions laitières escomptée. L'utilisation de la technique du carré de Pearson permet d'orienter sur les quantités des différents ingrédients à incorporer dans une ration pour son équilibre. Des traitements sommaires de l'aliments sont à promouvoir notamment le hachage du fourrage, le mélange des graminées et des légumineuses dans la ration dans les proportions adéquates (70%/30%), la disponibilisation de l'eau en quantité et qualité suffisante dans l'étable. Date Thème Type DateThèmeType 26/06/2023 Bonnes pratiques d'élevage laitier (alimentation, habitat de l'animal, reproduction, santé, Théorie 26/06/2023 Bonnes pratiques d'élevage laitier (alimentation, habitat de l'animal, reproduction, santé,Théorie  hygiène et production de la fumure organique, commercialisation des produits animaux).  hygiène et production de la fumure organique, commercialisation des produits animaux).  Techniques de conservation du fourrage : ensilage Théorie Techniques de conservation du fourrage : ensilageThéorie Techniques de conservation du fourrage : foin Traitement de la paille de riz des rafles de maïs 4 Résultats de la formation Théorie Théorie Techniques de conservation du fourrage : foin Traitement de la paille de riz des rafles de maïs 4 Résultats de la formationThéorie Théorie  Fabrication des blocs à lécher multi-nutritionnels. Théorie Fabrication des blocs à lécher multi-nutritionnels.Théorie 27/06/2023 Fabrication des blocs à lécher Pratique 27/06/2023 Fabrication des blocs à lécherPratique  Fabrication du foin Pratique Fabrication du foinPratique 28/06/2023 Fabrication de l'ensilage Pratique 28/06/2023 Fabrication de l'ensilagePratique Démonstration sur la production de la fumure organique 4.1 Participation à la formation Pratique Démonstration sur la production de la fumure organique 4.1 Participation à la formationPratique 4.2 Développement des thèmes de la formation 4.2 Développement des thèmes de la formation 4.2.1 Bonnes pratiques d'élevage  4.2.1 Bonnes pratiques d'élevage  "},{"text":" La fauche du fourrage de bonne qualité, son séchage pour réduire son humidité, son bottelage et pressage est une technique qui permet à l'éleveur de conserver du fourrage disponible en grandes quantités durant les périodes d'abondance pour l'utiliser durant la saison sèche. C'est une technique relativement simple et dont le produit est facile à conserver et à manipuler. Pour maximiser la qualité du foin, le fourrage est coupé lorsqu'il est à 10-20% de la floraison. Le pressage est réalisé dans des caisses des dimensions variées, les plus courantes étant de 100cmX50cmX40cm.  "},{"text":" compris que les bonnes pratiques d'élevage et de production de la fumure organique sont peu utilisées par les éleveurs principalement par manque de connaissance (les agents de vulgarisation manquent de moyens pour dupliquer les formations aux éleveurs) et le projet AID-I est une fenêtre pour disséminer ces technologies • Les éléments de bonnes pratiques d'élevage, la technique de conservation du fourrage par fenaison ainsi que la technologie de production des blocs multi-nutritionnels pour l'amélioration de la nutrition animale peuvent être déjà disséminées directement après la formation des formateurs. La technologie de conservation du fourrage par ensilage pourra être mise à l'échelle en décembre et janvier pour profiter de l'abondance des fourrages dans les champs des fermiers bénéficiaires. • La méthodologie adoptée pour la mise à l'échelle de ces technologies est de cibler et former des groupes d'éleveurs pilotes et agents de vulgarisation par des séances pratiques avec tout le paquet technologique nécessaire consécutif à une sensibilisation d'éleveurs pour expliquer leurs avantages. Les éleveurs et agents formés par les vulgarisateurs auront la tâche de mettre à l'échelle la les nouvelles technologies et l'encadrement des éleveurs de leur localité d'origine ou de prestation.. • Le projet AID-I, ses activités, sa zone d'action, le rôle de l'ILRI et des partenaires de mise à l'échelle ainsi que •Le projet AID-I, ses activités, sa zone d'action, le rôle de l'ILRI et des partenaires de mise à l'échelle ainsi que  son approche de dissémination accélérée des technologies aux éleveurs; son approche de dissémination accélérée des technologies aux éleveurs; • Il a été •Il a été  "},{"text":" La formation des formateurs organisée conjointement par l'ILRI et la Direction Générale de l'Élevage au Burundi sur les bonnes pratiques d'élevage et technique de production de la fumure organique dans le cadre de la mise en oeuvre de l'Initiative de Dissémination Accélérée des Innovations Agricoles dans la Région des Grands-Lacs (AID-I GLR) a été tenue du 26 au 28 juin 2023 à Cibitoke et regroupait 17 participants dont 3 femmes, 11 responsables provinciaux d'élevage dans la zone d'action du projet, 4 cadres et conseillers de la Direction Générale de l'Élevage et de la Direction de la Promotion des Filières Animales ainsi que 2 cadres des consortium World Vision et CAPAD. 5 Conclusions et recommandations 5 Conclusions et recommandations Technologie Province Commune Participants Sites Total Date TechnologieProvinceCommuneParticipantsSitesTotalDate Fenaison Gitega Bugendana 40 4  Du 10 Juillet FenaisonGitegaBugendana404Du 10 Juillet   Giheta 40 3   Giheta403   Mutaho 40 2   Mutaho402   Makebuko 40 3   Makebuko403  Karusi Buhiga 40 2  Du 17 Juillet KarusiBuhiga402Du 17 Juillet   Shombo 40 3   Shombo403  Muramvya Bukeye 40 3  Du 17 Juillet MuramvyaBukeye403Du 17 Juillet   Kiganda 40 3   Kiganda403   Muramvya 40 4   Muramvya404  Ruyigi Ruyigi 40 3  Du 17 Juillet RuyigiRuyigi403Du 17 Juillet   Kinyinya 40 2   Kinyinya402  S-T    280  S-T280 Fabrication des blocs Gitega Bugendana 40 1  Du 14 Août Fabrication des blocsGitegaBugendana401Du 14 Août multi-nutritionnels  Giheta 40 1   multi-nutritionnelsGiheta401   Mutaho 40 1   Mutaho401   Makebuko 40 1   Makebuko401  Karusi Buhiga 40 1   KarusiBuhiga401   Shombo 40 1   Shombo401  Muramvya Bukeye 40 1   MuramvyaBukeye401   Kiganda 40 1   Kiganda401   Muramvya 40 1   Muramvya401  Ruyigi Ruyigi 40 1   RuyigiRuyigi401   Kinyinya 40 1   Kinyinya401  S-T      S-T Total     720  Total720  "}],"sieverID":"a979e610-04a6-46ca-802f-214ab6a7f16a","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04d6a3c974a20c511af3a21c15c1cc50","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/43e90a7e-0c5e-443b-af2c-80a6ad01ab7c/retrieve"},"pageCount":22,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"TThe pig sector is becoming increasingly important to the economy of Uganda. Pig numbers have increased severalfold over the last few decades, with a current national herd of 4.41 million (1). This increase has been driven by increasing demand for pork, with per capita pork consumption the highest in East Africa at 3.0 kg per capita per annum (2, based on 2018 data). The majority of pigs are kept by smallholders in mixed crop-livestock systems under low-input conditions, though there are also some medium-scale semi-intensive as well as a few large-scale intensive enterprises (3). Pigs play an important role in the livelihoods of smallholders, providing income for planned and emergency needs as well as livelihood diversification (4,5). They are favoured by many due to their relatively quick returns, limited space requirements, and ability to utilize household waste. Pigs also contribute to the livelihood of other value chain actors, including input and service providers, and aggregators (traders), amongst others. Whilst the smallholder pig sector currently faces a number of constraints, it also has a high growth potential should these challenges be overcome (4,5)."},{"index":2,"size":215,"text":"Uganda has had a long history of controlling epidemics, most recently including Ebola in 2000, 2017, and 2018, and Marburg in 2018 (6). Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID- 19) was first reported in Uganda in March 2020, and the government responded rapidly with measures to reduce community spread. These measures included (at different time periods): the closure of places where people would normally congregate like schools (closed from March 2020 to January 2022), colleges, universities, public transport, places of worship, bars, markets, hotels, and others; prohibition of gatherings; home confinement; a curfew from 7 pm to 6.30 am; and countrywide and international travel restrictions (6)(7)(8)(9). Additionally, there were strong public health campaigns promoting hand hygiene, physical distancing, and the use of face masks, with messages delivered by a range of means including radio, television, and social media (6,9). Whilst these measures have generally been considered positive in terms of containing COVID-19, with 3588 deaths and 163,301 cases reported to June 2022 (10), unintended consequences of these measures have also been reported. From studies within Uganda, these include lowered food security and dietary quality, disrupted education, lower-income, and employment loss, poorer healthcare outcomes including from lack of access to healthcare services, increased mental health problems, increased domestic and gender-based violence, and increased child abuse, amongst others (7,8,(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"Given the importance of pig-keeping to the livelihoods of smallholders in Uganda, and the likelihood of this being disrupted due to COVID-19 control measures, this report explores the effects of COVID-19 control measures on smallholder pig keepers. Perceptions of the effect of COVID-19 control measures on the household pig enterprise, as well as the household and community more generally, are explored, in addition to COVID-19 awareness and uptake of preventative measures. In recognition that these perceptions and practices may differ by gender of the respondent, as well as the type of household (whether female-or male-headed) comparisons to these ends are reported."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Background to the study","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"This work was performed as part of a larger project which aimed to determine the profitability of smallholder pig enterprises in Uganda that kept different breeds of pigs, amongst others. Within this larger study, household pig enterprises within two sites (see below) were first surveyed for baseline information from April 2018 to October 2018, and then longitudinally monitored between October 2018 and March 2020 (with data collected from eight visits over this time). The survey ended in March 2020 due to the inability to access the field due to COVID-19 restrictions. In late December 2020, it was possible to access the field again and an additional survey (presented here) was undertaken in relation to COVID-19."}]},{"head":"Study site description and household selection","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Project sites were the Hoima and Kamuli districts of Uganda, located in western and eastern Uganda, respectively. The sites were primarily chosen because of the importance of pig keeping to livelihoods, and because of the diversity of pig breeds kept (important to the objectives of the larger study)."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"Two hundred households within the study sites were selected to participate in the larger study. The households were selected through a clustered random sampling approach, where pig-keeping households were first clustered based on the type of household pig enterprise (defined according to the type of housing and pig breeds kept), and 100 households for each site were randomly selected from these clusters. Households in this study (which numbered 178 in total, see below) were those from this group who additionally consented to participate in the COVID-19 effects survey."}]},{"head":"Survey tool","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"A household survey was utilized, with the majority of questions closed-ended though some were open-ended. For closed-ended questions, respondents were given the option to add an additional response, and the choices were generally not read in advance. The survey consisted of a modification of the longitudinal survey used in the larger study, which monitored the household pig enterprise (both in terms of pig production and sales, as well as income and costs, amongst others). In addition, there were more questions on the perceived impact of COVID-19 on the household pig enterprise, and household and community more generally, plus an assessment of the understanding of selected issues around COVID-19."}]},{"head":"Survey respondents","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"One hundred and seventy-eight (178) households (90 from Kamuli and 88 from Hoima) participated in this survey. Overall, 36 (20%) of the households were female-headed and the remaining 142 (80%) were male-headed. Respondents were the main pig keeper within the household (defined as the person who performs most of the pig-related tasks and makes most of the pig-related decisions), of which 131 (74%) were female and 47 (26%) were male. Of the female respondents, the majority (70%) were spouses of male household heads, 29% were female household heads, and 1% was the parent of a male household head. All male respondents were household heads. See Table 1 for a summary. "}]},{"head":"Data collection and analysis","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"The COVID-19 survey data was collected between December 2020 and January 2021, by enumerators who had been working with the farmers as part of the larger study. The survey was administered in the local languages of Runyakitara and Lusoga for the Hoima and Kamuli sites, respectively. Data were entered into a CSPro database (18) and then collated (along with data from the larger survey) in a MySQL database, available from https://data.ilri.org/portal/."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Contextual information presented in the first part of the results is drawn from a series of baseline surveys, including that of adult male and female household members, administered from April to August 2018 as well as a pig census administered from October to December 2018 (also available from https://data.ilri.org/portal/). Whilst this data was collected for 200 households, the information presented here only relates to the 178 households included in this study."},{"index":3,"size":168,"text":"Survey data were analyzed via simple summary statistics, with the denominator as the number of respondents who answered the question unless otherwise indicated. For open-ended questions, the survey responses were first coded. Distributions of responses between male and female respondents, or between male-and female-headed households, were compared using Pearson's chi-squared test, with the p-value computed from a Monte Carlo test (19) using 10,000 replications, and a significance level (alpha) of 0.05. For cases of significant differences, Pearson's residuals were examined to determine the main contributing factors. Comparisons were made as per Table 2. Due to the high number of comparisons only significant differences are noted in the results: comparisons that did not result in significant differences are not reported. For gendered comparisons, the terms 'women', 'men', and 'children' are used to refer to household members that are adult females, adult males, or children (boys and girls), respectively. The term 'joint' or 'jointly' (such as in 'the decision was made jointly') refers to between household adult females and males."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"When monetary values are given in United States dollars (USD), a conversion rate of 1,000 Uganda shilling (UGX) to 0.28 USD was used. 3 Results"}]},{"head":"Contextual information","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Livelihoods and income of the study households. All households kept pigs (a criteria for inclusion in the study). Other main livelihood activities were named as food crop production (82% of households), own business not related to livestock or agriculture (24%), off-farm salaried employment (16%), cash-crop production (15%), and dairy cattle keeping (10%). Key household livelihood activities did not significantly differ according to the gender of the respondent or gender of the household head. The majority of households (75%) indicated they had an income of between UGX 100,000 and 600,000 (USD 28 to 166) per month, whilst 12% and 13% of households indicated a lower or higher monthly income than this, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Household demographics, land ownership, and housing. Most respondents (96%) gave their religion as Christian."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Ethnicity was named as Basoga and Banyoro for the majority of respondents from the Kamuli and Hoima sites, respectively. The number of persons per household ranged from 1 to 17, with a mean of 6. The most common highest education level of any household member was middle secondary (38%), though it ranged from higher primary through to university."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"Households typically had either earth or cement floors, earth or cement brick walls, and iron sheets for roofing."},{"index":5,"size":99,"text":"Lighting was solar (63%), paraffin or another type of lantern (28%), or electricity (9%). The main means of cooking (71%) was using a traditional three-stone stove with firewood, with some households (15%) using a paraffin stove. Seventythree % (73%) of households had one or more radio, 17% a television, and 87% one or more mobile phones (with relatively equal ownership by women and men). All households owned land, with land ownership of less than one acre, between one and three acres, and three or more acres (usually up to 10 acres) in 32%, 35%, and 33% of cases, respectively."},{"index":6,"size":60,"text":"Household pig enterprises. The most highly rated reasons for keeping pigs were 'savings and insurance' followed by 'income from pig sale' (with average ratings of 4.1 and 3.7 respectively, using a 0 to 5 rating scale where 0 was of no importance and 5 was the highest importance). The next highest rated reason was income from boar sire service (1.2)."},{"index":7,"size":76,"text":"Reasons considered least important (with an average rating of 1 or less) were manure use for income or cropping, home consumption of pig meat, use of pigs for ceremonies or dowries, and keeping of pigs for prestige. The keeping of pigs for savings and insurance was statistically significantly more important for females in comparison to males (p=0.03). Similar results are given in Babigumira et al. (20) where this analysis is reported for the larger data set."},{"index":8,"size":62,"text":"The main uses of the income from pigs were given as payment of school fees (83% of respondents), followed by paying off debts, purchasing medication, purchasing clothes, and home improvement (18% to 31%, depending on the expense type). This distribution was significantly different between male and female respondents, mainly due to more females naming 'paying off debts' than males (42% versus 3%)."},{"index":9,"size":99,"text":"At the time of the pig census, almost three-quarters of households (73%) kept sows, whilst the remaining households only kept growing piglets. Of households that kept sows, the majority (53%) kept one sow, though some households (29%) kept two, and other households (18%) between three and seven. Few (9%) of households kept a boar (these households would access boars from neighbours or friends, or the village boar keeper). For most households (83%) total pigs of any type (including piglets) ranged from 1 to 5 with a mode of 2 (in other cases total pig number ranged up to 36)."},{"index":10,"size":140,"text":"Low input management systems were predominantly practiced. Twenty-nine per cent (29%) of households kept their pigs in pig housing (stys) all the time, whilst the other households practiced various combinations of keeping pigs housed, tethered, or allowing them to free-range (with free ranging particularly practiced for piglets). A variety of feeds were reported to be used including maize and rice bran, sweetpotato vines and roots, cassava and yam leaves, other plants including amaranth, pigweed, spurge, kitchen leftovers (swill) both boiled and unboiled, and commercial feeds. The main pig breeds as named by the pig keepers were local or Ugandan (38% of pigs), exotic (known to include Large White and Landrace amongst others 37%), crossbreed between local and exotic (13%), or unknown (12%). Additional information on the genotype of pigs in these study sites is given in Babigumira et al. (21)."},{"index":11,"size":94,"text":"According to female respondents in male-headed households, the feeding of pigs (a major labour activity) was predominantly performed by women (58% of households) or jointly (32%). Control of income from the sale of slaughter pigs was most commonly by men (40%) or jointly (37%), and less commonly by women (14%). In femaleheaded households, the feeding of pigs was most commonly done by women (75%) but also by men and children (11% in each case), with control of income from pig sale by women (74%) and also jointly and by men (17% and 9%, respectively)."},{"index":12,"size":61,"text":"Other livestock enterprises. Other household livestock enterprises included poultry (kept by 75% of households, with most commonly between 1 and 20 per household, though up to 230), goat (42%, most commonly 1 to 5, though up to 11), cattle (34%, most commonly 1 to 3, though up to 25), and sheep (7%, most commonly 1 to 5, though up to 10)."}]},{"head":"Impact of COVID-19 on the household pig enterprise","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":279,"text":"The impact of COVID-19 on the household pig enterprise was reported as follows. Pig sale price (reported by those who had tried to sell pigs, 73% of households) was mostly considered to be lower than normal (48% of respondents) or as normal (37%). This aligns with that reported in Hammond et al. ( 13) who looked at the impact of COVID-19 on smallholders within a number of low-and middle-income countries including Uganda, where a subset of Ugandan farmers within that study perceived lower animal sales prices due to COVID-19 restrictions. In terms of ease of pig sale, many respondents (61%) considered this to be as normal or easy, though 36% of respondents considered it difficult or not possible to sell pigs. Here there was a significant difference in responses between male and female respondents, with females more commonly indicating sales were difficult and males more commonly indicating they were normal or easy. Low sales prices and difficulties in selling were mainly attributed (by both women and men) to the lack of buyers or traders, with respondents perceiving that these either had closed their business or did not have sufficient funds to purchase animals, as well as lack of transport. Half (50%) of respondents indicated they were selling pigs to a different buyer or trader than normal, mostly commonly selling to traders, butchers, or farmers within the village rather than to traders from outside the village. Here the distribution of responses was again different between male and female respondents, with females more commonly indicating they could not sell to the usual buyer, whilst males more commonly reported they could: the reason(s) for this difference was not clear from the data."},{"index":2,"size":165,"text":"Of households who tried to purchase feed (70% of all households), the majority considered feed availability to be lower than normal (79%) and the price to be higher than normal (91%). Of households who accessed veterinary services (64% of all households), the majority considered the availability of veterinarians to be lower than normal (50%) or as normal (30%). Service fees were considered higher than normal by about two-thirds of respondents (68%). Of households buying pharmaceuticals for their pigs (70% of all households), 78% considered the price to be higher than normal. This perceived disruption to livestock service provision is notably higher than reported in Uganda by Hammond et al. (13)but hard data have been lacking. We present the results from 9201 interviews with smallholder farmers from seven countries. OBJECTIVE: The objectives are to describe: i, where disruptions to crop inputs, seeds, and labour were more commonly reported. There are many possibilities for this difference, including different portfolios of agricultural activities undertaken by the study households."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Almost all respondents (98% to 99%) indicated there had been no change in who provides labour for the pigs, makes decisions on pig husbandry or sale, or controls the income from the pigs over the COVID-19 period."},{"index":4,"size":195,"text":"The sale of pigs for cash in response to difficulties caused by COVID-19 was reported by just over half (51%) of households (47% of female-headed and 51% of male-headed), with these households mostly selling one, two, or three pigs (47%, 20% and 11% of households who sold pigs, respectively), though up to 10. Many of the pigs sold (68%) were adults, thus likely breeding animals. The average sale price of adult pigs was UGX 286,000 or USD 80 (with a range of UGX 82,500 to 750,0000 or USD 23 to 160), whilst younger pigs sold for an average sale price of UGX 52,000 or USD 15 (with a range from UGX 25, 000 to 7,000 or USD 7 to 20). The total value of pig sales per household averaged UGX 413,300 or USD 116 (with a range from UGX 50,000 to 2,750,000 or USD 14 to 770). The sale of pigs as a coping strategy over the COVID-19 period was also reported for Ugandan farmers by Hammond et al. (13)but hard data have been lacking. We present the results from 9201 interviews with smallholder farmers from seven countries. OBJECTIVE: The objectives are to describe: i."},{"index":5,"size":83,"text":"The key advantage of pig keeping over the COVID-19 period was named as income by almost half of the respondents (49%) for food, school fees, medical expenses, and general household expenses (such as paraffin or soap). Other advantages named by fewer respondents (5% to 11%) included the pigs' ability to utilize locally available feedstuffs, ease of marketing, suitability to keep in a small space, and quick returns. No specific advantage of keeping pigs over the COVID-19 period was indicated by 21% of respondents."},{"index":6,"size":149,"text":"Overall, the majority of household pig enterprises were negatively affected by lower sales prices and increased difficulty in selling pigs and/or more expensive and less available inputs. Females experienced more difficulties in selling pigs than males, though no gender differences were evident on the input side. A study on the impact of COVID-19 on smallholder poultry farmers in Nigeria similarly found that access to markets (for birds and eggs) was more reduced for females in comparison to males (22). Pig sale for cash was relatively common (around half of the households). That many pigs of breeding age were sold is of concern, and follow-up studies on whether, and how, households have replaced this livestock asset are recommended. Whilst the majority of households could name one or more advantages of pig keeping over the COVID-19 period, these overlapped with reasons for pig keeping more generally (see sections 3.1, also [5,20])."}]},{"head":"The impact of COVID-19 on the household more generally","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":353,"text":"The impact of COVID-19 on the household (beyond the pig enterprises) was also examined. Almost all (98%) of respondents indicated their household had less income since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. This was attributed to lower farm income from both cropping and livestock, due to lack of buyers, lower prices, inability to go to the market during lockdowns, and in the case of crops the need to keep the produce for home consumption, as well as reduced off-farm employment and less profitable off-farm enterprises. The loss of household income was said to impact all family members (women, men, girls and boys). Receiving lower remittances was also reported by 61% of households. A reduction in both off-farm and farm income over the COVID-19 period, as well as lower remittances, was also reported by Ugandan farmers in Hammond et al. (13) The inability to eat normal meals was reported by 51% of households, with about one-fifth (21%) of these household indicating a serious food shortage. This was said to impact all family members. Sick household members were not able to be cared for properly in 61% of households, with insufficient funds to buy medicine or pay for health care named as key contributing factors. On loans, money was borrowed by 47% of households, mainly from a friend or relative (77% of those who borrowed) but also from a formal loan provider (23%). Only 9% of households reported additional household members returning home (most common 1 person but up to 17), whilst 2% of households reported people leaving the home (2 or 3 persons per household). Similar to this study, reduced food quantity and food diversity, as well as the incurrence of risky debts, were reported by about one-fifth of Ugandan farmers in the Hammond et al. study (13). In contrast to this study, however, Hammond et al. (13) found only 1% of Ugandan households perceived they had reduced education or healthcare. Other studies within Uganda, including those targeting groups of people with different demographics, also reported issues related to food and nutritional security, healthcare, education, and borrowing of money in response to COVID-19 (7,12,15,16)."},{"index":2,"size":181,"text":"Household livestock sale, for cash over the COVID-19 period, was reported by 67% and 68% of female-and male-headed households, respectively. The most common livestock types sold (across all households) were pigs (51% of households, mostly selling 1 pig though up to 10) and chicken (19%, mostly two chickens, though between 1 and 10). A smaller proportion of households also sold cattle (7%, mostly 1 and less commonly 2) or goats (5%, mostly 1 but up to 6). That households sold more pigs and poultry, compared to cattle and goats, aligns with households keeping more pigs and poultry in comparison to the other species (see section 3.1) as well as poultry, in particular, being an easily disposable asset. For households who sold livestock, the average sale value (for all animals sold by a household) was UGX 491,000 ( USD 136) with a range from UGX 12,000 to 5,000,000 (USD 3 to 1,388) per household. The sale of livestock species, particularly pigs and poultry, as a coping strategy in response to COVID-19 was also reported by Ugandan farmers in Hammond et al. (13)."},{"index":3,"size":443,"text":"The value (UGX) of livestock sold over the COVID-19 period attributed to livestock owned by women, men, and jointly, in male-headed households, was 38%, 9%, and 53% (of the total value of livestock sales) respectively; whilst in female-headed households, all livestock sold were female-owned. Comparisons were made between the distributions of intrahousehold ownership of animals kept (according to the baseline survey) and those reported as sold over the COVID-19 period for pigs and poultry, based on the animal numbers (regardless of animal type or sales values, as these details were not available within the baseline data). The distribution of intrahousehold ownership between animals kept and those sold were statistically significantly different (p<0.001) for both male and female-headed households (Table 3). In all cases, the proportion of animals sold that were female-owned was higher than the proportion kept. For example, in male-headed households, females owned 11% of all pigs, but 29% of pigs sold were female-owned. As another example, in female-headed households, females owned 77% of poultry but all (100%) of poultry sold were female-owned (note that about two-thirds of female-headed households had adult males, usually children of the household head up to 30 years of age, allowing for male and joint ownership of livestock assets). These results suggest that in some households' female-owned livestock assets are sold in preference to those owned jointly or by males. However, this needs to be interpreted with caution as 'ownership', and particularly 'joint ownership', can be interpreted differently (23,24). Further we shall compare ownership at the time of the baseline survey to sales at a later date. Follow-up studies on this, for validation and (if validated) to explore and identify the underpinning gender norms and how these can be addressed, are recommended. Note this comparison was not performed in the case of cattle and goats as too few animals were reported as being sold. For the livestock sold there was reportedly good correspondence between who owned the animal(s), the decisionmaker(s) on the sale, and who controlled the income. For male-headed households, this correspondence was reported in 77% of sale cases, representing 86% of the total value of livestock sales. In female-headed households, this correspondence was reported in 84% of sale cases, representing 92% of the total value of livestock sales (in the other cases the income was controlled by a male household member or a non-household member). In cases where this correspondence was not observed, there was no strong pattern on the relationship between who owned, made the decision, or controlled the income. This finding, however, also requires additional follow-up for validation due to the nuances and different interpretations around joint ownership, decision-making, and income control (23)(24)(25)."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"Household asset sale (other than livestock), for cash over the COVID-19 period, was reported by fewer households (6% of female-headed and 3% of male-headed). These included land, motorbikes, household furniture, and goods."},{"index":5,"size":101,"text":"For households who sold assets, sale value ranged from UGX 25,000 to 9,000,000 (USD 7 to 2,498). On the sale of household assets, the proportion of the total value of the asset sales attributed to assets owned by males, by females, and jointly was 51%, 48%, and 1% for male-headed households, respectively. All assets sold from female-headed households were female-owned. Similar to livestock, there was reasonable correspondence on who owned the asset, made the decision for its sale, and controlled the income. Hammond et al. ( 13) also reported a few Ugandan households selling assets as a coping strategy to COVID-19."},{"index":6,"size":119,"text":"In summary, almost all households reported income loss over the COVID-19 period, with this attributed to both reductions in on-farm and off-farm income. Negative impacts on food and nutrition security, health care as well as the taking out of loans, were also reported by a significant number of households. This aligns with findings of other studies in Uganda and elsewhere (14,(26)(27)(28) on the negative impact of COVID-19 control measures. Livestock sale, particularly of pigs and poultry, was reported as a coping strategy by about two-thirds of households, highlighting the insurance role that livestock plays in rural livelihoods to meet unforeseen expenses resulting from shocks (29). That results suggest female-owned livestock assets are preferentially sold in some households is concerning."}]},{"head":"The impact of COVID-19 on the community","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Respondents were also asked to share their perceived impacts of COVID-19 on their community. On mobility, the majority of respondents (85%) felt it was somewhat less safe to walk around (such as to the markets) with this mainly attributed to the possibility of getting COVID-19, and in fewer cases attributed to the fear of being attacked or stigmatized."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Respondents indicated this applied to everyone (women, men, girls, boys)."},{"index":3,"size":149,"text":"Violence against women (expressed to the respondents as husbands or partners hitting or beating their wives or girlfriends; and asked at the community level rather than in relation to the respondent's own home) was considered to have increased by the majority (73%) of respondents. Here the distribution of responses was significantly different between the male and female respondents (p=0.004), notably with a higher proportion of males giving the response of 'unsure' in comparison to females. The number of unplanned pregnancies (also asked at the community level) was also considered to have increased by the majority (81%) of respondents. Further 79% of respondents perceived increased conflict within the community. Increased violence against women over the COVID-19 period was also reported in a study targeting Western Uganda (15). Whilst not asked in this study, an increase in child abuse over the COVID-19 period has also been documented in Uganda ( 16)."},{"index":4,"size":108,"text":"An increase in diseases or illnesses, other than COVID-19, was perceived by 50% of respondents, who most commonly named malaria. Here the distribution of responses was significantly different between the male and female respondents (p<0.001), notably with a higher proportion of males reporting no increase and females reporting an increase. An increase in the number of people begging, and loss of aid support was perceived by about half of the respondents (52% and 55%, respectively). Fewer respondents felt there was an increase in the number of homeless people (17% of respondents), less access to public toilets (9%), or less access to clean water from public access points (12%)."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"In summary, several negative impacts of COVID-19 were reported at the community level. Of great concern is the reported increase in violence against women and unplanned pregnancies, which has also been reported in numerous other studies (30)(31)(32)."}]},{"head":"COVID-19 awareness and adoption of preventative measures","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"Awareness around COVID-19 and the adoption of preventative measures were also explored. COVID-19 symptoms most named by respondents were fever (66% of respondents), sneezing / runny nose (63%), dry cough (53%), difficulty breathing (37%), headache (31%), sore throat (17%), and loss of taste or smell (17%). On how COVID-19 spread, the most common response was through the air (72%) followed by touching objects or surfaces that have been touched by infected people (48%) or with respiratory drops from infected persons (47%). Eight per cent (8%) of respondents were not able to name any means of the diseases' spread. The majority (81%) of respondents indicated that they felt anyone could be infected by COVID-19. Those named as most likely to be adversely affected were those above 70 years of age (87%); people with underlying conditions including AIDS / HIV, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer, or 'already sick' (12% to 41% of respondents); and children (31%)."},{"index":2,"size":177,"text":"On actions being taken to prevent infection with COVID-19, the main responses were washing hands (92%), maskwearing (84%), avoiding crowded places (43%), and staying at home (20%). Here the distribution of responses was significantly different between the male and female respondents (p<0.001), notably with a higher proportion of males naming the avoidance of crowded places than females. Main responses about what action the respondents would take in case of infection were going to a medical facility for testing and treatment (85%) and staying at home not to infect others (31%). Five per cent (5%) of respondents could not provide an answer. When asked about potential management and treatment options for COVID-19 infection, the most common responses were 'don't know' (60% of respondents), followed by garlic, vitamins, sun exposure, antibiotics, cow urine, and there is no treatment (16% to 22% of respondents each). Here was a significant difference in the distribution of responses between male and female respondents (p<0.001), with a higher proportion of males naming 'don't know', and a higher proportion of females naming vitamins and garlic."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"Main information sources on COVID-19 were given as radio (91% of respondents), family, friends, or neighbours (58%), television (29%), and government health workers (14%). Three per cent (3%) of respondents indicated they did not have an information source."},{"index":4,"size":171,"text":"Overall, these results show that the majority of participants had reasonable to good knowledge about COVID-19 symptoms, transmission mechanisms, preventative actions to take if infected, and risk groups. The public health measures of hand washing and mask-wearing were commonly practiced, though crowded places were not always avoided, particularly by women. Potential treatment and management options were less understood, with respiratory therapy not specifically mentioned and other named options not evidence-based (33,34). The use of cow urine to treat COVID-19 has also been reported in India where it has been raised as a public health concern (35). That Ugandans are informed on many aspects related to COVID-19 has previously been reported and attributed to the government's strong education campaign on COVID-19 and related control measures which were initiated soon after the first infection was reported in the country in March 2020 (6,36,37). Studies undertaken in May 2020 (38) and March to July 2020 (16) already reported respondents to be well informed on COVID-19 and adopting (to varying degrees) the government's recommended measures."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"There have been numerous studies relevant to low-and middle-income countries on the impact of COVID-19 and related control measures, often reported with recommendations for COVID-19 coping and mitigation strategies (see, for example, [26][27][28]32,[39][40][41][42]. A smaller body of work has focused on COVID-19s effect on smallholder or pastoral livestock keepers and / or their livestock enterprises. These include those considering effects on smallholder or pastoral households in general (for example, 13,15,43-51), and two focusing more on specific livestock enterprises particularly poultry and dairy cattle (22,52) in addition to this study. Further studies at different levels of breadth and specificity are important, as each helps to build a comprehensive picture."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"This study showed that pigs, including breeding sows, were sold for income during COVID-19, and also that COVID-19 control measures disrupted household pig enterprises, both in relation to access to inputs and marketing. A study of rural households in western Uganda in May 2020 by Mahmud and Riley (15) showed that households had coped with less income due to COVID-19 through decreased food expenditure and use or savings, but had not yet liquidated their fixed assets or sold livestock. That livestock sales were reported to a larger degree in this study may be due to the additional time under COVID-19 control measures (with this study undertaken seven months later than that of Mahmud and Riley (15) resulting in a situation where food consumption could not be further decreased and savings were depleted, and/or the different household livelihood profiles between the studies."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"Gendered impacts of the effect of COVID-19 control measures on household pig enterprises were observed, importantly including women finding it more difficult to sell pigs in comparison to men, and potentially the preferred sale of womenowned pigs (and poultry) in some households. The intersection of livestock keeping, COVID-19, and gender has been neglected in the literature (besides this study, there are only two others of which we are aware (22,53) and more work to this end is strongly recommended."},{"index":4,"size":140,"text":"This study focused on pig keepers: it is recognized that other actors along the pig value chain would also have been impacted by the COVID-19 control measures. Of note here is that many pig keepers felt that pig traders had ceased operations or did not have sufficient funds to continue their business activities, suggesting that traders were heavily negatively impacted. The impact on input service providers is less clear as they were reported to be less accessible but charging higher fees. Also, whilst not explicitly investigated here, it is likely that the control measures negatively impacted pig welfare, due to the difficulties in accessing feed supply and health care. An overview of studies considering the impact of COVID-19 control measures on different nodes of livestock supply chains, as well as animal welfare, is given in Abu Hatab et al. (39)."},{"index":5,"size":169,"text":"Building resilience of animal-source food systems, including the pig value chain in Uganda, to shocks such as COVID-19 should be a high priority moving forward. Efforts should be placed on approaches that build competitiveness and resilience of food systems such that system actors are able to address, absorb and overcome shocks in the market, policy environment, resource base or other aspects of the system. For instance, studies by Kayobyo et al. (54) and World Vision International (55) have shown the importance of market systems interventions in enhancing the resilience of communities and food systems. Such interventions include improving access of food system actors to financial services to smoothen consumption, allowing households to solve pressing needs and avoid distress sales of productive assets such as livestock whenever there are shocks. Other interventions include enhancing business development and technical capacities of system actors, diversification of income sources through product diversification, and strengthening capacities of groups to lobby for support and services from relevant government programs that impact on the food system."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 . Overview of survey respondents, considering respondent gender, gender of the household head, and site.  Male-headed Female-headed  Male-headedFemale-headed  household household  householdhousehold Site    Total SiteTotal  Male Female Female  MaleFemaleFemale  respondent respondent respondent  respondentrespondentrespondent Hoima 36 32 20 88 Hoima36322088 Kamuli 11 63 16 90 Kamuli11631690 Total 47 95 36  Total479536 Total, comparison by gender of household head 142  36 178 Total, comparison by gender of household head14236178 Total, comparison by gender of the respondent 47  131 178 Total, comparison by gender of the respondent47131178  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Comparisons between female and male respondents, or female and male-headed households, reported in this study.  Comparisons between Comparisons between Comparisons betweenComparisons between Analysis female and male female and male- Analysisfemale and malefemale and male-  respondents headed households respondentsheaded households Impact of COVID-19 on the household pig enterprise Yes Yes Impact of COVID-19 on the household pig enterpriseYesYes The impact of COVID-19 on the household Yes Yes The impact of COVID-19 on the householdYesYes The impact of COVID-19 on the community Yes No The impact of COVID-19 on the communityYesNo Understanding of, and perceptions around, COVID-19 Yes No Understanding of, and perceptions around, COVID-19YesNo 2.6 Approvals   2.6 Approvals Approval for this study was obtained from the Uganda National Council for Science and Technology (UNCST, approval Approval for this study was obtained from the Uganda National Council for Science and Technology (UNCST, approval number SS4550) as well as the International Livestock Research Institute's (ILRI's) Institutional Research Ethics Committee number SS4550) as well as the International Livestock Research Institute's (ILRI's) Institutional Research Ethics Committee which is registered by the National   which is registered by the National  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Pig and poultry ownership distributions at the time of the baseline survey (baseline) and for animals that were sold over the COVID-19 period (sales), for male and female-headed households.   Male-headed households  Female-headed households  Male-headed householdsFemale-headed households Ownership  Pigs Poultry Pigs  Poultry OwnershipPigsPoultryPigsPoultry  Baseline Sales Baseline Sales Baseline Sales Baseline Sales BaselineSalesBaselineSalesBaselineSalesBaselineSales Female 0.11 0.29 0.19 0.38 0.70 1.00 0.77 1.00 Female0.110.290.190.380.701.000.771.00 Male 0.10 0.13 0.13 0.15 0.01  0.00  Male0.100.130.130.150.010.00 Joint 0.79 0.58 0.68 0.47 0.29  0.23  Joint0.790.580.680.470.290.23 p-value <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 p-value<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001  "}],"sieverID":"0b55ba42-3771-4c12-936c-e7c06db79e7d","abstract":"v The effect of COVID-19 control measures on smallholder pig-keeping households in Uganda, analysed through a gender lens"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0533386bba5047395517e5d479071a51","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/FTA/Geoportal_Guideline_Manual.pdf"},"pageCount":19,"title":"THE FTA GEOPORTAL MANUAL","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"As a collaborative research project, involving numerous researchers from member organisations, data sharing is important for FTA to optimise the use of their data inventory as well as for exchanging their knowledge, thus improving the quality and exposure of FTA research. This geoportal has been designed and developed as a system that can facilitate effective and efficient (geospatial) data access to, and data sharing among, FTA members' internal data inventory as well as that of other organisations. Moreover, this geoportal is also expected to fulfil the need for showcasing or disseminating FTA's research to a wider community/audience."}]},{"head":"WHAT CAN YOU DO?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The geoportal is a web-based entry point or gate to available spatial data or geographic contents and associated services from the FTA Data inventory. It allows users to discover, select, access the data and, to some extent, use the data for certain analysis, mainly visual. This geoportal provides functionalities that can assist users to perform these tasks:"},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"1. Data discovery. This functionality allows users to search for specific available spatial data in the geoportal data catalogue, by either browsing the catalogue or using selected criteria provided in the portal as a filter to narrow down their search."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"2. Data selection. This functionality allows users to identify specific spatial data available in the geoportal based on specific criteria following the users' own requirements or interests."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"3. Data access. This functionality provides users with specific types of access to available spatial data should they require it. Direct visual access is given via the map services and the users may download original available data from the source."},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"4. Data analysis. This is not one of the main functionalities of the portal; it is more about providing a visual analysis using the map viewer. For example, the user can compare more than one map on the map viewer; using their own data or data sourced from elsewhere."},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"The following are possible tasks that may be conducted in the portal:"},{"index":7,"size":71,"text":"Select a study area, browse spatial data or maps, find specific maps, learn about data, add data to a map, add your own data, download data, perform basic spatial tasks, print your map, create a thematic/analysis map A GUIDE TO THE FTA GEOPORTAL The FTA Geoportal is a web-based application that can be accessed via the link: https://data.cifor.org/geoportal/#, however, before you use the geoportal, we recommend you familiarise yourself with it."},{"index":8,"size":14,"text":"The geoportal consists of five main elements or sections, as shown in Figure 1."},{"index":9,"size":20,"text":"1. The header section contains the geoportal title following the FTA main portal style including the links to the portal."},{"index":10,"size":29,"text":"2. The map section is where selected maps are presented to users and the world map is shown as the default. On the section there are three other tools:"},{"index":11,"size":29,"text":"a. Base map. Should the users need to change the background for their map, this tool allows the users to change the base map/background map using various available services."},{"index":12,"size":43,"text":"b. Print Map helps the users to download the map viewed in the map section in pdf format using the principle 'what you see is what you get' c. Legend. This allows the users to activate the legend window of the selected map(s)."},{"index":13,"size":21,"text":"3. The main tool section is where almost all the functionalities of the geoportal can be performed. There are 3 subsections:"},{"index":14,"size":52,"text":"a. Study Area. This is where users can begin their map/data search by defining their area of interest by: (1) activating the select area button and selecting a specific area using a hierarchical administrative boundary system or (2) activating the bounding box tool and draw a box covering their area of interest."},{"index":15,"size":66,"text":"b. Data. Using tools located here, the users can search and select available data/maps from the FTA geoportal, view them in the map section by activating the Browse button or downloading their own local data onto the geoportal by activating the Import button. This sub-section also shows the name(s) of the selected data, which later can be manipulated using other tools, explained in the Activities window."},{"index":16,"size":43,"text":"c. Thematic Analysis is an additional functionality of the geoportal designed for the FTA to exhibit their specified maps, graphs or charts from their selected projects or research. As this concept is still being developed, this functionality is still at a minimal level."},{"index":17,"size":23,"text":"4. On screen tools provide capabilities for the users to manipulate the map view and perform basic tasks on the map(s), such as:"},{"index":18,"size":5,"text":"(1) zoom in and out,"},{"index":19,"size":6,"text":"(2) zoom to full extent (world),"},{"index":20,"size":10,"text":"(3) activate or deactivate the grid/graticule lines, (4) measure distance,"},{"index":21,"size":4,"text":"(5) identify objects and"},{"index":22,"size":7,"text":"(6) draw objects on the (map) screen."},{"index":23,"size":24,"text":"5. The footer section follows a similar design approach to the header section and contains logos and links to webpages on the FTA website."}]},{"head":"SELECTING A STUDY AREA","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Defining your study area is important to help you narrow down your specific search of the data based on the location. You are able to do so by drawing a bounding box on the overview map or selecting a specific administrative name for the location."}]},{"head":"To activate the bounding box tool, click on the","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"Draw BBOX button on the 3-A Section (Figure 2) and draw a bounding box on the map window covering the area of your study. You can only draw the box while the button appears as Active, as shown in Figure 5. The button will turn to Draw BBOX again when you finish drawing the bounding box. You will need to click on it again if you need to draw another bounding box. Once the bounding box is set, you can see the coordinates of your study area on the \"Selected Bounding Box:\" (Figure 3) and your data search will now be limited to this area. You can also select your study area by selecting a predefined administrative area, by activating the Select Area button in section 3-A (Figure 2 and 3). Once you click on the button, you can select your desired research area using the hierarchical area selection window (Figure 4). You can also type in the name of your desired location or study area, using the provided window (Figure 5), when you activate and click on the Search tab on the Define study area window."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"If your search finds any match, a list of matched results will be presented, and you may then select using the select button. \"No match found\" will appear when your search does not find a match."}]},{"head":"SEARCHING AND SELECTING SPATIAL DATA OR MAPS","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"There are three ways of finding and selecting spatial data or maps using this geoportal: (1) Location-specific search, (2) General search or (3) Browsing. The former is conducted by selecting the study area first, as explained in the previous section, and then click on  When the browse/search window pops up (Figure 7), you can find 5 sections that will help you manage the search as well as the selection process of the available spatial data."},{"index":2,"size":154,"text":"Section 1 is the searching criteria that you can use as filters to narrow down your search. The Study area is one of the criteria and will automatically be filled in with the selected area you have chosen during the previous stage and will appear as \"All continents\" if you do not select anything. You can, however, select your study area by clicking the Change button in section 1 and the selection tool as explained earlier will appear. You can then follow a similar process for selecting your study area. Still in section 1, some criteria are given to help you narrow down your search, however, you may leave them as they are should you want to browse all available data. When you are satisfied with your search, you can submit by clicking on the Search button, although the system will automatically process the results whenever you change the content of any search criteria."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Section 2 shows the results of your search; the available data with the number presented inside the bracket. You can also check the results to find certain data by looking at the title and the last modification date of the data presented in the list. When you click on specific data, you can find information about the data, which will be automatically presented in section 3, 4 and 5."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"Section 3 is the information about the data from the metadata of the selected data on the list (search results in section 2). A set of selected information: Title, Type, Organisation, Keywords and Abstract of the data are presented."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"Section 4 shows the thumbnail for the selected data. This provides users with a glimpse of what the data looks like, e.g., the shape, the density, etc."},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"Section 5 provides users with information about the structure and quality of the data and whether the data fits their requirements."}]},{"head":"LEARN ABOUT DATA","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":225,"text":"As explained in the introduction, users can use this geoportal to learn about and assess the relevance of spatial data before they finally select the data. There are several ways to learn about the data, but the most common is by looking at the surrounding information and that which comes with the data. This geoportal is developed based on metadata at its core. Data owners tend to provide information about spatial data in their metadata while other information is presented in the geoportal, section 3 in Figure 7. For example, you may find data you are interested in, to obtain more information about the data you can select the data by clicking on the title in the list and by looking at the metadata section. Users might also need to check the thumbnail and quality of the selected data, as seen in  Selected data or maps will appear in the main section (map viewer) along with the title of the data section, once users add and finish the selection process (Figure 9). there are tools that can be used in the geoportal. The thick box is used to activate or deactivate data from the map viewer and the sliding bar is used to set the opacity of the map presented in the map section. These tools are important when working with two or more datasets."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"As can be seen in Figure 10, there is a garbage bin symbol that can be used to delete the selected data from the map, and a triple vertical dot icon that provides access to a number of tools: (1) Zoom to the selected map extent, (2) View metadata, to let users open the metadata window (Figure 11) should they need information about the data, and (3) Download, to let users download data with a specific format given by the owner and subject to availability.  10. If the data is downloadable, the Download link will appear along with the data format. You can select the data format you want if there is more than one option, click on it to download the data (Figure 10)."}]},{"head":"ADD YOUR OWN DATA","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":272,"text":"Spatial data users will usually have their own data and want to compare the available data from the geoportal with theirs. The geoportal provides a very useful tool to accommodate this need. Users can click on the Import button in the Data Section (Figure 6) should they decide to add their data to the portal, and the import data window will appear (Figure 12). Click on Choose Files button from the window to select the respective spatial data to be imported (Figure 13). Note that the data should consist of all the relevant files (shapefiles) and in a compressed zip format.  The Identify tool can be used to see and check what the data is about in a specific location. To activate the tool, click the i button on the map window. The identification window will appear with the NOT ACTIVE mode as the default, see Figure 17  In active mode, users can find and click on an exact location on a map to gain information about the data for that location, the results will be presented as in Figure 18. Please note that the identification works only for the top-visible layer (data) on the map.  Before starting to draw any object, the users can choose a geometric shape: (1) Points, (2) Lines or (3) Polygons, as well as the style, i.e., fill colour, stroke colour and stroke width as can be found in any GIS application or software. Once the setting is ready, click on the start drawing button, the window will change to that in Figure 20 (b) and the users can start drawing objects on the map (Figure 20)."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"As on most maps, the legend plays an important part to help spatial data users gain a more comprehensive understanding about the information presented on the maps. When the users open a map(s), the legend is shown as the default of this geoportal. Users can hide the legend by simply clicking the up arrow (v) button next to the legend word, section 2-C (Figure 21). "}]},{"head":"PRINT YOUR MAP","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Once the users are satisfied with the map they have created, they can print the map on A4 size paper into a pdf or graphic document by simply clicking on the print tab in the window, Print Map on section 2-B (Figure 1). Please be advised that you should manage the map face as you wish it to appear in the printed document and ensure that you put correct information such as Map Title and Map Description on the Print Map window before you print it (Figure 22)."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"Once the print window is open (Figure 22), users may select the paper size and orientation of the map. Tick the Legend box to put the legend on the map. When the map is ready, just click on the Download pdf button, and the map will be printed in a pdf format file. Users can also use the view table and view chart tools to observe and learn about other information of the map such as statistical graphs (Figure 24) or tabular information (Figure 25). "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. The FTA Geoportal Default Layout "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Study area (Section 3-A) "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Select study area using a predefined area "},{"text":"Browse provided in Section 3-B (Data), Figure6. The latter can be conducted by directly clicking on the Browse button in Section 3-B (Data). "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Data window (Section 3-B) "},{"text":"Figure 7 , to see what the data looks like. You can also learn about the data by looking at the data directly in the map viewer or map section once you open the selected data. The geoportal also provides the tool to open the metadata and quality of the data after the data is opened.ADD DATA TO A MAPIf you find data you want to work with, or are interested in, you can continue to add data to a map by clicking the Add and continue browsing button (1). If you still need to find more data before you finish, use the Add and finish browsing button (2) (see Figure8). "},{"text":"Figure 8 . Figure 8. Add Data in Data Browser Window "},{"text":"Figure 9 . Figure 9. Geoportal window with spatial data added "},{"text":"Figure 11 . Figure 11. Metadata Window "},{"text":"Figure 12 . Figure 12. Import or add local data window "},{"text":"Figure 15 Figure 15 (a). Measurement tool NOT ACTVE "},{"text":" (a); it will need to be activated before it can be used, Figure 17(b). "},{"text":"Figure 17 Figure 17 (a). Identify Tool NOT ACTIVE "},{"text":"Figure 18 . Figure 18. Identification Result "},{"text":"Figure 19 Figure 19 (b). Draw Object Tool ACTIVE "},{"text":"Figure 21 . Figure 21. Map View with the legend ACTIVE "},{"text":" The CGIAR Research Program on Forests, Trees and Agroforestry (FTA). FTA is the world's largest research for development program to enhance the role of forests, trees and agroforestry in sustainable development and food security and to address climate change. CIFOR leads FTA in partnership with ICRAF, the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, CATIE, CIRAD, INBAR and TBI. FTA's work is supported by the CGIAR Trust Fund: cgiar.org/funders/ "},{"text":"Figure 25 . Figure 25. Thematic Analysis Window (tabular chart view) "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"be5eb0d3-3294-40bc-bfeb-3db73a4e976d","abstract":""}

data/part_4/059ca0eb55e0c0d58ad9c56c0b5a5aba.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"059ca0eb55e0c0d58ad9c56c0b5a5aba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/903f1108-072a-45b7-bf8d-d0362419f58a/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"IntroductIon","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":285,"text":"The need to expand agncultural productlOn at arate that exceeds populatlOn growth, probably wlth declmmg water and land resources, IS a maJor concem of agncultural research and development A related concern IS the urgency of adoptmg agncultural praclices that favor blOdlverslty conservatlOn, partlcularly m tropical countnes (Snvastava, et al 1996) AddltlOnally, the globalizatlOn of economles reqUlres mcreased agncultural competltlveness through enhanced productlvlty, product dlversdicatlOn, and value addmg In respondmg to these challenges, CIAT has mtegrated research m genetlc resources wlth research on the management of natural resources (CIA T, 1997) The charactenzatlOn, conservatlOn and utllizatlOn of agroblOdlverslty are key to the Center' s strategles for mcreasmg crop productlvlty whlle enhancmg dlverslty BlOdlverslty can be addressed from dlfferent perspectlves, requmng the mtegratlOn of many areas and disciplines CIA T' s approach to the conservatlOn and utllizatlOn of the blOloglcal resources that support agncultural productlOn (agroblOdlverslty) should be based on ItS hlstoncal record and current strengths Hence, we beheve CIA T IS well posltlOned to develop a successful genetlc-based approach to agroblOdlverslty research, mtegratmg dlverslty at the genome level wlth that at the agroecosystem level Usmg the modern tools of molecular and cellular genetlcs, we propose to concentrate our efforts on the assessment and modlficatlOn of plant genomes, as well as the masslve propagatlon of matenal to develop Improved strategles for gennplasm conservatlOn and to broaden crop genetlc bases We propose that CIA T undertake thematlc research on agroblOdlverslty, usmg ItS mandate crop gennplasm and extendmg genome methodologles and tools to other promlsmg tropical crops Thls effort wIll mvolve proJects SB-l and SB-2 Enhanced cooperatlOn wlth other CIAT proJects and partners m developmg and developed countnes will be necessary to effectlvely link genomlc research Wlth field apphcatlOns"}]},{"head":"JustdicatlOn","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":280,"text":"Although most blOloglcal dlverslty IS potentIal1y relevant to agnculture, genetIc dlversIty at the mtra-and mter-specIfic levels offers Immedmte value for Improvmg agnculture A large proportlOn of economlcal1y useful genetIc varmtlOn has yet to be tapped among the WIld relatIves, land races, and folk varletIes of most crop plants (Tanksley and McCouch, 1997) Therefore, through ItS agroblOdlverslty research, CIA T proposes to assess these resources (from the genome to agroecosystem level) and to conserve and modIfy them for enhancmg crop germplasm Recent developments m genetIcs and blOlogy have added new dlmenslOns to our abllIty to carry out these tasks Thls al so affects our pnontIes m tenns of mvestments and tImmg Molecular technologles pennlt the duect charactenzatIon and modIficatlOn of genotypes, makmg It posslble to solve mtractable problems and modlfy specIfic tralts Wlth greater preCISlon and speed A gene-based approach IS the most effectIve way to deploy and dlstnbute germplasm, for example, mherent traIts can Improve the utIlIzatIon of seeds wlth mlmmum mputs The preservatIon of natural resources, mcludmg the conservatlOn of agroblOdlverslty In sztu and n:-sllu, IS necessary for a genehc approach, but not sufficlent, unless It IS strongly Imked to the utIlIzatIon of these resources Another Important benefit of a genetIc approach to agroblOdlversIty research IS that It addresses the narrowmg of the genetIc base of many crops resultmg from events dunng domestIcatlOn and from modern agncultural practIces As a result, modern cultIvars have become more susceptIble to pests and dlseases The posslbIlltIes for mcorporatmg new gene combmatlOns from wlld relatIves or related cultIvated specles have now been greatly enhanced wlth the development of DNA-based technologles Thls IS partIcularly relevant for agronomlc trmts such as yleld potentIal and qualIty"}]},{"head":"BUlldmg on strengths","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Background","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":402,"text":"For the last 20 years, CIAT has engaged m a global effort for genehc Improvement of cassava, common bean, tropIcal forages, and nce In support of thls research, the Center mamtams the world's most complete collectIons of the genetIc resources of cassava, common beans, and tropIcal forages The contrastmg reproductIon and breedmg systems, growth cyc1es, IIfe spans, and other charactenslIcs of these specles have contnbuted to a broad base of knowledge on theu conservatlOn and utIhzatlOn These mclude the use of contrastmg domeshcated genepools, wlld speCles, and mterspecIfic crosses, al! of whlch requue creatIve strategles for the utIhzatlOn of dlverslty We propose to undertake agroblOdlverslty research at the genome level that bUllds on thls expenence and takes advantage of CIA T' s umque capacltIes and mfrastructure for research usmg DNA and cel!ular teclmologles By bnngmg thls expenence to bear on neotroplcal agroblOdlversJty, our work should bndge the gap between blOdlverslty mventorymg, whlch IS currentIy gomg on m most countnes, and the eventual utIlIzabon of that dlverslty CIAT has much to offer toward a better understandmg of genetIc dlverslty and better strategles for makmg thls resource more produclIve for the developmg world CIAT's partIcular mche IS m ecoreglOns ofthe Pnvate sector CIA T has cooperated Wlth the pnvate sector m blOtechnology research through the promohon of \"pubhc good\" acttvlhes wlth sorne companles, mvolvmg the transfer of matenal, genes, etc Future cooperatlon wlth the pnvate sector can take a vanety of forms One would conslst of developmg \"busmess plans,\" m wluch the end products(s) and end user (s) are Identlfied first From there all the necessary mputs (e g, technologtes, materlals, operatlOnal budget, personnel, addltlonal partnershlps, etc) would be worked out back to Ihe startmg pomt Many research tOplCS can be adJusted lo IhlS mode of eooperatton (e g eassava starch modlficabon) Under thls mode of cooperatlOn, a long-tcrro proJect can be dlvlded mto mterdependent bul self-contamed phases Thus, fundmg for a glven phase would depend on suecessful completlOn oflhe pnor phase Fundmg could be vanable m source and amounts Another mode of cooperalton wlth the pnvate sector would mvolve \"outsourcmg\" Jomtly wlth compames for speclfic servlces, such as large-scale sequencmg, gene constructlon, etc In thlS case fundmg would come from developed country pubhc agencIes WI!h a thlrd mode of cooperatlon, CIAT would offer sefVlces related to speclfic technologles or processes to the pnvate sector (mostIy natIona[ or regIOnal) Contractual arrangements would be necessary"},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"Intellectual propertv nghts nPR) ThlS Issue IS unavoldable m developmg partnershlps tn the curren! global envtronment Increasmgly, pnvate as well as pubhc mstltutlOns m developed and deveIopmg countnes request assurance that thetr IPR be honored and that mutual research wIII somehow be protected Regardmg genetlc resourees, CIAT follows the mternatlOnal agreement wlth F AO to mamtam the deSlgnated germplasm colleetlOns m trust for the world commumty, and we make these collectlOns freely avaIlable upon request DIstnbutlOn IS subJect to matenal transfer agreements wlth the reclplent The reclplent agrees not to appropnate the genetIc matenal or Its den vatIves "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Stylosanthes and Brachtarta, and bemg developed for beans(Sarna, et al  1994, Lenllm, el al 1996, Sarna, et al 1996, crA T 1996)   • ExplOltatlOn ofwlld relatlves of Oryza and Phaseolus as sources ofuseful tralts through back crosses, mded by QTL analysls, usmg molecular markers (Martmez, el al 1997) • Gene taggmg of economlc trmts m cassava, usmg the molecular map eonstructed at CIA T (Fregene, el al 1996) • Genelle fingerprmtmg of blast pathogen populatlOns and tagglllg reslstance genes to pathogen hneages (Levy, et al 1993) • Some of these actlvltles have also been carned out on a few non-CIAT mandate speCleS, such as pass!Í10ras, chlj¡ peppers, and plantamCIAT has been eager to momtor and partlelpate m the mtematlOnal agenda on blOdlversIty and genetlc resources RIO 1992 alld Agenda 21, the Conventlon on BlOloglcal DlVerslty, mputs to the CBD SSBST A on technology transfer, the Lalm Amencan preparatory meetmg for the FAO Lelpzmg Conference, and the Global Plan of Actlon on Genetle Resourees Wlth strateglc lssues tbat are relevant across plant specles and countnes Sorne areas of strateglc genomlc research m agroblOdlverslty mclude • Genomlc research on dlverslty at the mtra-and mter-specles levels and lts relatlOnshlp to populahons m agroecosystems and to thelr geographlc dlstnbutlOn ThlS mformatlOn m tum can be used lo Improve the conservahon of genetlc resources ex-slfu, lmked Wlth ¡n-s¡fu conservatlOn • Genotypmg of germplasm accesslons and genellc analysls of populatlOns, wlth ¡he use of molecular markers, leadmg to the charactenzatlOn of gene pools and the IdenlIficahon of quahtallve and quanlltahve genes responslble for economlc trmts Marker-asslsted selectlOn (MAS) schemes can be developed for mtegrabon mto crop pre-breedmg strategles • Smgle-gene c10mng has already extended the realm of useful vanabthty for broaderung ¡he crop genetlc base beyond sexual compatlbdmes Genome mappmg, modIficatlOns of genes through genetlc engmeenng, and more complex genelIc transformatlon wllI mclude quantltatlve tralts ThlS wIII open the way to more effecbve utdlzatlOn of wlld germplasm • The contnbutlon of agroblodlverslty lo productlVlty and conservallOn wlll very often reqUlre the maSSlve multlphcatlOn of eXlslmg or genetlcally Improved germplasm Modem t1ssue culture and blOreactor teclmology, assoclated wlth the use of synthetlc seed productlOn, can be apphed Germplasm CIAT has accumu[ated a wealth of expenence In the blOlogy, genetlcs, and agronomy of liS mandate crop germplasm • The wlld specles of Mamhot as well as other Phaseolus cultlvated spp and thelr wlld relatIves and wlld Oryza, wlll recelve more attentlon at CrA T as sources of genes for valuable quahtatJve and quantltahve tralts • The dlversJty ofbreedmg systems, mcludmg apomlxIS, makes lt posslble lo draw ImphcatlOns for the conservatlOn of ahen specles Through comparatlve geno me mappmg m cassava, common bean, or rIce, one can mfer genellc structure and locahzallon of homologous trmts m other Euphorb/acleae, other Phaseolus specles, or other grass respond to economIC globahzatlOn and the deregulatlOn of markets, mcludmg those for tropIcal frmts and hortlcultural crops As a consequence, there IS a steady mercase tn requests for our tnvolvement Wlth nonmandate crops erA 1's expenence would be qUite valuable m collaborattve research on the further domesttcatlon of less known plants and thelr Improvement Thls IS also the case wlth the domestlcatlon of WIld plants, whose baslc blOlogy and genetlcs are no! well understood and for WhlCh comparattve genome mappmg could save bme • We beheve OUT work should conslst m extendmg CIA T' s strateglc research and tools to simIlar themes m other specles Our mvolvement should foens on speclfic research tOpICS, and It should he sUpportlve Our strength hes m estabhshmg the knowledge base for the breedmg efforts of OUT partners • FmaIly, CIAT mus! mamtam an mternatlonal focus, 1 e, the themes and outputs of our genetlc approach to agroblodlverslty should be relevant at least on the reglonallevel MlsSlOn To contnhute to the mcreased producbv¡ty of food crops and Ihe preservabon of the natural resource base through research on the assessment, conservabon, enhancement, and dlffuSlOn of tropIcal agroblOdlverslty Workmg m partnershlp wlth a range of natlOnal mstttutlons, we are commltted to mtegratmg molecular and celIular genetlc approaches m agroblOdlverslty research ObJectlves To Identlfy, document, and colleet genetlc dlverslty ofCIAT mandated crops, whlle mamtammg the eXlstmg collectlons al CIAT m trust for FAO Ullder mtematlonal standards To Improve or develop conservatlon techmques, tntegratmg conventlOnal and modem blOloglcaI technologles and focusmg on eX-sltu colIectlOns of mandate gerrnplasm, Wlth hnkages to In sllu conservatlon on-farrn or m protected areas To a5seSB and charactenze the structure and dlverslty of genehc resources of wlld and cultlvated mandate speCles, selected nonmandate speCles, and assocJated orgamsms (e g , pathogens, arthropods, and symblOnts) through the use of analyttcal genoilllc technologles and agroecologlcal mformabon To enhance the dlverslty and broaden the genetlc base mamly ofmandate and selected nonmandate craps through the use of ceIlular and molecular gene transfer technologles To generate mdlcators of gene flow between cultlvated and maJor outcross relatlves m ecologlcal settmgs, wlth the ald of genome analysls and GIS To make genelIc resources, databases, genetlc stocks, molecular maps, probes, strams, and pertmcnt mformabon avallable lo users at CIAT and m partner mstltutlOns To collaborate wlth CIAT partners In orgamzmg and conductmg conferences, workshops, and trammg actlvltles on agroblOdlverslty assessment, conservabon, and enhancement through genomlc approaches Outputs • CIA T mandate germplasm collecttons mamtamed Wlth state-of-the art conservabon techmques and globally avatlable Germplasm samples tested for freedom from majar pests and pathogens • Dlstnbuted neotroplcal genettc resources better known at the specles and genetlc levels • Improved germplasm conservatlOn methods, usmg seeds and field techmques • Improved germplasm conservatlon methods, usmg In vI/ro and cryopreservatton techmques • Genebc structure charactenzed wlthm and between gene pools of Phaseolus and CIA 1\"s agroblOdlverslty research Wlll focus on genomlc research for the assessment and modlficatlOn of germplasm Lmkages wlth other CrA T proJects, and wlth partners outslde the Center, Wll! be necessary to relate genomlc mformatlon and technologles wlth research m agroecosystems In developmg partnersrups, Issues such as technology transfer, cooperallon wlth the publIc and pnvate sector, and mtellectual property nghts (IPR) are often mvolved Research Imkages The munedtate partners of CIA 1\"s agroblOdlverslty research are CenterSClenttsts mvolved m proJects focusmg on producttvtty, mtegrated pest management, land use, parttclpatory research, and regIOnal cooperatlOn CooperatlOn wlth NARS and other developmg country mstltutlons wIII preferably take place through proJccts Shared orgamzatton of confctcnces, workshops, and trammg courses wdl be a strong component of Ihls cooperallOnThrough networks, such as the Cassava BlOtechnology Nelwork, the Mamhot Genettc Resourees Network, and the Rice BlOtechnology Program ofthe Rockefeller foundatlon, end user perspecllves and pnonttes wlII be obtamed and analyzed Such mformatlOn wllI be meorporated mto CIA 1\"5 pnonlle5 for agroblodlverSlty research through a dynamlc, on-gomg neotroplcs where ItS mandate crops ongmated and where It has long expenence Wlth plant PartnershIDs neotroplcs where ItS mandate crops ongmated and where It has long expenence Wlth plant PartnershIDs genehc resources m coHechon, charactenzatlOn wlth agronom¡c and molecular tecluuques, genehc resources m coHechon, charactenzatlOn wlth agronom¡c and molecular tecluuques, conservatlOn, geographlC mfonnahon systems (GIS), and genehc lmprovement As descnbed aboye, conservatlOn, geographlC mfonnahon systems (GIS), and genehc lmprovement As descnbed aboye, Mª,n research achlevements Mª,n research achlevements At an early stage m lis work, CIAT apprecla!ed lhe value ofblOtechnology for conservahon, At an early stage m lis work, CIAT apprecla!ed lhe value ofblOtechnology for conservahon, charactenzahon, and utthzatlon of plant genetlc resources The Center's pas! contnbullOns m charactenzahon, and utthzatlon of plant genetlc resources The Center's pas! contnbullOns m Ihls area mcl ude Ihls area mcl ude • Studles on pattems of d¡vers¡ty and domestlcatlon In Phaseolus Mamhot, and tropical • Studles on pattems of d¡vers¡ty and domestlcatlon In Phaseolus Mamhot, and tropical forages (Debouck, el al 1993), usmg c1asslcal taxonomy and phylogeny and more recently forages (Debouck, el al 1993), usmg c1asslcal taxonomy and phylogeny and more recently molecular technlques (Kaml, et al 1995, Tohme, et al 1996) molecular technlques (Kaml, et al 1995, Tohme, et al 1996) • Studles on the genettc structure of crop gene pools Wlth molecular markers, leadmg lo the • Studles on the genettc structure of crop gene pools Wlth molecular markers, leadmg lo the estabhshment of core collectlons of bearlS and cassava (Tohme, el al 1996, Roa, et al 1997) • Spatlal dlstnbutlOn of dlverslty, based on the assoclatlon between passport mfonnatlOn on the collectlOns and chmatologlcal data, usmg GIS for Phaseolus, Mamhot, and forages (Jones, et al 1997) • Methods of gennplasm conservahon, usmg seed banks and In V/tro banks, mcludmg cryopreservatlOn, developed mamly for beans and cassava (Eseobar, et al 1997) • Interspeclfic hybndlzatlOn as a means of broadenmg lhe crop genetlc base, carned out Wlth Phaseolus (MeJIa-Jlmenez, A el al 1994, Smgh, et al ¡ 997) • Use of anther culture to accelerate the productlOn of lmproved plan! types from mter-subspecles and mter-specles erosses m rice (Lentml, el al 1995, Perez-Almelda et al, 1995) • Methods for gene transfer, usmg genelle transformal.Jon, developed for eassava, nee, and Mamhot. usmg molecular markers • Genettc dtverslty of cassava bactenal bltght pathogen charactenzed and reslstance genes ldentlfied, usmg molecular markers • Genetlc dlverstty of rIce blast pathogen charactenzed and reslstance genes ldenttfied, uSlng molecular markers • Molecular mapplng of apomlXIS gene(s) and genes for reslstance 10 splttle bug m Brachwna • Agroecologlcal mformatlOn mtegrated wlth genetlc dlverstty, usmg GIS and molecular markers (beans, cassava, and tropIcal forages) • Transgemc nce wlth reslstance to RHBV ficld tested In Latm Amenca and mcorporated mto IPM schemes • Novel genes (Bt, protemase mhlbttors, etc) accessed and utlltzed m IPM schemes for msect reslstance by gene!lc transformalton m cassava, heans, nce, and Brachwrla forages such as Research organlzahon • Novel genes (starch quahty, carhohydrale metahohsm, postharvest conservatton, seedhng estabhshment of core collectlons of bearlS and cassava (Tohme, el al 1996, Roa, et al 1997) • Spatlal dlstnbutlOn of dlverslty, based on the assoclatlon between passport mfonnatlOn on the collectlOns and chmatologlcal data, usmg GIS for Phaseolus, Mamhot, and forages (Jones, et al 1997) • Methods of gennplasm conservahon, usmg seed banks and In V/tro banks, mcludmg cryopreservatlOn, developed mamly for beans and cassava (Eseobar, et al 1997) • Interspeclfic hybndlzatlOn as a means of broadenmg lhe crop genetlc base, carned out Wlth Phaseolus (MeJIa-Jlmenez, A el al 1994, Smgh, et al ¡ 997) • Use of anther culture to accelerate the productlOn of lmproved plan! types from mter-subspecles and mter-specles erosses m rice (Lentml, el al 1995, Perez-Almelda et al, 1995) • Methods for gene transfer, usmg genelle transformal.Jon, developed for eassava, nee, and Mamhot. usmg molecular markers • Genettc dtverslty of cassava bactenal bltght pathogen charactenzed and reslstance genes ldentlfied, usmg molecular markers • Genetlc dlverstty of rIce blast pathogen charactenzed and reslstance genes ldenttfied, uSlng molecular markers • Molecular mapplng of apomlXIS gene(s) and genes for reslstance 10 splttle bug m Brachwna • Agroecologlcal mformatlOn mtegrated wlth genetlc dlverstty, usmg GIS and molecular markers (beans, cassava, and tropIcal forages) • Transgemc nce wlth reslstance to RHBV ficld tested In Latm Amenca and mcorporated mto IPM schemes • Novel genes (Bt, protemase mhlbttors, etc) accessed and utlltzed m IPM schemes for msect reslstance by gene!lc transformalton m cassava, heans, nce, and Brachwrla forages such as Research organlzahon • Novel genes (starch quahty, carhohydrale metahohsm, postharvest conservatton, seedhng vIgor, etc) accessed and utlhzed for quahty modlficatlons, usmg genetlc transformatton of vIgor, etc) accessed and utlhzed for quahty modlficatlons, usmg genetlc transformatton of cassava, heans, and nce cassava, heans, and nce • Apomlxls gene(s) lsolated and c10ned for homologous (Brachwrza) and heterologous • Apomlxls gene(s) lsolated and c10ned for homologous (Brachwrza) and heterologous (other crop spp ) transformatlOns (other crop spp ) transformatlOns • QTLs for yte1d and qualtty tralts ldentlfied and utthzed m nce, beans, and cassava • QTLs for yte1d and qualtty tralts ldentlfied and utthzed m nce, beans, and cassava • Useful trmls (blOttc/ablottc stress rcslstance) transferred through mterspeclfic • Useful trmls (blOttc/ablottc stress rcslstance) transferred through mterspeclfic hybndlzatlon m Phaseollls hybndlzatlon m Phaseollls • Fleld studles ofnsk assessment (blosafety) orgamzed wlth the cooperatton ofthe blotech • Fleld studles ofnsk assessment (blosafety) orgamzed wlth the cooperatton ofthe blotech pnvate sector and NARS pnvate sector and NARS • Cellular and molecular genettc techmques developed for assessmg and enhancmg • Cellular and molecular genettc techmques developed for assessmg and enhancmg agroblodlverSlty (novel DNA markers, blomolecular stattstlcs, genettc engmeenng) agroblodlverSlty (novel DNA markers, blomolecular stattstlcs, genettc engmeenng) • GenetIc matenal (plant stocks, mlcroorgamsm strmns, elc ) dlstnbuted to partners • GenetIc matenal (plant stocks, mlcroorgamsm strmns, elc ) dlstnbuted to partners • Databases, maps, probes, strams assembled and made avallable to partners • Databases, maps, probes, strams assembled and made avallable to partners • CapacJty buIldmg actlvltles m conservatton technologles and processes orgamzed wlth • CapacJty buIldmg actlvltles m conservatton technologles and processes orgamzed wlth nalJona! partners nalJona! partners • Awareness programs and capaclty bUlldmg of NARS orgamzed for assessmg and • Awareness programs and capaclty bUlldmg of NARS orgamzed for assessmg and enhancmg agroblOdlverslty through molecular and cellular technlques enhancmg agroblOdlverslty through molecular and cellular technlques  "},{"text":" CIAT IS updatmg lts IPR pohcy It wIIl allow the estabhshment of strateglc aIhances for blOtechnology research, mvolvmg mtellectual property arrangements, lfnecessary, to ensure that the results of ItS research reach the mtended beneficiarles m developmg countnes BlOsafety Because famlharIty wlth genetIcally engmeered orgamsms IS stIlI mClplent, there IS a need to closely momtor the performance of transgemc crops upon thelr release mto the enVIronment ThlS IS partIcularly lmportant m the troplCS where croppmg IS contmuous, wIlh more dlseases and pests, and where blOdlverslty IS hlghest CIA T' s blosafety gUldelmes and commIltee have been m place smce 1991 No field testmg oftransgemc plants WIll be conducted at CIAT untIl the Colomblan regulatory framework IS m place Current actlvltIes by Colomblan mstltutlOns mdlcate that the blOsafety regulatlOns are forthcommgIn the area of blOsafety there IS an mcreasmg need to generate baslc field mformatlOn on nsk assessment wIth partIcular attentlOn pmd to gene flow analysls ThlS IS a strateglc lssue wlth ImphcatIons across crops and countnes There IS a need to vahdate the mformatlOn generated m temperate areas under tropIcal condIllons The outputs OfthlS work w¡J1 be essentIaI for each country's deCISlOn regardmg the level of nsk acceptance and the management of nsk that follows for a glven 10catlOn CIAT can contnbute to thlS task through collaboratIve research mvolvmg NARS m the reglOn and pnvate sector mstItutlOns Strong capaclty bUlldmg and awareness of agroblOdlVerslty and blOtechnology wIll be mcluded ConservatlOn of neotroOlcal genetIc resources ThlS proJect wIIl have baslc responslblhtIes, such as the mamtenance, documentatlOn, and dlstnbutlOn of the world germplasm collectlOns at CrA T and the development and use of techmques to test germplasm acceSSlOns for pests and dlseases ThlS proJect wIll conduct research mmed at developmg mformatIon strategles and techmques for genetlc resource conservatlon, and lt wIll contnbute to capaclty bUlldmg m genetIc resources conservatlOn m tropical countnesThe proJect wIlI concentrate on hnkmg ex sllu collectlOns wIlh In sllu conservatlOn by provldmg sClentlfic mput mto on-farm management oflandraces and mto studles on the slgmficance of domestIcatIon transltIons, such as weed-crop complexes, and on the dlstnbutlOn of wlld relatIves for mc\\uslOn mto protected areas and gene reserves rt wIll test protocols for rehable and affordable conservatlon of seeds of tropical speCles, mc\\udmg, where appropIate, In vllro and cryogemc teclmlquesThe GenetIc Resources Umt, mc\\udmg ItS faclhtIes and operatlOns, wIIl be the operatlOnal structure supportmg ProJect SB-I 2 Prolect SB-2 GIven that the potentIal ofblOtechnology has not yet been reahzed for cassava, cornmon beans, and tropIcal forages and that slgmficant advances have be enmade In rIce, we propose to rename the current S8-2 proJect Genome Research for Promlsmg TropIcal Crops The domam ofthls proJect mcludes baslC responslblllnes at CIAT, such as momtormg advanced research m plant molecular and cellular bIOlogy worldWlde, brmgmg to CIA T and developmg countnes selected outputs wlth potennal pay-off m terms of apphcatlons, \"outsorcmg\" of specJal servlces m pubhc and pnvate ARIs (e g , large-scale sequencmg, genetlc constructs for transformatlon, etc), bIOsafety m DNA research and testmg of transgemc plants, and updatmg and trammg CIAT personnel m blOtechnology Research The genomlc work camed out tu trus proJect WIU be lmked through proJects wlth the research of natlonal mstltutlOns m developmg countnes In dealmg wllh nonmandate crops, the role of proJect S8-2 WIIl eonslst of provldmg the neeessary bloteehnology lOputs for mtegratlOn mto erop lmprovement at the natlonal and regIOnal levels ThlS projeet wlll use molecular/cellular genetlc tools for assessment, modlficatlon, and mass propagatlOn of agroblOdlversJty m research arcas such as analysls of dlverslty and relatlOnshlp wlth the spabal dlstnbutlon of genetlc resources, genotypmg genetlc resources wlth value m prebreedmg strategles, Identtficatlon and 10callzatlOn of genes, gene combmatlOns, and chromosome parts responslble for ag.ronomlc trruts, development of marker-asslsted-selectlOn strategles, genettc transformatlOn usmg smgle genes first, later on, more complex transformntlOn uslOg map-based cloned genes, clonal mulbphcatlon of plants by blOreactor and artlficml seed technologles Infraestructure lo support regIOnal cooperatlOn Thls reqmres a lab for genomlc reseach on crops outslde CIA T mandates The ¡ab would provlde a center fOf cooperatlOn wJth partners In LatlO Amenea and the Canbbean InstItubons such as the A von Humboldt InstItute m ColombIa, [nblo m Costa RIca, the Smlthoman Instltute 10 Panama/USA, and numerous NARS m the reglOn would be the users oftrus faclhty The Blodlverslty Assessment RegIOnal Lab WQuld be lmplemented and equlpped through Jomt partners' contnbutlons The lab WIII benefit from llOks to the crA T Genome Research Lab, and hkewlse, proJect SB-2 WIll benefit from faclhhes/eqUlpment of the RegIOnal Lab OperatlOns under the new structure would start m January 1998 The proposed changes reflect a more sharply defined research focus The changes Wlll alIow CIAT to extend Its thematIc research lo mclude other promlSlng crops Hence, phasmg out sorne current actlvlues and upgradmg curren! faclhtles and resources are envlsaged Research wlth crops outslde CIA T's mandate wlll be posslble only wlth addttlonal resources Referentes CIAT 1997 Domg Research Together CIAT's MedlUm-Term Plan 1998-2000 Cal!, ColombIa CIAT 1996 BlOtechnology Research Umt, Ano Report 1995 Cah, ColombIa Martmez C , Tohme, J, Lopez, J. Borrero, J, McCouch, S , Roca, W, Chatel M , GUlmaraes, E 1997 Prehmmary resulls ofnce mterspeclfic hlbndlzatlOn at CIAT usmg the advanced backcross scheme (Abst) Internatlonal RIce BlOtechnology Conferenee, Malaeea, Malaysla Debouck, D G , Toro, O , Paredes, O M , Johnson, W C and Gepts, P 1993 Genetlc dlverslty and ecologlcal dlstnbullOn of Phaseoulus vulgar/s (Fabaceae) m northwestcrn South Amenca Eeon Bol 47 (4) 408-423 Escobar, R H, Mafla, G, and Roca, W M 1997 A methodology for reeovermg cassava plants from shoot llps mamtamed m hquld mtrogen Plan! Cell Reports 16 474-478 Fregene, MA , Angel, F Gomez, R , Rodnguez, F Bomerbale,M, Chavarrmga, P Roca, W andTohme,J 1996 Amoleculargenettcmapofcassava Theor Appl Gen 95431-441 Jones, P G, Beebe, S E , Tohme, J and Galwey, N W 1997 The use of geographlcal mformallon systems m blOdlverslty exploratlOn and conservatlon BlodlversIty & ConservatlOn 6 947-958 Karnl, J , Becerra Velasquez, V , Debouch, D G and Gepts, P 1995 IdenttficatlOn of presumed ancestral DNA sequences of phaseohn m Phaseolus vulgans Proc Natl Acad SCl USA 92 (4) 1101-1104 Lenllm, Z, Calvert, L, Tabares, E, Lozano, 1, Cuervo, Ramlrez, B e and Roca, W 1996 GenetlC transformatlOn of flce wlth vIral genes for novel reslstance agamst nce hOJa blanca VIruS m Khush, G S (ed) RIce Genettcs III lRRI, Mamla, Phdlppmes P 780-784 Lentlm, Z , Reyes, P , Martmez, C P and Roca, W M 1995 Androgenesls of hlghly recalcltrant nce genotypes WIth maltose and stlver mtrate Plant SClence 110127-138 Structure The agroblOdIverslty research area at CIAT wlll compnse two mterdependent proJects BlOtechnology Research Um! lo thc Genome Research Laboratorv Ihls lab Wlll support ProJect SB-2, and related research under proJect S8-1 and other CIAT proJccts by housmg 1 ProJect SB-l Lab Infrastructure to support prolect SB-2 We propose to change the name of the operatlonal actlvl!!es 10 baslcally tbree research areas Structure The agroblOdIverslty research area at CIAT wlll compnse two mterdependent proJects BlOtechnology Research Um! lo thc Genome Research Laboratorv Ihls lab Wlll support ProJect SB-2, and related research under proJect S8-1 and other CIAT proJccts by housmg 1 ProJect SB-l Lab Infrastructure to support prolect SB-2 We propose to change the name of the operatlonal actlvl!!es 10 baslcally tbree research areas (1) genome characlenzatlOn of planls and assocmted orgamsms (pathogens, (1)genome characlenzatlOn of planls and assocmted orgamsms (pathogens,  arthropods, and symblOnts), usmg molecular genetlc markers and maps, arthropods, and symblOnts), usmg molecular genetlc markers and maps, (11) genome modlfica!!on of plants, usmg cellular and molecular blology and genetIc (11)genome modlfica!!on of plants, usmg cellular and molecular blology and genetIc  englOeenng technlques, englOeenng technlques, (m) clonal propagabon ofplants, usmg cell and tlssue culture, and related technoJogles (m)clonal propagabon ofplants, usmg cell and tlssue culture, and related technoJogles  "}],"sieverID":"08f3fcb7-ba9f-45cb-888b-5c3fc7da13ad","abstract":"Research on agroblOdlversrty assessment conservatlOo, and enhancement 15 a central elernent of eIA T s response to the challenges posed by current concerns about agncultural productlvlty and competltIveness and natural resource conservatlOo Glven CIAT s hlstoncal and current strengths the Center 15 weIl posltlOned to undertake a genetIc based approach to agrobIOdlversIty research UtlhzatIOn ofmodern genetIc tools at the molecular and cellular levells consldered central to CIA T's agrobIOdlverslty research The focus ofthe research WIll be the charactenzatIOo and modlficatIon of genomes and the conservatlOn of genetlc resources Thematlc research on agrobwdlverslty Wlth eIA T' s mandate craps WIll [onn the baslS for extendmg genoffilc rnethodologles to ather prornlsmg tropical craps General themes of thls research mclude assessment of genetlc dlverslty and IdentIficatlOn of useful genes modlficatlOn of plant genomes for broadenmg crop genetlc bases and lmprovmg germplasm conservatlOTI strategles Specml attentlOo wIlI be glven to wIld relatIves and land mees as sources of genetlc vanablhty for lmprovmg econornlC tratts AgroblOdlverslty research at CIA T WIll compnse two pro]ects ConservatlOn (SB 1) and Genome Research (SB 2) wlth theIr correspondmg research mfrastructures rhe Genetlc Resources Umt lO support pro]ect SB-I and the Genome Research LaboralOry to support pro]ec! SB 2 To house genome research on crops outslde CIAT mandate ¡he development of a BlOdlverslty RegIOnal Lab IS proposed"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05b70d27bac274c5623c7678d9e2aea2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cd04a48d-7bdd-4731-b387-17690fe58b32/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Partnersvv Increasing uptake -to catalyse informed demand through consumer awareness, education and increase the value proposition of livestock insurance in the drylands v Addressing supply side -building the market, structure and institutions for sales delivery, platforms for providing insurance as a tool for resilience building in a sustainable manner v Market and Capacity Development -innovations in service delivery; promoting inclusion of livestock insurance into development initiatives of partners; strengthening capacities of other stakeholders like Governments, private sector and regulatory bodies Increase in outreach of financial technology such as livestock insurance in remote areas v Better understanding leading to uptake and renewals for the right reasons v Additional source of employment through use of community-based enterprises as distribution channels v Over 100,000 beneficiaries in both Kenya and Ethiopia under the commercial and social protection schemes such as KLIP and SIIPE Strengthening of the agency and creating value proposition for livestock insurance vInstitutionalizing capacity Assessments of agents to determine incentives and rewards based on performance vIncentive Structures to be determined just not by the number of sales but efforts put in to get clients -innovations on quantifying client onboarding process vIntroduction of demand driven products and services -linking micro-products to livestock production services -collaborating with service providers so that agents can be utilized throughout the year vMonitoring and Evaluation System -Database of agents through which activities, performance and progress of the agents can be monitored remotely L This document is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. June 2023 The International Livestock Research Institute thanks all donors & organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund. cgiar.org/funders Identifying effective distribution channels § Quick Reference guides § Edutainment Video and jingles § IBLI Training Manual § Pocket-book guides § E-learning and M-learning tools § Gamification and incentives § Instructional guides § Index announcement posters Diba Kone [email protected] Knowledge and tools for government and insurance industry policy makers Knowledge, skills and job aids for sales agents and promoters "}],"sieverID":"e66c0848-e866-4a38-b182-9380884b8cae","abstract":"The challenge Outcomes § Markets and Capacity development was established as a bridge between research and application through strong links with partnerships § Implementation Platform of the science to support government, private sectors and NGOs § Enabler /catalyst of market driven interventions to advance the Drought Risk Financing solutions"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06bbe764e770eee180f3a0d578a5a097","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9d30e36f-d674-4f4f-a56d-8c0c5b18c6de/retrieve"},"pageCount":22,"title":"Digital Agriculture Profile • Viet Nam OF THE TOTAL VIETNAMESE POPULATION AND OF FARMERS USE BROADBAND INTERNET OF FARMERS OWN A MOBILE PHONE, AND PER CAPITA MOBILE SUBSCRIPTION RATES ARE WELL OVER VIET NAM IS RANKED OVER ©Georgina Smith 100 % 2 | Digital Agriculture Profile • Viet Nam","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"As a cornerstone of economic growth and employment, agriculture has been vital to sustaining livelihoods throughout Viet Nam. However, recent years have brought about new challenges for all stakeholders within the sector as well as new investment opportunities to drive agricultural growth. Both domestic food production and the food imports: exports ratio have been on the rise since the early 2000s, resulting in improved food security and an increasing reliance on international commerce. 1 Indeed, Viet Nam is a net food exporter to Western countries, and a net importer from its Asian neighbors. The future success of agriculture in Viet Nam therefore depends on its stakeholders' abilities to adapt to, and compete in, the rapidly changing biophysical and financial environments."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Many of Viet Nam's agricultural producers currently lack the contemporary technologies and decision support tools necessary for sustaining and improving yields in a rapidly changing environment. 2 Other stakeholders along agricultural value chains, including input providers, 1 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, \"FAOSTAT,\" 2019."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"2 General Statistics Office of Viet Nam, \"Results of the 2011 Rural, Agricultural, and Fishery Census.\""}]},{"head":"Priority Tech Solutions","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"distributors, and consumers, also face substantial challenges, including excessively bureaucratic value chains and the associated costs and poor information flows across hubs."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"One possible solution to addressing these challenges is digital agriculture. While the concept of digital agriculture is relatively new and still evolving, foundational technologies, such as mobile and Internet connectivity, are already available to support innovative digital solutions to the major challenges facing the Viet Namese agricultural sector."},{"index":3,"size":175,"text":"Digital agriculture is the use of new and advanced technologies, integrated into one system, to enable farmers and other stakeholders in the value chain to improve their products and processes. 3 Integrating digital solutions into agriculture can improve efficiency by decreasing financial and labor costs, providing information to support management decisions, increasing product quantity and/ or quality, reducing losses, and/or ensuring effective and sustainable use of resources. Ultimately, the transition As part of the initiative on Digital Agriculture Transformation by the World Bank, this Digital Agriculture Profile for Viet Nam leverages the expertise of stakeholders to evaluate the current landscape of digital agriculture in Viet Nam, including its key players across value chains, the main barriers they face, and the potential to overcome these barriers through the adoption of innovative technologies. In identifying and prioritizing these technologies, we aim to support investors and implementers in maximizing their impact by focusing on the opportunities of highest potential. Once enabling factors are identified and understood, the mainstreaming of digital agriculture in Viet Nam can begin in earnest."}]},{"head":"Natural Context","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Economic relevance of agriculture","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"Over the last two decades, Southeast Asia has undergone a rapid and remarkable recovery from the financial crisis of the 1990s. Within the region, this economic turnaround has been especially apparent in the development of Viet Nam. Following a series of market-oriented policy reforms known as Doi Moi, Viet Nam has successfully transformed into a lower-middle income country and has emerged as one of the top economies in Southeast Asia, with a GDP 4 of over US$223 billion and a GNI 5 (PPP 2011) of US$5,857 per capita. 6 4 Gross Domestic Product 5 Gross National Income 6 The World Bank, \"GDP | Viet Nam\"; The World Bank, \"GNI per Capita, PPP.\""},{"index":2,"size":231,"text":"Agriculture has played a vital role in this achievement as well as in the country's overall growth, contributing an average of 17% to national GDP and generating approximately US$12.5 billion each year in exports. Moreover, the Vietnamese agricultural sector has exceeded that of almost every neighboring country, growing nearly 4% per annum between 2000 and 2012, and making Viet Nam a global leader in the export of agricultural commodities. 8 Viet Nam outperforms other Southeast Asian countries in the production of rice, maize, coffee, rubber, cashew, tea, and pepper. In terms of trade, the share of agricultural commodities amounts to roughly 15% of total exports. 9 Accelerated by its succession into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Free Trade Area in 1995, Viet Nam is now one of the world's largest exporters of rice and coffee, and a regional leader for other staple commodities, including cashew nuts, vegetables, and rubber. 10 Nevertheless, Viet Nam's exponential growth in land productivity has tapered in recent years, and the country currently trails several neighboring countries in terms of agricultural output for key commodities, including rice. A complex, interrelated set of problems is causing this phenomenon, including the prioritization of productivity over sustainability and unsustainable farm economics resulting from overreliance on inputs. Additionally, agriculture is facing growing domestic competition from successful urban sectors, including industry and services, for resources such as labor, land, and water."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"7 The World Bank Group, \"Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing, Value Added (% of GDP) | Viet Nam.\"   8 World Bank Group, \"Transforming  rubber, cashew and fruits-make up the remaining 15%."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"Vietnamese producers apply over 10 million tonnes of fertilizer each year. Rice constitutes nearly 2/3 of this total. 17 On average, farmers apply 142 kg of nitrogen, 67 kg phosphorous, and 49 kg potash per hectare. 18"}]},{"head":"People, livelihoods and agriculture","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"The last three decades have been marked by steady advances in alleviating poverty and improving the quality of life. Viet Nam is home to 95.5 million people, 65% of whom reside in rural areas. 19 Urbanization is slowly redefining the demographics of the country and outlining several emerging trends. As of 2016, only 2.3% of the total population was living below the international poverty line (US$1.90 per day). 20 However, the national poverty lines of US$31/month for rural areas and US$40/month for urban areas is more revealing. A total of 7.5% of rural residents live in poverty, compared to just 2% of urban residents. Ethnic minorities in the mountainous northern region and central highlands make up an outsized portion of the rural poor. 21 Household income is also divided, with non-farm and urban laborers earning higher average incomes than agricultural producers. 22"},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Over 99% of Vietnamese have access to electricity in both rural and urban areas, and over 97% of the country's youth are literate. 23 While water resources are abundant, access to quality and well-managed water remains an issue, particularly in rural areas. "}]},{"head":"Agricultural production systems","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Viet Nam has a diverse landscape of mountains, valleys, fertile deltas, and dense forests-each with unique soil characteristics and microclimatic conditions. The eclectic range of habitats supports an equally wide array of production systems and agro-ecological zones. Agriculture accounts for 10.2 million hectares, or 35% of the country's total land area. Producers are particularly vulnerable to knowledge gaps and the resulting resource mismanagement and unnecessary expenditures. For downstream stakeholders, the value chain fragmentation decreases transparency and compliance with regulations on sustainability and good agricultural practices. Consumers are unaware of production conditions despite their growing demand for higher quality products and increasing pressure on distributors to ensure food standards."},{"index":2,"size":308,"text":"While agriculture is a key driver of the economy, highproductivity manufacturing and service-oriented industries have fueled much of the recent economic growth. Agriculture has, to some extent, kept pace through intensification and high input use. As a result, the agricultural sector is now the second largest emitter of greenhouse gases in the country, and is responsible for significant environmental degradation, deforestation, soil erosion, and biodiversity loss.  32 In doing so, Viet Nam was able to pave the way for 3G and 4G services and become a fertile market for telecom providers. Currently, the country is preparing for the launch of 5G services in 2020, which will enable machine-machine and machine-human connections. The International Telecommunications Union ranks Viet Nam 88 in the world (17 in Asia) for the E-Government Development Index, which measures online governmental services, extent of telecommunication connectivity and infrastructure, and level of human capacity for using these technologies. The country scores above both the global and regional averages. Viet Nam ranks 72 in the world and 19 in Asia for overall E-Participation, indicating high usage of digital services to share information, engage other stakeholders, and support decision-making processes. 38 There is a wide range of digital literacy levels across geographies and generations. The Information Communication Technology Development Index shows the accessibility, usage and skills related to information and communication technologies in Viet Nam have been stagnant since 2016. Telecommunication infrastructure in Viet Nam also shows room for improvement. According to the 2018 Telecommunication Infrastructure Index, the country scored below both world and regional averages due to the relatively low number of fixed broadband and fixed telephone line subscribers, accounting for only 9.6% and 5.9% of Vietnamese inhabitants respectively. 39 In the same year, the International Telecommunications Union found that 23% of all households owned computers and The vast majority (89%) are made with prepaid SIM cards."}]},{"head":"Current landscape of digital tools and policies","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Digital infrastructure, availability and access","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"For those using mobile devices, 42% had 3G or 4G mobile broadband subscriptions, a 36% increase since 2015. The number of smartphones has grown rapidly as a result of higher household incomes and the government's decision to remove import tariffs on mobile devices in 2016; the most recent agriculture census found only 4% of households had fixed telephone lines, while 10% had computers with Internet access and 90% owned a mobile phone. While mobile coverage is good overall, the northern and mountainous regions have lower connectivity and less 4G coverage. 45 Additionally, the demand for digital applications on mobile devices is slightly below the global average. The Global Connectivity Index found that only new mobile applications per capita are downloaded on average. 46 Viet Nam is also expanding its earth observation capacity using remote sensing satellites, but the ability to store and process such data is still in its infancy. "}]},{"head":"79/ 139","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"The Networked Readiness Index RANKS VIETNAM:"},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Regional infrastructure investments, such as China Telecom's Information Superhighway optical fiber transmission system, 47 have significantly improved the potential for digital agriculture solutions, allowing prominent international organizations to deliver improved extension services to the region at much lower costs than traditional in-person approaches. 48"}]},{"head":"End-user diversity and demand","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"Digital agriculture end users may be generally grouped into four hubs. Each hub has unique resources and needs in terms of digital agriculture, and each hub faces unique challenges for which digital agriculture could offer solutions. The hubs are not mutually exclusive; any given individual may function within multiple end-user hubs. The Distribution hub consists of all actors in the value chain between farmers and consumers; this includes traders, transporters, and processors, among others. The main distributors in Viet Nam are traditional open-air markets and larger supermarkets. Both subgroups have similar rates of connectivity (i.e., SMS, 39 fixed broadband, mobile networks), but traditional distributors have significantly less access to the same via technologies such as smartphones. Both traditional and supermarket distributors are also constrained by the lack of information sharing and communication with other value chain stakeholders."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"Supermarkets are a recent phenomenon, but their presence has grown noticeably and is evidence of the country's increasing household incomes, urbanization rate, and consumer preference for high-quality products. Supermarket sales climbed from US$2.8 billion in 2005 to US$6 billion in 2013, and now comprise 15% of total food sales in the country. 51 One of the externalities of supermarket success has been a shift in product sourcing to support higher quality products and food safety; this has resulted in higher food costs. Although supermarkets are increasingly common, the Distribution Hub remains largely comprised of fragmented and unorganized traditional, open-air markets."},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":"The Consumer hub consists of consumers of both raw and processed agricultural-in effect, the entire population. Consumers are subdivided by income. Both low-and high-income consumers have similar rates of connectivity, but the latter have much higher access to smartphones, allowing them to make better informed decisions and utilize traceability technologies when buying agricultural goods. While consumers in larger cities frequent supermarkets more than rural consumers, the majority of Vietnamese buy agricultural products in open-air markets. Consistent with other middle-income countries, consumption trends in Viet Nam show that consumers buying less subsistence food, such as rice, and more animal products. Vegetable and fruit consumption has remained stable. 52"}]},{"head":"Institutions and policies for Digital Agriculture","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":397,"text":"As the concept of digital agriculture is relatively new and evolving, there are no policies in place for it explicitly. Nevertheless, the transformation to innovative digital agriculture services enjoys significant commitment from relevant government agencies and stakeholders in terms  59 The Strategy also focuses on attracting foreign and domestic investments by simplifying procedures for business establishment, and utilizing information technology in local governments for increased transparency. The 2016-2020 Five Year Socio-Economic Development Plan calls for better value chain management to accelerate processes involved in agriculture and food production and improve linkages between producers and consumer markets. 60 Viet Nam has recently taken steps to creating a more enabling environment for digital agriculture through infrastructure development and financial support. In early 2016, the Prime Minister approved the national Broadband plan, which aims to have 95% of residential areas covered by 3G/4G networks by 2020, provide 25 Mbps service to 60% of Internet users, and offer Broadband services at all public access points. This plan will improve communication capabilities and enable more efficient cooperation among value chains stakeholders. 61 In preparation for 5G services, Viet Nam has passed the Law on Information Security, the first step towards a comprehensive piece of legislation for protecting users' personal information and supporting cloud-based and data-driven technologies. Decision No. 575/QD-TTg aims to increase agricultural production value 500% by enhancing large-scale farm automation, establishing high-tech agriculture zones, and creating 500 digital agricultural cooperatives by 2020. 62 As part of this effort to increase the quality of agricultural products and reduce costs, the Prime Minister has committed to improve investments in businesses developing digital agriculture solutions, and to host at least two hundred such businesses within its borders. Such full-fledged support from the government will enable producers to afford digital agriculture solutions, and will promote development of innovative and smart solutions, such as alternative credit scoring systems. The government has also acknowledged the tremendous potential of digital solutions in aquaculture. To help address communication gaps and information fragmentation within the sector's value chain, the government's national action plan for the development of the shrimp industry (Decision No. 79/QD-TTG) calls for the utilization of digital communication technologies. The Ministry of Agriculture has also promoted digital solutions for improving information access and multidirectional communication, and has recognized (Directive 6524/CT-BNN-KHCN) the limitations of the current legal framework in terms of a digital transformation toward 4.0 technologies in agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"The government has also taken steps to strengthen its advisory and extension services, to champion multidirectional flows of information between providers and end users, and to support agribusinesses developing services for better market access and competition. The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development is currently building on the success of other programs, including the Viet Nam-Sustainable Agriculture Transformation Project, to develop a digital database to improve coffee seed traceability and resource management. 63 In 2019, the Department of Plant Protection also introduced a mobile app called Thuoc BVTV to increase the efficiency of pesticide use and provide information on non-chemical alternatives. 64  "}]},{"head":"Digital agricultural services and applications available","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":199,"text":"A range of digital solutions are emerging in Viet Nam. In general, complex and pseudo-complex solutions are still in pilot phases, while those employing relatively simple digital technologies and services are being used at scale. More traditional services, such as broadcast programs, also provide basic information that is broadly accessible but simple in content, such as the televised 'Friends of Farmers' and the 'Voice of Private enterprises have been and continue to be the main solution developers in Viet Nam's digital agriculture. Some of the most prominent enterprises include VinEco, Hachi, TH True Milk, Vinamilk, Agrimedia, GreenCoffee, MimosaTEK, BacTom, RTAnalytics, Fsoft, TraceVerify and the Digital Agriculture Association of Viet Nam. The digital agriculture epicenters of Bac Ninh, Lam Dong, Ho Chi Minh City, Ninh Phuc, Thai Nguyen and the Mekong Delta are also home to the majority of these digital agriculture firms. 70 While these companies' cutting-edge technologies have yet to reach smallholders, and are not affordable for the vast majority of Viet Nam's farmers, their success has drawn national attention to optimizing agricultural processes and investing in digital solutions. The government has begun pushing for digital interventions to enhance resource management and productivity for smallholders and nonexport crops."},{"index":2,"size":258,"text":"For example, companies like VinEco, TH True Milk, and Vinamilk, with governmental support, have helped progress complex technologies such as automation, precision farming, genetic engineering, 71 and IoT 72 for applications in e.g., fully automated greenhouses62 for export crops. GREENcoffee offers market information, tailored crop calendars, and good agricultural practice information via push SMS 73 to coffee producers. 74 Public-private partnerships have helped to facilitate digital agricultural innovation. The remote sensingbased Information and Insurance for Crops in Emerging Economies (RIICE) is a collaborative project between the International Rice Research Institute, SwissRe, Sarmap, the German Society for International Cooperation, and the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, to deliver advanced technologies to low-income farmers who would otherwise be unable to access them. Using remote-sensing technologies, RIICE provides producers and government officials with advanced information to make better decisions and manage risks. 75 In 2017, Google, in collaboration with the Viet Nam Farmers' Union (VNFU), began an initiative to enhance farmers' digital skills by recruiting 40 trainers and 500 support staff to provide training to at least 30,000 farmers in nine provinces by 2020. 76 The off-and online training program teaches farmers how to use the Internet to find information, and how to use agricultural apps to boost productivity. The trainings also address the generational divide in digital literacy by including younger family members. The project is ongoing, and farmers have reported excellent outcomes, including using their new digital skills to compare crop and equipment prices and identify and treat animal health problems without traveling to reach a veterinarian. 77"}]},{"head":"Challenges for digital agriculture","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"The physical infrastructure required for technologies represents one dimension in the transformation to digital agriculture; another is the ability to interconnect these technologies with policies and financial mechanisms to enable their scale and success. In terms of enabling digital agriculture in Viet Nam, physical infrastructure is not the bottleneck, but rather the mechanism necessary to capture, store, and analyze data from various sources to develop value-added services."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"Access to financial services and instruments is essential for producers to invest in improving efficiency of their production systems. However, there are very few financial institutions in the country that provide services for smallholders. Those that do provide loans and credit lines offer them at unaffordable interest rates. Several digital innovations, including alternative credit scoring approaches, employ data collected via mobile apps and app usage behavior as a proxy to assess risk of nonpayment. In the neighboring countries of Cambodia and Myanmar, the concept of digital financial services, including alternative credit scoring for smallholders, has gained momentum and enabled the development of farmers' digital financial profiles. Given the lack of digital services consistently used by Vietnamese farmers, such metrics are nonexistent."},{"index":3,"size":245,"text":"Consequently, similar services have not yet been achieved in Viet Nam, possibly because of a lack of available data on smallholders. This creates a key problem for smallholders: financial services tend to be exclusively available to large-scale farms and producers of exportable commodities. Without sufficient financial services, small-scale producers are limited in their means to innovate. Digital innovations, mechanization, and automation, for example, have the potential to increase profitability, but adoption among producers is minimal due to poor access to loan and credit services. Even the preferential low-interest loans 77 Gajria, \"Bringing Digital Skills Training to 30,000 Farmers in Viet Nam.\" used to incentivize digital agriculture investments have been limited to producers with the bandwidth to tackle onerous procedural requirements. For example, despite the aforementioned intensive agricultural research and development in recent years, only 30 agriculture businesses were certified as being high tech from 2010 to 2018. 78 Perceived quality, relative price point, and affordability have been shown to be particularly important prerequisites to the scaling of digital services in Viet Nam. 79 Approximately 60% of Vietnamese farmers are willing to pay for forecast information and advisory services. Farmers become less willing to pay if they consider the service to be a governmental responsibility, or if the content is comparable to free online information. Older farmers and women farmers as a whole are less willing to pay for weather services, probably because these groups tend to be less digitally literate and have lower household incomes."},{"index":4,"size":112,"text":"Currently available technologies can be roughly divided into those accessible on feature phones and those accessible on smartphones. 80 For feature phones generally rely on IVR/SMS -based systems, such as the weather advisory service provided by Agrimedia. Smartphones offer more flexibility, ranging from IVR/SMS 81 -based services to automated irrigation control systems, such as those provided by MimosaTEK. Services that gather information and/or provide predictive decision-support tools remain very limited. Many simple processes, like certifications, are still being processed with pen and paper. In general, digital solutions are still in their infancy, with only large entities adopting advanced digital agriculture. Small-scale operations remain disorganized, but have an undeniable potential for digital transformation."},{"index":5,"size":168,"text":"Perhaps the greatest barrier preventing stakeholders from effectively implementing digital solutions is low digital literacy. Among all four hubs, digital skills were highlighted as a key constraint. Although the majority of stakeholders have access to feature phones or smartphones, the actual usage of innovative features beyond SMS 82 is relatively low. Digital literacy is distinguishable in each hub. For example, among producers it is marked by a generational gap favoring younger farmers, whereas for consumers, it is more prevalent in higher income individuals who have better access to smartphones. Producers require 78 VNS, \"Agriculture Firms Struggle to Get Loans.\" 79 Trinh, Simelton, and Le, \"Farmer  more and more sophisticated levels of knowledge and information to make informed decisions and identify deviations from traditional environmental conditions, but in order to access this information they need adequate digital skills. This highlights why digital literacy is perhaps the first step to be made in the digital transformation, as it renders or prevents the effective implementation and success of most digital interventions."}]},{"head":"Enabling Digital Agriculture","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"An important first step in leveraging digital agriculture to solve real-world problems is identifying the most promising technologies across multiple end-user barriers. 83 This enables investors and implementers to focus their efforts on the areas of highest impact. Once enabling factors are identified and understood, the mainstreaming of digital agriculture in Viet Nam can begin in earnest."}]},{"head":"Technologies with greatest potential and their impact 84","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":322,"text":"The major cross-cutting challenge for Viet Nam's agricultural sector is fragmentation in terms of intermediaries, stakeholders, and the flow of information and knowledge. The sector has become exceedingly business-oriented even while remaining small scale. This has led to various superfluous transactional costs and activities. The means of direct interactions and exchanges between producers, input providers, distributors, and consumers are drastically underdeveloped. The lack of information sharing and communication applies to each hub, and disproportionately impacts producers and distributors, who require ample information on market prices, weather, and yields to make critical decisions. The opportunities to address fragmentation are also cross-83 In this analysis, we focus on identifying, for each of the end-user hubs, the main challenges confronting the agricultural sector. We then identify, using participatory methods, a set of technologies and associated functions and outcomes. Table 1 shows the results of the technology prioritization across hubs. Next, each technology was assessed across six dimensions: Progress (the current degree of development, use, maturity, scaling, uptake, and profitability of the technology), Policy and enabling environment (the degree to which policy, programs, and investments enable further development, adoption, and impact of the technology), Potential impact (the expected uptake and return on investments of the technology over the next decade), Efficiency (the extent to which the technology enhances food systems efficiency in terms of labor, inputs, yield, transport, and transaction cost reduction), Equity (the degree to which the technology breaks down barriers to equity, particularly in terms of youth and gender inclusivity), and Environment (the extent to which the technology supports environmental sustainability through waste reduction, greenhouse gas intensity reduction, and improved natural resource use efficiency). Each of these is assessed using a number of indicators. The results of the technology identification and assessment are described below, followed by a discussion of the policies, the role of the public and private sector, and the financing options available to support the promotion of the most promising technologies."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"84 Disclaimer: These results are based on a combination of desk-research and stakeholder consultation. The latter includes 3 key interviews with the government and the private sector companies, as well as a one day workshop with 28 key experts in the fields of agriculture, policy and/or information communication technologies."},{"index":3,"size":127,"text":"cutting: Viet Nam as a whole excels in digital infrastructure relative to neighboring countries. This creates a unique enabling environment in which the adoption of a single digital technology can easily benefit multiple hubs. For example, the creation of services that connect stakeholders and subgroups can improve decision making and efficiency across the value chain. Smartphones and QR codes show very high short-term potential and some degree of progress in addressing this issue. As a multi-hub platform, smartphone services will strengthen connections across hubs to help improve transparency, encourage knowledge sharing, and eliminate unnecessary intermediary costs. Using QR code, stakeholders will be able to trace product origins, production conditions, and pricing, thus improving marketing by meeting customer preferences and augmenting food safety by supporting good agricultural practices."},{"index":4,"size":151,"text":"The Input hub struggles with an absence of accessible market information and digital farmer profiles. Smartphone digital diaries offer the greatest promise for establishing farmer profiles in the short to medium term. Digital diaries collect data to establish farmer profiles, promote experiential learning, and enable improved decisionmaking by monitoring the time and money allocated to individual farm activities. This results in increased input efficiency and environmental sustainability. The technology has huge potential in Viet Nam pending sufficient policy support. Big data and analytics show high potential for integrating Viet Nam's currently fragmented market and value chain information and improving accessibility to the same in the short term. Big data and analytics can also increase environmental sustainability, and have recently been supported by enabling policies that address Viet Nam's data security issues. This technology will provide both input suppliers, as well as other hubs, with consolidated market information to strengthen negotiation leverage."},{"index":5,"size":281,"text":"The Production hub faces the largest range of barriers, rooted in a lack of decision-support tools and monitoring systems. Addressing these issues would pave the way to resource use efficiency, streamlined communication, coordination with other stakeholders, and traceability, all of which are needed in order to achieve economies of scale and reduce greenhouse gas emissions 85 Digital technologies have already had important impacts in linking farmers to markets and key stages of the value chain in Viet Nam. Some degree of information access  and extension services for producers are in place in the country, and the impact of connecting farmers to the Internet has brought well-documented improvements at the farm level in terms of productivity, profitability and sustainability. Phones give farmers better access to market prices, weather information, and knowledge about soil, seeds and fertilizer. Farmers are able to expand their networks and establish contacts directly with other buyers. This means that the prevailing market price more clearly signals the aggregated demand and value on any given day, and is more likely to fluctuate with demand and value over time. A recent study found that about 80% of farmers used a mobile phone to connect with agents and traders to estimate market demand and the selling price, 86 and more than half of these farmers would then make sale arrangements over the phone. Phones may also be enabling a sharing economy to take hold, whereby farmers who can't afford to buy mechanical equipment can rent it by the hour from other farmers by accessing online sharing sites. The growing sophistication and knowledge of value chains means that farmers can work directly with larger intermediaries, thus capturing more of the product's value."},{"index":6,"size":112,"text":"Nevertheless, there remains several gaps in pest and disease forecasting and in peer-to-peer information sharing that are inhibiting producers from optimizing farm efficiency. Smartphone services are available that send out good agriculture practice information. However, most of these solutions are \"pseudo-complex\" in that they do not fully leverage the potential of smartphones to, for example, capture information from farmers via multidirectional communication. There is also very limited use of modern data analytics (machine learning and predictive analytics) in making advisory systems smarter, which may be due to the lack of data. For example, MimosaTEK's irrigation control systems, are automated, but still do not provide predictions to help farmers make better informed decisions."},{"index":7,"size":164,"text":"The expansion of mobile networks and cloud-based solutions in the short term, and the Internet of Things in the long term, will enable farmer access to quantitativelybased decision-support tools. This will be particularly important in the isolated northern and mountainous regions. Cutting-edge network coverage increases the overall efficiency of advisory services and allows for cloud-based solutions and Io 87 T integration. These technologies, in turn, can generate new data sources to improve advisory services and decision making. Cloud- public and private sector services while still respecting individuals' data privacy. An important aspect of this is building stakeholder trust through adequate vetting and regulation of digital agriculture services in terms of quality and potential risks around product validity, saliency, data privacy, and similar factors. Care must also be taken to avoid data inutility. As databases are developed, service providers eventually become data companies. When multiple data-driven companies exist in an environment that lacks interoperability, the problem then becomes excessive data that cannot be used ."}]},{"head":"Potential avenues for the private sector","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"One of the largest areas for growth in Viet Nam is within agribusinesses. In 2016, agricultural enterprises accounted for only 0.3% (1,740) of total businesses in the country. 98 Most (95%) of these were micro-or small-scale operations with fewer than 200 employees and less than US$866,000 in capital. The few agricultural start-ups and solution developers that have been active in the country, however, have shown remarkable success. Encouraging more organizations to leverage the now-simplified procedures for high-tech agriculture producer certification will enable more farmers to qualify for loans from the preferential US$4 billion credit package reserve. 99 The Agriculture and Rural Development Bank has also promised to reserve US$2.3 billion in credit to support individuals, collectives, and enterprises engaged in higher standards of food production. 100 Continued engagement of public-private partnerships and co-financing will also be crucial in scaling digital interventions in Viet Nam."}]},{"head":"Outlook / synthesis of recommendations","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Viet Nam has laid a strong foundation for digital agricultural solutions, and the digital agriculture ecosystem is growing rapidly. Connectivity and subscription rates are high thanks to affordability, accessibility, and good governmental support. A number of digital solutions in agriculture have been met with significant success. This suggests important opportunities for digital solutions to the major challenges facing Vietnamese agriculture, most particularly information and communication gaps, inefficient systems, and a lack of decision support."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"By integrating digital solutions into Viet Nam's agricultural value chain, stakeholders will be able to make better informed decisions to address the core challenges in food production. Through the utilization of communication, monitoring, and traceability technologies, the agricultural sector as a whole will transform from resource heavy to knowledge heavy, thus achieving a higher level of environmental sustainability, equity, efficiency, and prosperity."},{"index":3,"size":147,"text":"Our research suggests that stakeholders who focus their efforts on developing solutions to provide information facilitating production, distribution, and purchase; actionable advisory systems; monitoring of farming systems and landscapes; and information exchange between input suppliers and producers are most likely to bring high-impact solutions to Viet Nam's agricultural sector. Specifically, QR codes and smartphones are the most promising technologies for creating production, distribution, and purchase information channels. Mobile networks, cloud technology, and Internet of things show the highest potential for creating actionable advisory networks. Unmanned aerial vehicles, data analytics, and cloud-based systems are best positioned for monitoring farming systems and landscapes. And digital diaries, big data, and blockchain show great promise for facilitating information exchange between input suppliers and producers. In all cases, piloting, demonstration plots, and public awareness campaigns will help ensure that farmers remain abreast of the digital innovations, solutions, and opportunities available to them."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"Supportive national policy; public-sector investment; private-sector engagement in innovation and monetization; research and development contributions from organizations such as the World Bank, CGIAR and FAO; and other international donor support will all be crucial to ensuring the success of such solutions."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"58 Socialist Republic of Viet Nam, \"Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung on June 9, 2014 Signed Decision No. 879/QD-TTg to Approve the Industrial Development Strategy through 2025, Vision toward 2035.\" 59 Socialist Republic of Viet Nam, \"Overall Strategy for International Integration Through 2020, Vision to 2030.\" 60 The National Assembly, \"Resolution on Five-Year Socio-Economic Development Plan from 2016 -2020.\" 61 BSA Software Alliance, \"Country: Viet Nam.\" "},{"text":"70 Dung and Hiep, Industrial Revolution 4.0: Opportunities and Challenges to Viet Nam's Economic Development. 71 Vy, \"Hi-tech Farming Means Better Vietnamese Agriculture.\" 72 Internet of Things 73 Short Message Service 74 ICCO International, \"Launch of GREENCoffee App for Coffee Farmers in Viet Nam.\" 75 Remote Sensing Based Information and Insurance for Crops in Emerging Economies, \"About.\" 12 | Digital Agriculture Profile • Viet Nam "},{"text":"98 Dung and Hiep, Industrial Revolution 4.0: Opportunities and Challenges to Viet Nam's Economic Development. 99 VNS, \"Agriculture Firms Struggle to Get Loans.\" 100 VNS, \"Goverment to Promote High-Tech Agriculture.\" | 19 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Vietnamese Agriculture: Gaining More from Less.\" 9 World Trade Organization, \"Viet Nam.\" 10 Socialist Republic of Viet Nam, \"Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development.\" 11 World Bank Group, \"Transforming Viet Namese Agriculture: Gaining More from Less.\"  MAIZE   rice MAIZErice  7,7 million tonnes   5,8 million tonnes 7,7 million tonnes5,8 million tonnes  wheat 4,7 % million tonnes   cassava 3,6 % million tonnes wheat 4,7 % million tonnescassava 3,6 % million tonnes in 2017 soybean 1,7 % million tonnes  in 2017 coffee 1,4 million tonnes in 2017soybean 1,7 % million tonnesin 2017coffee 1,4million tonnes  rice sugarcane vegetables  ricesugarcanevegetables  42,8 18,4 14,2  42,818,414,2  "},{"text":"31 Challenges in the agricultural sector Contributions from agriculture have also helped to ensure social and financial stability. The sector currently employs 40% of Viet Nam's workforce. Labor trends show a declining number of male workers involved in primary agricultural production and a growing number of females. Currently, women account for roughly 51% of the sector's workforce.28  The role of women in agriculture is crucial yet often overlooked. The departure from collective farming in 2018  in 2018 $1,964.5  $1,964.5  towards private markets is increasing women's workload, towards private markets is increasing women's workload,  further disabling their full potential to participate in other further disabling their full potential to participate in other  forms of employment, education, leisure activities, and forms of employment, education, leisure activities, and The indices for human development in Viet Nam are high-performing, with 2.3 % living below the international social or civic engagement. Gender-biased social norms imply that women have relatively limited access to rural advisory services, training, and technology transfer. This results in lower education levels, more limited mobility, and greater time constraints, among other limitations. The indices for human development in Viet Nam are high-performing, with 2.3 % living below the internationalsocial or civic engagement. Gender-biased social norms imply that women have relatively limited access to rural advisory services, training, and technology transfer. This results in lower education levels, more limited mobility, and greater time constraints, among other limitations. poverty line: Agricultural landholdings have traditionally been controlled by men, as women did not have rights to assets and poverty line:Agricultural landholdings have traditionally been controlled by men, as women did not have rights to assets and  therefore collateral for securing credit. contrast, therefore collateral for securing credit. contrast,  the Gender Inequality Index, which highlights the human the Gender Inequality Index, which highlights the human  development costs of inequality via measures of women's development costs of inequality via measures of women's  reproductive health, empowerment, and economic status, reproductive health, empowerment, and economic status, Smallholder farms currently produce 71% of the food consumed in Viet Nam. 14 Rice is the most important YOUTH agricultural commodity, supports the highest level of literacy employment, and has been paramount to ensuring national food security. At more than 5.5 tonnes per hectare, average yield exceeds that of the region by over a tonne. 15 Rice production accounts for approximately 7.8 million hectares, or 77% of total agricultural land. rates in Viet Nam are estimated at 97 % Maize and cassava account for 11% and 5% of productive land, respectively. 16 Higher value cash crops-coffee, ranks Viet Nam lower than its neighbors at 0.30. The biggest challenge across all agricultural subsectors is value chain fragmentation. Each value chain (with the possible exception of the fisheries subsector) is littered with myriad intermediaries, each operating with different technologies, capabilities, and ethics. This fragmentation has resulted in a lack of information and knowledge flow across value chains, which consequently instigates inefficient, unsustainable farming practices and a lack of actionable decision-support tools. Stakeholders across hubs are thus burdened with additional transaction Smallholder farms currently produce 71% of the food consumed in Viet Nam. 14 Rice is the most important YOUTH agricultural commodity, supports the highest level of literacy employment, and has been paramount to ensuring national food security. At more than 5.5 tonnes per hectare, average yield exceeds that of the region by over a tonne. 15 Rice production accounts for approximately 7.8 million hectares, or 77% of total agricultural land. rates in Viet Nam are estimated at 97 % Maize and cassava account for 11% and 5% of productive land, respectively. 16 Higher value cash crops-coffee,ranks Viet Nam lower than its neighbors at 0.30. The biggest challenge across all agricultural subsectors is value chain fragmentation. Each value chain (with the possible exception of the fisheries subsector) is littered with myriad intermediaries, each operating with different technologies, capabilities, and ethics. This fragmentation has resulted in a lack of information and knowledge flow across value chains, which consequently instigates inefficient, unsustainable farming practices and a lack of actionable decision-support tools. Stakeholders across hubs are thus burdened with additional transaction VIETNAM ranks in the world on 116 the Human Development Index, and on the gender 118 inequality index 27 International Labour Organization, \"Summary Report.\" 28 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, \"FAOSTAT,\" 2019. 29 Ylipaa, Gabrielsson, and Jerneck, \"Climate Change Adaptation and Gender Inequality.\" 30 \"How to Tackle Inequality in Viet Nam.\" 31 United Nations Development Programme, \"Human Development Indices and Indicators.\" VIETNAM ranks in the world on 116 the Human Development Index, and on the gender 118 inequality index27 International Labour Organization, \"Summary Report.\" 28 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, \"FAOSTAT,\" 2019. 29 Ylipaa, Gabrielsson, and Jerneck, \"Climate Change Adaptation and Gender Inequality.\" 30 \"How to Tackle Inequality in Viet Nam.\" 31 United Nations Development Programme, \"Human Development Indices and Indicators.\"  | |  "},{"text":"US$ 1.90 OF THE TOTAL POPULATION 7.5 % 2 % RURAL OF RESIDENTS URBAN OF RESIDENTS live in poverty, compared  according to according to the national poverty lines of the national poverty lines of US$ US$ AND AND A total of A total of to just to just  "},{"text":"31/MONTH US$ 40/MONTH 99 % ELECTRICITY HAVE (65 % ) Viet Nam IS HOME TO 95.5 MILLION PEOPLE live in rural areas time and cost from initial production through final sale.  "},{"text":" 25% had access to the Internet.40  In terms of usage, only 46% of individuals used broadband Internet while another 46% had data subscriptions for mobile devices.41    The three largest telecommunication providers in the country are Viettel, MobiFone and Vinaphone, together accounting for 93% of total mobile connections.42  The Ministry of Information and Communication reported that the number of 3G subscribers in 2016 was 38 million, up 30.5% from the previous year. Within two years of deploying 4G, the number of subscribers had exceeded 13 million.43  This spike in connectivity has been driven largely by the country's growing middle class, affordable mobile phones, and low-cost subscription packages. Over the last 3 years, the number of mobile connections in Viet Nam has grown by 1.67% according to the Global System for Mobile Communications Association (GSMA) and has exceeded 143 million connections as of 2018. Vietnam ranks in the world 3 RD Vietnam ranks in the world 3 RD in terms of affordability in terms of affordability Thanks to healthy market competition Thanks to healthy market competition the average rate for fixed-line broadband the average rate for fixed-line broadband in many countries has remained at US$ 2.93 PER MONTH in many countries has remained at US$ 2.93PER MONTH average prices for minimum speeds exceed average prices for minimum speeds exceed  US$ 580 $ US$ 580$ The International Telecommunications Union The International Telecommunications Union ranks Vietnam 88 17 IN THE WORLD IN ASIA FOR THE E-GOVERNMENT DEVELOPMENT INDEX ranks Vietnam88 17IN THE WORLD IN ASIA FOR THE E-GOVERNMENT DEVELOPMENT INDEX and ranks  and ranks  72 19 IN THE WORLD AND IN ASIA FOR OVERALL E-PARTICIPATION 72 19IN THE WORLD AND IN ASIA FOR OVERALL E-PARTICIPATION In terms of usage, only OF 46 % individuals used broadband Internet data subscriptions 46 % while another HAD 33 Information Communication Technology 34 Baller et al., \"The Networked Readiness Index 2016.\" In terms of usage, only OF 46 % individuals used broadband Internet data subscriptions 46 % while another HAD33 Information Communication Technology 34 Baller et al., \"The Networked Readiness Index 2016.\"   for mobile devices for mobile devices  "},{"text":" 51 World Bank Group, \"Transforming Vietnamese Agriculture: Gaining More from Less.\" 52 World Bank Group. of creating effective policies and incentives. Over the past two decades, Viet Nam has introduced broader regulatory frameworks that support digital agriculture, albeit through fragmented policies and agencies. Government ministries, especially the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, have played vital roles in creating enabling policies for the adoption and implementation of digital technologies. The Institute of Policy and Strategy for Agriculture and Rural Development was established in 2006 to serve as a consultant to state agencies on research and policy effectiveness. The Plant Protection Department and National Agriculture Extension Center have also been key to agricultural policy developments in Viet Nam, as well as the Prime Minister, who has been proactive in attracting financial support to the sector with the Ministry of Planning and Investment. The Strategy for Information Technology Application and Development for Natural Resources and Environment provided a vision for reforming Viet Nam's land information system. In 2008, the Viet Nam Land Administration Project began integrating digital solutions, including land information systems, into the country's reform agenda in order to improve administrative service efficiency and transparency. 53 By 2011, Bac Ninh, Viet Nam's smallest and most densely populated province, had over 21 local networks established and one of the most developed e-government initiatives in the country. 54 In the same year, 86% of manufacturers and service industries were using the Internet within their business operations. Nevertheless, only 2.2% utilized the technology to conduct online sales. 55 The Management Information System for the Forestry Sector was another early initiative to defragment information services and integrate remote-sensing and mobile data capture into development projects. 56 In 2010 the Gender Strategy for Agriculture and Rural Development set a national objective to integrate public services with new technologies to improve sustainability and agricultural extension services, as well as facilitate women's participation in agricultural research, production and training. 57 As part of the Agriculture 4.0 model, Viet Nam has also renewed its commitment to integrating 53 Warnest and Bell, \"Country Focus Viet Nam. In Information and Communications Technology Utilization in Land Administration in the East Asia Region.\" 54 The World Bank, \"ICT in Agriculture: Connecting Smallholders to Knowledge, Networks, and Institutions.\" 55 World Bank Group, \"Digital Dividends.\" 56 The World Bank, \"ICT in Agriculture: Connecting Smallholders to Knowledge, Networks, and Institutions.\" 57 Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, \"Gender Strategy for Agriculture and Rural Development.\" new technologies into the agricultural sector to support economies of scale, input efficiency, commodity value, and environmentally friendly products. Formed on the basis of \"more is less\", the 2014 Agricultural Restructuring Plan sets strategic sectoral goals to ensure agricultural development is financially, socially, and environmentally sustainable. This initiative is underlain by an emphasis on strengthening cooperation between value chain stakeholders in order to facilitate robust agricultural growth and competitiveness by improving productivity, efficiency, value-addition, and understanding of consumer preferences. Decision No. 879/QD-TTg, signed by Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung in 2014, approved the Industrial Development Strategy Through 2025 and Vision Toward 2035 to prioritize advanced technologies and communication in agriculture, concentrating on digital services, telephones, and software development. 58 Reiterating the national focus on technology development, the Overall Strategy for International Integration through 2020 specifies a focus on digital, cloud-based technology, e-commerce, and strengthening digital literacy.  "},{"text":" As part of the government's incentive package for financing digital agriculture, Decree No. 57/2018/ND-CP provides financial support for rural development programs to advance agricultural research and technology transfer. In early 2019 the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, together with Viet Nam's Youth Union, launched the One Commune One Product Initiative to provide US$645 million 62 Shira and Das, \"The Need for High-Tech Farming in Viet Nam.\" 63 VNA, \"Viet Nam to Manage Coffee Quality through New Database.\"The primary digital agriculture zones -Bac Ninh, Lam Dong, Ho Chi Minh City, Ninh Phuc, Thai Nguyen and the Mekong Delta -house the majority of the country's digital agriculture firms and cooperatives.66  Universities and research institutes working in digital agricultural solutions include the Viet Nam Academy of Agricultural Sciences and their Agriculture Genetics Institute, Can Tho University, and the Viet Nam National University. The Viet Nam Farmers' Union has also been essential to the promotion of agricultural development and technology transfer. These entities work closely with nongovernmental organizations such as the United Nations Development Programme, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, German Society for International Cooperation, CARE, GrowAsia, the International Center for Tropical Agricultural, the International Agroforestry Center, and Market and Agricultural Linkages for Cities in Asia, as well as government agencies, to localize technology use on the ground with farmers. In some cases, farmers themselves have acted as co-producers in technology development. Cau Dat Farm, near Da Lat, was one of the first producers in Viet Nam to integrate IoT 67 technologies using a Demeter system called Connected Edge to control irrigation systems, weather stations, drones and sensor systems and produce cloud-based data and data analysis.68     in financial support to stimulate rural economies and in financial support to stimulate rural economies and start-ups. 65 start-ups. 65 | 11 | 11  "},{"text":" Demand for Climate Services: Survey Results from Ha Tinh Province, Viet Nam.\" 80 Smartphones are distinguished from feature phones by the presence or absence of a touch screen. 81 Interactive Voice Response / Short Message Service 81 Interactive Voice Response / Short Message Service | 13 | 13  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Prioritized technologies Challenge Technology Outcome Analysis INPUT AND PRODUCER HUB   Advanced analytics for calculating accurate market information Consolidates current market information to give farmers negotiation leverage Advanced analytics for calculating accurate market informationConsolidates current market information to give farmers negotiation leverage Lack of financial and   Lack of financial and decision support   decision support   Allows E-Contracts and Allows E-Contracts and   E-Finance to reduce E-Finance to reduce  Blockchain for Traceability processing times and improve input Blockchain for Traceabilityprocessing times and improve input   traceability traceability   Improves input Improves input Lack of financial and decision support Digital Diaries for financial decision support efficiency and provides weather advisories and information for Lack of financial and decision supportDigital Diaries for financial decision supportefficiency and provides weather advisories and information for   better decision making better decision making  "},{"text":" to access encrypted information. According to the BSA95   Global Cloud Computing Scorecard, legal protection for intellectual property and requirements for data localization have kept Viet Nam in last place for every year since the scorecard index began.Drones have also been subject to less favorable legislation despite having invaluable advantages in the context of agriculture. Current laws allow for drones to be flown, but ban any type of sensor use, which virtually eliminates their utility in the context of agriculture. Nevertheless, the Viet Nam National University of Agriculture has developed an ultra-light drone that is capable of applying fertilizer and pesticide inputs, monitoring diseases, and surveying landscapes. This recent success may be a helpful catalyst for additional innovation and policy revisions in this regard. At scale, this technology would reduce manual labor and labor costs, mitigate soil and water pollution, and save farmers up to 40% on chemical expenditures.96    There is a need for public policy to stimulate the generation, dissemination, and use of agricultural data, with the ultimate goals of reconstructing the relevant agencies and programs to focus on the demands and priorities of producers, closing the digital literacy divide, and expanding farm-level knowledge of digital solutions. For example, digital diaries have huge potential in Viet Nam. To date, however, the technology has demonstrated only moderate growth as a result of a lack of sufficient policy support. Specifically, the public sector could expand existing extension services to offer centralized information resources on the entire value chain, including weather conditions, market prices, and pest and disease warnings. Local farmers' unions and NGO interventions could incorporate digital literacy and skills into their agricultural services. 97 Piloting, demonstration plots, and public awareness campaigns would help ensure that all stakeholder hubs and entrepreneurs are familiar with the digital innovations, solutions, and opportunities available to them. The generation and dissemination of such data resources would incentivize the private sector to leverage the data in developing practical and impactful solutions within the current context of the sector. Public data, in combination with digital agriculture providers' databases, could fill many data gaps in Vietnamese farming systems, thus facilitating additional needs-based research and services.It is likewise up to the public sector to find ways to use private data in a manner that is beneficial to both and faces temporary bans. The absence of traceability based technologies also promote data sharing, and IoT should be allocated to smaller tech providers offering and faces temporary bans. The absence of traceabilitybased technologies also promote data sharing, and IoT should be allocated to smaller tech providers offering technologies prevents proper monitoring of not only improves environmental sustainability through enhanced comprehensive services that consolidate farm and market technologies prevents proper monitoring of not onlyimproves environmental sustainability through enhanced comprehensive services that consolidate farm and market agricultural products and inputs, but also pest and disease biophysical connectivity. Moreover, IoT can increase data and offer multi-directional communication. agricultural products and inputs, but also pest and diseasebiophysical connectivity. Moreover, IoT can increase data and offer multi-directional communication. control. There is already a demand for product traceability, but few technologies or services currently exist. Blockchain has matured to a moderate degree in Viet Nam with some policy support, but shows remarkable potential to enhance the overall efficiency of agricultural value chains. The scaling of blockchain technology will foster more e-contracts and e-finance to reduce processing times and improve traceability on both ends of the value chain. Finally, the Consumer hub grapples with a lack of decision-support mechanisms. Consumers are demanding decision-support tools to inform their purchases, but generally remain unable to access relevant information or trace agricultural products to satisfy personal preferences. This represents an important opportunity for the producers of higher quality and local products to market them as such. Smartphones and QR codes are the most promising technologies in this regard. Traceability is a larger barrier for low income consumers whose purchases come from traditional distributors; supermarkets already require higher standards of food safety and certification. Potential avenues for the public sector Viet Nam has recently acknowledged the increased need for greater public financial support of enabling conditions to effectively stimulate digital innovation throughout the agricultural value chain, rather than just among large-scale stakeholders. 89 Public funding for agricultural research, which is administered through the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and the Ministry of Science and Technology, has increased dramatically in recent years, from US$10 million to US$40 million between 2000 and 2012. Nevertheless, the total amount relative to Viet Nam's neighboring countries and the sector's GDP share remains small. Meanwhile, national investments in digital infrastructure, including servers, storage, peripherals, devices, network equipment, software, services, and network operations, are on par with the global averages relative to national GDP, 90 and investment levels in Internet infrastructure have been relatively stable since the early 2000s. Several digital innovations, such as database analytics, drones, and cloud-based systems, require production efficiency by removing unnecessary manual labor, which may be especially important for women farmers. Thanks to government support in agricultural restructuring, the application of IoT in agriculture has already had preliminary successes. For example, iQShrimp is a digital software developed by Cargill. The software captures data about shrimp size, water quality, feeding patterns, health, and weather conditions from mobile While the country is working to build international confidence in its digital economy, Viet Nam continues to censor Internet content and has not formulated comprehensive policies for protecting data or improving cybersecurity. Open data movements at the government level promote digital agriculture innovations, 91 but current state-level data management still does not allow flow between ministries. There are also no mitigation devices, sensors, and automated feeders in shrimp mechanisms or safety nets for producers if government ponds. IQShrimp uses this data to provide insights and service algorithm predictions were to fail. recommendations on e.g. feeding management strategies and optimal harvest dates. Similarly, Smart Agri by Global CyberSoft collects remote real-time data, and enables farmers to monitor production status, adjust growing environments, and control production devices. Unmanned aerial vehicles, data analytics, and cloud-based solutions offer the greatest short-to medium-term promise for establishing on-farm monitoring systems. Unmanned aerial vehicles (drones) are able to provide additional data and high resolution imagery to enhance Some changes to existing policy and infrastructure would help establish an important enabling environment for technology providers, investors, and foreign companies. Viet Nam has already made much progress expanding 3G and 4G networks and is paving the way for 5G; continued investment in this regard will be essential to supporting communication and service delivery. Existing intellectual property laws are overseen by three separate ministries with little inter-sectoral communication. The Director of the Intellectual Property Department at the Ministry of landscape monitoring. Data analytics can create customized solutions for end users on a needs-basis, ensuring better Science and Technology has recommended an overhaul of the current system, with new policies and laws, better decision making for on-and off-farm activities. Drones and enforcement, increased awareness, and capacity building analytics both generate large amounts of data; cloud-based of government workers on intellectual property issues. 92 systems are therefore key for providing easy data access Implementing such changes with an eye toward the to farm monitoring and decision-support tools. All three emerging fields of digital transformation could significantly technologies show tremendous promise for increasing increase uptake of new technologies. efficiency and environmental sustainability. However, their current state of progress, policy support and equity in Viet Nam is remarkably low. These technologies require significant capital investments, and sensor-equipped drones are not currently legal. The Distribution hub faces the growing challenge of meeting consumer demands for higher quality products, requiring traceability technologies and improved monitoring systems. Blockchain technologies offer the most sustainable long term solution to these issues. Poor traceability extends to global markets, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development has acknowledged that the lack of proper labeling and inconsistency of standards threatens the success of Viet Nam's exported agricultural Additionally, cross-border data transfer and cloud systems are restricted by fragmented de facto requirements. The Law on Cybersecurity, which went into effect in 2019, has caused some concern for the nationalization of cloud-based systems. 93 Organizations that carry data and companies providing Internet-enabled services are now required to have at least one server system in the country, which in some cases may decelerate or prevent a move to the cloud. Cloud-based service providers are also not entirely exempt from tariffs or trade barriers, given that Viet Nam's licensing regulations for technology transfer may be applied to cloud services in some instances. 94 In addition, the Decree on Civil Cryptography (58/2016/ND-CP) allows the government control. There is already a demand for product traceability, but few technologies or services currently exist. Blockchain has matured to a moderate degree in Viet Nam with some policy support, but shows remarkable potential to enhance the overall efficiency of agricultural value chains. The scaling of blockchain technology will foster more e-contracts and e-finance to reduce processing times and improve traceability on both ends of the value chain. Finally, the Consumer hub grapples with a lack of decision-support mechanisms. Consumers are demanding decision-support tools to inform their purchases, but generally remain unable to access relevant information or trace agricultural products to satisfy personal preferences. This represents an important opportunity for the producers of higher quality and local products to market them as such. Smartphones and QR codes are the most promising technologies in this regard. Traceability is a larger barrier for low income consumers whose purchases come from traditional distributors; supermarkets already require higher standards of food safety and certification. Potential avenues for the public sector Viet Nam has recently acknowledged the increased need for greater public financial support of enabling conditions to effectively stimulate digital innovation throughout the agricultural value chain, rather than just among large-scale stakeholders. 89 Public funding for agricultural research, which is administered through the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and the Ministry of Science and Technology, has increased dramatically in recent years, from US$10 million to US$40 million between 2000 and 2012. Nevertheless, the total amount relative to Viet Nam's neighboring countries and the sector's GDP share remains small. Meanwhile, national investments in digital infrastructure, including servers, storage, peripherals, devices, network equipment, software, services, and network operations, are on par with the global averages relative to national GDP, 90 and investment levels in Internet infrastructure have been relatively stable since the early 2000s. Several digital innovations, such as database analytics, drones, and cloud-based systems, requireproduction efficiency by removing unnecessary manual labor, which may be especially important for women farmers. Thanks to government support in agricultural restructuring, the application of IoT in agriculture has already had preliminary successes. For example, iQShrimp is a digital software developed by Cargill. The software captures data about shrimp size, water quality, feeding patterns, health, and weather conditions from mobile While the country is working to build international confidence in its digital economy, Viet Nam continues to censor Internet content and has not formulated comprehensive policies for protecting data or improving cybersecurity. Open data movements at the government level promote digital agriculture innovations, 91 but current state-level data management still does not allow flow between ministries. There are also no mitigation devices, sensors, and automated feeders in shrimp mechanisms or safety nets for producers if government ponds. IQShrimp uses this data to provide insights and service algorithm predictions were to fail. recommendations on e.g. feeding management strategies and optimal harvest dates. Similarly, Smart Agri by Global CyberSoft collects remote real-time data, and enables farmers to monitor production status, adjust growing environments, and control production devices. Unmanned aerial vehicles, data analytics, and cloud-based solutions offer the greatest short-to medium-term promise for establishing on-farm monitoring systems. Unmanned aerial vehicles (drones) are able to provide additional data and high resolution imagery to enhance Some changes to existing policy and infrastructure would help establish an important enabling environment for technology providers, investors, and foreign companies. Viet Nam has already made much progress expanding 3G and 4G networks and is paving the way for 5G; continued investment in this regard will be essential to supporting communication and service delivery. Existing intellectual property laws are overseen by three separate ministries with little inter-sectoral communication. The Director of the Intellectual Property Department at the Ministry of landscape monitoring. Data analytics can create customized solutions for end users on a needs-basis, ensuring better Science and Technology has recommended an overhaul of the current system, with new policies and laws, better decision making for on-and off-farm activities. Drones and enforcement, increased awareness, and capacity building analytics both generate large amounts of data; cloud-based of government workers on intellectual property issues. 92 systems are therefore key for providing easy data access Implementing such changes with an eye toward the to farm monitoring and decision-support tools. All three emerging fields of digital transformation could significantly technologies show tremendous promise for increasing increase uptake of new technologies. efficiency and environmental sustainability. However, their current state of progress, policy support and equity in Viet Nam is remarkably low. These technologies require significant capital investments, and sensor-equipped drones are not currently legal. The Distribution hub faces the growing challenge of meeting consumer demands for higher quality products, requiring traceability technologies and improved monitoring systems. Blockchain technologies offer the most sustainable long term solution to these issues. Poor traceability extends to global markets, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development has acknowledged that the lack of proper labeling and inconsistency of standards threatens the success of Viet Nam's exported agricultural Additionally, cross-border data transfer and cloud systems are restricted by fragmented de facto requirements. The Law on Cybersecurity, which went into effect in 2019, has caused some concern for the nationalization of cloud-based systems. 93 Organizations that carry data and companies providing Internet-enabled services are now required to have at least one server system in the country, which in some cases may decelerate or prevent a move to the cloud. Cloud-based service providers are also not entirely exempt from tariffs or trade barriers, given that Viet Nam's licensing regulations for technology transfer may be applied to cloud services in some instances. 94 In addition, the Decree on Civil Cryptography (58/2016/ND-CP) allows the government substantial capital investment. Public financial support commodities. 88 Monitoring agricultural exports is essential substantial capital investment. Public financial supportcommodities. 88 Monitoring agricultural exports is essential is needed in order for these technologies to reach their for ensuring food safety and meeting import regulations. is needed in order for these technologies to reach theirfor ensuring food safety and meeting import regulations. full potential. Specifically, financial support packages This is especially pertinent within the European Union, full potential. Specifically, financial support packagesThis is especially pertinent within the European Union,  where Viet Nam has already accrued several violations where Viet Nam has already accrued several violations 86 Reardon and Timmer, \"The Economics of the Food System Revolution.\"  86 Reardon and Timmer, \"The Economics of the Food System Revolution.\" 87 Internet of Things  87 Internet of Things  | 17 | 17  "}],"sieverID":"904cef30-6a2b-426b-8191-a6021a95675d","abstract":"Agriculture plays a vital role in Viet Nam's economy, accounting for an average of 17% of the national GDP and employing 40% of the national workforce The biggest challenges to agriculture are information and communication gaps that lead to inefficiency between the hubs of the agriculture value chain, including an absence of actionable decision-support systems for farmers, resulting in resource mismanagement and unnecessary expenditure The most promising technologies for addressing these issues include smartphones (that can send and receive information), QR codes, blockchain (that connect information and data across the value chain), cloud-based solutions (that enable storage and access of data and information across varied sources), Internet of things, unmanned aerial vehicles (that facilitate gathering of data and insights at high resolution), and data analytics (that enables conversion of data to information and knowledge products) Digital infrastructure is well established in Viet Nam; the primary constraint to digital agricultural solutions is digital illiteracy-i.e., stakeholders' inability to use digital technologies to acquire information, communicate, and solve challenges in the value chain The public sector, nonprofit organizations, private industry, and international community all have important and distinct roles to play in creating sustainable digital agricultural solutions in Viet Nam"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0700b30d0a473e5794627b3577923b84","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/637f7554-c175-4ce4-8764-a46aa2161259/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"Sustainable Agricultural Development for Food Security and Nutrition: What Roles for Livestock?","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"CFS reform 2009 : 2 key elements 1. CFS IS INCLUSIVE","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Governments + civil society, producers, private sector, intl. organizations (including trade and finance, WTO, IMF), organizations and research systems (CG and national), foundations."}]},{"head":"CFS IS EVIDENCE-BASED: the HLPE","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The HLPE is the science-policy interface of the CFS for evidence-based analysis and advice to the CFS, through an inclusive process. • Human health  Complex links between ASF, nutrition and health  Food-borne diseases: 420 000 deaths per year, developing countries bear 98 % of the burden."}]},{"head":"• Antimicrobial resistance Poor access, avoidable animal death, contributes to persistent poverty","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Africa: every year one in two young animals and one in five adult animals die, mostly of preventable disease."}]},{"head":"Easy access, over-use, contributes to emerging AMR 3 operational principles for SAD:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"« Sustainable agricultural development (SAD) is agricultural development that contributes to:"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"• improving resource efficiency,"},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"• strengthening resilience, and "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• Around "}],"sieverID":"0d3c5bde-4e63-40a4-ab6d-2fa80eaecf19","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"077130bebe6fbf5d36e68c9aacd93d83","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5e5eb7f2-0a04-4141-8120-bd34428894d6/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Poster no 684: Ex-post impact of the digital and personalized recommendations in rice production: a case study of RiceAdvice application in the Senegal river valley Aminou Arouna 1 , Wilfried G. Yergo 1 , Rachidi Aboudou 1 , Aristide Akpa 2 , Kazuki Saito 1"},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"1 Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice), Côte d'Ivoire, 2 Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice), Senegal ➢ Personalized advice (RiceAdvice) increases yields and profit of smallholder farmers."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"➢ Socio-economic, institutional and perception characteristics affect the adoption of the RiceAdvice app by rice farmers."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"➢ More targeted information to farmers can improve livelihood and prevent negative environmental effects."}]},{"head":"❑ Study area","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"❖ The survey was conducted in the Senegal River Valley (SRV) in the northern part of the country (Fig. 2). ❖ SRV is the main rice producing region the country ❖ Rice is produced in irrigated system in the SRV *Corresponding author email: [email protected] Table 1. Determinants of participation."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Note: ATE-average treatment effect; ATT-average treatment effect for treated. ATU-average treatment effect for untreated; *** p < 0.01."}]},{"head":"Fig. 2: Map of survey regions in Senegal","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"❑ Experimental design and sampling ❖ Two-degree stratified random sampling technique was used (Fig. 3)."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"❖ In total 1200 households were selected from the sampling technique in 41 villages   ❖ Most rice farmers grew rice during the dry season because the yield were higher (Fig. 4)."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"❖ Formal education and contact with extension service affect the adoption of the RiceAdvice by rice farmers (Table 1)."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"❖ Results showed positive impact of RiceAdvice of 220kg/ha and 580 XOF/ha on yield and profit, respectively (Table 2)."},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"Note: * p<0.10, ** p<0.05, *** p<0.01"},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"Tropentag 2022, September 14 th -16 th , Prague, Czech"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"❖Fig. 1 : Fig. 3: Experimental design "},{"text":"Table 2 . Endogenous switching regression treatment effects.  "}],"sieverID":"343f299c-217a-409f-b014-a5352701f944","abstract":"❖ Blanket advice on fertilizer application rates has failed to achieve potential yield gains for crop production in much of sub-Saharan Africa.❖ The development of the rice value chain requires technological advances in rice production to increase yield while reducing environmental footprint.❖ The RiceAdvice app is an Android-based decision support tools that extension agents can use to provide farming households with pre-season, field specific management guidelines for rice production (Fig. 1).❖ Ex-post impact of personalized recommendations for rice nutrient management among farmers in the dry and wet seasons was assessed in Senegal."}

data/part_4/07750177220fd63e58b17d12f47ccd65.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07750177220fd63e58b17d12f47ccd65","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1bc39e6e-dee1-498c-a8a6-40d7bf5f02de/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatus (L.) Lam.) is the third most important food crop in Uganda. Although it is considered a food security crop, its productivity is far below its potential. This study assessed the pest status and farmers' perception and management practices of the most economically important insect pests of sweetpotato, i.e. the sweetpotato weevils Cylas puncticollis Boheman and C. brunneus F. and the sweetpotato butterfly Acraea acerata Hew (Pictures 1)."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":234,"text":"A total of 192 rural farm households of the districts Kabale, Kasese, Gulu, Masindi, Soroti and Wakiso were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. Additionally, the infestation rate and intensity of infestation of all three pests was assessed and the root yield loss caused by Cylas spp. quantified over two growing seasons in the districts of Kabale and Masindi. Over 80% of the sweetpotato production is used for home consumption (Fig. 2). Contrary to what was generally assumed, the households of the Soroti district grew sweetpotato also primarily for home use and not for sale. This further emphasizes the importance of sweetpotato as a food security crop across the country. Most of the households (55%) sold sweetpotato roots at the local/road side markets and to middle men (31%). A few households sold sweetpotato roots either to neighbours (11%) or to schools (2%). Among the sweetpotato insect pests mentioned, sweetpotato weevils were ranked as number one by 57% of the households followed by caterpillars of the sweetpotato butterfly (37%) (Fig. 3). Caterpillars of the sweetpotato butterfly in Masindi and Wakiso districts were ranked as most damaging to sweetpotato than the sweetpotato weevils. The prevalence of A. acerata larvae was generally low (8-25 %) and its larvae caused very little defoliation (1-25 %) (Fig. 4). For Cylas spp., the abundance was relatively high (40-97%), with a consequential high yield loss (37-51%) of marketable root weight (Table 1)."}]},{"head":"Results","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Farmer management practices of A. acerata included use of chemical insecticides (24% of households), ash application (3 %) and hand picking (2%). However, 65% and 87% of the households did not apply any control measure for A. acerata and Cylas spp., respectively.  "}]},{"head":"Weevil damage","index":4,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 3 .Figure 1 . Figure 3. Insect pest ranked number one (most important) in sweetpotato by farmers (% households) "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Infestation rate by A. acerata and Cylas spp. in two districts and seasons (% infested fields) "},{"text":" yield loss (%) 38.3±2.6 23.5 42.8±2.7 29.1 1.2 ns **Statistical significant at 1%; ns: not statistical significant at 5%. "},{"text":"Table 1 : Root yield loss due to damage by Cylas spp. weevils Pictures 1. (A) Sweetpotato butterfly: Adults, larvae, and damaged leaves. (B) Sweetpotato weevil: Adult, larvae and damaged sweetpotato roots. "}],"sieverID":"9d8cc06b-40cd-41de-b0a7-2af2867ac787","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07abc65a889c876460f82851b446fbf4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/79f166ec-0be0-4b8d-8e58-270fc9e2d120/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"ramiento de Maiz y Trigo, and Donald Winkelmann, CGIAR Technical Advisory Committee, worked successfully to develop the conference program. The program was structured to draw from expert presentations as a basis for discussion, as well as sessions that were designed to encourage interaction and exchange of ideas on the challenges, opportunities, and constraints of biotechnology and its impact in developing countries."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"The conference responded to the pressing need for an open, inclusive, and participatory debate on potential benefits and risks of biotechnology, grounded in scientific evidence, and concerned with the common good. Science-based discussions such as this one are critical in guiding the strategies of the international agricultural research centers of the CGIAR as they mobilize, in collaboration with their partners, cutting-edge science to combat poverty, hunger, and environmental degradation in the world's developing regions."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"Over 400 people attended the conference, which was global in scope. Participants included representatives from the national research organizations of developing and industrial countries, nongovernmental and community-based organizations, the private sector, senior policymakers, academics, scientists, international agricultural researchers, development communicators, and media. Diverse technological, environmental, public health, economic, ethical, and social viewpoints were actively sought so that linkages could be explored. Our hope was that the elements of Ismail Serageldin Bruce M. Alberts Vice President, World Bank and President Chair, CGIAR U.S. National Academy of Sciences future activities could emerge that are directed specificallly toward the needs of small farmers and consumers in developing countries."},{"index":4,"size":98,"text":"In his welcoming remarks, E. William Colglazier, Executive Officer of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, outlined the key objectives of the conference: to broaden awareness of developing countries' views on issues related to biotechnology, and to contribute to a science-based understanding of the issues and public concerns and how these might be addressed. NAS member R. James Cook provided closing remarks including his perspectives and summary of the conference discussions. CGIAR co-convenor representative and World Bank Rural Development Department Director Alexander McCalla spoke on behalf of the CGIAR. Their insights provided a valuable synopsis of the event."},{"index":5,"size":85,"text":"The coming together of our two organizations to convene this conference, in partnership with a distinguished and varied group of cosponsors, has shown the value of partnership when attempting to identify the challenges and opportunities that modern science presents through the tools of biotechnology. We hope that this volume will serve as a cornerstone for building on our current knowledge, as we head into the new century with a renewed determination to ensure food security, protect the environment, and reduce poverty in all developing countries."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"5d7ae0fa-384e-4fea-8df4-ae21819dc2eb","abstract":"he eradication of poverty and hunger in developing countries represents a major challenge that is dependent on agricultural productivity and the discerning application of science and technology to ensure the health of people and environments globally. To explore these issues, an international conference focused on biotechnology and its potential impact on agriculture in developing countries was held at the"}

data/part_4/082b920ce64fa2319f58a2010417fb33.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"082b920ce64fa2319f58a2010417fb33","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a89a4a80-47ab-4555-b924-29429b763cfe/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Bridging gender gaps with dairy goats and root crops","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"and customs, which put them at a disadvantage compared to men. However, dairy goats are suitable for smallholder farmers -including women -as they provide food and income, reproduce regularly each year and require little feed. In a previous study in Tanzania, keeping dairy goats was shown to be profitable, contributing 25% of total household income (Jackson et al., 2012). In addition, goat milk is rich in vitamins (A and B2), proteins and carbohydrates, and these nutrients are easily absorbed by the body. Goat milk is therefore particularly beneficial for infants, sick people and the elderly."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"As a means of boosting household food security and nutrition in resource-constrained, semi-arid areas of Tanzania, a system of integrating dairy goats (Toggenburg and Norwegian breeds) with production of cassava and sweet potato is being studied. The research is focused on finding ways to enhance the adaptation of the goat breeds in the area, while also testing and promoting four improved varieties of drought-tolerant and nutrient-rich cassava and sweet potato for human consumption and dairy goat feed."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"The project has specifically targeted women and female-headed households in Kongwa and Mvomero districts, in central and eastern"}]},{"head":"By Faustin Paul Lekule, Joyce Lyimo-Macha, Devotha Mosha-Kilave and Deogratias Dominic Shayo","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Key messages","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"• Introducing dairy goats in semi-arid regions of Tanzania has led to farmers earning US$160 from milk sales during the first lactation, as well as an increase in household milk consumption. • Female heads of households and women in male-headed households now own dairy goats, control income from sales of milk and make joint and independent decisions on overall management. • Cassava and sweet potato leaves are a significant feed supplement, providing better feed-to-live-weight conversion rates (a 15-28% increase) than traditional alternatives. • Diets have diversified among project farmers, to include cassava, sweet potato and goat milk."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Tanzania; malnutrition rates in these areas are among the highest in the country. However, as well as aiming to support food production for both people and goats, the project also aims to increase income from the animals and from sales of root crops. The methodology applied also addresses gender roles, access, control and ownership of resources, and decision-making among smallholder farmers."}]},{"head":"Emerging outcomes","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Enhanced decision-making and sharing of roles","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"In any intervention, increased workload can result, and in most cases women carry a higher burden. In this project, a systematic approach was used, coupled with intensive training, in order for men, women and youth to share roles and responsibilities in feeding, watering, cleaning, milking and general management of dairy goats and farm activities relating to the introduced technologies. As a result, women are now involved in goat breeding, including heat detection and supervision of the mating process, and record-keeping on production and reproduction parameters. The sharing of household chores, such as collecting water, fodder and fuel wood and cleaning of the \" \" \" \" household surroundings, has resulted in a reduction in women's workload."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Since we started keeping goats my husband and my children take turns in collecting water for them. Last week I came down with malaria and my husband cleaned the barn, fed the goats and brought water not only for the goats but also for home use."}]},{"head":"Tabia Mapya, Masinyeti, Dodoma","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Increased access to resources and greater income","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Previously, women had limited access to, and ownership of, resources. However, through the project, 45 female-headed households (out of 111 households in total) now own dairy goats. Women in male-headed households also own many of the 224 dairy goats supplied through the project, controlling sales of milk and making joint decisions on overall management and sales."}]},{"head":"I am happy now that I don't have to ask my husband for money to buy salt","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"or sugar and even some small stuff for myself."}]},{"head":"Improved nutrition","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"In the past, women did not realize the importance of providing goat milk to children. Following the introduction of this project, farmers are diversifying their diets by including goat milk, which is fed to children and sick people and also included in families' daily meals, contributing to a balanced diet and improving their nutritional status. For example, women are making goat milk yoghurt, which is consumed with staple foods. During the first lactation, farmers have been able to earn US$160 from milk sales from two dairy goats. However, it is anticipated that this income will increase as production increases from the current 600 ml per goat per day to an expected 1.5 -2 litres per goat per day as the animal matures. Women control the income earned from milk, which they use to purchase small household items such as salt, soap, cooking oil and exercise books for children."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"Women and men have accepted the four improved root crop varieties and adopted best practices such as planting on ridges. Field trials show that both cassava and sweet potato leaves have higher protein and are significantly better feed supplements, with a better feed-to-liveweight conversion ratios compared to traditional alternatives such as sunflowers."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"I drink goat's milk although not every day. At the beginning I did not like its taste because I was not used to it. But now I take it with tea twice per week before I go to school."}]},{"head":"Sikuzani Hamis Bakari, Kunke, Morogoro","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"With time, increased income and consumption of root crops will also be expected as more farmers adopt the improved varieties; the additional consumption will lead, in turn, to improved nutrition."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Integrating root crops and dairy goats has changed and improved gender relations in terms of women's participation in project activities, division of labour, access, control and ownership of resources and shared decisionmaking. Project interventions are also leading to dietary diversification that will improve the nutritional status of families, particularly women and children."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"During 2014, over 100 goats will be passed on to new groups of farmers. A large number of farmers have already shown great interest in obtaining dairy goats, which is a testimony to the advantages of keeping them. In view of this, it is likely that the dairy goat system will be adopted and adapted by farmers even after the project ends."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"The "}]},{"head":"© IDRC/Brian Sokol","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Women are controlling sales of milk"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" study provides a model for establishing dairy goat enterprises in other arid or semi-arid areas. It has created new hope in the test communities in Tanzania, where agricultural productivity is low and malnutrition is high, especially among children. The project outcomes suggest that the introduction of dairy goats and root crops in semi-arid regions in Tanzania provides an important supplementary food and nutrition source, as well as leading to improved gender relations. This outcome story is one in a series that reports on research supported by the Canadian International Food Security Research Fund (CIFSRF), a program of Canada's International Development Research Centre (IDRC), undertaken with financial support from the Government of Canada, provided through Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development Canada (DFATD). Produced by WRENmedia in March 2014.  "}],"sieverID":"211a6a64-e7f0-4bee-98f6-950e56fdc23e","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"084a5383c0d2d8efc359103c1af23410","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H026791.pdf"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Peda ling out of Poverty: Livel ihood Impacts of Treadle-Pump Irrigation in South Asia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":230,"text":"and the sizes of these holdings have been halving every 15 years since 1960. Moreover, barring Uttar Pradesh where some consolidation of holdings took place during the 1960s, the average holding is fragmented in 4-5 postage-stamp-sized parcels; the average parcel size was 0.11 hectare in Bihar and West Bengal in the mid-1980s. The development of the industrial and service sectors-which could have absorbed some of the growing labor force-is slower than elsewhere in South Asia. Overall, then, the region is stuck in a low-productivity quagmire that perpetu ates its rural poverty and agricultural stag nation. Besides relieving its flood-proneness, intensive groundwater development can serve as a powerful 'trigger' to catalyze a green revolution-based rural economic upsurge in this region. as it did in Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh during the 1960s. This has al ready begun to happen through rapidly growing private investment in tube wells and pumps. However, by far the majority of the poorest are left behind in this process because they cannot accumulate enough capital to invest in a diesel pump; even if they could, they cannot make it viable on their ultra-marginal holdings. The emergence of water markets has improved their access to diesel-pump irrigation; but unless there is sufficient competi tion, these too tend to be exploitative and arbitrary.  Adoption invariably results in increased land-use intensity, and thus has a power ful 'land-augmenting' effect; however:"}]},{"head":"International Water Management Institute","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Poor communities hold the key to village•level water management","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"The study of smallholder watermanagement practices in Africa and Asia is a research theme that IWMI will substantially expand over the coming three years. There have been many attemps at developing effective and low-cost water management practices suitable for poor people and poor people are among the innovators, developing some of the most practical approaches. IWMI researchers feel there is tremendous scope for the spread of some of these practices."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"IWMI scientists are now identifying practices that can have the highest impact on improving the water situation for poor people. These innovations will be scientifically scrutinized, and the most promising ones sifted out. In doing this, IWMI can assist governments and NGOs to identify appropriate practices for specific situations, and see how they can be used to improve the lives of poor people."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"South Asian villages hold a wealth of knowledge and useful practices, for water harvesting, groundwater recharge and shared management of a common Village well or resource. Here IWMI is working with the NGOs, Pradan 1 and IDE to identifyhigh-potential practices."},{"index":4,"size":150,"text":"In sub-Saharan Africa, low-cost, informal irrigation such as treadle pumps and bucket drip-kits are being used in rural communities and family gardens on an increasingly wide scale. IWMl's research projects on these topics are asking three key research questions: what is the extent of this informal irrigation (using satellite imaging to gather these data, which are not known); what are the real economic impacts and constraints of these practices on poor communities; andwhat will be the consequence for water resources, as several million more people jump on the small-scale irrigation bandwagon. Overall income impact is the product of increased land-use intensity, increased proportion of high value crops, and improved crop yields. Income impact varied across households and regions but an average increase in annual net income of US$l OO/year seems a con servative estimate; at least 20 percent of adopters earn US$5-600 more per year in net terms (fig. 3), "}]},{"head":"Number of adopter households","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"International Water Management Institute","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"The Impact of Treadle-Pump Adoption Impact of treadle-pump adoption at household level takes two forms: less-enterprising among the poor use it to bring their surplus family labor under productive use. Their gain is an 'implicit wage' on family labor that is 1.5-2.5 times the market wage rate. In contrast, the more enterprising among the poor use treadle-pump irrigation to make a transition from 'subsistence farming' to intelligent commercial farming; it is the latter who evolve and use new ideas like early planting to beat the market glut, husbanding hired diesel pump irrigation with treadle-pump irrigation, priority application of inputs, building mar ket linkages, growing new types of vegetables, and so on; they earn much more from treadle pump irrigation-only a small part of their increased earning is a return to their labor; the bulk of it is a return to their entrepreneurial effort-by innovating, risk-taking, searching for new market opportunities, and so on."}]},{"head":"Second-Generation Impacts","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"A number of hypotheses about the second-generation impact emerge from our research:"},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Treadle-pump adopters not only obtain high productivity of land but also secure high 'crop-per-drop' and high 'cash-per-drop' through intensive management of treadle-pump irrigated plots; for, unlike diesel pumps that deliver 8-10 I/s, a treadle-pump discharge of 1-1.2 I/s is easier to manage."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"The short-run impact of treadle-pump adoption on household income, food security, bet ter cash flows, etc., seems well-established; in the longer run, treadle-pump adopter house holds are likely to perform better in terms of savings and capital accumulation, investment in agriculture, education, and so on."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"As the density of treadle pumps in a community increases, the local labor market becomes tighter as treadle-pump adopters withdraw fully or largely to work on their own lands; this is likely to result in greater employment and higher wage rates for the landless and non adopters who are more dependent on wage labor."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"Similarly, the growing treadle-pump density is likely to ease the demand pressure in local pump-irrigation markets obliging water sellers to offer a better deal to their buyers, who"},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":"International Water Management Institute ----------  may be mostly non-adopters of treadle pumps. In Bangladesh, there are regions where the treadle-pump density is as high as 1.5-2/ha; many of these have used treadle pumps for the past 12-15 years; it is therefore possible to test these second-generation hypoth eses in North-West Bangladesh."}]},{"head":"Issues","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":204,"text":"The overall scale of the livelihood impact of treadle pumps will then ultimately depend But cashing-in on this opportunity seems easier said than done. The technology seems to be a super-performer-but its marketing remains a challenge. In Bangladesh, treadle-pump sales grew at a meteoric pace until 1995 when the market began to show signs of satu ration; in Eastern India and Nepal terai together-with 8-10 times the market potential- to say; but one hypothesis is, business strategy. In Bangladesh, the IDE strategy was driven by the 'Iet-a thousand-flowers-bloom' concept. A whole variety of treadle pumps-offering the farmer a wide range of price-quality options--is manufactured by 85-90 independent manufacturers who market them through a decentralized, largely unregulated marketing channel on which the IDE has very little influence, much as it would like to have. In Bangladesh, the fastest moving treadle pump was the cheapest, and could not possibly have been the best on offer (see fig. 4). In India, in its concern for high quality, the IDE has adopted a more 'professional' approach in building a manufacturing base, a market ing network and a promotional strategy that delivers a presumably superior product at a commensurately higher price under one brand name, Krishak Bandhu (farmer's friend);"},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"the IDE maintains fairly tight control over the consumer price, marketing margins and quality through its own organization. Could it be that there are lessons to learn from the Bangladesh experience? Could it be that a variety of treadle-pump qualities, at a range of prices deliv ered through a decentralized manufacturing-cum-marketing network with the IDE, taking a purely promotional role. would do more to put the treadle pump into the hands of the poor? "}]},{"head":"International Water Management Institute","index":8,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure Figure 1. Relationship between suction head "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Income impact of the treadle pump: "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Increase in net cash income per household after treadle-pump adoption: Nepal terai. 60,000 "},{"text":"Figure Figure 4. Treadle-pump sales in Bangladesh. 200 180 "},{"text":" squarely upon how fast the IDE can place the pump in the hands of the poor. A big op portunity to push the sales of treadle pumps has arisen from the recent successive hikes in Indian diesel prices, which will put marginal farmers in East India in great misery. De pending on private pump-irrigation markets, their irrigation costs will shoot up from Indian rupees 25-35/ hour of 5 hp diesel-pump output (approximately 15-18 m 3 ) to Rs 48-70/hour. Since the price of purchased pump irrigation is the implicit wage of pedaling the treadle pump, the diesel price hike will give a big impetus to treadle-pump demand. "},{"text":"- _ ._ _. ...... .-----_._-----_..-..---------------.. ------_._--_._ .. ------_ . _ . _ --Tushaar Shah is Research Leader of IWMI's Policy, Institutions and Management Program. This research was funded by the Swiss Development Corporation, and by International Development Enterprises in New Delhi, Kathmandu and Dhaka. "}],"sieverID":"9cef8c54-64d8-4036-a451-389f22c9689a","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08e55bf165c3ff8dcd5d7ab513cc1631","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d7f369cd-0f85-4406-9b1f-a6cf4e67b715/retrieve"},"pageCount":33,"title":"Implementation of feed intervention strategies for improved livestock nutrition and productivity in Mai Son district, Son La province, Vietnam","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Table of Contents","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"I. Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"In the Northwest Highlands (NWH) of Vietnam, the main feeding system for cattle and buffalo are mainly through tended native pasture (74%), stall feeding using crop residues and free grazing on communal land and forests. Feed and forage quality is generally of low quality resulting in low livestock output. Intensifying beef cattle production has been identified as a way of increasing livestock productivity and income of smallholder livestock farmers in this region (Huyen et al., 2010). Currently, cattle production systems have begun transitioning from extensive to semi-intensive and intensive systems (Ba et al., 2015). However, to fully achieve this goal, measures need to be put into place to address constraints of animal husbandry including feed-related challenges such as winter feed shortage."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Pig production also plays an important role in the livelihoods of livestock farmers in the NWH region."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"In remote areas, pig production is associated with indigenous pig breeds characterized by low productivity but well-adapted to local harsh conditions and showing better resistance to diseases than improved pig breeds (Le et al., 2016). Bản pigs are mainly fed with available feed resources such as rice bran, corn, banana trunk, vegetables, and leaves. Although there is a long-standing tradition of Bản pig production, farmers have limited knowledge in feed practices for pigs which greatly affects the productivity and health of the pig herd."},{"index":4,"size":176,"text":"Assessments carried out in 2020, in Mai Son district identified the main feed-related challenges in the region including shortage of winter feed, poor diets and low yield and poor quality of available forages (Hammond et al., 2021). Most households rely on crop residues and collected feed such as rice straw, sugarcanes tops, banana stem, maize, sweet potato etc. Some villages have communal pastures where animals can graze (Atieno et al., 2021). However, the available feed is of either of low quality or limited especially during winter. Bản pigs have a high fat content and less lean meat which lowers the market value leading to low returns to the farmers. There is limited knowledge on suitable forage types and management, feed processing and preservation (Atieno et al., 2021). The results of this assessment informed the design of feed interventions to help address these challenges. This study aims to assess locally suited feed intervention strategies for cattle and pigs, for improved animal nutrition in the Mai Son district, Son La province, located in the Northwest Highlands of Vietnam."}]},{"head":"II. Study area","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"The study area is located in 2 communes (Chieng Chung and Chieng Luong) of Mai Son district, Son La province, has different types of farming systems ranging from grazing and extensive systems at the mountain tops to mixed crop-livestock systems at the bottom of the mountains, with varying socioeconomic and ecological conditions (Hammond et al., 2021). The study location is divided into 4 farming system types (A, B, C1 and C2) based on accessibility i.e., distance to the main road or nearby market, and production system. Six villages were selected for interventions in the 2 communes (Table 1)."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"⮚ Type A -intensive systems in the lowlands with good market access and relatively better capacity for innovation."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"⮚ Type B -mixed crop-livestock systems in the mid-altitudes with mainly Thai ethnic minorities ⮚ Type C1 -remote extensive system in the high altitudes, with low access to market, fragile environment, mainly Hmong ethnic group ⮚ Type C2 -remote mixed crop-livestock system in the high altitudes, with low access to market, fragile environment, mainly Hmong ethnic group "}]},{"head":"III. Feed intervention strategies","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"To propose context-specific measures on animal nutrition, feed-related challenges need to be identified. In 2020, a survey was conducted in 6 villages of Chieng Chung and Chieng Luong communes, Mai Son district, Son La province, using the Gendered Feed Assessment Tool (G-FEAST) (Atieno et al., 2021). G-FEAST was designed to identify opportunities and constraints in animal feeding practices for different household types by assessing the availability and use of local feed resources, identify challenges and constraints affecting livestock production through the gender lens, opportunities for improved animal nutrition and propose context-specific interventions on livestock feed for improved animal nutrition (Lukuyu et al., 2019a;Lukuyu et al., 2019b). The G-FEAST survey informed the design of context-specific feed interventions to be implemented in Chieng Chung and Chieng Luong communes such as promoting improved forage varieties, knowledge on better utilization of crop residues, feed processing and preparation and feeding regimes (Atieno et al., 2021)."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Based on this survey, feed interventions were designed as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"1. Improved animal nutrition: Trainings on feed utilization, processing & preservation, and feeding regimes for cattle/buffalo and pigs 2. Improved forage varieties -Promote adoption of improved forage varieties -high yielding, high nutrient, cold-tolerant varieties."}]},{"head":"Improved animal nutrition a) Overview of topics covered and training materials","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Farmers in the intervention villages were trained on different animal nutrition techniques such as feed processing and preservation, better utilization of crop residues, feed mixing and improved diets for cattle and pigs. "}]},{"head":"b) Farmers' participation","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"About 145 farmers (70 men and 75 women) participated from the six villages of Chieng Chung and Chieng Luong communes (Table 2). Most of the invited households participated in the trainings while in some villages e.g., Buom Khoang, recorded more participants in attendance. More female participants enthusiastically participated in the hands-on practical sessions including preparation on silage and urea-treated rice straw, feed mixing and feed fermentation. The training approach used was interactive and allowed participants to actively participate and freely ask questions and seek clarifications. Some farmers took notes and videos of the training sessions. At the end of each day, a game was organized where participants competed in answering questions related to the training topics. This enabled the project team to note what farmers learned and highlight the key areas that farmers needed to remember and was also a way to help farmers to discuss amongst themselves and consolidate the skills learned."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"A willingness survey was also conducted after the training to note the number of farmers willing to adopt the techniques covered during the training. More than 50% of farmers attending the training expressed willingness to adopt various feed technologies (Table 3). "}]},{"head":"c) Follow up on uptake of feed technologies","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"Six months after the training while conducting monitoring of farmer-led forage trials (section 2), follow-up interviews were done with 49 farmers who were also growing introduced forages, to assess the uptake of the animal nutrition techniques from the training. Out of 49 farmers interviewed, 17 reported already applying one or more of the techniques they had learned in the training. The farmers also reported benefits from applying feed techniques such as reduction in labour and time for feed preparation. For instance, some farmers now prepare enough silage and store for a longer time as compared to before the training. Cattle prefer to eat more of the silage. Farmers preparing fermented pig feed using probiotics reported they no longer need to cook resulting in reduced fuel cost and less firewood for cooking feed."}]},{"head":"Improved forages a) Selection of preferred forage varieties","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The proposed forage varieties included 4 grasses (Mulato II, Mombasa guinea, Green elephant and Ubon paspalum), and 3 legumes (Ubon stylo, Arachis pintoi and rice bean). These varieties were selected as they are high-yielding, high quality and cold-tolerant, characteristics best suited to address feed challenges in the study area. Farmers were first given an overview of proposed forages then asked to fill in a checklist to select from the proposed forage varieties that best suit their needs and farming systems (Table 4). "}]},{"head":"b) Farmer-led forage trials","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"Farmer-led field trials were set up in the 6 intervention villages with interested farmers to assess the potential of forage varieties in improving the feed basket for increased livestock productivity in the study area. In May 2021, the Livestock CRP Feeds & Forages flagship provided seeds and planting materials (seedlings and stem cuttings) (Table 5) to a total of 155 households. Field demonstrations on different ways of growing forages were conducted in each village, after which the farmers applied the same techniques in their own farms.  Various planting methods were used for selected forages depending on the system and farmers' preference. Examples include cut-and-carry mono-crop plots, grasses planted on contours, intercropping with annual or perennial crops, ground cover etc. Farmers applied varying amounts of fertilizers (NPK, urea, manure). Details on how to grow, manage and utilize the 7 forage varieties can be found in the field manual and factsheets (https://bit.ly/3CC0vHE; https://bit.ly/2ZU1dll)."}]},{"head":"Forage grass grown on contours Photos: Bùi Văn Tùng, Phan Huy Chương (NOMAFSI)","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Trial monitoring was conducted by project staff with the support of local stakeholders. The Northern Mountainous Agriculture and Forestry Science Institute (NOMAFSI) was the main local partner leading trial setup and monitoring. Data collection (germination rate, height, biomass yield [fresh matter (FM)]and farmer preferences, dislikes, and challenges) was done on selected farms in each village -> 3-5 farms per crop per village."}]},{"head":"c) Results","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Area planted","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Approximately 25 ha were planted with improved forages across the 6 intervention villages (Table 6). This is a significant increase in area grown with forages in all the 4 farming system types. Type A villages reported an average increase in area from 0.01 ha to 0.06 ha per household, Type B -from 0.01 to 0.04 ha, Type C households-from 0.02 ha to 0.06 ha. "}]},{"head":"Green elephant","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Green elephant grass showed a high germination rate of >81% across all farming system types except in Type C1 with 79% (Table 7). Average yield ranged from 33.8 -82.1 tonnes FM/ha with Type A and C2 recording the highest biomass of > 82 ton/ha after the second harvest while Type C1 reported the lowest yield as farmers did not apply any fertilizer. All farmers showed high preference (100%) and expressed interest to continue growing this variety as it is high yielding, grows fast, has soft leaves and stem and is liked by cattle and buffalo. However, when harvested too early or fed in large quantities, green elephant grass contains a lot of water which can cause bloating and diarrhea in cattle. "}]},{"head":"Green elephant grass Photos: Bùi Văn Tùng, Phan Huy Chương (NOMAFSI)","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mombasa guinea","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Germination rate ranged from 71-84% and was highest in Type C2 (84%) and lowest in Type A villages (71%) as it temporarily stopped raining after sowing. There were also issues with poor sowing and land preparation techniques and some seedlings eaten by chickens especially in unfenced plots. Biomass yield was lowest in Type C1 (11.8t FM/ha). Highest preference for Mombasa guinea was reported in C2 village because of high rate of germination and growth, and liked by cattle when fed in moderate quantities."}]},{"head":"Mombasa guinea Photos: Bùi Văn Tùng & Phan Huy Chương (NOMAFSI)","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mulato II","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Similar to green elephant grass, Mulato II also showed a germination rate of 74-86% in all system types except in Types A and C1 due to poor land preparation and sowing methods, high temperatures and also seedlings damage by chickens. Average yield after the second harvest was 41.9-51.1t FM/ha except for C1 (12.8t FM/ha). Highest preference for this variety was reported in Type C households. However, 48% of Type A households reported low preference for Mulato II due to low germination and yield in some farms as compared to green elephant, hairy leaves and not liked by cattle and buffalo were further factors contributing to low preference."}]},{"head":"Mulato II Photo: Bùi Văn Tùng & Phan Huy Chương (NOMAFSI)","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Ubon paspalum","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Ubon paspalum recorded a high germination rate in Type A households (86%) and lowest in Type C1 and B (63-66%) attributed to poor land preparation and sowing methods, high temperatures and also seedlings damage by chicken. Type C1 also recorded the lowest yield of only 10.6t FM/ha. Most households reported high to medium preference while 50% of C1 had low preference for this variety. High preference was attributed to soft leaves and stem and liked by cattle when fed in moderate quantities. However, as with other grasses, cutting young Ubon paspalum and feeding large quantities caused digestion-related problems such as bloating and diarrhea in cattle."}]},{"head":"Ubon paspalum Photo: Bùi Văn Tùng & Phan Huy Chương (NOMAFSI)","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Ubon stylo","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Stylo germinated well in Type C farms (80-84%), however the highest yield was reported in Type B after 2 harvests (26.4t FM/ha). Preference for Ubon stylo was medium to low as farmers complained about low yield, difficulties to manage, tough stem and not liked by cattle and goats even when fed in moderate quantities."}]},{"head":"Ubon stylo Photos: Bùi Văn Tùng & Phan Huy Chương (NOMAFSI)","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Rice bean","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Rice bean had the highest germination rate out of the 7 varieties ranging from 82-100% with Type C1 reporting 100% germination of sown seeds. As rice bean was planted later in the rainy season, low yields were reported at the time of sampling with only 1 harvest. Most farmers reported high to medium preference and intend to continue growing rice bean because it is a multipurpose -purpose crop (seeds can be used as food, biomass as feed, and because of additional benefits of improving soil health) and has a high germination rate. One constraint reported is the slow regrowth after the first harvest."}]},{"head":"Rice bean intercropped with maize Photo: Bùi Văn Tùng & Phan Huy Chương (NOMAFSI)","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Pinto peanut","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Of all the 7 forage varieties, Pinto Peanut had the lowest germination rate (57-65%), lowest yield (2-4t FM/ha) and lowest preference particularly in Type C1 (60%) due to low germination and yield, and slow growth. Surprisingly, Pinto peanut was expected to have a higher uptake and preference in C1 (extensive system) as it is best utilized as a ground cover under trees and tolerant to acidic soils predominant in this area. However, the farmers who showed high preference for pinto peanut reported benefits of adopting this variety as they could feed it to pigs, chicken, and cattle, and for ornamental use because of its beautiful blossom."}]},{"head":"Pinto peanut grown as ground cover Photos: Bùi Văn Tùng & Phan Huy Chương (NOMAFSI) d) Forage utilization and benefits of improved forages","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"-Forages are mainly fed for cattle and buffalo. Moreover, there is a small number of farmers who fed the promoted varieties to pigs and poultry (chicken, local goose and ducks). In this case, forages were often chopped and mixed with rice bran or maize meal. -There was an increase in the number of forage varieties grown by farmers who previously relied on local Napier grass and to a lesser extent -Guinea grass, in addition to food-feed crops such banana, maize etc. -Increased amount of feed available for livestock was reported and animals had enough to eat."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"-Cut-and-carry systems helped to increase the availability of forages near the farms and family house, especially during rainy days when grazing is difficult. -Increased transition to intensive systems, from grazing to stall feeding especially in Type A households. -Growing forages reduced the cost and time of collecting native grasses from paddy fields and forests and prevented harvesting grass contaminants such as herbicides. Farmers had more time for other on-farm and off-farm activities. -Increasing the availability of forages resulted in few farmers expanding their herd size."}]},{"head":"IV. Farmers' perceptions","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Photovoice stories","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":337,"text":"In the frame of Li-chăn project, the photovoice method was used as a participatory monitoring and evaluation tool to document change stories from farmers' perspectives (Wang & Burris 1997). Farmers gave their own reflections on livestock development including the benefits of growing improved forages, feed preparation and preservation for improved nutrition and productivity of livestock. These stories were featured in a virtual exhibition -Livestock Development in Vietnam from Artists' and Farmers' Perspectives -developed in collaboration with the Vietnam Fine Arts Museum (https://bit.ly/3BylpGr). Farmers shared stories on benefits of applying different methods of feed processing and preservation such as increased availability of feed, high preference of silage by cattle, increased weight gain of pigs fed with fermented feed. They also reported increased forage yields from selected varieties and availability of livestock feed, preference of their animals to different forages, challenges encountered when introducing new varieties to their animals, and plans to increase adoption of these forages. Below are some stories on adoption of animal nutrition techniques and improved forages. livestockpanorama.ilri.org/en/livestock-development-farmers-perspective/ff8-story-thuan \"My wife is going to cut grass in our field about 100 metres from home. It often takes her about 30 minutes. This is Guinea grass provided by the (Li-chăn) project for trial planting. In addition to rice bean, we grow three varieties of grass: Mombasa guinea, green elephant and Mulato II. We have harvested 17 kilograms of Mombasa Guinea grass, 15 kilograms of Mulato II grass and 35 kilograms of green elephant grass on an area of four-square metres. Rice bean is planted to harvest its foliage for feeding the cows. The productivity is satisfactory. Currently, these varieties are suitable for the soil, but I don't know if they are drought tolerant during the dry season. The chopped rice bean and green elephant grass are accepted by the cattle. The stem of Mombasa guinea grass is too hard for them, but they can eat the leaves. I'm planning to plant more green elephant and Mombasa guinea grass next year because they are tall and easy to harvest.\""},{"index":2,"size":172,"text":"Narrator and photographer: Lường Văn Dũng (Thai ethnicity) Person in the photo: Lường Thị Liến (Thai ethnicity) livestockpanorama.ilri.org/en/livestock-development-farmers-perspective/ff23-story-dung \"Dụ is weeding the green elephant grass field of the Li-chăn project. The field is about 1,000 square metres, growing green elephant grass at the foot of the hill and Mombasa Guinea grass at the top. I have decided to raise more cows and build a shed. So, I want to try and find out which grass variety is better before scaling up so that I have enough fodder for my cattle. Currently, I have three cows and one buffalo. I have enough grass because I have sugarcane leaves in the dry season. However, there will be a shortage of fodder if I expand the herd. In Chiềng Lương commune, we run out of fodder in April and May because there is no longer a supply of sugarcane leaves. From June to October, the fodder supply is sufficient as elephant grass is available. From November, sugarcane tops are used to feed the cattle again.\" "}]},{"head":"Narrator and photographer","index":29,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Technical feedback from farmers","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"-Provide more seeds and planting materials for new, improved forages to be tested by farmers."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"Farmers who did not register for some varieties would like to expand the area for forages and test these varieties. -Organize follow-up technical trainings on feed processing, feed mixing, preservation of feed for winter, cultivation of forages. -Provide technical advice on crop production to achieve high biomass yield such as irrigation methods, support with inputs such as fertilizers, equipment e.g., chopping machines to reduce labour and time spent on feed processing. -Support access to credit facilities or capital for farmers to increase and expand investments in livestock production."}]},{"head":"V. Challenges for implementation","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Language barrier: The study area is mainly occupied by ethnic minorities (Thai and Hmong) and some farmers do not understand Kinh language (Vietnamese) nor English. This can pose a challenge when conducting trainings and usually requires the help of a translator."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Accessibility: Some villages are difficult to access especially during the rainy season e.g. Xam Ta, Buom Khoang, and sometimes Oi village."}]},{"head":"Covid-19 pandemic:","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Travel restrictions limited follow-ups to guide farmers on forage management and utilization. However, forage factsheets were developed and adapted to address issues raised by farmers such as appropriate cutting time, feed mix and use."}]},{"head":"Forage utilization and adoption of feed technologies:","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"• Farmers reported low preference for forage legumes due to low germination, slow growth, tendency to be outcompeted by weeds, low biomass yield and low palatability when fed to animals. • Forages harvested when too young and fed in large quantities to animals caused digestive complications as young leaves and stems contain high water content. When left in the field for long periods before harvesting, the leaves and stem became too hard for the animals to eat. Farmers also complained that Mulato II having hairy leaves and stems caused discomfort during cutting. • Despite being trained on feed processing techniques such as chopping and feed mixing, almost all farmers tended to feed their cattle with one forage variety at a time. This led to livestock not quickly getting used to eating these new and improved forages. • Some techniques such as silage preparation are labour intensive requiring several steps and materials e.g., nylon bags, basins, and collecting forages and crop residues. If farmers do not apply the recommended rate and proportion of raw materials, the silage quickly goes sour and cannot be stored for a long period."}]},{"head":"VI. Conclusions and recommendations 1. Forage management and utilization","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Highest preference was reported for 3 grass varieties (Green elephant, Mombasa guinea and Ubon paspalum) due to their high germination rate, high biomass productivity and good palatability. Moderate preference was expressed for forage legumes (Ubon stylo, rice bean, Arachis pintoi) and Mulato II. Overall, farmers expressed willingness to expand land area to grow more improved forages. Preliminary results reported high biomass yields and increased feed availability for livestock. However, it is still early in the project to evaluate the impact of interventions on livestock productivity, labour savings and changes to household income. Continued monitoring and evaluation of promoted feed interventions should be done to assess impact on socio-economic and productivity indicators."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Forage management approaches such as appropriate cutting time, not harvesting too early or late can ensure animals get high quality feed. There is a need to find a balance between animal health, forage biomass and quality. Fencing forage plots can protect seeds and seedlings from being destroyed by wandering animals such as poultry. Inputs such as application of fertilizers are important to increase biomass yield especially for areas with poor soils."},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":"Adoption of high yielding, high quality forages and feed techniques can improve livestock production for smallholder livestock farmers in NW Highlands, who mainly rely on low quality forages and crop residues. To increase forage area, small-scale farmers can multiply planting materials, harvest seeds from legumes (e.g., rice bean, stylo) or use vegetative cuttings for grasses and Arachis pintoi. These planting materials can also be shared with or sold to other interested farmers. As winter feed shortage is the main feed-related challenge in this area, monitoring the on-going forage trials and adoption of feed techniques in the upcoming winter season will inform appropriate changes to the feeding strategy."}]},{"head":"Technical approach","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Hands-on trainings and on-farm practical demonstrations for farmers on forage management and utilization, feed processing and preservation is crucial for optimum use of forages to achieve improved animal nutrition. Maintaining a gender balance during flagship activities also saw more female farmers actively participating in practical trainings."}]},{"head":"Future scaling","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"A seed system network analysis in Northwest Highlands of Vietnam reported government agencies and traders as the main sources of forage planting materials while dissemination is primarily from farmer to farmer especially in beef-oriented systems (Leyte et al., 2021). In this study, seeds and planting materials were sourced from local seed traders and government institutions multiplying and disseminating planting materials. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Photos: Bùi Văn Tùng, Phan Huy Chương(NOMAFSI)     "},{"text":"\" Lò Văn Thương has five buffaloes. When fresh sugarcane tops are not available, he uses fermented tops to feed his cattle. Since 2016 and 2017, farmers in Mờn village have been fermenting grass and sugarcane tops to make fodder. Following these pioneers, I also ferment grass for the dry season, when there is a shortage of fodder. Previously, I did not add anything except sugarcane tops. Learning from the training by the Lichăn project, I know that mixing rice bran helps fermentation, and sealing the bags protects the airfree silage from mold or rotting. My cattle prefer fermented grass.\" Narrator and photographer: Lường Văn Yêu (Thai ethnicity, 46 years old) Person in the photo: Lò Văn Thương (Thai ethnicity) livestockpanorama.ilri.org/en/livestock-development-farmers-perspective/ff22-story-yeu \"This is the straw I treated with urea to feed my cows. Before joining Li-chăn project's training, I did not know about mixing straw with urea and used only straw. Being fed with straw treated with urea, the cows look beautiful and their coats are soft. They consume more straw than before because the straw is softer.\" Narrator and photographer: Quàng Thị Thuấn (Thai ethnicity, 31 years old), and Quàng Thị Nương (Thai ethnicity, 12 years old) Person in the photo: Quàng Thị Thuấn (Thai ethnicity, 31 years old) livestockpanorama.ilri.org/en/livestock-development-farmers-perspective/ff7-story-thuan \"I am feeding pigs with fermented banana stems mixed with a little bran. Previously, I did not feed them with the mixture of banana stems and bran, and the pigs were skinny. Since I joined the Li-chăn (project's) training, the pigs have grown rapidly and healthily as I feed them with the mixed bran.\" Narrator: Quàng Thị Thuấn (Thai ethnicity, 31 years old) Photographer: Quàng Thị Nương (Thai ethnicity, 12 years old) Person in the picture: Quàng Thị Thuấn (Thai ethnicity, 31 years old) "},{"text":" : Lý A Trống (Hmong, 43 years old) Person in the photo: Sồng Thị Dụ, wife of Trống (Hmong) livestockpanorama.ilri.org/en/livestock-development-farmers-perspective/ff18-story-trong "},{"text":"\" After planting green elephant grass two months ago, many households have harvested the grass to feed their cattle. Lêng collected 20 kilograms of grass. This grass is very productive. It is less hairy but tall. This variety is soft and the whole plant can easily be chopped. The traditional variety of elephant grass has hard stems and hairy leaves. Only the upper half of its stem is chopped. Farmers are in favour of this variety and keep asking for seeds all the time. The harvested green elephant grass contains a lot of water, causing diarrhea in cattle if they consume too much. If grass is mixed with straw or dried for feeding on the following day, diarrhea can be avoided.\"Narrator and photographer: Lường Văn Yêu (Thai ethnicity, 46 years old) Person in the photo: Hà Thị Lêng (Thai ethnicity) livestockpanorama.ilri.org/en/livestock-development-farmers-perspective/ff9-story-yeu "},{"text":" Local authorities, village chiefs and commune vets provided support to project activities in different ways such as distributing planting materials to farmers, organizing farmer trainings and practical demonstrations, preparing training materials and helping the technical team with trial monitoring. Local authorities also supported the technical team with getting permits to enable travelling to the intervention villages. Local authorities also supported with ensuring inclusion and access to ethnic minorities in remote areas as well as equal participation of men and women, wherever possible, in the study interventions. As seed exchange is dominated by formal actors/traders whereas transfer of vegetatively propagated materials is mainly through farmers, these actors can play a key role in developing efficient forage seed systems, capacity building and knowledge exchange to improve technical skills as a driver for scaling(Leyte et al., 2021).Engaging local authorities, such as People's Committee at provincial, district and commune levels, Sub-Department of Animal Health, Animal Husbandry & Aquaculture (Sub-DAH), can ensure successful implementation, sustainability of feed interventions, and essential for future scaling.Feeds & Forages Vietnam technical team. From left: Sabine Douxchamps (ABC), Bùi Văn Tùng (NOMAFSI), Mai Thanh Tú (ILRI/ABC), Phay Huy Chương (NOMAFSI), Trần Bích Ngọc (NIAS), Mary Atieno (ABC) Photo: Mary Atieno (ABC) "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Selected intervention villages and farming system types Type Chiềng Chung Commune Chiềng Lương commune TypeChiềng Chung CommuneChiềng Lương commune Type A  Mờn 1 and Mờn 2 Type AMờn 1 and Mờn 2 Type B Khoa Oi Type BKhoaOi Type C1 Xam ta  Type C1Xam ta Type C2  Buôm Khoang Type C2Buôm Khoang  "},{"text":"and feeding regimes for Bản pigs  ii) Feed • Feed classification (protein feed, energy feed, minerals, vitamins) ii) Feed • Feed classification (protein feed, energy feed, minerals, vitamins) • Feed processing: concentrate mixing, concentrate feed fermentation by probiotics • Feed processing: concentrate mixing, concentrate feed fermentation by probiotics • Feeding regimes for Bản pigs (gilts, pregnant sow, lactating sow, grower-fattener pigs) • Feeding regimes for Bản pigs (gilts, pregnant sow, lactating sow, grower-fattener pigs) The first session involved poster presentation with easy-to-follow illustrations. The posters were also The first session involved poster presentation with easy-to-follow illustrations. The posters were also translated to local languages (Vietnamese and Hmong) so farmers could understand and follow translated to local languages (Vietnamese and Hmong) so farmers could understand and follow through. The second part of the training involved practical demonstrations on various techniques with through. The second part of the training involved practical demonstrations on various techniques with participants taking part in preparing materials and hands-on demonstration. Feed materials were participants taking part in preparing materials and hands-on demonstration. Feed materials were prepared for practical training sessions depending on the available feed resources in the different prepared for practical training sessions depending on the available feed resources in the different villages at the time of the training. Materials included banana trunk, sugarcane tops, rice straw, rice villages at the time of the training. Materials included banana trunk, sugarcane tops, rice straw, rice bran, cornmeal and cassava meal. bran, cornmeal and cassava meal. The training was conducted from March 22-26 th , 2021, one day per village and covered The training was conducted from March 22-26 th , 2021, one day per village and covered the following topics (more information and details of the training materials can be found at the following topics (more information and details of the training materials can be found at (https://bit.ly/3bHMfRH; https://bit.ly/3bEoz0N): (https://bit.ly/3bHMfRH; https://bit.ly/3bEoz0N): Training topics covered included: Training topics covered included: • Feed processing: silage preparation (grass, maize, crop residue…), urea-treated rice straw • Feed processing: silage preparation (grass, maize, crop residue…), urea-treated rice straw • Feeding regimes for cattle (lactating cows, suckling calf, weaning calf, heifer and fattening diets) • Feeding regimes for cattle (lactating cows, suckling calf, weaning calf, heifer and fattening diets)  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Number of participants Type Village Men No. Invited Women Total Men No. Participated Women Total TypeVillageMenNo. Invited WomenTotalMenNo. Participated WomenTotal Type A Mon 1 Mon 2 13 12 12 13 25 25 9 6 14 17 23 23 Type AMon 1 Mon 213 1212 1325 259 614 1723 23 Type B Khoa Oi 14 15 11 10 25 25 13 14 13 9 26 23 Type BKhoa Oi14 1511 1025 2513 1413 926 23 Type C1 Xam Ta 10 10 20 9 11 20 Type C1Xam Ta10102091120 Type C2 Buom Khoang 13 12 25 19 11 30 Type C2Buom Khoang131225191130  Total 77 68 155 70 75 145 Total77681557075145  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Number of participants willing to adopt feed techniques covered in the training Type Village No. of participants No. willing to adopt feed techniques TypeVillageNo. of participantsNo. willing to adopt feed techniques Type A Mon 1 Mon 2 23 23 21 20 Type AMon 1 Mon 223 2321 20 Type B Khoa Oi 26 23 23 17 Type BKhoa Oi26 2323 17 Type C1 Xam Ta 20 10 Type C1Xam Ta2010 Type C2 Buom Khoang 30 23 Type C2Buom Khoang3023  Total 145 113 Total145113  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Number of households registered, and forages selected during the checklist exercise  Mulato Mombasa Ubon Green Ubon Pinto  MulatoMombasaUbonGreenUbonPinto  II guinea paspalum elephant stylo peanut Rice bean IIguineapaspalumelephantstylopeanutRice bean Type A 30 21 15 35 7 9 23 Type A302115357923 Type B 29 34 16 29 12 24 37 Type B29341629122437 Type C1 15 11 3 12 7 3 6 Type C11511312736 Type C2 11 16 6 11 9 7 8 Type C21116611978 Total 85 82 40 87 35 43 74 Total85824087354374  "},{"text":"Table 5 : List of forage varieties Category Variety Scientific name Planting material Source CategoryVarietyScientific namePlanting materialSource    provided  provided  Mulato II Urochloa ruziziensis × U. Seeds Ubon Forages Mulato IIUrochloa ruziziensis × U.SeedsUbon Forages   decumbens × U. brizantha  Co. Ltd* decumbens × U. brizanthaCo. Ltd*   cv. Mulato II   cv. Mulato II Grasses Mombasa guinea Megathyrsus maximus cv. Mombasa Seeds Ubon Forages Co. Ltd GrassesMombasa guineaMegathyrsus maximus cv. MombasaSeedsUbon Forages Co. Ltd  Ubon paspalum Paspalum atratum Seeds Ubon Forages Ubon paspalum Paspalum atratumSeedsUbon Forages   cv. Ubon  Co. Ltd cv. UbonCo. Ltd  Green elephant Cenchrus purpureus Stem cuttings NOMAFSI Green elephant Cenchrus purpureusStem cuttingsNOMAFSI  Ubon stylo Stylosanthes guianensis Seeds Ubon Forages Ubon styloStylosanthes guianensisSeedsUbon Forages   var. guianensis cv. Ubon  Co. Ltd var. guianensis cv. UbonCo. Ltd Legumes  stylo   Legumesstylo  Pinto peanut Arachis pintoi Seedlings NOMAFSI Pinto peanutArachis pintoiSeedlingsNOMAFSI  Rice bean Vigna umbellata Seeds NOMAFSI Rice beanVigna umbellataSeedsNOMAFSI *Seeds from Ubon Forages Co. Ltd were sourced through a local supplier -Nam Thai Co. Ltd *Seeds from Ubon Forages Co. Ltd were sourced through a local supplier -Nam Thai Co. Ltd  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Area (ha) planted with forages in each village  "},{"text":"Mombasa guinea Mulato II Ubon paspalum Green elephant Ubon stylo Pinto peanut Rice bean Total  Type A 0.81 1.19 0.53 0.98 0.32 0.26 2.04 6.13 Type A0.811.190.530.980.320.262.046.13 Type B 2.09 1.91 0.39 0.51 0.5 0.47 4.61 10.48 Type B2.091.910.390.510.50.474.6110.48 Type C1 0.37 0.44 0.03 0.28 0.08 0.01 0.45 1.66 Type C10.370.440.030.280.080.010.451.66 Type C2 1.09 0.72 0.12 0.29 0.53 0.37 3.23 6.35 Type C21.090.720.120.290.530.373.236.35 Total 4.36 4.26 1.07 2.06 1.43 1.11 10.33 24.62 Total4.364.261.072.061.431.1110.3324.62  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Parameters measured on the farmer-led trials Forage variety Typology Yield 1 st cut (tons/ha) Yield 2 nd cut (tons/ha) Total yield (tons/ha) Plant height 1 st cut (cm) Plant height 2 nd cut (cm) Germination rate (%) High preferenc e (%) Medium preference (%) Low preference (%) Forage varietyTypologyYield 1 st cut (tons/ha)Yield 2 nd cut (tons/ha)Total yield (tons/ha)Plant height 1 st cut (cm)Plant height 2 nd cut (cm)Germination rate (%)High preferenc e (%)Medium preference (%)Low preference (%)  Type A 45.4 37.5 83.0 232.7 214.5 87 100 0 0 Type A45.437.583.0232.7214.58710000 Green Type B 41.9 34.4 76.3 235.3 211.7 86 100 0 0 GreenType B41.934.476.3235.3211.78610000 elephant Type C1 33.8 0.0 33.8 191.0 - 79 100 0 0 elephantType C133.80.033.8191.0-7910000  Type C2 52.9 29.2 82.1 225.0 200.7 95 100 0 0 Type C252.929.282.1225.0200.79510000  Type A 30.8 27.9 58.7 152.8 144.0 71 19 75 6 Type A30.827.958.7152.8144.07119756 Mombasa Type B 26.0 22.4 48.4 163.7 138.7 79 73 19 8 MombasaType B26.022.448.4163.7138.77973198 guinea Type C1 11.8 0.0 11.8 116.7 - 75 40 20 40 guineaType C111.80.011.8116.7-75402040  Type C2 29.4 17.8 47.2 137.1 107.6 84 100 0 0 Type C229.417.847.2137.1107.68410000  Type A 26.8 20.9 47.7 134.4 118.0 76 17 35 48 Type A26.820.947.7134.4118.076173548 Mulato II Type B Type C1 23.3 12.1 19.1 0.0 42.4 12.1 124.4 84.8 128.2 - 86 74 38 67 42 0 21 33 Mulato IIType B Type C123.3 12.119.1 0.042.4 12.1124.4 84.8128.2 -86 7438 6742 021 33  Type C2 26.0 15.9 41.9 102.8 60.0 80 67 0 33 Type C226.015.941.9102.860.08067033  Type A 34.5 25.8 60.3 138.3 130.7 86 60 30 10 Type A34.525.860.3138.3130.786603010 Ubon Type B 25.9 16.3 42.3 128.8 105.3 66 30 70 0 UbonType B25.916.342.3128.8105.36630700 paspalum Type C1 10.6 0.0 10.6 78.5 - 63 0 50 50 paspalumType C110.60.010.678.5-6305050  Type C2 36.1 30.0 66.1 121.0 104.0 75 25 75 0 Type C236.130.066.1121.0104.07525750  Type A 11.0 5.6 13.8 90.3 66.5 70 0 67 33 Type A11.05.613.890.366.57006733 Ubon stylo Type B Type C1 18.3 10.5 8.2 0.0 26.4 10.5 68.8 73.7 51.4 - 63 84 0 0 50 33 50 67 Ubon styloType B Type C118.3 10.58.2 0.026.4 10.568.8 73.751.4 -63 840 050 3350 67  Type C2 10.6 4.3 14.9 59.0 49.5 80 20 80 0 Type C210.64.314.959.049.58020800  Type A 10.1 - 10.1 - - 90 50 50 0 Type A10.1-10.1--9050500 Rice bean Type B Type C1 12.4 13.8 -- 12.4 13.8 -- -- 92 100 32 50 36 50 32 0 Rice beanType B Type C112.4 13.8--12.4 13.8----92 10032 5036 5032 0  Type C2 8.1 - 8.1 - - 82 0 67 33 Type C28.1-8.1--8206733  Type A 2.7 - 2.7 - - 65 0 67 33 Type A2.7-2.7--6506733 Pinto Type B 2.8 - 2.8 - - 63 50 14 36 PintoType B2.8-2.8--63501436 peanut Type C1 4.0 - 4.0 - - 56 0 40 60 peanutType C14.0-4.0--5604060  Type C2 2.0 - 2.0 - - 57 0 67 33 Type C22.0-2.0--5706733  "}],"sieverID":"b2d96071-a844-47a8-b85a-49e5eaeb5eff","abstract":"Li-chăn is a project under the CGIAR Research Program on Livestock which aims at stimulating system transformation through bundled livestock-based interventions in North-West (NW) Vietnam, covering the areas of livelihoods, environment, equity, and market access to benefit highland farming communities. The project has been co-designed by both international and national partners. It is funded by the Livestock CRP and co-"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09ad102cebdd9a14f7efadfb8750792b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ce8d2102-bc28-4159-9cf8-db0295802466/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Positive selection to improve quality of farmers seed potato","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"The major problems faced by the potato farmers in Eastern and Central Africa (ECA) is lack of affordable high quality seeds that has led to lower yields below 10 t*ha-1 as compared to 40 t*ha-1 achieved under proper production systems. The average yield in Burundi, Uganda and Kenya are 2.61, 7.0 and 7.5 t*ha-1, respectively. This is majorly attributed to lack of high quality potato seed seeds among other factors. Positive selection as knowledge intensive method to improve farm saved seed qualities seeks to improve yields at farmers level at a low cost In most cases small scale farmers are not able to buy the high quality seeds as they have inadequate funds, there is also limited availability of high quality seeds. The high prices and limited availability of quality potato seeds has lead to recycling of farmers saved seeds resulting in build up of diseases. Re-using seed potato from farmers own saved seeds reduces yield due to seed degeneration."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Positive selection, was developed to effectively manage the tuber-borne diseases like bacterial wilt and viruses that are transmitted from the plants to tubers. If the tubers are re-planted they produce sick plants, this technology has been successfully promoted and adapted to various farming conditions in Kenya, Uganda and Burundi through the ASARECA-supported quality seed potato project that utilized appropriate practices and technologies to produce and deliver high-quality seed potato through informal seed potato systems."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"• The immediate beneficiaries are the small scale farmers composed majorly of women, men and children. Small scale farmers benefit from the yield increase, reduced labor requirements in disease management practices. The famers also improve their potato seed stock and market by producing high quality seeds. • Farmers who use large proportion of seed potato from their own harvest can use the technology to fight declining yield as a result of seed degeneration since this concept is easily understood."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"Seed quality is a serious constrain to improved productivity in the potato industry. However there are other factors such as inadequate crop husbandry, insufficient awareness of the impacts of late blight , poor soil fertility, improper storage facilities among farmers are also other factors contributing to improved productivity."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"• Yield improvement 30% disease reduction by positive selection."},{"index":6,"size":67,"text":"• In short positive selection is \"selecting the best \"potato plants as mother plants for the next potato crops. Healthy seeds can be selected by marking healthy plants. • Due to the cost effectiveness of the training as well as the as adoption of the technology this program has changed the outlook of potato farming especially to small scale famers who cannot afford the high quality seeds."},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"Positive selection has the principle of selecting healthy looking plants as mother plants for seed potato. It involves;"},{"index":8,"size":34,"text":"• Pegging healthy looking plants when the first flowers appear on the crop. • Checking the health of the pegged plant two weeks later and removing pegs from the plants observed with some diseasesymptoms."},{"index":9,"size":8,"text":"• Harvest the pegged plants one by one."},{"index":10,"size":42,"text":"• Plants with few tubers, mulformed tubers are not selected for seeds. • Selected seed tubers are stored separately to be used as seeds. • A regional team drawn from KARI (lead institution), NARO, ISABU, CIP and UNSPPA is implementing the project."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"The "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" prepared as a contribution to ASARECA's research success stories under the Staple Crops Program in May 2010. All persons and institutions involved in the project are gratefully acknowledged. The opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of their institutions. "}],"sieverID":"c24528de-a396-4ed2-beb8-0388601b2e55","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0a4a652c89c9b5ad4e584deed7fbdf37.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a4a652c89c9b5ad4e584deed7fbdf37","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7faa855b-3e20-4a90-8c87-97c00618ec18/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Gender checklist for introducing new RTC technologies to men and women","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Guiding question:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Whose interests and challenges should our planned intervention take into account and why? (e.g. middle income men, poor women, young men, ethnic minority women)."}]},{"head":"Checklists:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"1) Does the targeted crop have gender and/or age divisions of labour?"},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"• If yes, who are responsible for which activities? (e.g. plowing land, weeding, purchasing fertilizers and pesticide, obtaining and managing planting materials, storage, marketing, processing, food preparation etc.). This helps us understand which interventions are relevant to men and women."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"• What are key characteristics of men and women farmers from poor and better-off households respectively in terms of their involvement in farming activities such as the use of labour, the scale of production and investment, access to influential people, information and knowledge?"},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"• Through observation of and conversation with men and women from different social groups, we can understand some of the main differences in their livelihood strategies and interests among men and among women as well as between men and women."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"2) Which gender/age group is most involved in our planned intervention such as varietal selection, seed, post-harvest etc.?"},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"• What are potential risks and financial investments for the planned new interventions for the targeted groups? (in particular for women, poor men and young men)"},{"index":7,"size":19,"text":"• What is the level of labour/time inputs required by women and/or men to implement the potential new activities?"},{"index":8,"size":37,"text":"• Does the planned intervention influence/attract girls or boys' labour? If there are any risks of children dropping out of school for supporting their family through the planned intervention, are there any supporting conditions for their education?"},{"index":9,"size":21,"text":"3) How do we address specific social challenges for the targeted groups in learning approaches (e.g. trainings or experiments)? For example:"},{"index":10,"size":8,"text":"• Time constrains for women with childbearing age:"},{"index":11,"size":12,"text":"• Language barriers for ethnic minorities and/or those who have limited education:"},{"index":12,"size":6,"text":"• Social relations among the participants:"},{"index":13,"size":10,"text":"• Are there any supporting conditions for mitigating their constraints? "}]},{"head":"B. Understanding gender aspects of decisionmaking power","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"Taking up new technologies and agricultural practices or participating in training events mean that farmers and their family members often have to change their routine activities which has implications for gender relations. Even if new technologies require men's labour, wives may end up with more burdens as a result of re-assignment of their labour. Some new technologies may be aimed at supporting women but their husband and mother-in-law may feel jealous and therefore they may not approve of her participation in the project. However, both men and women have certain autonomy and decision-making power in some of their gender domains and if additional labour demand or need for more inputs fits into their autonomous domains, interventions are more likely to be accepted."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"It is also important to be aware of how decisionmaking and other types of expressions of power can have gender dimensions at a community level too. In some conservative villages, it may be socially unacceptable that women (and/or young men) become the first person in the village to adopt new technologies. It may also be the case that a small number of men and/or women can dominate resources, which limits the possibilities of other women (and/or young men) accessing and using new technologies. In such a case, field coordinators need to explore how support and opportunities can be directed towards these marginalized social groups."}]},{"head":"Guiding question B:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"How might new technologies influence relations between family members and relations among men and among women within the village?"}]},{"head":"Checklists:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"1) Have members of the targeted social groups in our project experienced with initiating new activities? Are they already innovators?"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"2) How likely is our target group to fully benefit from the intervention?"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• Are they dependent on others (participants or non-participants) who may control the benefits?"},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"• Does the project need to engage with those individuals to improve the distribution of benefits? (e.g. involving husbands in interventions targeting women?)"},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"3) Are there innovation gatekeepers in the community who are very influential in agricultural activities in the community and can create constraints or provide incentives for the uptake of the intervention?"},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"• Can we influence these gatekeepers to strengthen the incentives for involvement in the intervention?"}]},{"head":"Using information on gender for interventions","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Through applying the checklist, it should be possible for the team to list the gender concerns, challenges and social constraints. In some cases, it may be possible to adjust the intervention to address challenges and reduce constraints. Documenting and reporting on how the team addressed interests and decision-making from a gender perspective can help others apply this approach to supporting marginalized people in the community."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Title: Gender checklist for introducing new RTC technologies to men and women Ver. 1 (2017) Authors: Nozomi Kawarazuka and Gordon Prain Contact: [email protected]"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Food Resilience Through Root and Tuber Crops in Upland and Coastal Communities of the Asia-Pacific (FoodSTART+) Ver.1, February 2017 This checklist is intended to help FoodSTART+ staff and partners ensure that gender is adequately addressed in their workplans and interventions. Considering gender dimensions of farming activities helps us to identify context-specific social factors that support/hinder uptake of new technologies. The checklist has two sections; understanding gendered interests and preferences; and understanding gendered decision-making power. "}],"sieverID":"52729ef8-e077-4769-83af-a8a5eba7852a","abstract":"Men, women, the young and the old have different interests in new varieties they want to try, new agricultural practices they want to learn, and they have different capacities and willingness to make financial investments and take calculated risks to implement new activities on their own farm. They also take different approaches to learning new technologies and skills. Without considering gender aspects, our project may work in favour of men from better-off families because: their voices are more easily heard; they can more easily take risks in new investments; and they are more used to the conventional learning approaches offered by development agencies."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a62d7e791f4bee409f8dffcdd60f72d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/42490b5f-08d6-4144-9ec6-10ad35184f40/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Opportunities and Constraints for Participatory Plaut Breeding: Farmers' Seed-Management Strategies and Their Effect on Pearl Millet Populations in Rajasthan, India","keywords":["Basalatpur, Siddatbnagar District, 1999 Fleld2 Males (5) F.mal","(5) Br.eder. (3) Ave, Ave. Ave. No. Lines score Rank score Rank seor. Rank PVSl NDR","40032 2.2"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Table 7. Farmers' Assessment ofNew Rice Lines during tbe 1999 KharifSeason Lines (LocationL. _.::N\"'a\"m\"'e ____ -'P'-'o\"s\"'lüv\"'• \"' \"..:t:.:' a\"' II:::5 __________ ......:.N\"' .\"' 9=at\"' ív:.:e' -' lra=ít\"' s' -____ _ Listening to the voices of male and female farmers"}]},{"head":"More broken grains alter milling","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Becom.sha,d an.r cooking Aside from asking men and women to rank traits and varieties through visual assessment, we conducted informal interviews with men and women farmers, separately. Ibis enabled plant breeders to listen not only to men but also to women. Sorne oftheir perceptions ofthe rice varieties and Hnes tested are below."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"Mrs. Yadav is 53 years old, iIliterate, and a fuIl-time farmer. Her husband is a full-time worker in the 110ur and oil milis. This makes her ¡he de jacto head ofhousehold. She supervises ¡he farm and makes decisions regarding what crops and varieties to grow. Three years ago, she grew mostly local varieties because of a lack of irrigation facilities. We gave her seeds of NDR 97, a new variety, which she planted on 0.10 ha of land. Later she increased the area planted lo this variety lo 0.5 ha."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"She told us the positive traits she likes in this variety, such as suitability ro her land type, good taste, shorter duration, good milling recovery, ease of threshing, and medium height, and negative traits such as less rice straw:"},{"index":4,"size":145,"text":"1 tried many varieties since the las! jour lo five yeors such as Saket4 and 1 don 't like the taste of Sarju52. lt is coarse and does not rema in sofi afier cookíng. Jt also does not have many broken grains afier milling. So we sold Sarju52 and used NDR359 for home consumption. One thing 1 noticed with the straw ofNDR359 is that it is sofi. so instead of storing it for a long time, we had lO feed ít immediafely fo our anima/s. 1/ we keep the straw for two to three months, it will not be very easy lO cut and the animals will refuse to eat ít. lnstead ojleaving the rice stalles to dry in the fie/d. which is our usual practice, we immediately thresh afier harvesting. lis short duration also enab/es me to grow another crop during the rabi season."},{"index":5,"size":145,"text":"Mrs. T. B Singh, 50 years old, belongs to the upper caste. Due lo labor shortages during the peak season and Ihe lack of male labor (her husband is fully engaged in a nonfarm job), she has been forced to provide physicallabor in most of Ihe rice operations. She was able to finish five years in school. She is the decision maker in !he household and is quite knowledgeable about farming. In 1997, she was one of Ihe collaborators of!he project. Afier testing 13 genotypes on her field, she obtained 5.2 tons per ha from PVS5 (NDRSB9730015), so she decided to continue to grow Ihis variety and expand the area during Ihe 1998 kharif season. She expecled to get six tons per ha, but because of drought, Ihere were many unfilled grains. She told us about Ihe variety's positive traits aside from its high yield:"},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"1 prefer PVS5 because of Its medium duration; medium bold, cylindrical grain; resistance to pesls and diseases; and better mil/ing recovery."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"In 1995, we gave her new seeda of BKP246."},{"index":8,"size":248,"text":"1 like this variety too because it is suítable for the lowland rainfed area, has good yields, and is not susceptible to diseases. I like the size and the shape ofthe grain-medium and boldo It a/so has the best milling recovery and commands a high price in the market. In 1998, 1 sold four quíntals of paddy at Rs 400 per quintal, while the o/her varieties are Rs 50 less than BFK246. We use Sarju52 and Saket4 for home consumption. Saket4 has fine graíns and matures early, a trait ideal for the uplands. Our agricultural workers prefer coarse graíns, which last longer in the stomach than paddy with finer grains. I observed that the quantity ofstraw ofBFP346 is less, but grain quality is more important 10 USo Mr. Bansat Lal , 42 years old, an ilIiterate father !rom the backward caste, is a full-time fanner. Hís sons are fully engaged in nonfann activíties and his daughter-in-Iaw supervises fann activities and takes part in decision making. In 1997, he was a collaborator in the plant vanetal-selection program and obtaíned good yields. After threshing and mílling, the female members of his household al so agreed that the PVS5 (NDRSB97300 15) and PVS6 (NDRSB9730020) should be grown the following year. Both Mr. Lal and his daughter-in-law have the same criteria for selection, such as better yield, good qualíty of straw, medium height, resistance to pests and diseases, longer and fine grains, no broken grains after milling, softness and expansion after cooking."},{"index":9,"size":72,"text":"My daughter-in-law observed that PVS5 is easy to hull through hand pounding afier parboiling. Jt is a/so good for puffed rice. Mr. Lal shared the seeds ofPVS5 with other fanners. In 1998, he cultivated PVS5 and PVS6 on his 3 bigha (0.3 ha) land area. He was able to obtain a yieldofsix quintals per bigha inone pIot and four quintals in another plot. These yielils were higher than those in nearby fields."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":242,"text":"Socioeconomic surveys revealed that a major determinant of vanetal choice is the eonsCÍous attempt of fanners to match vaneties with the land type. Each field position in the topo-sequence corresponds to a risk of drought or submergence. In Mungeshpur (shallow and submergenceprone) fanners' eritena for selecting rice vaneties are associated mainly with duration (short to medium), for growing rabi crops after rice in the upland fields, and with better yield. A second determining factor is the adaptation to different user needs: food, livestock fodder, thatching, and cash. A third detennining factor is related to different postharvest operations like ease ofthreshing, good taste, high mil!ing recovery (above 65%), good storage capacity, and premium market price. Gender-specific roles and responsibilíties also determine vanetal preferences. For example, women prefer medium or semi-tal! vaneties that are easier to thresh, as well as vaneties that have a good quantity and quality of rice straw for livestock feed. Moreover, they prefer vaneties for the specific rice products that they make. While it may be difficult to combine all their preferred traits into one unique vanety because of genetic correlations, it is ímportant that both men and women have a \"basket of choices\" of vaneties suited to their needs and agroecosystems. elearly, Iistening to fanners' perceptions and involving both men and women fanners in selecting rice varieties at the early stage of breeding can lead to faster adoption of varieties suited to their specific rice ecosysteros and diverse needs."}]},{"head":"armers• Perceptions through Participatory Rice Varietal Seleerían","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"In many regions of the world farmers routinely produce seeds for their staple crops. 111is i5 partículady cornmon in regions where agricultural production is affected by frequent and unpredíctable droughts, as in most areas where pearl millet (PennÍsetum glaucum [L.] R.BL),a cross-pollínating crop, is grown. Under these harsh climatie conditions, fanners have developed landraces that tend to show good levels of tolerance to these environments. 111e farmers have also evolved strategies for maintaining seed during drought years in order to safeguard food production and animal foddeL Given the fuet that formal plant-breeding programs have failed to develop superior varieties for marginallands and low-input conditions, the main objective ofthe study presented here is to better understsnd farmers' own seed-management pmctices as a basis for planning and implementing participatory strategíes that capitalize on fanners' local knowledge. This approach would aliow researchers to then conCentrate on specific weaknesses that farmers' own selection pmctices cannot effectively address."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"To date, these local strategies, including the fanners' needs and preferences, along with details of their cropping systems, are not familiar to scientists involved in conventional breeding programs. The objectives of this projeet are listed below: l. To describe farmers' own crop-improvement activíties in regard to yieJd, quality, and diversity of pearl míllet, with special emphasis on seed-management strategies, such as introgression of modem varieties, seJection, storage, processing, exchange, and procurement 2. To quantifY the effects of farmer activities on the genetic structure and performance ofpearl millet populations"}]},{"head":"Short description of the study area","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":180,"text":"Rajasthan ís situated in the northwest ofIndia (figure 1). It is a semi-arid regíon wíth a mean annual rainfaU that ranges !Tom < 250 mm in the westem part (Thar Desert) to > 650 mm in the southeast (figure 2). In this study, we refer only to the westem part ofthe state, where farmers must make do with ¡ess than 350 mm of annual rainfall, with high variabilíty!Tom year to year. Experienced farmers often talk of a 10-year cyc1e in which two seasons have good raíns, two have severe drought with crop failures, and the rest usually have fair to good seasons. Soils are mainly sandy, and sand dunes are common. VilIages are typically scattered across wide areas. Pearl míllet is grown tbree to four months during the monsoon season, mostly in mixtures with other crops, such as legumes and cucurbits. Animal husbandry is another important par! of tbe farmíng system. Social conditions in tbe víllages are govemed by the caste system. Even today, the caste system stilllargely determines people's social status, occupation, income, and access to education and information.  "}]},{"head":"Farmers' seed-management strategies","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Farmer's concept 01 a \"variety\""},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"Farmers' seed management can only be evaluated if one fully understands the farmers' concept of a \"variety.\" Ims term, as understood by plant breeders, does not seem lO be fully appropriate for the farmers' pearl míllet seed system in west Rajasthan. In order to learo how farmers perceive \"varieties,\" informal interviews as well as classification and ranking exercises were carried out during workshops with farmers from the study villages. Care was taken to inelude both female and male farmers in the interviewing process. The results demonstrate tha! environrnental adaptation was the main eriterion for farmers' c!assification of pearl millet plants in westem Rajasthan. Potential uses and quality aspeets further eontributed to the farmers' method of grouping different plant types (Christinck and vom Brocke 1998)."},{"index":3,"size":245,"text":"Traditionallandraces that have adapted to the environment show a high basal and nodal tillering ability, indicating toleranee to drought and low requirements for soil fertilíty. If these eharaeteristies are combined with tmn stems, narrow leaves, and thin, compact panicles with srnall grains, farmers will conclude that sueh a plant will grow under low-input eonditions (Le., in their fields) and produce grain and straw of high nutritional quality. In contrast, the characteristics of modem varieties are low basal and nodal tillering ability, tmck stems with broad leaves, and Iarge panicles with relatively large grains Iha! are mostly round in shape. From the farmers' experience, this plant type is not toleranl lo drought stress, requires higher soil fertility, and has inferior food and fodder qualities. Farmers, however, are aware that pearl millet plants showing such characterístics can produce higher yields under favorable conditions (Chrístinck and vom Brocke 1998). Farmers are therefore concemed about the composition oftheir seed stocks, i.e., wmch plant types and, thus, which properties are present. Farmers expect plant types to change over time, in reaction to environmental conditions such as soil quality and raínfall, so Iha! the seed stock generated in one year cannot be exactly reproduced the next season. They have a strong concept of continuous interactions between plant type and environmenl, as evidenced by their belief, or experience, that any pearl millet cultivar, including modern varieties, that is grown in their fie1d for sorne years will eventually become like their local cultivars."},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"Contrary to the views of professional plant breeders, the farmers' concept of a \"variety\" is not that of a population with more or less uniform and stable plant characterístics based on its genetic background; the term \"variety\" is applied to a plant type that is evolving under or adapting lo certain environmental conditions. This concept is reflected in fue farmers' seed-management strategies."}]},{"head":"What is seed management?","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Seed management comprises all activities of a farming faroily that influence their seed stock, including introgression of modern cultivars (open-pollinated varieties or hybrids), seed selection, processing, storage, exchange, and procurement. In this paper, we refer mainly 10 seed selection and processíng, and the ways in wmch farmers deal with modem varieties frorn the market."}]},{"head":"Ways 01 se/ecting or processing seed","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Farmers in Rajasthan generally employ two main selection methods. The first is winnowing or grading, which entails cleaning and separating seed grains. The rate of selection can vary greatly. It may be lhat only 10% of the threshed and stored grain will be rejected (rnainly husks and broken and insect-infested grains), or more than 50% ifthe grains, for example, are small and not fully developed. Generally, the smaller grains are be used for food."},{"index":2,"size":142,"text":"The second method, which is also very cornmon, is the selection of panicles that show preferred traits. Farmers usually select for panicles on the threshing ground afier the panicles have been separated from the straw, although sorne farrners prefer to select for panicles in the field before harvesting, taking the entire plant into consideration, e.g., number oftillers, height. Even by inspecting the panicle, farrners can envisage what the plant's other characteristics looked like (or would look like when regrown). Many farmers do not perforrn panicle selection every year, but only in the better seasons, which usually occur every two to four years. In harsher years, they are most likely to use the winnowing/grading method. A third, less cornmon, forrn of selection is to use the harvest of a preferred field-a field considered to be more fertile than others-for sowing the following year."},{"index":3,"size":147,"text":"Using \"improved varieties\" or hybrids from the market If a farrning family does use pearl millet seed from the market, in most cases it will be mixed into the family's own seed stock. In western Rajasthan, farrners without access to irrigation facilities generally do not grow improved varieties or hybrids in pure stands. Market seed is mostly certified or \"truthfully labeled\" seed. Further advanced generations of such seed can be optioned from the market or from other farrners. This grain is not labeled and its origin is ofien unknown. There are two ways in which farmers use seed from the market: l. Occasional introgression of new seed from the market into the previous year' s seed stock: the resulting crop consists of many different plant types (traditionallandrace, market variety, and several generations of progeny). Mixing ratio and frequency can vary widely, ranging from 1:10 up to 50:50."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"2. Regular introgression ofnew seed from the market into the previous year's seed stock, selecting for desired plant types among outcrosses: One or more new plant types will become dominant, and the variability of plant types is less than in the first example. The amount and frequency of mixing new seed, as well as selection intensity, can differ greatly from farmer to farrner and from year to year."},{"index":5,"size":79,"text":"It is important to understand that most farmers do not use improved varieties to replace their own seed, as is ofien assurned. Rather, they use new seed to increase the variability of plant types in their fields, thereby creating new options for their strategies of selecting for preferred plant characteristics, including grain and straw yield, food and fodder quality, storability, drought tolerance, early maturity, tolerance to adverse weather conditions (heat, sandstorrns, thunaerstorrns), and resistance to bird or locust damage."}]},{"head":"Social aspects of seed management","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":222,"text":"The availability of seed grain at the onset of rains is very important for farmers in western Rajasthan. The success of a crop depends very much on sowing irnmediately afier the first rains of the monsoon. For centuries, farmers have had to deal with crop failures due to severe drought conditions. Therefore, \"taking care ofthe seed\" is considered to be of great importance. Farmers who can successfully maintain their own seed, or be in a position to provide other villagers with seed in times of scarcity, are considered to be good farmers and are respected by al!. There is a special caste in most villages for whom maintaining seed and sharing it with others is considered to be a traditional obligation. Nevertheless, other farrners can also build up a reputation for owning good seed, and \"lending\" or sellíng il to others. Seed management is, therefore, related to aspects of caste and status in vilIage life. Furthermore, ít ís a gender-related actívíty. Selecting the seed, storíng it, and processing it before sowing is traditionally done by women, whereas soil preparation and sowing ís usually done by men. Men also often participate in harvesting, and depending on the family, they can be equally involved in selecting seed. Buyíng seed from the market and obtaining information about market varieties is done almost exeJusively by men."},{"index":2,"size":166,"text":"Diverse seed-management strategies co-exist ín villages in western Rajasthan, reflecting the diversíty of socíoeconomic conditíons: farmers who grow traditionallandraces with or without selection; families who mix, sometimes orregularly, seed from the market ínto the landrace seed or without selectíon; and familíes who sow the pure seed of markct varieties. All these seed-management strategies can be found in one village. Even though pearl millet is a cross-pollinating crop, it seems to be possible for a village cornmuníty to maintain a diversity of plant types. The reasons for a farming family using a certain strategy can only be partly explained by soíl conditions and c1imatic factors. Other important factors seem to be the size ofthe landholding (market-oriented or subsistence-oriented), the number and species of animals and their fodder requirements, the aecess to cash income or loans to buy seed, the family tradition and knowledge, and access to information on new varieties, e.g., literacy and mobility. Most ofthese socioeconomic conditions are related to the caste system in Rajasthani villages."}]},{"head":"Quantification of the effects oC farmers' seed-management strategies","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Material and methods","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":186,"text":"To quantif)' the effects of farmers' seed management, 69 graín stock samples were collected from 16 farmers located in four different villages in westem and central Rajasthan during 1995-1997. Samples were characterized by the farmer, e.g., as separated seed grain and food grain, and were classified into four main seed-management strategies (rabie 1). These grain samples from farmers, along with 12 modem varieties known to be grown in these víllages, were evaluated under varyíng drought-stress conditions at three research stations in westem Rajasthan (Mandor, Jodhpur, Palí) between 1997 and 1998. Climatíc conditíons in 1997 were generally favorable, whereas in 1998 severe drought affected the plant growth, especíally at Mandor. The fie1d trials comprised 81 entries and were laid out in lattice designs with five replications. The different plant traits that are used by farmers and scientists 10 describe the performance of pearl millet were recorded in order to assess productivity and characteristícs of entries. These plant traits inc1uded noda! tillering, leaf shape, stem diameter, panicle girth, number of productíve tillers, grain weight, straw and grain yield, as well as diversity of plant types withín one entry. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Kirsten vom Brocke ;, • PhD student al the Institute of Plant Breeding, Seed Science and Populatíon Generics, University of Hohenheim. Stuttgart, Germany; Anja Christinck is a PhD ,lUdent at !he In't;tule for Social Seiences of the Agricultural Se<:tor, Department ofCommW1ication and Extension, University ofHohenheim; and Eva Weltzien is a principal scientist witb !he Interna-lÍan.! Crops Researeh Institute for lhe Sem;-Arid Tropios (lCRlSA n, in Bam.ko, Malí (West Amea). The work jll'esented here is part of rhe project \"Enhancing qu.lity, diversity and productivíty of fanners' peorl millet genetic <esoorces in Rajasthan, India,\" which i5 acollaborative acrivity ofthe Intemational Crops Research Instítute forthe ｓ ･ ｭ ｩ ｾ ａ ｲ ｩ ､ ＠ Tropies (ICRlSAn. Hyderabad, Indía; ilS natíonal partner ín,titutlons in Rajaslban, including lbe Central Arid Zone Research Institule (CAZRI), Rajasthan Agriculture University (RAU M.ndor) •• nd lbe N.tianal Bureau for Plant Genetic Resourees (NBPGR), and the Universiry ofHohenheim in Germany. We thank all scientists and staffmembers involved foc their personal support to this study.particularly Dr. Thomas Presterl and Prof. Dr. H.H. Geiger (Univer,;ty afHohenheim, lnstitule ofPlant breeding, Seed Science and Popularion Genetícs), Prof. Dr. V. Hoffinann (Agricultural Social Sc;ences, Department of Communication and Extension), Dr. P. BrameI-Cox (lCRlSA n, and Dr. O.P. Yadav (CAZRI). The enlbusiastic and most competen< participation offarmer, from Ibe villages of A'gola;, Udaipur Khurd, Kíchiyasar, and Nunwa in !he workshops ís equally acknowledged. We further thank the German MinislTy for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) for funding through !he German Society for Technical Co-operation (GTZ). "},{"text":" Figure 1. The state of Rajastban in the northwest ofIndia "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. District capitals and zones of mean annual rainfall in the study area "},{"text":"Table 5d . Summary Ranking of Rice Genolypes inMungeshpur, Faizabad District, 1999     Fieid 2  Mal •• (S)  Female. (5)    Fieid 2Mal •• (S)Female. (5)        Rank Rank PVS1 NDR-40032 4.2 3 3.4 3 2.3 1 PVS1NDR-400324.233.432.31 PVS2 Kamini 11.4 12 14,4 14 14,7 11 PVS2Kamini11.41214,41414,711 PVS3 NDR-973004 8.0 7 6.2 4 4,7 2 PVS3NDR-9730048.076.244,72 PVS4 NDR-973003 8.6 9 8.0 8 8,0 6 PVS4NDR-9730038.698.088,06 PVS5 RAU-1308-9-3-1-10-3-4-3 14 12.0 12 14.3 10 10 PVS5RAU-1308-9-3-1-10-3-4-31412.01214.31010 PVS6 PSRM-I-16-48-1 12.8 13 11.8 11 12.3 8 PVS6PSRM-I-16-48-112.81311.81112.38 PVS7 NDR-9830102 3.6 2 2.4 2 7.0 5 PVS7NDR-98301023.622.427.05 PVS8 NDR-9730002 8.0 7 10.0 9 8,7 7 PVS8NDR-97300028.0710.098,77 PVS9 NDR-9730015 5.6 5 6.4 5 5.0 2 PVS9NDR-97300155.656.455.02 PVS10 NDR-9730020 5.2 4 7,0 6 6.0 4 PVS10NDR-97300205.247,066.04 PVS11 Mashun 10.6 10 13.6 13 7,0 4 PVS11Mashun10.61013.6137,04 PVS12 RAU-1308-10-11-3-1-4-3 8 10.2 la 12.7 9 9 PVS12RAU-1308-10-11-3-1-4-3810.2la12.799 PVS13 NDR-96012 10,8 11 72 7 9.3 7 PVS13NDR-9601210,8117279.37 PVS14 RAU-141HO 7,0 6 10,0 9 9,0 7 PVS14RAU-141HO7,0610,099,07 PVS15 NDR-9830103 1.6 1 1.4 1 5.3 3 PVS15NDR-98301031.611.415.33 PVS16 RAU-1400-13-20 15,0 15 10,0 9 9.7 6 PVS16RAU-1400-13-2015,01510,099.76    w-z.6S ... •  W=.65\"'''  w=.60 u w-z.6S ... •W=.65\"'''w=.60 u  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Summary Ranking ofPreferred Lines by Male and Female Farmers and Plant Breeders, 1999 Mala farmer. Female farmers Plan! breeders Mala farmer.Female farmersPlan! breeders  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Farmers' Seed-Management Strategies as Represented in Field Trials LR Mainlains only locallandrace seed without introgression 01 modem malerial LRMainlains only locallandrace seed without introgression 01 modem malerial  SeleClion method mainly winnowlng SeleClion method mainly winnowlng IGR1 Occasionally introgresses modem varieties into iandrace IGR1Occasionally introgresses modem varieties into iandrace  Seiection method malnly wlnnowlng Seiection method malnly wlnnowlng IGR2 Introgresses modem malerial more regularly than strategy IGR1 IGR2Introgresses modem malerial more regularly than strategy IGR1  Seleels regularly/frequenlly for panicles Seleels regularly/frequenlly for panicles  "}],"sieverID":"45f4404d-a33d-4587-b062-90cab9321f95","abstract":"This paper presents information from a study on farmers' seed-management practices growing pearl millet in Raíasthan, India. It describes farmers' own crop-improvement activities in regard to yield, quality, and diversity of pearl millet, with emphasis on seed-management stralegies, such as introgression of modem varieties, selection, slorage, proeessing, e\"chango, .nd proeurement. It .150 e\"amines lhe farmers' definition of \"variety\" as compared lO lhe definition used by professional plant breeders. Far the study, farmers were divided into four graups, based on lheir seed-management practices. Dala were eollecled on specific trailS and correlated with grain yield under different c1imatic conditions. The pOlential and constrainls offarmers' practices are discussed, with emphasis on areas where researchers could concentrate on specifie weaknesses that farmers' own seleclion practice. caonot effectively address."}

data/part_4/0a64929280cf29c7e1e15ea71dff4c0b.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a64929280cf29c7e1e15ea71dff4c0b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a0f65861-a233-4829-99fb-69fe584c6844/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Restoration action research protocol: End-ofseason resting in highland grasslands","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"ATTRIBUTION. The work must be attributed, but not in any way that suggests endorsement by ILRI or the author(s)."}]},{"head":"NOTICE:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"For any reuse or distribution, the licence terms of this work must be made clear to others. Any of the above conditions can be waived if permission is obtained from the copyright holder. Nothing in this licence impairs or restricts the author's moral rights. Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Editing, design and layout-ILRI Editorial and Publishing Services, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. "}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":312,"text":"In the Ethiopian highlands, communal grasslands have potential for the contribution of livestock feed sources with sound management plan and improvement methods (Eba and Sircely 2020). Facilitation of management planning for communal grassland user groups was conducted by International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) researchers in 10 communal grasslands in Menz Gera and Menz Mama woredas in March 2021 (Sircely and Eba 2020a). During the management planning, user groups assessed and planned for the use of land restoration options to improve feed production and reverse degradation in their communal grasslands. Among the restoration options user groups chose for planning, the most frequently selected was 'short-resting' of portions of the grassland during specific months of the year when feasible and effective. The local experience of farmers in resting their individual grazing lands during the peak of the rainy season informed the months during which resting is best conducted in communal grasslands. Resting was most feasible at the end of the rainy season, when farmers primarily graze their animals or feed them hay from their individual grazing lands, and the end of the rains provide good growing conditions for grasses to recover their strength. Since short-resting was the most commonly selected restoration option, user groups who planned to implement short-resting were invited to participate in an action research trial on the effectiveness of resting highland communal grasslands for a brief period of three months from July to September at the end of the rainy season. The short-resting trial 'simulates' how user groups planned to implement short-resting, as part of their larger plans for seasonal resting of grasslands by dividing the area into smaller sections for grazing in different seasons and at different intensities. Seasonal grazing and short-resting are simple and cost-effective from the perspective of communal grassland user groups, and end-of-season resting should substantially improve grass cover, production and regeneration to improve year-round feed availability."}]},{"head":"Research goals and roles","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Objectives: To improve grass cover, vigour, and production; reduce degradation risk, and thereby improve yearround forage availability in highland communal grasslands."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Hypothesis: Resting communal grasslands for three months toward the end of the rainy season improves grass cover and production, reduces degradation risk, and improves year-round forage availability, in accordance with farmers' local knowledge and experience."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"Options to compare: Resting of communal grasslands for three months from July to September, versus no resting (control)."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"Contexts to compare: Area of grazing land (small vs. large), distance from markets, degree of user group reliance on communal grazing lands for livestock feed."},{"index":5,"size":85,"text":"Study units: Five communal grasslands, each with one research area (Figure 1) containing three resting plots rested for three months, July to September, and three controls plots (without resting). Each resting and control plot is 60 m × 60 m or 0.36 ha (Riginos et al. 2011), and the resting and control areas each total 1.08 ha, for a total research area of 2.16 ha per grassland. Baseline data for each site was collected in the early dry season of 2019 (Sircely and Eba 2020b)."},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"Responses to measure: Plant base cover, woody plant cover, community perceptions/preferences, labour cost, constraints."}]},{"head":"Roles of user group members:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Identify and decide where research trials will be implemented, delineated/marked with local materials, like wooden page/paint on colour on stone, oversee the area, prepare by-laws for enforcement of the planned options, share experience and evaluate the options. User group members appoint two members of their group to ensure the consistent implementation of the trial."}]},{"head":"Roles of others:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"• ILRI: Lead the implementation of research trails, prepare the protocol, facilitate the discussion within the community to select the options based on their context, involved in data collection and prepare report. Follow up of the sites during research time, support budget for the activities, prepare the by-laws for enforcement of the planned trial options and translate the plan to local language."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"• Woreda experts (livestock and rural land offices): Oversee the site and provide feedback and assistance, and involved in research area demarcation, monitor the plots, contribute to evaluation, preparation, translation, and distribution of the by-laws for enforcement of the planned trial options. Mobilizing the community for discussion, selecting sites, and liaison with community user groups."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"• Amhara Regional Agricultural Research Institute (ARARI)/Debre Berhan Agriculture Research Center: Involved in the process of selecting options, site selection, evaluation, and liaison with community user groups."}]},{"head":"Study experimental design","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"All communal grasslands must be of sufficient size to allow resting (i.e. ≥ 4 ha) with user groups in agreement to host the research on resting."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"Suggested timing (start and end): Plots established and baseline taken in a prior year in the early dry season (peak standing biomass). Resting starts at the end of the wet season, for three months, July-September. Assessment of outcomes from the trial will be in October or November, in the early dry season. Each communal grassland needs to be characterized, have its prioritized objectives set, and its management planning completed. These steps are taken to understand and identify resources use and access, the objectives of users group, and to ensure that the management option of short-resting is a part of the user group's plan for better management of their communal grassland."}]},{"head":"Action trial implementation","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Step 1. Five communal grasslands that represent the communal grasslands in Menz were selected according to willingness of the user group and the inclusion of short-resting in their management plan. Three treatment (resting months) and three controls plots within each communal grassland were demarcated with GPS."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Step 2. Baseline data were collected with the community and national agriculture research centres involvement using Land PKS (Riginos et al. 2011)."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"Step 3. The community decided how to protect the action research area during the resting time, and hence nominated two people to keep the area secure for three months with a stipend as compensation. User groups selected two guards through discussion for each site and each guard signed a contract for three months of a modest monthly payment. While fencing may be required in some cases, here protection by community members was seen as more feasible. All members of the user group had the responsibility to protect and oversee the action research areas."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"Step 4. Resting for the action research trials started on 7 July 2021, and will end on 7 October, for the months of resting at the end of the rainy season."},{"index":5,"size":40,"text":"Step 5. At the end of resting, community focus group discussions will be held with the user groups to evaluate the results of the action research trials. Woreda experts and the Amhara Regional Agricultural Research Institute (ARARI) will be involved."},{"index":6,"size":35,"text":"Step 6. Outcome data collection will be carried out with ARARI of Debre Berhan Agriculture Research Center, in the early dry season in October or November. The results will be analysed statistically by ILRI researchers."},{"index":7,"size":30,"text":"Materials needed: GPS, tablet with LandPKS app installed, 1-metre wooden stick, notebook, 20 sticks of 0.5 metre length and colour paint for demarcation of the research area in each site."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Design and layout of action research trial resting and control plots. "},{"text":" Photo credit: ILRI/Jason Sircely Citation: Eba, B. and Sircely, J. 2021. Restoration action research protocol: End-of-season resting in highland grasslands. Nairobi, Kenya: ILRI.  Patron: Professor Peter C Doherty AC, FAA, FRS  Patron: Professor Peter C Doherty AC, FAA, FRS Animal scientist, Nobel Prize Laureate for Physiology or Medicine-1996 Animal scientist, Nobel Prize Laureate for Physiology or Medicine-1996 Box 30709, Nairobi 00100 Kenya Phone +254 20 422 3000 Fax +254 20 422 3001 Email [email protected] ilri.org better lives through livestock ILRI is a CGIAR research centre Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone +251 11 617 2000 Fax +251 11 667 6923 Email [email protected] Box 30709, Nairobi 00100 Kenya Phone +254 20 422 3000 Fax +254 20 422 3001 Email [email protected] better lives through livestock ILRI is a CGIAR research centreBox 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone +251 11 617 2000 Fax +251 11 667 6923 Email [email protected]  "}],"sieverID":"e9546e28-e18c-457b-b46c-15d18d0828e2","abstract":"CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a food-secure future. The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock provides research-based solutions to help smallholder farmers, pastoralists and agro-pastoralists transition to sustainable, resilient livelihoods and to productive enterprises that will help feed future generations. It aims to increase the productivity and profitability of livestock agri-food systems in sustainable ways, making meat, milk and eggs more available and affordable across the developing world. The Program brings together five core partners: the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) with a mandate on livestock; the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), which works on forages; the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), which works on small ruminants and dryland systems; the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) with expertise particularly in animal health and genetics and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) which connects research into development and innovation and scaling processes.The Program thanks all donors and organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund"}

data/part_4/0a7390e7a2ad8d73b01652cdfe24c8d0.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a7390e7a2ad8d73b01652cdfe24c8d0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4b30fe78-4a5c-41dd-9c1d-e8b6d4caa339/retrieve"},"pageCount":28,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Distribution of bean germplasm from CIAT-GRU in 1973-2000 Source: CIAT, GRU, 2001 to outside institutions and partners in 96 countries: 82,978 accessions Stems from the need to define the object of access, so the national competent authority can provide it"}]},{"head":"Kind of users","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"The Treaty states :"}]},{"head":"Consequence for parties:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"No IPR on \"related information\" may mean no IPR on naturally occurring genes"}]},{"head":"Some outstanding issues :","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Stems from the need to define the owner, so the national competent authority can be defined and act IPR : legal ownwership of genetic resources"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"•Clear and straightforward in case of wild species ?"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"•Less obvious in case of landraces ?"},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"•Difficult in case of improved varieties ? •Clear and straightforward in case of wild species ?"},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"•Less obvious in case of landraces ?"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"•Difficult in case of improved varieties ?  What is \"facilitated access\" ?"},{"index":7,"size":7,"text":"•not included in the definitions (art. 2)"},{"index":8,"size":6,"text":"•purposes: research, breeding, training (art. 12.3)"},{"index":9,"size":10,"text":"•no need for individual tracking of accessions, free of charges"},{"index":10,"size":8,"text":"•material must be remitted with relevant passport information"},{"index":11,"size":11,"text":"•the Recipient cannot claim IPR on the material and genetic components"},{"index":12,"size":9,"text":"•for material under development access decided by its developper"},{"index":13,"size":11,"text":"•material included in the multilateral system remains available from the system"},{"index":14,"size":12,"text":"•material is obtained through a Material Transfer Agreement to be agreed upon "}]},{"head":"Farmers' Rights","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"first time acknowledged, but an international perspective completely forgotten ?"}]},{"head":"Conservation of Genetic Resources","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Contracting Parties are acting as the object of sovereignty will be there forever !"}]},{"head":"Multilateral System","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"voluntary basis; crop coverage against criteria !; facilitated access (MTAs) The material contained herein is being furnished by [Center] under the following conditions:"},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"The material described in the attached list is held in trust under the terms of an agreement between [Centre] and FAO."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"[Centre] is making this material available as part of its policy of maximizing the utilization of genetic material for research, consistent with the provisions of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"The Recipient may utilize and conserve the material for research, breeding and training for food and agriculture and may distribute it to other parties provided the recipient is also willing to accept the conditions of this agreement."},{"index":5,"size":40,"text":"The Recipient hereby agrees not to claim any intellectual property rights or other rights that limit the facilitated access to the plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, or their genetic parts or components, in the form received from [Centre]."},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"The Recipient also agree not to take out intellectual property rights over the related information provided."},{"index":7,"size":42,"text":"The Recipient further agrees to ensure that any subsequent person or entity to whom the recipient makes the plant genetic resources available, is bound by the same provision and undertakes to pass on the same obligations to future recipients of the germplasm."},{"index":8,"size":101,"text":"<If the material provided under this Material Transfer Agreement is incorporated in a product that is a plant genetic resource for food and agriculture that is commercialized, then the recipient shall pay into the mechanism set up under the International Treaty an equitable share of the benefits arising from the commercialization of that product, except whenever such a product is freely available without restriction to others for further research and breeding, in which case the recipient is not obliged, but is encouraged to make such payment. The level form and manner of the payment shall be in line with commercial practice.>"},{"index":9,"size":90,"text":"[Centre] makes no warranties as to the safety or title of the material, nor as to the accuracy or correctness of any passport or other data provided with the material. Neither does it make any warranties as to the quality, viability, or purity (genetic or mechanical) of the material being furnished. The phytosanitary condition of the material is warranted only as described in the attached phytosanitary certificate. The Recipient assumes full responsibility for complying with the recipient nation's quarantine/biosafety regulations and rules as to import or release of genetic material."},{"index":10,"size":30,"text":"Upon request, [Centre] will furnish information that may be available in addition to whatever is furnished with the seed. Recipients are requested to furnish [Centre] performance data collected during evaluations."},{"index":11,"size":28,"text":"The material is supplied expressly conditional on acceptance of the terms of this agreement. The Recipient's acceptance of the material constitutes acceptance of the terms of this Agreement."}]},{"head":"Final thoughts","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"•Two sure winners: genetic erosion and transgenical crops ?!"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"•We have a Treaty, and perhaps a starting point for a multilateral system on PGRFA !"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"•Sovereign rights of whom and on what ?: future generations, and net loss of diversity"},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"•Access has been seen as static, even PGRFA are seen as static !"},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"•but the Global System of PGRFA could contribute to another agricultural revolution while genomics and bioinformatics are changing the context !"},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"•Misunderstanding about tropical forages; importance of CIAT, ILRI collections Cary Fowler"}]},{"head":"Geoff Hawtin","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Gerald Moore"},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"Thank you !"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" ownwership of genetic resources definition of genetic resources : genotypes and/ or genes ? sharing of benefits : direct use and indirect uses relationships with non-parties !? relationships with other international treaties : CBD, WTO, WIPO Some outstanding issues : definition of genetic resources \"any genetic material of plant origin of actual or potential value for F & A including reproductive and vegetative propagating material containing functional units of heredity\" "},{"text":" key to food security and high interdependency Countries becoming contracting parties plant genetic resources for food and agriculture into a multilateral system under \"facilitated access\" share different types of benefits International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for F & A •asked to FAO by the Conference of the Parties of the CBD in 1994 •seven years of negotiations; 2-3 sessions/ year; +/-35 countries •open for signature by countries on 3 November 2001 • entry into force upon 40th ratification; in 2003 ?! •116 countries voted in favour; none against; 2 countries abstained • on October 18, 2002: 62 signatures; 6 ratifications "},{"text":" general obligations, operations in GR, sustainable use, international cooperation 1 article: \"rests with national governments\" 4 articles: sovereignty, system, facilitated access, benefit sharing 4 articles: GPA, IARCs, networks, information system 1 article: financial resources 17 articles: Governing Body, Secretary, amendments, annexes, entry into forceInternational Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for F & A "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"69c784b8-389c-4dcd-8601-613822e16da4","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0a8a4dd86489701d851b95d93b1d294e.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a8a4dd86489701d851b95d93b1d294e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/87a2b8fe-7d4d-4c8d-8282-db911c39d3ed/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Anomalous precipitation as a factor for the spatio-temporal distribution of RVF in Uganda","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Next steps","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"o Complete analyses of all outbreaks for precipitation, Temp, NDVI, Human and livestock populations   "}]},{"head":"Innovative ways of working","index":2,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"FindingsoFig 1 : Fig 1: Rainfall anomalies for areas that have reported RVF outbreaks in Uganda between June 2018 and May 2021. The vertical dotted line (in red) identifies periods when outbreaks were reported (June 2018 and May 2021). "}],"sieverID":"0adf323b-1978-404d-b24b-807d84cfcf35","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0aa91838c2aba50a23cd95b1a6b1b326.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0aa91838c2aba50a23cd95b1a6b1b326","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b3dd61a9-5dcb-42cc-8e3a-fd7c173b4837/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Effect of processing on micronutrient content of chips produced from some plantain and banana hybrids","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"The annual world production of plantain and banana is estimated at 75 Mt [1]. In Nigeria, plantain production was estimated at about 2.11 MT in 2004 [2]. Plantain and banana are grown in some 120 countries [3]; they are major carbohydrate staples of the local populations in the developing world. In Nigeria, plantain and banana are eaten in many forms, including chips, dodo, roasted, boiled, porridge and flour [4,5]."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Chips are ready-to-eat food; they are one of the most popular fried products worldwide, especially the internationally traded potato chips [6]. They are conventionally produced by deep-frying of pulp slices in heated vegetable oil, and can be preserved for a long time given adequate packaging and storage facilities. Several studies have been conducted on the use of Musa species fruits for chip-making [7][8][9][10][11][12]."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"The World Bank [13] reported vitamin A deficiency (VAD) as the most common form of global malnutrition after protein deficiency. Davey et al. [14] reported that VAD is a leading cause of early childhood death and a major risk factor for pregnant women in Africa, Micronesia and other parts of the world. In parts of Asia, Africa and Latin America, vitamin A deficiency occurs in millions of children [15]; new Musa hybrids may be an important source of provitamin A for the people of those regions."},{"index":4,"size":149,"text":"In Southeast Nigeria, 50% of children and 61% of women suffer from chronic anaemia, due to iron deficiency [16], whose symptoms include learning disability, mental retardation, poor physical development and reduced ability to fight infectious diseases, ultimately leading to premature death. Zinc deficiency is responsible for growth failure, hypogonadism and anaemia [17]. Preformed vitamin A, whose official chemical name is retinol [18], is found only in foods of animal origin. Carotenoids form one of the most important classes of plant pigments and play an important role in defining the quality parameters of fruit and vegetables [19]. They are the primary source of vitamin A for most people living in developing countries [20], where vitamin A deficiencies are still prev-alent [21]. The Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, also reported that carotenoids have a variety of actions that are related to the decreased risk of some degenerative diseases [22]."},{"index":5,"size":92,"text":"Deep-fried plantain and banana chips may potentially be used in intervention programs to combat micronutrient deficiencies, by virtue of their iron, zinc and total carotenoid content. The fat content of chips may increase the carotenoid bioavailability [23], though it may also reduce product shelf life due to lipid oxidation [24]. Davidson et al. [18] also reported that retinol is stable to heat at ordinary cooking temperatures, but liable to oxidation and destruction if the fats in the product that contained it turned rancid, and could also be destroyed by exposure to light."},{"index":6,"size":254,"text":"There is increasing interest in developing disease-resistant, high-yielding genotypes of plant species which are rich sources of iron, zinc and provitamin A carotenoids (pVACs) [25][26][27]. Successful genetic manipulation of carotenogenesis has been achieved in rice [19] and canola (rapeseed, Brassica napus) [19,28]. Intervention studies undertaken using β-carotene (precursor of vitamin A) supplements rather than using foods with enhanced carotenoid levels resulted in no potential benefit, while food supplements and fortified products are beyond the reach of many households in the developing countries. The Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) has launched a nutritional breeding program aimed at improving the micronutrient (including iron, zinc and pro-vitamin A) status of various agricultural crops. The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), a key member of CGIAR, is currently working in this direction on its mandate crops, including plantain and banana, cassava and yam. In the genus Musa, a great deal of diversity exists, and the occurrence of plantain and banana varieties with naturally orange-colored fruit pulp is an indication that these varieties could be an important source of dietary pVACs. The mineral profiles of Musa species fruit have been widely reported [29][30][31]. The demand for plantain and banana chips in Nigeria is increasing, in spite of fragmentary reports on their nutritional potential. Our research was therefore conducted to determine some major micronutrients in chips made from new plantain and banana hybrids being currently disseminated in Nigeria, and many parts of West and Central Africa (WCA), and East and Southern Africa (ESA), to unveil their nutritional value."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Five matured bunches of new Musa hybrids (10 months old) were investigated:"},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"-three plantain hybrids developed at the IITA, Nigeria, named with the prefix PITA (Plantain International Institute of Tropical Agriculture): PITA 14, PITA 17 and PITA 26, -two cooking banana hybrids: one hybrid developed at the IITA, Nigeria, named with the prefix BITA (Banana International Institute of Tropical Agriculture): BITA 3; and one hybrid developed at the Fundacion Hondureña De Investigación Agricola (FHIA): FHIA 25."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"Moreover, a mature bunch of a local plantain (12 months old), Agbagba, was studied as reference."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"Samples were obtained from the experimental station of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), High Rainfall Station, Onne, located at lat. 04°43' N, Long. 07°01' E and 10 m alt., near Port Harcourt, Nigeria."}]},{"head":"Preparation of chips","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"Deep-fried chips were prepared according to the procedures described by Adeniji [11]. Bunches were harvested at the green stage and de-handed prior to de-fingering of representative fruits from the second hand from the proximal end of the bunch, according to Baiyeri and Ortiz's [32] recommendation. Fruits were washed to remove dirt and latex and then carefully hand-peeled with the aid of a stainless steel kitchen knife; the resultant pulps were immersed in water to prevent browning during the peeling process. Pulps were placed into a clean bowl and seasoned with salt. Fruits were sliced disc-wise (0.15 cm) with the aid of a Plantain Slicer, SF923-1, CEE Square Ltd., Leawood Blvd, Houston, Texas, USA, into a preheated vegetable oil at 190 °C with constant stirring for 5 min until crisp. Chips were placed into an aluminum sieve and properly drained to remove excess oil, then they were allowed to cool at room temperature."}]},{"head":"Determination of iron and zinc","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"Iron and zinc analysis was performed in triplicate using the procedure described by Allen et al. [33]. The analytical procedures used for sample treatment for Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS) analysis are as follows: Chips were milked with the aid of stainless Kenwood Chef Warning Blender, model KM001 (0067078) series. A one-g sample was weighed into a Pyrex glass conical flask. Ten mL of concentrated nitric acid was introduced into the flask with a straight pipette. Five mL of perchloric acid was also added. The mixture was heated on an electro-thermal heater for about 20 min until a clear digest was obtained. The digest was cooled to room temperature and diluted to 50 mL with distilled water. The diluent was filtered into a plastic vial for AAS analysis."}]},{"head":"Determination of total carotenoids","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"The total carotenoid content of the sample was performed spectrophotometrically in triplicate using the method described by Rodriguez-Amaya [34]."},{"index":2,"size":271,"text":"For the sample preparation, about 5 g of plantain or banana chips were weighed into a beaker, then transferred into a mortar; 3 g of Hyflosupercel (Celite) were added. The mixture was ground with 50 mL of cold acetone (acetone left in the refrigerator for about 2 h). It was then filtered with suction through a Buchner funnel with filter paper. The mortar, pestle, funnel and residue were washed with a small amount of acetone, and this was received in the suction flask through the funnel, ensuring that the residue and washings were devoid of color. About 40 mL of petroleum ether was measured into a 500-mL separatory funnel and the acetone extract was added. About T.A. Adeniji, A. Tenkouano 300 mL of distilled water were added slowly and allowed to flow along the walls of the funnel. Shaking was avoided to prevent formation of an emulsion. The two phases were allowed to separate and the lower aqueous phase discarded. The upper phase left in the funnel was washed 3-4 times with 200 mL each time to remove residual acetone. Care was taken to discard the lower phase as completely as possible during the last washing, without discarding part of the upper phase. The petroleum ether phase was collected in a 50-mL volumetric flask, making the solution pass through a small funnel containing about 15 g of anhydrous sodium sulfate to remove residual water. In the process, a glass wool plug was used to hold the sodium sulfate. The separatory funnel was washed with petroleum ether and this was collected in the volumetric flask, passing through the funnel with sodium sulfate."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"The sample was made up to volume and the absorbance read at 450 nm; the total carotenoid was calculated with the following formula: total carotenoid (g•g -1 ) = [A × volume (mL) × 10 4 ] / [A 1cm 1% × sample weight (g)], where A = absorbance; volume = total volume of extract = 50 mL; A 1cm 1% = absorption coefficient of β-carotene in petroleum ether (2592)."}]},{"head":"Estimation of retinol equivalent","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The retinol equivalent (RE) e was calculated from the total carotenoids obtained in plantain and banana chips, based on the report of Davidson et al. [18], which revealed that 6 µg of β-carotene has the biological activity of 1 µg of retinol, and most of this difference is due to poor absorption of carotene. The percentage daily contribution of both iron and zinc were estimated using the Recommended Daily Dietary Allowances (RDDA) of the Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences [22]."}]},{"head":"Data analyses","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"The data generated in triplicate were analyzed using the Statistical Analysis Systems [35] software package. Significance of treatment means was tested at the 5% probability level using Duncan's New Multiple Range Test."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"The results of the micronutrient composition of chips produced from new plantain and banana hybrids showed that there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in the iron content of the chips made from different cultivars (table I). However, the zinc content of PITA 26 chips differed significantly (p < 0.05) from those of PITA 17 and FHIA 25. The iron and zinc contents of the chips studied in our experiment was lower than those reported earlier in plantain [31] and sweet potato varieties [36]. Frying and boiling has been reported to reduce the iron, zinc and copper contents of plantain [31]."}]},{"head":"Table I.","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Micronutrient content (μg•g -1 ) of chips produced from plantain and banana hybrids (Nigeria). Values in the same column with different letters are significantly different at p < 0.05."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"The iron content of plantain is 100% utilizable for human consumption when compared with other foods [37]. The estimated daily contribution of iron from a small packet of 45 g of chips made from PITA 14 are 31.1% and 23.0% of the RDDA for an adult male and female, respectively, while, if the same quantity of chips is consumed, PITA 26 can contribute 14.6% and 20.1% zinc of the RDDA daily for an adult male and female, respectively (table II)."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"The total carotenoid content of BITA 3 chips differed significantly (p < 0.05) from those of other cultivars (table III). Also, Agbagba, FHIA 25 and PITA 17 chips were significantly different from PITA 14 and PITA 26 in total carotenoid content."},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"With reference to our results, chips made from BITA 3 can contribute 2.61 retinol equivalent (RE) e daily, if a small packet of chips (45 g) is consumed, based on the RDDA. A small packet of plantain and banana chips sold in Nigeria usually weighs between (35 and 45) g [9]. Since plantain chips are snacks, they can be consumed in between meals as much as desired, which 1 RDDA for iron are 6.0 mg•day -1 for an adult male and 8.1 mg•day -1 for an adult female."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"2 RDDA for zinc are 9.4 mg•day -1 for an adult male and 6.8 mg•day -1 for an adult female."}]},{"head":"Table III.","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Comparison of plantain and banana hybrid chips' content for their contribution to meeting daily vitamin A requirements, based on the Recommended Daily Dietary Allowances [22]. T.A. Adeniji, A. Tenkouano could make provision for a substantial amount of micronutrients in the diet. The vitamin A content of Cavendish banana is 60 g•g -1 of retinol equivalent per kg [38], which is higher than the present value obtained in plantain and banana chips. The carotenoid content of an edible portion of banana fruit includes 0-37 µg•100 g -1 lutein, 0-157 µg•100 g -1 α-carotene and 0-92 µg•100 g -1 β-carotene [19]. Deep-frying, baking and pickling result in substantial losses of pVACs [39]. Freezing (especially quick freezing), however, preserves pVACs, but long thawing is detrimental [39,40]."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"The dependence on plantain and banana consumption by both rural and urban populations in sub-Saharan Africa and their derived food products are strong indications that Musa species fruit are an important source of dietary minerals and vitamins [14]. In developed countries, 70-90% of carotenoid intake are derived from fruit and vegetables, and provide about 25-35% of the total retinol intake, whereas, in developing countries, this contribution can be as much as 82% [39]. This strongly suggests that there is real potential for improving human nutritional status and achieving long-term population health benefits without enforcing a change in dietary eating habits."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":176,"text":"In spite of frying of fresh pulp slices from new Musa hybrids at high temperatures, the levels of iron, zinc and total carotenoid found in the resultant chips are capable of making a substantial contribution to recommended daily dietary allowances. Our study may provide information in support of a global effort in the elimination of micronutrient malnutrition in developing countries. New Musa hybrids may be used as a substitute for local plantain in food processing. One of the plantain hybrids used in this study (PITA 26) was rejected by some farmers during the first phase of the IITA hybrid delivery project (2000)(2001)(2002)(2003) due to lack of nutritional information and processing options. Looking at data generated in the present study, PITA 26 is comparable with other varieties in micronutrient content. Con-sumption of chips made from the new hybrids may increase the intake of iron, zinc and vitamin A and, therefore, reduce nutritional disorders associated with these micronutrient deficiencies. Our data therefore suggest that new plantain and banana may be considered suitable for chips and other value-added products."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table II . Estimated percentage daily contribution of iron and zinc from a small packet (45 g) of plantain and banana hybrid chips based on Recommended Daily Dietary Allowances (RDDA)[22] (Nigeria). Cultivar Origin % daily contribution of iron 1 % daily contribution of zinc 2 CultivarOrigin% daily contribution of iron 1% daily contribution of zinc 2   Adult males Adult females Adult males Adult females Adult malesAdult femalesAdult malesAdult females PITA 14 Hybrid 31.1 23.0 9.5 13.1 PITA 14Hybrid31.123.09.513.1 PITA 17 Hybrid 19.9 14.7 5.8 8.1 PITA 17Hybrid19.914.75.88.1 PITA 26 Hybrid 30.1 22.3 14.6 20.1 PITA 26Hybrid30.122.314.620.1 BITA 3 Hybrid 24.7 18.3 11.3 15.6 BITA 3Hybrid24.718.311.315.6 FHIA 25 Hybrid 17.9 13.2 4.3 6.3 FHIA 25Hybrid17.913.24.36.3 Agbagba Landrace 30.5 22.6 7.2 9.9 AgbagbaLandrace30.522.67.29.9  "}],"sieverID":"3bfd712c-2cf2-4ce6-8121-69ccbd178d45","abstract":"Introduction. Chips or crisps are the most important foods usually fried; they are presented in the form of thin discs (chips) or sometimes in the form of sticks (French fries). Materials and methods. Chips were prepared starting from pulp samples resulting from five hybrids of plantain and banana newly released in Nigeria and from a local cultivar used as reference. The iron, zinc and pro-vitamin A contents were investigated in the chips to unveil their micronutrient content. Results and discussion. The results showed that there was no significant difference (p < 0.05) in the iron content of the chips produced from the new plantain and banana hybrids, while a significant difference (p < 0.05) existed in both zinc and total carotenoid contents of the hybrids. Chips made from BITA 3, a hybrid cooking banana, could contribute 2.61 retinol equivalent (RE) e [1 (RE) e = 6 µg β-carotene (precursor of vitamin A)] daily, if a small packet of chips (45 g) is consumed, based on the Recommended Daily Dietary Allowance. A 45-g packet of chips made from PITA 26 can contribute 14.6% and 20.1% of the daily requirements of zinc per day, and 30.1% and 22.3% of the requirements of iron per day, for a man and a woman, respectively. Conclusions. The new plantain and banana hybrids may therefore significantly participate in a food strategy aiming at combating the lack of micronutrients in the sub-Saharan African diet.Nigeria / Musa / fruit pulps / frying / chemical composition / iron / zinc / carotenoids / retinol Effet du traitement thermique sur la teneur en micronutriments de croustilles produites avec certains hybrides de plantain et de banane.Résumé --Introduction. Les chips ou les frites font partie des aliments frits les plus importants ; ils se présentent sous forme de rondelles minces (chips) ou sous forme bâtonnets (frites). Matériel et méthodes. Des chips ont été préparées à partir d'échantillons de pulpe issue de cinq hybrides de plantains et de bananes nouvellement diffusés au Nigéria et d'un cultivar local utilisé comme témoin. Les teneurs en fer, zinc et provitamine A du produit transformé ont été étudiées pour évaluer leur contenu en micronutriments. Résultats et discussion. Les résultats ont montré qu'il n'y avait aucune différence significative (p < 0,05) entre les teneurs en fer des chips issues des nouveaux hybrides de plantains et bananes, tandis que des différences significatives (p < 0,05) existaient pour les teneurs en zinc et en carotenoïdes totaux de ces hybrides. En se basant sur l'allocation alimentaire quotidienne recommandée (AAQR), les chips de BITA 3, une banane à cuire hybride, pourraient apporter quotidiennement 2,61 équivalents rétinol (ER) e [1 (ER) e = 6 µg β-carotène (précurseur de la vitamine A)], si un petit paquet de chips (45 g) était consommé chaque jour. En se basant sur l'AAQR, un paquet de 45 g de chips de PITA 26 pourrait apporter 14,6 % et 20,1 % des besoins journaliers en zinc, et 30,1 % et 22,3 % des besoins en fer, pour un homme et une femme adultes, respectivement. Conclusions. Les nouveaux hybrides de plantains et de bananes peuvent donc participer significativement à une stratégie alimentaire visant à combattre le manque de micronutriments dans l'alimentation de l'Afrique subsaharienne.Nigéria / Musa / pulpe de fruits / friture / composition chimique / fer / zinc / caroténoïde / rétinol"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0aa99cce58b2b22757846698b591cb45","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/407e16f5-1408-4cf9-aeb6-641dca850601/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Endorsing the SDGs CONTACT","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"M O M E N T S","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"A "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"leads the CGIAR Big Data Platform 2015 CIAT endorses the SDGs 1971 CGIAR is born 1981 Expansion to Africa and Asia Originally headquartered in Washington, DC, CGIAR starts as an informal association of countries, international and regional organizations, and private foundations in support of agricultural research. CIAT, IRRI, CIMMYT, and IITA are supported as the original CGIAR centers. Over four decades, the number of CGIAR centers grows from four to fifteen.Efforts are made to post staff in Africa and Asia, particularly for work on cassava in Indonesia and Thailand, and on beans in Burundi, Rwanda, and Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo). At this time, CIAT's long-range plan calls for significant increases in outposted staff and for an emphasis on decentralization through global networking and collaboration.   1967 CIAT is born   1992 Emphasis on sustainability 1967 CIAT is born1992 Emphasis on sustainability 50 N D CIAT M I L E S T O N E S The Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) includes government research institutions, universities, and international research centers. It works with farmers, rural communities, NGOs, and other private sector organizations to increase smallholders' access to improved and marketable bean varieties, new crop management techniques, and market chain information. Since 1996, PABRA has released over 550 new bean varieties across Africa, many of which have transformed beans from a subsistence crop to a cash crop -marking CIAT's focus on raising incomes of smallholder farmers. In May 1971, 18 countries and four organizations, convinced that agricultural science is a powerful tool to combat hunger, unite as the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (now CGIAR). 1996 CIAT launches PABRA Armed with evidence of our changing climate, CIAT establishes a program to investigate ways for farmers to respond to the situation. In particular, the Center's expertise in geographic information systems (GIS) and other modeling tools will be used to investigate how climate change will impact agricultural production in the future. In 2010, CIAT took the lead of the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) under the CGIAR's first 2010-2016 portfolio of Research Programs. 2002 Confronting climate change CIAT is formally established on 17 October 1967. Though formed in cooperation with the Colombian government, CIAT would function autonomously, governed by an international board of trustees. Dr. Ulysses J. Grant, a plant breeder and the Regional Director of the Agricultural Program of the Rockefeller Foundation in Colombia, is designated Interim Director. Grant, a man of both vision and action, is lauded as being the chief negotiator, promoter, and executer behind the establishment of CIAT. CIAT endorses the United Nations' new Sustainable Development Goals, the ambitious successor to the Millennium Development Goals. Six of the seventeen Under the auspices of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA), signed two years previously, CIAT sends its first shipment of seeds to the Svalbard Global Seed Vault in northern Norway. Buried in permafrost near the North Pole, the so-called \"Doomsday Vault\" aims to safeguard duplicate collections of seeds from genebanks around the world. In the event of conflict or natural disaster, seeds would be repatriated to to help them reestablish crop production.n. 2008 Safeguarding biodiversity The ultimate goal of the CGIAR Platform for Big Data in Agriculture (2017-2022), which is co-led by CIAT and IFPRI, is to harness the capabilities of big data to CIAT views access to accurate and timely information as global public goods, essential to the worldwide effort to fight hunger and poverty. In 2013, CGIAR centers officially commit to making all research outputs Open Access by 2018. Opening research, including publications, products, and raw data, ensures that more people can read and apply CIAT's research findings. 2013 Opening access to research 2017 in Rio de Janeiro, and responding to the growing realization that research aimed to increase food production must also contribute to the conservation of natural resources, poverty reduction, and the promotion of equity, CIAT launches its Resource Management Research Division. It makes a clear investment toward both sustainable development and gender equity. CIAT co-In conjunction with the 1992 UN Earth Summit 50N D CIATM I L E S T O N E S The Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) includes government research institutions, universities, and international research centers. It works with farmers, rural communities, NGOs, and other private sector organizations to increase smallholders' access to improved and marketable bean varieties, new crop management techniques, and market chain information. Since 1996, PABRA has released over 550 new bean varieties across Africa, many of which have transformed beans from a subsistence crop to a cash crop -marking CIAT's focus on raising incomes of smallholder farmers. In May 1971, 18 countries and four organizations, convinced that agricultural science is a powerful tool to combat hunger, unite as the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (now CGIAR). 1996 CIAT launches PABRA Armed with evidence of our changing climate, CIAT establishes a program to investigate ways for farmers to respond to the situation. In particular, the Center's expertise in geographic information systems (GIS) and other modeling tools will be used to investigate how climate change will impact agricultural production in the future. In 2010, CIAT took the lead of the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) under the CGIAR's first 2010-2016 portfolio of Research Programs. 2002 Confronting climate change CIAT is formally established on 17 October 1967. Though formed in cooperation with the Colombian government, CIAT would function autonomously, governed by an international board of trustees. Dr. Ulysses J. Grant, a plant breeder and the Regional Director of the Agricultural Program of the Rockefeller Foundation in Colombia, is designated Interim Director. Grant, a man of both vision and action, is lauded as being the chief negotiator, promoter, and executer behind the establishment of CIAT.CIAT endorses the United Nations' new Sustainable Development Goals, the ambitious successor to the Millennium Development Goals. Six of the seventeen Under the auspices of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA), signed two years previously, CIAT sends its first shipment of seeds to the Svalbard Global Seed Vault in northern Norway. Buried in permafrost near the North Pole, the so-called \"Doomsday Vault\" aims to safeguard duplicate collections of seeds from genebanks around the world. In the event of conflict or natural disaster, seeds would be repatriated to to help them reestablish crop production.n. 2008 Safeguarding biodiversityThe ultimate goal of the CGIAR Platform for Big Data in Agriculture (2017-2022), which is co-led by CIAT and IFPRI, is to harness the capabilities of big data to CIAT views access to accurate and timely information as global public goods, essential to the worldwide effort to fight hunger and poverty. In 2013, CGIAR centers officially commit to making all research outputs Open Access by 2018. Opening research, including publications, products, and raw data, ensures that more people can read and apply CIAT's research findings. 2013 Opening access to research 2017 in Rio de Janeiro, and responding to the growing realization that research aimed to increase food production must also contribute to the conservation of natural resources, poverty reduction, and the promotion of equity, CIAT launches its Resource Management Research Division. It makes a clear investment toward both sustainable development and gender equity. CIAT co-In conjunction with the 1992 UN Earth Summit     goals reinforce the global importance of CIAT's mission accelerate and enhance the impact of international goals reinforce the global importance of CIAT's missionaccelerate and enhance the impact of international     to pursue sustainable development on multiple fronts: agricultural research by providing global leadership in to pursue sustainable development on multiple fronts:agricultural research by providing global leadership in     poverty reduction, food security, universal health and organizing open data, convening partners to develop poverty reduction, food security, universal health andorganizing open data, convening partners to develop 1967    well-being, decent work and economic growth, action on climate change, and the protection of life on land. innovative ideas, and demonstrating the power of big data analytics through inspiring projects. 1967well-being, decent work and economic growth, action on climate change, and the protection of life on land.innovative ideas, and demonstrating the power of big data analytics through inspiring projects. CIAT     CIAT is born     is born   Phone: +254 20 8632800 /  Phone: +254 20 8632800 /    +254 719 052800 / 721 574967  +254 719 052800 / 721 574967   Fax: +254 20 8632001  Fax:+254 20 8632001  "}],"sieverID":"897150c3-f2b7-432f-8ad6-eb7fff767f98","abstract":"biofortification GIS pioneers 2006 Linking farmers to markets 2009 Restoring African soils 2014 CIAT co-leads the CGIAR Platform for Big Data in Agriculture"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0aafaa59514a01343a60830cdd9b0031","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/48742c2c-31d8-42a7-8798-1def5a3a47b2/retrieve"},"pageCount":25,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Soil is usually studied as an \"entity\" in which the plants grow and develop. Yet, it should be considered as a dynamic system from the viewpoint of fertility and productivity. When considering crop nutrition, specifically cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), the relationships between soil, plant, and water should be taken into account and not only each factor separately. That is, the three factors should be studied as a whole."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Another important aspect of plant nutrition is the subject of fertilizer application as a management practice for recovering, sustaining, and maintaining soil fertility and increasing crop productivity. Overall, considerable ignorance exists on the adequate interpretation of the chemical and physical analyses of soil that form the basic diagnosis tools for recommending chemical or organic fertilizers."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"A principal objective of this chapter is to bring readers up to date on concepts relating to nutrition of the cassava crop, basic aspects of soil, and how to make correct recommendations for fertilizers as a soil management practice."}]},{"head":"Soil and Its Productivity Traditional definition","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Soil is a dynamic system that is usually composed of four phases: solid, liquid, gaseous, and biological. Figure 5-1 shows the ideal volumetric conditions of a soil for normal plant growth."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Logic supposes that this condition is not met and that soils present a real condition, which determines their potential for production. To better understand this point, we use two examples: a sandy soil located in Pivijay, Magdalena, Colombia, and another, clay, soil located in Santander de Quilichao, Cauca, also in Colombia (Figures 5-2 and 5-3)."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"These soils were continuously planted to cassava for 8 and 2 years, respectively. As observed, the volumetric percentage in each case is different, requiring different management (Cadavid L 2000)."},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"A sandy soil has a higher percentage of macropores, more aeration, less water retention, less organic matter content and, thus, less N availability. In contrast, the clay soil has a higher number of micropores, less aeration, higher water retention, more organic matter content and, as a result, a higher cation exchange capacity (CEC) 2 ."}]},{"head":"Agricultural definition","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"For agricultural purposes, soil should be studied from two viewpoints: fertility per se and productivity. To understand soil productivity, the soil-plant-water relationship must be studied. In these terms, soil is a dynamic system formed by five well-defined phases that interact with each other (Guerrero 1980, cited by Cadavid L 1995): Other losses (irreversible) also occur through fixation and immobilization. Fixation occurs when soil nutrients, especially N, P, and K, become part of insoluble compounds and therefore difficult for plants to assimilate. Radicals such as NH 4 + , H 2 PO 4 -, and K + remain lost from this phase through this process. When this happens with the participation of soil microorganisms (e.g., fungi, bacteria, and actinomycetes), organic matter becomes immobilized and the contribution of nutrients such as N, P, and S is reduced."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"As this phase becomes exhausted through the losses previously described, uptake of nutrients by plants, and erosion, nutritional resupply occurs through ionic exchange in the soil exchange phase (Guerrero 1980;Cadavid L 2000)."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"Soil exchange phase. This phase is made up of clays, organic matter, and Fe and Al oxides and hydroxides (soil colloids), the constituents of which are minerals and organic solids in the soil. These colloids are responsible for chemical activity in soils. Hence, this phase is in continuous interaction with the liquid phase through ionic exchange in the soil. It restores nutrients exhausted in the liquid phase by the previously cited processes."},{"index":4,"size":124,"text":"Ionic exchange is a phenomenon based on the presence of negative charges in clays and other soil colloids (Cassanova O 1996). Through these charges, ions are released from minerals previously subjected to weathering, or from decaying organic compounds, rainwater, irrigation water, and fertilizers. The ions can be adsorbed by soil particulates and, under these conditions, they are partially retained. However, such retention is sometimes not sufficient to prevent ions from being either exchanged with other ions in the soil solution or adsorbed by the plant's root system. According to Thompson (1965), Garavito (1979), and Cassanova O (1996), those ions weakly held on the surfaces of particulates in direct contact with soil solution can be rapidly replaced in exchange reactions. These ions are called exchangeable."},{"index":5,"size":83,"text":"Other ions can be adsorbed with such tenacity or be located in barely accessible positions that their release or release is either hindered or it is very slow. These ions are called non-exchangeable. Potassium is an example of this situation, when it is held between laminas in the crystalline structure of illite and micas. Figure 5-5 illustrates the attraction of cations (+) for soil colloids (-). The strength with which cations can be retained in exchange sites is as follows (Cassanova O 1996):"},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":"The CEC of a soil is defined as the quantity of cations retained in an exchangeable form within a given pH and is expressed in meq/100 g of soil (cmol/kg). Table 5-1 outlines data on the CEC of different soil components (meq/100 g of matter), as according to Cassanova O (1996)."},{"index":7,"size":46,"text":"From these data a soil's exchange matter can be deduced through its CEC. For example, if a soil has a CEC of 10 meq/100 g of soil, then kaolinite probably forms the predominant part of that soil's clay fraction, that is, clay 1:1, with little activity."}]},{"head":"Root phase.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Adsorption. Soil nutrients are continually removed by the growing plant through adsorption. This is the process by which the element N leaves the substratum (nourishing solution), reaches a part of any root cell, and is then transported by xylem to other plant organs (Malavolta et al. 1989). Nitrogen is an element that may be:"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"• Essential, that is, the plant cannot complete its normal life cycle in the nutrient's absence (Garcidueñas 1993)."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"• Beneficial: It increases growth or production under given conditions."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"• Toxic, by diminishing growth or production, or even causing death of tissues, organs, or the entire plant. In practical terms, a plant can very capably adsorb those elements necessary for its metabolism, even from relatively low concentrations in the soil. What is important is that this element is always present in the liquid phase that surrounds the roots (Calderón 1991). Adsorption depends on several factors (Malavolta et al. 1989;Calderón 1991;INPOFOS 1993), including:"},{"index":5,"size":118,"text":"Soil pH and availability. Soil pH has a major, direct influence on the solubility and availability of elements in the soil. When any symptom is observed in the field, the pH of the soil in which the plant is growing should be measured. Often, this factor is closely related to the causes of the symptom. Cadavid L (1980) reported P deficiency and low crop yields for cassava grown in Colombian Oxisols, Ultisols, and Inceptisols (soils with pH < 4.5), where the content of usable P (method Bray II) is < 3.0 ppm (for cassava, the critical level is 10 ppm). This is a clear example of low availability of an element being related to soil pH (Table 5-2)."},{"index":6,"size":69,"text":"Usually, adsorption is more intense in the 6.0 to 6.5 band of pH. At higher acidity (very low pH values), the availability of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, B, and Mo diminishes, whereas that of Cu, Fe, Mn, and Al increases. At high pH values (alkalinity), the availability of P, B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Al diminishes, whereas that of Mo, S, and K increases (Figure 5-6)."},{"index":7,"size":60,"text":"Chemical fertilizer applications (especially of nitrogenous fertilizers such as ammonium sulfate), leaching of bases, carbonic acid excretion by plants, and high nutrient extraction (especially N, K, Ca, and Mg) contribute to soil acidification. An example of this situation was presented in a sandy soil of Pivijay, Magdalena, Colombia, which had been planted to cassava for 8 consecutive years (Table 5-3)."},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"Other external factors that affect adsorption are aeration, soil temperature, speed of element adsorption, and presence of other ions."},{"index":9,"size":86,"text":"Presence of other ions. As stated earlier, soil solution consists of a heterogeneous mixture of ions that includes essential, beneficial, or toxic elements. The speed of absorption of an element (anions: NO 3 -> Cl -> SO 4 -2 > H 2 PO 4 -; cations: NH 4 + > K + > Na + > Mg +2 > Ca +2 ) can be increased, reduced, or  Mn otherwise influenced by the presence of another. These influences are commonly called relationships of antagonism, inhibition, and synergism:"},{"index":10,"size":29,"text":"• Antagonism: The presence of an element reduces the adsorption of another, thus preventing toxicity. For example, Ca +2 impedes excess adsorption of Cu +2 or Al +3 ."},{"index":11,"size":91,"text":"• Inhibition: Reduced adsorption of an element induced by the presence of another ion, usually causing deficiency. For example, K + versus Ca +2 or Mg +2 ; Al +3 versus H 2 PO 4 -; Al +3 versus Ca +2 or Mg +2 ; H 2 PO 4 versus Zn +2 ; Ca +2 versus K + (in high concentration); and Ca +2 versus Zn +2 . Cadavid L et al. (1977) reported an example of this situation in the soils of the Eastern Plains of Colombia (Oxisols; Figure 5-7)."},{"index":12,"size":71,"text":"• Synergism: The presence of a given element increases the adsorption of another. For example, Ca +2 in low concentrations increases absorption of K + or of H 2 PO 4 -; Mg +2 versus H 2 PO 4 -; and H 2 PO 4 versus MoO 4 -2 . This circumstance may have practical consequences in fertilizer application, as it represents a greater economy and better use of mineral fertilizers."},{"index":13,"size":191,"text":"For cassava grown in acid-soil Oxisols, an application of 500 to 1000 kg/ha of dolomitic lime may increase P availability and its adsorption, because of the presence of Mg +2 and Ca +2 ions.  certain soil fungi. The plant receives nutrients through the mycelia of the fungus and this, in turn, receives carbohydrates from the plant (Cano 1999;Sánchez de P 1999). Plants that have been inoculated with mycorrhizae, in this case, cassava, possess an increased adsorption surface, adsorbing, in particular, P ions from the soil when concentrations of this element are low. Tables 5-5 and 5-6 show the action of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) in soils of Cuba and Colombia (Sieverding 1984;INIVIT 1999). The mycorrhizae that affect the absorbent roots of cassava and many other crops belong to the group known as vesicular-arbuscular endomycorrhizae. Their hyphae grow between and within root cortex cells, producing ramifications within them. These are called arbuscules and vesicles. Hyphae also grow in soil, where they can extend for several centimeters along roots (Howeler 1983). Other more common, but also efficient fungi found in the cassava crop include Glomus manihotis, Entrophospora colombiana, and Acaulospora mellea in Colombian soils."}]},{"head":"Aerial parts phase.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Accumulation and distribution of dry matter in cassava. The concentration of nutrients in cassava varies considerably between plant parts and also during the growth cycle (Howeler 1983;Cadavid L 1988a). As the plant grows, N, P, and K contents decline in leaves (leaf blade and petiole), but tend to increase in stems and roots."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"In a study conducted by Howeler and Cadavid L (1983), the authors indicated that, with cv. M Col 22, the roots accumulated, at the end of the 12-month cycle, sufficient N, P, K, Cu, Fe, and B; whereas Ca, Mg, S, Mn, and Zn accumulated mainly in the stems. The authors also found that the maximum increase in nutrient accumulation during the growth cycle occurred between 2 and 4 months after planting. This period corresponded to the maximum accumulation of dry matter for M Col 22 and other cultivars. After 6 months, the adsorption rate for most nutrients declined."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Nijholt, cited by both Howeler (1981) and Howeler and Cadavid L (1983), indicated that total accumulation of dry matter continues throughout the growth cycle. However, it declines in leaf blades and petioles after 6 months, whereas it increases until the end of the cropping cycle in stems and roots."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"Tables 5-7 and 5-8 show the accumulation of dry matter and nutrients of different cassava cultivars in the acid soils of Santander de Quilichao, Cauca, Colombia (El-Sharkawy et al. 1998)."},{"index":5,"size":60,"text":"Nutrient extraction. The cassava crop extracts large amounts of nutrients from the soil, sufficient to be considered as an extra loss. Table 5-9 describes the average nutrient extraction (kg/ha) per ton of harvested fresh roots. The high export of elements, particularly N, K, and Ca, is notable (Howeler and Cadavid L 1983;Cadavid L 1988aCadavid L , 1995Cadavid L , 1997))."},{"index":6,"size":70,"text":"Nutritional disorders of the crop. The plant, in itself, determines its \"state of health\". When stress occurs through scarcity or excess of water, deficiency or toxicity of a nutrient, or physical or mechanical injury to organs, the plant manifests characteristic symptoms that indicate that something is wrong. This condition of anomaly manifesting in one or more symptoms becomes another tool for diagnosis (see below under Deficiencies and toxic effects ...)."},{"index":7,"size":47,"text":"In cassava, the frequent absence of clear symptoms of macronutrient deficiency means that nutritional problems can be easily overlooked (Howeler 1981). In such cases, the state of availability of soil nutrients must be known and confirmed by plant tissue analyses and the plant's responses to fertilizer applications."},{"index":8,"size":44,"text":"Sometimes, symptoms of nutritional disorders can be confused with those of fungal diseases such as necrosis caused by anthracnose, insect attack (e.g., Zn deficiency with thrip attack), herbicidal damage (chlorosis and necrosis), and poor drainage and excess water (chlorosis or yellowing of leaf blades)."},{"index":9,"size":77,"text":"Mobility of nutrients in the phloem. When attempting to detect nutritional deficiency by observation of visual symptoms, the mobility of nutrients in the phloem should be taken into account (Table 5-10). According to Howeler (1981), Kramer (1989), Malavolta et al. (1989), and Calderón (1991), some ions are distributed more easily than others and can show very different mobility within the phloem. According to this criterion, deficiency symptoms are expected to first appear in cassava plants as follows:"},{"index":10,"size":9,"text":"• Mobile elements in lower and older leaf blades."},{"index":11,"size":14,"text":"These leaf blades yield their nutrients by phloematic translocation to the youngest leaf blades."},{"index":12,"size":16,"text":"• Elements of intermediate mobility in young plant parts and expanded leaf blades (upper leaf blades)."},{"index":13,"size":30,"text":"• Immobile elements in young meristematic leaf blades and root meristems. The elements present in the old leaf blades are not translocated to the youngest leaf blades or new tissues."}]},{"head":"Functions of Nutrients in the Cassava Plant","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Some nutrients have a structural function. Others help establish enzymes (prosthetic group) or activate them and intervene in different processes within the plant. More information is found in Figure 5-8.     Calderón (1991)."}]},{"head":"Deficiencies and toxic effects in the cassava crop","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"A plant that presents any symptoms of any kind is a \"diseased\" plant. Disease is a detrimental physiological activity provoked by a primary causal agent. It manifests as an abnormal activity and is expressed through characteristic pathological conditions known as symptoms (Sánchez 1968), which can be necrotic (e.g., spots, blight, dieback, chlorosis, and cankers), hypoplastic (e.g., chlorosis, witches' broom, etiolation, and dwarfism), and hyperplastic (e.g., abscission, anther apoptosis, and leaf roll)."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"According to Sánchez (1968), the soil's chemical composition can directly cause physiogenic diseases or indirectly favor the development of pathogenic diseases (caused by other live organisms such as fungi, bacteria, and nematodes). An example is that of cassava crops growing in soils deficient in K and where anthracnose, Phytophthora induced diseases, and other fungal diseases causing, for example, necrosis, dieback, and root rots, can develop, drastically reducing tuberous root production."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Deficiencies. Howeler (1981) outlined the principal symptoms of deficiencies in the cassava crop, as follows:"},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"Nitrogen (N). Stunted plant growth; and, in some cultivars, uniform yellowing of leaf blades that begins on the lower surfaces and rapidly extends to the entire plant."},{"index":5,"size":77,"text":"Phosphorus (P). Reduced plant growth, smaller leaf blades and lobes, and thin stems. Under severe conditions, lower leaf blades become yellow, flaccid, and necrotic, and fall easily to the ground. Reddish coloring is sometimes presented. Potassium (K). Stunted plant growth, small leaf blades. Under very severe conditions, purple spots appear, apexes and margins of lower or middle leaf blades suffer yellowing and become necrotic; necrosis of petioles or stem tissues; fine cracks appearing in stems and, runners."},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"Calcium (Ca). Reduced root growth, upper leaf blades are small and deformed."},{"index":7,"size":37,"text":"Magnesium (Mg). Marked intervenal chlorosis in lower and middle leaf blades; plant height reduced to some degree. Sulfur (S). Uniform yellowing of upper leaf blades; similar symptoms have sometimes been observed in the rest of the plant."},{"index":8,"size":32,"text":"Boron (B). Reduced plant height; short internodes and petioles; young leaf blades small and deformed; purple-gray spots in completely extended leaf blades; sticky exudation on stems and petioles; reduced lateral root development."},{"index":9,"size":26,"text":"Iron (Fe). Uniform chlorosis of upper leaf blades and petioles, which become white under severe conditions; reduced plant growth; young leaf blades small but not deformed."},{"index":10,"size":62,"text":"Manganese (Mn). Intervenal chlorosis of upper or middle leaves; uniform chlorosis under severe conditions; reduced plant growth; young leaf blades small but not deformed. Zinc (Zn). Yellow or white intervenal spots in young leaf blades that, under severe conditions, become narrow and develop chlorosis in the vegetative apex; necrotic spots on lower leaf blades; reduced plant growth; often confused with thrip attack."},{"index":11,"size":15,"text":"Toxic effects. Howeler (1981) also outlined the principal symptoms of toxicity in the cassava crop."},{"index":12,"size":16,"text":"Aluminum (Al). Reduced plant height and root growth; yellowing of old leaf blades under severe conditions."},{"index":13,"size":12,"text":"Boron. Necrotic spots appear in old leaf blades, especially on the margins."},{"index":14,"size":23,"text":"Manganese. Yellowing of old leaf blades, with purple-brown or blackish spots throughout the nervura; leaf blades become flaccid and fall to the ground."},{"index":15,"size":70,"text":"When the liquid and exchange phases of the soil are exhausted for lack of nutrients because of constant loss, and deficiency symptoms begin to appear, an artificial resupply of these through chemical fertilizer application becomes necessary. This is also true for N in the solid organic phase of the soil, which can be replenished only through organic fertilizer application. Deficiency is presumed to occur when the following conditions are fulfilled:"},{"index":16,"size":20,"text":"When solubilization + mineralization < fixation + immobilization + extraction + leaching (losses) is reduced, maintained, or increased (INPOFOS 1993)."},{"index":17,"size":27,"text":"Table 5-3 shows an example of a sandy soil from the North Coast in Colombia, where soil fertility increased or declined according to management, time, and crop."},{"index":18,"size":118,"text":"The success of analysis lies in obtaining a good soil sample. Usually, the following are determined: organic matter, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Al, Na, Zn, B, soil acidity (pH), and soil texture (Figure 5-9). Laboratory data are given in local and international units, usually: percentage (%), parts per million (ppm), and milliequivalents per 100 g of dry soil (meq/100 g of dry soil) or g/kg, mg/kg, and cmol/kg, respectively, according to the latest laboratory regulations, not only in Colombia, but also in most of the world. Howeler (1981), Cadavid L (1988b), and Howeler and Cadavid L (1990) have established a series of parameters (critical levels) that serve as tools for correctly interpreting a soil analysis (Table 5-11)."}]},{"head":"Critical levels of soil parameters","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"To more clearly understand the definition of critical level, the following example is given:"},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"If, for the cassava crop, the critical level for P is 10.0 ppm (Bray II) and the soil analysis gives a value of 1.0 ppm, then, P can be considered as a limiting element in this soil. The crop would most probably manifest deficiency of this nutrient. Also, any P applications are highly likely to induce a positive and highly significant response, as manifested in increased yields (i.e., increased fresh-root production in t/ha). If the determined value is higher than the critical level, then the crop would probably not respond to applications of this nutrient."},{"index":3,"size":138,"text":"With laboratory data and knowledge of critical levels of soil parameters already established for cassava, a good interpretation can be achieved but not necessarily a correct recommendation. For example, some Oxisol soils of the Colombian Eastern Plains, as in the case of Carimagua (Altillanura plains) in the Department of Meta, usually have chemical and physical characteristics as presented in Table 5-12. When these values are compared with the already established critical levels, the analysis indicates those nutrients in deficiency. In this specific case, the soil obviously has average N content. It is also very low in P, K, Ca, and Mg. Its zinc content is average to low; and pH is extremely acid. Content of exchangeable Al is high and Al saturation is 77.4%. Sulfur content may be low (although this datum does not appear in this example)."}]},{"head":"Soil Fertility and the Crop's Nutritional Status","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"When fertilizer application is considered necessary, a diagnosis of the soil must be made to determine possible deficiencies and correct them in a timely fashion before a crop is established. If this crop is cassava, possible limitations of the soil where the crop will be established must be known, including the availability of soil nutrients and the crop's nutritional requirements."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"A diagnosis of nutritional problems in the soil aims to discover the availability of nutrients in a given soil and how these levels would affect an established crop. The fundamental objective of chemical diagnosis is to evaluate the soil's capacity to provide nutrients to the plant, that is, to measure its fertility. Diagnosis of soil fertility and nutritional problems for crops is usually carried out by: "}]},{"head":"Chemical Soil Analyses","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Soil sampling and later analyses before planting become very important tools in diagnosing and correcting nutritional problems, thereby preventing deficiencies from affecting plant growth and development. In cassava, the absence of clear symptoms of macronutrient deficiencies makes nutritional problems difficult to see easily. Thus, leaf and chemical analyses become key tools for determining a plant's nutritional status (Howeler 1981)."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"Soil analyses help monitor the state of soil fertility over the years, providing information on whether fertility * The analyses marked with asterisks are of the greatest interest, as they form the basis on which to calculate a formula for applying fertilizers to a given crop and its soil. Fertilizer application is a management mechanism and, as such, should be conceptualized in terms of recovering, maintaining, and sustaining soil fertility and increasing crop productivity. It is important to know   (Cadavid L 1995)."},{"index":3,"size":149,"text":"If this soil (Oxisol from the Altillanura plains, Carimagua, Meta, Colombia) is taken as an example and, assuming that the average production (with intermediate-level technology) of the local variety ICA-Catumare (CM 523-7) is 15 t/ha but farmers want to achieve a weighted production of 30 t/ha, then the cassava crop will need the levels of nutrients as described in Table 5-13. Nutritional requirements indicate the amount of nutrients that a plant needs to fully develop. This quantity is provided by the soil alone or by the soil plus fertilizers. The amount of nutrients extracted or removed from the soil in the final harvest has given rise to a criterion for fertilizer application: the restitution or return to the soil of nutrients that were extracted from it to maintain fertility at the original level. Thus, it is not an ascertained recommendation, as nutrient availability is not included in the soil."},{"index":4,"size":117,"text":"Nutrient availability in the soil. This factor is determined in the laboratory through chemical analysis. Nutrients occur in term of values for available N; usable P and S; and exchangeable K, Ca, and Mg. The availability of a given nutrient is quantified according to results of the analysis (%, ppm, and meq/100 g of dry soil), expressed in kg/ha. Hence, the apparent density of the soil must be considered (which, in this type of soil, is 1.3 g/cm 3 ), on which depends the weight of a hectare of soil. The weight, in its turn, depends on plowing depth as a function of the average depth of the crop's root system (which, for cassava, is 20 cm)."},{"index":5,"size":55,"text":"W s = weight of hectare of soil = V s (cm 3 ) * (g/cm 3 ) V s = L * L * D = volume of 1 ha of soil (cm 3 ) where, L = length of plot side (cm) D = working depth of plot (cm) Thus, in our case:"},{"index":6,"size":74,"text":"V s = 10,000 cm * 10,000 cm * 20 cm = 2 × 10 9 cm 3 W s = 2 × 10 9 cm 3 * 1.3 g/cm 3 * kg/1000 g = 2.6 × 10 6 kg However, meq/100 g of dry soil should be expressed in kg/ha. Starting with the term equivalentgram (i.e., element's atomic weight divided by its valence), and if we take as an example, potassium (K), then:"},{"index":7,"size":58,"text":"An equivalent-gram (Eq) of K = molecular weight in g/valence Eq K = 39/1 = 39 g 1 meq K = 39 g/1000 = 0.039 g Hence, 0.039 g K is found in 100 g dry soil X kg K will therefore be present in 2.6 × 10 6 kg/ha X = 1014 kg K/ha In other words:"},{"index":8,"size":12,"text":"1 meq K/100 g = 0.039 g K = 1014 kg K/ha"},{"index":9,"size":25,"text":"If the datum reported by the soil laboratory is 0.08 meq/100 g of dry soil, then the availability of the nutrient in the soil is:"},{"index":10,"size":26,"text":"1.0 meq K/100 g soil 1014 kg K/ha, for one of 1.3 g/cm 3 0.08 meq/100 g soil; X kg K/ha X = 81.12 kg K/ha"},{"index":11,"size":26,"text":"The same procedure is used with Ca and Mg. When data reported in soil analyses are given in ppm, they are converted to kg/ha, as follows:"},{"index":12,"size":6,"text":"1 ppm is equivalent to having:"},{"index":13,"size":61,"text":"1 kg in 1 × 10 6 kg 1 kg P in 1 × 10 6 kg soil X kg P in 2.6 × 10 6 kg/ha soil X = 2.6 kg P/ha That is, 1 ppm P = 2.6 kg P/ha If in our example, 3.0 ppm of P were reported, then, the availability of P in the soil is:"},{"index":14,"size":64,"text":"1.0 ppm P is in 2.6 kg/ha 3.0 ppm P will be in X kg/ha X = 7.8 kg P/ha Continuing with our formula for determining the need for fertilizer application, the term efficiency still needs to be defined. It is merely the efficiency of fertilizer application on the basis of different losses of a soil nutrient after application. These losses may occur through:"},{"index":15,"size":340,"text":"• Leaching (NO 3 -, K + , Ca +2 , and Mg With the data of weighted requirement of the crop (WRC), availability of the nutrient in the soil (S N ), and efficiency of fertilizer application (E), an approximate fertilizer application formula can be readily established. We point out that the efficiency of fertilizers carrying P is 10% to 30%, depending on the amount of fixed P (this factor is closely linked to the soil class and its colloidal materials). These soils, for example, fix large amounts of this element (around 500 ppm). In fertilizers that include N and K, efficiency is between 50% and 70%. In fertilizers carrying Mg and Ca as lime, efficiency is between 50% and 60%. For NF, we will use the case of K: \"AN\" is usable nitrogen and 2.5% is a percentage of average mineralization (this factor may be between 1% and 5%). 0.0057 × 2,600,000 kg/ha AN = = 148.2 kg/ha 100 NF N = -22.0 kg/ha According to these data, the fertilizer applications required would be 60 kg P/ha and 40 kg K/ha. The formula is adjusted according to the data on response to fertilizer application in terms of area. Hence, for this type of soil, 50 kg N/ha + 60 kg P/ha + 50 kg K/ha + 500 kg/ha of dolomitic lime would be recommended. The recommendation would also be to apply 280 kg/ha of diammonium phosphate (DAP), which would contribute 50 kg N/ha and 58 kg P/ha, and add 100 kg/ha of potassium chloride (KCl) or 119 kg/ha of potassium sulfate if sulfur is less than 8 ppm and 10 kg/ha of borax (equivalent, on breaking up, to 1 kg B/ha). The lime would contribute about 100 kg Ca/ha and 50 kg Mg/ha. The applications of DAP and KCl + borax are carried out between day 30 and day 45 after planting, in simple band and covering to prevent losses. Lime is applied by broadcast 15 days before planting and incorporating with the last task of soil preparation."}]},{"head":"Cassava response to chemical and organic fertilizer applications","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"A viable alternative for recovering, maintaining, and increasing the fertility and productivity of soils dedicated to cassava cropping, and for increasing crop yield and quality, is fertilizer application, either chemical or organic."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Different studies conducted on the response to applications of chemical or organic fertilizers have been most useful, as observed in results: the beneficial and highly significant effect on the production and recovery of soil fertility. Tables 5-2 and 5-14 to 5-22, and Figures 5-10 to 5-12 confirm these results."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"In a clay loam soil (kaolinitic) of the Colombian Eastern Plains (Carimagua, Meta), with relatively low content of P (3 ppm, Bray II method), P applications of up to 400 kg/ha, regardless of source and form of application, showed a highly significant response in yields (Table 5-2). However, with an application of 50 kg/ha of P, yield almost tripled."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"Table 5-14 outlines the beneficial effect of high applications of P on the content of this element in the soil. Differences are notable between sources: highly water soluble, superphosphate type, and slow-release sources such as phosphoric rock and calfos."},{"index":5,"size":117,"text":"The results of this type of trial underscore the importance of phosphoric fertilizer application in soils deficient in P. They show that response to applications of this element occurs and that slow-release sources may constitute an excellent alternative, as, when applied by broadcasting, they are more efficient, thus reducing the high fixation of P existing in this type of soils (Haplustox) (Cadavid L 1980). In Ultisol clay soils in Santander de Quilichao, Cauca, Colombia, which have a very low P content (2.80 ppm, Bray II), cassava was planted continuously over 15 years to observe responses to applications of P (triple superphosphate as the source) and determine an index of adaptation to low P (Tables 5-15 and 5-16)."},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"The data given in the previous tables show a marked response to the constant application of 75 kg P/ha, as the soil, after 15 years, recorded a substantial increase of this element (35.1 ppm, compared with 2.85 ppm without application), thus increasing its fertility."},{"index":7,"size":73,"text":"For yield, Table 5-16 shows a positive and highly significant response to applications of P. Differences between genotypes were observed when the index of adaptation to low P was considered. Many clones have high yields with and without applications of P; and some (e.g., had indices of adaptation to low P of more than 1.5, indicating a high level of tolerance of low P, as well as high response to phosphoric fertilizer applications."},{"index":8,"size":62,"text":"Considering the continuous planting of cassava for more than 15 years and the average to low levels of productivity without applications of P, acid soils with low available P, but high organic matter contents, can probably support sustainable yields with moderate applications of this nutrient (i.e., <50 kg P/ha). This is related to the presence of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae and degree of infection."},{"index":9,"size":21,"text":"In soils of Santander of Quilichao, cassava roots of all clones show a high percentage of infection, indicating effective fungus-cassava association."},{"index":10,"size":59,"text":"In soils where cassava is planted over long periods, K must be taken into account. Because of high extraction, these soils lose their reserves easily, presenting deficiencies of this nutrient. According to research conducted in different types of soil in the country, K is an essential and limiting element in cassava production (Cadavid L 1997;El-Sharkawy and Cadavid L 2000)."},{"index":11,"size":58,"text":"In an Ultisol of Santander de Quilichao, planted with cassava over 12 consecutive years, a highly significant response to K is shown in tuberous root production with applications of 50 kg/ha or more . The soil showed a significant recovery in K content, increasing from 0.06 to 0.33 cmol/kg, which is considered high for this type of soil."},{"index":12,"size":108,"text":"In an Inceptisol (clay soil) of Santander de Quilichao, which had a high content of organic carbon (4.8%), low P (2.0 mg/kg), and average content of K (0.18 cmol/kg), 14 cassava clones were evaluated over 5 continuous years . Although the K level in the soil was average, dry-root yield indicated a positive and significant response to K applications of up to 50 kg/ha, on average, for all clones in the first cycle. In the fifth cycle, almost all clones showed a positive response up to 100 kg K/ha. Yield, however, declined through the constant removal of this nutrient from the soil and other losses in the system."},{"index":13,"size":45,"text":"Table 5-18 also shows the effect of applications of K on the quality of tuberous roots in terms of total hydrocyanic acid content (ppm). The positive effect is notable, as HCN content drops as the rate of K application increases (El-Sharkawy and Cadavid L 2000)."},{"index":14,"size":33,"text":"Tables 5-17 and 5-19 and Figures 5-10 and 5-11 show the beneficial effects of N, P, and K applications on yield in soils of Santander de Quilichao, Mondomo, and Pescador in Cauca, Colombia."},{"index":15,"size":188,"text":"Beneficial effects on soil fertility and productivity, and on cassava crop yield also occur when organic sources are used such as manures, incorporated green manures, or mulch. These not only help improve soil fertility and increase yield by releasing nutrients, but they also help improve soil structure and aggregation, increase water retention, and increase microbial activity in soils (Cadavid L 1995). Tables 5-20, 5-21, and 5-22, and Figure 5-12 illustrate the positive response to this class of fertilizers. When a complete or simple fertilizer is selected, knowledge of the levels of elements that the product has is essential, that is, the way the contents of a fertilizer are expressed in the product, such as N, P 2 O 10 , K 2 O, CaO, MgO, CaCO 3 , and MgCO 3 , and the percentage. For example, the chemical fertilizer 13-13-21 is expressed as 13% of N, 13% of P 2 O 5 , and 21% of K 2 O. This means that 100 kg of commercial product contains 13 kg of N, 13 kg of P 2 O 5 , and 21 kg of K 2 O."},{"index":16,"size":158,"text":"To recommend fertilizers, such expressed values cannot be used. Instead, values must be expressed in terms of kg of N, P, K, Ca, and Mg. Hence, the expression given by the manufacturer must be converted to the real expression. For this purpose, conversion tables, taken from a literature review on fertilizer application, are given in Table 5-23. The quantity of commercial product that will be applied in accordance with the recommended nutrient levels (element base) must be known. Thus, the following formula is taken into account (Cadavid L and Calle C 1997    a. Sources of fertilizer: N 0 = 0 N 1 = 50 N 2 = 100 N 3 = 200 kg N/ha as urea. P 0 = 0 P 1 = 50 P 2 = 100 P 3 = 200 kg P/ha as triple superphosphate. K 0 = 0 K 1 = 50 K 2 = 100 K 3 = 200 kg K/ha as potassium chloride."},{"index":17,"size":7,"text":"SOURCE : Cadavid L and Howeler (1984)."},{"index":18,"size":21,"text":"Figure    , Cauca, Colombia, 1984(from Cadavid L 1995;Cadavid L 1987).   To better understand this formula, let us observe the following example: "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Figure 5-2. Comparing the ideal soil condition with the reality of a sandy soil in Pivijay, Magdalena, Colombia, planted to cassava over 8 consecutive years. "},{"text":"Figure 5 Figure 5-5. Exchange, liquid, and root phases of the soil, showing the dynamics of different ions. "},{"text":" Figure 5-6. Availability of different nutrients in the soil with respect to pH. "},{"text":" PhotosynthesisRespirationSynthesisMultiplicationCellular differentiation and heredity "},{"text":"• Chemical and physical analyses of the soil* • Plant tissue analyses* • Critical levels of nutrients in the soil or plant tissues of a specific crop (i.e., cassava in our case)* • Knowledge of nutritional disorders (deficiencies, toxic effects) • Crop's response to fertilizer applications* • Crop's nutritional requirements (i.e., nutrient extraction)* • Knowledge of original materials of a specific soil • Knowledge of the soil's taxonomic classification • Knowledge of previous crop and its exploitation of that soil and its intensity. "},{"text":" Figure 5-9. USDA soil texture triangle as applied to Colombian soils (unmarked arrows). "},{"text":"WRC If we complete this formula for P, Ca, Mg, and N, the results would be: NF P = 61.2 kg/ha NF Ca = -400 kg/ha NF Mg = -115 kg/ha Thus, to determine the need for fertilizer application for total nitrogen (TN), then: OM% , thusTN = 4.56 = 0.228 (high level)    "},{"text":" (kg/ha) 100 CP = 100 kg of commercial product (kg) ha = 1 ha (10,000 m 2 ) DNCP = grade of nutrient element in the commercial product (kg) A = area of application (ha or m 2 ) "},{"text":"Fresh Figure5-12. Effect of (1) incorporating green manures and (2) these plus 10-30-10 fertilizer on yield of cassava cultivar M Col 1684 in an exhausted Ultisol of Santander deQuilichao, Cauca, Colombia, 1984 (from Cadavid L 1995;Cadavid L 1987). "},{"text":" RN = 70.0 kg K/ha A = 89 ha PC = potassium chloride (KCl from 60% K 2 O) In the first place, we must convert K 2 O to K: 60% K 2 O × 0.8302 = 49.81 K or, more exactly: 60% K 2 O/1.2 = 50 K This means that 100 kg of commercial product (KCl) has 50 kg of K (DNCP), giving rise to the formula: 70 kg K 100 kg KCl CP kg KCl × 89 = 12,460 kg = 12.46 t KCl "},{"text":"Table 5  -1. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) of different soil -1. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) of different soil components.   components. Exchange material CEC (meq/100 g) Exchange materialCEC (meq/100 g)  Average Range AverageRange Organic matter 200 100-300 Organic matter200100-300 Vermiculite 150 100-150 Vermiculite150100-150 Montmorillonite 80 60-100 Montmorillonite8060-100 Chlorite 30 20-40 Chlorite3020-40 Illite 30 20-40 Illite3020-40 Kaolinite 8 2-16 Kaolinite82-16 Sesquioxides 0-3 0-3 Sesquioxides0-30-3  "},{"text":"Table 5 - 2. Effect of applications of phosphorus, according to sources of differing pH, on cassava yield (t/ha) at 12 months old, Carimagua, Colombian Eastern Plains, in soils with pH below 4.5 and P less than 3 ppm. Source Source  "},{"text":"Table 5  -4 shows -4 shows examples of the effect between ions. examples of the effect between ions. Presence of mycorrhizae. Mutualistic symbiotic Presence of mycorrhizae. Mutualistic symbiotic associations exist among the roots of many plants and associations exist among the roots of many plants and  "},{"text":"Table 5   -3. Monitoring of a sandy soil in Pivijay, Magdalena,  250 -3. Monitoring of a sandy soil in Pivijay, Magdalena,250  Colombia, planted continuously over 8 years to     Colombia, planted continuously over 8 years to Year 1 2 cassava and with no chemical or organic fertilizer applications. pH P (ppm) K Ca Mg Fertility (meq/100 g soil) 6.50 8.38 0.05 0.87 0.28 Low 5.60 7.10 0.03 0.65 0.20 Zn in leaves (ppm) 200 150 100 50 Year 1 2cassava and with no chemical or organic fertilizer applications. pH P (ppm) K Ca Mg Fertility (meq/100 g soil) 6.50 8.38 0.05 0.87 0.28 Low 5.60 7.10 0.03 0.65 0.20Zn in leaves (ppm)200 150 100 50 3 5.30 4.70 0.04 0.55 0.13      35.304.700.040.550.13 4 5.30 5.70 0.03 0.48 0.12     0 45.305.700.030.480.120 5 6 5.30 5.35 6.35 8.25 0.04 0.04 0.43 0.34 0.11 0.07     0 1 2 Lime application (t/ha) 3 4 5 6 5 65.30 5.356.35 8.250.04 0.040.43 0.340.11 0.07012 Lime application (t/ha) 3 456 7 4.85 7.65 0.05 0.35 0.09      N-P-K + Zn N-P-K 74.857.650.050.350.09N-P-K + ZnN-P-K 8 4.15 5.18 0.03 0.32 0.09 Very low Figure 5-7. Effect of lime applications on Zn content in cassava 84.155.180.030.320.09Very lowFigure 5-7. Effect of lime applications on Zn content in cassava SOURCE: Cadavid L (2000).        leaves at 2 months, with or without applications of Zn to soil, Carimagua, Eastern Plains, Colombia SOURCE: Cadavid L (2000).leaves at 2 months, with or without applications of Zn to soil, Carimagua, Eastern Plains, Colombia           (from Cadavid L et al. 1977). (from Cadavid L et al. 1977).        Table 5-4. Effect of ions on each other in soil solution phase. Table 5-4. Effect of ions on each other in soil solution phase.        Ion    Second ion Effect of the second IonSecond ionEffect of the second            present a on the first b present aon the first b        Cu 2+   Ca 2+ Antagonism Cu 2+Ca 2+Antagonism        Mg 2+ , Ca 2+ K + Competitive inhibition Mg 2+ , Ca 2+K +Competitive inhibition        H 2 PO 4 - Al 3+ Non-competitive inhibition H 2 PO 4-Al 3+Non-competitive inhibition        K + , Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ Al 3+ Competitive inhibition K + , Ca 2+ , Mg 2+Al 3+Competitive inhibition        H 2 BO 3 NO 3 -, NH 4 + Non-competitive inhibition H 2 BO 3NO 3-, NH 4 +Non-competitive inhibition        K +    Ca 2+ (hc) Competitive inhibition K +Ca 2+ (hc)Competitive inhibition        SO 4 2-   SeO 4 2- Competitive inhibition SO 42-SeO 42-Competitive inhibition        MoO 4 2- Cl - Competitive inhibition MoO 42-Cl -Competitive inhibition        Zn 2+   SO 4 2- Competitive inhibition Zn 2+SO 42-Competitive inhibition        Zn 2+   Mg 2+ Competitive inhibition Zn 2+Mg 2+Competitive inhibition        Zn 2+   Ca 2+ Competitive inhibition Zn 2+Ca 2+Competitive inhibition        Fe 2+   H 2 BO 3 Non-competitive inhibition Fe 2+H 2 BO 3Non-competitive inhibition        Zn 2+   Mn 2+ Competitive inhibition Zn 2+Mn 2+Competitive inhibition        K +    H 2 PO 4 - Non-competitive inhibition K +H 2 PO 4-Non-competitive inhibition        MoO 4 2- Ca 2+ (lc) Synergism MoO 42-Ca 2+ (lc)Synergism        MoO 4 2- H 2 PO 4 2- Synergism MoO 42-H 2 PO 42-Synergism        Cu 2+   MoO 4 2- Non-competitive inhibition Cu 2+MoO 42-Non-competitive inhibition        a. hc = high concentration; lc = low concentration. a. hc = high concentration; lc = low concentration.        b. See text for explanation of terms. b. See text for explanation of terms.        SOURCE: Malavolta et al. (1989). SOURCE: Malavolta et al. (1989).  "},{"text":"Table 5 - 6. Effectiveness of different species of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) for the cassava crop, Colombia. Species Cassava Effectiveness for: Capacity to compete with SpeciesCassavaEffectiveness for:Capacity to compete with  growth   other microorganisms growthother microorganisms   P adsorption Root length  P adsorptionRoot length Glomus manihotis High High Average High Glomus manihotisHighHighAverageHigh Entrophospora colombiana High High High Little Entrophospora colombianaHighHighHighLittle Acaulospora mellea Average Average High Average Acaulospora melleaAverageAverageHighAverage  "},{"text":"Table 5 - 5. Combined effect of mycorrhizae and N-P-K fertilizer on the production of cassava clone 'Señorita' under field conditions, Cuba. Treatment Fresh roots (t/ha) a TreatmentFresh roots (t/ha) a Check 42.3 c Check42.3 c Mycorrhizae 49.3 b Mycorrhizae49.3 b Myco. + 25% N-P-K 50.4 b Myco. + 25% N-P-K50.4 b Myco. + 50% N-P-K 51.1 b Myco. + 50% N-P-K51.1 b Myco. + 75% N-P-K 51.4 b Myco. + 75% N-P-K51.4 b Myco. + 100% N-P-K 61.6 a Myco. + 100% N-P-K61.6 a 100% N-P-K 52.0 b 100% N-P-K52.0 b CV% 3.87 CV%3.87 SE (+ or -) 1.17 SE (+ or -)1.17 a. Values with the same letters in the column are not significantly a. Values with the same letters in the column are not significantly different at.  different at.  "},{"text":"Table 5 - 7. Biomass of aerial parts and tuberous root yield (t/ha, dry weight) of cassava plants with high, medium, and low height. Means taken at 2, 4, 6, and 10 months after planting, Santander de Quilichao, Cauca, Colombia. Height of cultivar    Yield (t/ha) of aerial biomass at months:    Height of cultivarYield (t/ha) of aerial biomass at months:  2 4 6 10 2 4 6 10 2461024610   1994/95    1995/96   1994/951995/96 Tall         Tall CG 4 0 2 -11 0.3 2.3 3.6 7.1 0.2 2.3 5.5 8.8 CG 4 0 2 -110.32.33.67.10.22.35.58.8 M Pan 51 0.3 1.8 4.9 4.7 0.3 2.5 3.4 5.0 M Pan 510.31.84.94.70.32.53.45.0 Average         Average CM 507-37 0.2 2.4 2.6 3.7 0.3 2.6 3.2 5.6 CM 507-370.22.42.63.70.32.63.25.6 SG 107-35 0.3 1.3 1.7 3.2 0.3 2.3 2.3 4.9 SG 107-350.31.31.73.20.32.32.34.9 Short         Short CG 1141-1 0.2 1.2 1.8 2.6 0.2 1.4 1.8 2.1 CG 1141-10.21.21.82.60.21.41.82.1 M COL 22 0.2 1.4 1.2 3.0 0.2 1.5 1.3 2.0 M COL 220.21.41.23.00.21.51.32.0 Height of cultivar    Tuberous root yield (t/ha) at months:    Height of cultivarTuberous root yield (t/ha) at months:  2 4 6 10 2 4 6 10 2461024610   1994/95    1995/96   1994/951995/96 Tall         Tall CG 4 0 2 -11 0.01 0.9 1.5 9.2 0.01 0.6 5.4 14.5 CG 4 0 2 -110.010.91.59.20.010.65.414.5 M Pan 51 0.01 1.6 2.4 8.7 0.01 1.2 5.0 8.6 M Pan 510.011.62.48.70.011.25.08.6 Average         Average CM 507-37 0.01 1.7 2.6 11.6 0.02 1.4 5.8 13.2 CM 507-370.011.72.611.60.021.45.813.2 SG 107-35 0.02 2.3 2.9 11.0 0.02 1.9 6.5 11.7 SG 107-350.022.32.911.00.021.96.511.7 Short         Short CG 1141-1 0.01 2.6 4.0 15.0 0.01 1.6 6.2 10.3 CG 1141-10.012.64.015.00.011.66.210.3 M COL 22 0.01 2.2 2.7 9.7 0.01 1.9 5.4 7. 3 M COL 220.012.22.79.70.011.95.47. 3  "},{"text":"Table 5 - 8. Dry matter content (DM, g per plant) and nutrient content (mg per plant) in several parts of cassava plants (cultivar M Col 22) receiving fertilizer applications over a 12-month cycle, Santander de Quilichao, Cauca, Colombia. Contents in month: Contents in month:  "},{"text":"Table 5 - 9. Average extraction of nutrients per ton of fresh roots harvested from several cassava cultivars (total plant). Cultivar   Extraction (kg/ha) of:   Source CultivarExtraction (kg/ha) of:Source  N P K Ca Mg S  NPKCaMgS Several 4.91 1.08 5.83 1.83 0.79 - Howeler (1981) Several4.911.085.831.830.79-Howeler (1981) M Col 22 4.66 0.54 3.52 1.14 0.48 0.32 Howeler and Cadavid L (1983) M Col 224.660.543.521.140.480.32Howeler and Cadavid L (1983) CM 523-7 6.90 0.88 3.71 1.47 0.74 0.51 Cadavid L (1988a) CM 523-76.900.883.711.470.740.51Cadavid L (1988a) M Col 1468 3.97 0.62 3.56 1.53 1.28 - Caicedo (1993) M Col 14683.970.623.561.531.28-Caicedo (1993) M Col 1684 3.13 0.44 2.70 1.35 0.86 - Caicedo (1993) M Col 16843.130.442.701.350.86-Caicedo (1993) CM 507-37 3.89 0.60 2.76 1.09 0.78 - Caicedo (1993) CM 507-373.890.602.761.090.78-Caicedo (1993) CM 523-7 3.46 0.55 3.02 1.10 0.78 - Caicedo (1993) CM 523-73.460.553.021.100.78-Caicedo (1993) Mean of authors 4.42 0.67 3.58 1.36 0.82 0.42  Mean of authors4.420.673.581.360.820.42  "},{"text":"Table 5 - 10. Mobility of nutrients through the phloem. Mobile Intermediate Immobile MobileIntermediateImmobile Nitrogen Sulfur Calcium NitrogenSulfurCalcium Phosphorus Copper Boron PhosphorusCopperBoron Potassium Iron Strontium PotassiumIronStrontium Magnesium Manganese  MagnesiumManganese Sodium Zinc  SodiumZinc Chlorine   Chlorine Molybdenum   Molybdenum Rubidium   Rubidium SOURCES: Howeler (1981); Kramer (1989); Malavolta et al. (1989); SOURCES: Howeler (1981); Kramer (1989); Malavolta et al. (1989);  "},{"text":"Table 5 - 11. Critical levels of soil parameters for the cassava crop. pH Al sat. P K Ca Mg Zn S pH Al sat.PKCaMgZnS  (%) (ppm)      (%)(ppm)     (meq/100 G  (ppm) (meq/100 G(ppm)     dry soil)    dry soil) 4.0 80 7.0* 0.15 0.25 0.12 a 1.0 8.0 4.0807.0*0.150.250.12 a1.08.0 8.0  10.0** 0.17     8.010.0** 0.17 a. Bray I method.      a. Bray I method. b. Assuming that the ideal Ca/Mg ratio for the cassava crop is 2:1 b. Assuming that the ideal Ca/Mg ratio for the cassava crop is 2:1 (LF Cadavid L, pers. comm.).     (LF Cadavid L, pers. comm.). c. Bray II method.      c. Bray II method.  "},{"text":"Table 5 - 13. Nutrients extracted from cassava according to yield. Nutrient Extraction (kg/ha) for fresh-root yield NutrientExtraction (kg/ha) for fresh-root yield  Estimated Weighted EstimatedWeighted  (15 t/ha) (30 t/ha) (15 t/ha)(30 t/ha) N 66.3 132.6 N66.3132.6 P 10.1 20.1 P10.120.1 K 53.7 107.4 K53.7107.4 Ca 20.4 40.8 Ca20.440.8 Mg 12.3 24.6 Mg12.324.6  "},{"text":"Table 5 - 12. Chemical and physical characteristics of the soil at Carimagua, Colombian Eastern Plains. Te x ture pH OM a P Al Ca Mg K Zn Te x turepHOM aPAlCaMgKZn   (%) (ppm)      (%)(ppm)      (meq/100 g dry soil)  (ppm)  (meq/100 g dry soil)(ppm) Clay loam b 4.44 4.56 3.0 3.15 0.54 0.30 0.08 1.5 Clay loam b4.444.563.03.150.540.300.081.5 Interpretation c Acid M M-L M-H L L M-L M-L Interpretation cAcidMM-LM-HLLM-LM-L a. OM = organic matter.         a. OM = organic matter. b. When data on texture are given as percentages of sand, silt, and clay; to determine textural class, see Figure 5-9.   b. When data on texture are given as percentages of sand, silt, and clay; to determine textural class, see Figure 5-9. c. H = high; L = low; M = medium.        c. H = high; L = low; M = medium.  "},{"text":"Table 5 - 15. Chemical characteristics of a soil at Santander de Quilichao, Cauca, Colombia, after one application of phosphorus. Year P a OM b pH Al Ca Mg K P c Al sat. YearP aOM bpHAlCaMgKP cAl sat.  (kg/ha) (%)   (cmol/kg)   (mg/kg) (%) (kg/ha)(%)(cmol/kg)(mg/kg)(%) 1979 0 6.28 d 4.2 3.88 0.98 0.32 0.20 2.80 72.1 197906.28 d4.23.880.980.320.202.8072.1 1995 0 4.95 4.0 3.21 0.88 0.33 0.26 2.85 68.8 199504.954.03.210.880.330.262.8568.8 1995 75 5.80 4.1 3.33 1.38 0.34 0.28 35.10 62.3 1995755.804.13.331.380.340.2835.1062.3 a. Annual application.         a. Annual application. b. OM = organic matter.         b. OM = organic matter. c. Bray II method.         c. Bray II method. d. 1985.          d. 1985.  "},{"text":"Table 5 - 14. Phosphorus content (ppm) in a soil at Carimagua, Meta, Colombia, at 13 months after sources of P were applied. Treatment a Treatment a  "},{"text":"Table 5 - 16. Dry-root yield and index of adaptation to low P for 32 cassava clones in soils of Santander deQuilichao, Cauca, Colombia, 1994/95.     Clone Dry-root yield Index of CloneDry-root yieldIndex of   (t/ha) adaptation to (t/ha)adaptation to    low P a low P a  Zero P 75 kg P/ha   Zero P75 kg P/ha CG 333-4 7.4 10.4 1.89  CG 333-47.410.41.89 SG 779-9 7.1 10.4 1.81  SG 779-97.110.41.81 SM 380-3 6.0 11. 2 1.65  SM 380-36.011. 21.65 CM 5830-4 6.6 10.1 1.63 HA b CM 5830-46.610.11.63HA b CM 4365-3 6.3 10.1 1.56  CM 4365-36.310.11.56 CM 4774-2 6.1 10.1 1.51  CM 4774-26.110.11.51 CM 849-1 6.7 9.5 1.47  CM 849-16.79.51.47 CM 3555-6 6.8 8.8 1.47  CM 3555-66.88.81.47 SG 545-7 5.7 10.0 1.40  SG 545-75.710.01.40 CG 1141-1 5.3 10.6 1.38  CG 1141-15.310.61.38 CG 1355-2 5.4 10.4 1.38  CG 1355-25.410.41.38 CM 3311-3 5.9 9.4 1.36  CM 3311-35.99.41.36 CG 95-1 6.1 8.4 1.26  CG 95-16.18.41.26 M Bra 589 5.5 9.2 1.24 IA b M Bra 5895.59.21.24IA b CG 5-79 5.4 9.0 1.19  CG 5-795.49.01.19 SM 366-2 6.2 7.6 1.15  SM 366-26.27.61.15 M Col 1468 5.4 8.5 1.13  M Col 14685.48.51.13 CM 507-37 5.4 8.2 1.09  CM 507-375.48.21.09 M Cub 32 5.2 8.4 1.07  M Cub 325.28.41.07 CG 996-6 4.3 10.0 1.05  CG 996-64.310.01.05 M Col 1505 4.6 8.9 1.00  M Col 15054.68.91.00 SG 495-19 4.9 7.4 0.89  SG 495-194.97.40.89 CM 523-7 4.4 7.8 0.84  CM 523-74.47.80.84 M Bra 390 5.5 6.2 0.84  M Bra 3905.56.20.84 CM 4772-3 4.4 7.6 0.82  CM 4772-34.47.60.82 CG 522-10 3.6 8.8 0.78  CG 522-103.68.80.78 HMC-1 3.5 6.0 0.51 LA b HMC-13.56.00.51LA b M Col 1684 3.0 6.6 0.49  M Col 16843.06.60.49 CM 5586 -1 3.1 5.8 0.44  CM 5586 -13.15.80.44 M Bra 191 4.3 4.1 0.43  M Bra 1914.34.10.43 CG 915-1 3.3 2.1 0.17  CG 915-13.32.10.17 CM 2766-5 1.9 2.4 0.11  CM 2766-51.92.40.11 M Pan 51 2.8 1.2 0.08  M Pan 512.81.20.08 Average of all 5.1 8.0   Average of all5.18.0 clones     clones LSD 5% 1.5 1.8   LSD 5%1.51.8 a. Index of adaptation to low P: yield at zero P; yield at 75 kg P/ha; a. Index of adaptation to low P: yield at zero P; yield at 75 kg P/ha; and average of yield at zero P; average of yield at 75 kg P/ha. and average of yield at zero P; average of yield at 75 kg P/ha. b. HA = high adaptation; IA = intermediate adaptation; LA = low b. HA = high adaptation; IA = intermediate adaptation; LA = low adaptation.     adaptation.  "},{"text":"Table 5 - 17. Effect of applications of N-P-K fertilizer on yield and fertility of a soil planted to cassava over 12 consecutive years, Santander de Quilichao, Cauca, Colombia..  Application  Fresh roots of OM  Bray II P K  Critical level a ApplicationFresh roots ofOMBray II PKCritical level a  (kg/ha)  M Col 1684 (t/ha) (%)  (mg/kg) (cmol/kg)   (kg/ha)M Col 1684 (t/ha)(%)(mg/kg)(cmol/kg) N P K 1983/84 1994/95 1984 1995 1984 1995 1984 b 1995 P K NPK1983/841994/9519841995198419951984 b1995PK            (mg/kg) (cmol/kg) (mg/kg)(cmol/kg) 0 0 0 16.4 8.3 6.2 5.2 4.0 6.4 0.06 0.12 10.0 0.15 00016.48.36.25.24.06.40.060.1210.00.15 50 50 50 25.3 21.5 6.0 5.3 3.9 15.9 0.08 0.14   50505025.321.56.05.33.915.90.080.14 0 100 100 30.2 20.5 5.7 5.2 4.6 40.6 0.11 0.48   010010030.220.55.75.24.640.60.110.48 50 100 100 32.3 22.8 5.7 5.3 3.8 48.6 0.08 0.34   5010010032.322.85.75.33.848.60.080.34 100 100 100 32.8 22.0 5.9 5.3 3.8 46.2 0.09 0.33   10010010032.822.05.95.33.846.20.090.33 100 0 100 23.8 16.2 5.9 5.4 4.2 10.1 0.09 0.27   100010023.816.25.95.44.210.10.090.27 100 50 100 32.8 23.4 6.2 5.4 3.7 24.8 0.09 0.19   1005010032.823.46.25.43.724.80.090.19 100 100 0 25.7 10.3 5.8 5.3 3.7 46.0 0.06 0.09   100100025.710.35.85.33.746.00.060.09 100 100 50 29.7 21.0 5.8 5.1 4.0 37.1 0.07 0.14   1001005029.721.05.85.14.037.10.070.14 a. As according to Howeler (1981).          a. As according to Howeler (1981). b. In 1983, 0.07 cmol/kg, and 5 years earlier (continuous plantings of cassava), 0.30 cmol/kg.     b. In 1983, 0.07 cmol/kg, and 5 years earlier (continuous plantings of cassava), 0.30 cmol/kg.  "},{"text":"Table 5 - 18. Effect of potassium fertilizer applications on dry-root yield (t/ha) and on total HCN content (ppm) of 14 cassava cultivars in a soil inCauca, Colombia, 1989-1994.     Cultivar Cultivar  "},{"text":"Table 5 - 19. Response of cassava to applications of several levels of N, P, and K in five sites of the region coveringMondomo and  Pescador, Cauca, Colombia, 1983.     Fertilizer a   Fresh-root yield (t/ha)   Average Fertilizer aFresh-root yield (t/ha)Average  Mondomito Agua Blanca Telecom Tres Quebradas Pescador  MondomitoAgua BlancaTelecomTres QuebradasPescador N 0 P 0 K 0 8.5 12.7 13.0 10.2 3.3 9.5 N 0 P 0 K 08.512.713.010.23.39.5 N 0 P 2 K 2 11.0 25.5 25.9 16.5 12.6 18.3 N 0 P 2 K 211.025.525.916.512.618.3 N 1 P 2 K 2 13.6 20.5 21.8 18.4 13.1 17.5 N 1 P 2 K 213.620.521.818.413.117.5 N 2 P 2 K 2 11.0 24.8 27.1 23.2 16.2 20.5 N 2 P 2 K 211.024.827.123.216.220.5 N 3 P 2 K 2 13.8 29.7 27. 3 29.2 19.7 23.9 N 3 P 2 K 213.829.727. 329.219.723.9 N 2 P 0 K 2 8.0 13.2 16.0 9.3 6.0 10.5 N 2 P 0 K 28.013.216.09.36.010.5 N 2 P 1 K 2 14.3 25.2 23.5 21.5 15.0 19.9 N 2 P 1 K 214.325.223.521.515.019.9 N 2 P 3 K 2 12.0 24.6 26.4 24.7 19.6 21.5 N 2 P 3 K 212.024.626.424.719.621.5 N 2 P 2 K 0 10.6 25.5 23.1 14.8 7.4 16.3 N 2 P 2 K 010.625.523.114.87.416.3 N 2 P 2 K 1 14.3 24.9 25.9 17.8 16.5 19.8 N 2 P 2 K 114.324.925.917.816.519.8 N 2 P 2 K 3 14.4 26.3 24.6 24.8 16.7 21.4 N 2 P 2 K 314.426.324.624.816.721.4 N 3 P 3 K 3 18.5 28.0 27. 3 29.9 12.3 23.2 N 3 P 3 K 318.528.027. 329.912.323.2  "},{"text":" 5-10. Effect of chemical fertilizer application on average yield of cassava cv. CMC 92 in the Mondomo Region, Cauca, Colombia (fromCadavid L 1997). Effect of chemical fertilizer application on yield of four cassava cultivars in soils prepared by plowing with ox (one pass),Mondomo, Cauca, Colombia (from Cadavid L 1997).   30      30   25      25  Fresh roots (t/ha) 20 15 10      Fresh roots (t/ha)20 15 10   5      5   0      0   0 250 500   750 0250500750    10-30-10 fertilizer (kg/ha)    10-30-10 fertilizer (kg/ha)  35       35 yield (t/ha) 30 20 25       yield (t/ha)30 20 25 Fresh-root 15 10 5 0 CMC 92 P source Regional Amarilla Manure 2.0 N Chicken manure 2.7 Content (%) of: P K Batata 0.6 1.7 1.3 2.0 Ca 2.9 7.7 Mg Selección 0.6 0.7 Average Fresh-root15 10 5 0CMC 92P source Regional Amarilla Manure 2.0 N Chicken manure 2.7Content (%) of: P K Batata 0.6 1.7 1.3 2.0Ca 2.9 7.7Mg Selección 0.6 0.7Average F ig u r e 5 -11. No fertilizer application 10-30-10 10.0 13.1 8.3 With fertilizer application F ig u r e 5 -11. No fertilizer application 10-30-10 10.0 13.18.3With fertilizer application  "},{"text":"Table 5 - 20. Effect of source and application of P on cassava yield at two sites (San Julian and Mondomito), Cauca, Colombia. P (kg/ha)   Fresh-root yield (t/ha)   P (kg/ha)Fresh-root yield (t/ha)  San Julian a 1981 Mondomito b 1983 P source c Application San Julian a 1981Mondomito b 1983P source cApplication       (t/ha) (t/ha)  M Col 1684 M Col 1458 CMC 92 M Col 1468   M Col 1684M Col 1458CMC 92M Col 1468 0 46.9 29.4 25.8 12.7   046.929.425.812.7 25 57.2 31.1 25.5 18.1  4.2 2557.231.125.518.14.2 50 50.5 33.5 28.1 19.3 Manure 8.4 5050.533.528.119.3Manure8.4 25 57.8 41.9 25.3 13.0  1.9 2557.841.925.313.01.9 50 52.7 33.5 26.7 23.7 Chicken manure 3.8 5052.733.526.723.7Chicken manure3.8 25 49.9 39.2 28.2 17.8  0.191 2549.939.228.217.80.191 50 49.1 36.5 26.2 16.5 10-30-10 0.382 5049.136.526.216.510-30-100.382 a. Santander de Quilichao, virgin plot.      a. Santander de Quilichao, virgin plot. b. Mondomo.       b. Mondomo. c. Sources of phosphorus (analysis):      c. Sources of phosphorus (analysis):  "},{"text":"Table 5 - 23. Factors for converting expressions in oxide bases to expressions in element bases and vice versa. a P 2 O 5 × 0.44 or (0.4364) a = P P 2 O 5×0.44or(0.4364) a=P P × 2.29 or (2.2914) = P 2 O 5 P×2.29or(2.2914)=P 2 O 5 K 2 O × 0.83 or (0.8302) = K K 2 O×0.83or(0.8302)=K K × 1.20 or (1.2046) = K 2 O K×1.20or(1.2046)=K 2 O CaO × 0.71 or (0.7147) = Ca CaO×0.71or(0.7147)=Ca Ca × 1.40 or (1.3992) = CaO Ca×1.40or(1.3992)=CaO MgO × 0.60 or (0.6030) = Mg MgO×0.60or(0.6030)=Mg Mg × 1.66 or (1.6582) = MgO Mg×1.66or(1.6582)=MgO SO 4 × 0.33 or (0.3333) = S SO 4×0.33or(0.3333)=S S × 3.00 or (3.0000) = SO 4 S×3.00or(3.0000)=SO 4 a. Values in parentheses should be used for calculations demanding a. Values in parentheses should be used for calculations demanding high accuracy.      high accuracy. SOURCE: Monómeros Colombo-Venezolanos (1989).   SOURCE: Monómeros Colombo-Venezolanos (1989).  "},{"text":"Table 5 - 21. Effect of green manure on yield of cv. CM 507-37 in an exhausted soil of Santander de Quilichao, Cauca, Colombia, planted over 3 consecutiveyears (1990-1993), with no chemical fertilizer applications. Green manure incorporated  Fresh-root yield (t/ha) in  Green manure incorporatedFresh-root yield (t/ha) in  1st cycle 2nd cycle a 3rd cycle a All 3 cycles 1st cycle2nd cycle a3rd cycle aAll 3 cycles No green manure 27.4 22.5 12.7 20.9 No green manure27.422.512.720.9 Zornia latifolia 34.1 26.6 19.7 26.8 Zornia latifolia34.126.619.726.8 Common weed b 32.3 21.0 16.3 23.2 Common weed b32.321.016.323.2 Pueraria phaseoloides 47.1 27. 3 16.1 30.2 Pueraria phaseoloides47.127. 316.130.2 Arachis pintoi 37.9 22.8 18.3 26.3 Arachis pintoi37.922.818.326.3 Macroptilium gracile 30.5 23.6 16.1 23.4 Macroptilium gracile30.523.616.123.4 Centrosema acutifolium 45.5 25.3 20.9 30.6 Centrosema acutifolium45.525.320.930.6 Desmodium ovalifolium 43.4 24.1 21.5 29.7 Desmodium ovalifolium43.424.121.529.7 a. Residual effect of green manure.     a. Residual effect of green manure. b. Common grass (Paspalum sp.).     b. Common grass (Paspalum sp.).  "},{"text":"Table 5 - 22. Effect of tilling, mulching, and chemical fertilizer applications on the chemical characteristics of a sandy soil, Pivijay, Magdalena, Colombia, over 6 years. Tilling method  15-15-15 fertilizer at 330 kg/ha   No chemical fertilizer application Period Tilling method15-15-15 fertilizer at 330 kg/haNo chemical fertilizer applicationPeriod  OM Bray II P Ca Mg K OM Bray II P Ca Mg K OMBray IIPCaMgKOMBray IIPCaMgK  (%) (1:1 pH) (ppm) ( meq/100 g soil) (%) (1:1 pH) (ppm) (meq/100 g soil) (%)(1:1 pH)(ppm)( meq/100 g soil)(%)(1:1 pH)(ppm)(meq/100 g soil) Soil before tilling a - - - - - - 0.18 6.10 3.38 0.87 0.28 0.05 Soil before tilling a------0.186.103.380.870.28 0.05 Conventional 1.20 5.40 18.88 0.34 0.08 0.05 1.10 5.35 8.25 0.34 0.07 0.04 1988/89 Conventional1.205.4018.880.34 0.08 0.051.105.358.25 0.340.07 0.04 1988/89 Conventional with mulch a 1.33 6.25 23.43 0.79 0.38 0.13 1.45 6.50 13.65 0.86 0.49 0.17 to Conventional with mulch a1.336.2523.430.79 0.38 0.131.456.5013.65 0.860.49 0.17to Zero tilling 1.05 5.53 17. 30 0.36 0.08 0.05 1.08 5.30 9.43 0.36 0.07 0.04 1993/94 Zero tilling1.055.5317. 300.36 0.08 0.051.085.309.43 0.360.07 0.04 1993/94 Zero tilling with            Zero tilling with mulch a 1.48 6.28 27.03 0.77 0.45 0.16 1.45 6.43 14.50 0.80 0.46 0.16 mulch a1.486.2827.030.77 0.45 0.161.456.4314.50 0.800.46 0.16  "}],"sieverID":"448fc03d-a085-4378-9907-5a935b15b996","abstract":""}

data/part_4/0b353e7eaac6904a7ecb791230635a9e.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b353e7eaac6904a7ecb791230635a9e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/505/3727_AAS-2014-16.pdf"},"pageCount":16,"title":"Lessons from implementing, adapting and sustaining community-based adaptive marine resource management Authors","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"introduCtion introduCtion","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"The purpose of this brief is to distil lessons from community experience of implementing management plans for community-based adaptive resource management in Solomon Islands."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"A summary of key lessons learned from NGOs and other organizations working as partners with communities in developing marine resource management plans was previously published: Community-based adaptive resource management in Solomon Islands: Lessons learned. A facilitator's guide to working with communities in marine resource management followed: Community-based marine resource management in Solomon Islands: A facilitators guide."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"In this brief we focus on the lessons learned from the different stages of: implementing, adapting and sustaining community-based adaptive marine resource management."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"This brief aims to complement lessons learned by other initiatives in the country and through the 'Solomon Islands locally managed marine area network' www.SILMMA.org.sb. This brief makes these lessons available to the people and Government of Solomon Islands, and those working with CBRM throughout the Pacific region."}]},{"head":"Community-based management in solomon islands","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":181,"text":"Community-based adaptive marine resource management arises from participatory, collaborative processes where the focus is on local communities managing their marine and coastal resources, with a particular focus on fisheries. This involves a management system in which those who are involved in fisheries take responsibility for implementing management by participating in decision-making on aspects of management; defining access rights; limiting harvesting; practice enforcement and compliance; undertaking monitoring; and periodically reviewing and adjusting management arrangements. This approach to management is encapsulated by the term: community-based resource management (CBRM). The term CBRM is adopted here for consistency with current policy (e.g. Solomon Islands National Plan of Action; Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs, Fisheries and Food Security 2009) and to reflect a more holistic approach to fisheries management in accordance with the Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management (EAFM). CBRM has been associated with decentralized management approaches, which empower communities to become better stewards of their customary land and sea resources. In a broad perspective, CBRM relates to communities, government institutions and civil society groups that work together to manage resources at the community level."}]},{"head":"information sources and context","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"These lessons are based on WorldFish collaboration with communities through the ACIARfunded project: FIS/2010/056 Scaling-out Community-based Marine Resource Governance in Solomon Islands. Primarily, lessons have been drawn from experiences in Western Province, although lessons from Isabel and Malaita were also relevant. They draw on observations made by WorldFish staff whose work focuses on supporting communities to undertake CBRM, and on community perspectives shared at a 2012 workshop of Western Province communities who have been undertaking CBRM for the past eight years, with support from WorldFish. Throughout this document, the symbol † indicates where experiences or lessons were directly raised by communities in that meeting. WorldFish's approach to CBRM is conceived around a conceptual framework that specifically addresses the challenges that least developed countries face in managing small-scale fisheries (Figure 1). This framework provides broad guidance on the various stages of working with a community to understand its particular context, and support the implementation of appropriate management -the framework highlights important considerations within each of those stages."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"We focus here on experiences of supporting the implementation of community-based adaptive marine resource management (indicated by the dark box in Figure 1). Support partners, such as WorldFish, commonly provide guidance in community-led processes to form management arrangements that suit the community context and address their fisheries concerns (Boso et al. 2010). The lessons and recommendations presented here relate to implementing, adapting and sustaining community-based adaptive marine resource management. These lessons are not necessarily new, but they represent important ongoing considerations for CBRM, and for engaging with and supporting communities."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"Consultative processes lead to the negotiation and formation of community-appropriate and informed management arrangements. These arrangements are often represented in written management plans. Subsequently, the implementation of management arrangements usually falls to communities. This refers to the implementation of rules and the activation of governance institutions -or when a management plan comes alive. WorldFish, and many other partners in community-based management, promote adaptive resource management, which emphasizes the adjustment of management as situations change or as there is learning by the community managers. Over time, knowledge is generated which can guide adjustments to management in a bid to improve the performance of management for reaching the desired objectives."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"Sustainable management is necessary for long-term fisheries goals -more food and improved livelihoods -to be realized. This emphasizes the importance of having resilient management institutions i.e. those that can absorb disturbance or shocks, and change, while retaining the same functions and structure. In other words, even if community managers face significant challenges or changes, efforts to manage the resources will continue. "}]},{"head":"DIAGNOSIS","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Lessons","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"LESSONS implementing management in practice","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Tambus 1 are the most commonly used rule applied to resource use, but additional measures may be required to improve resource sustainability In the management planning phase of CBRM, a suite of resource-use rules emerged from discussions between communities and their partners. The resultant management plans cover a range of resource-use controls such as: size limits, gear restrictions, access controls, species bans and closed areas. Tambu areas, which reflect traditional customary practices of closing reefs, are a common CBRM resource-use control measures (Cohen and Foale 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":161,"text":"At implementation phase, tambu areas are the most common, and in some case the only, resource-use control used. Despite identification of the need for rules and controls such as: size limits, gear restrictions or the area of open fishing grounds, these appear to be harder to implement (Cohen et al. 2013). Nationally legislated resource-use rules, in particular trochus (Trochus niloticus) size limits and the ban on harvest-for-export of sea cucumber are two exceptions. Fishers can be reluctant to harvest undersized trochus, as village-level buyers will not buy them because exporters will face difficulties exporting undersize trochus due to government enforcement of export size limits. However there are cases where national regulations are not so effectively implemented in community fisheries. For example, communities often choose to reinforce the national regulation on net mesh size in their management plan, but as this regulation is not enforced nationally at the point of import, community enforcers are unable to enforce it within their fishing grounds."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"Building strong and effective CBRM can take time. While communities may successfully implement components of management or some resource-use rules (such as tambus) early on, it can take longer to create the right conditions for implementing the suite of management measures that will be necessary to achieve broad and lasting fisheries benefits."}]},{"head":"Monitoring activities must be simple, reliable and cost-effective, and have community interest","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"Communities are interested in monitoring the biological or ecological outcomes of their management. Many partner organizations have learned that underwater counts of fish and/or invertebrates can be carried out by trained community members. However, community representatives continue to request financial and technical support to conduct this type of monitoring † and when support is 'project based' and finite this is not a sustainable option. We have found that some community representatives can, with training, self-sufficiently sustain low intensity and simple catch monitoring where they use catch per unit effort data to monitor the results of management. Other communities and fishers tend to use perceptions or 'expert observation' techniques, whereby fishers consciously use their intimate knowledge and regular exposure to fisheries to assess any changes."}]},{"head":"Management spanning multiple villages may have advantages, but specific management rules and governance arrangements may, in many cases, be best devolved to the village level","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"Villages may prefer to work as a region, where multiple villages (usually between 3 and 5) form a regional unit because of a historical connection. Developing and implementing management by region (as opposed to management by village) may hold several advantages in terms of facilitating processes and outcomes. Working at the region level can extend management over a larger area. A regional management arrangement draws on natural social alliances that may facilitate the sharing of lessons, experiences and technical resources to support implementation. From an ecological perspective, managing a region or establishing a network of managed or protected areas can enhance the effects of management or protection because of larval dispersal and adult migration from neighboring, well-managed sites."}]},{"head":"Lessons","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"While villages within a region may appear, upon initial assessment, to have broadly similar management issues and external environments, as the management process proceeds, the differences in management needs, governance arrangements and shocks or changes faced emerge. Different villages can be at different stages along the management process and some villages may face problems in implementing or sustaining management."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"In our experience, managing at a regional (multi village level) can be challenging, and can slow or hinder adaptation. The logistical difficulties of travel in Solomon Islands can make it expensive and difficult for representatives from across a region to come together for discussions -and meetings may be dependent on the availability of external financial support. In some cases, this challenge has appeared to slow the reassessment and adaptation of management arrangements."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"Additionally, adaptations may be quite different in the different villages that have been trying to work together as one management unit. We have observed that communities that were more advanced in the management process could serve as a positive example and share lessons with communities that were less advanced. In other cases, if some communities were having problems in implementing management, this may have slowed the progress of other communities. Cross-community lesson-sharing may be useful at regional levels. However, specific management rules and governance arrangements may, in many cases, be best devolved to the village level -allowing rapid responses to change in a specific context."}]},{"head":"Community to community exchange is popular and can be effective for promoting CBRM","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Communities can learn from the experiences of others -word of mouth can stimulate other communities to implement CBRM (Abernethy, in review). This process of learning can be facilitated through structured 'look and learn' activities i.e. where NGO or government partners provide financial and logistical support to community representatives to visit another location where CBRM is operational, and there they participate in a structured program of learning. However the exchange of information and ideas about CBRM can also happen more naturally through family and market relations in particular (Abernethy, in review)."}]},{"head":"Adaptive management","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Rules, norms and processes that are encapsulated in a written management plan tend to differ from those that are actually implemented In a CBRM approach, management plans emerge from community discussions and deliberations, often with guidance and support from partners such as WorldFish. Despite making concerted efforts to have broad and inclusive consultative processes in the formation of management plans, we have found that management implemented by communities often differs from the arrangements originally decided upon and laid out in management plans. In other words, the rules on paper differ from the rules in use. There are three main ways in which this happens:"}]},{"head":"Failed implementation or enforcement","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"In certain cases the rules that communities hoped to implement and enforce were found to be unworkable. This was due to insufficient awareness in the broader community about the nature and the reasons behind resource-use rules † and/ or resistance from the broader community or sectors of the community to following particular rules. † For example, some communities wished to ban nets or night spear-fishing, but in practice it was found to be difficult or impossible for these rules to be effectively implemented. †"}]},{"head":"The need for more flexibility than originally anticipated","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"In Solomon Islands, resource owners and users are accustomed to some degree of flexibility in accessing and using resources, such as the opening and closing of tambu areas. Tambus are area closures that are closed to manage or 'save-up' resources and are often opened when a community or the particular clan that holds tenure has a social or economic need to harvest. We have found that some communities commit to a few harvest events in their management plan, but as needs arise, they open areas more frequently than they had planned, to meet those needs (Cohen et al. 2013). As pressures on resources rise due to commercial markets and population increases, there is an increasing need to find a balance between allowing a tambu area sufficient relief from fishing pressure for stocks to rebuild, while still meeting the needs of the people."}]},{"head":"Lessons","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Adaptation","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Adaptation is a conscious reassessment and adjustment of management according to new circumstances. This is an explicit intent of adaptive co-management. In practice, some communities have modified their management rules, governance arrangements or monitoring strategies as circumstances change and according to what they learn as time goes on. For example, changing the length of time that a tambu is closed, or choosing to make a temporary tambu a permanent closure."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"In the CBRM approach that WorldFish has supported, it was envisaged that regular (i.e. annual), structured (i.e. assessment against management plans and objectives) and formal (i.e. involving committee representatives, village leaders and resource owners) meetings would be useful for review of the management arrangements. However such management reviews have rarely been carried out independently by the communities. Additionally, adjustments to management (such as increased flexibility of tambu openings) are not always made in relation to the longerterm objectives that had been identified in the management plans. Rather they tend to be responses to shorterterm needs. This highlights that management will frequently involve a compromise between long-and short-term objectives and needs."},{"index":3,"size":163,"text":"Changes or shocks at the village level can interfere with management, particularly if they are unanticipated and not planned for Over time, communities face changes or shocks (e.g. infringement of the rules, conflict in the village, opening of a managed area) that can lead to difficulties in returning to the level of management implementation that they had achieved prior to the change. † Sustaining management requires management institutions (rules and governance arrangements) to be resilient i.e. able to absorb disturbance or shocks, and change, while retaining essentially the same functions and structure (Andrew et al. 2007). We have learned that communities must be prepared for these shocks, as they are the norm, not the exception. At the management planning stage, discussing potential shocks and working through scenarios of response may assist communities in their responses and adaptation approaches. Some communities are more resilient and can more easily return to pre-shock levels of management, and there are lessons to be learned from these scenarios."}]},{"head":"Issues related to resource ownership can arise at any time, and may stall management efforts if unresolved","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"It is critical to consider resource ownership and rights to resources when forming management plans (Boso et al. 2010). In forming management arrangements, communities must come to an agreement over who has the right to make management rules about different areas. Despite these consultations and clarifications, communities often find that when implementing management, issues related to resource ownership and rights can still arise."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"Similar to the experiences of others working in Solomon Islands, we find that increased interest in an area (e.g. for increasing access or use restrictions for management purposes, or due to increased commercial interest in resources within an area) tends to highlight concerns about rights and ownership that may have not been at the surface before. Initial queries about ownership may not uncover these complexities; they may arise in response to the changes, such as those caused by implementing management. While the risk of this may be reduced by effective consultations in the development of management approaches, we appreciate that this will still be a shock that communities will experience and need to anticipate, or even prepare for."}]},{"head":"the community's ability to govern and sustain management","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"The ability to enforce rules varies amongst communities Within CBRM, the formation of rules and their enforcement are both necessarily communitydriven processes, and the responsibility for these often falls to clans holding tenure, chiefs and/or the resource management committee (where one has been established). Management rules are more easily enforced when leadership is strong † and when leaders are proactive in publicizing and enforcing their management plans. Management rules are more likely to be respected if they do not cause undue hardship to certain groups of people e.g. women."}]},{"head":"Lessons","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"However in some situations, communities face difficulties in enforcing the rules. When the rules have been infringed by a person or people who are from a clan that has ownership rights to that particular area, it is difficult to enforce the rules. † These are people that have historical, customary rights to access those resources and despite broad consultations prior to implementation of management, they either do not agree with the increased restrictions placed over the resource, or they agree in principle, but expect exceptions to be made for them."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Communities also find difficulties in enforcing their management rules when those infringing rules are from outside of the village †. This is not a pressing issue for all communities. However, where this is a concern, we have found that community requests for legal reinforcement of management plans and assistance with enforcement are particularly strong."}]},{"head":"Innovative approaches may improve broader involvement in decision-making","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":163,"text":"CBRM emphasizes broad involvement in decision-making (especially involving resourceowners, the church, women and youth). The principles of CBRM engagement for Solomon Islands (Boso et al. 2010;Alexander et al. 2011) imply that where there is emphasis on considering the opinions of women and youth, as well as men, there will be greater community understanding, ownership and commitment to management plans. In many places the church plays a very important role in decision-making and inclusion of the church may facilitate support for management plans and rules. † However, messages do not necessarily travel well within a community. A common communication channel is to work most closely with chiefs, resources-owners and a management committee (where one has been established). This can mean that communication is targeted at these focal points (due to resource limitations and a requirement for efficiency), who have the responsibility to share messages with the broader community. However, in some instances updates do not reach the broader community from these focal points. †"},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"The effectiveness of focal points depends on the characteristics and commitments of these particular people. To account for potential problems with relay or redistribution of information from focal points, using a diversity of mechanisms and will help media better ensures effective and sustained information exchange. Additionally, it may be beneficial not to assume information has traveled well through community via the focal-point strategy."},{"index":3,"size":159,"text":"The processes of consultation and communication that lead to involvement in decision-making and sustained involvement in management may be best facilitated by using existing community groups † (e.g. women's groups, youth groups etc.). To date we have observed enhanced interest in the management planning process by engaging with women's groups separately from the men's groups, as well as using mixed forums. The role of women in decision-making about resource use can be enhanced through consultation and education processes facilitated by partners that support community-based management (Hilly et al. 2007). Where fishing is a primary livelihood for male youth, some of whom may be excluded from mainstream community church groups, this sector of society is sometimes overlooked and excluded from decision-making about management. In some instances youth 'champions' within a management committee have made considerable efforts to ensure that youth are actively engaged in management activities. However, ensuring effective sustained engagement of youth with their management plan remains a challenge."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"We emphasize that this lesson refers to mechanisms for more effective consultation and engagement, as opposed to more consultation."}]},{"head":"In some communities, approaches for empowerment and strengthening governance may help sustain CBRM","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Where leadership is weak or ineffective (such as in enforcing and publicizing rules) CBRM is unlikely to be implemented or sustained. Communities differ in their leadership situations and in their ability to work together. Some communities feel that their village leadership has been too weak and ineffective to support the implementation of management. † Communities may need support to build and strengthen their leadership and other aspects of governance for successful CBRM implementation."}]},{"head":"Lessons","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":171,"text":"Some communities that have implemented CBRM with WorldFish as partners have noted that it has taken some years to fully understand that they have the right and knowledge to manage their own resources -and that responsibility does not rest with external agencies such as the national government or NGO partners. For example, at the review of their management plan one resource-owner and manager said, \"Now we understand what WorldFish mean when they said that the management plan belongs to us, and if we want to change the management, that is up to us\". While this may reflect the community's internal governance arrangements and previous experiences with projects, finding ways to empower communities to plan and determine their own future, and feel ownership of the process at an early stage of engagement, can be just as important as the decisions about which rules to implement. To further promote community ownership, we have modified the elements of our engagement processes, such as reducing the length of the management plans (Boso et al. 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"There are important roles for the government to play in supporting CBRM Collaboration and communication between government authorities and communities is important since management of marine resources is the responsibility of the national and provincial governments, and resourceowners. Involving provincial and national fisheries staff in CBRM which is being supported by an external organization, allows them to gain the necessary experience to interact effectively with communities and can help community perspectives reach higher levels of governance and planning (Cohen et al. 2012). At the receiving end, communities often ask for government involvement † and appear to be appreciative when national and provincial governments are aware of what they are doing."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"At this stage, a lack of resources limits the support that provincial and national government can offer on the ground to communities. National and provincial governments do have an interest in supporting rural communities, and see CBRM as a key strategy for national conservation (Solomon Islands Government 2009) and fisheries management (MFMR 2008)."},{"index":4,"size":163,"text":"Communities have competing priorities that can affect their ability to implement or sustain CBRM Competing priorities within a community can slow down and sometimes halt CBRM. The need for cash places a lot of pressure on communities when they try to manage marine resources for their daily needs. Communities need to make difficult decisions about where their priorities lie for the use of their resources, and this can vary between short-term economic gain and longerterm resource sustainability. While recognizing its importance, marine resource management is not necessarily the main or the most pressing concern of communities. Community members have busy schedules, filled with family commitments, gardening for food, church and other community commitments (e.g. school) †. Understanding the broader context and priorities of communities forms a basis for understanding their concern about, and ability to engage in, marine resource management. The priority for managing marine resources must rate high in the list of overall community priorities in order for CBRM to be effective."},{"index":5,"size":73,"text":"The busy daily lives of community members means that implementing and sustaining management can be achieved with reasonable (i.e. not excessive) investments of time (i.e. not so much so that it is a burden) and this reiterates the importance of simple management processes and plans. In appreciation of the broad range of concerns, issues and priorities that are held by communities, WorldFish has a renewed focus on inter-sectoral engagements at the community level."},{"index":6,"size":109,"text":"These lessons reinforce the importance of previous lessons learned in forming management plans (Boso et al. 2010). The work that WorldFish has done on CBRM to date has been premised on an action research approach: learning-by-doing in partnership with communities in order to learn how to do CBRM better. The lessons presented here are not necessarily new, but they represent important ongoing considerations for CBRM, and for engaging with and supporting community development. The lessons that have been reinforced or learned are encapsulated in the two lessons learned documents and provide an opportunity to inform the way forward for working with communities to improve resource management and community development."}]},{"head":"Implementing management in practice","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The first four lessons presented here focus on implementing management and emphasize the importance of continuing to better understand and improve resource management as it is applied in practice. This is a focal area of ongoing research in which WorldFish works with local communities and stakeholders as co-researchers."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"Throughout the Pacific, tambus are a popular management tool and in some cases they may have some benefits for fisheries. yet a range of factors (e.g. the growth rates of species, how heavily they are fished, when they are opened, how long they are closed etc.) will affect whether tambus can improve the sustainability of fisheries (Cohen and Foale 2013). Partners can provide better support and advice if they understand these factors, and management outcomes may be improved if partners and communities have a good understanding of the benefits and limitations of various management tools. To enhance resource sustainability, communities may be encouraged to monitor (through quantitative or qualitative observation) resource status and availability, and to adapt harvesting patterns accordingly."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"Additionally, there is a diversity of management tools that can (and in many cases, should) be applied by communities to address issues or reach different objectives (Jupiter et al. 2014). In supporting the development of management"}]},{"head":"THE WAY FORWARD","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"plans, partners and communities can match different tools to different issues or objectives. For those communities that are implementing some forms of management (e.g. tambus) they will already have the foundations on which to build more comprehensive management arrangements."}]},{"head":"Adapting management","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"Three of the lessons presented here relate to changes to planned management. Adaptation is important to ensure that management responds and remains effective as the local community context changes, and as new knowledge comes to light about the effectiveness and suitability of different management measures. However, in our observations to date, adaptation that results from conscious reassessment and readjustment, while considering broad community objectives, has been limited. To promote effective adaptive management, partners can continue their role in providing advice and information to inform ongoing decision-making processes. In addition, partners may support communities to prepare for change that will inevitably challenge their management. This entails a greater emphasis on strengthening governance and building the resilience of management institutions."}]},{"head":"A community's ability to govern and to sustain management","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"The final five lessons presented here are based on themes of governance, ownership, empowerment and community priorities. Responding to these lessons can mean a change in engagement processes (i.e. the way partners work with communities) and an increased emphasis on processes that seek to improve governance. Since 2012, WorldFish's work had been influenced by the CGIAR Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems (AAS; http://aas.cgiar.org/; Apgar and Douthwaite 2013). Specifically this has meant a move toward an explicit research in development approach that is built on the belief that rural people have the potential and resources to bring about positive change in their lives. The premise is that this can be achieved through participatory action research (PAR), which empowers local communities and strengthens their capacity to harness the farming, fishing"},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"tHe WAy forWArd and livestock potential of AAS. There is a strong focus on strengthening governance, building the adaptive capacity of communities to respond to changes and shocks, and increasing their capacity to innovate and progress development. The AAS program has a long-term commitment to work with local communities and stakeholders as co-researchers (a distinctive quality of participatory action research)."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"In our efforts to support and strengthen community-level governance, we seek to understand aspects of representation, accountability mechanisms and distribution of authority (Ratner et al. 2013). While it can be appropriate and necessary to work with existing governance structures and community groups, these structures may not capture the voices or needs of all community residents. In situations where this is recognized, engagement with communities may need to include explicit efforts to support opportunities for marginalized groups (which may include all, or some, of the women and youth) to be represented and included in decision-making and opportunities related to natural resource management and community development."},{"index":4,"size":156,"text":"In 2013, a community planning approach to identify community priorities for participatory action research was implemented by the AAS program in Solomon Islands. Through a facilitated process, community members agreed on a common vision across all the sectors of concern and interest, assessed their situation, prioritized, set targets, planned actions and set their own indicators. The community then took action, measured their progress and learned how to improve their processes and outcomes. As time goes on, communities will be supported to share and learn amongst themselves and with other communities. While not restricted to CBRM, the process considers all priorities a community might have, and has clear alignment and synergies with the process of implementing CBRM. It potentially has the advantage to allow communities to clearly identify where in their priority list CBRM lies, and what resources they can commit to the CBRM process, and when. Updates of this work can be found at http://aas. cgiar.org/."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"notes notes 1 Tambus are based on historical or customary practices, and are often non-permanent closures placed over areas of reef or coastal waters to 'save-up' or replenish marine resources. In many contemporary contexts, tambus are closed to harvesting for a period of time, or closed indefinitely until a need for resources arises."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Participatory diagnosis adaptive management framework: A conceptual scheme for the diagnosis and management of small-scale fisheries (Andrew et al. 2007) "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"7507d073-c7bf-43df-87a3-8b799185fd6a","abstract":"Lessons from impLementing, AdApting And sustAining Community-bAsed AdAptive mArine resourCe mAnAgement Lessons from impLementing, AdApting And sustAining Community-bAsed AdAptive mArine resourCe mAnAgement tAbLe 0f Contents tAbLe 0f Contents"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b38b3b03bafc54206d0db04d6383016","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7ae33831-f121-43e8-93db-bb2e0eb2cfcb/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Situation analysis","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"RO1.1 Functional partnerships RO1.2 Baseline and situational analysis 1. Farming systems were analyzed 2. Integrated crop-livestock systems were reviewed 3. Household nutrition and food safety issues were documented 4. Ruminant feed resources and feed markets analyzed 5. Rural poultry and pig production systems were characterized 6. Cereal-legume-vegetable cropping systems were analyzed "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• Type 1 : 1 . Female-headed households with low to medium endowments • Type 2: Young, medium-endowed households • Type 3: Medium to highly endowed households with cattle • Type 4: High yield households with high endowments Defining farm type -Ghana Testing cropping and management practices Integrated systems improvement RO2.1. Approaches and strategies for sustainable natural resources management 1. Participatory approaches to document and validate local conventions in Mali 2. Approaches to establish and characterize watersheds 3. Soil and water conservation method were identified and tested RO2.2 Options to improve food storage and manage mycotoxin Storage methods to reduce post-harvest losses in cowpea and maize. 2. Aflatoxin managementtwo aflasafe products (GH01 Post-harvest storage and aflatoxin management Integrated systems improvement RO2.3 Improved livestock feeding, health and housing management systems were developed 1. Improved housing for poultrydomestic chicken 2. Artificial brooding of Guinea fowls 3. Improved feeding and health management of village sheep and goat flocks Livestock production systems Technology delivery and scaling RO3.1. Approaches to demonstrate, deliver and scale-out technologies and practices 1. 'Community-based Technology Parks' 2. 'Mother-baby trials' 3. Farmers' Field Days 4. Partnership with USAID mission funded projects in Mali 5. Videos -Fighting Striaga video which was translated into 6 Northern Ghanaian languages and 5000 DVD produced and distributed. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"aa8ff198-f2ce-4a04-b7d1-b6ec10439d28","abstract":""}